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Pakistanis in Italy

2013-02-28T06:21:26Z

108.173.174.134: /* Cultural integration */

{{Infobox Ethnic group
| group = Pakistanis in Italy
| image =
| poptime = c. 50,000–72,000<ref name="MOFA">{{citation|chapter=Europe and Russian Federation|title=Yearbook of Pakistan Foreign Relations, 2003-2004|date=2004|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs|publication-place=Pakistan|url=http://www.mofa.gov.pk/Publications/YB_2003_04.doc|accessdate=2008-11-18}}</ref><ref name="Husain">{{citation|last=Husain|first=Irfan|title=The Italian jobs|periodical=Dawn|publication-place=Pakistan|date=2002-11-09|accessdate=2008-11-18|url=http://www.dawn.com/weekly/mazdak/20021109.htm}}</ref>
| popplace = [[Milan]], [[Brescia]]<ref name="Husain"/><ref name="AsianNews">{{citation|format={{dead link|date=July 2010}}|url=http://www.theasiannews.co.uk/community/heritage/s/1203119_distance_not_differences_at_root_of_pakistani_integration_in_italy|title=Distance, not differences, at root of Pakistani integration in Italy|date=2010-04-07|first=Amer|last=Farooq|first2=Elisa|last2=Di Benedetto|periodical=The Manchester Asian News}}</ref>
| langs = 
| rels = [[Islam]]<ref name="BBC20070628">{{citation|last=Duff|first=Mark|title=Pakistanis in Italy murder trial|periodical=BBC News|date=2007-06-28|accessdate=2008-11-18|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6251046.stm}}</ref><ref name="BBC20071113">{{citation|title=Italy jails Pakistanis for murder|periodical=BBC News|date=2007-11-13|accessdate=2008-11-18|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7093020.stm}}</ref>
| related = [[Pakistani diaspora]], [[Saraiki diaspora]]
}}

'''Pakistanis in Italy''' form one of Europe's larger [[Pakistani diaspora]] communities.<ref name="MOFA"/> Estimates for the number of Pakistanis living in [[Italy]] vary. Pakistan's [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Pakistan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] repeats the Italian government's 2003 figure of 30,500 individuals, while their embassy in Rome speculated to a reporter of Pakistani newspaper ''[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]'' as early as 2002 that the number might have already reached as high as 50,000. Media reports in 2010 gave numbers higher than 80,000.<ref name="MOFA"/><ref name="Husain"/><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/34176/page/3|title=Europe's Invisible Illegals|periodical=Newsweek|date=2007-06-11|accessdate=2010-04-12|last=Dickey|first=Christopher}}</ref>

==Migration==
Most Pakistani migrants are employed in the north of Italy, around [[Milan]]; they earn roughly [[United States dollar|US$]]700 per month in wages. Even [[illegal immigration|those who entered the country illegally]] obtain jobs and employment permission fairly easily, due to labour shortages in Italy caused by the ageing population and shrinking workforce. One common tactic for new arrivals is to destroy their passports and report them stolen; after obtaining a new passport from the embassy, they can claim that they have resided in Italy for longer than they actually have, thus accelerating their eligibility for a work permit. After they have regularised their conditions of stay, they can also sponsor their spouses and children to come to Italy, and enrol the children in Italian schools.<ref name="Husain"/>

The sheer number of applicants for new passports has placed a severe strain on the Pakistani embassy. A long queue stretches outside the door all week long, with an average of sixty applications per day and a peak of 120 on Mondays. Typically, one must have some proof of citizenship, such as an identity card, in order to obtain a new passport; applicants lacking any such proof must undergo interviews in which embassy officials quiz them on basic facts about Pakistan to determine if they are actually citizens of the country. In one case, a young applicant who claimed to be from [[Swat, Pakistan|Swat]] did not even know the name of the [[Wāli of Swat]], but the embassy issued him a new passport anyway on the strength of his uncle's assurances that the youth was indeed a Pakistani citizen. The Pakistani ambassador to Italy often interviews the applicants personally and renders immediate decisions; however, other staff members of the embassy, even typists and drivers, have had to help in processing the flood of applications. Pakistanis initially praised the services of the embassy, comparing them favourably to Pakistani embassies in other countries where it was common for the staff to demand bribes.<ref name="Husain"/> However, the high workload caused increasing backlogs, which by 2007 meant that 20,000 Pakistani migrants lost the chance to regularise their status and obtain work permits; migrants described the embassy's attitude as "unreasonable" and even threatened to [[self-immolation|set themselves on fire in protest]].<ref>{{citation|title=Pakistanis protest against consulate|periodical=The Post|publication-place=Pakistan|date=2007-12-02|accessdate=2008-11-18|url=http://thepost.com.pk/Arc_IntNews.aspx?dtlid=131833&catid=1&date=12/02/2007&fcatid=14}}</ref>

==Cultural integration==
The settlement of Pakistanis to Italy has produced cultural tensions. Pakistanis living in [[Sarezzo]], a town in the [[Province of Brescia]], are believed to have carried out the country's first [[honor killing|honour killing]] (of the modern era,apart from ancient times) in June 2007; a man and two of his brothers-in-law were sentenced to thirty years in prison for the killing of the man's 20-year old daughter, who was [[cohabitation|living with her boyfriend]], an Italian man, and had refused an [[arranged marriage]]. They had slit her throat and buried her body in their [[back garden]].<ref name="BBC20070628"/><ref name="BBC20071113"/>

A monthly Urdu-language magazine called ''Azad'' (which means "free" in Urdu) has been launched. It aims to bridge the two cultures by helping Pakistani immigrants who either cannot speak Italian or have limited interaction with the locals. It also helps Pakistanis to learn about Italy and its culture.<ref name="AsianNews"/>

According to media commentator Ejaz Ahmad, himself a Pakistani with two decades of residence in Italy, roughly 10,000 Pakistani migrants have purchased homes in Italy, which he analyses as a signal of their intention to remain in the country.<ref name="AsianNews"/>

==Services to Italy==
[[Image:International Centre for Theoretical Physics.jpg|230px|thumb|right| ICTP, founded in 1964 by [[Pakistani people|Pakistani]] [[physicist]] and [[Nobel Laureate]], [[Abdus Salam]] <ref>[http://pio.ictp.it/words/news/2008/president-of-the-republic-of-italy-at-ictp Italian President visits ICTP]</ref>]]

The '''Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP)''' [http://www.ictp.it/] was founded in 1964 by [[Pakistani people|Pakistani]] [[scientist]] and [[Nobel Laureate]] [[Abdus Salam]]. It operates under a tripartite agreement among the [[Government of Italy|Italian Government]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], and [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA). It is located near the [[Miramare|Miramare Park]], about 10 kilometres from the city of [[Trieste]], [[Italy]].

Most of the Pakistani who are recently coming to Italy are highly skilled professionals including academics, scientists, doctors, engineers, information technology professionals and journalists. Many Pakistanis run their own businesses mainly in textile, restaurants, and sales and so contribute to the Italian economy.

==Notable Pakistani origin Italian==
*[[Akhlaq Qureshi]] - Italian cricketer
*[[Prince Aly Khan]] - Italy-born son of Pakistani [[Ismaili]] imam [[Aga Khan III]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{citation|last=Nobil|first=Ali|chapter=The Myth of Arrival: Pakistanis in Italy|editor-last=Kalra|editor-first=Virinder S.|title=Pakistani Diasporas: Culture, Conflict, and Change|series=Readings in Sociology and Social Anthropology|publisher=Oxford|publication-place=Pakistan|isbn=978-0-19-547625-5|month=December|year=2007}}

{{Immigration to Italy}}
{{Overseas Pakistani}}

[[Category:Pakistani diaspora in Italy]]

List of haplogroups of historic people

2013-02-28T05:19:20Z

108.173.174.134: /* Adolf Hitler */

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
This is a '''list of haplogroups of historical and famous figures'''. [[Haplogroup]]s can be determined from the remains of historical figures, or derived from [[genealogical DNA test]]s of people who trace their direct maternal or paternal ancestry to a noted historical figure. Some contemporary notable figures have made their test results public in the course of news programs about this topic.

== mtDNA ==

[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|MtDNA]] results come from historical persons whose mitochondrial DNA has been tested; it identifies direct maternal ancestry, which is just one line out of many.

===Ancient samples===
These are results from ancient samples of the person or reputed remains of the person. Because mtDNA breaks down more slowly than nuclear DNA, it is often possible to obtain mtDNA results where other testing fails.

====Luke the Evangelist====
The remains attributed to [[Luke the Evangelist]], which have been held in Padua, Italy, have been tested for mtDNA ([[mitochondrial DNA]]):

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width:95%; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|Name
|Location
|Approximate lifetime
|mitochondrial DNA sequence
|[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|Haplogroup]]
|-
|body attributed to [[Luke the Evangelist]]
|Italy
|1,850 years ago
|16235G, 16291T
|[[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H2]]
|}

====Marie Antoinette====
DNA taken from a lock of Marie Antoinette's hair, cut from her as a child, matched DNA believed to be from her son, [[Louis XVII of France|King Louis XVII]]. A detailed discussion on the DNA analysis of Marie Antoinette, the putative heart of Louis XVII, and Carl Wilhelm Naundorff is available.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genebase.com/blog/?p=44 |title=Using mtDNA to track the case of Louis XVII, son of Marie Antoinette |publisher=Genebase.com |date= |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width:95%; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|Name
|mitochondrial DNA sequence
|[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|Haplogroup]]
|-
|DNA attributed to [[Marie Antoinette]]
|16519C, 152C, 194T, 263G, 315.1C
|[[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H]]
|}

====Empress Alexandra Fyodorovna of Russia====
{{main|Alexandra Fyodorovna of Hesse|Nicholas II of Russia}}
The remains of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and Empress Alexandra Fyodorovna were DNA tested along with the other bodies in their mass grave. The tests concluded that five of the skeletons were members of one family, and four were unrelated. Three of the five were determined to be the children of two parents. The mother was linked to the British royal family, as was Alexandra known to be by historical documentation. The father was determined to have been related to several other Romanovs. Scientists said they were more than 99% sure that the remains were those of the Tsar, his wife and children, and their attendants. Remains of [[Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich of Russia|Alexei]], the 13-year-old heir to the throne, and one of his sisters, either [[Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia (1899–1918)|Maria]] or [[Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia|Anastasia]], were found in 2007, disproving rumors of the survival of one of the daughters.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width:95%; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|Name
|mitochondrial DNA sequence
|[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|Haplogroup]]
|-
|[[Empress Alexandra of Russia]]
|16111T, 16357C, 263G, 315.1C
|[[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H]]
|-

|}

<nowiki>*</nowiki>Tsar Nicholas has a [[heteroplasmy]], an instance of multiple mitochondrial types together in one cell, a normal & mutational cell, at 16169Y. The results were the same for his brother, Grand Duke Georgij Romanovr.

====James McGovern====
The remains of fighter pilot [[James "Earthquake McGoon" McGovern Jr.]] were discovered in Vietnam in 2002 and identified in 2006. McGovern belonged to mtDNA haplogroup H1.<ref>http://www.dbc.uem.br/docentes/cida/bm-s13.pdf {{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width:95%; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|Name
|mitochondrial DNA sequence
|[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|Haplogroup]]
|-
|James "Earthquake McGoon" McGovern
|16519C
|[[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H1]]
|}

====Petrarch====
The remains of [[Petrarch|Francesco Petrarca]] were tested for DNA in 2003.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width:95%; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|Name
|mitochondrial DNA sequence
|[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|Haplogroup]]
|-
|body attributed to Petrarch
|16126C, 16193T, 16311C
|[[Haplogroup J (mtDNA)|J2]]
|}

====Ötzi the Iceman====
Analysis of the mtDNA of [[Ötzi the Iceman]], the frozen mummy from 3300 BC found on the [[Austria]]n-[[Italy|Italian]] border, has shown that Ötzi belongs to the [[Haplogroup K (mtDNA)|K1]] subclade. His mtDNA cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade (K1a, K1b or K1c). The new subclade has preliminarily been named ''K1ö'' for ''Ötzi''.<ref>Luca Ermini et al. (30 October 2008), [http://anthropology.net/2008/10/30/the-mitochondrial-lineage-of-otzi-is-not-like-other-europeans/ "Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence of the Tyrolean Iceman"], ''Current Biology''</ref>

====Kostenki from Don====
Analysis of the 33,000 years old mtDNA from Kostenki 14, found by the Don river, Russia has shown that Kostenki belongs to the [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U2]] subclade.[http://www.eva.mpg.de/genetics/pdf/Krause_Complete_CurrentBiology_2010.pdf]

====Jesse James====
In 1995 the body of Jesse James was exhumed and his DNA compared to that of two known living relatives; he was matched with each.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width:95%; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|Name
|mitochondrial DNA sequence
|[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|Haplogroup]]
|-
|body attributed to [[Jesse James]]
|16126C, 16274A, 16294T, 16296T, 16304C
|[[Haplogroup T (mtDNA)|T2]]
|}

====The Cheddar Man====
The skeleton excavated from the Cheddar Gorge is in haplogroup U5a. The [[Cheddar Man]] is the nickname for the ancient human remains found in Cheddar Gorge; his approximate date of death was 7150 BCE.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width:95%; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|Name
|mitochondrial DNA sequence
|[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|Haplogroup]]
|-
|[[Cheddar Man]]
|16192T, 16270T
|[[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U5a]]
|}

mitosearch member code: [http://www.mitosearch.org/search_view.asp?uid=7MRU2&viewuid=7MRU2&p=1 7MRU2]

====''Oseberg'' ship remains====
The remains of the younger of the two women buried with the [[Oseberg ship]] was tested and discovered to have mtDNA of U7.<ref>{{cite web|author=Per Holck |url=http://eja.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/9/2-3/185 |title=The Oseberg Ship Burial, Norway: New Thoughts On the Skeletons From the Grave Mound |publisher=Eja.sagepub.com |date=2006-08-01 |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref>
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width:95%; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|Name
|mitochondrial DNA sequence
|[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|Haplogroup]]
|-
|Young Girl
| N/A
|[[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U7]]
|-
|}

====Sweyn II of Denmark====
In order to verify whether the body of a woman entombed near [[Sweyn II of Denmark]] in Roskilde Cathedral is that of his mother Estrid, mtDNA from pulp of teeth from each of the two bodies was extracted and analysed. The king was assigned to mtDNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H]] and the woman was assigned to mtDNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup_H5_(mtDNA)|H5a]]. Based on the observation of two [[HVR1]] sequence differences, it was concluded that it is highly unlikely that the woman was the king's mother.<ref>{{cite web|author=Dissing et al |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16687224 |title=The last Viking King: a royal maternity case solved by ancient DNA analysis |publisher=PubMed.gov |date=2006-05-09 |accessdate=2011-05-14}}</ref>

===Deduction by descendant testing===
Because mtDNA is carried through the direct female line, some researchers have identified the haplotype of historic persons by testing descendants in their direct female line. In the case of males, their mother's direct female lineage descendants are tested.

====Benjamin Franklin====
Doras Folger, one of Benjamin Franklin's mother's six sisters, passed on her mtDNA to her 9th-great-granddaughter, Charlene Chambers King, therefore showing Franklin to belong to haplogroup V.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thegeneticgenealogist.com/2007/11/01/dna-analysis-of-5-people-who-helped-create-america/ |title=DNA Analysis of 5 People Who Helped Create America |publisher=Thegeneticgenealogist.com |date=2007-11-01 |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width:95%; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|Name
|mitochondrial DNA sequence
|[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|Haplogroup]]
|-
|[[Benjamin Franklin]]
|T16298C, 315.1C, 309.1C, A263G, and T72C.
|[[Haplogroup V (mtDNA)|V]]
|}

====Queen Victoria====
[[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|mtDNA Haplogroup H]] (16111T, 16357C, 263G, 315.1C):
Empress Alexandra of Russia's identity was confirmed by matching her mtDNA with that of her grand-nephew, [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]]. Their common maternal ancestor, [[Princess Alice of the United Kingdom]], and her mother, [[Queen Victoria]], must therefore have shared this haplotype.

====Richard III of England====
{{See also|Exhumation of Richard III of England}}
In 2004 British historian John Ashdown-Hill traced a British-born woman living in Canada, Joy Ibsen (née Brown), who is a direct maternal line descendant of [[Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter]], a sister of [[Richard III of England]]. Joy Ibsen's mtDNA was tested and belongs to [[Haplogroup J (mtDNA)|mtDNA Haplogroup J]], which by deduction should also be the mtDNA haplogroup of Richard III.<ref>Joy Ibsen's mtDNA sequence: 16069T, 16126C, 73G, 146C, 185A, 188G, 263G, 295T, 315.1C in {{cite book|last=Ashdown-Hill|first=John|title=The Last Days of Richard III|year=2010|publisher=The History Press|location=Stroud|isbn=9780752454047}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Richard III dig: 'It does look like him'|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21319332|accessdate=7 February 2013|newspaper=BBC News|date=4 February 2013}}</ref> Joy Ibsen died in 2008. On 4 February 2013, University of Leicester researchers announced that there was an mtDNA match between that of a skeleton exhumed in Leicester suspected of belonging to Richard III and that of Joy Ibsen's son, Michael Ibsen, and a second unnamed direct maternal line descendant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.le.ac.uk/richardiii/science/resultsofdna.html|title=Results of the DNA analysis|publisher=University of Leicester|date=4 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Geneticist Dr Turi King and genealogist Professor Kevin Schürer give key evidence on the DNA testing|url=http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/media-centre/richard-iii/press-conference-4-february/presentations-by-speakers-at-the-press-conference-monday-4-february-1/geneticist-dr-turi-king-and-genealogist-professor-kevin-schurer-give-key-evidence-on-the-dna-testing|publisher=University of Leicester|accessdate=5 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Burns|first=John F|title=Bones Under Parking Lot Belonged to Richard III|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/05/world/europe/richard-the-third-bones.html|accessdate=6 February 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=4 February 2013}}</ref> They share mtDNA haplogroup J1c2c.<ref name=RichardJ1c2c>{{cite web|last=Rachel|first=Ehrenberg|title=A king's final hours, told by his mortal remains|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/348102/description/A_kings_final_hours_told_by_his_mortal_remains|work=[[Science News]]|publisher=Society for Science & the Public|accessdate=8 February 2013|date=6 February 2013}}</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width:95%; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|Name
|mitochondrial DNA sequence
|[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|Haplogroup]]
|-
|[[Richard III of England]]
|16069T, 16126C, 73G, 146C, 185A, 188G, 263G, 295T, 315.1C
|[[Haplogroup J (mtDNA)|J]]
|}

====Edward IV of England====
[[Edward IV of England]] and his brother [[Richard III of England]], both sons of [[Cecily Neville, Duchess of York]], would have shared the same mtDNA haplogroup J1c2c.<ref name=RichardJ1c2c />

=== Figures from popular culture ===
The following are contemporary individuals who have had mtDNA results publicized:

====Christian Cardell Corbet====
The Canadian portrait artist Christian Cardell Corbet belongs to mtDNA haplogroup H.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christiancorbet.com |title=Christian Corbet |publisher=Christian Corbet |date= |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref><ref>[http://www.corbetfamily.com Corbet Family Homepage]</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width:95%; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
|Name
|mitochondrial DNA sequence
|[[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|Haplogroup]]
|-
|Christian Cardell Corbet
|16519C
|[[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H]]
|}

====Katie Couric====
During an interview with Dr. Spencer Wells of The National Geographic Genographic Project, the host [[Katie Couric]] was revealed to belong to [[Haplogroup K (mtDNA)|haplogroup K]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Okwu |first=Michael |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10095659/ |title=Family tree project helps trace deep history| ''TODAY'' show' |publisher=MSNBC |date=2005-11-21 |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref>

====Stephen Colbert====
[[Stephen Colbert]] was told by Dr [[Spencer Wells]] that he is a member of haplogroup K.<ref>''The Colbert Report,'' 14 August 2007</ref>

====David Patterson====
[[David Paterson]], the former governor of New York, belongs to mtDNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup L (mtDNA)|L]].<ref name="ffdna" />

====Vanna Bonta====
American novelist [[Vanna Bonta]] belongs to [[mitochondrial]] DNA ([[mtDNA]]) Haplogroup [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H1]]. The paternal [[genome]] of her father's line is Haplogroup [[R1b]] ([[Y-DNA]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myspace.com/vannabonta |title=Vanna Bonta on Myspace}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dnaancestryproject.com/?gclid=CMm1mqOKga0CFQNchwod_ji_Sw Vanna Bonta Gene]</ref>

====Desmond Tutu====
[[Desmond Tutu]], South African activist and Christian cleric, according to a study on Southern African genetics belongs to mtDNA haplogroup L0d, a subgroup of [[Haplogroup L0 (mtDNA)]].<ref name="Nature">{{cite web|author=Nature |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v463/n7283/fig_tab/nature08795_F1.html |title=Bantu genomes from southern Africa |publisher=Nature.com |date=2010-02-18 |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref>

====Nelson Mandela====
[[Nelson Mandela]], former President of South Africa, belongs to mtDNA haplogroup L0d (previously known as L1d), a subgroup of [[Haplogroup L0 (mtDNA)]].<ref name="M-Net">{{cite web|author=M-Net |url=http://beta.mnet.co.za/carteblanche/Article.aspx?Id=2619 |title=So, Where Do We Come From?, Carte Blanche |publisher=beta.mnet.co.za |date=2004-09-19 |accessdate=2012-02-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Independent Online |url=http://www.iol.co.za/scitech/technology/being-an-african-makes-me-who-i-am-1.280599 |title=Being an African makes me who I am |publisher=iol.co.za |date=2006-06-06 |accessdate=2012-02-08}}</ref><ref name="SouthAfrica.info">{{cite web|author=SouthAfrica.info |url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/origins-centre-150306.htm |title=Are you related to Mandela? |publisher=SouthAfrica.info |date=2007-04-24 |accessdate=2012-02-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=The Witness |url=http://www.witness.co.za/index.php?showcontent&global%5B_id%5D=44782 |title=The first people |publisher=witness.co.za |date=2010-07-28 |accessdate=2012-02-08}}</ref>

====Bono====
[[Bono]], the vocalist for the Irish rock band [[U2]], belongs to [[haplogroup V (mtDNA)|mtDNA haplogroup V]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2007/07/staffmaps200707 |title=Mommy, Where Do Bonos Come From?|publisher=Vanity Fair |date= 20 June 2007|accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Haplogroups of the Rich and Famous|url=http://blog.23andme.com/23andme-and-you/haplogroups-of-the-rich-and-famous/|publisher=23andMe|date=16 June 2008|accessdate=6 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Haplogroups: Tracing Deep Roots with DNA|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/finding-your-roots/blog/understanding-haplogroups-tracing-deep-roots-with-dna/|publisher=PBS|date=15 May 2012|accessdate=6 February 2013}}</ref>

== Y-DNA ==

The results for [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-DNA]] [[genealogical DNA test]]s are either from the men themselves, or from men who have inferred paternal descent from historical figures. Scientists make the inference as a [[hypothesis]] which could be disproved or improved by future research.

===Ancient samples===
====Ramesses III====
According to a genetic study in December 2012, [[Ramesses III]], second Pharaoh of the [[Twentieth dynasty of Egypt|Twentieth Dynasty]] and considered to be the last great [[New Kingdom]] king to wield any substantial authority over Egypt, belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup E-V38 (Y-DNA)|E1b1a]], mainly found in [[sub-saharan Africa]].<ref>Hawass at al. 2012, [http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e8268 Revisiting the harem conspiracy and death of Ramesses III: anthropological, forensic, radiological, and genetic study]. BMJ2012;345doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e8268 Published 17 December 2012</ref>

====Emperor Nicholas II====

[[Nicholas II of Russia]] has been predicted as having an R1b haplotype.<ref name="dienekes.blogspot.com">{{cite web|url=http://dienekes.blogspot.com/2009/02/y-chromosome-of-tsar-nicholas-ii.html |title=http://dienekes.blogspot.com/2009/02/y-chromosome-of-tsar-nicholas-ii.html |doi=10.1073/pnas.0811190106 |publisher=Dienekes.blogspot.com |date=2009-02-27 |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref><ref name="pnas.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/suppl/2009/02/27/0811190106.DCSupplemental/0811190106SI.pdf |title=Supporting Information (The last Russian emperor) |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385a
|385b
|439
|389i
|392
|389ii
|458
|456
|635
|Y-GATA-H4
|437
|438
|448
|-
|Alleles
|13
|24
|14
|10
|11
|14
|11
|13
|13
|29
|17
|16
|24
|12
|15
|12
|19
|}

====Ötzi the Iceman====

[[Ötzi the Iceman]] has been found to be Y-DNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)|G2a2b]].<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kRXiwWpmSbs Interview Dr. Eduard Egarter-Vigl], Head of Conservation and Assistant to research projects of the Archaeological Museum in Bozen. From the Docu-Movie: "Ötzi, ein Archäologiekrimi" [Ötzi, a Archaeology Crime] by Christine Sprachmann. TV-Broadcasted by 3sat 10 August 2011 and br-alpha 13 September 2011.</ref> The actual term used was G2a4, but the presumed L91 mutation has since been given a new category, G2a2b.

====King Louis XVI====

King [[Louis XVI of France]] from a genetic test on blood in a cloth purported to have been collected at his beheading and maintained in an ornate gourd decorated with [[French Revolution]] themes. Confirmation of this genetic profile requires testing of a known relative. The sample was tested at two laboratories with the same results.<ref name="Lalueza2010">{{cite journal |author=Lalueza-Doz, C, Gigli, E., Dini, C., ''et al.'' |title=Genetic Analysis of the presumptive blood from Louis XVI, king of France |journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics |volume=30 |pages=E Pub ahead of print |year=2010 |month=October |pmid=20940110 |doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2010.09.007}}</ref> The sample is most consistent with G2a3b1a samples and contains unusually high, rare values for markers DYS385B and DYS458 in this haplogroup G subgroup. Subsequent testing in 2012 on a [[mummy|mummified]] head, purportedly that of King [[Henri IV]] of France, revealed that typing of a limited number of Y-STR's showed a Y-Dna haplogroup of G2a. Reported researchers: "Five STR loci [from the sample taken from the head] match the alleles found in Louis XVI, while another locus shows an allele that is just one mutation step apart. Taking into consideration that the partial Y-chromosome profile is extremely rare in modern human databases, we concluded that both males could be paternally related."<ref>{{cite journal|author=Phillippe Charlier "et al."|title=Genetic comparison of the head of Henri IV and the presumptive blood from Louis XVI (both Kings of France)|journal=Forensic Science International online|date=30 December 2012|accessdate=31 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Blair|first=David|title=Louis XVI blood mystery 'solved'|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/9773174/Louis-XVI-blood-mystery-solved.html|publisher=''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''|date=31 December 2012|accessdate=31 December 2012}}</ref> The two French kings were separated by seven generations.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385A
|385B
|439
|389I
|392
|389II
|458
|456
|437
|438
|YGATAH4
|DYS635
|-
|Alleles
|14
|22
|15
|10
|13
|18
|12
|12
|11
|30
|21
|15
|15
|10
|12
|21
|}

====Birger Magnusson====
[[Birger jarl]], the founder of [[Stockholm]] the modern capital of Sweden, according to Andreas Carlsson at The National Board of Forensic Medicine of Sweden, belonged to haplogroup I1. Birger Magnusson was the ancestor of a line of kings of both Sweden and Norway, starting with his son [[Valdemar Birgersson]].<ref>[http://dienekes.blogspot.com/2011/05/finding-founder-of-stockholm.html] |title=Finding the founder of Stockholm – A kinship study based on Y-chromosomal, autosomal and mitochondrial DNA</ref>

===Deduction by descendant testing===
====John Adams and John Quincy Adams====
United States presidents [[John Adams]] and his son [[John Quincy Adams]] belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)|R1b]].<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://isogg.org/ffdna.htm], ISOGG</ref>

====Sir Henry Clinton====
[[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]] belonged to haplogroup [[Haplogroup I2 (Y-DNA)#I2a2a1|I2-M284]], based on a sample taken from a descendant.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385a
|385b
|426
|388
|439
|389i
|392
|389ii
|458
|459a
|459b
|455
|454
|447
|437
|448
|449
|464a
|464b
|464c
|464d
|-
|Alleles
|14
|23
|15
|10
|15
|15
|11
|13
|12
|13
|12
|29
|17
|8
|10
|11
|11
|25
|14
|19
|30
|11
|15
|15
|15
|}

Ysearch: [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?viewuid=C9X5J C9X5J]

====Davy Crockett====
[[Davy Crockett]] belonged to haplogroup [[Haplogroup I2 (Y-DNA)#I2a2a|I2-M223]], based on a sample from a descendant of his father, and other samples from descendants of his grandfather.<ref>{{cite web| title =Crockett Families DNA Project| url =http://www.familytreedna.com/public/Crockett/default.aspx?section=results| accessdate=2012-09-27}}</ref>

====Charles Darwin====
[[Charles Darwin]] belonged to [[Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup R1b]], based on a sample from his great-great-grandson.<ref>{{cite news|last=Marks|first=Kathy|title=Darwin family DNA shows African origin|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10624203|accessdate=20 December 2012|newspaper=The New Zealand Herald|date=5 February 2010}}</ref>

====Albert Einstein====
[[Albert Einstein]] belonged to haplogroup E1b1b1b2* E-Z830, with a sample taken from a paternal descendants of Naphtali Hirsch Einstein<ref>http://www.familytreedna.com/public/G2c/default.aspx?section=ysnp</ref><ref>http://www.haplozone.net/e3b/project/kitnum/N65053</ref>

====Gediminas====
{{See also|Jagiellon dynasty}}
As it was thought that the Lithuanian [[family of Gediminas]] or the [[Gediminids]] might ultimately belong to the Rurikid line, the same Rurikid Dynasty DNA Project sought to discover the haplogroup of their famous founder [[Gediminas]]. It was surprisingly found that while this is not precisely the case, the Gediminids also belong to the Y-DNA [[Haplogroup N (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup N1c1]], yet of a different subclade. In fact the Gediminids and Rurikids are actually very distant cousins, sharing a common ancestor circa 2,500 years ago.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~mozhayski/teksty/ydna.html |title=DNA Database for Rurikid and Gediminid princes |publisher=Freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com |date= |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|Person
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385a
|385b
|426
|388
|439
|389i
|392
|389ii
|458
|459a
|459b
|455
|454
|447
|437
|448
|449
|464a
|464b
|464c
|464d
|-
|[[:ru:Хованские|Khovansky]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|15
|11
|11
|13
|11
|12
|10
|15
|15
|31
|17
|9
|9
|11
|12
|25
|14
|19
|27
|14
|14
|15
|15
|-
|[[Czartoryski]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|15
|11
|11
|13
|11
|12
|11
|14
|15
|30
|17
|9
|9
|11
|12
|25
|14
|19
|29
|14
|14
|15
|15
|-
|[[Galitzine]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|15
|11
|11
|13
|11
|12
|11
|14
|15
|30
|17
|9
|9
|11
|12
|25
|14
|19
|28
|14
|14
|15
|15
|-
|[[Trubetskoy]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|15
|11
|11
|13
|11
|12
|10
|13
|15
|29
|17
|9
|9
|11
|12
|25
|14
|20
|28
|14
|14
|15
|15
|}

Ysearch: [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?viewuid=HP2VB HP2VB], [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?viewuid=7FWBE 7FWBE], [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?viewuid=HUD38 HUD38],

[http://www.familytreedna.com/public/RussianNobilityDNA/default.aspx?section=yresults Russian Nobility DNA Project]- note, however, that this information originally came from the Rurikid Dynasty DNA Project: [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~mozhayski/teksty/ydna.html]

====Genghis Khan====
{{main|Descent from Genghis Khan}}
DNA purported to be from Genghis Khan does not have the benefit of near and easily documented lineages. A distinct 'modal' result centers today on Mongolia.

According to Zerjal ''et al.'' (2003),<ref name="Zerjal2003">{{cite journal| last = Zerjal | first = T | coauthors = Xue Y, Bertorelle G, Wells RS, Bao W, Zhu S, Qamar R, Ayub Q, Mohyuddin A, Fu S, Li P, Yuldasheva N, Ruzibakiev R, Xu J, Shu Q, Du R, Yang H, Hurles ME, Robinson E, Gerelsaikhan T, Dashnyam B, Mehdi SQ, Tyler-Smith C | title = The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols | url = http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v72n3/024530/024530.html | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | year = 2003 | volume = 72 | issue = 3 | pages = 717–21 | pmid = 12592608 | doi = 10.1086/367774 | pmc = 1180246}} {{Dead link|date=May 2008}}</ref> Genghis Khan is believed to have belonged to [[Haplogroup_C-M130_(Y-DNA)|Haplogroup C-M130<small>711</small>(xC3c-M48)]].

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|390
|391
|425
|426
|434
|435
|436
|437i
|438
|439
|388
|389i
|389ii
|392
|-
|Alleles
|13
|25
|10
|12
|11
|11
|11
|12
|8
|10
|10
|14
|10
|26
|11
|}

According to Family Tree DNA,<ref name="FTDNA_Genghis">{{cite web | author = Family Tree DNA | url = http://www.familytreedna.com/matchgenghis.html | title = Matching Genghis Khan | accessdate = 2007-05-16| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070428232231/http://www.familytreedna.com/matchgenghis.html| archivedate = 28 April 2007}}</ref> Genghis Khan is believed to have belonged to [[Haplogroup_C-M217_(Y-DNA)|Haplogroup C-M217]].

Extended 25 Marker Y-DNA modal based on Mongolians matching the above [[modal haplotype]] in the [[Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation]] database,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smgf.org/ychromosome/search_results.jspx?labStandard=FamilyTreeDNA_v1&searchType=genetic&matchPercent=match_85&showCountries=on&showMissingData=on&showAllSurnames=on&DYS393=13&DYS392=11&DYS449=27&DYS446=21&DYS390=25&DYS389B=16&DYS464_a=11&DYS464_b=11&DYS461=11&DYS394=17&DYS458=18&DYS464_c=12&DYS464_d=16&DYS462=13&DYS391=10&DYS459_a=8&DYS459_b=8&DYS460=10&YGATAA10=13&DYS385_a=12&DYS385_b=13&DYS455=11&YGATAH4=11&YGATAC4=21&DYS426=11&DYS454=12&YCAII_a=22&YCAII_b=23&GGAAT1B07=10&DYS388=14&DYS447=26&DYS456=15&DYS441=15&DYS439=10&DYS437=14&DYS442=11&DYS445=12&DYS389I=13&DYS448=25&DYS438=10&DYS452=31&DYS444=14&DYS463=23 |title=SMGF: Genghis Khan modal haplotype search results }}</ref> which also corresponds to the modal assigned to Genghis Khan released by Family Tree DNA:<ref name="FTDNA_Genghis" />
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385a
|385b
|426
|388
|439
|389i
|392
|389ii
|458
|459a
|459b
|455
|454
|447
|437
|448
|449
|464a
|464b
|464c
|464d
|-
|Alleles
|13
|25
|16
|10
|12
|13
|11
|14
|10
|13
|11
|29
|18
|8
|8
|11
|12
|26
|14
|22
|27
|11
|11
|12
|16
|}

Ysearch:
[http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?uid=&letter=&lastname=Genghis%20khan&viewuid=GF44B&p=0 GF44B]

Oxford university's department of biochemistry gives an extended haplotype (SMGF standard allele count).<ref>{{cite web|author=USA |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12592608 |title=The genetic legacy of the Mongols. Am J Hum Genet. 2003 Mar;72(3):717-21. Epub 2003 Jan 17 |publisher=Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |date=2011-03-18 |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|392
|449
|446
|390
|389b
|464a
|464b
|464c
|464d
|461
|394
|458
|462
|391
|459a
|459b
|460
|YGATAA10
|385a
|385b
|455
|YGATAH4
|-
|Alleles
|13
|11
|27
|21
|25
|16
|11
|11
|12
|16
|11
|17
|18
|13
|10
|8
|8
|10
|13
|12
|13
|11
|11
|}
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|YGATAC4
|426
|454
|YCAIIa
|YCAIIb
|GGAAT1B07
|388
|447
|456
|441
|439
|437
|442
|445
|389I
|448
|438
|452
|444
|463
|-
|Alleles
|21
|11
|12
|22
|23
|10
|14
|26
|15
|15
|10
|14
|11
|12
|13
|25
|10
|31
|14
|23
|}

Ysearch: [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?uid=&letter=&lastname=Genghis&viewuid=GF44B&p=0 GF44B] (78 [[Y-STR]]s)

====Alexander Hamilton====
[[Alexander Hamilton]] belonged to Y-DNA [[Haplogroup I1 (Y-DNA)|haplogroup I1]].<ref name="ffdna" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/g/a/gah4/HamDNA/Results.html |title=Hamilton DNA Project Results Discussion |publisher=Personal.psu.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385A
|385B
|426
|388
|439
|389I
|392
|389II
|458
|459A
|459B
|455
|454
|447
|437
|448
|449
|464A
|464B
|464C
|464D
|-
|Alleles
|13
|22
|14;15
|10
|13
|14
|11
|14
|12
|13
|11
|29
|15
|8
|9
|8
|11
|22
|16
|20
|31
|12
|14
|15
|15
|}
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|460
|GATA-H4
|YCAIIA
|YCAIIB
|456
|607
|576
|570
|CDYA
|CDYB
|442
|438
|-
|Alleles
|10
|10
|19
|21
|14
|16
|16
|19
|35
|38
|12
|10
|}

====William Harvey====
Famous English physician [[William Harvey]], who was the first in the Western world to describe [[systemic circulation]], belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup E1b1b1 (Y-DNA)|E1b1b1]], more specifically to the subclade E1b1b1c1 (M34). Most ancient ancestor known was Humphrey Harvey (1459–1526, Kent, England). Ysearch: [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?uid=&letter=&lastname=Harvey&viewuid=B2YWY&p=0 B2YWY]. Look also [http://www.familytreedna.com/public/HARVEY/default.aspx Harvey Y-DNA Genetic Project]

====Adolf Hitler====

[[Adolf Hitler]], Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, is believed to belong to Y-DNA Haplogroup [[Haplogroup E1b1b (Y-DNA)|E1b1b1 (E-M35)]], an haplogroup which originated in [[East Africa]] about 22,400 years BP.<ref>Cruciani; La Fratta; Santolamazza; Sellitto (May 2004), "[http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/hape3b.pdf Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa]" (PDF), American Journal of Human Genetics 74 (5): 1014–1022, DOI:10.1086/386294, PMC 1181964, PMID 15042509 </ref> According to Ronny Decorte, genetics expert at Katholieke Universiteit Leuven who sampled Hitler's current patrilineal living relatives, Hitler "would not have been happy" as the research could be interpreted to show that his own origins were neither "pure" nor "Aryan". Decorte said that permission from the Russian government to make a conclusive analysis of the jawbone of Adolf Hitler, or from the bloodstained cloth of the sofa where he committed suicide would put an end to the speculations, but that had not been granted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.knack.be/nieuws/wetenschap/hitler-was-verwant-met-somaliers-berbers-en-joden/article-1194797075630.htm |title=Hitler was verwant met Somaliërs, Berbers en Joden - Wetenschap - Nieuws |publisher=Knack.be |date= |accessdate=2012-07-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Auteur: mtm |url=http://www.standaard.be/artikel/detail.aspx?artikelid=DMF20100817_117 |title=Hitler verwant met Somaliërs, Berbers en Joden - De Standaard |publisher=Standaard.be |date= |accessdate=2012-07-24}}</ref>

Family Tree DNA, the largest Y-chromosome testing organization for genealogy and ancestry purposes later announced that the interpretation of Hitler’s ancestry given by certain media outlets, based on information released by Jean-Paul Mulders and historian Marc Vermeeren, is "highly questionable". With a Y-chromosome database containing close to 200,000 samples from different populations, Family Tree DNA’s Chief Y-DNA Scientist, Professor Michael Hammer said that "''scientific studies as well as records from our own database make it clear that one cannot reach the kind of conclusion featured in the published articles''." Based on Family Tree DNA records, no less than 9% of the populations of Germany and Austria belong to the haplogroup E1b1b, and among those, the vast majority - about 80% -are not associated with Jewish ancestry. "''This data clearly show that just because one person belongs to the branch of the Y-chromosome referred to as haplogroup E1b1b, that does not mean the person is likely to be of Jewish ancestry''," said Professor Hammer.

Mulders confirmed the misinterpretation of his account with the following statement to Family Tree DNA: "''I never wrote that Hitler was a Jew, or that he had a Jewish grandfather. I only wrote that Hitler's haplogroup is E1b1b, being more common among Berbers, Somalian people and Jews than among overall Germans. This, in order to convey that he was not exactly what during the Third Reich would have been called 'Aryan.' All the rest are speculations of journalists who didn't even take the trouble to read my article, although I had it translated into English especially for this purpose''."<ref>http://www.familytreedna.com/PDF/FTDNA_Mulders.pdf</ref>

Interpretations claiming that these DNA results show that Hitler possibly had Jewish ancestry are contradicted by the conclusion of Jean-Paul Mulders: "''Hitler had no Jewish blood nor a French son''."<ref>http://www.hln.be/hln/nl/961/Wetenschap/article/detail/255073/2008/04/24/Hitler-had-geen-joods-bloed-en-geen-Franse-zoon.dhtml</ref> {{Verify credibility|date=September 2012}}

====Thomas Jefferson====
{{main|Jefferson DNA data}}
Direct male-line descendants of a cousin of United States president [[Thomas Jefferson]] were [[genealogical DNA test|DNA tested]] to investigate historical assertions that Jefferson fathered children with his slave [[Sally Hemings]].<ref>{{cite journal|last = Foster | first = EA |coauthors = Jobling MA, Taylor PG, Donnelly P, de Knijff P, Mieremet R, Zerjal T, Tyler-Smith C | year = 1998 | title = Jefferson fathered slave's last child | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 396 | issue = 6706 | pages = 27–28 | pmid = 9817200 | doi = 10.1038/23835 | url = http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/Jeffersons.pdf}}</ref> An extended 17-marker haplotype was published in 2007,<ref>{{cite journal| last = King | first = TE | coauthors = Bowden GR, Balaresque PL, Adams SM, Shanks ME, Jobling MA | title = Thomas Jefferson's Y chromosome belongs to a rare European lineage | journal = Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. | year = 2007 | volume = 132 | issue = 4 | pages = 584–9 | pmid = 17274013 | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.20557 | url = https://lra.le.ac.uk/bitstream/2381/377/1/JeffersonArchiveHomemade.pdf | format = }} {{Dead link|date=May 2008}}</ref> and the company [[FTDNA|Family Tree DNA]] has also published results for other markers in its standard first 12-marker panel.<ref name="FTDNA_jefferson">{{cite web|author = Family Tree DNA| title = Comparing yourself to the Jefferson DNA | url = http://www.familytreedna.com/jefgene.html | accessdate = 2007-05-16| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070430135434/http://www.familytreedna.com/jefgene.html| archivedate = 30 April 2007}}</ref> Combining these sources gives the consolidated 21-marker haplotype below. The Jeffersons belong to [[Haplogroup T (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup T]] (former K2).

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
| [[List of Y-STR markers|DYS]]
| 393
| 390
| 19
| 391
| 385a
| 385b
| 426
| 388
| 439
| 389i
| 392
| 389ii
| 437
| 460
| 438
| 461
| 462
| 436
| 434
| 435
| DXYS<br />156Y
|-
|[[Allele]]s
| 13
| 24
| 15
| 10
| 13
| 16
| 11
| 12
| 12
| 12
| 15
| 27
| 14
| 10
| 9
| 11
| 13
| 12
| 11
| 11
| 12
|}

(Note: the value of DXYS 156Y was reported as 7 in the original paper. This is believed to translate to 12 in the convention now used by DNA testing labs and online databases).

====Napoleon====

[[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]] belonged to haplogroup [[Haplogroup_E1b1b_(Y-DNA)#E1b1b1c_.28E-M123.29|E1b1b1c1* (E-M34*)]]. This haplogroup has its highest concentration in [[Ethiopia]] and in the [[Near East]] ([[Jordan]]). According to the authors of the study, "Probably Napoléon also knew his remote oriental patrilineal origins, because Francesco Buonaparte (the Giovanni son), who was a mercenary under the orders of the Genoa Republic in Ajaccio in 1490, was nicknamed “The Maur of Sarzane” ".<ref>[http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jmbr/article/view/10609 Haplogroup of the Y Chromosome of Napoléon the First], Lucotte 2011</ref>

====Niall of the Nine Hostages====
{{main|Niall of the Nine Hostages}}
A recent study conducted at Trinity College, Dublin,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moore LT, McEvoy B, Cape E, Simms K, Bradley DG |title=A y-chromosome signature of hegemony in gaelic Ireland |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=334–8 |year=2006 |pmid=16358217 |doi=10.1086/500055 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v78n2/43032/brief/43032.abstract.html |pmc=1380239}} {{Dead link|date=May 2008}}</ref> found that a striking percentage of men in Ireland (and quite a few in Scotland) share the same Y chromosome. Results suggested that the 5th-century warlord known as "Niall of the Nine Hostages" (or a male ancestor) may be the male-line ancestor of one in 12 Irishmen. Niall established a dynasty of powerful chieftains who dominated the island for six centuries. Niall belongs to [[Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup R1b1c7]] (M222). It should be noted that Dr. Moore's results examined some different parts of DNA (loci) from the result given here.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385a
|385b
|426
|388
|439
|389i
|392
|389ii
|458
|459a
|459b
|455
|454
|447
|437
|448
|449
|464a
|464b
|464c
|464d
|-
|Alleles
|13
|25
|14
|11
|11
|13
|12
|12
|12
|13
|14
|29
|17
|9
|10
|11
|11
|25
|15
|18
|30
|15
|16
|16
|17
|}
Ysearch: [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?viewuid=M5UKQ M5UKQ]

====Fred Phelps====
{{main | Fred Phelps }}

Fred Phelps, the creator of the infamous Westboro Baptist Church, belongs to [[Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)|haplogroup R1b]].
He descends from James Phelps of Chowan, North Carolina. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.familytreedna.com/public/Phelps/default.aspx?section=yresults|title= Phelps/Felps DNA Project }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geni.com/people/Fred-Phelps/6000000010772432528|title=Fred Phelps Genealogy }}</ref>

====Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan====
[[Franklin Pierce]] and [[James Buchanan]] belonged to Y-DNA [[Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)|haplogroup R1b1]].<ref name="pierce">[http://www.piercednanorth.com/], Pierce DNA project</ref><ref name="presdna">[http://isogg.org/presdna.htm], ISOGG</ref>

====Fath Ali Shah Qajar====
Fath Ali Shah Qajar (1772-1834), the second emperor/shah of the Qajar Dynasty of Persia belonged to haplogroup J1 with DYS388 = 13 as deducted from testing of descendants of several of his sons.<ref>{{cite web| title =L.A. Ferydoun Barjesteh van Waalwijk van Doorn (Khosrovani), 'Short Report: DNA-evidence versus the Paper Trail. Groundbreaking News on the Origine of the Qajars', in: Qajar Studies VIII (2008)}}</ref>

====Edmund Rice====
[[Edmund Rice (1638)|Edmund Rice]], an early immigrant to [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] and a founder of [[Sudbury, Massachusetts|Sudbury]] and [[Marlborough, Massachusetts|Marlborough]], belonged to haplogroup I1.<ref>{{cite web| title =Rice Family DNA Project| publisher= Edmund Rice (1638) Association| url =http://www.edmund-rice.org/haplotype.htm| accessdate= 31 August 2009}}</ref>

====Rurik of Novgorod====
[[Rurik]], whose male-line descendants founded [[Kievan Rus']], and ultimately the [[Tsardom of Russia]] including [[Ivan the Terrible]] until 1598, belonged to the [[Uralic languages|Uralo-Finnic]] Y-DNA [[Haplogroup N (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup N]] (N1c1).<ref>[http://www.eupedia.com/europe/european_y-dna_haplogroups.shtml Distribution of European Y-chromosome DNA (Y-DNA) haplogroups by country in percentage // Eupedia]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.familytreedna.com/public/rurikid/default.aspx |title=Rurikid Dynasty DNA Project at FamilyTreeDNA |publisher=Familytreedna.com |date= |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref> Most living Princes of the [[Rurik Dynasty]] or Rurikids also belong to this haplogroup, specifically those descending from [[Vladimir II Monomakh]]. The remainder belong to [[Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)]] below, and so have been suggested to be of Slavic origin.

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|Person
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385a
|385b
|426
|388
|439
|389i
|392
|389ii
|458
|459a
|459b
|455
|454
|447
|437
|448
|449
|464a
|464b
|464c
|464d
|-
|[[Puzyna]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|14
|10
|11
|13
|11
|12
|11
|13
|14
|29
|18
|9
|9
|11
|12
|25
|14
|19
|28
|14
|14
|14
|14
|-
|[[Gagarin family|Gagarin]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|14
|11
|11
|13
|11
|12
|10
|14
|14
|30
|18
|9
|9
|11
|12
|25
|14
|19
|29
|14
|15
|15
|15
|-
|[[Rzhevsky]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|14
|11
|11
|13
|11
|12
|10
|14
|14
|31
|18
|9
|9
|10
|12
|25
|14
|19
|29
|14
|14
|15
|15
|-
|[[Kropotkin]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|14
|11
|11
|13
|11
|12
|10
|14
|14
|30
|18
|9
|9
|11
|12
|24
|14
|19
|28
|14
|14
|15
|15
|-
|[[:ru:Мышецкие|Myshetsky]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|14
|11
|11
|13
|11
|12
|11
|14
|15
|30
|18
|9
|9
|11
|12
|25
|14
|19
|32
|14
|14
|15
|15
|-
|[[:ru:Вадбольские|Vadbolsky]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|14
|11
|11
|13
|11
|12
|10
|14
|14
|30
|18
|9
|9
|11
|12
|25
|14
|19
|27
|14
|14
|15
|15
|-
|[[Khilkov]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|14
|11
|11
|13
|11
|12
|10
|14
|14
|30
|18
|9
|9
|11
|12
|25
|14
|19
|29
|14
|14
|15
|15
|-
|[[Putyatin (family)|Putyatin]]
|Alleles
|14
|23
|14
|11
|11
|13
|11
|12
|10
|14
|14
|31
|18
|9
|9
|11
|12
|25
|14
|19
|30
|14
|14
|15
|15
|}

Ysearch: [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?viewuid=EAKVQ EAKVQ], [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?viewuid=WYAK3 WYAK3], [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?viewuid=HP2VB HP2VB],

[http://www.familytreedna.com/public/RussianNobilityDNA/default.aspx?section=yresults Russian Nobility DNA Project] - note, however, that this information originally came from the Rurikid Dynasty DNA Project: [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~mozhayski/teksty/ydna.html]

====All Russian emperors from at least Nicholas I to Nicholas II "Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov"====
The haplotype of [[Nicholas II of Russia]] has been predicted to belong to R1b.<ref name="dienekes.blogspot.com"/><ref name="pnas.org"/>

It matched a member of another line of Nicholas I's descendants. So, all the Emperors from Nicholas I to Nicholas II shared this Y-DNA. It can also be said that this result is German-specific, so Paul I was most likely the real son of his official father Peter III, and not the son of a lover, as was speculated.{{fact|date=June 2012}}{{dubious|date=December 2012}}

It also allowed to validate the remains of Alexei, son of Nicholas II.

====Somerled====
{{main|Somerled|Clann Somhairle}}

In 2003 Oxford University researchers traced the Y-chromosome signature of Somerled of Argyll, one of [[Scotland]]'s greatest warriors, who is credited with driving out the [[Vikings]]. He was also paternal grandfather of the founder of [[Clan Donald]]. Through clan genealogies, the genetic relation was mapped out.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.electricscotland.com/history/articles/norse.htm |title=The Norse Code |publisher=Electricscotland.com |date=2003-09-28 |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref> Somerled belongs to [[Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA)|haplogroup R1a1]].

In 2005 a study by Professor of [[Human Genetics]] [[Bryan Sykes]] of [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] led to the conclusion that Somerled has possibly 500,000 living descendants - making him the second most common historical ancestor after [[Genghis Khan]].<ref>[http://news.scotsman.com/scitech.cfm?id=442642005 DNA shows Celtic hero Somerled's Viking roots], ''The Scotsman, 26 Apr 2006''</ref> Sykes deduced that despite Somerled's reputation for having driven out the Vikings from Scotland, Somerled's own Y-DNA most closely matched that of the Vikings he fought.

The Y-DNA sequence is as follows (12 markers):<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.isogg.org/famousdna.htm |title=Famous DNA |publisher=Isogg.org |date= |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref>
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385a
|385b
|426
|388
|439
|389i
|392
|389ii
|458
|459a
|459b
|455
|454
|447
|437
|448
|449
|464a
|464b
|464c
|464d
|-
|Alleles
|13
|25
|15
|11
|11
|14
|12
|12
|10
|14
|11
|31
|16
|8
|10
|11
|11
|23
|14
|20
|31
|12
|15
|15
|16
|}

Ysearch: [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?viewuid=YS495 YS495]

====Joseph Stalin====
[[Joseph Stalin]], from a genetic test on his grandson (his son Vasily's son, Alexander Burdonsky) and his grand-nephew, is shown to be Y-DNA-wise of [[Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)|G2a1]].<ref>[http://www.runewsweek.ru/theme/?tid=96&rid=1567 Русский Newsweek / Тема номера], www.runewsweek.ru</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385A
|385B
|426
|388
|439
|389I
|392
|389II
|458
|459A
|459B
|455
|454
|447
|437
|448
|449
|464A
|464B
|464C
|464D
|-
|Alleles
|14
|23
|15
|9
|15
|16
|11
|12
|11
|11
|10
|28
|17
|9
|9
|11
|11
|25
|16
|21
|28
|13
|13
|14
|14
|}

====Zachary Taylor, William McKinley and Woodrow Wilson====
All these United States presidents belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)|R1b1c]].<ref name="ffdna"/>

====Leo Tolstoy====
[[Leo Tolstoy]], the [[Russia]]n writer, belonged to [[Haplogroup I (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup I1]]

====Tonu Trubetsky====
R1a1a, shown not related to real Princes Trubetskoy.
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385a
|385b
|426
|388
|439
|389i
|392
|389ii
|458
|459a
|459b
|455
|454
|447
|437
|448
|449
|464a
|464b
|464c
|464d
|-
|Alleles
|13
|25
|15
|11
|11
|14
|12
|12
|10
|13
|11
|31
|15
|9
|10
|11
|11
|25
|14
|21
|32
|12
|12
|14
|14
|}

Ysearch: [http://www.ysearch.org/lastname_view.asp?viewuid=WUZG2 WUZG2]

====Colla Uais====
{{main|Colla Uais}}
Colla Uais had previously been deduced as belonging to Y-DNA [[Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)|haplogroup R1b]], based on results from DNA projects, and as having the following haplotype:<ref name="ffdna" /> This identification proved to be ill-founded and has since been revoked.<ref>For further information, see the Clan Donald DNA Project website: http://dna-project.clan-donald-usa.org/</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
| [[List of Y-STR markers|DYS]]
| 393
| 390
| 19
| 391
| 385a
| 385b
| 426
| 388
| 439
| 389i
| 392
| 389ii
| 458
| 459a
| 459b
| 455
| 454
| 447
| 437
| 448
| 449
| 464a
| 464b
| 464c
| 464d
|-
|[[Allele]]s
| 13
| 24
| 14
| 10
| 11
| 14
| 12
| 12
| 12
| 13
| 13
| 30
| 18
| 9
| 10
| 11
| 11
| 25
| 15
| 19
| 30
| 15
| 15
| 17
| 17
|}

====The Wright Brothers====
The [[Wright Brothers]] of the United States belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup E1b1b1 (Y-DNA)|E1b1b1]], subclade E1b1b1a2 (V13). They were supposedly descended from Robert Wright of Brook Hall, [[Essex, England]].{{Citation needed|reason=Feb 2009|date=February 2009}} Look at [http://www.wright-dna.org/dna/OtherResults.html Wright DNA Project]

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%"
|-
|DYS
|393
|390
|19
|391
|385A
|385B
|426
|388
|439
|389I
|392
|389II
|-
|Alleles
|13
|24
|13
|10
|16
|18
|11
|12
|12
|13
|11
|29
|}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wright-dna.org/dna/OtherResults.html |title=Wright Dna Project |publisher=Wright-dna.org |date= |accessdate=2011-05-12}}</ref>

===Figures from popular culture===
====Al Roker====
[[Al Roker]], United States broadcaster, belongs to Y-DNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup E (Y-DNA)|E]], common among [[African]] peoples.<ref name="ffdna">[http://www.isogg.org/famoushg.htm], ISOGG</ref>

====Chris Rock====
American comedian [[Chris Rock]] belongs to Y-DNA haplogroup B (subclade B2a1). He is paternally descended from the Uldeme people of Cameroon.<ref>{{Cite episode |title=The Past Is Another Country |series=African American Lives | seriesno=2 | number=4 | network=PBS}}</ref>

====Desmond Tutu====
[[Desmond Tutu]], South African activist and Christian cleric, according to a study on Southern African genetics belongs to Y-DNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup E1b1a (Y-DNA)#E1b1a1|E1b1a1g]].<ref name="Nature"/>

====Matt Lauer====
[[Matt Lauer]] belongs to Y-DNA haplogroup [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|J]].<ref name="ffdna" />

====Spencer Wells====
{{main|Spencer Wells}}

Spencer Wells, the project director of [[The Genographic Project]], is a member of haplogroup R1b.<ref name="rose1">{{Cite episode | title="Charlie Rose - Henry Louis Gates, Jr. / Spencer Wells / Major Gen. Douglas Lute" | series="Charlie Rose"}}</ref>

====Nelson Mandela====
[[Nelson Mandela]], former President of South Africa, belongs to [[Haplogroup E1b1a (Y-DNA)]] (also known as E-M2) typical of [[Bantu peoples]].<ref name="M-Net"/><ref name="SouthAfrica.info"/>

====Wyatt Emory Cooper and Anderson Cooper====
[[Wyatt Emory Cooper]] and [[Anderson Cooper]] belong to Y-DNA [[Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)|haplogroup R1a]].<ref name="ffdna" />

====Tom Hanks====
{{main|Tom Hanks}}

American actor [[Tom Hanks]], a descendant of William Hanks of Richmond, Virginia, belongs to [[Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA)|haplogroup R1a1]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genealogy.com/famousfolks/tomh/d0/i0000003.htm |title= Ancestry of Tom Hanks}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.familytreedna.com/public/HanksDNAProject/default.aspx?section=results |title= Hanks DNA Project}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
* [[Ancient DNA]]
* [[Archaeogenetics]]
* [[Genealogical DNA test]]ing
* [[List of DNA tested mummies]]
* [[List of Y-STR markers]]
* [[Paleogenetics]]
* [[Prehistoric demography]]
*[[Y-chromosome haplogroups by populations]]
*[[Y-DNA haplogroups by ethnic groups]]
{{Col-3}}
*[[Archaeogenetics of the Near East]]
* [[Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia]]
*[[Genetic history of Africa]]
* [[Genetic history of Europe]]
* [[Genetic history of Italy]]
*[[Genetic history of North Africa]]
*[[Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
*[[Genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula]]
*[[Genetic history of the British Isles]]
{{Col-3}}
{{Portal|Molecular and Cellular Biology|Molecular Anthropology|Evolutionary biology}}
{{Col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://isogg.org/famousdna.htm Famous DNA]
* [http://www.familytreedna.com/matchgenghis.html Matching Genghis Khan]
* [http://www.religion-cults.com/cloning/god.htm DNA results from the Shroud of Turin]
* [http://www.friendsofpast.org/earliest-americans/map.html Evidence of the Past: A Map and Status of Ancient Remains]

{{Y-chromosome haplogroups by populations}}
{{human genetics}}

[[Category:DNA]]
[[Category:Genetic genealogy]]
[[Category:Human mtDNA haplogroups| ]]
[[Category:Human Y-DNA haplogroups| ]]

[[zh:名人DNA]]

Sex segregation

2013-02-27T21:26:54Z

108.173.174.134:

{{Commons cat|Gender separation}}
{{Refimprove|date=October 2008}}
{{Globalize|date=April 2010}}
'''Sex segregation''' is the separation of people according to their [[gender|sex]].

The term '''[[gender apartheid]]''' (or '''sexual apartheid''') also has been applied to segregation of people by gender,<ref name=clergy>{{Cite news|title=Women clergy accuse Church of sexual apartheid|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,580180,00.html |newspaper=The Guardian |publisher=Guardian Unlimited | location=London | first=Stephen | last=Bates | date=2001-10-25 | accessdate=2010-05-23}}</ref> implying that it is [[sexual discrimination]].<ref name=Otto>{{Cite journal|author=Otto D |title=Holding Up half the Sky, But For Whose Benefit: A Critical Analysis of the Fourth World Conference on Women |journal=Austl Feminist LJ. |month= |year=1996 |volume=7 |issue= |pages= |url=http://heinonlinebackup.com/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/afemlj6&section=6 }}</ref> In some circumstances, gender segregation is a controversial policy, with critics contending that in most or all circumstances it is a violation of [[human rights]], and supporters arguing that it is necessary to maintain [[decency]], [[sacred]]ness, [[modesty]], female [[safety]],<ref name="AI">[[Amnesty International]] includes segregated toilets among the measures to ensure the safety of girls/boys in schools. ''[http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?id=ENGACT770232007&lang=e Six steps to stop violence against schoolgirls]'', Document ACT 77/008/2007, November 2007.</ref> or the family unit.<ref name=Claussen>{{Cite journal|author=Claussen CL |title=Incorporating Women's Reality into Legal Neutrality in the European Community: The Sex Segregation of Labor and Work-Family Nexus |journal=Law Policy Intern'l Bus. |month= |year=1991 |volume=22 |issue= |pages= |url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5000143625 }}</ref>

==Public facilities==
[[File:Ladies Only Train.jpg|thumb|left|A sign on a station platform in Osaka, Japan, showing the boarding point for a ladies-only car.]]

In almost all parts of the world, places for activities which involve nudity – for example, showers, toilets, changing rooms – are usually segregated by sex.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} There are exceptions to this: [[Nude beach|clothing-optional beaches]] and [[Art school|art classrooms]] for [[figure drawing]] are generally not segregated. [[Sauna]]s and [[Bathing|bath]]s may or may not be, depending on the [[culture]].

The degree of segregation can vary. In some places, separate changing rooms for men and women are the norm, while elsewhere, a single change room with cubicles is normal. With the widespread practice of [[groping]] women in crowded public places (e.g. [[street harassment]] or [[eve teasing]]), some countries have designated [[women's parking space]]s, [[women-only passenger car]]s or compartments on trains.<ref>{{Cite news| title =Belarus rail targets 'smelly men' | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4439735.stm | accessdate = 2008-06-11 | work=BBC News | date=2005-04-13 | first=Tatyana | last=Nechapayka}}</ref><ref name="mainichi-disability">{{Cite news
|title=Visually-impaired want railways to clarify stance on riding in women-only carriages
|url=http://mdn.mainichi-msn.co.jp/national/news/20070405p2a00m0na017000c.html
|publisher=[[Mainichi Shimbun]] |date=2007-04-05 |deadurl=2008-05-26 }}</ref><ref name=Metroreserves>{{cite news|title=Metro reserves compartments for females |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080907/jsp/calcutta/story_9796361.jsp | work=The Telegraph | date=2008-09-07}}</ref>

In most countries of the world, [[prison]]s are segregated.
Often contact with prisoners of the opposite sex is forbidden or limited to specific moments.
Prison officers are often of the same sex as the inmates.

==Sports==
Organized competitive sports are frequently segregated by gender, especially at higher levels. Where performance is strength-related (such as weightlifting), any alternative would see women excluded from the higher levels of competition. A few sports, such as [[equestrianism]] or [[paragliding]], are mixed-gender at all levels. A very few, such as [[Korfball]], specify mixed-gender participation in the rules.

Some sports that do not rely on physical contact, such as [[bowling]] or [[golf]], may have separate sporting events. In archery, though, it is normal for both sexes and all ages to shoot alongside each other: in a handicap tournament they will, in fact, be competing against each other.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

To cater to the religious requirements of various [[faith]]s, and for other preference reasons, sometimes separation is achieved by allocating times or facilities for the exclusive use of one gender, usually of women. This is sometimes done with public [[sauna]]s, [[swimming pool]]s and [[gym]]nasiums{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}.

Many countries now have laws outlawing discrimination on the basis of sex, and regard the refusal to provide facilities on an equal basis to both men and women as [[sexual discrimination]].

==Education==
{{multiple image
| footer = The decorative doors of PS116 in [[Murray Hill, Manhattan]] feature separate entrances for male and female students.
| width = 150
| align = left
| image1 = PS116 boys door.jpg
| alt1 = Boys door to PS116
| image2 = PS116 girls door.jpg
| alt2 = Girls door to PS116
}}
In much of the world education, especially institutional education, was available only to boys until the last few hundred years. In some parts of the world, especially in Europe, when education was made available to girls as well as boys, educational establishments were frequently single-gender, a situation which in exists in both Australia and the United Kingdom to this day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scotch.vic.edu.au/ |title=Scotch College |date= |accessdate=8 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ichs.org.uk/ |title=Ilford County High School |date= |accessdate=8 October 2012}}</ref> Sometimes a reason was historical – an all-male education institution maintaining the status quo. Arguments were made that the presence of the opposite sex would distract students from their studies, as well as allowing for inappropriate conduct.

There have been studies conducted to analyze whether [[single-sex education|single-sex schools]] or [[Mixed-sex education|co-ed schools]] produce better educational outcomes, but each has its advocates and critics.<ref>{{Cite journal| title=Effects of single-sex secondary schools on student achievement and attitudes.
|author=Lee, Valerie E.; Bryk, Anthony S.
|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|publisher=American Psychological Association |volume= 78|issue=5 |date=October 1986|pages= 381–395}}</ref><ref>[http://www.aftau.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=6859 "Keep Boys and Girls Together, New Research Suggests"]. Aftau.org (2008-04-11). Retrieved on 2011-06-13.</ref> Even in co-ed schools, certain classes, such as [[sex education]], are sometimes segregated on the basis of gender{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}. Some schools decide to segregate students only in core subjects; this is called [[parallel education]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

Sex discrimination involves treating someone (an applicant or employee) unfavorably because of that person’s sex.

Sex discrimination also can involve treating someone less favorably because of his or her connection with an organization or group that is generally associated with people of a certain sex.

In Louisiana following the forced race integration of public schools, the schools were segregated by sex. St. Bernard and Jefferson Parishes (surrounding New Orleans) instituted sex segregation to reduce the likelihood of black and white students dating.<ref name=Mayeri>{{Cite journal|author=Mayeri S |title= The Strange Career of Jane Crow: Sex Segregation and the Transformation of Anti-Discrimination Discourse |journal=Yale JL Human. |month=Summer |year=2006 |volume=18 |issue= |page=187 |url=https://litigation-essentials.lexisnexis.com/webcd/app?action=DocumentDisplay&crawlid=1&doctype=cite&docid=18+Yale+J.L.+%26+Human.+187&srctype=smi&srcid=3B15&key=7a1233c4c7c9232acd07363052a6b296 }}</ref> The last year of sex segregation in Jefferson Parish public schools was 1975.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

==Female safety, privacy and sensitivity==
Some sex segregation occurs for reasons of safety. For example a refuge for 'battered mothers or wives' may refuse to admit men, even those who are themselves the victims of domestic violence, both to prevent access by those who might commit or threaten violence to women or because women who have been subjected to abuse by a male might feel threatened by the presence of any man.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2009/apr/05/domestic-violence-charity-funding |publisher=The Guardian|title=Women's refuges told they must admit men | location=London | first=Gaby | last=Hinsliff | date=2009-04-05 | accessdate=2010-05-23}}</ref> Sex-segregated buses have been introduced in [[Mexico City]] to reduce sexual harassment.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/11/world/americas/11mexico.html|title=On Single-Sex Buses, Relief From Unwanted Contact|publisher=New York Times|author=Marc Lacey|work=Mexico City Journal|date=11 February 2008}}</ref> Non-segregated toilets might also be a threat to safety<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?id=ENGACT770232007&lang=e |publisher=Amnesty International USA|title=Six Steps to Stop Violence Against Schoolgirls }}</ref> and rights of privacy. Until the mid-20th century in many countries, bars, clubs and pubs routinely prohibited women customers from entering, bartenders refused to sell or allow female visitors buying drinks and sitting in their seats. Today such a practice would be considered [[sex discrimination]] in some countries and has became unlawful in those countries. The same was true for public beaches in the [[Victorian Age]] for women to not be publicly seen by other men outside the family (see [[bathing machines]]).
==Religion==
===Islam===
{{See|Sex segregation in Islam|Purdah|Awrah|Gosha woman}}

[[Islam]] discourages social interaction between male non-relatives and women, and especially between unmarried strange men and women. Sex segregation is strictly enforced in some Islamic countries by [[Islamic religious police|religious police]].<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20090621174103/http://www.asianews.it/view.php?l=en&art=5869 SAUDI ARABIA Catholic priest arrested and expelled from Riyadh – Asia News]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2399885.stm Middle East | Saudi minister rebukes religious police]. Asia News (04/10/2006). Retrieved on 2011-06-13.</ref>

In the Muslim world, [[Purdah|preventing women from being seen by men]] is closely linked to the concept of [[Namus]].<ref name=book-sch>Werner Schiffauer, "Die Gewalt der Ehre. Erklärungen zu einem deutsch-türkischen Sexualkonflikt." ("The Force of the Honour"), Suhrkamp: Frankfurt am Main, 1983. ISBN 3-518-37394-3.</ref><ref name="Dilek Cindoglu pp. 215">Dilek Cindoglu, "[[Virginity test]]s and [[hymenorrhaphy|artificial virginity]] in modern Turkish medicine," pp. 215–228, in ''Women and sexuality in Muslim societies'', P. Ýlkkaracan (Ed.), Women for Women’s Human Rights, Istanbul, 2000.</ref> Namus is an [[ethical]] category, a [[virtue]], in [[Middle East]]ern [[Muslim]] [[patriarchal]] character. It is a strongly [[gender]]-specific category of relations within a family described in terms of [[honor]], [[attention]], [[respect]]/respectability, and [[modesty]]. The term is often translated as "honor".<ref name="book-sch"/><ref name="Dilek Cindoglu pp. 215"/>

===Judaism===
{{See|Tzniut|Yichud|Gender separation in Judaism}}
It is common for [[Orthodox Judaism]], especially of the [[Hasidic]] sect, to maintain gender-specific events, where men and women sit or be present separately among members of the same sex. Orthodox [[Orthodox Judaism|Jewish]] [[synagogue]]s have separate men's and women's sections, typically separated by a wall or curtain called a [[mechitza]].<ref name="separation">{{cite web|url=http://www.jewfaq.org/shul.htm|title=Synagogues, Shuls and Temples|work=jewfaq.org|accessdate=2007-02-25}}</ref>

In Israel there are a dozens of buses, serving [[Haredi|ultra-orthodox]] Jewish neighbourhoods of [[Jerusalem]], which are segregated by sex, with males sitting in the front and females sitting in the back of the bus. There are segregated sidewalks in [[Mea Shearim]] and some sex segregated clinics and groceries in Israel.<ref>{{cite news|author=Katya Alder|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6584661.stm |title=Israel's 'modesty buses' draw fire|publisher=BBC News|date= 24 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irac.org/userfiles/Excluded,%20For%20God%27s%20Sake%20-%20Report%20on%20Gender%20Segregation%20in%20the%20Public%20Sphere%20in%20Israel.pdf |title=Excluded, For God’s Sake: Gender Segregation in Public Space in Israel}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/divide-and-rule-1.323075 |title=Divide and Rule|Haaretz|November 5, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4135718,00.html |title=Court: No sex segregation in Mea Shearim| Ynet| October 17, 2011}}</ref>

===Christianity===
Some -but extremely few- [[Eastern Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox]] parishes practice sex segregation during mass, with men and women worshipping in separate halves of the church.<ref name=Rhodes>{{Cite book|author=Dickemann M |title=The Balkin Sworn Virgin: A Cross-Gendered Female Role In: ''Islamic homosexualities: culture, history, and literature'' |editor=Murray SO, Roscoe W |pages=197–203 |year=1997 |publisher=New York University Press |location=New York |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hQuHFPKp8L0C&pg=PA197&dq=%22Eastern+Orthodox%22+%22sex+segregation%22 }}</ref>

==Segregation by occupation==
{{Main|Occupational segregation}}
Some jobs and occupations have been reserved for one gender or the other. This is often considered a form of sex segregation, even though they may not be physically segregated from workers of different genders in other fields. Some jobs have also been predominantly carried out by one gender or the other, and this can be considered sex segregation, even though there are no rules excluding either gender.

===History===
The roles of men and women have been different for most of human history since prehistoric times. In [[hunter-gatherer]] societies, both past and present, hunting has been largely a male preserve while gathering has been a female role. Other roles are often carried out by only one of the genders.<ref name=Shostak>{{Cite book|author=Marjorie Shostak |year=1983 |title=Nisa: The Life and Words of a ǃKung Woman |location=New York |publisher=Vintage Books |page=13 }}</ref> However differences in roles did not imply disparity of status.<ref name=Kiefer>{{cite web|url=http://www.suluarchipelago.com/E20Website2002/default.htm|title=Anthropology E-20|accessdate=2008-03-11 |author=Thomas M. Kiefer |date=Spring 2002 |work=Lecture 8 Subsistence, Ecology and Food production|publisher=Harvard University}}</ref><ref name=gawdy>{{Cite book|title=Limited Wants, Unlimited Means: A reader on Hunter-Gatherer Economics and the Environment |author=Johm Gowdy|year=1998 |publisher=Island Press |location=St Louis |isbn=1-55963-555-X |page=342 }}</ref>

Historically, [[military]] occupations have been exclusively (with few exceptions) reserved to males. This has ceased only in the later twentieth century. Related occupations such as [[police]] have been exclusively male in some countries{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}.

In occupations where physical strength is a necessity differences in strength between men and women can mean that more men than women are suitable.<ref name=Greenhorn>{{cite web|author=Greenhorn DR, Stevenson JM |title=Gender based biomechanical difference that impact on task performance |year=1995 |url=http://www.cfsanslimites.ca/en/psp/HumanPerformance/pdfs/TrainingPrograms/Chap1/GEN_0006.PDF }}</ref>

[[Professional sports]] and major leagues including in the USA remain virtually all-male and in some cases like the [[WNBA]] are absolutely gender-specific participation apart from the [[NBA]] in basketball. {{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

==See also==
* [[Gender inequality]]
* [[Sexism]]
* [[Occupational sexism]]
* [[Occupational inequality]]
* [[Separatist feminism]]
* [[Women and children first (protocol)]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.rawa.org/index.php RAWA – Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan. Documenting Taliban atrocities against women]
* [http://www.arches.uga.edu/~haneydaw/twwh/apartheid.html Gender Apartheid] an essay on the topic from Third World Women's Health
* [http://www.helpafghanwomen.com/Global_Petition_Flyer.pdf Stop Gender Apartheid in Afghanistan] an anti-Taliban pamphlet from the [[Feminist Majority Foundation]]
* [http://www.womensenews.org/article.cfm/dyn/aid/2212/context/ourdailylives Taking the Gender Apartheid Tour in Saudi Arabia]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A15193-2001Dec21?language=printer Saudi Arabia's Apartheid] by Colbert King, ''[[Washington Post]]'' December 22, 2001
* [http://www.wpiran.org/Against%20Sexual%20Apartheid.htm Against Sexual Apartheid in Iran] Interview with [[Azar Majedi]]
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3327/is_199409/ai_n8033813 Sexual Apartheid in Iran] by Mahin Hassibi

{{Islamism}}
{{Segregation by type}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sex Segregation}}
[[Category:Gender]]
[[Category:Sex segregation| ]]
[[Category:Sexism]]
[[Category:Islam-related controversies]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Sex]]
[[Category:Sexuality and society]]
[[Category:Single sex societies]]

[[ca:Segregació per sexes]]
[[de:Geschlechtertrennung]]
[[fa:جدایی جنسیتی]]
[[fr:Séparation des sexes]]
[[he:הפרדה מגדרית]]
[[sr:Сегрегација]]
[[sv:Segregation]]

Shalwar kameez

2013-02-27T21:07:49Z

108.173.174.134:

[[Image:TilkeSalwar.jpg|thumb|360px|right|Salwar kameez, from Max Tilke's ''Oriental Costume'', 1922]]
'''''Shalwar kameez''''' (also spelled salwar kameez or shalwar qameez); is a traditional dress worn by both women and men in ''' [[South Asia]]''' and '''[[Afghanistan]]/[[Central Asia]]''' . ''Shalwar'' or ''salwar'' are loose [[pajamas|pajama]]-like [[trousers]]. The legs are wide at the top, and narrow at the ankle. The ''kameez'' is a long shirt or tunic. The side seams (known as the ''chaak''), left open below the waist-line, give the wearer greater freedom of movement.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7li2jpQgYvAC&pg=PA382&dq=national+dress+of+pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aIPZT7KnCIXJ0QXcsuj3Aw&ved=0CEsQ6AEwAQ |title=Unquiet Pasts: Risk Society, Lived Cultural Heritage, Re-Designing Reflexivity - Stephanie Koerner, Ian Russell - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.com |date=2010-08-16 |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>

==Description==
[[Image:Salwar pajama pants worn.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Shalwar (with [[Kabul]]i sandals) as worn in South and Central Asia.]]
[[Image:Salwar pajama pants.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A man's [[shalwar]] held up to display amount of material needed.]]
Shalwar are gathered at the waist and held up by a drawstring or an elastic band. The [[trousers|pants]] can be wide and baggy or more narrow, and even made of fabric cut on the bias.

The kameez is usually cut straight and flat; older kameez use traditional cuts, as shown in the illustration above. Modern kameez are more likely to have European-inspired set-in sleeves. The tailor's taste and skill are usually displayed, not in the overall cut, but in the shape of the neckline and the decoration of the kameez. Modern versions of the feminine kameez can be much less modest than traditional versions. The kameez may be cut with a deep neckline, sewn in diaphanous fabrics, or styled in cap-sleeve or sleeveless designs. The kameez side seams may be split up to the thigh or even the waistline, and it may be worn with the salwar slung low on the hips. When a woman wears a semi-transparent kameez (mostly as a party dress), she wears a [[choli]] or a cropped [[camisole]] underneath it.

When women wear the salwar kameez, they usually wear a long scarf or shawl called a [[dupatta]] around the head or neck. For Muslim women, the dupatta is a less stringent alternative to the [[chador]] or [[burqa]] (see also [[hijab]] and [[purdah]]). For [[Sikh]] and Hindu women (especially those from northern India, where the salwar kameez is most popular), the dupatta is useful when the head must be covered, as in a [[Gurdwara]] or a [[Temple]], or the presence of elders. For other women, the dupatta is simply a stylish accessory that can be worn over one shoulder or draped around the chest and over both shoulders.

The Shalwar kameez is sometimes known as "''Punjabi'' suit," in [[United Kingdom|Britain]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Breidenbach|Pál|Zcaronupanov|2004}}. Quote: "And in Bubby Mahil’s fashion store in London, white socialites and
young British Asians shop for the same Punjabi suit...."</ref> and [[Canada]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Walton-Roberts|Pratt|2005}}. Quote: "Meena owns a successful textile design and fashion business in the Punjab, designing and selling high-end salwar kameez (Punjabi suits) ..."</ref> In Britain, especially during the last two decades, the garment has been transformed from an everyday garment worn by immigrant South Asian women from the [[Punjab region]] to one with mainstream, and even high-fashion, appeal.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bachu|2004}}</ref>

In India, the garment was originally confined to the North, but as a convenient and modest alternative to a [[sari]] - and also as one that flatters practically any body-type - it has become popular across the nation. By varying the fabric, color and the level of embroidery and decoration, the salwar-kameez can be formal, casual, dressy, or plain; and it can also be made to suit practically all climates.

== Etymology and history ==
<center>
{|
|-
| [[Image:Hindu girl karachi.jpg|none|thumb|180px|Portrait of a Hindu girl from [[Karachi]], [[Sind Division|Sind]], in narrow salwar & kameez. c. 1870. Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library.]]
| [[Image:Muslim girl karachi1870.jpg|none|thumb|180px|Portrait of a Muslim girl from Karachi, Sindh, in a salwar and blouse. c. 1870. Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library.]]
| [[Image:Pahari women kashmir3.jpg|none|thumb|124px|Hill women, [[Kashmir]], in salwar-kameez. c. 1890.]]
|}
</center>

The pants, or ''salvar'', are known as salvar in {{lang-pa|ਸਲਵਾਰ ਕ਼ਮੀਜ਼}}, salvaar or shalvaar શલવાર કમીઝ in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], salvaar or shalvar शलवार क़मीज़ in [[Hindi]], and shalvar in {{lang-ur|شلوار قمیض}}. The word comes from the [[Persian language|Persian]]: شلوار, meaning pants.

The shirt, ''kameez'' or ''qamiz'', takes its name from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''qamis''. There are two main hypotheses regarding the origin of the Arabic word, namely:
# that [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''qamis'' is derived from the [[Latin]] ''camisia'' (shirt), which in its turn comes from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''kem'' (‘cloak’).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=chemise|title= Online Etymology Dictionary: chemise}}</ref>
# that [[Mediaeval Latin]] ''camisia'' is a borrowing through [[Hellenistic Greek]] ''kamision'' from the [[Semitic languages|Central Semitic]] root “qmṣ”, represented by [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]] ''qmṣ'' (‘garment’) and Arabic ''qamīṣ'' (‘shirt’). Both of these are related to the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] verb {{hebrew|קמץ}} ''qmṣ'' (‘grip’, ‘enclose with one’s hand’).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/S240.html|title= The American Heritage Dictionary: qmṣ}}</ref>

Garments cut like the traditional kameez are known in many cultures; according to Dorothy Burnham, of the [[Royal Ontario Museum]], the "seamless shirt," woven in one piece on warp-weighted looms, was superseded in early Roman times by cloth woven on vertical looms and carefully pieced so as not to waste any cloth. 10th century cotton shirts recovered from the Egyptian desert are cut much like the traditional kameez or the contemporary Egyptian jellabah or galabia.<ref>Burnham, Dorothy. 1973. ''Cut My Cote'', Royal Ontario Museum. p. 10.</ref>

== English spelling ==
Transliterations starting from [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] often render the [[sibilant]] sound at the start of salwar/shalwar as an "s". Transliterations starting from [[Urdu]], [[Lahnda language|Lahnda]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages use "sh". Both spellings are found in common English usage. The ''shalwar'' spelling seems to be most common in [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]], and is the preferred spelling in the Oxford English Dictionary. ''Salwar'' seems to be more common in the US and is found at many online stores selling salwar kameez. The word ''kameez'' is often spelled with an H, as in ''khameez''.

==Gallery==
<Center>
<Gallery>
Image:Jinnah fatimasalwar.jpg|[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], founder of [[Pakistan]], in shalwar and sherwani; his sister [[Fatima Jinnah]], in shalwar qamiz. 1947.
File:Picket_Line_in_Pakistan.jpg|Women, dressed in ornate shalwars, in a picket line.
Image:Women_of_Puducherry.jpg| [[Tamil people|Tamil]] women from [[India]] wearing the shalwar kameez in assorted colors.
Image:Inside The Old Terminal Of Kabul International Airport.jpg|Men wearing shalwar kameez at [[Kabul International Airport|Kabul Airport]] in [[Afghanistan]].
</Gallery>
</Center>

== See also ==

* [[Kurta]]
* [[Churidar]]
* [[Sherwani]]
* [[Dupatta]]
* [[Sari]]

==Notes==
<references />

==References==

*{{Citation|last1=Bachu|first1=Parminder|title=Dangerous Designs: Asian Women Fashion the Diaspora Economies|publisher=London: Routledge. Pp. ''xii'', 196|year=2004|isbn=0415072212|url=http://www.aesonline.org/3635}}
*{{Citation|last1=Breidenbach|first1=Joana|last2=Pál|first2=Nyíri|last3=Zcaronupanov|first3=Ines|title=Fashionable Books|journal=Identities: Global Studies in Power and Culture|Volume=11|issue=4|year=2004|pp=619–628}}
*{{Citation|last1=Walton-Roberts|first1=Margaret|last2=Pratt|first2=Geraldine|title=Mobile Modernities: One South Asian Family Negotiates Immigration, Gender and Class in Canada|journal=Gender, Place and Culture|volume=12|issue=2|year=2005|pp=173–195}}.

==External links==
{{commons|Shalwar kameez}}
*[http://www.sahilinternational.in/category-listing.php Cotton Salwar Kameez]
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/pimu/1651609521/in/set-72157600711943677/ Fatima Jinnah Wearing Shalwar Qameez]
*[http://202.83.164.26/wps/portal/Mocul/!ut/p/c0/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3h_Nx9_SzcPIwP_IB8DA6MQN6MgP39LQ09_U_2CbEdFAGG3mnQ!/?WCM_PORTLET=PC_7_OFLO9FH20ORL002TF2RNO91IV4_WCM&WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/MoculCL/scultureofpakistan/sanationalsymbolsofpakistan/national+dress+shalwar+qameez/ Ministry of Culture Pakistan National Dress].
* [http://www.hinduonnet.com/mag/2004/10/24/stories/2004102400380300.htm The Hindu: The spread of the salwar]

{{Clothing in South Asia}}

[[Category:Afghan clothing]]
[[Category:Indian clothing]]
[[Category:Pakistani clothing]]
[[Category:Pakistani culture]]
[[Category:Suits (clothing)]]
[[Category:Tops (clothing)]]
[[Category:Trousers and shorts]]
[[Category:Ukrainian folk dress]]
[[Category:Ukrainian clothing]]

[[kk:Шалбар қамис]]
[[sh:Šalvare]]

Shalwar kameez

2013-02-27T21:07:08Z

108.173.174.134:

[[Image:TilkeSalwar.jpg|thumb|360px|right|Salwar kameez, from Max Tilke's ''Oriental Costume'', 1922]]
'''''Shalwar kameez''''' (also spelled salwar kameez or shalwar qameez); is a traditional dress worn by both women and men in ''' [[South Asia]]''' and southern parts of''' [[Central Asia]]''' . ''Shalwar'' or ''salwar'' are loose [[pajamas|pajama]]-like [[trousers]]. The legs are wide at the top, and narrow at the ankle. The ''kameez'' is a long shirt or tunic. The side seams (known as the ''chaak''), left open below the waist-line, give the wearer greater freedom of movement.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7li2jpQgYvAC&pg=PA382&dq=national+dress+of+pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aIPZT7KnCIXJ0QXcsuj3Aw&ved=0CEsQ6AEwAQ |title=Unquiet Pasts: Risk Society, Lived Cultural Heritage, Re-Designing Reflexivity - Stephanie Koerner, Ian Russell - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.com |date=2010-08-16 |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>

==Description==
[[Image:Salwar pajama pants worn.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Shalwar (with [[Kabul]]i sandals) as worn in South and Central Asia.]]
[[Image:Salwar pajama pants.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A man's [[shalwar]] held up to display amount of material needed.]]
Shalwar are gathered at the waist and held up by a drawstring or an elastic band. The [[trousers|pants]] can be wide and baggy or more narrow, and even made of fabric cut on the bias.

The kameez is usually cut straight and flat; older kameez use traditional cuts, as shown in the illustration above. Modern kameez are more likely to have European-inspired set-in sleeves. The tailor's taste and skill are usually displayed, not in the overall cut, but in the shape of the neckline and the decoration of the kameez. Modern versions of the feminine kameez can be much less modest than traditional versions. The kameez may be cut with a deep neckline, sewn in diaphanous fabrics, or styled in cap-sleeve or sleeveless designs. The kameez side seams may be split up to the thigh or even the waistline, and it may be worn with the salwar slung low on the hips. When a woman wears a semi-transparent kameez (mostly as a party dress), she wears a [[choli]] or a cropped [[camisole]] underneath it.

When women wear the salwar kameez, they usually wear a long scarf or shawl called a [[dupatta]] around the head or neck. For Muslim women, the dupatta is a less stringent alternative to the [[chador]] or [[burqa]] (see also [[hijab]] and [[purdah]]). For [[Sikh]] and Hindu women (especially those from northern India, where the salwar kameez is most popular), the dupatta is useful when the head must be covered, as in a [[Gurdwara]] or a [[Temple]], or the presence of elders. For other women, the dupatta is simply a stylish accessory that can be worn over one shoulder or draped around the chest and over both shoulders.

The Shalwar kameez is sometimes known as "''Punjabi'' suit," in [[United Kingdom|Britain]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Breidenbach|Pál|Zcaronupanov|2004}}. Quote: "And in Bubby Mahil’s fashion store in London, white socialites and
young British Asians shop for the same Punjabi suit...."</ref> and [[Canada]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Walton-Roberts|Pratt|2005}}. Quote: "Meena owns a successful textile design and fashion business in the Punjab, designing and selling high-end salwar kameez (Punjabi suits) ..."</ref> In Britain, especially during the last two decades, the garment has been transformed from an everyday garment worn by immigrant South Asian women from the [[Punjab region]] to one with mainstream, and even high-fashion, appeal.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bachu|2004}}</ref>

In India, the garment was originally confined to the North, but as a convenient and modest alternative to a [[sari]] - and also as one that flatters practically any body-type - it has become popular across the nation. By varying the fabric, color and the level of embroidery and decoration, the salwar-kameez can be formal, casual, dressy, or plain; and it can also be made to suit practically all climates.

== Etymology and history ==
<center>
{|
|-
| [[Image:Hindu girl karachi.jpg|none|thumb|180px|Portrait of a Hindu girl from [[Karachi]], [[Sind Division|Sind]], in narrow salwar & kameez. c. 1870. Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library.]]
| [[Image:Muslim girl karachi1870.jpg|none|thumb|180px|Portrait of a Muslim girl from Karachi, Sindh, in a salwar and blouse. c. 1870. Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library.]]
| [[Image:Pahari women kashmir3.jpg|none|thumb|124px|Hill women, [[Kashmir]], in salwar-kameez. c. 1890.]]
|}
</center>

The pants, or ''salvar'', are known as salvar in {{lang-pa|ਸਲਵਾਰ ਕ਼ਮੀਜ਼}}, salvaar or shalvaar શલવાર કમીઝ in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], salvaar or shalvar शलवार क़मीज़ in [[Hindi]], and shalvar in {{lang-ur|شلوار قمیض}}. The word comes from the [[Persian language|Persian]]: شلوار, meaning pants.

The shirt, ''kameez'' or ''qamiz'', takes its name from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''qamis''. There are two main hypotheses regarding the origin of the Arabic word, namely:
# that [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''qamis'' is derived from the [[Latin]] ''camisia'' (shirt), which in its turn comes from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''kem'' (‘cloak’).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=chemise|title= Online Etymology Dictionary: chemise}}</ref>
# that [[Mediaeval Latin]] ''camisia'' is a borrowing through [[Hellenistic Greek]] ''kamision'' from the [[Semitic languages|Central Semitic]] root “qmṣ”, represented by [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]] ''qmṣ'' (‘garment’) and Arabic ''qamīṣ'' (‘shirt’). Both of these are related to the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] verb {{hebrew|קמץ}} ''qmṣ'' (‘grip’, ‘enclose with one’s hand’).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/S240.html|title= The American Heritage Dictionary: qmṣ}}</ref>

Garments cut like the traditional kameez are known in many cultures; according to Dorothy Burnham, of the [[Royal Ontario Museum]], the "seamless shirt," woven in one piece on warp-weighted looms, was superseded in early Roman times by cloth woven on vertical looms and carefully pieced so as not to waste any cloth. 10th century cotton shirts recovered from the Egyptian desert are cut much like the traditional kameez or the contemporary Egyptian jellabah or galabia.<ref>Burnham, Dorothy. 1973. ''Cut My Cote'', Royal Ontario Museum. p. 10.</ref>

== English spelling ==
Transliterations starting from [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] often render the [[sibilant]] sound at the start of salwar/shalwar as an "s". Transliterations starting from [[Urdu]], [[Lahnda language|Lahnda]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages use "sh". Both spellings are found in common English usage. The ''shalwar'' spelling seems to be most common in [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]], and is the preferred spelling in the Oxford English Dictionary. ''Salwar'' seems to be more common in the US and is found at many online stores selling salwar kameez. The word ''kameez'' is often spelled with an H, as in ''khameez''.

==Gallery==
<Center>
<Gallery>
Image:Jinnah fatimasalwar.jpg|[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], founder of [[Pakistan]], in shalwar and sherwani; his sister [[Fatima Jinnah]], in shalwar qamiz. 1947.
File:Picket_Line_in_Pakistan.jpg|Women, dressed in ornate shalwars, in a picket line.
Image:Women_of_Puducherry.jpg| [[Tamil people|Tamil]] women from [[India]] wearing the shalwar kameez in assorted colors.
Image:Inside The Old Terminal Of Kabul International Airport.jpg|Men wearing shalwar kameez at [[Kabul International Airport|Kabul Airport]] in [[Afghanistan]].
</Gallery>
</Center>

== See also ==

* [[Kurta]]
* [[Churidar]]
* [[Sherwani]]
* [[Dupatta]]
* [[Sari]]

==Notes==
<references />

==References==

*{{Citation|last1=Bachu|first1=Parminder|title=Dangerous Designs: Asian Women Fashion the Diaspora Economies|publisher=London: Routledge. Pp. ''xii'', 196|year=2004|isbn=0415072212|url=http://www.aesonline.org/3635}}
*{{Citation|last1=Breidenbach|first1=Joana|last2=Pál|first2=Nyíri|last3=Zcaronupanov|first3=Ines|title=Fashionable Books|journal=Identities: Global Studies in Power and Culture|Volume=11|issue=4|year=2004|pp=619–628}}
*{{Citation|last1=Walton-Roberts|first1=Margaret|last2=Pratt|first2=Geraldine|title=Mobile Modernities: One South Asian Family Negotiates Immigration, Gender and Class in Canada|journal=Gender, Place and Culture|volume=12|issue=2|year=2005|pp=173–195}}.

==External links==
{{commons|Shalwar kameez}}
*[http://www.sahilinternational.in/category-listing.php Cotton Salwar Kameez]
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/pimu/1651609521/in/set-72157600711943677/ Fatima Jinnah Wearing Shalwar Qameez]
*[http://202.83.164.26/wps/portal/Mocul/!ut/p/c0/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3h_Nx9_SzcPIwP_IB8DA6MQN6MgP39LQ09_U_2CbEdFAGG3mnQ!/?WCM_PORTLET=PC_7_OFLO9FH20ORL002TF2RNO91IV4_WCM&WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/MoculCL/scultureofpakistan/sanationalsymbolsofpakistan/national+dress+shalwar+qameez/ Ministry of Culture Pakistan National Dress].
* [http://www.hinduonnet.com/mag/2004/10/24/stories/2004102400380300.htm The Hindu: The spread of the salwar]

{{Clothing in South Asia}}

[[Category:Afghan clothing]]
[[Category:Indian clothing]]
[[Category:Pakistani clothing]]
[[Category:Pakistani culture]]
[[Category:Suits (clothing)]]
[[Category:Tops (clothing)]]
[[Category:Trousers and shorts]]
[[Category:Ukrainian folk dress]]
[[Category:Ukrainian clothing]]

[[kk:Шалбар қамис]]
[[sh:Šalvare]]

List of Canadian Muslims

2013-02-18T00:51:11Z

108.173.174.134:

This is a list of '''notable''' people who are Muslims who reside in [[Canada]].
== Politicians ==
*[[Omar Alghabra]] - A Former Canadian Member of Parliament for [[Mississauga—Erindale]] (2006–2008) and former president of the [[Canadian Arab Federation]]. Member of the [[Liberal Party of Canada]]
*[[Rahim Jaffer]] - Former Canadian MP for [[Edmonton–Strathcona]] (1997–2008). First Muslim MP. Member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]]
*[[Wajid Khan]] - Former Canadian MP for [[Mississauga—Streetsville]] (2004–2008). Member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]]
*[[Yasmin Ratansi]] - Former Canadian MP for [[Don Valley East]] (2004–2011). First and only female Muslim MP. Member of the [[Liberal Party of Canada]]
*Ali Naqvi - Advisor to [[Jack Layton]], the leader of the [[New Democratic Party of Canada|New Democratic Party]], [[Leader of the Official Opposition (Canada)|leader of the opposition]] and MP for [[Toronto—Danforth]].
*[[Yasir Naqvi]] - Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario) for [[Ottawa Centre (provincial electoral district)|Ottawa Centre]] (2007-). President of the [[Ontario Liberal Party]]
*[[Shafiq Qaadri]] - Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario) for [[Etobicoke North (provincial electoral district)|Etobicoke North]] (2003-). Member of the [[Ontario Liberal Party]]
*[[Naheed Nenshi]] - Mayor of Calgary (2010-)
*[[Khalil Ramal]] - Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario) for [[London—Fanshawe (provincial electoral district)|London-Fanashawe]]. Member of the [[Ontario Liberal Party]]
*[[Larry Shaben]] - Former Member of Legistlative Assembly (1975–1989) (Alberta) for [[Lesser Slave Lake (electoral district)|Lesser Slave Lake]] and former Cabinet Minister for Utilities and Telephones (1979–1982), Housing (1982–1986), and Economic Development and Trade (1986–1989)

== Journalism ==
*[[Haroon Siddiqui]] - Canadian newspaper journalist, columnist, and a former editor of the [[Toronto Star]]
*[[Irshad Manji]] - Canadian feminist, author, journalist, activist

== Religious leaders ==
* [[Reza Hosseini Nassab]]
* [[Ingrid Mattson]]
* [[Jamal Badawi]]
* '''[[Amir_Hussain_(religious_scholar)|Amir Hussain]]''' Editor of the ''[[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]]''

== Entertainment ==
*[[Dawud Wharnsby]] - Canadian singer-songwriter, poet<ref>[http://www.wharnsby.com/ Dawud Wharnsby]</ref>
*[[K'naan]]-Canadian rapper of Somali descent <ref>Matthew McKinnon (2005-06-30) [http://www.cbc.ca/arts/music/knaan.html Kicking Up Dust] ''The remarkable hip-hop odyssey of Toronto’s K’naan''. CBC. Retrieved on 2009-06-16.</ref>

== Ice hockey ==
*[[Nazem Kadri]] - 2009 draft pick of the [[Toronto Maple Leafs]], currently with the [[London Knights]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

==See also==
*[[Islam in Canada]]
*[[List of converts to Islam]]
*[[Lists of people by belief]]
*[[List of Islamic and Muslim related topics]]
*[[Lists of Muslims]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of Canadian Muslims}}
[[Category:Lists of Muslims|Canadian]]

Arabs in Pakistan

2013-02-11T11:59:00Z

108.173.174.134: /* Tribes with Arabic heritage */

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Arabs in Pakistan</br>العرب في باكستان
|image=
|caption=
|poptime =
|popplace = [[Karachi]], [[Lahore]], [[Islamabad]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|North-West Frontier Province]]
|langs = [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Dari (Persian)]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Urdu]], [[Pashto language|Pashto]]
|rels = [[Islam]] ([[Shia]], [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]])
}}

'''Arabs in Pakistan''' ({{lang-ur|عربي}}) consist of migrants from different countries of the [[List of countries where Arabic is an official language|Arab world]], especially [[Egypt]], [[Oman]], [[Kuwait]], [[Libya]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Palestine]] and [[Yemen]] and have a long history. The first form of contact between the [[Arab people]] and modern-day [[Pakistan]] originally came in 711, when [[Muhammad bin Qasim]], an Arab military general, was on a quest to free Muslims and their families who had apparently been arrested by [[Raja Dahir]]'s soldiers while they were returning in a merchant ship to their homes in Iraq's city of [[Basra]] from [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Arab rule of Pakistan |url=http://www.geocities.com/pak_history/arab2.html|work=|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5knIf7rYp|archivedate=2009-10-25|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

However, another version tells us about the migration of a number of the descendants of the [[Islamic prophet]], [[Muhammad]], to Sindh, after the atrocities by the [[Ummayad]] and [[Abbasid]] caliphs against them. They have settled in the province of Sindh, Panjab and as far north as [[Murree]].

== History ==

The ship was hauled up by [[Dahir (Raja)|Dahir's]] men while it was passing a port located in the [[Sindh]] province of Pakistan and the people were taken as captives. At that time, [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf|Hajjaj bin Yusuf]] was the governor of present-day Iraq. Upon hearing the news, he wrote to Raja Dahir and demanded him to release the prisoners. Raja Dahir, who was the governor of Sindh at that time, refused to accept the request which tempted Yusuf to order Muhammad bin Qasim to proceed to Sindh along with an army unit of 6,000 troops in order to get the prisoners released. Qasim was hardly seventeen years of age at that time, however he was a ruthless and capable military commander, the main reason for which Yusuf may have recruited him.

After being deployed to Sindh, Qasim defeated Raja Dahir's troops and the prisoners were liberated. He also conquered Sindh and annexed the entire areas up to [[Multan]], into Muslim territory. From that time on, the South Asia experienced its first formal contact with the Arabs and there were significant elements of Arab culture, food, sciences, arts and traditions brought into the region. This period also marked the introduction of [[Islam]] into what is now Pakistan, and the rest of South Asia, which thrived and flourished considerably. Today, Islam is the predominant state-religion of Pakistan and also has an immense number of followers in India. Islam is currently followed by at least 400-500 million people in South Asia.

After the death of Qasim, the areas of Sindh continued to remain under Arab rule for two centuries.

==Migrants==

According to many statistics, the total number of Arabs in Pakistan, both legal and non-legal residents, still number in the thousands, and reside in the country.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CEED71639F93BA35757C0A965958260&sec=&spon= | work=The New York Times | title=Radical Arabs Use Pakistan as Base for Holy War | first=Edward A. | last=Gargan | date=1993-04-08 | accessdate=2010-04-25}}</ref>

===Egyptians===
There were 1,500 Egyptians living in Pakistan during the 1990s. Following the 1995 [[attack on the Egyptian Embassy in Pakistan]] by Egyptian radicals, the Egyptian government renewed its security focus and collaborated with the Pakistani government to remove Egyptians from the country whom it deemed as shady elements; consequently, many Egyptians living in Pakistan were expelled or faced a discriminate crackdown. An extradition treaty was signed between the two countries, ensuring that any wanted Egyptians apprehended in Pakistan could be more efficiently mainlined back to [[Cairo]].<ref>[http://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/al-qaida%E2%80%99s-changing-outlook-on-pakistan Al-Qa`ida’s Changing Outlook on Pakistan]</ref>

===Emiratis===
Emirati nationals and royals periodically visit Pakistan for hunting falcons, especially the ''[[houbara bustard]]''. In [[Rahim Yar Khan]], [[Sheikh Zayed]] built his own summer palace and an airport for his personal use whenever he visited Pakistan for hunting and recreation. The tradition has been revived by many other royals, amid rage by ecologists over the declining population of falcons.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/1504226/Rage-soars-over-Arab-falcon-hunting.html Rage soars over Arab falcon hunting]</ref> A notable Emirati who lived in Pakistan is [[Suhail Al Zarooni]], who is also half-Pakistani.

===Iraqis===
There are a few hundred Iraqis, most of whom are categorised as refugees.<ref>[http://archives.dawn.com/2007/10/03/nat15.htm Procedure to grant refugee status to Iraqis announced]</ref>

===Jordanians===
Jordanians in Pakistan are mostly students.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dCJpw5EO3r4C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=Pakistan&f=false|title= DOCUMENTING TRANSNATIONAL MIGRATION Jordanian Men Working and Studying in Europe, Asia and North America}}</ref>

===Omanis===
Oman lies in close proximity to Pakistan. Immigration between the two states has been common. Pakistani immigrants from Balochistan have formed settlements in Oman for decades and have obtained Omani citizenship. Many of these Omani Balochis, who have absorbed into Omani society, maintain migration and contact with Balochistan.

===Palestinians===
Palestinians in Pakistan once had a total population as high as 8,000 during the 1970s.<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/media-gallery/palestinians+look+for+prayers+in+pakistan-sal Palestinians Look For Prayers in Pakistan - Dawn News ]</ref><ref>[http://mixplatew.blogspot.com/2009/01/suffering-alone.html Suffering Alone]</ref> Now, however, the community has considerably reduced to figures ranging between 400 and 500, and only a partial number of families still remain in the country. Most [[Palestinian people|Palestinians]] found in [[Pakistan]] are most commonly students of [[medicine]] and [[engineering]], seeking education in various universities and institutions across [[Karachi]], [[Lahore]], [[Hyderabad, Pakistan|Hyderabad]], [[Quetta]] and [[Multan]]. Settled families on the other hand, are primarily based in [[Islamabad]] and Karachi.

The recent years have shown a decrease in the number of Palestinians migrating to the country, as students increasingly opt to complete undergraduate degrees in Middle Eastern countries such as [[Jordan]]. The Pakistani government reserves 50 seats for Palestinian students in universities across the country: 13 are for medicine, 4 for [[dentistry]], 23 for [[engineering]], and 10 for [[pharmacy]]. Eight scholarships are also offered.

During the Afghan-Russian [[Cold War]], there were numerous Palestinians who took aid and shelter in Pakistan while fighting alongside the [[United States|U.S.]]-backed guerillas against [[Russia]]. [[Abdullah Yusuf Azzam]] was one of those Palestinians who stayed in Pakistan.

===Saudis===
There were 250 to 300 Saudi nationals in Pakistan as of 2009.<ref>[http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=2009102452440 Pakistan army may declare emergency], [[Saudi Gazette]].</ref>

===Syrians===
There are about 200 [[Syria]]ns in Pakistan. There are also students from Syria studying in Pakistani institutions.<ref>[http://www.onepakistan.com/news/local/islamabad/79680-syrian-nationals-stages-protest-against-detention-of-female-blogger.html Syrian nationals stages protest against detention of female blogger]</ref> In May 2011, Syrian expatriates in Pakistan were seen protesting outside the Syrian embassy in Islamabad and condemning Syrian President [[Bashar Al-Assad]] and his regime, amid the [[2011 Syrian protests]] back home.<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/2011/05/13/syrians-in-pakistan-protest-against-bashar.html Syrians in Pakistan protest against Bashar], Dawn</ref>

===Yemeni===
Many [[Muhajir people|Muhajir]] communities in Pakistan, such as the [[Chaush]], [[Nawayath]] and the [[Arab (Gujarat)|Arabs of Gujarat]], are of [[Hadhrami people|Hadhrami]] descent from modern-day [[Yemen]]. A considerable proportion of Arabs in Pakistan come from Yemen.<ref>[http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cpapers6%5Cpaper597.html South Asia Analysis]</ref>

==Tribes with Arabic heritage==

Due to the long history of [[Arab]] contact with the [[Indus]] region in [[Pakistan]], there are now a substantial number of Pakistanis who claim Arabic origin, descent and heritage. A sizeable population of the eight million [[Muhajir (Pakistan)|Muhajirs]] who migrated to Pakistan in 1947 from [[India]] also claim to have Arab ancestral root. Found among the [[Muhajir (Pakistan)|Muhajirs]], are the [[Iraqi biradri]], who claim to have originally come from [[Iraq]].

In [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], there are numerous tribes who have Arab ancestry, such as the [[Siddiqui]], [[Salara (tribe)|Salara]], [[Awan (Pakistan)|Awans]], the [[Khagga]], the Dhund Abbasi, the [[Dhanyal]], the [[Hans (clan)|Hans]], the [[Hashmi (Nekokara)]], the [[Kahut]] and the [[Bodla]].<ref>A Glossary of the tribes and castes of Punjab by H A Rose</ref>

The Dhond Abbasi of Murree and [[Kalhora]] of Sindh claim direct descent of [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abbas ibn Abd Al-Mutalib]] paternal uncle and companion of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]].

The [[Thaheem]] of Sindh and Punjab claim descent from the [[Banu Tameem]] of [[Arabia]].

The [[Mashwani]] and [[Kakakhel (tribe)|Kakakhel]] tribes among the [[Pashtuns]] also claims to be of [[Arab]] heritage. Though this is most likely a show of being ill-informed on their part as their lineage is documented and traced to being offshoots of other Pashtun tribes. Pashtuns are a specific ethnicity and claiming Arab descent would result in the implication that they are not Pashtun.<ref>The Pathans by Olaf Caroe</ref> On a scholarly basis, Pashuns are likely to have a common Iranic origin with other Iranian peoples such as the Persians, Kurds and Pamiris, however the Aryan identity is really low among pashtuns despite the linguistic affinities.

== Sayyids, Khawajas and Shaikhs ==

There are then a numerous number of [[Sayyid]]s or [[Khawaja]]s (descendants of [[Muhammad]]) in Pakistan, who are yet another clear example of Pakistanis with Arabic heritage. Some of these sayyids first migrated to [[Bukhara]] and then to the South Asia. Others reportedly settled in [[Sindh]] to protect their lives against the atrocities of the Omayya and Abbasi caliphs of Arabia. The Sayyid people of Pakistan are figured as the most prominent and well-established people of the country, with a number of them having become popular and well-known religious icons, political leaders and professionals.<ref>People of India by Herbert Risely</ref>

A large of Pakistanis belong to the various [[Khawaja Shaikh]] and [[Shaikhs in South Asia|Shaikh]] communities, some of whom claim Arab ancestry. The [[Quraishi]] [[Abbasi]], [[Chishti(surname)|Chishti]], [[Ansari (nesbat)|Ansari]], [[Osmani]], [[Siddiqui]], [[Arain]] and [[Farooqi]] all claim [[Arab]] ancestry.<ref>Punjab castes by Denzil Ibbetson</ref>

==See also==
* [[Arab–Pakistan relations]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Semitic topics}}
{{Arab diaspora}}
{{Immigration to Pakistan}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Arabs In Pakistan}}
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Social groups of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Pakistani people of Arab descent| ]]
[[Category:Immigration to Pakistan]]
[[Category:Arab diaspora|Pakistan]]

Hindkowans

2013-02-11T11:56:49Z

108.173.174.134:

{{cleanup|date=August 2011}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group=Hindko people|image=
|image=<div style="margin-top:1px; margin-bottom:1px;"> [[File:Muhammed Ayub Khan.JPG|65px|Muhammed Ayub Khan]] [[Image:Dilip Kumar 2006.jpg|70px|Dilip Kumar]]</div><div style="white-space:nowrap;"><small>[[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]] • [[Dilip Kumar]]</small></div></div></div>
|poptime=
|popplace=Pakistan:<br>3,940,000<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hno Ethnologue: Languages of Pakistan]</ref><br>
India: 4,394<ref name="Census - Multani">[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm Abstract of speakers’ strength of languages and mother tongues – 2001], ''Census of India'' (retrieved 19 March 2008)</ref>
|langs=[[Hindko language|Hindko]] |religions=[[Islam]] (predominantly [[Sunni]]),<ref name="Ethnologue">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hnd|title = Hindko, Southern|publisher = [[SIL International]]|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> [[Christian]] minority estimated at 2%,<ref>[http://www.hindko.4t.com/ Hindko Home: Religious Division]</ref> and [[Hindu]] & [[Sikh]] minority of indeterminate size<ref>[http://www.junglee.org.in/pk.html Kapoor Family: Prithviraj Kapoor]</ref><ref>[http://www.himalmag.com/2007/january/elsewhere.htm Himal South Asian: Elsewhere]</ref>
|related=[[Hazarewal]], [[Punjabi people]], [[Seraiki people]], other neighboring [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan peoples]]}}

'''Hindkowans''' ([[Hindko language|Hindko]]: {{Nastaliq|هِندکوان}}) are an [[Indo-Aryan people|Indo-Aryan]] ethno-linguistic group native to the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa]] and [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] provinces of [[Pakistan]]. However, an indeterminate number have left the region and now live in other parts of [[South Asia]],<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India">{{cite web|url = http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_29-12-2003_pg7_25| title = Peshawarites still remember the Kapoor family|publisher = Daily Times |accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref> such as the Indian state of [[Jammu & Kashmir]] and Pakistani [[Azad Kashmir]]. Hindkowans mainly inhabit [[Peshawar]] and the [[Hazara, Pakistan|Hazara region]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Qadeer|first=Mohammad A.|title=Pakistan: Social and Cultural Transformations in a Muslim Nation|year=2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0415375665|pages=40}}</ref>

In the modern, most Hindkowans come from Pashtun clans, thus making them Pashtuns speaking a language of India or a dialect of Punjabi as their mother tongue, but not all hindkowans are come from Pashtun clans, examples would be Awans who are putatively Arab tribe and not Pashtun, Muslims of clans of Indo-aryan origin like are Jat/Rajput clans such as Gujjars but not Pashtun , as well as non-muslim Sikh and Hindu hindkowans, many that have emigrated out of the Afghan province after the partition of British India. The Pashai people are another ethnic group in which most people are now Pashtuns through the ancestrial definition.

.[1] However, Hindkowans speak [[Hindko]], a [[Lahnda language]],<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Lahnda">{{cite web|url = http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/KRO_LAP/LAHNDA_properly_Lahnda_or_Lahin.html| title = LAHNDA |publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> and is native to the northern regions of Pakistan primarily concentrated in the [[Hazara Pakistan|Hazara]] division, and urban centers of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] province of Pakistan such as [[Peshawar]], [[Kohat]], Nowshera and Swabi. It is for this reason that alternatively, the term "'''Kharian/Kharay or city-dweller'''" maybe sometimes be used for the Hindkowan.

== Origin ==
Hindkowans who are sometimes referred to as ''Punjabi Pathans''. While literally, the term Punjabi Pathan can only be more correctly used to refer to Afghan/Pashtoon/Pathan tribes settled in Punjab, for example the Niazis of Mianwali and speak Seraiki language and those living in Attock district of Punjab who speak Hindko language. Outside of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, the term "Pathan" may however, simply be used for anyone belonging to the area (whether they be Pashto, Hindko, Gujjari/Gojri, Turwali, Kohistani etc. speaking), since the people are perceived by others to share similar cultural traits such as the "pathanwalgi" among the Chach and Hazarawal considered analogous to pashtunwali.

H.A. Rose, author of ''Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier'' has defined Hindkowans or Hindkois as follows:
{{cquote|[[Hindki]], a generic term, half contemptuous, applied to all Muhammadans who being of [[Hindu]] origin speak [[Hindko]] and have been converted to [[Islam]] in comparatively recent times. In [[Bannu]] the term usually denotes an Awan or Jatt cultivator, but in a wider sense it includes all Muhammadans who speak Hindko language.<ref>A glossary of the tribes and castes of the Punjab and North-West provinces, compiled by H A Rose, vol II Page 333</ref>}}

Those who speak the Hindko Language are collectively called Hindkowan.
The NWFP Imperial Gazetteer of India (1905) regularly refers to their language as Hindko, which refers to the "Hindu Kush mountain range."<ref name="JSTOR-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0041-977X(1980)43:3%3C482:HIKAP%3E2.0.CO;2-M&cookieSet=1| title = Hindko in Kohat and Peshawar|publisher = Cambridge University Press|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref> According to the publication ''<u> Hindko and Gujari</u>'': {{Quote|"More than one interpretation has been offered for the term Hindko. Some associate it with [[Indian subcontinent|India]], others with [[Hindu]] people, and still others with the [[Indus River|Indus]]."<ref name="Calvin Ross Rensch, Clare F. O'Leary, Calinda E. Hallberg">{{Cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=4n91AAAAIAAJ&q=hindu+hindko&dq=hindu+hindko&cd=1|quote= More than one interpretation has been offered for the term Hindko. Some associate it with India, others with the
Indus.|title = Hindko and Gujari: Volume 3 of Sociolinguistic survey of northern Pakistan |publisher = National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref><ref name="OPF-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.opf.org.pk/almanac/L/languages.htm|title = Grierson Linguistic Survey of India|publisher = Overseas Pakistanis Foundation|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref>}}The term may well be the Persic reference meaning language spoken in Hindu Kush mountain since the words "Hind" and "koh" mean Indus/Indic mountains respectively in Persian. The term is also found in Greek references to the mountainous region in eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan as Καύκασος Ινδικός (Caucasus Indicus, or the [[Hindu Kush]]).

In Afghanistan, a group of Hindus still continue to speak Hindko and are referred to as [[Hindki]] which according to Grierson is a variant of the term Hindko.<ref name="jstor.org">http://www.jstor.org/pss/615737</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|url = http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/PAS_PER/HINDKI.html| title = Hindki|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hno| title = Ethnologue Report for Hindko|publisher = Ethnologue|accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref> However, in Pakistan the term is considered slightly pejorative and hence Hindkowan or Hindkun is preferred on par with the term Pashtun (the dominant and more numerous ethnic group in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province).<ref name="jstor.org"/>

Long before the [[partition of British India]], [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson]], in the ''Linguistic Survey of India'', employed the term Hindko to mean "the language of [[Hindus]]" (viii, 1:34).<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Lahnda"/> However, this is hotly disputed in Pakistan.<ref name="jstor.org"/> Farigh Bukhari and South Asian language expert and historian Christopher Shackle believe that Hindko was a generic term applied to the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] dialect continuum in the Pakistani northwest frontier territories and the adjacent district of [[Attock District|Attock]] in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]] province to differentiate it in function and form from [[Pashto]]. Linguists classify the language into the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]] group.

== Religion ==
Hindko people are mostly Muslims. The term "Hindko" itself is defined as the "language of the people of Hindu Kush Mountains."<ref name="Bhasha-e-Hanud">{{cite book|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=OvYtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80&dq=hindko+hindu&cd=6#v=onepage&q=hindko%20hindu&f=false|quote= Lahnda is also spoken in the north of the state of Bahawalpur and of the province of Sind, in which latter locality it is known as Siraiki. Its western boundary is, roughly speaking, the river Indus, across which the language of the Afghan population is Pashto (Pushtu), while the Hindu settlers still speak Landha. In the Derajat, however, Lahnda, is the principal language of all classes in the plains west of the river. Lahnda is also known as Western Panjabi and as Jatki, or the language of the Jats, who form the bulk of the population whose mother tongue it is. In the Derajat it is called Hindko or the language of the Hindus.| title = The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 16|publisher = The Encyclopædia Britannica Company|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> As such, there are a number of [[Hindu]] Hindkowans.<ref name="Ujjal Singh Bahri">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_yliAAAAMAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=6|quote= Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.| title = Papers in language and linguistics, Volume 1|publisher = Bahri Publications|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Language forum, Volume 9">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=ezw4AAAAIAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=4|quote= Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.|title = Language forum, Volume 9|publisher = Bahri Publications|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="M. Geijbels, Jonathan S. Addleton">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=MskbAAAAIAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=9|quote= to Hindko is the most significant linguistic minority in the NWFP, ... to an influx of Pashtuns replacing the Hindko-speaking Sikhs and Hindus who ...| title = The rise and development of Urdu and the importance of regional languages in Pakistan|publisher = Christian Study Centre|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="O. Harrassowitz">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=naMUAQAAIAAJ&q=sikh+hindko&dq=sikh+hindko&cd=4|quote= The real opposition to Pashto came, however, from the speakers of Hindko. A large number of Sikhs and Hindus, all speaking Hindko, lived in the cities of N.W.F.P. and had a voice in the legislative assembly, this was often perceived as the non-Muslim opposition to Pashto.|title=Journal of Asian history, Volumes 35-36|publisher = O. Harrassowitz|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Tariq Rahman">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=kjZiAAAAMAAJ&q=sikh+hindko&dq=sikh+hindko&cd=10|quote= The real opposition to Pashto came, however, from the speakers of Hindko. A large number of Sikhs and Hindus, all speaking Hindko, lived in the cities of N.W.F.P. and had a voice in the legislative assembly, this was often perceived as the non-Muslim opposition to Pashto.|title=Language, ideology and power: language learning among the Muslims of Pakistan and North India|publisher = Oxford University Press|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> Some of these Hindu Hindkowans are traders and over time, have settled in areas as far as [[Kalat, Pakistan|Kalat]], [[Balochistan]].<ref name="Robert Niel Pehrson, Fredrik Barth">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=K3pCAAAAYAAJ&q=kalat+hindko+hindu&dq=kalat+hindko+hindu&cd=1|quote= ...is in the hands of a small caste of Hindu merchants. These Hindus are Hindko-speaking and regard Kalat as their homeland, where they generally keep their families and go for some months every year to visit and to obtain supplies. While in the Marri area, they must be under the protection of a local Marri chief or the sardar himself.| title = The social organization of the Marri Baluch|publisher = Indus Publications |accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Robert Niel Pehrson, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Fredrik Barth">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=yuyZAAAAIAAJ&q=kalat+hindu+merchants+marri&dq=kalat+hindu+merchants+marri&cd=6|quote= ...is in the hands of a small caste of Hindu merchants. These Hindus are Hindko-speaking and regard Kalat as their homeland, where they generally keep their families and go for some months every year to visit and to obtain supplies. While in the Marri area, they must be under the protection of a local Marri chief or the sardar himself.| title = Viking fund publications in anthropology, Issue 43|publisher = Viking Fund|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> Other Hindu Hindkowans migrated to [[India]] from their native region of [[Sarhad]] after the [[partition of India]] in 1947.<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India"/> During the [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]], which took place from the 12th century A.D. onwards, many of the Hindkowans converted to [[Islam]]. Today, most of the Hindkowan population is [[Sunni]] [[Muslim]].<ref name="Ethnologue"/> Later, with the [[Sikhism#Growth_of_the_Sikh_community|spread of Sikhism]] and the rise of the [[Sikh Empire]] beginning in the eighteenth century A.D., some Hindkowans, both Hindu & Muslim, became [[Sikhs]].<ref name="Ujjal Singh Bahri"/><ref name="Language forum, Volume 9"/><ref name="M. Geijbels, Jonathan S. Addleton"/><ref name="O. Harrassowitz"/><ref name="Tariq Rahman"/> Like the Hindus, many Sikh Hindkowans migrated to Hindustan after the partition of India in 1947.<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India"/>

== Demographics ==
There are no fresh and authentic figures on the speakers of Hindko language. However, according to indirect method of household rate employed in the 4th Population Census of 1981, an estimated 2.4 per cent of the total population of Pakistan and estimated 22.8 per cent of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa speak Hindko as their mother language, with more rural than urban households reporting Hindko as their household language.No information was gathered on the Hindko language in the 5th Population Census carried out in 1998 as Hindko language column was removed from the census form much to the dismay of Hindko people.

The largest geographically contiguous group of Hindko people is concentrated in the districts of [[Peshawar]], [[Abbottabad District|Abbottabad]], Kohat, [[Attock District]], Nowshera, [[Haripur District|Haripur]], [[Mansehra District|Mansehra]] and [[Mardan]] of Pakistan

=== Tribal communities ===

People here tend to associate themselves with larger families instead of a language per se. The major tribes of [[Hazara people|Hazara]] include the [[Gujjar]], [[Awan]], [[Bib (tribe)|Bib]], [[Bomba (tribe)|Bomba]], Dhund Abbasi, [[Gakhars|Gakhar]], [[Karlal]], [[Mughals]], Ghaznavis, [[Maliar]], [[Paracha]]s, [[Sarrara]], [[Qazi]]s, [[Sayyid]]s, [[Mashwani]]s, [[Swati (tribe)|Swati]]s, [[Tanoli]]s, [[Dilazak]]s, [[Shilmani]]s, [[Jadoon]]s, [[Khattak]], [[Barakzai]], and [[Kakar]].<ref>Gazetteer of the Hazara district, 1907 / compiled and edited by H. D. Watson</ref> The Pashtun tribes who settled in Districts like Abbotabad, Haripur and Mansehra, [[Peshawar]] and [[Kohat]] adopted Hindko as their first language and gained political power in these areas during the British rule. {{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}. The Hindko people living in major cities [[Peshawar]], [[Kohat]], [[Nowshera, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa|Nowshera]] and [[chhachh]] area of [[Attock]] are bilingual in [[Pashto]] and [[Hindko]]. Similarly many Pashtoon in districts like Mansehra especially in Agror Valley and northern Tanawal (Shergarh), have become bilingual in Pashto and Hindko.<ref>http://www.pakhazara.com/languages.html</ref>

== Prominent writers ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2010}}There are many Hinko writers, among them [[Aurangzeb Hussamhur]]
Syed Mehboob,Aurangzeb Ghaznavi. Riffat Swati from [[Mansehrah]] is called [[madre]] hindko for her promotion of Hindko language.
A monthly [[farogh]] is published from Peshawar by Aurangzeb Ghaznavi. Dr. Syed Mehboob is working for the promotion of Hindko language in Karachi and Sindh. His many articles has been published in various newspapers including Farogh Peshawar.

==Hindko poets==
Some of the prominent Hindko poets/writers are:
* Professor Dr Elahi Bakhsh Awan,
* Haider Zaman Haider,
* Sultan Sakoon
* Sabir Hussain Imdaad,
* Sheen Shaukat
* Zaffar Iqbal Athar
* Mohammad Ziauddin
* Ahmad Nadeem Awan
* Sikandar Hayat Sikandar
* Mr. Asif Saqib,
* Afzal Chishti
* Raza Hamadani
* Bushra Farukh
* Qudsia Qudsi
* Hassam Hurr
* Hilal Jamid
* Iftikhar Tashna
* Aslam Taraq
* Khawaja Yaqoob Akhtar
* Maqbool Ejaz Ejazi
* Malak Arshad Hussain
* Masoom Shah Masoom
* Sabeeh Ahed
* Rani Bano
* Sadaq Saba
* Saeed Gilani
* Zaffar Naveed Jani
* Prof. Sufi Abdur Rasheed,
* Col. Fazal-e-Akbar Kamal,
* Mr. Sultan Sakoon,
* Mr. Sharif Hussain Shah,
* Prof. Muhammad Farid,
* Prof. Yahya Khalid,
* Mr. Nazir Kasalvi,
* Muhammad Hanif,
* Ahmad Ali {Khayali}
* Shoaib shahid
* Prof. Bashir Sooz
* Muhammad Hanif
* [[Ahmad Hussain Mujahid]]
*Mohammed Khan (NCSU)

== Distribution ==
The speakers of Hindko live primarily in seven districts in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa: [[Mansehra District|Mansehra]], [[Swabi District|Swabi]], [[Abbottabad District|Abbottabad]], [[Haripur District|Haripur]], [[Peshawar District|Peshawar]], [[Nowshera District|Nowshera]] and [[Kohat District|Kohat]] in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, as well as the [[Attock District|Attock]] and [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]] districts in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] and parts of [[Kashmir region|Kashmir]]; Jonathan Addleton states that [[Hindko]] is the most significant linguistic minority in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, represented in nearly one-fifth of the province's total households." In [[Abbottabad District|Abbotabad]], 98 per cent of households reported speaking Hindko, in [[Mansehra District]] 77 per cent, in [[Haripur District]] around 85 per cent, in [[Peshawar District]] 35 per cent, and in [[Kohat District]] 40 per cent (1986).{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Testing of inherent [[intelligibility]] among Hindko dialects through the use of recorded tests has shown that there is a northern (Hazara) dialect group and a southern group. The southern dialects are more widely understood throughout the dialect network than are the northern dialects. The dialects of rural [[Peshawar]] and [[Talagang]] are the most widely understood of the dialects tested. The dialect of [[Balakot]] is the least widely understood.

== Bilingualism ==
In most Hindko-speaking areas, speakers of [[Pashto]] live in the same or neighbouring communities (although this is less true in Abbottabad and Kaghan Valley than elsewhere). In the mixed areas, many people speak both languages. The relationship between Hindko and Pushto speakers are one of the best if compared with major groups who live in other provinces of Pakistan.

==Notable Hindkowans==
* [[Pran Sikhand]], ''[[Padma Bhushan]]'', a multiple [[Filmfare Awards|filmfare awards]] and BFJA award winning Indian Bollywood actor<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/01/09/stories/2005010900450400.htm |title=Heroic villain: An informative and entertaining biography of a daredevil Pathan.|publisher=The Hindu|accessdate=2007-02-23|location=Chennai, India|date=2005-01-09}}</ref>
* [[Akhtar Abdur Rahman]], [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI) Chief
* [[Humayun Akhtar Khan]], politician in Pakistan
* [[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]], [[Pakistan Army]] General
* [[Dilip Kumar]]{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}, ''[[Nishan-e-Imtiaz]]'', an [[India]]n film actor in [[Bollywood]] and a member of the [[Rajya Sabha]]
* [[Kapoor family]] {{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

== See also ==
*[[Hazarewal]]
* [[Chhachi]]
*[[Gojri]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*[[Districts of Afghanistan#Faryab Province]] Andkoi, the real place of Migration from Afghanistan.
*[http://sitara.com/afghanistan/distances.html], Travel & tour information of Afghanistan .

[[Category:Hindkowan people]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Hindkowan tribes]]

[[simple:Hindkowan]]

Hindkowans

2013-02-11T11:55:07Z

108.173.174.134:

{{cleanup|date=August 2011}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group=Hindko people|image=
|image=<div style="margin-top:1px; margin-bottom:1px;"> [[File:Muhammed Ayub Khan.JPG|65px|Muhammed Ayub Khan]] [[Image:Dilip Kumar 2006.jpg|70px|Dilip Kumar]]</div><div style="white-space:nowrap;"><small>[[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]] • [[Dilip Kumar]]</small></div></div></div>
|poptime=
|popplace=Pakistan:<br>3,940,000<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hno Ethnologue: Languages of Pakistan]</ref><br>
India: 4,394<ref name="Census - Multani">[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm Abstract of speakers’ strength of languages and mother tongues – 2001], ''Census of India'' (retrieved 19 March 2008)</ref>
|langs=[[Hindko language|Hindko]] |religions=[[Islam]] (predominantly [[Sunni]]),<ref name="Ethnologue">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hnd|title = Hindko, Southern|publisher = [[SIL International]]|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> [[Christian]] minority estimated at 2%,<ref>[http://www.hindko.4t.com/ Hindko Home: Religious Division]</ref> and [[Hindu]] & [[Sikh]] minority of indeterminate size<ref>[http://www.junglee.org.in/pk.html Kapoor Family: Prithviraj Kapoor]</ref><ref>[http://www.himalmag.com/2007/january/elsewhere.htm Himal South Asian: Elsewhere]</ref>
|related=[[Hazarewal]], [[Punjabi people]], [[Seraiki people]], other neighboring [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan peoples]]}}

'''Hindkowans''' ([[Hindko language|Hindko]]: {{Nastaliq|هِندکوان}}) are an [[Indo-Aryan people|Indo-Aryan]] ethno-linguistic group native to the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa]] and [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] provinces of [[Pakistan]]. However, an indeterminate number have left the region and now live in other parts of [[South Asia]],<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India">{{cite web|url = http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_29-12-2003_pg7_25| title = Peshawarites still remember the Kapoor family|publisher = Daily Times |accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref> such as the Indian state of [[Jammu & Kashmir]] and Pakistani [[Azad Kashmir]]. Hindkowans mainly inhabit [[Peshawar]] and the [[Hazara, Pakistan|Hazara region]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Qadeer|first=Mohammad A.|title=Pakistan: Social and Cultural Transformations in a Muslim Nation|year=2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0415375665|pages=40}}</ref>

In the modern, most Hindkowans come from Pashtun clans, thus making them Pashtuns speaking a language of India or a dialect of Punjabi as their mother tongue, but not all hindkowans are come from Pashtun clans, examples would be Awans who are putatively Arab tribe and not Pashtun, Muslims of clans of Indo-aryan origin like are Jat/Rajput clans such as Gujjars , as well as non-muslim Sikh and Hindu hindkowans, many that have emigrated out of the Afghan province after the partition of British India. The Pashai people are another ethnic group in which most people are now Pashtuns through the ancestrial definition.

.[1] However, Hindkowans speak [[Hindko]], a [[Lahnda language]],<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Lahnda">{{cite web|url = http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/KRO_LAP/LAHNDA_properly_Lahnda_or_Lahin.html| title = LAHNDA |publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> and is native to the northern regions of Pakistan primarily concentrated in the [[Hazara Pakistan|Hazara]] division, and urban centers of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] province of Pakistan such as [[Peshawar]], [[Kohat]], Nowshera and Swabi. It is for this reason that alternatively, the term "'''Kharian/Kharay or city-dweller'''" maybe sometimes be used for the Hindkowan.

== Origin ==
Hindkowans who are sometimes referred to as ''Punjabi Pathans''. While literally, the term Punjabi Pathan can only be more correctly used to refer to Afghan/Pashtoon/Pathan tribes settled in Punjab, for example the Niazis of Mianwali and speak Seraiki language and those living in Attock district of Punjab who speak Hindko language. Outside of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, the term "Pathan" may however, simply be used for anyone belonging to the area (whether they be Pashto, Hindko, Gujjari/Gojri, Turwali, Kohistani etc. speaking), since the people are perceived by others to share similar cultural traits such as the "pathanwalgi" among the Chach and Hazarawal considered analogous to pashtunwali.

H.A. Rose, author of ''Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier'' has defined Hindkowans or Hindkois as follows:
{{cquote|[[Hindki]], a generic term, half contemptuous, applied to all Muhammadans who being of [[Hindu]] origin speak [[Hindko]] and have been converted to [[Islam]] in comparatively recent times. In [[Bannu]] the term usually denotes an Awan or Jatt cultivator, but in a wider sense it includes all Muhammadans who speak Hindko language.<ref>A glossary of the tribes and castes of the Punjab and North-West provinces, compiled by H A Rose, vol II Page 333</ref>}}

Those who speak the Hindko Language are collectively called Hindkowan.
The NWFP Imperial Gazetteer of India (1905) regularly refers to their language as Hindko, which refers to the "Hindu Kush mountain range."<ref name="JSTOR-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0041-977X(1980)43:3%3C482:HIKAP%3E2.0.CO;2-M&cookieSet=1| title = Hindko in Kohat and Peshawar|publisher = Cambridge University Press|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref> According to the publication ''<u> Hindko and Gujari</u>'': {{Quote|"More than one interpretation has been offered for the term Hindko. Some associate it with [[Indian subcontinent|India]], others with [[Hindu]] people, and still others with the [[Indus River|Indus]]."<ref name="Calvin Ross Rensch, Clare F. O'Leary, Calinda E. Hallberg">{{Cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=4n91AAAAIAAJ&q=hindu+hindko&dq=hindu+hindko&cd=1|quote= More than one interpretation has been offered for the term Hindko. Some associate it with India, others with the
Indus.|title = Hindko and Gujari: Volume 3 of Sociolinguistic survey of northern Pakistan |publisher = National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref><ref name="OPF-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.opf.org.pk/almanac/L/languages.htm|title = Grierson Linguistic Survey of India|publisher = Overseas Pakistanis Foundation|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref>}}The term may well be the Persic reference meaning language spoken in Hindu Kush mountain since the words "Hind" and "koh" mean Indus/Indic mountains respectively in Persian. The term is also found in Greek references to the mountainous region in eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan as Καύκασος Ινδικός (Caucasus Indicus, or the [[Hindu Kush]]).

In Afghanistan, a group of Hindus still continue to speak Hindko and are referred to as [[Hindki]] which according to Grierson is a variant of the term Hindko.<ref name="jstor.org">http://www.jstor.org/pss/615737</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|url = http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/PAS_PER/HINDKI.html| title = Hindki|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hno| title = Ethnologue Report for Hindko|publisher = Ethnologue|accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref> However, in Pakistan the term is considered slightly pejorative and hence Hindkowan or Hindkun is preferred on par with the term Pashtun (the dominant and more numerous ethnic group in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province).<ref name="jstor.org"/>

Long before the [[partition of British India]], [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson]], in the ''Linguistic Survey of India'', employed the term Hindko to mean "the language of [[Hindus]]" (viii, 1:34).<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Lahnda"/> However, this is hotly disputed in Pakistan.<ref name="jstor.org"/> Farigh Bukhari and South Asian language expert and historian Christopher Shackle believe that Hindko was a generic term applied to the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] dialect continuum in the Pakistani northwest frontier territories and the adjacent district of [[Attock District|Attock]] in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]] province to differentiate it in function and form from [[Pashto]]. Linguists classify the language into the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]] group.

== Religion ==
Hindko people are mostly Muslims. The term "Hindko" itself is defined as the "language of the people of Hindu Kush Mountains."<ref name="Bhasha-e-Hanud">{{cite book|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=OvYtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80&dq=hindko+hindu&cd=6#v=onepage&q=hindko%20hindu&f=false|quote= Lahnda is also spoken in the north of the state of Bahawalpur and of the province of Sind, in which latter locality it is known as Siraiki. Its western boundary is, roughly speaking, the river Indus, across which the language of the Afghan population is Pashto (Pushtu), while the Hindu settlers still speak Landha. In the Derajat, however, Lahnda, is the principal language of all classes in the plains west of the river. Lahnda is also known as Western Panjabi and as Jatki, or the language of the Jats, who form the bulk of the population whose mother tongue it is. In the Derajat it is called Hindko or the language of the Hindus.| title = The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 16|publisher = The Encyclopædia Britannica Company|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> As such, there are a number of [[Hindu]] Hindkowans.<ref name="Ujjal Singh Bahri">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_yliAAAAMAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=6|quote= Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.| title = Papers in language and linguistics, Volume 1|publisher = Bahri Publications|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Language forum, Volume 9">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=ezw4AAAAIAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=4|quote= Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.|title = Language forum, Volume 9|publisher = Bahri Publications|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="M. Geijbels, Jonathan S. Addleton">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=MskbAAAAIAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=9|quote= to Hindko is the most significant linguistic minority in the NWFP, ... to an influx of Pashtuns replacing the Hindko-speaking Sikhs and Hindus who ...| title = The rise and development of Urdu and the importance of regional languages in Pakistan|publisher = Christian Study Centre|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="O. Harrassowitz">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=naMUAQAAIAAJ&q=sikh+hindko&dq=sikh+hindko&cd=4|quote= The real opposition to Pashto came, however, from the speakers of Hindko. A large number of Sikhs and Hindus, all speaking Hindko, lived in the cities of N.W.F.P. and had a voice in the legislative assembly, this was often perceived as the non-Muslim opposition to Pashto.|title=Journal of Asian history, Volumes 35-36|publisher = O. Harrassowitz|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Tariq Rahman">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=kjZiAAAAMAAJ&q=sikh+hindko&dq=sikh+hindko&cd=10|quote= The real opposition to Pashto came, however, from the speakers of Hindko. A large number of Sikhs and Hindus, all speaking Hindko, lived in the cities of N.W.F.P. and had a voice in the legislative assembly, this was often perceived as the non-Muslim opposition to Pashto.|title=Language, ideology and power: language learning among the Muslims of Pakistan and North India|publisher = Oxford University Press|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> Some of these Hindu Hindkowans are traders and over time, have settled in areas as far as [[Kalat, Pakistan|Kalat]], [[Balochistan]].<ref name="Robert Niel Pehrson, Fredrik Barth">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=K3pCAAAAYAAJ&q=kalat+hindko+hindu&dq=kalat+hindko+hindu&cd=1|quote= ...is in the hands of a small caste of Hindu merchants. These Hindus are Hindko-speaking and regard Kalat as their homeland, where they generally keep their families and go for some months every year to visit and to obtain supplies. While in the Marri area, they must be under the protection of a local Marri chief or the sardar himself.| title = The social organization of the Marri Baluch|publisher = Indus Publications |accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Robert Niel Pehrson, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Fredrik Barth">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=yuyZAAAAIAAJ&q=kalat+hindu+merchants+marri&dq=kalat+hindu+merchants+marri&cd=6|quote= ...is in the hands of a small caste of Hindu merchants. These Hindus are Hindko-speaking and regard Kalat as their homeland, where they generally keep their families and go for some months every year to visit and to obtain supplies. While in the Marri area, they must be under the protection of a local Marri chief or the sardar himself.| title = Viking fund publications in anthropology, Issue 43|publisher = Viking Fund|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> Other Hindu Hindkowans migrated to [[India]] from their native region of [[Sarhad]] after the [[partition of India]] in 1947.<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India"/> During the [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]], which took place from the 12th century A.D. onwards, many of the Hindkowans converted to [[Islam]]. Today, most of the Hindkowan population is [[Sunni]] [[Muslim]].<ref name="Ethnologue"/> Later, with the [[Sikhism#Growth_of_the_Sikh_community|spread of Sikhism]] and the rise of the [[Sikh Empire]] beginning in the eighteenth century A.D., some Hindkowans, both Hindu & Muslim, became [[Sikhs]].<ref name="Ujjal Singh Bahri"/><ref name="Language forum, Volume 9"/><ref name="M. Geijbels, Jonathan S. Addleton"/><ref name="O. Harrassowitz"/><ref name="Tariq Rahman"/> Like the Hindus, many Sikh Hindkowans migrated to Hindustan after the partition of India in 1947.<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India"/>

== Demographics ==
There are no fresh and authentic figures on the speakers of Hindko language. However, according to indirect method of household rate employed in the 4th Population Census of 1981, an estimated 2.4 per cent of the total population of Pakistan and estimated 22.8 per cent of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa speak Hindko as their mother language, with more rural than urban households reporting Hindko as their household language.No information was gathered on the Hindko language in the 5th Population Census carried out in 1998 as Hindko language column was removed from the census form much to the dismay of Hindko people.

The largest geographically contiguous group of Hindko people is concentrated in the districts of [[Peshawar]], [[Abbottabad District|Abbottabad]], Kohat, [[Attock District]], Nowshera, [[Haripur District|Haripur]], [[Mansehra District|Mansehra]] and [[Mardan]] of Pakistan

=== Tribal communities ===

People here tend to associate themselves with larger families instead of a language per se. The major tribes of [[Hazara people|Hazara]] include the [[Gujjar]], [[Awan]], [[Bib (tribe)|Bib]], [[Bomba (tribe)|Bomba]], Dhund Abbasi, [[Gakhars|Gakhar]], [[Karlal]], [[Mughals]], Ghaznavis, [[Maliar]], [[Paracha]]s, [[Sarrara]], [[Qazi]]s, [[Sayyid]]s, [[Mashwani]]s, [[Swati (tribe)|Swati]]s, [[Tanoli]]s, [[Dilazak]]s, [[Shilmani]]s, [[Jadoon]]s, [[Khattak]], [[Barakzai]], and [[Kakar]].<ref>Gazetteer of the Hazara district, 1907 / compiled and edited by H. D. Watson</ref> The Pashtun tribes who settled in Districts like Abbotabad, Haripur and Mansehra, [[Peshawar]] and [[Kohat]] adopted Hindko as their first language and gained political power in these areas during the British rule. {{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}. The Hindko people living in major cities [[Peshawar]], [[Kohat]], [[Nowshera, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa|Nowshera]] and [[chhachh]] area of [[Attock]] are bilingual in [[Pashto]] and [[Hindko]]. Similarly many Pashtoon in districts like Mansehra especially in Agror Valley and northern Tanawal (Shergarh), have become bilingual in Pashto and Hindko.<ref>http://www.pakhazara.com/languages.html</ref>

== Prominent writers ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2010}}There are many Hinko writers, among them [[Aurangzeb Hussamhur]]
Syed Mehboob,Aurangzeb Ghaznavi. Riffat Swati from [[Mansehrah]] is called [[madre]] hindko for her promotion of Hindko language.
A monthly [[farogh]] is published from Peshawar by Aurangzeb Ghaznavi. Dr. Syed Mehboob is working for the promotion of Hindko language in Karachi and Sindh. His many articles has been published in various newspapers including Farogh Peshawar.

==Hindko poets==
Some of the prominent Hindko poets/writers are:
* Professor Dr Elahi Bakhsh Awan,
* Haider Zaman Haider,
* Sultan Sakoon
* Sabir Hussain Imdaad,
* Sheen Shaukat
* Zaffar Iqbal Athar
* Mohammad Ziauddin
* Ahmad Nadeem Awan
* Sikandar Hayat Sikandar
* Mr. Asif Saqib,
* Afzal Chishti
* Raza Hamadani
* Bushra Farukh
* Qudsia Qudsi
* Hassam Hurr
* Hilal Jamid
* Iftikhar Tashna
* Aslam Taraq
* Khawaja Yaqoob Akhtar
* Maqbool Ejaz Ejazi
* Malak Arshad Hussain
* Masoom Shah Masoom
* Sabeeh Ahed
* Rani Bano
* Sadaq Saba
* Saeed Gilani
* Zaffar Naveed Jani
* Prof. Sufi Abdur Rasheed,
* Col. Fazal-e-Akbar Kamal,
* Mr. Sultan Sakoon,
* Mr. Sharif Hussain Shah,
* Prof. Muhammad Farid,
* Prof. Yahya Khalid,
* Mr. Nazir Kasalvi,
* Muhammad Hanif,
* Ahmad Ali {Khayali}
* Shoaib shahid
* Prof. Bashir Sooz
* Muhammad Hanif
* [[Ahmad Hussain Mujahid]]
*Mohammed Khan (NCSU)

== Distribution ==
The speakers of Hindko live primarily in seven districts in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa: [[Mansehra District|Mansehra]], [[Swabi District|Swabi]], [[Abbottabad District|Abbottabad]], [[Haripur District|Haripur]], [[Peshawar District|Peshawar]], [[Nowshera District|Nowshera]] and [[Kohat District|Kohat]] in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, as well as the [[Attock District|Attock]] and [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]] districts in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] and parts of [[Kashmir region|Kashmir]]; Jonathan Addleton states that [[Hindko]] is the most significant linguistic minority in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, represented in nearly one-fifth of the province's total households." In [[Abbottabad District|Abbotabad]], 98 per cent of households reported speaking Hindko, in [[Mansehra District]] 77 per cent, in [[Haripur District]] around 85 per cent, in [[Peshawar District]] 35 per cent, and in [[Kohat District]] 40 per cent (1986).{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Testing of inherent [[intelligibility]] among Hindko dialects through the use of recorded tests has shown that there is a northern (Hazara) dialect group and a southern group. The southern dialects are more widely understood throughout the dialect network than are the northern dialects. The dialects of rural [[Peshawar]] and [[Talagang]] are the most widely understood of the dialects tested. The dialect of [[Balakot]] is the least widely understood.

== Bilingualism ==
In most Hindko-speaking areas, speakers of [[Pashto]] live in the same or neighbouring communities (although this is less true in Abbottabad and Kaghan Valley than elsewhere). In the mixed areas, many people speak both languages. The relationship between Hindko and Pushto speakers are one of the best if compared with major groups who live in other provinces of Pakistan.

==Notable Hindkowans==
* [[Pran Sikhand]], ''[[Padma Bhushan]]'', a multiple [[Filmfare Awards|filmfare awards]] and BFJA award winning Indian Bollywood actor<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/01/09/stories/2005010900450400.htm |title=Heroic villain: An informative and entertaining biography of a daredevil Pathan.|publisher=The Hindu|accessdate=2007-02-23|location=Chennai, India|date=2005-01-09}}</ref>
* [[Akhtar Abdur Rahman]], [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI) Chief
* [[Humayun Akhtar Khan]], politician in Pakistan
* [[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]], [[Pakistan Army]] General
* [[Dilip Kumar]]{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}, ''[[Nishan-e-Imtiaz]]'', an [[India]]n film actor in [[Bollywood]] and a member of the [[Rajya Sabha]]
* [[Kapoor family]] {{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

== See also ==
*[[Hazarewal]]
* [[Chhachi]]
*[[Gojri]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*[[Districts of Afghanistan#Faryab Province]] Andkoi, the real place of Migration from Afghanistan.
*[http://sitara.com/afghanistan/distances.html], Travel & tour information of Afghanistan .

[[Category:Hindkowan people]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Hindkowan tribes]]

[[simple:Hindkowan]]

Hindkowans

2013-02-11T11:52:37Z

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{{cleanup|date=August 2011}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group=Hindko people|image=
|image=<div style="margin-top:1px; margin-bottom:1px;"> [[File:Muhammed Ayub Khan.JPG|65px|Muhammed Ayub Khan]] [[Image:Dilip Kumar 2006.jpg|70px|Dilip Kumar]]</div><div style="white-space:nowrap;"><small>[[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]] • [[Dilip Kumar]]</small></div></div></div>
|poptime=
|popplace=Pakistan:<br>3,940,000<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hno Ethnologue: Languages of Pakistan]</ref><br>
India: 4,394<ref name="Census - Multani">[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm Abstract of speakers’ strength of languages and mother tongues – 2001], ''Census of India'' (retrieved 19 March 2008)</ref>
|langs=[[Hindko language|Hindko]] |religions=[[Islam]] (predominantly [[Sunni]]),<ref name="Ethnologue">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hnd|title = Hindko, Southern|publisher = [[SIL International]]|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> [[Christian]] minority estimated at 2%,<ref>[http://www.hindko.4t.com/ Hindko Home: Religious Division]</ref> and [[Hindu]] & [[Sikh]] minority of indeterminate size<ref>[http://www.junglee.org.in/pk.html Kapoor Family: Prithviraj Kapoor]</ref><ref>[http://www.himalmag.com/2007/january/elsewhere.htm Himal South Asian: Elsewhere]</ref>
|related=[[Hazarewal]], [[Punjabi people]], [[Seraiki people]], other neighboring [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan peoples]]}}

'''Hindkowans''' ([[Hindko language|Hindko]]: {{Nastaliq|هِندکوان}}) are an [[Indo-Aryan people|Indo-Aryan]] ethno-linguistic group native to the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa]] and [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] provinces of [[Pakistan]]. However, an indeterminate number have left the region and now live in other parts of [[South Asia]],<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India">{{cite web|url = http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_29-12-2003_pg7_25| title = Peshawarites still remember the Kapoor family|publisher = Daily Times |accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref> such as the Indian state of [[Jammu & Kashmir]] and Pakistani [[Azad Kashmir]]. Hindkowans mainly inhabit [[Peshawar]] and the [[Hazara, Pakistan|Hazara region]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Qadeer|first=Mohammad A.|title=Pakistan: Social and Cultural Transformations in a Muslim Nation|year=2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0415375665|pages=40}}</ref>

In the modern, most Hindkowans come from Pashtun clans, thus making them Pashtuns speaking a language of India or a dialect of Punjabi as their mother tongue, but not all hindkowans are come from Pashtun clans, examples would be Awans who are putatively Arab not Pashtun, Muslims of clans that are Jat/Rajput , as well as non-muslim Sikh and Hindu hindkowans, many that have emigrated out of the Afghan province after the partition of British India. The Pashai people are another ethnic group in which most people are now Pashtuns through the ancestrial definition.

.[1] However, Hindkowans speak [[Hindko]], a [[Lahnda language]],<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Lahnda">{{cite web|url = http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/KRO_LAP/LAHNDA_properly_Lahnda_or_Lahin.html| title = LAHNDA |publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> and is native to the northern regions of Pakistan primarily concentrated in the [[Hazara Pakistan|Hazara]] division, and urban centers of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] province of Pakistan such as [[Peshawar]], [[Kohat]], Nowshera and Swabi. It is for this reason that alternatively, the term "'''Kharian/Kharay or city-dweller'''" maybe sometimes be used for the Hindkowan.

== Origin ==
Hindkowans who are sometimes referred to as ''Punjabi Pathans''. While literally, the term Punjabi Pathan can only be more correctly used to refer to Afghan/Pashtoon/Pathan tribes settled in Punjab, for example the Niazis of Mianwali and speak Seraiki language and those living in Attock district of Punjab who speak Hindko language. Outside of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, the term "Pathan" may however, simply be used for anyone belonging to the area (whether they be Pashto, Hindko, Gujjari/Gojri, Turwali, Kohistani etc. speaking), since the people are perceived by others to share similar cultural traits such as the "pathanwalgi" among the Chach and Hazarawal considered analogous to pashtunwali.

H.A. Rose, author of ''Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier'' has defined Hindkowans or Hindkois as follows:
{{cquote|[[Hindki]], a generic term, half contemptuous, applied to all Muhammadans who being of [[Hindu]] origin speak [[Hindko]] and have been converted to [[Islam]] in comparatively recent times. In [[Bannu]] the term usually denotes an Awan or Jatt cultivator, but in a wider sense it includes all Muhammadans who speak Hindko language.<ref>A glossary of the tribes and castes of the Punjab and North-West provinces, compiled by H A Rose, vol II Page 333</ref>}}

Those who speak the Hindko Language are collectively called Hindkowan.
The NWFP Imperial Gazetteer of India (1905) regularly refers to their language as Hindko, which refers to the "Hindu Kush mountain range."<ref name="JSTOR-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0041-977X(1980)43:3%3C482:HIKAP%3E2.0.CO;2-M&cookieSet=1| title = Hindko in Kohat and Peshawar|publisher = Cambridge University Press|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref> According to the publication ''<u> Hindko and Gujari</u>'': {{Quote|"More than one interpretation has been offered for the term Hindko. Some associate it with [[Indian subcontinent|India]], others with [[Hindu]] people, and still others with the [[Indus River|Indus]]."<ref name="Calvin Ross Rensch, Clare F. O'Leary, Calinda E. Hallberg">{{Cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=4n91AAAAIAAJ&q=hindu+hindko&dq=hindu+hindko&cd=1|quote= More than one interpretation has been offered for the term Hindko. Some associate it with India, others with the
Indus.|title = Hindko and Gujari: Volume 3 of Sociolinguistic survey of northern Pakistan |publisher = National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref><ref name="OPF-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.opf.org.pk/almanac/L/languages.htm|title = Grierson Linguistic Survey of India|publisher = Overseas Pakistanis Foundation|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref>}}The term may well be the Persic reference meaning language spoken in Hindu Kush mountain since the words "Hind" and "koh" mean Indus/Indic mountains respectively in Persian. The term is also found in Greek references to the mountainous region in eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan as Καύκασος Ινδικός (Caucasus Indicus, or the [[Hindu Kush]]).

In Afghanistan, a group of Hindus still continue to speak Hindko and are referred to as [[Hindki]] which according to Grierson is a variant of the term Hindko.<ref name="jstor.org">http://www.jstor.org/pss/615737</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|url = http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/PAS_PER/HINDKI.html| title = Hindki|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hno| title = Ethnologue Report for Hindko|publisher = Ethnologue|accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref> However, in Pakistan the term is considered slightly pejorative and hence Hindkowan or Hindkun is preferred on par with the term Pashtun (the dominant and more numerous ethnic group in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province).<ref name="jstor.org"/>

Long before the [[partition of British India]], [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson]], in the ''Linguistic Survey of India'', employed the term Hindko to mean "the language of [[Hindus]]" (viii, 1:34).<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Lahnda"/> However, this is hotly disputed in Pakistan.<ref name="jstor.org"/> Farigh Bukhari and South Asian language expert and historian Christopher Shackle believe that Hindko was a generic term applied to the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] dialect continuum in the Pakistani northwest frontier territories and the adjacent district of [[Attock District|Attock]] in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]] province to differentiate it in function and form from [[Pashto]]. Linguists classify the language into the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]] group.

== Religion ==
Hindko people are mostly Muslims. The term "Hindko" itself is defined as the "language of the people of Hindu Kush Mountains."<ref name="Bhasha-e-Hanud">{{cite book|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=OvYtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80&dq=hindko+hindu&cd=6#v=onepage&q=hindko%20hindu&f=false|quote= Lahnda is also spoken in the north of the state of Bahawalpur and of the province of Sind, in which latter locality it is known as Siraiki. Its western boundary is, roughly speaking, the river Indus, across which the language of the Afghan population is Pashto (Pushtu), while the Hindu settlers still speak Landha. In the Derajat, however, Lahnda, is the principal language of all classes in the plains west of the river. Lahnda is also known as Western Panjabi and as Jatki, or the language of the Jats, who form the bulk of the population whose mother tongue it is. In the Derajat it is called Hindko or the language of the Hindus.| title = The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 16|publisher = The Encyclopædia Britannica Company|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> As such, there are a number of [[Hindu]] Hindkowans.<ref name="Ujjal Singh Bahri">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_yliAAAAMAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=6|quote= Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.| title = Papers in language and linguistics, Volume 1|publisher = Bahri Publications|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Language forum, Volume 9">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=ezw4AAAAIAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=4|quote= Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.|title = Language forum, Volume 9|publisher = Bahri Publications|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="M. Geijbels, Jonathan S. Addleton">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=MskbAAAAIAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=9|quote= to Hindko is the most significant linguistic minority in the NWFP, ... to an influx of Pashtuns replacing the Hindko-speaking Sikhs and Hindus who ...| title = The rise and development of Urdu and the importance of regional languages in Pakistan|publisher = Christian Study Centre|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="O. Harrassowitz">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=naMUAQAAIAAJ&q=sikh+hindko&dq=sikh+hindko&cd=4|quote= The real opposition to Pashto came, however, from the speakers of Hindko. A large number of Sikhs and Hindus, all speaking Hindko, lived in the cities of N.W.F.P. and had a voice in the legislative assembly, this was often perceived as the non-Muslim opposition to Pashto.|title=Journal of Asian history, Volumes 35-36|publisher = O. Harrassowitz|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Tariq Rahman">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=kjZiAAAAMAAJ&q=sikh+hindko&dq=sikh+hindko&cd=10|quote= The real opposition to Pashto came, however, from the speakers of Hindko. A large number of Sikhs and Hindus, all speaking Hindko, lived in the cities of N.W.F.P. and had a voice in the legislative assembly, this was often perceived as the non-Muslim opposition to Pashto.|title=Language, ideology and power: language learning among the Muslims of Pakistan and North India|publisher = Oxford University Press|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> Some of these Hindu Hindkowans are traders and over time, have settled in areas as far as [[Kalat, Pakistan|Kalat]], [[Balochistan]].<ref name="Robert Niel Pehrson, Fredrik Barth">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=K3pCAAAAYAAJ&q=kalat+hindko+hindu&dq=kalat+hindko+hindu&cd=1|quote= ...is in the hands of a small caste of Hindu merchants. These Hindus are Hindko-speaking and regard Kalat as their homeland, where they generally keep their families and go for some months every year to visit and to obtain supplies. While in the Marri area, they must be under the protection of a local Marri chief or the sardar himself.| title = The social organization of the Marri Baluch|publisher = Indus Publications |accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Robert Niel Pehrson, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Fredrik Barth">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=yuyZAAAAIAAJ&q=kalat+hindu+merchants+marri&dq=kalat+hindu+merchants+marri&cd=6|quote= ...is in the hands of a small caste of Hindu merchants. These Hindus are Hindko-speaking and regard Kalat as their homeland, where they generally keep their families and go for some months every year to visit and to obtain supplies. While in the Marri area, they must be under the protection of a local Marri chief or the sardar himself.| title = Viking fund publications in anthropology, Issue 43|publisher = Viking Fund|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> Other Hindu Hindkowans migrated to [[India]] from their native region of [[Sarhad]] after the [[partition of India]] in 1947.<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India"/> During the [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]], which took place from the 12th century A.D. onwards, many of the Hindkowans converted to [[Islam]]. Today, most of the Hindkowan population is [[Sunni]] [[Muslim]].<ref name="Ethnologue"/> Later, with the [[Sikhism#Growth_of_the_Sikh_community|spread of Sikhism]] and the rise of the [[Sikh Empire]] beginning in the eighteenth century A.D., some Hindkowans, both Hindu & Muslim, became [[Sikhs]].<ref name="Ujjal Singh Bahri"/><ref name="Language forum, Volume 9"/><ref name="M. Geijbels, Jonathan S. Addleton"/><ref name="O. Harrassowitz"/><ref name="Tariq Rahman"/> Like the Hindus, many Sikh Hindkowans migrated to Hindustan after the partition of India in 1947.<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India"/>

== Demographics ==
There are no fresh and authentic figures on the speakers of Hindko language. However, according to indirect method of household rate employed in the 4th Population Census of 1981, an estimated 2.4 per cent of the total population of Pakistan and estimated 22.8 per cent of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa speak Hindko as their mother language, with more rural than urban households reporting Hindko as their household language.No information was gathered on the Hindko language in the 5th Population Census carried out in 1998 as Hindko language column was removed from the census form much to the dismay of Hindko people.

The largest geographically contiguous group of Hindko people is concentrated in the districts of [[Peshawar]], [[Abbottabad District|Abbottabad]], Kohat, [[Attock District]], Nowshera, [[Haripur District|Haripur]], [[Mansehra District|Mansehra]] and [[Mardan]] of Pakistan

=== Tribal communities ===

People here tend to associate themselves with larger families instead of a language per se. The major tribes of [[Hazara people|Hazara]] include the [[Gujjar]], [[Awan]], [[Bib (tribe)|Bib]], [[Bomba (tribe)|Bomba]], Dhund Abbasi, [[Gakhars|Gakhar]], [[Karlal]], [[Mughals]], Ghaznavis, [[Maliar]], [[Paracha]]s, [[Sarrara]], [[Qazi]]s, [[Sayyid]]s, [[Mashwani]]s, [[Swati (tribe)|Swati]]s, [[Tanoli]]s, [[Dilazak]]s, [[Shilmani]]s, [[Jadoon]]s, [[Khattak]], [[Barakzai]], and [[Kakar]].<ref>Gazetteer of the Hazara district, 1907 / compiled and edited by H. D. Watson</ref> The Pashtun tribes who settled in Districts like Abbotabad, Haripur and Mansehra, [[Peshawar]] and [[Kohat]] adopted Hindko as their first language and gained political power in these areas during the British rule. {{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}. The Hindko people living in major cities [[Peshawar]], [[Kohat]], [[Nowshera, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa|Nowshera]] and [[chhachh]] area of [[Attock]] are bilingual in [[Pashto]] and [[Hindko]]. Similarly many Pashtoon in districts like Mansehra especially in Agror Valley and northern Tanawal (Shergarh), have become bilingual in Pashto and Hindko.<ref>http://www.pakhazara.com/languages.html</ref>

== Prominent writers ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2010}}There are many Hinko writers, among them [[Aurangzeb Hussamhur]]
Syed Mehboob,Aurangzeb Ghaznavi. Riffat Swati from [[Mansehrah]] is called [[madre]] hindko for her promotion of Hindko language.
A monthly [[farogh]] is published from Peshawar by Aurangzeb Ghaznavi. Dr. Syed Mehboob is working for the promotion of Hindko language in Karachi and Sindh. His many articles has been published in various newspapers including Farogh Peshawar.

==Hindko poets==
Some of the prominent Hindko poets/writers are:
* Professor Dr Elahi Bakhsh Awan,
* Haider Zaman Haider,
* Sultan Sakoon
* Sabir Hussain Imdaad,
* Sheen Shaukat
* Zaffar Iqbal Athar
* Mohammad Ziauddin
* Ahmad Nadeem Awan
* Sikandar Hayat Sikandar
* Mr. Asif Saqib,
* Afzal Chishti
* Raza Hamadani
* Bushra Farukh
* Qudsia Qudsi
* Hassam Hurr
* Hilal Jamid
* Iftikhar Tashna
* Aslam Taraq
* Khawaja Yaqoob Akhtar
* Maqbool Ejaz Ejazi
* Malak Arshad Hussain
* Masoom Shah Masoom
* Sabeeh Ahed
* Rani Bano
* Sadaq Saba
* Saeed Gilani
* Zaffar Naveed Jani
* Prof. Sufi Abdur Rasheed,
* Col. Fazal-e-Akbar Kamal,
* Mr. Sultan Sakoon,
* Mr. Sharif Hussain Shah,
* Prof. Muhammad Farid,
* Prof. Yahya Khalid,
* Mr. Nazir Kasalvi,
* Muhammad Hanif,
* Ahmad Ali {Khayali}
* Shoaib shahid
* Prof. Bashir Sooz
* Muhammad Hanif
* [[Ahmad Hussain Mujahid]]
*Mohammed Khan (NCSU)

== Distribution ==
The speakers of Hindko live primarily in seven districts in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa: [[Mansehra District|Mansehra]], [[Swabi District|Swabi]], [[Abbottabad District|Abbottabad]], [[Haripur District|Haripur]], [[Peshawar District|Peshawar]], [[Nowshera District|Nowshera]] and [[Kohat District|Kohat]] in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, as well as the [[Attock District|Attock]] and [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]] districts in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] and parts of [[Kashmir region|Kashmir]]; Jonathan Addleton states that [[Hindko]] is the most significant linguistic minority in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, represented in nearly one-fifth of the province's total households." In [[Abbottabad District|Abbotabad]], 98 per cent of households reported speaking Hindko, in [[Mansehra District]] 77 per cent, in [[Haripur District]] around 85 per cent, in [[Peshawar District]] 35 per cent, and in [[Kohat District]] 40 per cent (1986).{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Testing of inherent [[intelligibility]] among Hindko dialects through the use of recorded tests has shown that there is a northern (Hazara) dialect group and a southern group. The southern dialects are more widely understood throughout the dialect network than are the northern dialects. The dialects of rural [[Peshawar]] and [[Talagang]] are the most widely understood of the dialects tested. The dialect of [[Balakot]] is the least widely understood.

== Bilingualism ==
In most Hindko-speaking areas, speakers of [[Pashto]] live in the same or neighbouring communities (although this is less true in Abbottabad and Kaghan Valley than elsewhere). In the mixed areas, many people speak both languages. The relationship between Hindko and Pushto speakers are one of the best if compared with major groups who live in other provinces of Pakistan.

==Notable Hindkowans==
* [[Pran Sikhand]], ''[[Padma Bhushan]]'', a multiple [[Filmfare Awards|filmfare awards]] and BFJA award winning Indian Bollywood actor<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/01/09/stories/2005010900450400.htm |title=Heroic villain: An informative and entertaining biography of a daredevil Pathan.|publisher=The Hindu|accessdate=2007-02-23|location=Chennai, India|date=2005-01-09}}</ref>
* [[Akhtar Abdur Rahman]], [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI) Chief
* [[Humayun Akhtar Khan]], politician in Pakistan
* [[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]], [[Pakistan Army]] General
* [[Dilip Kumar]]{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}, ''[[Nishan-e-Imtiaz]]'', an [[India]]n film actor in [[Bollywood]] and a member of the [[Rajya Sabha]]
* [[Kapoor family]] {{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

== See also ==
*[[Hazarewal]]
* [[Chhachi]]
*[[Gojri]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*[[Districts of Afghanistan#Faryab Province]] Andkoi, the real place of Migration from Afghanistan.
*[http://sitara.com/afghanistan/distances.html], Travel & tour information of Afghanistan .

[[Category:Hindkowan people]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Hindkowan tribes]]

[[simple:Hindkowan]]

Hindkowans

2013-02-11T11:51:59Z

108.173.174.134:

{{cleanup|date=August 2011}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group=Hindko people|image=
|image=<div style="margin-top:1px; margin-bottom:1px;"> [[File:Muhammed Ayub Khan.JPG|65px|Muhammed Ayub Khan]] [[Image:Dilip Kumar 2006.jpg|70px|Dilip Kumar]]</div><div style="white-space:nowrap;"><small>[[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]] • [[Dilip Kumar]]</small></div></div></div>
|poptime=
|popplace=Pakistan:<br>3,940,000<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hno Ethnologue: Languages of Pakistan]</ref><br>
India: 4,394<ref name="Census - Multani">[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm Abstract of speakers’ strength of languages and mother tongues – 2001], ''Census of India'' (retrieved 19 March 2008)</ref>
|langs=[[Hindko language|Hindko]] |religions=[[Islam]] (predominantly [[Sunni]]),<ref name="Ethnologue">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hnd|title = Hindko, Southern|publisher = [[SIL International]]|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> [[Christian]] minority estimated at 2%,<ref>[http://www.hindko.4t.com/ Hindko Home: Religious Division]</ref> and [[Hindu]] & [[Sikh]] minority of indeterminate size<ref>[http://www.junglee.org.in/pk.html Kapoor Family: Prithviraj Kapoor]</ref><ref>[http://www.himalmag.com/2007/january/elsewhere.htm Himal South Asian: Elsewhere]</ref>
|related=[[Hazarewal]], [[Punjabi people]], [[Seraiki people]], other neighboring [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan peoples]]}}

'''Hindkowans''' ([[Hindko language|Hindko]]: {{Nastaliq|هِندکوان}}) are an [[Indo-Aryan people|Indo-Aryan]] ethno-linguistic group native to the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa]] and [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] provinces of [[Pakistan]]. However, an indeterminate number have left the region and now live in other parts of [[South Asia]],<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India">{{cite web|url = http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_29-12-2003_pg7_25| title = Peshawarites still remember the Kapoor family|publisher = Daily Times |accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref> such as the Indian state of [[Jammu & Kashmir]] and Pakistani [[Azad Kashmir]]. Hindkowans mainly inhabit [[Peshawar]] and the [[Hazara, Pakistan|Hazara region]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Qadeer|first=Mohammad A.|title=Pakistan: Social and Cultural Transformations in a Muslim Nation|year=2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0415375665|pages=40}}</ref>

In the modern, most Hindkowans come from Pashtun clans, thus making them Pashtuns speaking a language of India or a dialect of Punjabi as their mother tongue, but not all hindkowans are come from Pashtun clans, examples would be Awans who are putatively Arab not Pashtun, Muslims of clans that are Jat/Rajput , as well as non-muslim Sikh and Hindu hindkowans that have emigrated out of the Afghan province after the partition of British India. The Pashai people are another ethnic group in which most people are now Pashtuns through the ancestrial definition.

.[1] However, Hindkowans speak [[Hindko]], a [[Lahnda language]],<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Lahnda">{{cite web|url = http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/KRO_LAP/LAHNDA_properly_Lahnda_or_Lahin.html| title = LAHNDA |publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> and is native to the northern regions of Pakistan primarily concentrated in the [[Hazara Pakistan|Hazara]] division, and urban centers of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] province of Pakistan such as [[Peshawar]], [[Kohat]], Nowshera and Swabi. It is for this reason that alternatively, the term "'''Kharian/Kharay or city-dweller'''" maybe sometimes be used for the Hindkowan.

== Origin ==
Hindkowans who are sometimes referred to as ''Punjabi Pathans''. While literally, the term Punjabi Pathan can only be more correctly used to refer to Afghan/Pashtoon/Pathan tribes settled in Punjab, for example the Niazis of Mianwali and speak Seraiki language and those living in Attock district of Punjab who speak Hindko language. Outside of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, the term "Pathan" may however, simply be used for anyone belonging to the area (whether they be Pashto, Hindko, Gujjari/Gojri, Turwali, Kohistani etc. speaking), since the people are perceived by others to share similar cultural traits such as the "pathanwalgi" among the Chach and Hazarawal considered analogous to pashtunwali.

H.A. Rose, author of ''Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier'' has defined Hindkowans or Hindkois as follows:
{{cquote|[[Hindki]], a generic term, half contemptuous, applied to all Muhammadans who being of [[Hindu]] origin speak [[Hindko]] and have been converted to [[Islam]] in comparatively recent times. In [[Bannu]] the term usually denotes an Awan or Jatt cultivator, but in a wider sense it includes all Muhammadans who speak Hindko language.<ref>A glossary of the tribes and castes of the Punjab and North-West provinces, compiled by H A Rose, vol II Page 333</ref>}}

Those who speak the Hindko Language are collectively called Hindkowan.
The NWFP Imperial Gazetteer of India (1905) regularly refers to their language as Hindko, which refers to the "Hindu Kush mountain range."<ref name="JSTOR-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0041-977X(1980)43:3%3C482:HIKAP%3E2.0.CO;2-M&cookieSet=1| title = Hindko in Kohat and Peshawar|publisher = Cambridge University Press|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref> According to the publication ''<u> Hindko and Gujari</u>'': {{Quote|"More than one interpretation has been offered for the term Hindko. Some associate it with [[Indian subcontinent|India]], others with [[Hindu]] people, and still others with the [[Indus River|Indus]]."<ref name="Calvin Ross Rensch, Clare F. O'Leary, Calinda E. Hallberg">{{Cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=4n91AAAAIAAJ&q=hindu+hindko&dq=hindu+hindko&cd=1|quote= More than one interpretation has been offered for the term Hindko. Some associate it with India, others with the
Indus.|title = Hindko and Gujari: Volume 3 of Sociolinguistic survey of northern Pakistan |publisher = National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref><ref name="OPF-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.opf.org.pk/almanac/L/languages.htm|title = Grierson Linguistic Survey of India|publisher = Overseas Pakistanis Foundation|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref>}}The term may well be the Persic reference meaning language spoken in Hindu Kush mountain since the words "Hind" and "koh" mean Indus/Indic mountains respectively in Persian. The term is also found in Greek references to the mountainous region in eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan as Καύκασος Ινδικός (Caucasus Indicus, or the [[Hindu Kush]]).

In Afghanistan, a group of Hindus still continue to speak Hindko and are referred to as [[Hindki]] which according to Grierson is a variant of the term Hindko.<ref name="jstor.org">http://www.jstor.org/pss/615737</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|url = http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/PAS_PER/HINDKI.html| title = Hindki|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hno| title = Ethnologue Report for Hindko|publisher = Ethnologue|accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref> However, in Pakistan the term is considered slightly pejorative and hence Hindkowan or Hindkun is preferred on par with the term Pashtun (the dominant and more numerous ethnic group in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province).<ref name="jstor.org"/>

Long before the [[partition of British India]], [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson]], in the ''Linguistic Survey of India'', employed the term Hindko to mean "the language of [[Hindus]]" (viii, 1:34).<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Lahnda"/> However, this is hotly disputed in Pakistan.<ref name="jstor.org"/> Farigh Bukhari and South Asian language expert and historian Christopher Shackle believe that Hindko was a generic term applied to the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] dialect continuum in the Pakistani northwest frontier territories and the adjacent district of [[Attock District|Attock]] in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]] province to differentiate it in function and form from [[Pashto]]. Linguists classify the language into the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]] group.

== Religion ==
Hindko people are mostly Muslims. The term "Hindko" itself is defined as the "language of the people of Hindu Kush Mountains."<ref name="Bhasha-e-Hanud">{{cite book|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=OvYtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80&dq=hindko+hindu&cd=6#v=onepage&q=hindko%20hindu&f=false|quote= Lahnda is also spoken in the north of the state of Bahawalpur and of the province of Sind, in which latter locality it is known as Siraiki. Its western boundary is, roughly speaking, the river Indus, across which the language of the Afghan population is Pashto (Pushtu), while the Hindu settlers still speak Landha. In the Derajat, however, Lahnda, is the principal language of all classes in the plains west of the river. Lahnda is also known as Western Panjabi and as Jatki, or the language of the Jats, who form the bulk of the population whose mother tongue it is. In the Derajat it is called Hindko or the language of the Hindus.| title = The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 16|publisher = The Encyclopædia Britannica Company|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> As such, there are a number of [[Hindu]] Hindkowans.<ref name="Ujjal Singh Bahri">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_yliAAAAMAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=6|quote= Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.| title = Papers in language and linguistics, Volume 1|publisher = Bahri Publications|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Language forum, Volume 9">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=ezw4AAAAIAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=4|quote= Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.|title = Language forum, Volume 9|publisher = Bahri Publications|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="M. Geijbels, Jonathan S. Addleton">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=MskbAAAAIAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=9|quote= to Hindko is the most significant linguistic minority in the NWFP, ... to an influx of Pashtuns replacing the Hindko-speaking Sikhs and Hindus who ...| title = The rise and development of Urdu and the importance of regional languages in Pakistan|publisher = Christian Study Centre|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="O. Harrassowitz">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=naMUAQAAIAAJ&q=sikh+hindko&dq=sikh+hindko&cd=4|quote= The real opposition to Pashto came, however, from the speakers of Hindko. A large number of Sikhs and Hindus, all speaking Hindko, lived in the cities of N.W.F.P. and had a voice in the legislative assembly, this was often perceived as the non-Muslim opposition to Pashto.|title=Journal of Asian history, Volumes 35-36|publisher = O. Harrassowitz|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Tariq Rahman">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=kjZiAAAAMAAJ&q=sikh+hindko&dq=sikh+hindko&cd=10|quote= The real opposition to Pashto came, however, from the speakers of Hindko. A large number of Sikhs and Hindus, all speaking Hindko, lived in the cities of N.W.F.P. and had a voice in the legislative assembly, this was often perceived as the non-Muslim opposition to Pashto.|title=Language, ideology and power: language learning among the Muslims of Pakistan and North India|publisher = Oxford University Press|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> Some of these Hindu Hindkowans are traders and over time, have settled in areas as far as [[Kalat, Pakistan|Kalat]], [[Balochistan]].<ref name="Robert Niel Pehrson, Fredrik Barth">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=K3pCAAAAYAAJ&q=kalat+hindko+hindu&dq=kalat+hindko+hindu&cd=1|quote= ...is in the hands of a small caste of Hindu merchants. These Hindus are Hindko-speaking and regard Kalat as their homeland, where they generally keep their families and go for some months every year to visit and to obtain supplies. While in the Marri area, they must be under the protection of a local Marri chief or the sardar himself.| title = The social organization of the Marri Baluch|publisher = Indus Publications |accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Robert Niel Pehrson, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Fredrik Barth">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=yuyZAAAAIAAJ&q=kalat+hindu+merchants+marri&dq=kalat+hindu+merchants+marri&cd=6|quote= ...is in the hands of a small caste of Hindu merchants. These Hindus are Hindko-speaking and regard Kalat as their homeland, where they generally keep their families and go for some months every year to visit and to obtain supplies. While in the Marri area, they must be under the protection of a local Marri chief or the sardar himself.| title = Viking fund publications in anthropology, Issue 43|publisher = Viking Fund|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> Other Hindu Hindkowans migrated to [[India]] from their native region of [[Sarhad]] after the [[partition of India]] in 1947.<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India"/> During the [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]], which took place from the 12th century A.D. onwards, many of the Hindkowans converted to [[Islam]]. Today, most of the Hindkowan population is [[Sunni]] [[Muslim]].<ref name="Ethnologue"/> Later, with the [[Sikhism#Growth_of_the_Sikh_community|spread of Sikhism]] and the rise of the [[Sikh Empire]] beginning in the eighteenth century A.D., some Hindkowans, both Hindu & Muslim, became [[Sikhs]].<ref name="Ujjal Singh Bahri"/><ref name="Language forum, Volume 9"/><ref name="M. Geijbels, Jonathan S. Addleton"/><ref name="O. Harrassowitz"/><ref name="Tariq Rahman"/> Like the Hindus, many Sikh Hindkowans migrated to Hindustan after the partition of India in 1947.<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India"/>

== Demographics ==
There are no fresh and authentic figures on the speakers of Hindko language. However, according to indirect method of household rate employed in the 4th Population Census of 1981, an estimated 2.4 per cent of the total population of Pakistan and estimated 22.8 per cent of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa speak Hindko as their mother language, with more rural than urban households reporting Hindko as their household language.No information was gathered on the Hindko language in the 5th Population Census carried out in 1998 as Hindko language column was removed from the census form much to the dismay of Hindko people.

The largest geographically contiguous group of Hindko people is concentrated in the districts of [[Peshawar]], [[Abbottabad District|Abbottabad]], Kohat, [[Attock District]], Nowshera, [[Haripur District|Haripur]], [[Mansehra District|Mansehra]] and [[Mardan]] of Pakistan

=== Tribal communities ===

People here tend to associate themselves with larger families instead of a language per se. The major tribes of [[Hazara people|Hazara]] include the [[Gujjar]], [[Awan]], [[Bib (tribe)|Bib]], [[Bomba (tribe)|Bomba]], Dhund Abbasi, [[Gakhars|Gakhar]], [[Karlal]], [[Mughals]], Ghaznavis, [[Maliar]], [[Paracha]]s, [[Sarrara]], [[Qazi]]s, [[Sayyid]]s, [[Mashwani]]s, [[Swati (tribe)|Swati]]s, [[Tanoli]]s, [[Dilazak]]s, [[Shilmani]]s, [[Jadoon]]s, [[Khattak]], [[Barakzai]], and [[Kakar]].<ref>Gazetteer of the Hazara district, 1907 / compiled and edited by H. D. Watson</ref> The Pashtun tribes who settled in Districts like Abbotabad, Haripur and Mansehra, [[Peshawar]] and [[Kohat]] adopted Hindko as their first language and gained political power in these areas during the British rule. {{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}. The Hindko people living in major cities [[Peshawar]], [[Kohat]], [[Nowshera, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa|Nowshera]] and [[chhachh]] area of [[Attock]] are bilingual in [[Pashto]] and [[Hindko]]. Similarly many Pashtoon in districts like Mansehra especially in Agror Valley and northern Tanawal (Shergarh), have become bilingual in Pashto and Hindko.<ref>http://www.pakhazara.com/languages.html</ref>

== Prominent writers ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2010}}There are many Hinko writers, among them [[Aurangzeb Hussamhur]]
Syed Mehboob,Aurangzeb Ghaznavi. Riffat Swati from [[Mansehrah]] is called [[madre]] hindko for her promotion of Hindko language.
A monthly [[farogh]] is published from Peshawar by Aurangzeb Ghaznavi. Dr. Syed Mehboob is working for the promotion of Hindko language in Karachi and Sindh. His many articles has been published in various newspapers including Farogh Peshawar.

==Hindko poets==
Some of the prominent Hindko poets/writers are:
* Professor Dr Elahi Bakhsh Awan,
* Haider Zaman Haider,
* Sultan Sakoon
* Sabir Hussain Imdaad,
* Sheen Shaukat
* Zaffar Iqbal Athar
* Mohammad Ziauddin
* Ahmad Nadeem Awan
* Sikandar Hayat Sikandar
* Mr. Asif Saqib,
* Afzal Chishti
* Raza Hamadani
* Bushra Farukh
* Qudsia Qudsi
* Hassam Hurr
* Hilal Jamid
* Iftikhar Tashna
* Aslam Taraq
* Khawaja Yaqoob Akhtar
* Maqbool Ejaz Ejazi
* Malak Arshad Hussain
* Masoom Shah Masoom
* Sabeeh Ahed
* Rani Bano
* Sadaq Saba
* Saeed Gilani
* Zaffar Naveed Jani
* Prof. Sufi Abdur Rasheed,
* Col. Fazal-e-Akbar Kamal,
* Mr. Sultan Sakoon,
* Mr. Sharif Hussain Shah,
* Prof. Muhammad Farid,
* Prof. Yahya Khalid,
* Mr. Nazir Kasalvi,
* Muhammad Hanif,
* Ahmad Ali {Khayali}
* Shoaib shahid
* Prof. Bashir Sooz
* Muhammad Hanif
* [[Ahmad Hussain Mujahid]]
*Mohammed Khan (NCSU)

== Distribution ==
The speakers of Hindko live primarily in seven districts in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa: [[Mansehra District|Mansehra]], [[Swabi District|Swabi]], [[Abbottabad District|Abbottabad]], [[Haripur District|Haripur]], [[Peshawar District|Peshawar]], [[Nowshera District|Nowshera]] and [[Kohat District|Kohat]] in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, as well as the [[Attock District|Attock]] and [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]] districts in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] and parts of [[Kashmir region|Kashmir]]; Jonathan Addleton states that [[Hindko]] is the most significant linguistic minority in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, represented in nearly one-fifth of the province's total households." In [[Abbottabad District|Abbotabad]], 98 per cent of households reported speaking Hindko, in [[Mansehra District]] 77 per cent, in [[Haripur District]] around 85 per cent, in [[Peshawar District]] 35 per cent, and in [[Kohat District]] 40 per cent (1986).{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Testing of inherent [[intelligibility]] among Hindko dialects through the use of recorded tests has shown that there is a northern (Hazara) dialect group and a southern group. The southern dialects are more widely understood throughout the dialect network than are the northern dialects. The dialects of rural [[Peshawar]] and [[Talagang]] are the most widely understood of the dialects tested. The dialect of [[Balakot]] is the least widely understood.

== Bilingualism ==
In most Hindko-speaking areas, speakers of [[Pashto]] live in the same or neighbouring communities (although this is less true in Abbottabad and Kaghan Valley than elsewhere). In the mixed areas, many people speak both languages. The relationship between Hindko and Pushto speakers are one of the best if compared with major groups who live in other provinces of Pakistan.

==Notable Hindkowans==
* [[Pran Sikhand]], ''[[Padma Bhushan]]'', a multiple [[Filmfare Awards|filmfare awards]] and BFJA award winning Indian Bollywood actor<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/01/09/stories/2005010900450400.htm |title=Heroic villain: An informative and entertaining biography of a daredevil Pathan.|publisher=The Hindu|accessdate=2007-02-23|location=Chennai, India|date=2005-01-09}}</ref>
* [[Akhtar Abdur Rahman]], [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI) Chief
* [[Humayun Akhtar Khan]], politician in Pakistan
* [[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]], [[Pakistan Army]] General
* [[Dilip Kumar]]{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}, ''[[Nishan-e-Imtiaz]]'', an [[India]]n film actor in [[Bollywood]] and a member of the [[Rajya Sabha]]
* [[Kapoor family]] {{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

== See also ==
*[[Hazarewal]]
* [[Chhachi]]
*[[Gojri]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*[[Districts of Afghanistan#Faryab Province]] Andkoi, the real place of Migration from Afghanistan.
*[http://sitara.com/afghanistan/distances.html], Travel & tour information of Afghanistan .

[[Category:Hindkowan people]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Hindkowan tribes]]

[[simple:Hindkowan]]

Hindkowans

2013-02-11T11:42:37Z

108.173.174.134:

{{cleanup|date=August 2011}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group=Hindko people|image=
|image=<div style="margin-top:1px; margin-bottom:1px;"> [[File:Muhammed Ayub Khan.JPG|65px|Muhammed Ayub Khan]] [[Image:Dilip Kumar 2006.jpg|70px|Dilip Kumar]]</div><div style="white-space:nowrap;"><small>[[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]] • [[Dilip Kumar]]</small></div></div></div>
|poptime=
|popplace=Pakistan:<br>3,940,000<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hno Ethnologue: Languages of Pakistan]</ref><br>
India: 4,394<ref name="Census - Multani">[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm Abstract of speakers’ strength of languages and mother tongues – 2001], ''Census of India'' (retrieved 19 March 2008)</ref>
|langs=[[Hindko language|Hindko]] |religions=[[Islam]] (predominantly [[Sunni]]),<ref name="Ethnologue">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hnd|title = Hindko, Southern|publisher = [[SIL International]]|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> [[Christian]] minority estimated at 2%,<ref>[http://www.hindko.4t.com/ Hindko Home: Religious Division]</ref> and [[Hindu]] & [[Sikh]] minority of indeterminate size<ref>[http://www.junglee.org.in/pk.html Kapoor Family: Prithviraj Kapoor]</ref><ref>[http://www.himalmag.com/2007/january/elsewhere.htm Himal South Asian: Elsewhere]</ref>
|related=[[Hazarewal]], [[Punjabi people]], [[Seraiki people]], other neighboring [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan peoples]]}}

'''Hindkowans''' ([[Hindko language|Hindko]]: {{Nastaliq|هِندکوان}}) are an [[Indo-Aryan people|Indo-Aryan]] ethno-linguistic group native to the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa]] and [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] provinces of [[Pakistan]]. However, an indeterminate number have left the region and now live in other parts of [[South Asia]],<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India">{{cite web|url = http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_29-12-2003_pg7_25| title = Peshawarites still remember the Kapoor family|publisher = Daily Times |accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref> such as the Indian state of [[Jammu & Kashmir]] and Pakistani [[Azad Kashmir]]. Hindkowans mainly inhabit [[Peshawar]] and the [[Hazara, Pakistan|Hazara region]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Qadeer|first=Mohammad A.|title=Pakistan: Social and Cultural Transformations in a Muslim Nation|year=2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0415375665|pages=40}}</ref>

In the modern, most Hindkowans come from Pashtun clans, thus making them Pashtuns speaking a language of India or a dialect of Punjabi as their mother tongue, but not all hindkowans are come from Pashtun clans. The Pashai people are another ethnic group in which most people are now Pashtuns through the ancestrial definition.

.[1] However, Hindkowans speak [[Hindko]], a [[Lahnda language]],<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Lahnda">{{cite web|url = http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/KRO_LAP/LAHNDA_properly_Lahnda_or_Lahin.html| title = LAHNDA |publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> and is native to the northern regions of Pakistan primarily concentrated in the [[Hazara Pakistan|Hazara]] division, and urban centers of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] province of Pakistan such as [[Peshawar]], [[Kohat]], Nowshera and Swabi. It is for this reason that alternatively, the term "'''Kharian/Kharay or city-dweller'''" maybe sometimes be used for the Hindkowan.

== Origin ==
Hindkowans who are sometimes referred to as ''Punjabi Pathans''. While literally, the term Punjabi Pathan can only be more correctly used to refer to Afghan/Pashtoon/Pathan tribes settled in Punjab, for example the Niazis of Mianwali and speak Seraiki language and those living in Attock district of Punjab who speak Hindko language. Outside of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, the term "Pathan" may however, simply be used for anyone belonging to the area (whether they be Pashto, Hindko, Gujjari/Gojri, Turwali, Kohistani etc. speaking), since the people are perceived by others to share similar cultural traits such as the "pathanwalgi" among the Chach and Hazarawal considered analogous to pashtunwali.

H.A. Rose, author of ''Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier'' has defined Hindkowans or Hindkois as follows:
{{cquote|[[Hindki]], a generic term, half contemptuous, applied to all Muhammadans who being of [[Hindu]] origin speak [[Hindko]] and have been converted to [[Islam]] in comparatively recent times. In [[Bannu]] the term usually denotes an Awan or Jatt cultivator, but in a wider sense it includes all Muhammadans who speak Hindko language.<ref>A glossary of the tribes and castes of the Punjab and North-West provinces, compiled by H A Rose, vol II Page 333</ref>}}

Those who speak the Hindko Language are collectively called Hindkowan.
The NWFP Imperial Gazetteer of India (1905) regularly refers to their language as Hindko, which refers to the "Hindu Kush mountain range."<ref name="JSTOR-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0041-977X(1980)43:3%3C482:HIKAP%3E2.0.CO;2-M&cookieSet=1| title = Hindko in Kohat and Peshawar|publisher = Cambridge University Press|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref> According to the publication ''<u> Hindko and Gujari</u>'': {{Quote|"More than one interpretation has been offered for the term Hindko. Some associate it with [[Indian subcontinent|India]], others with [[Hindu]] people, and still others with the [[Indus River|Indus]]."<ref name="Calvin Ross Rensch, Clare F. O'Leary, Calinda E. Hallberg">{{Cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=4n91AAAAIAAJ&q=hindu+hindko&dq=hindu+hindko&cd=1|quote= More than one interpretation has been offered for the term Hindko. Some associate it with India, others with the
Indus.|title = Hindko and Gujari: Volume 3 of Sociolinguistic survey of northern Pakistan |publisher = National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref><ref name="OPF-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.opf.org.pk/almanac/L/languages.htm|title = Grierson Linguistic Survey of India|publisher = Overseas Pakistanis Foundation|accessdate = 2007-09-09}}</ref>}}The term may well be the Persic reference meaning language spoken in Hindu Kush mountain since the words "Hind" and "koh" mean Indus/Indic mountains respectively in Persian. The term is also found in Greek references to the mountainous region in eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan as Καύκασος Ινδικός (Caucasus Indicus, or the [[Hindu Kush]]).

In Afghanistan, a group of Hindus still continue to speak Hindko and are referred to as [[Hindki]] which according to Grierson is a variant of the term Hindko.<ref name="jstor.org">http://www.jstor.org/pss/615737</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|url = http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/PAS_PER/HINDKI.html| title = Hindki|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue-Hindko">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hno| title = Ethnologue Report for Hindko|publisher = Ethnologue|accessdate = 2007-09-14}}</ref> However, in Pakistan the term is considered slightly pejorative and hence Hindkowan or Hindkun is preferred on par with the term Pashtun (the dominant and more numerous ethnic group in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province).<ref name="jstor.org"/>

Long before the [[partition of British India]], [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson]], in the ''Linguistic Survey of India'', employed the term Hindko to mean "the language of [[Hindus]]" (viii, 1:34).<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Lahnda"/> However, this is hotly disputed in Pakistan.<ref name="jstor.org"/> Farigh Bukhari and South Asian language expert and historian Christopher Shackle believe that Hindko was a generic term applied to the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] dialect continuum in the Pakistani northwest frontier territories and the adjacent district of [[Attock District|Attock]] in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]] province to differentiate it in function and form from [[Pashto]]. Linguists classify the language into the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]] group.

== Religion ==
Hindko people are mostly Muslims. The term "Hindko" itself is defined as the "language of the people of Hindu Kush Mountains."<ref name="Bhasha-e-Hanud">{{cite book|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=OvYtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80&dq=hindko+hindu&cd=6#v=onepage&q=hindko%20hindu&f=false|quote= Lahnda is also spoken in the north of the state of Bahawalpur and of the province of Sind, in which latter locality it is known as Siraiki. Its western boundary is, roughly speaking, the river Indus, across which the language of the Afghan population is Pashto (Pushtu), while the Hindu settlers still speak Landha. In the Derajat, however, Lahnda, is the principal language of all classes in the plains west of the river. Lahnda is also known as Western Panjabi and as Jatki, or the language of the Jats, who form the bulk of the population whose mother tongue it is. In the Derajat it is called Hindko or the language of the Hindus.| title = The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 16|publisher = The Encyclopædia Britannica Company|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> As such, there are a number of [[Hindu]] Hindkowans.<ref name="Ujjal Singh Bahri">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_yliAAAAMAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=6|quote= Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.| title = Papers in language and linguistics, Volume 1|publisher = Bahri Publications|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Language forum, Volume 9">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=ezw4AAAAIAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=4|quote= Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.|title = Language forum, Volume 9|publisher = Bahri Publications|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="M. Geijbels, Jonathan S. Addleton">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=MskbAAAAIAAJ&q=hindko+hindus&dq=hindko+hindus&cd=9|quote= to Hindko is the most significant linguistic minority in the NWFP, ... to an influx of Pashtuns replacing the Hindko-speaking Sikhs and Hindus who ...| title = The rise and development of Urdu and the importance of regional languages in Pakistan|publisher = Christian Study Centre|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="O. Harrassowitz">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=naMUAQAAIAAJ&q=sikh+hindko&dq=sikh+hindko&cd=4|quote= The real opposition to Pashto came, however, from the speakers of Hindko. A large number of Sikhs and Hindus, all speaking Hindko, lived in the cities of N.W.F.P. and had a voice in the legislative assembly, this was often perceived as the non-Muslim opposition to Pashto.|title=Journal of Asian history, Volumes 35-36|publisher = O. Harrassowitz|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Tariq Rahman">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=kjZiAAAAMAAJ&q=sikh+hindko&dq=sikh+hindko&cd=10|quote= The real opposition to Pashto came, however, from the speakers of Hindko. A large number of Sikhs and Hindus, all speaking Hindko, lived in the cities of N.W.F.P. and had a voice in the legislative assembly, this was often perceived as the non-Muslim opposition to Pashto.|title=Language, ideology and power: language learning among the Muslims of Pakistan and North India|publisher = Oxford University Press|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> Some of these Hindu Hindkowans are traders and over time, have settled in areas as far as [[Kalat, Pakistan|Kalat]], [[Balochistan]].<ref name="Robert Niel Pehrson, Fredrik Barth">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=K3pCAAAAYAAJ&q=kalat+hindko+hindu&dq=kalat+hindko+hindu&cd=1|quote= ...is in the hands of a small caste of Hindu merchants. These Hindus are Hindko-speaking and regard Kalat as their homeland, where they generally keep their families and go for some months every year to visit and to obtain supplies. While in the Marri area, they must be under the protection of a local Marri chief or the sardar himself.| title = The social organization of the Marri Baluch|publisher = Indus Publications |accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref><ref name="Robert Niel Pehrson, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Fredrik Barth">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=yuyZAAAAIAAJ&q=kalat+hindu+merchants+marri&dq=kalat+hindu+merchants+marri&cd=6|quote= ...is in the hands of a small caste of Hindu merchants. These Hindus are Hindko-speaking and regard Kalat as their homeland, where they generally keep their families and go for some months every year to visit and to obtain supplies. While in the Marri area, they must be under the protection of a local Marri chief or the sardar himself.| title = Viking fund publications in anthropology, Issue 43|publisher = Viking Fund|accessdate = 2008-08-17}}</ref> Other Hindu Hindkowans migrated to [[India]] from their native region of [[Sarhad]] after the [[partition of India]] in 1947.<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India"/> During the [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]], which took place from the 12th century A.D. onwards, many of the Hindkowans converted to [[Islam]]. Today, most of the Hindkowan population is [[Sunni]] [[Muslim]].<ref name="Ethnologue"/> Later, with the [[Sikhism#Growth_of_the_Sikh_community|spread of Sikhism]] and the rise of the [[Sikh Empire]] beginning in the eighteenth century A.D., some Hindkowans, both Hindu & Muslim, became [[Sikhs]].<ref name="Ujjal Singh Bahri"/><ref name="Language forum, Volume 9"/><ref name="M. Geijbels, Jonathan S. Addleton"/><ref name="O. Harrassowitz"/><ref name="Tariq Rahman"/> Like the Hindus, many Sikh Hindkowans migrated to Hindustan after the partition of India in 1947.<ref name="Daily Times-Hindu Hindkowans at Partition of India"/>

== Demographics ==
There are no fresh and authentic figures on the speakers of Hindko language. However, according to indirect method of household rate employed in the 4th Population Census of 1981, an estimated 2.4 per cent of the total population of Pakistan and estimated 22.8 per cent of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa speak Hindko as their mother language, with more rural than urban households reporting Hindko as their household language.No information was gathered on the Hindko language in the 5th Population Census carried out in 1998 as Hindko language column was removed from the census form much to the dismay of Hindko people.

The largest geographically contiguous group of Hindko people is concentrated in the districts of [[Peshawar]], [[Abbottabad District|Abbottabad]], Kohat, [[Attock District]], Nowshera, [[Haripur District|Haripur]], [[Mansehra District|Mansehra]] and [[Mardan]] of Pakistan

=== Tribal communities ===

People here tend to associate themselves with larger families instead of a language per se. The major tribes of [[Hazara people|Hazara]] include the [[Gujjar]], [[Awan]], [[Bib (tribe)|Bib]], [[Bomba (tribe)|Bomba]], Dhund Abbasi, [[Gakhars|Gakhar]], [[Karlal]], [[Mughals]], Ghaznavis, [[Maliar]], [[Paracha]]s, [[Sarrara]], [[Qazi]]s, [[Sayyid]]s, [[Mashwani]]s, [[Swati (tribe)|Swati]]s, [[Tanoli]]s, [[Dilazak]]s, [[Shilmani]]s, [[Jadoon]]s, [[Khattak]], [[Barakzai]], and [[Kakar]].<ref>Gazetteer of the Hazara district, 1907 / compiled and edited by H. D. Watson</ref> The Pashtun tribes who settled in Districts like Abbotabad, Haripur and Mansehra, [[Peshawar]] and [[Kohat]] adopted Hindko as their first language and gained political power in these areas during the British rule. {{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}. The Hindko people living in major cities [[Peshawar]], [[Kohat]], [[Nowshera, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa|Nowshera]] and [[chhachh]] area of [[Attock]] are bilingual in [[Pashto]] and [[Hindko]]. Similarly many Pashtoon in districts like Mansehra especially in Agror Valley and northern Tanawal (Shergarh), have become bilingual in Pashto and Hindko.<ref>http://www.pakhazara.com/languages.html</ref>

== Prominent writers ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2010}}There are many Hinko writers, among them [[Aurangzeb Hussamhur]]
Syed Mehboob,Aurangzeb Ghaznavi. Riffat Swati from [[Mansehrah]] is called [[madre]] hindko for her promotion of Hindko language.
A monthly [[farogh]] is published from Peshawar by Aurangzeb Ghaznavi. Dr. Syed Mehboob is working for the promotion of Hindko language in Karachi and Sindh. His many articles has been published in various newspapers including Farogh Peshawar.

==Hindko poets==
Some of the prominent Hindko poets/writers are:
* Professor Dr Elahi Bakhsh Awan,
* Haider Zaman Haider,
* Sultan Sakoon
* Sabir Hussain Imdaad,
* Sheen Shaukat
* Zaffar Iqbal Athar
* Mohammad Ziauddin
* Ahmad Nadeem Awan
* Sikandar Hayat Sikandar
* Mr. Asif Saqib,
* Afzal Chishti
* Raza Hamadani
* Bushra Farukh
* Qudsia Qudsi
* Hassam Hurr
* Hilal Jamid
* Iftikhar Tashna
* Aslam Taraq
* Khawaja Yaqoob Akhtar
* Maqbool Ejaz Ejazi
* Malak Arshad Hussain
* Masoom Shah Masoom
* Sabeeh Ahed
* Rani Bano
* Sadaq Saba
* Saeed Gilani
* Zaffar Naveed Jani
* Prof. Sufi Abdur Rasheed,
* Col. Fazal-e-Akbar Kamal,
* Mr. Sultan Sakoon,
* Mr. Sharif Hussain Shah,
* Prof. Muhammad Farid,
* Prof. Yahya Khalid,
* Mr. Nazir Kasalvi,
* Muhammad Hanif,
* Ahmad Ali {Khayali}
* Shoaib shahid
* Prof. Bashir Sooz
* Muhammad Hanif
* [[Ahmad Hussain Mujahid]]
*Mohammed Khan (NCSU)

== Distribution ==
The speakers of Hindko live primarily in seven districts in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa: [[Mansehra District|Mansehra]], [[Swabi District|Swabi]], [[Abbottabad District|Abbottabad]], [[Haripur District|Haripur]], [[Peshawar District|Peshawar]], [[Nowshera District|Nowshera]] and [[Kohat District|Kohat]] in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, as well as the [[Attock District|Attock]] and [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]] districts in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] and parts of [[Kashmir region|Kashmir]]; Jonathan Addleton states that [[Hindko]] is the most significant linguistic minority in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, represented in nearly one-fifth of the province's total households." In [[Abbottabad District|Abbotabad]], 98 per cent of households reported speaking Hindko, in [[Mansehra District]] 77 per cent, in [[Haripur District]] around 85 per cent, in [[Peshawar District]] 35 per cent, and in [[Kohat District]] 40 per cent (1986).{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} Testing of inherent [[intelligibility]] among Hindko dialects through the use of recorded tests has shown that there is a northern (Hazara) dialect group and a southern group. The southern dialects are more widely understood throughout the dialect network than are the northern dialects. The dialects of rural [[Peshawar]] and [[Talagang]] are the most widely understood of the dialects tested. The dialect of [[Balakot]] is the least widely understood.

== Bilingualism ==
In most Hindko-speaking areas, speakers of [[Pashto]] live in the same or neighbouring communities (although this is less true in Abbottabad and Kaghan Valley than elsewhere). In the mixed areas, many people speak both languages. The relationship between Hindko and Pushto speakers are one of the best if compared with major groups who live in other provinces of Pakistan.

==Notable Hindkowans==
* [[Pran Sikhand]], ''[[Padma Bhushan]]'', a multiple [[Filmfare Awards|filmfare awards]] and BFJA award winning Indian Bollywood actor<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/01/09/stories/2005010900450400.htm |title=Heroic villain: An informative and entertaining biography of a daredevil Pathan.|publisher=The Hindu|accessdate=2007-02-23|location=Chennai, India|date=2005-01-09}}</ref>
* [[Akhtar Abdur Rahman]], [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI) Chief
* [[Humayun Akhtar Khan]], politician in Pakistan
* [[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]], [[Pakistan Army]] General
* [[Dilip Kumar]]{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}, ''[[Nishan-e-Imtiaz]]'', an [[India]]n film actor in [[Bollywood]] and a member of the [[Rajya Sabha]]
* [[Kapoor family]] {{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

== See also ==
*[[Hazarewal]]
* [[Chhachi]]
*[[Gojri]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*[[Districts of Afghanistan#Faryab Province]] Andkoi, the real place of Migration from Afghanistan.
*[http://sitara.com/afghanistan/distances.html], Travel & tour information of Afghanistan .

[[Category:Hindkowan people]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Hindkowan tribes]]

[[simple:Hindkowan]]

Shamanism

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{{Redirect|Shaman}}
[[File:Witsen's Shaman.JPG|thumb|right|300px|The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, produced by the Dutch explorer [[Nicolaes Witsen]], who authored an account of his travels among Samoyedic- and Tungusic-speaking peoples in 1692. Witsen labelled the illustration as a "Priest of the Devil" and gave this figure clawed feet to highlight what Witsen perceived as demonic qualities.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. p. 32.</ref>]]

[[File:Tengri.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Shaman "[[Tengri]]" (God) as inscribed on Bilge [[Tonyukuk]] Monument in [[Old Turkic alphabet]]]]

'''Shamanism''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|ʃ|ɑː|m|ə|n}} {{respell|SHAH|mən}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|eɪ|m|ə|n}} {{respell|SHAY|mən}}) is a practice that involves a practitioner reaching [[altered states of consciousness]] in order to encounter and interact with the spirit world.<ref>[[#Hop87|Hoppál 1987]]. p. 76.</ref> A shaman is a person regarded as having access to, and influence in the world of [[Evocation|benevolent and malevolent spirits]], who typically enters into a [[trance|trance state]] during a [[ritual]], and practices [[divination]] and [[healing]].<ref>[http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/shaman?view=uk Oxford Dictionary Online].</ref>

The term "shamanism" was first applied to the ancient religion of the [[Göktürks|Turks]] and [[Mongols]], as well as those of the neighboring [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] and [[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]]-speaking peoples. The word "shaman" originates from the [[Evenk language]] (Tungusic) of [[North Asia]] and was introduced to the west after [[Russia]]n forces [[Siege of Kazan (1552)|conquered]] the shamanistic [[Khanate of Kazan]](later became a muslim state, Abrahamic religions such as Christianity, such as the Orthodox Christians of Russia, aswell as the new faith of the Kazan people, Islam, tend to suppress shamanistic beliefs) in 1552. Upon learning more about religious traditions across the world, western scholars also described similar magico-religious practices found within the [[indigenous religions]] of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and the Americas as shamanism. Various historians have argued that shamanism also played a role in many of the pre-Christian religions of Europe, and that shamanic elements may have survived in popular culture right through to the [[Early Modern period]]. Various [[archaeology|archaeologists]] and [[History of religion|historians of religion]] have also suggested that shamanism may have been a dominant pre-religious practice for humanity during the [[Palaeolithic]].

[[Mircea Eliade]] writes, "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = 'technique of [[religious ecstasy]]'."<ref name = Eli72>Mircea Eliade, ''Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy'', Bollingen Series LXXVI, Princeton University Press 1972, pp. 3–7.</ref> Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters [[otherworld|supernatural realms]] or [[Plane (esotericism)|dimensions]] to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the spiritual world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment.<ref name = Eli72/>

Shamanic beliefs and practices have attracted the interest of scholars from a wide variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archaeologists, historians, religious studies scholars and psychologists. Hundreds of books and [[academic paper]]s on the subject have been produced {{Citation needed|date=December 2012}}, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanisms {{Citation needed|date=December 2012}}. In the 20th century, many westerners involved in the counter-cultural movement adopted magico-religious practices influenced by indigenous shamanisms from across the world, creating the [[Neoshamanism|Neoshamanic]] movement.

==Terminology==

===Etymology===

The word "shaman" is based upon the [[Evenk language]] word "''šamán''".<ref>[[#Eli04|Eliade 2004 [1951]]]. p. 04.</ref> The Tungusic term was subsequently adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman [[Avvakum]].<ref>Written before 1676, first printed in 1861; see [[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. p. vii.</ref> The word was brought to Western
Europe in 1692 by the Dutch traveler [[Nicolaes Witsen]] who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic- and Samoyedic-speaking
indigenous peoples of Siberia in his book ''Noord en Oost Tataryen''.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]], p. 32.</ref> Adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian ambassy to China and a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word to English speakers.<ref>Adam Brand, ''Driejaarige Reize naar China'', Amsterdam 1698; transl. ''A Journal of an Ambassy'', London 1698; see Laufer B., ''Origin of the Word Shaman'', American Anthropologist, 19 (1917): 361–71 and Bremmer J., ''Travelling souls? Greek shamanism reconsidered'', in Bremmer J.N. (ed.), The Rise and Fall of the Afterlife, London: Routledge, 2002, pp. 7-40. [http://theol.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2002/594/c3.pdf]</ref>

===Definitions===
There is no single agreed upon definition for the word "shamanism" among anthropologists. The English historian [[Ronald Hutton]] noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were four separate definitions of the term which appeared to be in use. The first of these uses the term to refer to "anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness." The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness at the behest of others. The third definition attempts to distinguish shamans from other magico-religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits, such as "[[mediumship|mediums]]", "[[witch doctor]]s", "spiritual healers" or "prophets", by claiming that they undertake a particular technique not used by the others. Problematically, scholars advocating this position have failed to agree on what this defining technique should be. The fourth definition identified by Hutton uses "shamanism" to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighbouring parts of Asia.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. pp. vii–viii.</ref>
According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, the [[Evenki language|Evenk]] word 'shaman' would more accurately be translated as 'priest'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tengerism.org/table_of_contents.html|title = Circle of Tengerism}}</ref>

[[File:SB - Altay shaman with drum.jpg|thumb|Russian postcard based on a photo taken in 1908 by S. I. Borisov, showing a female shaman, of probable [[Khakas people|Khakas]] ethnicity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |authorlink= |title=Sámánok Eurázsiában |year=2005 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-05-8295-3}} pp. 77, 287; {{cite book |last=Znamensky |first=Andrei A. |chapter=Az ősiség szépsége: altáji török sámánok a szibériai regionális gondolkodásban (1860–1920) |pages=117–134 |editor=Molnár, Ádám |title=Csodaszarvas. Őstörténet, vallás és néphagyomány. Vol. I |publisher=Molnár Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2005 |isbn=963-218-200-6 |language=Hungarian}}, p. 128</ref>]]

==Initiation and learning==
Shamans are normally "called" by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be "inherited," as the capacity for lucid spirit-world connection runs more strongly in some families.

Turner and colleagues<ref>Turner et al., page 440</ref> mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a [[rite of passage]] for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be found in the detailed case history of Chuonnasuan, the last master shaman among the Tungus peoples in Northeast China.<ref>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]] (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref>

The [[wounded healer]] is an [[archetype]] for a shamanic trail and journey. This process is important to the young shaman. S/he undergoes a type of sickness that pushes her or him to the brink of death. This happens for two reasons:
# The shaman crosses over to the under world. This happens so the shaman can venture to its depths to bring back vital information for the sick, and the tribe.
# The shaman must become sick to understand sickness. When the shaman overcomes her or his own sickness s/he will hold the cure to heal all that suffer. This is the uncanny mark of the wounded healer.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Halifax | first = Joan |authorlink = Joan Halifax |title = Shaman: The Wounder Healer |publisher = [[Thames & Hudson]] |year = 1982 |location = London |isbn = 9780500810293 |oclc = 8800269}}</ref>

==Roles==

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een shamaan op Zuid-Boeroe bezweert boze geesten de kinderen te verlaten waarbij hij een geldstuk en een sirihnoot offert TMnr 10001031.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Maluku Islands|South Moluccan]] Shaman exorcising evil spirits occupying children, [[Buru]]. 1920.]]
Shamans gain knowledge and the power to heal by entering into the [[Spirit world (Spiritualism)|spiritual world]] or dimension. Most shamans have [[dreams]] or [[Vision (spirituality)|visions]] that tell them certain things. The shaman may have or acquire many [[spirit guides]], who often guide and direct the shaman in his/her travels in the [[Spirit world (Spiritualism)|spirit world]]. These spirit guides are always present within the shaman though others only encounter them when the shaman is in a trance. The spirit guide energizes the shaman, enabling him/her to enter the spiritual dimension. The shaman heals within the spiritual dimension by returning 'lost' parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. The shaman also cleanses excess negative energies which confuse or pollute the soul.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

Shamans act as [[Mediation|mediators]] in their culture.<ref name=mediator>Hoppál 2005: 45</ref><ref name=mediator2>Boglár 2001: 24</ref> The shaman communicates with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. The shaman communicates with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits. Shamans assist in [[soul retrieval]]. In shamanism it is believed that part of the human soul is free to leave the body. The soul is the ''[[axis mundi]]'', the center of the shamanic healing arts. Shamans change their state of consciousness allowing their free soul to travel and retrieve ancient wisdom and lost power.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

Because a portion of the soul is free to leave the body it will do so when dreaming, or it will leave the body to protect itself from potentially damaging situations, be they emotional or physical. In situations of trauma the soul piece may not return to the body on its own, and a shaman must intervene and return the soul essence.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

Among the [[Selkup people|Selkups]], the [[Merginae|sea duck]] is a spirit animal because ducks fly in the air and dive in the water. Thus ducks belong to both the upper world and the world below.<ref name="Hoppal_a">Hoppál 2005: 94</ref> Among other Siberian peoples these characteristics are attributed to water fowl in general.<ref>Vitebsky 1996: 46</ref> Among many Native Americans, the [[jaguar]] is a spirit animal because jaguars walk on earth, swim in water, and climb in trees. Thus jaguars belong to all three worlds, Sky, Earth, and [[Underworld]].

Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures;<ref name=multfunc>Hoppál 2005: 25</ref> healing,<ref name=sem-shamheal>{{cite web |last=Sem |first=Tatyana |url=http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html |title=Shamanic Healing Rituals |publisher=Russian Museum of Ethnography}}</ref><ref>Hoppál 2005: 27–28</ref> leading a [[sacrifice]],<ref>Hoppál 2005: 28–33</ref> preserving the [[tradition]] by [[storytelling]] and songs,<ref name=memory>Hoppál 2005: 37</ref> [[fortune-telling]],<ref>Hoppál 2005: 34–35</ref> and acting as a [[psychopomp]] (literal meaning, "guide of souls").<ref name=psychopomp>Hoppál 2005: 36</ref> A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions.<ref name="multfunc" />

The functions of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a cumulative group, depending on culture), and/or curing (healing) of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such as disease, which may be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed by displaying a supposedly extracted token of the disease-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated, so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body) --, or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such as persistent terror (on account of a frightening experience), which may be likewise cured by similar methods. Usually in most languages a different term other than the one translated "shaman" is applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams.

There are distinct types of shaman who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the [[Nani people]], a distinct kind of shaman acts as a [[psychopomp]].<ref>Hoppál 2005:36164</ref> Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the [[Nenets people|Nenets]], [[Enets people|Enets]], and [[Selkup people|Selkup]] shaman (paper;<ref>Hoppál 2005:87–95</ref> online<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm Czaplicka 1914]</ref>). Among the [[Huichol people|Huichol]],<ref name=Mexico>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/Peyote.html |title=Lost souls of the Peyote Trail |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure }}</ref> there are two categories of shaman. This demonstrates the differences among shamans within a single tribe.

Among the [[Hmong people]], the shaman or the ''Ntxiv Neej'' (Tee-Neng), acts as healer. The Ntxiv Neej also performs rituals/ceremonies designed to call the soul back from its many travels to the physical human body. A Ntxiv Neej may use several shamanistic tools such as swords, divinity horns, a gong (drum), or finger bells/jingles. All tools serve to protect the spirits from the eyes of the unknown, thus enabling the Ntxiv Neej to deliver souls back to their proper owner. The Ntxiv Neej may wear a white, red, or black veil to disguise the soul from its attackers in the spiritual dimension.

Boundaries between the shaman and laity are not always clearly defined. Among the [[Barasana]] of Brazil, there is no absolute difference between those men recognized as shamans and those who are not{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}. At the lowest level, most adult men have abilities as shamans and will carry out the same functions as those men who have a widespread reputation for their powers and knowledge. The Barasana shaman knows more [[Mythology|myth]]s and understands their meaning better, nonetheless the majority of adult men also know many myths.<ref name=barasana-myths>Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980: 32</ref>

Among [[Inuit]] peoples the laity have experiences which are commonly attributed to the [[Shamanism_among_Eskimo_peoples#Shamanism_in_various_Eskimo_groups|shamans of those Inuit groups]]. [[Daydream]], reverie, and [[trance]] are not restricted to shamans.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> Control over helping spirits is the primary characteristic attributed to shamans. The laity usually employ [[amulet]]s, spells, formulas, songs.<ref name="Mer-BecHalfHid"/><ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 8–10</ref> Among the [[Greenland Inuit]], the laity have greater capacity to relate with spiritual beings. These people are often apprentice shamans who failed to complete their initiations.<ref name="failed-shaman" />

The assistant of an [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] shaman (called ''jardalanin'', or "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behavior of the shaman.<ref name=Guan_Kouni>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]]: 10, footnote 10 (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref> Despite these functions, the jardalanin is ''not'' a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would be unwelcome to fall into trance.<ref name=interpreter>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]]: 8–9 (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref>

==Gender==
Recent [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence suggests that the earliest known shamans—dating to the [[Upper Paleolithic]] era in what is now the [[Czech Republic]]—were women.<ref>Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam.</ref>

==Ecological aspect==
Resources for human consumption are easily [[Tropical rainforest#Habitation|depletable in tropical rainforests]]. Among the [[Tucano people]], a sophisticated system exists for [[environmental resources management]] and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this [[Ecology|ecological]] management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes.<ref name=eco>Reichel-Dolmatoff 1997</ref><ref>Vitebsky 1996:107</ref> The [[Piaroa people]] have ecological concerns related to shamanism.<ref name=ecopia/> Among the [[Inuit]], shamans fetch the souls of game from remote places,<ref>Merkur 1985: 5</ref><ref>Vitebsky 1996:108</ref> or [[soul travel]] to ask for game from mythological beings like the [[Sedna (mythology)|Sea Woman]].<ref>Kleivan & Sonne: 27–28</ref>

==Economics==
The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies among cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment" (cultures {{who|date=February 2012}} believe the payment is given to the helping spirits<ref name=mshare/>), but these goods are only "welcome addenda." They are not enough to enable shamanizing as a full-time activity. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as hunter or housewife.<ref name="failed-shaman">Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24</ref><ref name=mshare>Merkur 1985: 3</ref>

==Beliefs==
There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by [[Mircea Eliade|Eliade]] (1972)<ref name = Eli72/> are the following:

* Spirits exist and they play important roles both in individual lives and in human society.
* The shaman can communicate with the spirit world.
* Spirits can be benevolent or malevolent.
* The shaman can treat sickness caused by malevolent spirits.
* The shaman can employ [[trance]] inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and go on [[vision quest]]s.
* The shaman's spirit can leave the body to enter the [[supernatural]] world to search for answers.
* The shaman evokes animal images as [[spirit guides]], [[omen]]s, and message-bearers.
* The shaman can tell the future, [[scry]], throw bones/[[runes]], and perform other varied forms of [[divination]]

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living.<ref name=Peru>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/Peru.html |title=Hell and Back |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure }}</ref> Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired by malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the body" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing the infectious spirit.

Many shamans have expert knowledge of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal treatment is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing properties, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and ''[[curandero]]s'' use medicine songs called ''[[icaro]]s'' to evoke spirits. Before a spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song.<ref name="Peru" /> The use of [[totem]]ic items such as rocks with special powers and an [[Animism|animating spirit]] is common.

Such practices are presumably very ancient. [[Plato]] wrote in his ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'' that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth".

Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as ''[[brujería]]'' in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Shamanic knowledge usually enjoys great power and prestige in the community,{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} but it may also be regarded suspiciously or fearfully as potentially harmful to others.

By engaging in their work, a shaman is exposed to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from enemy shamans, or from the means employed to alter the shaman's [[state of consciousness]]. Shamanic plant materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. Failure to return from an [[Astral projection|out-of-body journey]] can lead to death{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}. [[Spell (paranormal)|Spell]]s are commonly used to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized.

===Soul and spirit concepts===
The variety of functions described above may seem like distinct tasks, but they may be united by underlying soul and spirit concepts.

;[[Soul (spirit)|Soul]]
:This concept can generally explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:<ref name=all-soul>[[#Mer85|Merkur 1985]]: 4</ref><ref>[[#Vit96|Vitebsky 1996]]: 11, 12–14, 107</ref><ref name=soulsham>[[#Hop05|Hoppál 2005]]:27, 30, 36</ref>

;[[Healing]]
:This concept may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman (online<ref name=sem-shamheal/>). It may consist of retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.<ref name=resoul>Hoppál 2005: 27</ref> See also the [[soul dualism]] concept.

;[[Scarcity]] of hunted game
:This problem can be solved by "releasing" the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many [[taboo]]s may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they can allow themselves to be caught and killed.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 7, 19–21</ref><ref name=Gab-KarEszk>Gabus, Jean: A karibu eszkimók. Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1970. (Hungarian translation of the original: Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous, Libraire Payot Lausanne, 1944.) It describes the life of Caribou Eskimo groups.</ref> For the ecological aspects of shamanistic practice, and related beliefs, see below.

;[[Infertility]] of women
:This problem can be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child.

;[[Spirit]]s
:Beliefs related to [[spirit]]s can explain many different phenomena.<ref>[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 18</ref> For example, the importance of [[storytelling]], or acting as a singer, can be understood better if we examine the whole belief system. A person who can memorize long texts or songs, and play an instrument, may be regarded as the beneficiary of contact with the spirits (e.g. [[Khanty people]]).<ref name=singtellplay>Hoppál 2005: 99</ref>

==Practice==
Generally, the shaman traverses the [[axis mundi]] and enters the spirit world by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an [[Religious ecstasy|ecstatic]] [[trance]], either [[Autosuggestion|autohypnotically]] or through the use of [[entheogen]]s. The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together. Methods for effecting such trances are:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Plants (often [[psychoactive]])
! Other
|-
|
*[[Psilocybin mushrooms]]''
*[[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]]
*[[Papaver somniferum|Opium]]
*[[Tobacco]]
*[[San Pedro (cactus)|San Pedro cactus]]
*[[Peyote]]<ref name="Mexico" />
*[[Ayahuasca]]<ref name="Peru" />
*[[Thuja plicata|Cedar]]
*[[Datura]]
*[[Deadly nightshade]]
*[[Amanita muscaria|Fly agaric]]
*[[Iboga]]
*[[Morning glory]]
*[[Common sage|Sage]]
*[[Salvia divinorum]]
*[[Hawaiian Baby Woodrose]]
|
*[[Dancing]]
*[[Singing]]
*[[Music]]
*[[Icaro]]s / Medicine Songs<ref name="Peru" />
*[[Vigil]]s
*[[Fasting]]
*[[Sweat lodge]]
*[[Vision quests]]
*[[Mariri]]
*Swordfighting / [[Bladesmithing]]
|}

Shamans will often observe dietary or customary restrictions particular to their tradition. These restrictions are more than just cultural. For example, the diet followed by shamans and apprentices prior to participating in an [[ayahuasca]] ceremony includes foods rich in [[tryptophan]] (a biosynthetic precursor to [[serotonin]]) as well as avoiding foods rich in [[tyramine]], which could induce [[hypertensive crisis]] if ingested with [[MAOI]]s such as are found in ayahuasca brews as well as abstinence from alcohol or sex.<ref name="Peru" />

===Music, songs===
{{See also|Shamanic music|Imitation of sounds in shamanism}}
Just like shamanism itself,<ref name="cogmap"/> music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse, far from being alike. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate [[natural sounds]], via [[onomatopoeia]].<ref name=onom>[http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf Hoppál 2006c: 143]</ref>

[[Sound mimesis in various cultures]] may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals as luring game in the hunt;<ref name = natt/> or entertainment ([[Inuit throat singing]]).<ref name=natt>Nattiez: 5</ref><ref name=desch>[http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm Deschênes 2002]</ref>

===Paraphernalia===
Shamans may have various kinds of paraphernalia in different cultures.
[[File:Goldes shaman priest in his regalia.png|thumb|upright|[[Golds (ethnic group)|Goldes]] shaman priest in his regalia]]
[[File:Shamans Drum.jpg|thumb|upright|Artist's depiction of a Shaman's [[drum]] with a three-world cosmology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neweurasia.net/cross-regional-and-blogosphere/in-the-beginning-was-tengri-part-1-grace-is-the-heart-of-belief/|title=In the Beginning was Tengri, Part 1|author=H.B. Paksoy, PhD|quote=A diagram of Tengriist metaphysics on a shaman's drum. At the center is a world-tree connecting the three dimensions of the underworld, middleworld and upperworld.}}</ref> The vertical arrow symbolizes the World Tree, which stands in the center of the world.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.nbi.dk/~natphil/oldqueSib.html|title=Myths|author=Alexander Eliot|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|year=1976|page=77|quote=The world tree appears again in this drawing from a Shaman drum... with its roots in the underworld it rises through the inhabited earth to penetrate the realm of the gods.}}</ref> It unites the underworld, the earthly world, and heaven.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tengerism.org/cosmology.html|title=Mongolian Cosmology|author=[http://www.tengerism.org/ Circle of Tengerism]|quote=The other important symbol of the world center is the ''turge'' tree, which creates an axis as well as a pole for ascent and decent. Siberian and Mongolian traditions locate the tree at the center of the world, but also in the south, where the upper and middle worlds touch.}}</ref> This presentation can be found on shaman drums of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Mongols]] and [[Tungusic peoples]] in Central Asia and [[Siberia]].]]

* '''Drum''' – The [[drum]] is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia, the Inuit, and many other cultures all over the world,<ref>Barüske 1969: 24, 50–51</ref> although its usage for shamanistic [[seance]]s may be lacking among the Inuit of Canada.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 25</ref> The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered state of consciousness or to travel on a journey between the physical and spiritual worlds.<ref name="Maxfield, Melinda 1994">Maxfield, Melinda. [http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=95141255 "The journey of the drum."] ''ReVision'' 16.4 (1994): 157.</ref> Much fascination surrounds the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Shaman drums are generally constructed of an animal-skin stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.
* '''Feathers''' – In numerous North and South American cultures, as well as in Europe and Asia, birds are seen as messengers of the spirits. Feathers are often used in ceremonies and in individual healing rituals.
* '''Rattle''' – Found mostly among South American<ref name=rattle-south>Vitebsky 1996: 49</ref> and African peoples. Also used in ceremonies among the [[Navajo people|Navajo]] and in traditional ways in their blessings and ceremonies.
* '''Gong''' – Often found through South East Asia, Far Eastern peoples.
* '''Pipe''' – Used for smoking various tobaccos and psychoactive herbs (e.g. tobacco in North and South America, cannabis in India).
* '''Sword''' – In [[Hmong_customs_and_culture#Shamanism|Hmong Shamanism]], a holy sword will always be used in the practice to protect the shaman from wandering "evil" spirits as he travels to the spirit world.
* '''Shake''' – Found mostly in Hmong Shamanism, the shaman begins his practice by rattling, which turns into a shake. It is the process of communicating with his shamanistic spirits to guide him to the spirit world.
* '''Long Table''' – A flexible wooden table, approximately nine by two feet, is used in Hmong Shamanism; the table transforms into a "flying horse" in the spirit world.
* '''Rooster''' – A rooster is often used in Hmong Shamanism. A shaman uses a rooster when he journeys to the unknown. It is said that the rooster shields the shaman from wandering "evil" spirits by making him invisible; thus, the evil spirits only see the rooster's useless spirit.

==Academic study==
[[File:Shaman.jpg|thumb|[[Sami people|Sami]] shaman with his drum]]

===Cognitive, semiotic, hermeneutic approaches===
As mentioned, a (debated) approach explains the etymology of word "shaman" as meaning "one who knows".<ref name="Diószegi 1962:13">Diószegi 1962:13</ref><ref name="Hoppál 2005:14">Hoppál 2005:14</ref> Really, the shaman is a person who is an expert in keeping together the multiple [[code]]s of the society. Accordingly, the society's codes are the manifestation of the society's underlying complex belief system. Thus to be effective, shamans maintain a comprehensive view in their mind which gives them certainty of [[knowledge]].<ref name="cogmap">Hoppál 2005:15</ref> The shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple [[code]]s. Shamans express meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such as [[amulet]]s.<ref name="Hoppál 2005:14"/>

The shaman knows the [[culture]] of his or her community well,<ref name="mediator2" /><ref>[[#Pen95|Pentikäinen 1995]]: 270</ref><ref name=knowncult>Hoppál 2005:25–26,43</ref> and acts accordingly. Thus, their audience knows the used [[symbol]]s and meanings—that is why shamanism can be efficient: people in the audience trust it.<ref name=knowncult/> For example, the shaman's [[drum]]ming can appear to its members as certainty of ''[[knowledge]]''—this explains the above described etymology for the word "shaman" as meaning "one who knows."<ref name=etym2>Hoppál 2004:14</ref>

There are [[Semiotics|semiotic]] theoretical approaches to shamanism,<ref name=semi>Hoppál 2005: 13–15, 58, 197</ref><ref>Hoppál 2006a: 11</ref><ref>Hoppál 2006b: 175</ref> ("ethnosemiotics"). The symbols on the shaman's costume and drum can refer to [[Power animal]]s, or to the rank of the shaman.

There are also examples of "mutually opposing symbols", distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night.<ref name=semiotics_of_shamanism>[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 24–25</ref> (Series of such opposing symbols referred to a world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map?).<ref name="cogmap" /><ref name=hop-natworsib>Hoppál, Mihály: [http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol4/hoppal.htm Nature worship in Siberian shamanism]</ref> Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map".<ref>[[#Hop07b|Hoppál 2007b]]: 12–13</ref><ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25">[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 25</ref> [[Juha Pentikäinen]] uses the concept "grammar of mind".<ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25"/><ref>[[#Pen95|Pentikäinen 1995]]: 270–271</ref> Linking to a Sami example, Kathleen Osgood Dana writes:

{{quote|Juha Pentikäinen, in his introduction to Shamanism and Northern Ecology, explains how the Sámi drum embodies Sámi worldviews. He considers shamanism to be a ‘grammar of mind’ (10), because shamans need to be experts in the folklore of their cultures (11).<ref name=dan-aill>[[#Dana04|Dana 2004]]: 18 (see [http://uit.no/getfile.php?PageId=977&FileId=183#search=%22Juha%20Pentik%C3%A4inen%20grammar%20of%20mind%22 online])</ref>}}

Armin Geertz coined and introduced the [[hermeneutics]],<ref>Merkur 1985:v</ref> "ethnohermeneutics",<ref name=hop-natworsib/> approaches to the practice of interpretation. Hoppál extended the term to include not only the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts as well (including motions, gestures and more complex ritual, and ceremonies performed for instance by shamans)".<ref name=ethnohermeneutics>[[#Hop07b|Hoppál 2007b]]: 13</ref> It not only reveals the [[Animism|animistic]] views hiding behind shamanism, but also conveys their relevance for the contemporary world, where ecological problems have validated paradigms about balance and protection.<ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25"/>

===Ecological approaches, systems theory===
Other [[fieldwork]]s use [[systems theory]] concepts and ecological considerations to understand the shaman's [[Folklore|lore]]. Desana and [[Tucano people|Tucano]] Indians have developed a sophisticated symbolism and concepts of "energy" flowing between people and animals in cyclic paths. [[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]] relates these concepts to developments in the ways that modern science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats [[causality]] in a less linear fashion.<ref name=eco/> He also suggests a cooperation of modern science and indigenous lore (online<ref name=coop>[[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]]: [http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html A View from the Headwaters]. The Ecologist, Vol. 29 No. 4, July 1999.</ref>).

===Hypotheses on origins===
Shamanic practices may originate as early as the [[Paleolithic]], predating all organized religions,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/clottes/page7.php |title=Shamanism in Prehistory |author=Jean Clottes |accessdate=2008-03-11 |work=Bradshaw foundation }}</ref><ref name=Narr>{{cite web |url=http://concise.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=109434&fullArticle=true&tocId=52333 |author=Karl J. Narr
|title=Prehistoric religion |accessdate=2008-03-28 |work=Britannica online encyclopedia 2008 }}</ref> and certainly as early as the [[Neolithic]] period.<ref name=Narr/> Early anthropologist studies theorise that shamanism developed as a magic practice to ensure a successful hunt or gathering of food. Evidence in caves and drawings on walls support indications that shamanism started during the Paleolithic era. One such picture featured a half-animal, with the face and legs of a man, with antlers and a tail of a stag.<ref>Winkelman, Michael. Shamanism: a Biopsychosocial Paradigm of Consciousness and Healing. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010. Print.</ref>

Archaeological evidence exists for [[Mesolithic]] shamanism. The oldest know female Shaman grave in the world is located in the Czech Republic at Dolni Vestonice (National Geographic No 174 October 1988. Also In November 2008, researchers announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in [[Pre-history of the Southern Levant|Israel]] that is perceived as one of the earliest known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis and arms. Among her unusual [[grave goods]] were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 at the site, located in a cave in lower [[Galilee]] and belonging to the [[Natufian culture]], but is said to be unlike any other among the Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.<ref>"Earliest known shaman grave site found: study", reported by [[Reuters]] via [[Yahoo! News]], November 4, 2008, [http://www.webcitation.org/5c5MCHK7R archived.] see.''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences''.</ref>

===Clinical trial===
The [[Kaiser Permanente]] Center For Health Research in Portland, Oregon conducted a [[Clinical trial|phase I study]] into the effectiveness of shamanic healing as a treatment for chronic face and jaw pain. Twenty-three women who were diagnosed with [[Temporomandibular Joint Disorder]]s (TMDs) participated in the study. At the end of treatment only four were clinically diagnosed with the TMDs present at the beginning of the study.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17985808 TMD Clinical study]</ref>

===Historical-Anthropological School of Folkloristics===
Folklorists have evaluated the presence of remnants of shamanism and shamanic practice in [[Folklore|folktale]]s from around the world. Michael Berman identified the genre of the [[Shamanic Story|shamanic story]], examples of which are only produced by folk groups with shamanic cosmology or a shamanic world view. Kultkrantz points out that, “in areas where shamanism has long been a thing of the past, many tales contain only vague, piecemeal or inaccurate recollections of shamans and their like.”<ref>1993, p.51</ref> The presence of distinctive characteristics and features of shamanic stories help folklorists and anthropologists reconstruct a culture’s practice of shamanism.<ref>Berman, Shamanic Journeys Through Daghestan, 2008, p.22</ref>

==Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements==
Shamanism is believed to be declining around the world. Possibly due to other organised religious influences, like Christianity, that want people who practice shamanism to convert to their own system and doctrine. Another reason is western views of shamanism as 'primitive', 'superstitious', backwarded and outdated. Whalers who frequently interact with Inuit tribes are one source of this decline in that region.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Oosten|first=Jarich|coauthors=Frederic Laugrand, and Cornelius Remie|title=Perceptions of Decline: Inuit Shamanism in the Canadian Arctic|journal=American Society for Ethnohistory|year=2006|pages=445–477|doi=10.1215/00141801–2006-001|ref=harv}}</ref>

[[File:Kyzyl Shaman.jpg|thumb|A recent photograph: shaman doctor of [[Kyzyl]], 2005. (Details missing). Attempts are being made to preserve and revitalize [[Tuvans|Tuvan]] shamanism:<ref name=tuva>Hoppál 2005: 117</ref> former authentic shamans have begun to practice again, and young apprentices are being educated in an organized way.<ref name=authentic-revitalization-tuva>Hoppál 2005: 259</ref>]]

In many areas, former shamans ceased to fulfill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,<ref>Boglár 2001: 19–20</ref> or regarded their own past as deprecated and are unwilling to talk about it to an ethnographer.<ref name=shamed>Diószegi 1960: 37–39</ref>

Moreover, besides personal communications of former shamans, folklore texts may narrate directly about a deterioration process. For example, a [[Buryats|Buryat]] epic text details the wonderful deeds of the ancient "first shaman" Kara-Gürgän:<ref name=Kara-Gurgan>[[#Eli01|Eliade 2001]]: 76 (= Chpt 3 about obtaining shamanic capabilities)</ref> he could even compete with God, create life, steal back the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like [[omnividence]],<ref name=flatland>Omnividence: A word created by Edwin A. Abbott in his book titled [[Flatland]]</ref> fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving as fast as a bullet; the texts contrast them to the recent heartless, unknowing, greedy shamans.<ref name=deter>Diószegi 1960: 88–89</ref>

In most affected areas, shamanic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans dying and their personal experiences dying with them. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motives related to the local shaman-hood (laics know myths as well, among Barasana, even though less;<ref name=barasana-myths/> there are former shaman apprentices unable to complete the learning among Greenlandic Inuit peoples,<ref name="failed-shaman"/> moreover, even laics can have trance-like experiences among the Inuit;<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> the assistant of a shaman can be extremely knowledgeable among [[Dagara people|Dagara]]<ref name=Guan_Kouni/><ref name=interpreter/>). Although the shaman is often believed and trusted precisely because s/he "accommodates" to the "grammar" of the beliefs of the community,<ref name=knowncult/> several parts of the knowledge related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman (illness), or root in his/her family life (the interpretation of the symbolics of his/her drum),<ref name=drum-symbols>Hoppál 2005: 224</ref> thus, those are lost with his/her death. Besides that, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief system has become endangered (often together with a partial or total [[language shift]]), the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) grew old or died, many folklore memories (songs, texts) were forgotten - which may threaten even such peoples who could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th century, like the [[Nganasan people|Nganasan]].<ref>Nagy 1998: 232</ref>

Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.
* Variants of [[shamanism among Inuit peoples]] were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today are rarely practiced, and they were already in decline among many groups, even durinng the first major ethnological research was done,<ref>Merkur 1985:132</ref> e.g. among Polar Inuit, at the end of 19th century, [[Sagloq]], the last shaman who was believed to be able to travel to the sky and under the sea died — and many other former shamanic capacities were lost during that time as well, like [[ventriloquism]] and [[sleight-of-hand]].<ref>Merkur 1985:134</ref>
* The isolated location of [[Nganasan people]] allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them even at the beginning of 20th century,<ref name=hop>Hoppál 2005: 92</ref> the last notable Nganasan shaman's ceremonies could be recorded on film in the 1970s.<ref name="Hoppal">Hoppál 1994: 62</ref>

After exemplifying the general decline even in the most remote areas, let us{{Who|date=February 2012}} mention that there are revitalization or tradition-preserving efforts as a response. Besides collecting the memories,<ref name=collect>Hoppál 2005: 88</ref> there are also tradition-preserving<ref>Hoppál 2005: 93</ref> and even revitalization efforts,<ref>Hoppál 2005: 111, 117–119, 128, 132, 133–134, '''''252-263'''''</ref> led by authentic former shamans (for example among [[Sakha people]]<ref name=authentic-revitalization-sakha>Hoppál 2005: 257–258</ref> and [[Tuvans]]<ref name=authentic-revitalization-tuva/>). However, according to Richard L. Allen, Research & Policy Analyst for the Cherokee Nation, they are overwhelmed with [[plastic shaman|fraudulent Shaman]]. "One may assume that anyone claiming to be a Cherokee 'shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier', is equivalent to a modern day medicine show and snake-oil vendor."<ref name=RG>{{cite web | title = Pseudo Shamans Cherokee Statement| url = http://www.thepeoplespaths.net/Articles2001/RLAllen-CherokeeStatement-Shamans.htm| accessdate = 2008-06-23}}</ref> In fact, there is no Cherokee word for Shaman or Medicine Man. The Cherokee word for "medicine" is Nvowti which means "power".

Besides tradition-preserving efforts, there are also [[Neoshamanism|neoshamanistic]] movements, these may differ from many tradtitional shamanistic practice and beliefs in several points.<ref name=neoshaman>Vitebsky 1996: 150–153</ref> Admittedly,{{Says who|date=February 2012}} several traditional beliefs systems indeed have ecological considerations (for example, many Eskimo peoples), and among [[Tukano people]], the shaman indeed has direct resource-protecting roles, see details in section [[#Ecological aspect|Ecological aspect]].

Today, shamanism survives primarily among [[indigenous people]]s. Shamanic practices continue today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and even in cities, towns, suburbs, and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially true for Africa and South America, where "[[mestizo]] shamanism" is widespread.

==Regional variations==

===Asia===

====Mongolia====
{{main|Mongolian shamanism}}
Mongolian shamanism has the longest recorded history in the world.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}} The word ''Böö'' "shaman; spirit medium; healer" first appeared on [[oracle bones]] from the late [[Shang Dynasty]] (ca. 1600–1046 BCE). Mongolian classics from the Hunnu Dynasty (1045-256 BCE) provide details about male and female shamans serving as exorcists, healers, rainmakers, oneiromancers, soothsayers, and officials. Shamanic practices continue in present day Mongolia culture.<ref>http://website.leidenuniv.nl/~haarbjter/shamanism.htm</ref><ref>http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/bender4/eall131/EAHReadings/module03/local_beliefs.html</ref><ref>http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/5288</ref><ref>http://www.yale.edu/seacrn/asia_members.htm</ref>

The spiritual hierarchy in clan-based Mongolian society was complex. The highest group consisted of 99 ''tngri'' (55 of them benevolent or "white" and 44 terrifying or "black"), 77 ''natigai'' or "earth-mothers", besides others. The ''tngri'' were called upon only by leaders and great shamans and were common to all the clans. After these, three groups of ancestral spirits dominated. The "Lord-Spirits" were the souls of clan leaders to whom any member of a clan could appeal for physical or spiritual help. The "Protector-Spirits" included the souls of great shamans (''ĵigari'') and shamanesses (''abĵiya''). The "Guardian-Spirits" were made up of the souls of smaller shamans (''böge'') and shamanesses (''idugan'') and were associated with a specific locality (including mountains, rivers, etc.) in the clan's territory.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hesse|first=Klaus|year=1987|title=On the History of Mongolian Shamanism in Anthropological Perspective|journal=Anthropos|volume=82|issue=4-6|pages=403–13|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40463470}}</ref>

In the 1990s, a form of Mongolian neo-shamanism was created which has given a more modern approach to shamanism. Mongolian shamans are now making a business out of their profession and even have offices in the larger towns. At these businesses, a shaman generally heads the organization and performs services such as healing, fortunetelling, and solving all kinds of problems.<ref>Balogh, Matyas. "Contemporary Shamanisms in Mongolia." ''Asian Ethnicity'' 11.2 (2010): 229-38.</ref>

====Hmong shamanism====
{{Main|Hmong customs and culture#Shamanism}}
The Hmong people,<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong_people</ref> as an ancient people of China with a 5,000 year history, continue to maintain and practice its form of shamanism known as "Ua Neeb" in mainland Asia. At the end of the Vietnam War, some 300,000 Hmong have been settled across the globe. They have continued to practice Ua Neeb in various countries in North and South America, Europe and Australia. In the USA, the Hmong shaman practitioner is known as "Txiv Neeb" has been licensed by many hospitals in California as being part of the medical health team to treat patients in hospital. This revival of Ua Neeb in the West has been brought great success and has been hailed in the media as "Doctor for the disease, shaman for the soul".

Being a Hmong shaman represents a true vocation, chosen by the shaman God "Sivyis".<ref>http://www.lexicon.net/drpao/shaman/sivyis/</ref>
A shaman's main job is to bring harmony to the individual, his family and his community within his environment by performing various rituals (trance).

Animal sacrifice has been part of the Hmong shamanic practice for the past 5,000 years. Contrary to the belief of many Westerners, the Hmong practice of using animal in shamanic practice has been done with great respect. After the Vietnam War, over 200,000 Hmong were resettled in the USA and shamanism is still part of the Hmong culture. But due the colluding of culture and the law, as Professor Alison Dundes Renteln, a political science professor at the University of Southern California and author of The Cultural Defense, a book that examines the influence of such cases on U.S. courts, once said, "We say that as a society we welcome diversity, and in fact that we embrace it...In practice, it's not that easy.".<ref name="usatoday.com">{{cite news| url=http://www.usatoday.com/educate/firstamendment/religion_052504.html | work=USA Today}}</ref>

The Hmong believe that all things on Earth have a soul(s) and those souls are treated as equal and can be considered interchangeable. When a person is sick due to his soul being loss or captured by wild spirit, it is necessary to ask and get permission of that animal, whether it is a chicken, pig, dog, goat or any other animals required, to use its soul for an exchange with that person's soul for a period of 12 months. At the end of that 12 month period, during the Hmong New Year, the shaman performed a special ritual to release the soul of that animal and send it off to the world beyond. As part of his service to mankind, the animal soul is sent off to be re-incarnated into a higher form of animal or even to become a member of a god's family (ua Fuab Tais Ntuj tus tub, tus ntxhais) to live a life of luxury, free of the suffering as an animal. Hence, being asked to perform this duty (what Westerner called "animal sacrifice") is one of the a greatest honors for that animal to be able to serve mankind. The Hmong of Southeast Guizhou will cover the [[rooster|cock]] with a piece of red cloth and then hold it up to worship and sacrifice to the Heaven and the Earth before the [[Cockfight (Sacred)|cockfight]].<ref>Southeast Guizhou Travel Tips - China Highlights, a division of CITS Guilin, a full service China travel agency providing China Tours</ref> In a 2010 trial of a Sheboygan Wisconsin Hmong that was charged with staging a cockfight, it was stated that the roosters were “kept for both food and religious purposes”<ref>[http://whbl.com/news/articles/2010/apr/08/day-one-cockfighting-trial-books/ Cockfight Trial UnderwayWHBL News April 08, 2010]</ref> followed by an acquittal.<ref>[http://whbl.com/news/articles/2010/apr/08/day-one-cockfighting-trial-books/ Not Guilty Verdict In Cockfighting Trial WHBL News April 09, 2010]</ref>

In addition to the spiritual dimension, Hmong shaman can treat many physical illnesses by using text of sacred words (khawv koob).

====Korea====
{{Main|Korean shamanism}}
Shamanism is still practiced in [[South Korea]], where the role of a shaman is most frequently taken by women known as ''mudangs'', while male shamans (rare) are called baksoo mudangs. Korean shamans are considered to be from a low class.

A person can become a shaman through hereditary title or through natural ability. Shamans are consulted in contemporary society for financial and marital decisions.

====Japan====
{{Main|Shinto|Ainu religion|Ryukyuan religion}}
Shamanism is part of the native Japanese religion of [[Shinto]].The distinction is that Shinto is Shamanism for agricultural society. Today Shinto has morphed with Buddhism and other Japanese folk culture. The book "''Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods''" by Percival Lowell delves further into researching Japanese Shamanism or [[Shintoism]].<ref>Percival Lowell, Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods, Inner Traditions International (April 1990), Rochester Vt</ref> It is generally accepted that the vast majority of Japanese people take part in Shinto rituals. The book ''Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto'' uncovers the extraordinary aspects of Japanese beliefs.<ref>Alan Mcfarlane, ''Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto'', Profile Books Ltd, Aug 2007, London England</ref><ref>[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fb20071007a1.html Japantimes.co.jp]</ref>

====Siberia and North Asia====
{{Main|Shamanism in Siberia}}
[[File:AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Ainu people|Ainu]] bear sacrifice. Japanese scroll painting, circa 1870.]]
[[Siberia]] is regarded as the ''locus classicus'' of shamanism.<ref name=locclass>Hoppál 2005:13</ref> It is inhabited by many different ethnic groups. Many of its peoples observe shamanistic practices even in modern times. Many classical ethnographic sources of "shamanism" were recorded among Siberian peoples.

[[Manchu people|Manchu]] Shamanism is one of very few Shamanist traditions which had official status into the modern era, by becoming one of the imperial cults of the [[Qing Dynasty]] of [[China]] (alongside [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]] and traditional [[Heaven worship]]. The [[Palace of Earthly Tranquility]], one of the principal halls of the [[Forbidden City]] in [[Beijing]], was partly dedicated to Shamanist rituals. The ritual set-up is still preserved ''in situ'' today.

Among the Siberian [[Chukchis]] peoples, a shaman is interpreted as someone who is [[Spirit possession|possessed]] by a spirit who demands that someone assume the shamanic role for their people. Among the Buryat, there is a ritual known as "shanar"<ref>[http://texts.00.gs/Shanar.htm Shanar Buryat]</ref> whereby a candidate is consecrated as shaman by another, already-established shaman.

Among several [[Samoyedic peoples]] shamanism was a living tradition also in modern times, especially at groups living in isolation until recent times ([[Nganasan people|Nganasan]]s).<ref name=ngan>Hoppál 2005:92–93</ref> The last notable Nganasan shaman's seances could be recorded on film in the 1970s.<ref name="Hoppal" /><ref name=ngan/>

When the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949 and the border with Russian Siberia was formally sealed, many nomadic Tungus groups that practiced shamanism were confined in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. These include the Evenki. The last shaman of the Oroqen, Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), died in October 2000.

In many other cases, shamanism was in decline even at the beginning of 20th century ([[Romani people|Gypsies]]).<ref name="Hoppal_a" />

====Central Asia====

=====Geographic influences on Central Asian shamanism=====
Geographical factors heavily influence the character and development of the religion, myths, rituals and epics of Central Asia. While in other parts of the world, religious rituals are primarily used to promote agricultural prosperity, here they were used to ensure success in hunting and breeding livestock. Animals are one of the most important elements of indigenous religion in Central Asia because of the role they play in the survival of the nomadic civilizations of the steppes as well as sedentary populations living on land not conducive to agriculture. Shamans wore animal skins and feathers and underwent transformations into animals during spiritual journeys. In addition, animals served as humans' guides, rescuers, ancestors, totems and sacrificial victims.<ref>Julian Baldick, ''Animal and Shaman: Ancient Religions of Central Asia'' (New York: University Press, 2000), 3-35</ref> As a religion of nature, shamanism throughout Central Asia held particular reverence for the relations between sky, earth and water and believed in the mystical importance of trees and mountains. Shamanism in Central Asia also places a strong emphasis on the opposition between summer and winter, corresponding to the huge differences in temperature common in the region. The harsh conditions and poverty caused by the extreme temperatures drove Central Asian nomads throughout history to pursue militaristic goals against their sedentary neighbors. This military background can be seen in the reverence for horses and warriors within many indigenous religions.<ref>Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, ''Shamanism: Soviet Studies of Traditional Religion in Siberia and Central Asia'' (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1990), 113</ref>

=====Common shamanic practices and beliefs shared among Central Asians=====
Central Asian shamans served as sacred intermediaries between the human and spirit world. In this role they took on tasks such as healing, divination, appealing to ancestors, manipulating the elements, leading lost souls and officiating public religious rituals. The shamanic séance served as a public display of the shaman's journey to the spirit world and usually involved intense trances, drumming, dancing, chanting, elaborate costumes, miraculous displays of physical strength, and audience involvement. The goal of these séances ranged from recovering the lost soul of a sick patient and divining the future to controlling the weather and finding a lost person or thing. The use of sleight-of-hand tricks, ventriloquism, and hypnosis were common in these rituals but did not explain the more impressive feats and actual cures accomplished by shamans.<ref>Nora K. Chadwick, "Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia," ''The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', Vol. 66, (Jan.-Jun., 1936): 97-99</ref>

Shamans perform in a "state of ecstasy" deliberately induced by an effort of will. Reaching this altered state of consciousness required great mental exertion, concentration and strict self-discipline. Mental and physical preparation included long periods of silent meditation, fasting, and smoking. In this state, skilled shamans employ capabilities that the human organism cannot accomplish in the ordinary state. Shamans in ecstasy displayed unusual physical strength, the ability to withstand extreme temperatures, the bearing of stabbing and cutting without pain, and the heightened receptivity of the sense organs. Shamans made use of intoxicating substances and hallucinogens, especially mukhomor mushrooms and alcohol, as a means of hastening the attainment of ecstasy.<ref>Balzer, ''Shamanism'', 12-21</ref>

The use of purification by fire is an important element of the shamanic tradition dating back as early as the 6th century. People and things connected with the dead had to be purified by passing between fires. These purifications were complex exorcisms while others simply involved the act of literally walking between two fires while being blessed by the Shaman. Shamans in literature and practice were also responsible for using special stones to manipulate weather. Rituals are performed with these stones to attract rain or repel snow, cold or wind. This "rain-stone" was used for many occasions including bringing an end to drought as well as producing hailstorms as a means of warfare.<ref>John Andrew Boyle, "Turkish and Mongol Shamanism in the Middle Ages," ''Folklore'' Vol. 83 (1972): 183-185</ref>
Despite distinctions between various types of shamans and specific traditions, there is a uniformity throughout the region manifested in the personal beliefs, objectives, rituals, symbols and the appearance of shamans.

=====Shamanic rituals as artistic performance=====
The shamanic ceremony is both a religious ceremony and an artistic performance. The fundamental purpose of the dramatic displays seen during shamanic ceremonies is not to draw attention or to create a spectacle for the audience as many Westerners have come to believe, but to lead the tribe in a solemn ritualistic process.

In general, all performances consist of four elements: dance, music, poetry and dramatic or mimetic action. The use of these elements serves the purpose of outwardly expressing his mystical communion with nature and the spirits for the rest of the tribe. The true shaman can make the journey to the spirit world at any time and any place, but shamanic ceremonies provide a way for the rest of the tribe to share in this religious experience. The shaman changes his voice mimetically to represent different persons, gods, and animals while his music and dance change to show his progress in the spirit world and his different spiritual interactions. Many shamans practice ventriloquism and make use of their ability to accurately imitate the sounds of animals, nature, humans and other noises in order to provide the audience with the ambiance of the journey. Elaborate dances and recitations of songs and poetry are used to make the shamans spiritual adventures into a matter of living reality to his audience.<ref>Chadwick, ''Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia'': 93-101</ref>

=====Costume and accessories=====
The shaman's attire varies throughout the region but his chief accessories are his coat, cap, and tambourine or drum. The transformation into an animal is an important aspect of the journey into the spirit world undertaken during shamanic rituals so the coat is often decorated with birds feathers and representations of animals, coloured handkerchiefs, bells and metal ornaments. The cap is usually made from the skin of a bird with the feathers and sometimes head, still attached.

The drum or tambourine is the essential means of communicating with spirits and enabling the shaman to reach altred states of consciousness on his journey. The drum, representing the universe in epitome, is often divided into equal halves to represent the earth and lower realms. Symbols and natural objects are added to the drum representing natural forces and heavenly bodies.<ref>Chadwick, ''Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia'',: 85-87</ref>

=====Shamanism in Tsarist and Soviet Russia=====
In Soviet Central Asia, the Soviet government persecuted and denounced shamans as practitioners of fraudulent medicine and perpetuators of outdated religious beliefs in the new age of science and logic. The radical transformations occurring after the October Socialist Revolution led to a sharp decrease in the activity of shamans. Shamans represented an important component in the traditional culture of Central Asians and because of their important role in society, Soviet organizations and campaigns targeted shamans in their attempt to eradicate traditional influences in the lives of the indigenous peoples. Along with persecution under the tsarist and Soviet regimes, the spread of Christianity and Islam had a role in the disintegration of native faith throughout central Asia. Poverty, political instability and foreign influence are also detrimental to a religion that requires publicity and patronage to flourish.
By the 1980s most shamans were discredited in the eyes of their people by Soviet officials and physicians.<ref>Balzer, ''Shamanism'', 42-49</ref>

====Other Asian traditions====
{{See|Wu (shaman)}}
{{Synthesis|section|date=October 2009}}
There is a strong shamanistic influence in the [[Bön]] religion in [[Central Asian]], and in [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. Buddhism became popular with shamanic peoples such as the [[Tibetans]], [[Mongols]], and [[Manchu people|Manchu]] beginning in the eighth century. Forms of shamanistic ritual combined with Tibetan Buddhism became institutionalized as a major religion under the Mongolian [[Yuan dynasty]] and the Manchurian [[Qing dynasty]]. However, in the shamanic cultures still practiced by various ethnic groups in areas such as [[Nepal]] and northern India, shamans are not necessarily considered enlightened, and often are even feared for their ability to use their power to carry out malicious intent.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}
[[File:Polovtsy.jpg|thumb|Kipchak stone statues of [[Pontic steppes]]. The nomadic [[Kipchak people|Kipchaks]] followed a Shamanist religion.]]

In Tibet, the Nyingma schools in particular, had a Tantric tradition that had married "priests" known as Ngakpas or Ngakmas/mos (fem.). The Ngakpas were often employed or commissioned to rid the villages of demons or disease, creations of protective amulets, the carrying out of religious rites etc. The Ngakpas should however, have been grounded in Buddhist philosophy and not simply another form of shaman, but sadly,{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} this was most often not the case. There have always been, however, highly realised and accomplished ngakpas. They were in their own right great lamas who were of equal status as lamas with monastic backgrounds. The monasteries, as in many conventional religious institutions, wished to preserve their own traditions. The monasteries depended upon the excesses of patrons for support. This situation often led to a clash between the more grassroots and shamanic character of the travelling ''[[Chöd]]pa'' and ''[[Ngakpa]]'' culture and the more conservative religious monastic system.<ref>''Economy of Excess''. George Bataille.</ref>{{Failed verification|date=October 2009}}

"[[Jhakri]]" is the common name used for shamans in [[Sikkim]], [[India]]. They exist in the [[Limbu]], [[Sunuwar]], [[Rai people|Rai]], [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]], [[Kami]], [[Tamang]], [[Gurung]] and [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]] communities.<ref>{{harvnb |Gulia |2005 | |pp=153–4 }}</ref> They are inflluenced by [[Hinduism]], Tibetan Buddhism, [[Mun (religion)|Mun]] and Bön rites.<ref>{{harvnb |Gulia |2005 | |p=168 }}</ref>

Shamanism is still widely practiced in the [[Ryukyu Islands]] ([[Okinawa]], [[Japan]]), where shamans are known as 'Noro' (all women) and 'Yuta'. 'Noro' generally administer public or communal ceremonies while 'Yuta' focus on civil and private matters. Shamanism is also practiced in a few rural areas in Japan proper. It is commonly believed that the [[Shinto]] religion is the result of the transformation of a shamanistic tradition into a religion.
Forms of practice vary somewhat in the several Ryukyu islands, so that there is, e.g., a distinct [http://texts.00.gs/Miyako_Shamanism.htm '''Miyako''' shamanism].

Shamanism practices seem to have been preserved in the Catholic religious traditions of aborigines in [[Taiwan]].<ref>O. Lardenois, [http://www.erenlai.com/media/downloads/TheologicalShamanismLardenois.pdf Shamanism and Catholic Indigenous Communities in Taiwan]</ref>

In [[Vietnam]], shamans conduct rituals in many of the religious traditions that co-mingle in the majority and minority populations. In their rituals, music, dance, special garments and offerings are part of the performance that surround the spirit journey.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/vietnam/07_other/ |title=Journeys to Other Worlds: The Rites of Shamans |last= |first= |publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}</ref>

===Europe===
[[File:Sami shamanic drum.JPG|thumb|[[Noaide|Sami shamanic drum]] in the [[Arktikum Science Museum]], in [[Rovaniemi]], Finland]]
{{main|Shamanism in Europe}}
{{further|Noaide|Sami shamanism|Finnish mythology|}}
{{further|Hungarian mythology|Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore}}
{{further|Magic in the Greco-Roman world|European witchcraft}}
{{further|Astuvansalmi|Astuvansalmi rock paintings}}
While shamanism had a strong tradition in Europe before the rise of monotheism, shamanism remains a traditional, organized religion in northern Eurasia, including [[Mari-El]] and [[Udmurtia]], two semi-autonomous provinces of Russia with large minority populations. Shamanism in Scandinavia may be represented in rock art dating to the Neolithic era<ref>Bolin 2000: 157</ref> and was practiced throughout the Iron Age by the various [[Germanic peoples|Teutonic]] tribes and the [[Baltic-Finnic]] peoples.<ref name=jon-shaman>A. Asbjorn Jon, [http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol10/pdf/teuton.pdf Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn]</ref> People which used to live in Siberia, have wandered to their present locations since then. For example, many Uralic peoples live now outside Siberia, however the original location of the [[Proto-Uralic language|Proto-Uralic]] peoples (and its extent) is debated. Combined [[Phytogeography|phytogeographical]] and linguistic considerations (distribution of various tree species and the presence of their names in various Uralic languages) suggest that this area was north of Central [[Ural Mountains]] and on lower and middle parts of [[Ob River]].<ref name=ancloc>Hajdú 1975:35</ref> The ancestors of [[Hungarian people]] or Magyars have wandered from their ancestral proto-Uralic area to the [[Pannonian Basin]]. Shamanism played an important role in [[Mythology of the Turkic and Mongolian peoples|Turko-Mongol mythology]]. [[Tengriism]], the major belief among [[Xiongnu]] or Mongol and [[Turkic peoples]], [[Magyars]] and [[Bulgars]] in ancient times incorporates elements of shamanism. Shamanism is no more a living practice among Hungarians, but remnants have been reserved as fragments of folklore, in folktales, customs.<ref>Diószegi 1998</ref>

Various scholars have also argued that shamanism was once widespread across Europe prior to Christianisation. Some historians of the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern period have argued that traces of shamanistic traditions can be seen in the popular folk belief of this period. Most prominent among these was the Italian [[Carlo Ginzburg]], who claimed shamanistic elements in the ''[[benandanti]]'' custom of 16th century Italy,<ref>[[#Gin83|Ginzburg 1983 [1966]]].</ref> the Hungarian [[Éva Pócs]], who identified them in the ''[[táltos]]'' tradition of Hungary,<ref>[[#Poc99|Pócs 1999]].</ref> and the Frenchman [[Claude Lecouteux]], who has argued that Medieval traditions regarding the soul are based on earlier shamanic ideas.<ref>[[#Lec03|Lecouteux 2003]].</ref> Ginzburg in particular has argued that some of these shamanistic traditions influenced the conception of [[witchcraft]] in Christendom, in particular ideas regarding the [[witches' sabbath]], leading to the events of the [[witch trials in the Early Modern period]].<ref>[[#Gin90|Ginzburg 1990]].</ref>

The [[cunning folk]] is an English language term referring to professional or semi-professional Anglo-Celtic practitioners of magic active from at least the 15th up until the early 20th century particularly throughout rural United Kingdom (and possibly into the 21st century among the diaspora). They practiced [[folk magic]] – also known as "low magic" – although often combined this with elements of "high" or [[ceremonial magic]]. Such people were also frequently known across England as "wizards", "wise men" or "wise women", or in southern England and Wales as "conjurers" or as "dyn(es) hysbys" in the Welsh language. In Cornwall they were sometimes referred to as [[pellars]], which some etymologists suggest originated from the term [[expellers]], referring to the practice of expelling evil spirits. Many have argued that this is evidence that community shamanism was practiced in the UK up until to the modern era.
Christian sanctioned Laws were enacted across England, Scotland and Wales that often condemned cunning folk and their magical practices.

In Scandinavia the klok gumma ("wise woman") or klok gubbe ("wise man"), and collectively De kloka ("The Wise ones"), as they were known in Swedish, were usually elder members of the community who acted as [[naturopathic]] doctors and midwives as well as using folk magic such as magic rhymes. In Denmark they were called klog mand ("wise man") and klog kone ("wise woman") and collectively as kloge folk ("wise folk").

The names used for cunning-folk in Italy vary from region to region, although such names include praticos (wise people), guaritori (healers), fattucchiere (fixers), donne che aiutano (women who help) and mago, maga or maghiardzha (sorcerers). At times, they were sometimes called streghe (witches), although usually only "behind their backs or by those who either are sceptical of their powers or believe they deal in black magic." The cunning profession akin to Shamanism survived the 20th century and into the early 21st, allowing Italian-American sociologist Sabina Magliocco to make a brief study of them (2009).

===Circumpolar shamanism===

====Inuit and Yupik cultures====
[[File:Yupik shaman Nushagak.jpg|thumb|Yup'ik shaman exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy, [[Nushagak, Alaska]], 1890s.<ref>Fienup-Riordan, Ann. 1994:206</ref> Nushagak, located on [[Nushagak Bay]] of the Bering Sea in southwest [[Alaska]], is part of the territory of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik|Yup'ik]], speakers of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language]]]]
{{Main|Shamanism among Eskimo peoples}}
[[Eskimo]] groups inhabit a huge area stretching from [[Eastern Siberia]] through Alaska and Northern Canada (including [[Labrador Peninsula]]) to [[Greenland]]. Shamanistic practice and beliefs have been recorded at several parts of this vast area crosscutting continental borders.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid>Merkur 1985</ref><ref name=Gab-KarEszk/><ref name=KleiSon-Esk>Kleivan & Sonne 1985</ref>
{{IPA notice}}

When speaking of "shamanism" in various Eskimo groups, we must remember that (as mentioned above) the term "shamanism" can cover certain characteristics of ''various'' different cultures.<ref name="cogmap"/> [[#Mediator|Mediation]] is regarded often as an important aspect of shamanism in general.<ref name=med>Hoppál 2005:45–50</ref> Also in most Eskimo groups, the role of mediator is known well:<ref name=menmed>Menovščikov 1996:442</ref> the person filling it in is actually believed to be able to contact the beings who populate the belief system. Term "shaman" is used in several English-language publications also in relation to Eskimos.<ref name="Mer-BecHalfHid"/><ref name=KleiSon-Esk/><ref>Vitebsky 1996</ref><ref>Freuchen 1961: 32</ref> Also the ''alignalghi'' ({{IPA-iu|aˈliɣnalʁi|IPA}}) of the Asian Eskimos is translated as "shaman" in the Russian<ref>Рубцова 1954: 203, 209</ref> and English<ref name=menmed/> literature.

The belief system assumes specific links between the living people, the souls of hunted animals, and those of dead people.<ref>Both death of a person and successfully hunted game require that cutting, sewing etc. be tabooed, so that the invisible soul does not get hurt accidentally (Kleivan&Sonne, pp. 18–21). In Greenland, the transgression of death tabu could turn the soul of the dead into a ''tupilak'', a restless ghost which scared game away (Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 23). Animals fled from hunter in case of taboo breaches, e.g. birth taboo, death taboo (Kleivan&Sonne, pp. 12–13)</ref> The [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] concepts of several groups are specific examples of [[soul dualism]] (showing variability in details in the various cultures).

Unlike the majority of shamanisms the careers of most Eskimo shamans lack the motivation of ''force'': becoming a shaman is usually a result of deliberate consideration, not a necessity forced by the spirits.<ref name="failed-shaman"/>

====Diversity, with similarities====
Another possible concern: do the belief systems of various Eskimo groups have such common features at all, that would justify any mentioning them together? There was no political structure above the groups, their languages were relative, but differed more or less, often forming [[language continuum]]s (online<ref name=complink>[http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/yupik_inuit.html Lawrence Kaplan: Comparative Yupik and Inuit] (found on the site of [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/index.html Alaska Native Language Center])</ref>).

There are similarities in the cultures of the Eskimo groups<ref>Kleivan 1985:8</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965:366 (ch. XXIII)</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965:166 (ch. XIII)</ref><ref name=padlgreen>Rasmussen 1965:110 (ch. VIII)</ref><ref name=Mau-Mor>Mauss 1979</ref> together with diversity, far from homogeneity.<ref>Kleivan 1985:26</ref>

The Russian linguist Menovshikov (Меновщиков), an expert of [[Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]] and [[Sireniki Eskimo language]]s (while admitting that he is not a specialist in ethnology<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]:433</ref>) mentions, that the shamanistic seances of those [[Siberian Yupik]] and [[Sireniki Eskimos|Sireniki]] groups he has seen have many similarities to those of Greenland Inuit groups described by [[Fridtjof Nansen]],<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]:442</ref> although a large distance separates Siberia and Greenland. There may be certain similarities also in Asiatic groups with North American ones.<ref>Vitebsky 1996:42 (ch. ''North America'')</ref> Also the usage of a specific shaman's language is documented among several Eskimo groups, used mostly for talking to spirits.<ref>Merkur 1985:7</ref><ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985:14</ref> Also the Ungazighmiit (belonging to [[Siberian Yupik]]s) had a special [[Allegory|allegoric]] usage of some expressions.<ref>Rubcova 1954:128</ref>

The local cultures showed great diversity. The myths concerning the role of shaman had several variants, and also the name of their protagonists varied from culture to culture. For example, a mythological figure, usually referred to in the literature by the collective term [[Sedna (mythology)|Sea Woman]], has factually many local names: Nerrivik "meat dish" among Polar Inuit, Nuliayuk "lubricous" among [[Netsilingmiut]], Sedna "the nether one" among Baffin Land Inuit.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 27</ref> Also the soul conceptions, e.g. the details of the [[soul dualism]] showed great variability, ranging from guardianship to a kind of [[reincarnation]]. Conceptions of spirits or other beings had also many variants (see e.g. the [[tupilaq]] concept).<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 30–31</ref>

===Africa===
{{See also|African traditional religion|Witch doctor|Sangoma}}
[[File:Sangoma performing a Baptism.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Traditional Healers of South Africa|Sangoma/Inyanga]] performing a traditional baptism on a baby in order to protect the spirit of the baby, Johannesburg, South Africa]]
In central Mali, [[Dogon people|Dogon]] sorcerers (both male and female) claim to have communication with a head deity named Amma, who advises them on healing and divination practices.

In the early 19th century traditional healers in parts of Africa were often referred to in a derogatory manner as [[witch doctor|"witch doctors"]] practicing [[Juju]] by early European settlers and explorers.

Contemporary ethnology records that the [[Bushmen]], or their ancestors distributed throughout Southern Africa before the 20th century, practiced shamanism. In the semi-desert Northern Cape region, the shamans of the |Xam people were known by the compound word '!gi:ten', where '!gi' is 'power' and 'ten' indicated possession. The word is phonetically identical to the Xhosa word for 'doctor'. In areas in Eastern Free State and Lesotho, where they co-existed with the early [[Sotho people|Sotho]] tribes, local folklore describes them to have lived in caves where they drew pictures on cave walls during a trance and were also reputed to be good rainmakers.

The classical meaning of shaman as a person who, after recovering from a mental illness (or insanity) takes up the professional calling of socially recognized religious practitioner, is exemplified among the [[Sisala]] (of northern Gold Coast) : "the fairies "seized" him and made him insane for several months. Eventually, though, he learned to control their power, which he now uses to divine."<ref>Eugene L. Mendonsa : ''The Politics of Divination : a Processual View of Reactions to Illness and Deviance among the Sisala''. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1982. p. 112</ref>

The term ''[[sangoma]]'', as employed in [[Zulu people|Zulu]] and congeneric languages, is effectively equivalent to shaman. Sangomas are highly revered and respected in their society, where illness is thought to be caused by [[witchcraft]],<ref>David M Cumes"Africa in my bones" pp.14</ref> pollution (contact with impure objects or occurrences) or by the ancestors themselves,<ref>Susan Schuster Campbell"Called to Heal" pp.38</ref> either malevolently, or through neglect if they are not respected, or to show an individual her calling to become a sangoma (thwasa).<ref>Susan Schuster Campbell"Called to Heal" pp.79</ref> For harmony between the living and the dead, vital for a trouble-free life, the ancestors must be shown respect through ritual and animal sacrifice.<ref>David M Cumes"Africa in my bones" pp.10</ref>

The term ''[[inyanga]]'' also employed by the [[Nguni people|Nguni]] cultures is equivalent to 'herbalist' as used by the Zulu people and a variation used by the [[Karanga]],<ref>http://texts.00.gs/Karanga_shamanism.htm Karanga_shamanism</ref> among whom remedies (locally known as [[muti]]) for ailments are discovered by the inyanga being informed in a dream, of the herb able to effect the cure and also of where that herb is to be found. The majority of the herbal knowledge base is passed down from one ''inyanga'' to the next, often within a particular family circle in any one village.

Shamanism is known among the Nuba of Kordofan in Sudan.<ref>Nadel, S.F. "A Shaman Cult in the Nuba Mountains". ''Sudan Notes and Records'' 1941; 24(l): 85-112</ref><ref>Nadel, S.F. "A Study of Shamanism in the Nuba Mountains". ''Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute'' 1946; 76:25–37</ref>

===Americas===
{{Main|Shamanism among the indigenous peoples of the Americas}}

====North America====
{{Main|Medicine man}}
[[File:Doña ramona.jpg|thumb|right|Doña Ramona, a Seri shaman from Punta Chueca, Sonora, Mexico.]]
{{Refimprove section|date=September 2009}}
[[File:White indian conjuror.jpg|thumb|[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] "conjuror" in a 1590 engraving]]
[[File:Hamatsa shaman2.jpg|thumb|[[Hamatsa]] ritualist, 1914]]
[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] and [[First Nations]] cultures have diverse religious beliefs. There was never one universal Native American religion or spiritual system. Though many Native American cultures have traditional healers, ritualists, singers, [[Mysticism|mystics]], lore-keepers and "Medicine People", none of them ever used, or use, the term "shaman" to describe these religious leaders. Rather, like other indigenous cultures the world over, their spiritual functionaries are described by words in their own languages, and in many cases are not taught to outsiders.

Many of these indigenous religions have been grossly misrepresented by outside observers and anthropologists, even to the extent of superficial or seriously mistaken anthropological accounts being taken as more authentic than the accounts of actual members of the cultures and religions in question. Often these accounts suffer from "[[Noble savage|Noble Savage]]"-type romanticism and [[racism]]. Some contribute to the fallacy that Native American cultures and religions are something that only existed in the past, and which can be mined for data despite the opinions of Native communities.<ref>Jones, Peter N. 2008 Shamans and Shamanism: A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Terms Use in North America. Boulder, Colorado: Bauu Press.</ref>

Not all Indigenous communities have roles for specific individuals who mediate with the spirit world on behalf of the community. Among those that do have this sort of religious structure, spiritual methods and beliefs may have some commonalities, though many of these commonalities are due to some nations being closely related, from the same region, or through post-Colonial governmental policies leading to the combining of formerly independent nations on reservations. This can sometimes lead to the impression that there is more unity among belief systems than there was in antiquity.

[[Navajo people|Navajo]] medicine men and women, known as "[[Navajo people#Healing and spiritual practices|Hatałii]]", use several methods to diagnose the patient's ailments. These may include using special tools such as crystal rocks, and abilities such as hand-trembling and trances, sometimes accompanied by chanting. The ''Hatałii'' will select a specific healing chant for that type of ailment. Navajo healers must be able to correctly perform a healing ceremony from beginning to end. If they do not, the ceremony will not work. Training a Hatałii to perform ceremonies is extensive, arduous, and takes many years. The apprentice learns everything by watching his teacher, and memorizes the words to all the chants. Many times, a medicine man or woman cannot learn all sixty of the traditional ceremonies, so will opt to specialize in a select few.

=====Extirpation in North America=====
{{Expand section|date=November 2011}}
With the arrival of European [[settler]]s and [[Colony|colonial]] administration, the practice of Native American traditional beliefs was discouraged and Christianity was imposed upon the indigenous people.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

About 1888, a mass movement known as the [[Ghost Dance]] started among the Paviotso (a branch of the Pah-Utes in Nevada) and swept through many tribes of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. The belief was that through practicing the Ghost Dance, a [[messiah]] would come with rituals that would make the white man disappear and bring back game and dead native Americans.<ref>''History of the American Indian'', page 222. Oliver Lafarge 1956</ref> This spread to the Plains tribes, who were starving due to the depletion of the buffalo. Some Sioux, the Arapahos, Cheyennes and Kiowas accepted the doctrine. This form of shamanism was brutally suppressed by the United States military with the death of 128 Sioux at [[Wounded Knee Massacre|the massacre of Wounded Knee]].<ref>lib of congress 56-11375 page 224</ref>

During the last hundred years, thousands of surviving Native Americans, [[First Nations]] youngsters from many cultures were sent into [[Indian boarding school]]s to destroy any tribal, shamanic or totemic faith.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

====Mesoamerica====

=====Maya=====
{{Main|Maya priesthood}}
{{Further|Mayan astrology|Maya religion}}
[[File:Mayan priest performing healing.jpg|thumb|left|[[Maya priesthood|Maya priest]] performing a healing ritual at [[Tikal]].]]
The Maya people of Guatemala, Belize, and southern Mexico practice a highly sophisticated form of shamanism based upon astrology and a form of divination known as "the blood speaking", in which the shaman is guided in divination and healing by pulses in the veins of his arms and legs.

=====Aztec=====
{{Further|Aztec astrology|Aztec religion}}
In contemporary [[Nahuatl]], shamanism is known as ''cualli ohtli'' ("the good path") leading during dreaming by "friends of the night" to [[Tlalocan|''Tlalocán'']].

====South America====
* Shamanic healing is found among the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Kuna (people)|Kuna people]] of Panama, who rely on [[sacred]] [[Amulet|talisman]]s. As such, they enjoy a popular position among local peoples.
* The [[Urarina]] of the Peruvian [[Amazonia]] have an elaborate cosmological system predicated on the [[ritual]] consumption of [[ayahuasca]]. Urarina ayahuasca shamanism is a key feature of this poorly documented society.<ref name="upf.com">Dean, Bartholomew 2009 ''Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia'', Gainesville: University Press of Florida ISBN 978-0-8130-3378-5 [http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=DEANXS07]</ref>
* Among the Brazilian [[Tapirapé people]] shamans are called to serve in their dreams.
* The [[Shuar people]], seeking the power to defend their family against enemies, would apprentice themselves to become shamans.
* [[Santo Daime]] and [[União do Vegetal]] ( abbreviated to [[UDV]]) are syncretic religions with elements of shamanism. They use an [[entheogen]] called ayahuasca to connect with the spirit realm and receive divine guidance.<ref name="Peru" />

=====Amazonia=====
[[File:Chaman amazonie 5 06.jpg|thumb|Shaman from the shuara culture in [[Ecuador]] [[Amazonian forest]], June 2006]]
[[File:Urarina shaman B Dean.jpg|thumb|right|[[Urarina]] [[shaman]], 1988]]
In the Peruvian [[Amazon Basin]] and north coastal regions of the country, the healer shamans are known as [[curandero]]s. ''Ayahuasqueros'' are Peruvian shamans, such as among the [[Urarina people]], who specialize in the use of [[ayahuasca]], a [[psychedelic]] herbal potion used for physical and psychological healing, [[divine revelation]], and for the very reproduction of society itself.<ref name="upf.com"/> ''Ayahuasqueros'' have become popular among Western spiritual seekers, who claim that the shamans and their ayahuasca brews have cured them of everything from depression to addiction to cancer.<ref name="Peru" />

In addition to ''curanderos'' use of ayahuasca and their ritualized ingestion of [[mescaline]]-bearing [[San Pedro cactus]]es (Trichocereus pachanoi) for the [[divination]] and diagnosis of [[Maleficium (sorcery)|sorcery]], north-coastal shamans are famous throughout the region for their intricately complex and symbolically dense healing [[altar]]s called mesas (tables). Sharon (1993) has argued that the mesas symbolize the dualistic ideology underpinning the practice and experience of north-coastal shamanism.<ref>Joralemen, D and D Sharon 1993 Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.</ref> For Sharon, the mesas are the, "physical embodiment of the supernatural opposition between benevolent and malevolent energies" (Dean 1998:61).<ref>Dean, Bartholomew 1998 "Review of Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru" American Ethnologist. 25(1): 61-62.</ref>

In the [[Amazon rainforest]], at several Indian groups the shaman acts also as a manager of scarce ecological resources (paper;<ref name=eco/><ref name=ecopia>Boglár 2001:26</ref> online<ref name=coop/>). The rich symbolism behind [[Tukano people|Tukano]] shamanism has been documented in some in-depth [[field work]]s<ref name="eco"/><ref name=Hug-FrMilkRiv>Christine Hugh-Jones 1980</ref><ref name=Hug-PalmPlei>Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980</ref> even in the last decades of the 20th century.

The ''yaskomo'' of the [[Wai-Wai people|Waiwai]] is believed to be able to perform a [[soul travel|soul flight]]. The soul flight can serve several functions:
* healing
* flying to the sky to consult cosmological beings (the moon or the brother of the moon) to get a name for a newborn baby
* flying to the cave of ''peccaries' mountains'' to ask the ''father of peccaries'' for abundance of game
* flying deep down in a river, to achieve the help of other beings.
Thus, a yaskomo is believed to be able to reach sky, earth, water, in short, every element.<ref name="yaskomo soul flight">Fock 1963: 16</ref>

Shamanism among the [[Yanomamo|Yąnomamö]] (of the Venezolano Amazonas and the Brazilian Roraima) is described in ''Tales of the Yanomami'' by Jacques Lizot.

=====Mapuche=====
Among the [[Mapuche]] people of [[Chile]], the community shaman, usually a woman, is known as the ''[[Machi (Shaman)|Machi]]'', and serves the community by performing ceremonies to cure diseases, ward off evil, influence the weather and harvest, and by practicing other forms of healing such as herbalism.

=====Aymara=====
For the [[Aymara people|Aymara]] people of South America the [[Yatiri]] is a healer who heals the body and the soul, they serve the community and do the rituals for [[Pachamama]].

=====Fuegians=====
{{IPA notice}}
Although [[Fuegians]] (the indigenous peoples of [[Tierra del Fuego]]) were all [[hunter-gatherer]]s,<ref>Gusinde 1966, pp. 6–7</ref> they did not share a common culture. The material culture was not homogenous, either: the big island and the archipelago made two different adaptations possible. Some of the cultures were coast-dwelling, others were land-oriented.<ref name=Ser-Hun>Service, Elman: The Hunter. Prentice-Hall, 1966.</ref><ref name=ExtAnc>[http://www.trivia-library.com/c/extinct-ancient-societies-tierra-del-fuegians.htm Extinct Ancient Societies Tierra del Fuegians]</ref>

Both [[Selk'nam]] and [[Yámana]] had persons filling in [[shaman]]-like roles.
The Selk'nams believed their {{IPA|/xon/}}s to have supernatural capabilities, e.g. to control weather.<ref>Gusinde 1966:175</ref><ref>[http://www.victory-cruises.com/ona_indian.html About the Ona Indian Culture in Tierra del Fuego]</ref> The figure of {{IPA|/xon/}} appeared in myths, too.<ref>Gusinde 1966:15</ref> The Yámana {{IPA|/jekamuʃ/}}<ref>Gusinde 1966:156</ref> corresponds to the Selknam {{IPA|/xon/}}.<ref>Gusinde 1966:186</ref>

===Oceania===
{{See also|Umbarra|Tunggal panaluan}}
On the island of [[Papua New Guinea]], indigenous tribes believe that illness and calamity are caused by dark spirits, or ''masalai'', which cling to a person's body and [[poison]] them. Shamans are summoned in order to purge the unwholesome spirits from a person.<ref name=FourCorners_Amazon_entry>{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/Four-Corners-Journey-Heart-Guinea/dp/0792274172/ref=pd_bxgy_b_img_b |title=Amazon.com listing for the "Four Corners: A Journey into the Heart of Papua New Guinea" }}</ref><ref name=FourCornersWeb>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/FourCorners.html |title=Kira Salak's official webpage on "Four Corners" |last=Salak |first=Kira }}</ref> Shamans also perform [[rainmaking]] ceremonies and can allegedly improve a hunter's ability to catch animals.<ref name=MakingRain>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/MakingRain.html |title=MAKING RAIN--from Four Corners |last=Salak |first=Kira }}</ref>

In Australia various aboriginal groups refer to their shamans as "clever men" and "clever women" also as ''kadji''. These aboriginal shamans use ''[[maban]]'' or ''mabain'', the material that is believed to give them their purported magical powers. Besides healing, contact with spiritual beings, involvement in initiation and other secret ceremonies, they are also enforcers of tribal laws, keepers of special knowledge and may "[[hex]]" to death one who breaks a social taboo by singing a song only known to the "clever men".

===Contemporary Western shamanism===
{{Main|Neoshamanism|Core shamanism}}
There is an endeavor in some contemporary [[occultism|occult]] and [[esotericism|esoteric]] circles to reinvent shamanism in a modern form, often drawing from [[core shamanism]]—a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by [[Michael Harner]]—centered use of ritual drumming and dance, and Harner's interpretations of various indigenous religions. Harner has faced criticism for taking pieces of diverse religions out of their cultural contexts and synthesising a set of universal shamanic techniques. Some neoshamans focus on the ritual use of entheogens{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}, as well as embrace the philosophies of [[chaos magic]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} while others (such as [[Jan Fries]]<ref>Visual Magic:A Manual of Freestyle Shamanism:Jan Fries ISBN 1-869928-57-1</ref>) have created their own forms of shamanism.

European-based neoshamanic traditions are focused upon the researched or imagined traditions of ancient Europe, where many [[mystical]] practices and belief systems were suppressed by the Christian church. Some of these practitioners express a desire to practice a system that is based upon their own ancestral traditions. Some anthropologists and practitioners have discussed the impact of such neoshamanism as "giving extra pay" (Harvey, 1997 and elsewhere) to indigenous American traditions, particularly as many pagan or heathen shamanic practitioners do not call themselves shamans, but instead use specific names derived from the European traditions -they work within such as ''[[völva]]'' or ''seidkona'' ([[seiðr|seid-woman]]) of the sagas (see Blain 2002, Wallis 2003).

Many New Age spiritual seekers travel to Peru to work with ''ayahuasqueros'', shamans who engage in the ritual use of ayahuasca, a psychedelic tea which has been documented to cure everything from depression to addiction. When taking ayahuasca, participants frequently report meeting spirits, sometimes called [[machine elf|machine elves]], and receiving divine revelations.<ref name="Peru" /> Shamanistic techniques have also been used in New Age therapies which use enactment and association with other realities as an intervention.<ref>[http://www.ull.es/congresos/conmirel/YORK.html ULL – Universidad de La Laguna] {{es icon}}</ref><ref>[http://nlpuniversitypress.com/html/CaCom08.html Encyclopedia of NLP]</ref>

==Criticism of the term==
{{weasel words|date=June 2012}}
[[File:Shaman tableau.png|thumb|A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "shaman" in the literature. The tableau presents the diversity of this concept.]]
Certain anthropologists, most notably [[Alice Kehoe]] in her book ''Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking'', are highly critical of the term "shaman". Part of this criticism involves the notion of [[cultural appropriation]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} This includes criticism of [[New Age]] and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, according to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute indigenous practices. Alice Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such as the [[Noble Savage]].

Kehoe is highly critical of [[Mircea Eliade]]'s work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, what some scholars of shamanism treat as being definitive of shamanism (most notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogens, spirit communication and healing) are practices that exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and play similar roles even in non-shamanic cultures (such as the role of chanting in [[Judeo-Christian]] and Islamic rituals) and that in their expression are unique to each culture that uses them and cannot be generalized easily, accurately or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the notion that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the [[Paleolithic]] period.

[[Mihály Hoppál]] also discusses whether the term "shamanism" is appropriate. He recommends using the term "shamanhood"<ref name=summer/> or "shamanship"<ref>Hoppál & Szathmári & Takács 2006: 14</ref> (a term used in old Russian and German [[ethnography|ethnographic]] reports at the beginning of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on the local variations<ref name="cogmap" /> and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred [[dogma]]s, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way.<ref>Hoppál 1998:40</ref> Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift.<ref name=summer>[http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/coming.html ISSR, 2001 Summer], abstract online in 2nd half of 2nd paragraph)</ref> [[Piers Vitebsky]] also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although, as for the past, their existence is not impossible).<ref>Vitebsky 1996:11</ref>

== See also ==
{{Div col|cols=3}}
* [[Alberto Villoldo]]
* [[Astral spirits]]
* [[Animism]]
* [[Carlos Castaneda]]
* [[Cultural imperialism]]
* [[Curandero]]
* [[Heaven worship]]
* [[Inuit]]
* [[Itako]]
* [[Mana]]
* [[Machi (Shaman)]]
* [[Machine elf]]
* [[Nature worship]]
* [[Neuroanthropology]]
* [[Neurotheology]]
* [[Ovoo]]
* [[Paganism]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[Peyote]]
* [[Plastic shaman]]
* [[Power animal]]
* [[Prehistoric medicine]]
* [[Religion in China]]
* [[Sacred Hoop Magazine]]
* [[Seið]]
* [[Shaman's Drum Journal]]
* ''[[Shaman King]]''
* [[Shapeshifting]]
* [[Shintō]]
* [[Shramana]]
* [[Soul catcher]]
* [[Spirit spouse (in dreams)]]
* [[Tengri]]
* [[Terence McKenna]]
* [[Tulpa]]
* [[Turkic people]]
* [[Witch doctor]]
* [[Yatiri]]
* [[Zduhać]]
{{Div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite book |last=Barüske |first=Heinz |title=Eskimo Märchen |series=Die Märchen der Weltliteratur |publisher=Eugen Diederichs Verlag |location=Düsseldorf • Köln |year=1969 |language=German}} The title means: "Eskimo tales", the series means: "The tales of world literature".
* Berman, Michael. Shamanic Journeys through Daghestan. Winchester, UK: O, 2009.
* {{cite book |last=Boglár |first=Lajos |title=A kultúra arcai. Mozaikok a kulturális antropológia köreiből |publisher=Napvilág Kiadó |series=TÁRStudomány|location=Budapest |year=2001 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9082-94-5}} The title means "The faces of culture. Mosaics fom the area of cultural anthropology".
* {{cite journal |last=Bolin |first=Hans |title=Animal Magic: The mythological significance of elks, boats and humansin north Swedish rock art |journal=Journal of Material Culture. |volume= 5(2): 153-176. |year=2000 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Czaplicka |first=M. A. |others=preface by Marett, R. R. |chapter=Types of shaman |chapterurl=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm |title=Shamanism in Siberia. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in social anthropology |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis00.htm |publisher=Sommerville College, University of Oxford, Clarendon Press |year=1914 |isbn=1-60506-060-7}}
* <cite id=Dana04>{{cite journal |last=Dana |first=Kathleen Osgood |title=Áillohaš and his image drum: the native poet as shaman |journal=Nordlit |volume=15 |year=2004 summer |publisher=Faculty of Humanities, University of Tromsø |format=PDF |url=http://uit.no/getfile.php?PageId=977&FileId=183#search=%22Juha%20Pentik%C3%A4inen%20grammar%20of%20mind%22 |ref=harv}}</cite>
* {{cite web |last=Deschênes |first=Bruno |title=Inuit Throat-Singing |work=Musical Traditions |publisher=The Magazine for Traditional Music Throughout the World |year=2002 |url=http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm}}
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Sámánok nyomában Szibéria földjén. Egy néprajzi kutatóút története |publisher=Magvető Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |year=1960 |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02181/index.phtml}} The book has been translated to English: {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Tracing shamans in Siberia. The story of an ethnographical research expedition |others=Translated from Hungarian by Anita Rajkay Babó |publisher=Anthropological Publications |location=Oosterhout |year=1968}}
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Samanizmus |publisher=Gondolat |series=Élet és Tudomány Kiskönyvtár |location=Budapest |year=1962 |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/01600/01639/ |language=Hungarian}} The title means: "Shamanism".
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben |origyear=1958 |edition=first reprint |year=1998 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-05-7542-6}} The title means: "Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore".
* {{cite book |last=Eliade |first=Mircea |authorlink=Mircea Eliade |title=Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy |publisher=Princeton University Press|location= |year=1972 |ref=Eli72 |series=Bollingen 76 |isbn=978-0-691-01779-2}} Translated from the French by Willard R. Trask.
* {{cite book |last=Eliade |first=Mircea |authorlink=Mircea Eliade |title=Le chamanisme et les techniques archaïques de'l extase |publisher=Éditions Payot |location=Paris |year=1983 |ref=Eli83}} Originally published in 1951.
* {{cite book |last=Fienup-Riordan |first=Ann |authorlink=Ann Fienup-Riordan |title=Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition |location=Norman, Oklahoma |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-585-12190-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Fock |first=Niels |title=Waiwai. Religion and society of an Amazonian tribe |series=Nationalmuseets skrifter, Etnografisk Række (Ethnographical series), VIII |publisher=The National Museum of Denmark |location=Copenhagen |year=1963}}
* {{cite book |last=Freuchen |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Freuchen |title=Book of the Eskimos |publisher=The World Publishing Company |location=Cleveland • New York |year=1961 |isbn=0-449-30802-2}}
* {{Cite book |first=Kuldip Singh |last=Gulia |year=2005 |title=Human Ecology of Sikkim - A Case Study of Upper Rangit Basin |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |place=Delhi, India |isbn=81-7835-325-3 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=J4aDVQ1KVZYC | ref = harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Gusinde |first=Martin |title=Nordwind—Südwind. Mythen und Märchen der Feuerlandindianer. |publisher=E. Röth |location=Kassel |year=1966 |language=German}} The title means: "Northern wind, southern wind. Myths and tales of Fuegians".
* {{cite book |last=Hajdú |first=Péter |editor=Hajdú, Péter |title=Uráli népek. Nyelvrokonaink kultúrája és hagyományai |year=1975 |publisher=Corvina Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-13-0900-2 |chapter=A rokonság nyelvi háttere}} The title means: "Uralic peoples. Culture and traditions of our linguistic relatives"; the chapter means "Linguistical background of the relationship".
* {{Cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |year=1987 |title=Shamanism: An Archaic and/or Recent System of Beliefs |publisher =Nicholson, Shirley, "Shamanism", Quest Books; 1st edition (May 25, 1987) |page=76 |isbn=0-8356-0617-1 |ref=harv |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Sámánok, lelkek és jelképek |publisher=Helikon Kiadó |location= Budapest |year=1994 |isbn=963-208-298-2 |language=Hungarian}} The title means "Shamans, souls and symbols".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Folklór és közösség |publisher=Széphalom Könyvműhely |location=Budapest |year=1998 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9028-14-2 |chapter=A honfoglalók hitvilága és a magyar samanizmus |pages=40–45}} The title means "The belief system of Hungarians when they entered the Pannonian Basin, and their shamanism".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Sámánok Eurázsiában |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2005 |isbn=963-05-8295-3 |language=Hungarian |ref=Hop05}} The title means "Shamans in Eurasia", the book is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. [http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=906&pn=2&cnt=31&catID=&prodID=17202&pdetails=1 Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian)].
* {{cite book |editor=Hoppál, Mihály & Szathmári, Botond & Takács, András |title=Sámánok és kultúrák |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |chapter=Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón |pages=9–25 |publisher=Gondolat |location=Budapest |year=2006a |isbn=963-9450-28-6}} The chapter title means "Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".
* {{cite book |editor=Hoppál, Mihály & Szathmári, Botond & Takács, András |title=Sámánok és kultúrák |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |chapter=Sámánság a nyenyecek között |pages=170–182 |publisher=Gondolat |location=Budapest |year=2006b |isbn=963-9450-28-6}} The chapter title means "Shamanhood among the Nenets", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |chapter=Music of Shamanic Healing |editor=Gerhard Kilger |title=Macht Musik. Musik als Glück und Nutzen für das Leben |publisher=Wienand Verlag |location=Köln |year=2006c |isbn=3-87909-865-4 |chapterurl=http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf |url=http://www.deutschesfachbuch.de/info/detail.php?isbn=3-87909-865-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13) |series=Bibliotheca Shamanistica |chapter=Is Shamanism a Folk Religion? |pages=11–16 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2007b |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |ref=Hop07b}}
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13) |series=Bibliotheca Shamanistica |chapter=Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood |pages=17–26 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2007c |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |ref=Hop07c}}
* {{cite book |first=Christine |last=Hugh-Jones |title=From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia |series=Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-521-22544-2}}
* {{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Hugh-Jones |title=The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia |series=Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-521-21952-3}}
*Hutton, R., 2001, ''Shamans: Siberian Spirituality and the Western Imagination'', London and New York: Hambledon and London, ISBN 1-85295-324-7
* {{cite book |last=Kleivan |first=Inge |coauthors=B. Sonne |title=Eskimos: Greenland and Canada |year=1985 |publisher=Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |series=Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2 |isbn=90-04-07160-1}}
* *Kultkrantz, A. "The Shamans in Myths and Tales." SHAMAN 1.2 (1993): 39-55.
* Lawlor, Robert (1991). ''Voices Of The First Day: Awakening in the Aboriginal dreamtime.'' Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions International, Ltd. ISBN 0-89281-355-5
* {{cite book |last=Menovščikov |first=G. A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) |chapter=Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes |editor=Diószegi, Vilmos |title=Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=1968}}
* {{cite book |last=Merkur |first=Daniel |title=Becoming Half Hidden: Shamanism and Initiation among the Inuit |year=1985 |publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell |location=Stockholm |isbn=91-22-00752-0 |ref=Mer85 |series=: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis • Stockholm Studies in Comparative Religion}}
* {{cite book |last=Nagy |first=Beáta Boglárka |chapter=Az északi szamojédok |pages=221–234 |editor=Csepregi, Márta |title=Finnugor kalauz |series=Panoráma |publisher=Medicina Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |year=1998 |isbn=963-243-813-2 |language=Hungarian}} The chapter means "Northern Samoyedic peoples", the title means ''Finno-Ugric guide''.
* {{Cite book |last=Nattiez |first=Jean Jacques |author-link=Jean-Jacques Nattiez |title=Inuit Games and Songs • Chants et Jeux des Inuit |series=Musiques & musiciens du monde • Musics & musicians of the world |publisher=Research Group in [[Music semiology|Musical Semiotics]], Faculty of Music, University of Montreal |place=Montreal}}. The songs are [http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/inuit.html online available] from the [[ethnopoetics]] website curated by [[Jerome Rothenberg]].
* {{Cite news
| last =Noll
| first =Richard
| author-link =Richard Noll
| last2 =Shi
| first2 =Kun
| publication-date =2004
| date =
| year =
| title =Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China
| periodical =韓國宗敎硏究 (Journal of Korean Religions)
| series =
| publication-place =Seoul KR
| place =
| publisher =西江大學校. 宗教硏究所 (Sŏgang Taehakkyo. Chonggyo Yŏnʾguso.)
| volume =6
| issue =
| pages =135–162
| url =http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf
|format=PDF| issn =
| doi =
| oclc =
| accessdate =2008-07-30
| ref=NoSh04}}. It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] of Northeast China.
* {{cite book |last=Pentikäinen |first=Juha |authorlink=Juha Pentikäinen |chapter=The Revival of Shamanism in the Contemporary North |pages=263–272 |editor=Tae-gon Kim & Mihály Hoppál |title=Shamanism in Performing Arts |series=Bibiotheca Shamanistica (Vol. 1) |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=1995 |isbn=963-05-6848-9 |ref=Pen95}}
* {{cite book |last=Reichel-Dolmatoff |first=Gerardo |authorlink=Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff |year=1997 |title=Rainforest Shamans: Essays on the Tukano Indians of the Northwest Amazon |location= Dartington |publisher=Themis Books |isbn=0-9527302-4-3}}
* Reinhard, Johan (1976) "Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem." In ''Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas'', J. Hitchcock & R. Jones (eds.), New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 12–20.
* Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis G. (1995) ''Religious or Spiritual Problem. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV''. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.183, No. 7, pp. 435–444
* {{cite book |last=Vitebsky |first=Piers |authorlink=Piers Vitebsky |title=The Shaman (Living Wisdom) |year=1995 |publisher=Duncan Baird |ref=Vit95 |isbn=0-7054-3061-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Vitebsky |first=Piers |authorlink=Piers Vitebsky |title=A sámán |series=Bölcsesség • hit • mítosz |publisher=Magyar Könyvklub • Helikon Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=1996 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-208-361-X |ref=Vit96}} Translation of [[#Vit95|Vitebsky 1995]]
* {{cite book |last=Vitebsky |first=Piers |authorlink=Piers Vitebsky |title=The Shaman: Voyages of the Soul – Trance, Ecstasy and Healing from Siberia to the Amazon |year=2001 |publisher=Duncan Baird |isbn=1-903296-18-8 |ref=Vit01}}
* {{cite book |last=Voigt |first=Vilmos |title=A varázsdob és a látó asszonyok. Lapp népmesék |series=Népek meséi |year=1966 |month= |publisher=Európa Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian}} The title means: "The magic drum and the clairvoyant women. Sami folktales", the series means: "Tales of folks".
* {{cite book |last=Voigt |first=Miklós |title=Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok |chapter=Sámán – a szó és értelme |pages=41–45 |year=2000 |publisher=Universitas Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9104-39-6}} The chapter discusses the etymology and meaning of word "shaman".
</div>

== Further reading ==

<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
* [[Joseph Campbell]], ''The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology.'' 1959; reprint, New York and London: Penguin Books, 1976. ISBN 0-14-019443-6
* Richard de Mille, ed. ''The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies.'' Santa Barbara, California: Ross-Erikson, 1980.
* Ricci, Daniele ''[http://www.amazon.com/Japanese-Shamanism-trance-possession-ebook/dp/B007HM1JA4/ref=sr_1_1?s=digital-text&ie=UTF8&qid=1331559646&sr=1-1 Japanese Shamanism: trance and possession]''. Volume Edizioni (Kindle Edition, 2012).
* George Devereux, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7294%28196110%292%3A63%3A5%3C1088%3ASAN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z "Shamans as Neurotics"], [[American Anthropologist]], New Series, Vol. 63, No. 5, Part 1. (Oct., 1961), pp. 1088–1090.
* Jay Courtney Fikes, ''Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties'', Millennia Press, Canada, 1993ISBN 0-9696960-0-0
* Graham Harvey, ed. ''Shamanism: A Reader.'' New York and London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-25330-6.
* Åke Hultkrantz (Honorary Editor in Chief): [http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/about.htm Shaman]. Journal of the [http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/ International Society for Shamanistic Research]
* Philip Jenkins, ''Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-516115-7
* Alice Kehoe, ''Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking.'' 2000. London: Waveland Press. ISBN 1-57766-162-1
* [[Åke Ohlmarks]] 1939: ''Studien zum Problem des Schamanismus.'' Gleerup, Lund.
* Jordan D. Paper, ''The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion'', Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1995. ISBN 0-7914-2315-8.
* Juha Pentikäinen and Péter Simoncsics (eds): ''Shamanhood. An endangered language''. The Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture, 2005. (Series B, 117). ISBN 82-7099-391-3.
* Smith, Frederick M. (2006). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=CuB7K3bDWDsC The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature]''. Columbia University Press, USA. ISBN 0-231-13748-6. pp. 195–202.
* [[Malidoma Patrice Some]]. ''Of Water and the Spirit: Ritual, Magi, and Initiaion in the Life of an African Shaman.'' New York: Penguin Group. 1994. ISBN 0-87477-762-3
* [[Barbara Tedlock]], ''Time and the Highland Maya'',U. of New Mexico Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8263-1358-2
* [[Piers Vitebsky]], ''The Shaman: Voyages of the Soul – Trance, Ecstasy and Healing from Siberia to the Amazon'', Duncan Baird, 2001. ISBN 1-903296-18-8
* Michael Winkelman, (2000) ''Shamanism: The Neural Ecology of Consciousness and Healing''. Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey.
* Andrei Znamenski, ed. ''Shamanism: Critical Concepts'', 3 vols. London: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-31192-6
* Andrei Znamenski, ''Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Siberian Spirituality.'' Dordrech and Boston: Kluwer/Springer, 2003. ISBN 1-4020-1740-5
* Andrei Znamenski, ''The Beauty of the Primitive: Shamanism and the Western Imagination.''Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 0-19-517231-0
* 色音, ''东北亚的萨满教：韩中日俄蒙萨满教比较研究''(Northeast Asia Shamanism: Compare studies of Shamanism in Korea, China, Japan, Russia and Mongolia).中国社会科学出版社, Mar. 1998. ISBN 7-5004-2193-1</div>

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Shamanism}}

*http://donsmaps.com/dolnivi.html - Oldest prove, in the known world of female Shamans 27000 years old . Dolni Vestonice Czech republic.
* [http://www.erenlai.com/index.php?aid=175&lan=3/ Chinese Shamanka] – Short documentary about ''mop-nyit'' ceremony in Sichuan.
* {{cite web |url=http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol10/pdf/teuton.pdf |format=PDF |title=Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn |author=A. Asbjorn Jon}} It considers cross cultural similarities in shamanic belief.
* {{cite web |last=Lintrop |first=Aado |title=Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples |publisher=Folk Belief and Media Group of the Estonian Literary Museum |url=http://haldjas.folklore.ee/~aado/}}
* [http://newagefraud.org/ NAFPS] – New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans is a [[First Nations]] (American Indian) group devoted to alerting seekers about fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation.
* {{cite journal |last=Richard |first=Noll |authorlink=Richard Noll |coauthors=Shi, Kun |title=Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu). The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China |journal=Journal of Korean Religions |year=2004 |issue=6 |pages=135–162 |url=http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf |format=PDF |ref=harv}} It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] of Northeast China.
* {{cite journal |url=http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html |title=A View from the Headwaters |author=Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff |authorlink=Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff |journal=The Ecologist |volume=29 |issue=4 |month=July |year=1999 |ref=harv}} It discusses the symbolics of shamanism of Amazonian indigenous groups, and also its "ecological" functions: avoiding the depletion of scare resources.
* {{cite web |url=http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html |title=Shamanic Healing Rituals |last=Sem |first=Tatyana |publisher=Russian Museum of Ethnography}}
* [http://www.krupar.com/index.php?file=www/en/gallery/gallery.html&cat=5 Shamanism in Siberia]
* [http://www.thespiritfoundation.com The Spirit Foundation] An NGO protecting cultural aspects of shamanism including the international shamananic network
* [http://www.akhathai.org AFECT] A charitable cultural organization protecting deep shamanism in northern Thailand
* [http://www.afghanvoice.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=34&t=604 "An Ethnographic and Historical Study of Shamanism in Afghanistan"] by Muhammad Humayun Sidky
* [http://horus.ucoz.ru/index/shamanskij_trip_shamanskoe_puteshestvie/0-26 Video "Shaman trip"]
* [http://www.sacredhoop.org Sacred Hoop Magazine] – a leading international magazine on shamanism and neoshamanic practice
* [http://cassian.memphis.edu/history/znmenski/Znamenski%20Web/Beauty.htm Shamanism Studies from the 18th century to present, Andrei Znamenski page]
* [http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=1034&catID=&prodID=7996&pdetails=1 Online abstract]) Pentikäinen, Juha. Shamanhood symbolism and epic. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 2001. ISBN 963-05-7811-5.
*[http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=1034&catID=&prodID=7996&pdetails=online similar online abstracts].
*[http://texts.00.gs Comparative Religion of Shamanism / Shamanhood / Shamanship]

{{philosophy of religion}}
{{witchcraft}}

[[Category:Shamanism| ]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Supernatural healing]]
[[Category:Anthropology of religion]]

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Shamanism

2013-02-11T06:23:02Z

108.173.174.134:

{{Redirect|Shaman}}
[[File:Witsen's Shaman.JPG|thumb|right|300px|The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, produced by the Dutch explorer [[Nicolaes Witsen]], who authored an account of his travels among Samoyedic- and Tungusic-speaking peoples in 1692. Witsen labelled the illustration as a "Priest of the Devil" and gave this figure clawed feet to highlight what Witsen perceived as demonic qualities.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. p. 32.</ref>]]

[[File:Tengri.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Shaman "[[Tengri]]" (God) as inscribed on Bilge [[Tonyukuk]] Monument in [[Old Turkic alphabet]]]]

'''Shamanism''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|ʃ|ɑː|m|ə|n}} {{respell|SHAH|mən}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|eɪ|m|ə|n}} {{respell|SHAY|mən}}) is a practice that involves a practitioner reaching [[altered states of consciousness]] in order to encounter and interact with the spirit world.<ref>[[#Hop87|Hoppál 1987]]. p. 76.</ref> A shaman is a person regarded as having access to, and influence in the world of [[Evocation|benevolent and malevolent spirits]], who typically enters into a [[trance|trance state]] during a [[ritual]], and practices [[divination]] and [[healing]].<ref>[http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/shaman?view=uk Oxford Dictionary Online].</ref>

The term "shamanism" was first applied to the ancient religion of the [[Göktürks|Turks]] and [[Mongols]], as well as those of the neighboring [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] and [[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]]-speaking peoples. The word "shaman" originates from the [[Evenk language]] (Tungusic) of [[North Asia]] and was introduced to the west after [[Russia]]n forces [[Siege of Kazan (1552)|conquered]] the shamanistic [[Khanate of Kazan]](later became a muslim state, Abrahamic religions such as Christianity, such as the Orthodox Christians of Russia, aswell as islam itself tend to suppress shamanistic beliefs) in 1552. Upon learning more about religious traditions across the world, western scholars also described similar magico-religious practices found within the [[indigenous religions]] of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and the Americas as shamanism. Various historians have argued that shamanism also played a role in many of the pre-Christian religions of Europe, and that shamanic elements may have survived in popular culture right through to the [[Early Modern period]]. Various [[archaeology|archaeologists]] and [[History of religion|historians of religion]] have also suggested that shamanism may have been a dominant pre-religious practice for humanity during the [[Palaeolithic]].

[[Mircea Eliade]] writes, "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = 'technique of [[religious ecstasy]]'."<ref name = Eli72>Mircea Eliade, ''Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy'', Bollingen Series LXXVI, Princeton University Press 1972, pp. 3–7.</ref> Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters [[otherworld|supernatural realms]] or [[Plane (esotericism)|dimensions]] to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the spiritual world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment.<ref name = Eli72/>

Shamanic beliefs and practices have attracted the interest of scholars from a wide variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archaeologists, historians, religious studies scholars and psychologists. Hundreds of books and [[academic paper]]s on the subject have been produced {{Citation needed|date=December 2012}}, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanisms {{Citation needed|date=December 2012}}. In the 20th century, many westerners involved in the counter-cultural movement adopted magico-religious practices influenced by indigenous shamanisms from across the world, creating the [[Neoshamanism|Neoshamanic]] movement.

==Terminology==

===Etymology===

The word "shaman" is based upon the [[Evenk language]] word "''šamán''".<ref>[[#Eli04|Eliade 2004 [1951]]]. p. 04.</ref> The Tungusic term was subsequently adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman [[Avvakum]].<ref>Written before 1676, first printed in 1861; see [[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. p. vii.</ref> The word was brought to Western
Europe in 1692 by the Dutch traveler [[Nicolaes Witsen]] who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic- and Samoyedic-speaking
indigenous peoples of Siberia in his book ''Noord en Oost Tataryen''.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]], p. 32.</ref> Adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian ambassy to China and a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word to English speakers.<ref>Adam Brand, ''Driejaarige Reize naar China'', Amsterdam 1698; transl. ''A Journal of an Ambassy'', London 1698; see Laufer B., ''Origin of the Word Shaman'', American Anthropologist, 19 (1917): 361–71 and Bremmer J., ''Travelling souls? Greek shamanism reconsidered'', in Bremmer J.N. (ed.), The Rise and Fall of the Afterlife, London: Routledge, 2002, pp. 7-40. [http://theol.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2002/594/c3.pdf]</ref>

===Definitions===
There is no single agreed upon definition for the word "shamanism" among anthropologists. The English historian [[Ronald Hutton]] noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were four separate definitions of the term which appeared to be in use. The first of these uses the term to refer to "anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness." The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness at the behest of others. The third definition attempts to distinguish shamans from other magico-religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits, such as "[[mediumship|mediums]]", "[[witch doctor]]s", "spiritual healers" or "prophets", by claiming that they undertake a particular technique not used by the others. Problematically, scholars advocating this position have failed to agree on what this defining technique should be. The fourth definition identified by Hutton uses "shamanism" to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighbouring parts of Asia.<ref>[[#Hut01|Hutton 2001]]. pp. vii–viii.</ref>
According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, the [[Evenki language|Evenk]] word 'shaman' would more accurately be translated as 'priest'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tengerism.org/table_of_contents.html|title = Circle of Tengerism}}</ref>

[[File:SB - Altay shaman with drum.jpg|thumb|Russian postcard based on a photo taken in 1908 by S. I. Borisov, showing a female shaman, of probable [[Khakas people|Khakas]] ethnicity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |authorlink= |title=Sámánok Eurázsiában |year=2005 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-05-8295-3}} pp. 77, 287; {{cite book |last=Znamensky |first=Andrei A. |chapter=Az ősiség szépsége: altáji török sámánok a szibériai regionális gondolkodásban (1860–1920) |pages=117–134 |editor=Molnár, Ádám |title=Csodaszarvas. Őstörténet, vallás és néphagyomány. Vol. I |publisher=Molnár Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2005 |isbn=963-218-200-6 |language=Hungarian}}, p. 128</ref>]]

==Initiation and learning==
Shamans are normally "called" by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be "inherited," as the capacity for lucid spirit-world connection runs more strongly in some families.

Turner and colleagues<ref>Turner et al., page 440</ref> mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a [[rite of passage]] for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be found in the detailed case history of Chuonnasuan, the last master shaman among the Tungus peoples in Northeast China.<ref>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]] (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref>

The [[wounded healer]] is an [[archetype]] for a shamanic trail and journey. This process is important to the young shaman. S/he undergoes a type of sickness that pushes her or him to the brink of death. This happens for two reasons:
# The shaman crosses over to the under world. This happens so the shaman can venture to its depths to bring back vital information for the sick, and the tribe.
# The shaman must become sick to understand sickness. When the shaman overcomes her or his own sickness s/he will hold the cure to heal all that suffer. This is the uncanny mark of the wounded healer.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Halifax | first = Joan |authorlink = Joan Halifax |title = Shaman: The Wounder Healer |publisher = [[Thames & Hudson]] |year = 1982 |location = London |isbn = 9780500810293 |oclc = 8800269}}</ref>

==Roles==

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een shamaan op Zuid-Boeroe bezweert boze geesten de kinderen te verlaten waarbij hij een geldstuk en een sirihnoot offert TMnr 10001031.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Maluku Islands|South Moluccan]] Shaman exorcising evil spirits occupying children, [[Buru]]. 1920.]]
Shamans gain knowledge and the power to heal by entering into the [[Spirit world (Spiritualism)|spiritual world]] or dimension. Most shamans have [[dreams]] or [[Vision (spirituality)|visions]] that tell them certain things. The shaman may have or acquire many [[spirit guides]], who often guide and direct the shaman in his/her travels in the [[Spirit world (Spiritualism)|spirit world]]. These spirit guides are always present within the shaman though others only encounter them when the shaman is in a trance. The spirit guide energizes the shaman, enabling him/her to enter the spiritual dimension. The shaman heals within the spiritual dimension by returning 'lost' parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. The shaman also cleanses excess negative energies which confuse or pollute the soul.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

Shamans act as [[Mediation|mediators]] in their culture.<ref name=mediator>Hoppál 2005: 45</ref><ref name=mediator2>Boglár 2001: 24</ref> The shaman communicates with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. The shaman communicates with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits. Shamans assist in [[soul retrieval]]. In shamanism it is believed that part of the human soul is free to leave the body. The soul is the ''[[axis mundi]]'', the center of the shamanic healing arts. Shamans change their state of consciousness allowing their free soul to travel and retrieve ancient wisdom and lost power.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

Because a portion of the soul is free to leave the body it will do so when dreaming, or it will leave the body to protect itself from potentially damaging situations, be they emotional or physical. In situations of trauma the soul piece may not return to the body on its own, and a shaman must intervene and return the soul essence.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

Among the [[Selkup people|Selkups]], the [[Merginae|sea duck]] is a spirit animal because ducks fly in the air and dive in the water. Thus ducks belong to both the upper world and the world below.<ref name="Hoppal_a">Hoppál 2005: 94</ref> Among other Siberian peoples these characteristics are attributed to water fowl in general.<ref>Vitebsky 1996: 46</ref> Among many Native Americans, the [[jaguar]] is a spirit animal because jaguars walk on earth, swim in water, and climb in trees. Thus jaguars belong to all three worlds, Sky, Earth, and [[Underworld]].

Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures;<ref name=multfunc>Hoppál 2005: 25</ref> healing,<ref name=sem-shamheal>{{cite web |last=Sem |first=Tatyana |url=http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html |title=Shamanic Healing Rituals |publisher=Russian Museum of Ethnography}}</ref><ref>Hoppál 2005: 27–28</ref> leading a [[sacrifice]],<ref>Hoppál 2005: 28–33</ref> preserving the [[tradition]] by [[storytelling]] and songs,<ref name=memory>Hoppál 2005: 37</ref> [[fortune-telling]],<ref>Hoppál 2005: 34–35</ref> and acting as a [[psychopomp]] (literal meaning, "guide of souls").<ref name=psychopomp>Hoppál 2005: 36</ref> A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions.<ref name="multfunc" />

The functions of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a cumulative group, depending on culture), and/or curing (healing) of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such as disease, which may be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed by displaying a supposedly extracted token of the disease-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated, so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body) --, or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such as persistent terror (on account of a frightening experience), which may be likewise cured by similar methods. Usually in most languages a different term other than the one translated "shaman" is applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams.

There are distinct types of shaman who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the [[Nani people]], a distinct kind of shaman acts as a [[psychopomp]].<ref>Hoppál 2005:36164</ref> Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the [[Nenets people|Nenets]], [[Enets people|Enets]], and [[Selkup people|Selkup]] shaman (paper;<ref>Hoppál 2005:87–95</ref> online<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm Czaplicka 1914]</ref>). Among the [[Huichol people|Huichol]],<ref name=Mexico>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/Peyote.html |title=Lost souls of the Peyote Trail |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure }}</ref> there are two categories of shaman. This demonstrates the differences among shamans within a single tribe.

Among the [[Hmong people]], the shaman or the ''Ntxiv Neej'' (Tee-Neng), acts as healer. The Ntxiv Neej also performs rituals/ceremonies designed to call the soul back from its many travels to the physical human body. A Ntxiv Neej may use several shamanistic tools such as swords, divinity horns, a gong (drum), or finger bells/jingles. All tools serve to protect the spirits from the eyes of the unknown, thus enabling the Ntxiv Neej to deliver souls back to their proper owner. The Ntxiv Neej may wear a white, red, or black veil to disguise the soul from its attackers in the spiritual dimension.

Boundaries between the shaman and laity are not always clearly defined. Among the [[Barasana]] of Brazil, there is no absolute difference between those men recognized as shamans and those who are not{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}. At the lowest level, most adult men have abilities as shamans and will carry out the same functions as those men who have a widespread reputation for their powers and knowledge. The Barasana shaman knows more [[Mythology|myth]]s and understands their meaning better, nonetheless the majority of adult men also know many myths.<ref name=barasana-myths>Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980: 32</ref>

Among [[Inuit]] peoples the laity have experiences which are commonly attributed to the [[Shamanism_among_Eskimo_peoples#Shamanism_in_various_Eskimo_groups|shamans of those Inuit groups]]. [[Daydream]], reverie, and [[trance]] are not restricted to shamans.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> Control over helping spirits is the primary characteristic attributed to shamans. The laity usually employ [[amulet]]s, spells, formulas, songs.<ref name="Mer-BecHalfHid"/><ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 8–10</ref> Among the [[Greenland Inuit]], the laity have greater capacity to relate with spiritual beings. These people are often apprentice shamans who failed to complete their initiations.<ref name="failed-shaman" />

The assistant of an [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] shaman (called ''jardalanin'', or "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behavior of the shaman.<ref name=Guan_Kouni>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]]: 10, footnote 10 (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref> Despite these functions, the jardalanin is ''not'' a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would be unwelcome to fall into trance.<ref name=interpreter>[[#NoSh04|Noll & Shi 2004]]: 8–9 (see [http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf online])</ref>

==Gender==
Recent [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence suggests that the earliest known shamans—dating to the [[Upper Paleolithic]] era in what is now the [[Czech Republic]]—were women.<ref>Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam.</ref>

==Ecological aspect==
Resources for human consumption are easily [[Tropical rainforest#Habitation|depletable in tropical rainforests]]. Among the [[Tucano people]], a sophisticated system exists for [[environmental resources management]] and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this [[Ecology|ecological]] management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes.<ref name=eco>Reichel-Dolmatoff 1997</ref><ref>Vitebsky 1996:107</ref> The [[Piaroa people]] have ecological concerns related to shamanism.<ref name=ecopia/> Among the [[Inuit]], shamans fetch the souls of game from remote places,<ref>Merkur 1985: 5</ref><ref>Vitebsky 1996:108</ref> or [[soul travel]] to ask for game from mythological beings like the [[Sedna (mythology)|Sea Woman]].<ref>Kleivan & Sonne: 27–28</ref>

==Economics==
The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies among cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment" (cultures {{who|date=February 2012}} believe the payment is given to the helping spirits<ref name=mshare/>), but these goods are only "welcome addenda." They are not enough to enable shamanizing as a full-time activity. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as hunter or housewife.<ref name="failed-shaman">Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24</ref><ref name=mshare>Merkur 1985: 3</ref>

==Beliefs==
There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by [[Mircea Eliade|Eliade]] (1972)<ref name = Eli72/> are the following:

* Spirits exist and they play important roles both in individual lives and in human society.
* The shaman can communicate with the spirit world.
* Spirits can be benevolent or malevolent.
* The shaman can treat sickness caused by malevolent spirits.
* The shaman can employ [[trance]] inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and go on [[vision quest]]s.
* The shaman's spirit can leave the body to enter the [[supernatural]] world to search for answers.
* The shaman evokes animal images as [[spirit guides]], [[omen]]s, and message-bearers.
* The shaman can tell the future, [[scry]], throw bones/[[runes]], and perform other varied forms of [[divination]]

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living.<ref name=Peru>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/Peru.html |title=Hell and Back |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure }}</ref> Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired by malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the body" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing the infectious spirit.

Many shamans have expert knowledge of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal treatment is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing properties, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and ''[[curandero]]s'' use medicine songs called ''[[icaro]]s'' to evoke spirits. Before a spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song.<ref name="Peru" /> The use of [[totem]]ic items such as rocks with special powers and an [[Animism|animating spirit]] is common.

Such practices are presumably very ancient. [[Plato]] wrote in his ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'' that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth".

Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as ''[[brujería]]'' in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Shamanic knowledge usually enjoys great power and prestige in the community,{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} but it may also be regarded suspiciously or fearfully as potentially harmful to others.

By engaging in their work, a shaman is exposed to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from enemy shamans, or from the means employed to alter the shaman's [[state of consciousness]]. Shamanic plant materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. Failure to return from an [[Astral projection|out-of-body journey]] can lead to death{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}. [[Spell (paranormal)|Spell]]s are commonly used to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized.

===Soul and spirit concepts===
The variety of functions described above may seem like distinct tasks, but they may be united by underlying soul and spirit concepts.

;[[Soul (spirit)|Soul]]
:This concept can generally explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:<ref name=all-soul>[[#Mer85|Merkur 1985]]: 4</ref><ref>[[#Vit96|Vitebsky 1996]]: 11, 12–14, 107</ref><ref name=soulsham>[[#Hop05|Hoppál 2005]]:27, 30, 36</ref>

;[[Healing]]
:This concept may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman (online<ref name=sem-shamheal/>). It may consist of retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.<ref name=resoul>Hoppál 2005: 27</ref> See also the [[soul dualism]] concept.

;[[Scarcity]] of hunted game
:This problem can be solved by "releasing" the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many [[taboo]]s may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they can allow themselves to be caught and killed.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 7, 19–21</ref><ref name=Gab-KarEszk>Gabus, Jean: A karibu eszkimók. Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1970. (Hungarian translation of the original: Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous, Libraire Payot Lausanne, 1944.) It describes the life of Caribou Eskimo groups.</ref> For the ecological aspects of shamanistic practice, and related beliefs, see below.

;[[Infertility]] of women
:This problem can be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child.

;[[Spirit]]s
:Beliefs related to [[spirit]]s can explain many different phenomena.<ref>[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 18</ref> For example, the importance of [[storytelling]], or acting as a singer, can be understood better if we examine the whole belief system. A person who can memorize long texts or songs, and play an instrument, may be regarded as the beneficiary of contact with the spirits (e.g. [[Khanty people]]).<ref name=singtellplay>Hoppál 2005: 99</ref>

==Practice==
Generally, the shaman traverses the [[axis mundi]] and enters the spirit world by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an [[Religious ecstasy|ecstatic]] [[trance]], either [[Autosuggestion|autohypnotically]] or through the use of [[entheogen]]s. The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together. Methods for effecting such trances are:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Plants (often [[psychoactive]])
! Other
|-
|
*[[Psilocybin mushrooms]]''
*[[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]]
*[[Papaver somniferum|Opium]]
*[[Tobacco]]
*[[San Pedro (cactus)|San Pedro cactus]]
*[[Peyote]]<ref name="Mexico" />
*[[Ayahuasca]]<ref name="Peru" />
*[[Thuja plicata|Cedar]]
*[[Datura]]
*[[Deadly nightshade]]
*[[Amanita muscaria|Fly agaric]]
*[[Iboga]]
*[[Morning glory]]
*[[Common sage|Sage]]
*[[Salvia divinorum]]
*[[Hawaiian Baby Woodrose]]
|
*[[Dancing]]
*[[Singing]]
*[[Music]]
*[[Icaro]]s / Medicine Songs<ref name="Peru" />
*[[Vigil]]s
*[[Fasting]]
*[[Sweat lodge]]
*[[Vision quests]]
*[[Mariri]]
*Swordfighting / [[Bladesmithing]]
|}

Shamans will often observe dietary or customary restrictions particular to their tradition. These restrictions are more than just cultural. For example, the diet followed by shamans and apprentices prior to participating in an [[ayahuasca]] ceremony includes foods rich in [[tryptophan]] (a biosynthetic precursor to [[serotonin]]) as well as avoiding foods rich in [[tyramine]], which could induce [[hypertensive crisis]] if ingested with [[MAOI]]s such as are found in ayahuasca brews as well as abstinence from alcohol or sex.<ref name="Peru" />

===Music, songs===
{{See also|Shamanic music|Imitation of sounds in shamanism}}
Just like shamanism itself,<ref name="cogmap"/> music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse, far from being alike. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate [[natural sounds]], via [[onomatopoeia]].<ref name=onom>[http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf Hoppál 2006c: 143]</ref>

[[Sound mimesis in various cultures]] may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals as luring game in the hunt;<ref name = natt/> or entertainment ([[Inuit throat singing]]).<ref name=natt>Nattiez: 5</ref><ref name=desch>[http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm Deschênes 2002]</ref>

===Paraphernalia===
Shamans may have various kinds of paraphernalia in different cultures.
[[File:Goldes shaman priest in his regalia.png|thumb|upright|[[Golds (ethnic group)|Goldes]] shaman priest in his regalia]]
[[File:Shamans Drum.jpg|thumb|upright|Artist's depiction of a Shaman's [[drum]] with a three-world cosmology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neweurasia.net/cross-regional-and-blogosphere/in-the-beginning-was-tengri-part-1-grace-is-the-heart-of-belief/|title=In the Beginning was Tengri, Part 1|author=H.B. Paksoy, PhD|quote=A diagram of Tengriist metaphysics on a shaman's drum. At the center is a world-tree connecting the three dimensions of the underworld, middleworld and upperworld.}}</ref> The vertical arrow symbolizes the World Tree, which stands in the center of the world.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.nbi.dk/~natphil/oldqueSib.html|title=Myths|author=Alexander Eliot|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|year=1976|page=77|quote=The world tree appears again in this drawing from a Shaman drum... with its roots in the underworld it rises through the inhabited earth to penetrate the realm of the gods.}}</ref> It unites the underworld, the earthly world, and heaven.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tengerism.org/cosmology.html|title=Mongolian Cosmology|author=[http://www.tengerism.org/ Circle of Tengerism]|quote=The other important symbol of the world center is the ''turge'' tree, which creates an axis as well as a pole for ascent and decent. Siberian and Mongolian traditions locate the tree at the center of the world, but also in the south, where the upper and middle worlds touch.}}</ref> This presentation can be found on shaman drums of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Mongols]] and [[Tungusic peoples]] in Central Asia and [[Siberia]].]]

* '''Drum''' – The [[drum]] is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia, the Inuit, and many other cultures all over the world,<ref>Barüske 1969: 24, 50–51</ref> although its usage for shamanistic [[seance]]s may be lacking among the Inuit of Canada.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 25</ref> The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered state of consciousness or to travel on a journey between the physical and spiritual worlds.<ref name="Maxfield, Melinda 1994">Maxfield, Melinda. [http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=95141255 "The journey of the drum."] ''ReVision'' 16.4 (1994): 157.</ref> Much fascination surrounds the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Shaman drums are generally constructed of an animal-skin stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.
* '''Feathers''' – In numerous North and South American cultures, as well as in Europe and Asia, birds are seen as messengers of the spirits. Feathers are often used in ceremonies and in individual healing rituals.
* '''Rattle''' – Found mostly among South American<ref name=rattle-south>Vitebsky 1996: 49</ref> and African peoples. Also used in ceremonies among the [[Navajo people|Navajo]] and in traditional ways in their blessings and ceremonies.
* '''Gong''' – Often found through South East Asia, Far Eastern peoples.
* '''Pipe''' – Used for smoking various tobaccos and psychoactive herbs (e.g. tobacco in North and South America, cannabis in India).
* '''Sword''' – In [[Hmong_customs_and_culture#Shamanism|Hmong Shamanism]], a holy sword will always be used in the practice to protect the shaman from wandering "evil" spirits as he travels to the spirit world.
* '''Shake''' – Found mostly in Hmong Shamanism, the shaman begins his practice by rattling, which turns into a shake. It is the process of communicating with his shamanistic spirits to guide him to the spirit world.
* '''Long Table''' – A flexible wooden table, approximately nine by two feet, is used in Hmong Shamanism; the table transforms into a "flying horse" in the spirit world.
* '''Rooster''' – A rooster is often used in Hmong Shamanism. A shaman uses a rooster when he journeys to the unknown. It is said that the rooster shields the shaman from wandering "evil" spirits by making him invisible; thus, the evil spirits only see the rooster's useless spirit.

==Academic study==
[[File:Shaman.jpg|thumb|[[Sami people|Sami]] shaman with his drum]]

===Cognitive, semiotic, hermeneutic approaches===
As mentioned, a (debated) approach explains the etymology of word "shaman" as meaning "one who knows".<ref name="Diószegi 1962:13">Diószegi 1962:13</ref><ref name="Hoppál 2005:14">Hoppál 2005:14</ref> Really, the shaman is a person who is an expert in keeping together the multiple [[code]]s of the society. Accordingly, the society's codes are the manifestation of the society's underlying complex belief system. Thus to be effective, shamans maintain a comprehensive view in their mind which gives them certainty of [[knowledge]].<ref name="cogmap">Hoppál 2005:15</ref> The shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple [[code]]s. Shamans express meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such as [[amulet]]s.<ref name="Hoppál 2005:14"/>

The shaman knows the [[culture]] of his or her community well,<ref name="mediator2" /><ref>[[#Pen95|Pentikäinen 1995]]: 270</ref><ref name=knowncult>Hoppál 2005:25–26,43</ref> and acts accordingly. Thus, their audience knows the used [[symbol]]s and meanings—that is why shamanism can be efficient: people in the audience trust it.<ref name=knowncult/> For example, the shaman's [[drum]]ming can appear to its members as certainty of ''[[knowledge]]''—this explains the above described etymology for the word "shaman" as meaning "one who knows."<ref name=etym2>Hoppál 2004:14</ref>

There are [[Semiotics|semiotic]] theoretical approaches to shamanism,<ref name=semi>Hoppál 2005: 13–15, 58, 197</ref><ref>Hoppál 2006a: 11</ref><ref>Hoppál 2006b: 175</ref> ("ethnosemiotics"). The symbols on the shaman's costume and drum can refer to [[Power animal]]s, or to the rank of the shaman.

There are also examples of "mutually opposing symbols", distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night.<ref name=semiotics_of_shamanism>[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 24–25</ref> (Series of such opposing symbols referred to a world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map?).<ref name="cogmap" /><ref name=hop-natworsib>Hoppál, Mihály: [http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol4/hoppal.htm Nature worship in Siberian shamanism]</ref> Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map".<ref>[[#Hop07b|Hoppál 2007b]]: 12–13</ref><ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25">[[#Hop07c|Hoppál 2007c]]: 25</ref> [[Juha Pentikäinen]] uses the concept "grammar of mind".<ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25"/><ref>[[#Pen95|Pentikäinen 1995]]: 270–271</ref> Linking to a Sami example, Kathleen Osgood Dana writes:

{{quote|Juha Pentikäinen, in his introduction to Shamanism and Northern Ecology, explains how the Sámi drum embodies Sámi worldviews. He considers shamanism to be a ‘grammar of mind’ (10), because shamans need to be experts in the folklore of their cultures (11).<ref name=dan-aill>[[#Dana04|Dana 2004]]: 18 (see [http://uit.no/getfile.php?PageId=977&FileId=183#search=%22Juha%20Pentik%C3%A4inen%20grammar%20of%20mind%22 online])</ref>}}

Armin Geertz coined and introduced the [[hermeneutics]],<ref>Merkur 1985:v</ref> "ethnohermeneutics",<ref name=hop-natworsib/> approaches to the practice of interpretation. Hoppál extended the term to include not only the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts as well (including motions, gestures and more complex ritual, and ceremonies performed for instance by shamans)".<ref name=ethnohermeneutics>[[#Hop07b|Hoppál 2007b]]: 13</ref> It not only reveals the [[Animism|animistic]] views hiding behind shamanism, but also conveys their relevance for the contemporary world, where ecological problems have validated paradigms about balance and protection.<ref name="Hoppál 2007c 25"/>

===Ecological approaches, systems theory===
Other [[fieldwork]]s use [[systems theory]] concepts and ecological considerations to understand the shaman's [[Folklore|lore]]. Desana and [[Tucano people|Tucano]] Indians have developed a sophisticated symbolism and concepts of "energy" flowing between people and animals in cyclic paths. [[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]] relates these concepts to developments in the ways that modern science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats [[causality]] in a less linear fashion.<ref name=eco/> He also suggests a cooperation of modern science and indigenous lore (online<ref name=coop>[[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]]: [http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html A View from the Headwaters]. The Ecologist, Vol. 29 No. 4, July 1999.</ref>).

===Hypotheses on origins===
Shamanic practices may originate as early as the [[Paleolithic]], predating all organized religions,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/clottes/page7.php |title=Shamanism in Prehistory |author=Jean Clottes |accessdate=2008-03-11 |work=Bradshaw foundation }}</ref><ref name=Narr>{{cite web |url=http://concise.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=109434&fullArticle=true&tocId=52333 |author=Karl J. Narr
|title=Prehistoric religion |accessdate=2008-03-28 |work=Britannica online encyclopedia 2008 }}</ref> and certainly as early as the [[Neolithic]] period.<ref name=Narr/> Early anthropologist studies theorise that shamanism developed as a magic practice to ensure a successful hunt or gathering of food. Evidence in caves and drawings on walls support indications that shamanism started during the Paleolithic era. One such picture featured a half-animal, with the face and legs of a man, with antlers and a tail of a stag.<ref>Winkelman, Michael. Shamanism: a Biopsychosocial Paradigm of Consciousness and Healing. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010. Print.</ref>

Archaeological evidence exists for [[Mesolithic]] shamanism. The oldest know female Shaman grave in the world is located in the Czech Republic at Dolni Vestonice (National Geographic No 174 October 1988. Also In November 2008, researchers announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in [[Pre-history of the Southern Levant|Israel]] that is perceived as one of the earliest known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis and arms. Among her unusual [[grave goods]] were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 at the site, located in a cave in lower [[Galilee]] and belonging to the [[Natufian culture]], but is said to be unlike any other among the Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.<ref>"Earliest known shaman grave site found: study", reported by [[Reuters]] via [[Yahoo! News]], November 4, 2008, [http://www.webcitation.org/5c5MCHK7R archived.] see.''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences''.</ref>

===Clinical trial===
The [[Kaiser Permanente]] Center For Health Research in Portland, Oregon conducted a [[Clinical trial|phase I study]] into the effectiveness of shamanic healing as a treatment for chronic face and jaw pain. Twenty-three women who were diagnosed with [[Temporomandibular Joint Disorder]]s (TMDs) participated in the study. At the end of treatment only four were clinically diagnosed with the TMDs present at the beginning of the study.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17985808 TMD Clinical study]</ref>

===Historical-Anthropological School of Folkloristics===
Folklorists have evaluated the presence of remnants of shamanism and shamanic practice in [[Folklore|folktale]]s from around the world. Michael Berman identified the genre of the [[Shamanic Story|shamanic story]], examples of which are only produced by folk groups with shamanic cosmology or a shamanic world view. Kultkrantz points out that, “in areas where shamanism has long been a thing of the past, many tales contain only vague, piecemeal or inaccurate recollections of shamans and their like.”<ref>1993, p.51</ref> The presence of distinctive characteristics and features of shamanic stories help folklorists and anthropologists reconstruct a culture’s practice of shamanism.<ref>Berman, Shamanic Journeys Through Daghestan, 2008, p.22</ref>

==Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements==
Shamanism is believed to be declining around the world. Possibly due to other organised religious influences, like Christianity, that want people who practice shamanism to convert to their own system and doctrine. Another reason is western views of shamanism as 'primitive', 'superstitious', backwarded and outdated. Whalers who frequently interact with Inuit tribes are one source of this decline in that region.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Oosten|first=Jarich|coauthors=Frederic Laugrand, and Cornelius Remie|title=Perceptions of Decline: Inuit Shamanism in the Canadian Arctic|journal=American Society for Ethnohistory|year=2006|pages=445–477|doi=10.1215/00141801–2006-001|ref=harv}}</ref>

[[File:Kyzyl Shaman.jpg|thumb|A recent photograph: shaman doctor of [[Kyzyl]], 2005. (Details missing). Attempts are being made to preserve and revitalize [[Tuvans|Tuvan]] shamanism:<ref name=tuva>Hoppál 2005: 117</ref> former authentic shamans have begun to practice again, and young apprentices are being educated in an organized way.<ref name=authentic-revitalization-tuva>Hoppál 2005: 259</ref>]]

In many areas, former shamans ceased to fulfill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,<ref>Boglár 2001: 19–20</ref> or regarded their own past as deprecated and are unwilling to talk about it to an ethnographer.<ref name=shamed>Diószegi 1960: 37–39</ref>

Moreover, besides personal communications of former shamans, folklore texts may narrate directly about a deterioration process. For example, a [[Buryats|Buryat]] epic text details the wonderful deeds of the ancient "first shaman" Kara-Gürgän:<ref name=Kara-Gurgan>[[#Eli01|Eliade 2001]]: 76 (= Chpt 3 about obtaining shamanic capabilities)</ref> he could even compete with God, create life, steal back the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like [[omnividence]],<ref name=flatland>Omnividence: A word created by Edwin A. Abbott in his book titled [[Flatland]]</ref> fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving as fast as a bullet; the texts contrast them to the recent heartless, unknowing, greedy shamans.<ref name=deter>Diószegi 1960: 88–89</ref>

In most affected areas, shamanic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans dying and their personal experiences dying with them. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motives related to the local shaman-hood (laics know myths as well, among Barasana, even though less;<ref name=barasana-myths/> there are former shaman apprentices unable to complete the learning among Greenlandic Inuit peoples,<ref name="failed-shaman"/> moreover, even laics can have trance-like experiences among the Inuit;<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid/> the assistant of a shaman can be extremely knowledgeable among [[Dagara people|Dagara]]<ref name=Guan_Kouni/><ref name=interpreter/>). Although the shaman is often believed and trusted precisely because s/he "accommodates" to the "grammar" of the beliefs of the community,<ref name=knowncult/> several parts of the knowledge related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman (illness), or root in his/her family life (the interpretation of the symbolics of his/her drum),<ref name=drum-symbols>Hoppál 2005: 224</ref> thus, those are lost with his/her death. Besides that, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief system has become endangered (often together with a partial or total [[language shift]]), the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) grew old or died, many folklore memories (songs, texts) were forgotten - which may threaten even such peoples who could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th century, like the [[Nganasan people|Nganasan]].<ref>Nagy 1998: 232</ref>

Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.
* Variants of [[shamanism among Inuit peoples]] were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today are rarely practiced, and they were already in decline among many groups, even durinng the first major ethnological research was done,<ref>Merkur 1985:132</ref> e.g. among Polar Inuit, at the end of 19th century, [[Sagloq]], the last shaman who was believed to be able to travel to the sky and under the sea died — and many other former shamanic capacities were lost during that time as well, like [[ventriloquism]] and [[sleight-of-hand]].<ref>Merkur 1985:134</ref>
* The isolated location of [[Nganasan people]] allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them even at the beginning of 20th century,<ref name=hop>Hoppál 2005: 92</ref> the last notable Nganasan shaman's ceremonies could be recorded on film in the 1970s.<ref name="Hoppal">Hoppál 1994: 62</ref>

After exemplifying the general decline even in the most remote areas, let us{{Who|date=February 2012}} mention that there are revitalization or tradition-preserving efforts as a response. Besides collecting the memories,<ref name=collect>Hoppál 2005: 88</ref> there are also tradition-preserving<ref>Hoppál 2005: 93</ref> and even revitalization efforts,<ref>Hoppál 2005: 111, 117–119, 128, 132, 133–134, '''''252-263'''''</ref> led by authentic former shamans (for example among [[Sakha people]]<ref name=authentic-revitalization-sakha>Hoppál 2005: 257–258</ref> and [[Tuvans]]<ref name=authentic-revitalization-tuva/>). However, according to Richard L. Allen, Research & Policy Analyst for the Cherokee Nation, they are overwhelmed with [[plastic shaman|fraudulent Shaman]]. "One may assume that anyone claiming to be a Cherokee 'shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier', is equivalent to a modern day medicine show and snake-oil vendor."<ref name=RG>{{cite web | title = Pseudo Shamans Cherokee Statement| url = http://www.thepeoplespaths.net/Articles2001/RLAllen-CherokeeStatement-Shamans.htm| accessdate = 2008-06-23}}</ref> In fact, there is no Cherokee word for Shaman or Medicine Man. The Cherokee word for "medicine" is Nvowti which means "power".

Besides tradition-preserving efforts, there are also [[Neoshamanism|neoshamanistic]] movements, these may differ from many tradtitional shamanistic practice and beliefs in several points.<ref name=neoshaman>Vitebsky 1996: 150–153</ref> Admittedly,{{Says who|date=February 2012}} several traditional beliefs systems indeed have ecological considerations (for example, many Eskimo peoples), and among [[Tukano people]], the shaman indeed has direct resource-protecting roles, see details in section [[#Ecological aspect|Ecological aspect]].

Today, shamanism survives primarily among [[indigenous people]]s. Shamanic practices continue today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and even in cities, towns, suburbs, and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially true for Africa and South America, where "[[mestizo]] shamanism" is widespread.

==Regional variations==

===Asia===

====Mongolia====
{{main|Mongolian shamanism}}
Mongolian shamanism has the longest recorded history in the world.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}} The word ''Böö'' "shaman; spirit medium; healer" first appeared on [[oracle bones]] from the late [[Shang Dynasty]] (ca. 1600–1046 BCE). Mongolian classics from the Hunnu Dynasty (1045-256 BCE) provide details about male and female shamans serving as exorcists, healers, rainmakers, oneiromancers, soothsayers, and officials. Shamanic practices continue in present day Mongolia culture.<ref>http://website.leidenuniv.nl/~haarbjter/shamanism.htm</ref><ref>http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/bender4/eall131/EAHReadings/module03/local_beliefs.html</ref><ref>http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/5288</ref><ref>http://www.yale.edu/seacrn/asia_members.htm</ref>

The spiritual hierarchy in clan-based Mongolian society was complex. The highest group consisted of 99 ''tngri'' (55 of them benevolent or "white" and 44 terrifying or "black"), 77 ''natigai'' or "earth-mothers", besides others. The ''tngri'' were called upon only by leaders and great shamans and were common to all the clans. After these, three groups of ancestral spirits dominated. The "Lord-Spirits" were the souls of clan leaders to whom any member of a clan could appeal for physical or spiritual help. The "Protector-Spirits" included the souls of great shamans (''ĵigari'') and shamanesses (''abĵiya''). The "Guardian-Spirits" were made up of the souls of smaller shamans (''böge'') and shamanesses (''idugan'') and were associated with a specific locality (including mountains, rivers, etc.) in the clan's territory.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hesse|first=Klaus|year=1987|title=On the History of Mongolian Shamanism in Anthropological Perspective|journal=Anthropos|volume=82|issue=4-6|pages=403–13|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40463470}}</ref>

In the 1990s, a form of Mongolian neo-shamanism was created which has given a more modern approach to shamanism. Mongolian shamans are now making a business out of their profession and even have offices in the larger towns. At these businesses, a shaman generally heads the organization and performs services such as healing, fortunetelling, and solving all kinds of problems.<ref>Balogh, Matyas. "Contemporary Shamanisms in Mongolia." ''Asian Ethnicity'' 11.2 (2010): 229-38.</ref>

====Hmong shamanism====
{{Main|Hmong customs and culture#Shamanism}}
The Hmong people,<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong_people</ref> as an ancient people of China with a 5,000 year history, continue to maintain and practice its form of shamanism known as "Ua Neeb" in mainland Asia. At the end of the Vietnam War, some 300,000 Hmong have been settled across the globe. They have continued to practice Ua Neeb in various countries in North and South America, Europe and Australia. In the USA, the Hmong shaman practitioner is known as "Txiv Neeb" has been licensed by many hospitals in California as being part of the medical health team to treat patients in hospital. This revival of Ua Neeb in the West has been brought great success and has been hailed in the media as "Doctor for the disease, shaman for the soul".

Being a Hmong shaman represents a true vocation, chosen by the shaman God "Sivyis".<ref>http://www.lexicon.net/drpao/shaman/sivyis/</ref>
A shaman's main job is to bring harmony to the individual, his family and his community within his environment by performing various rituals (trance).

Animal sacrifice has been part of the Hmong shamanic practice for the past 5,000 years. Contrary to the belief of many Westerners, the Hmong practice of using animal in shamanic practice has been done with great respect. After the Vietnam War, over 200,000 Hmong were resettled in the USA and shamanism is still part of the Hmong culture. But due the colluding of culture and the law, as Professor Alison Dundes Renteln, a political science professor at the University of Southern California and author of The Cultural Defense, a book that examines the influence of such cases on U.S. courts, once said, "We say that as a society we welcome diversity, and in fact that we embrace it...In practice, it's not that easy.".<ref name="usatoday.com">{{cite news| url=http://www.usatoday.com/educate/firstamendment/religion_052504.html | work=USA Today}}</ref>

The Hmong believe that all things on Earth have a soul(s) and those souls are treated as equal and can be considered interchangeable. When a person is sick due to his soul being loss or captured by wild spirit, it is necessary to ask and get permission of that animal, whether it is a chicken, pig, dog, goat or any other animals required, to use its soul for an exchange with that person's soul for a period of 12 months. At the end of that 12 month period, during the Hmong New Year, the shaman performed a special ritual to release the soul of that animal and send it off to the world beyond. As part of his service to mankind, the animal soul is sent off to be re-incarnated into a higher form of animal or even to become a member of a god's family (ua Fuab Tais Ntuj tus tub, tus ntxhais) to live a life of luxury, free of the suffering as an animal. Hence, being asked to perform this duty (what Westerner called "animal sacrifice") is one of the a greatest honors for that animal to be able to serve mankind. The Hmong of Southeast Guizhou will cover the [[rooster|cock]] with a piece of red cloth and then hold it up to worship and sacrifice to the Heaven and the Earth before the [[Cockfight (Sacred)|cockfight]].<ref>Southeast Guizhou Travel Tips - China Highlights, a division of CITS Guilin, a full service China travel agency providing China Tours</ref> In a 2010 trial of a Sheboygan Wisconsin Hmong that was charged with staging a cockfight, it was stated that the roosters were “kept for both food and religious purposes”<ref>[http://whbl.com/news/articles/2010/apr/08/day-one-cockfighting-trial-books/ Cockfight Trial UnderwayWHBL News April 08, 2010]</ref> followed by an acquittal.<ref>[http://whbl.com/news/articles/2010/apr/08/day-one-cockfighting-trial-books/ Not Guilty Verdict In Cockfighting Trial WHBL News April 09, 2010]</ref>

In addition to the spiritual dimension, Hmong shaman can treat many physical illnesses by using text of sacred words (khawv koob).

====Korea====
{{Main|Korean shamanism}}
Shamanism is still practiced in [[South Korea]], where the role of a shaman is most frequently taken by women known as ''mudangs'', while male shamans (rare) are called baksoo mudangs. Korean shamans are considered to be from a low class.

A person can become a shaman through hereditary title or through natural ability. Shamans are consulted in contemporary society for financial and marital decisions.

====Japan====
{{Main|Shinto|Ainu religion|Ryukyuan religion}}
Shamanism is part of the native Japanese religion of [[Shinto]].The distinction is that Shinto is Shamanism for agricultural society. Today Shinto has morphed with Buddhism and other Japanese folk culture. The book "''Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods''" by Percival Lowell delves further into researching Japanese Shamanism or [[Shintoism]].<ref>Percival Lowell, Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods, Inner Traditions International (April 1990), Rochester Vt</ref> It is generally accepted that the vast majority of Japanese people take part in Shinto rituals. The book ''Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto'' uncovers the extraordinary aspects of Japanese beliefs.<ref>Alan Mcfarlane, ''Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto'', Profile Books Ltd, Aug 2007, London England</ref><ref>[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fb20071007a1.html Japantimes.co.jp]</ref>

====Siberia and North Asia====
{{Main|Shamanism in Siberia}}
[[File:AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Ainu people|Ainu]] bear sacrifice. Japanese scroll painting, circa 1870.]]
[[Siberia]] is regarded as the ''locus classicus'' of shamanism.<ref name=locclass>Hoppál 2005:13</ref> It is inhabited by many different ethnic groups. Many of its peoples observe shamanistic practices even in modern times. Many classical ethnographic sources of "shamanism" were recorded among Siberian peoples.

[[Manchu people|Manchu]] Shamanism is one of very few Shamanist traditions which had official status into the modern era, by becoming one of the imperial cults of the [[Qing Dynasty]] of [[China]] (alongside [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]] and traditional [[Heaven worship]]. The [[Palace of Earthly Tranquility]], one of the principal halls of the [[Forbidden City]] in [[Beijing]], was partly dedicated to Shamanist rituals. The ritual set-up is still preserved ''in situ'' today.

Among the Siberian [[Chukchis]] peoples, a shaman is interpreted as someone who is [[Spirit possession|possessed]] by a spirit who demands that someone assume the shamanic role for their people. Among the Buryat, there is a ritual known as "shanar"<ref>[http://texts.00.gs/Shanar.htm Shanar Buryat]</ref> whereby a candidate is consecrated as shaman by another, already-established shaman.

Among several [[Samoyedic peoples]] shamanism was a living tradition also in modern times, especially at groups living in isolation until recent times ([[Nganasan people|Nganasan]]s).<ref name=ngan>Hoppál 2005:92–93</ref> The last notable Nganasan shaman's seances could be recorded on film in the 1970s.<ref name="Hoppal" /><ref name=ngan/>

When the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949 and the border with Russian Siberia was formally sealed, many nomadic Tungus groups that practiced shamanism were confined in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. These include the Evenki. The last shaman of the Oroqen, Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), died in October 2000.

In many other cases, shamanism was in decline even at the beginning of 20th century ([[Romani people|Gypsies]]).<ref name="Hoppal_a" />

====Central Asia====

=====Geographic influences on Central Asian shamanism=====
Geographical factors heavily influence the character and development of the religion, myths, rituals and epics of Central Asia. While in other parts of the world, religious rituals are primarily used to promote agricultural prosperity, here they were used to ensure success in hunting and breeding livestock. Animals are one of the most important elements of indigenous religion in Central Asia because of the role they play in the survival of the nomadic civilizations of the steppes as well as sedentary populations living on land not conducive to agriculture. Shamans wore animal skins and feathers and underwent transformations into animals during spiritual journeys. In addition, animals served as humans' guides, rescuers, ancestors, totems and sacrificial victims.<ref>Julian Baldick, ''Animal and Shaman: Ancient Religions of Central Asia'' (New York: University Press, 2000), 3-35</ref> As a religion of nature, shamanism throughout Central Asia held particular reverence for the relations between sky, earth and water and believed in the mystical importance of trees and mountains. Shamanism in Central Asia also places a strong emphasis on the opposition between summer and winter, corresponding to the huge differences in temperature common in the region. The harsh conditions and poverty caused by the extreme temperatures drove Central Asian nomads throughout history to pursue militaristic goals against their sedentary neighbors. This military background can be seen in the reverence for horses and warriors within many indigenous religions.<ref>Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, ''Shamanism: Soviet Studies of Traditional Religion in Siberia and Central Asia'' (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1990), 113</ref>

=====Common shamanic practices and beliefs shared among Central Asians=====
Central Asian shamans served as sacred intermediaries between the human and spirit world. In this role they took on tasks such as healing, divination, appealing to ancestors, manipulating the elements, leading lost souls and officiating public religious rituals. The shamanic séance served as a public display of the shaman's journey to the spirit world and usually involved intense trances, drumming, dancing, chanting, elaborate costumes, miraculous displays of physical strength, and audience involvement. The goal of these séances ranged from recovering the lost soul of a sick patient and divining the future to controlling the weather and finding a lost person or thing. The use of sleight-of-hand tricks, ventriloquism, and hypnosis were common in these rituals but did not explain the more impressive feats and actual cures accomplished by shamans.<ref>Nora K. Chadwick, "Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia," ''The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', Vol. 66, (Jan.-Jun., 1936): 97-99</ref>

Shamans perform in a "state of ecstasy" deliberately induced by an effort of will. Reaching this altered state of consciousness required great mental exertion, concentration and strict self-discipline. Mental and physical preparation included long periods of silent meditation, fasting, and smoking. In this state, skilled shamans employ capabilities that the human organism cannot accomplish in the ordinary state. Shamans in ecstasy displayed unusual physical strength, the ability to withstand extreme temperatures, the bearing of stabbing and cutting without pain, and the heightened receptivity of the sense organs. Shamans made use of intoxicating substances and hallucinogens, especially mukhomor mushrooms and alcohol, as a means of hastening the attainment of ecstasy.<ref>Balzer, ''Shamanism'', 12-21</ref>

The use of purification by fire is an important element of the shamanic tradition dating back as early as the 6th century. People and things connected with the dead had to be purified by passing between fires. These purifications were complex exorcisms while others simply involved the act of literally walking between two fires while being blessed by the Shaman. Shamans in literature and practice were also responsible for using special stones to manipulate weather. Rituals are performed with these stones to attract rain or repel snow, cold or wind. This "rain-stone" was used for many occasions including bringing an end to drought as well as producing hailstorms as a means of warfare.<ref>John Andrew Boyle, "Turkish and Mongol Shamanism in the Middle Ages," ''Folklore'' Vol. 83 (1972): 183-185</ref>
Despite distinctions between various types of shamans and specific traditions, there is a uniformity throughout the region manifested in the personal beliefs, objectives, rituals, symbols and the appearance of shamans.

=====Shamanic rituals as artistic performance=====
The shamanic ceremony is both a religious ceremony and an artistic performance. The fundamental purpose of the dramatic displays seen during shamanic ceremonies is not to draw attention or to create a spectacle for the audience as many Westerners have come to believe, but to lead the tribe in a solemn ritualistic process.

In general, all performances consist of four elements: dance, music, poetry and dramatic or mimetic action. The use of these elements serves the purpose of outwardly expressing his mystical communion with nature and the spirits for the rest of the tribe. The true shaman can make the journey to the spirit world at any time and any place, but shamanic ceremonies provide a way for the rest of the tribe to share in this religious experience. The shaman changes his voice mimetically to represent different persons, gods, and animals while his music and dance change to show his progress in the spirit world and his different spiritual interactions. Many shamans practice ventriloquism and make use of their ability to accurately imitate the sounds of animals, nature, humans and other noises in order to provide the audience with the ambiance of the journey. Elaborate dances and recitations of songs and poetry are used to make the shamans spiritual adventures into a matter of living reality to his audience.<ref>Chadwick, ''Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia'': 93-101</ref>

=====Costume and accessories=====
The shaman's attire varies throughout the region but his chief accessories are his coat, cap, and tambourine or drum. The transformation into an animal is an important aspect of the journey into the spirit world undertaken during shamanic rituals so the coat is often decorated with birds feathers and representations of animals, coloured handkerchiefs, bells and metal ornaments. The cap is usually made from the skin of a bird with the feathers and sometimes head, still attached.

The drum or tambourine is the essential means of communicating with spirits and enabling the shaman to reach altred states of consciousness on his journey. The drum, representing the universe in epitome, is often divided into equal halves to represent the earth and lower realms. Symbols and natural objects are added to the drum representing natural forces and heavenly bodies.<ref>Chadwick, ''Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia'',: 85-87</ref>

=====Shamanism in Tsarist and Soviet Russia=====
In Soviet Central Asia, the Soviet government persecuted and denounced shamans as practitioners of fraudulent medicine and perpetuators of outdated religious beliefs in the new age of science and logic. The radical transformations occurring after the October Socialist Revolution led to a sharp decrease in the activity of shamans. Shamans represented an important component in the traditional culture of Central Asians and because of their important role in society, Soviet organizations and campaigns targeted shamans in their attempt to eradicate traditional influences in the lives of the indigenous peoples. Along with persecution under the tsarist and Soviet regimes, the spread of Christianity and Islam had a role in the disintegration of native faith throughout central Asia. Poverty, political instability and foreign influence are also detrimental to a religion that requires publicity and patronage to flourish.
By the 1980s most shamans were discredited in the eyes of their people by Soviet officials and physicians.<ref>Balzer, ''Shamanism'', 42-49</ref>

====Other Asian traditions====
{{See|Wu (shaman)}}
{{Synthesis|section|date=October 2009}}
There is a strong shamanistic influence in the [[Bön]] religion in [[Central Asian]], and in [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. Buddhism became popular with shamanic peoples such as the [[Tibetans]], [[Mongols]], and [[Manchu people|Manchu]] beginning in the eighth century. Forms of shamanistic ritual combined with Tibetan Buddhism became institutionalized as a major religion under the Mongolian [[Yuan dynasty]] and the Manchurian [[Qing dynasty]]. However, in the shamanic cultures still practiced by various ethnic groups in areas such as [[Nepal]] and northern India, shamans are not necessarily considered enlightened, and often are even feared for their ability to use their power to carry out malicious intent.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}
[[File:Polovtsy.jpg|thumb|Kipchak stone statues of [[Pontic steppes]]. The nomadic [[Kipchak people|Kipchaks]] followed a Shamanist religion.]]

In Tibet, the Nyingma schools in particular, had a Tantric tradition that had married "priests" known as Ngakpas or Ngakmas/mos (fem.). The Ngakpas were often employed or commissioned to rid the villages of demons or disease, creations of protective amulets, the carrying out of religious rites etc. The Ngakpas should however, have been grounded in Buddhist philosophy and not simply another form of shaman, but sadly,{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} this was most often not the case. There have always been, however, highly realised and accomplished ngakpas. They were in their own right great lamas who were of equal status as lamas with monastic backgrounds. The monasteries, as in many conventional religious institutions, wished to preserve their own traditions. The monasteries depended upon the excesses of patrons for support. This situation often led to a clash between the more grassroots and shamanic character of the travelling ''[[Chöd]]pa'' and ''[[Ngakpa]]'' culture and the more conservative religious monastic system.<ref>''Economy of Excess''. George Bataille.</ref>{{Failed verification|date=October 2009}}

"[[Jhakri]]" is the common name used for shamans in [[Sikkim]], [[India]]. They exist in the [[Limbu]], [[Sunuwar]], [[Rai people|Rai]], [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]], [[Kami]], [[Tamang]], [[Gurung]] and [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]] communities.<ref>{{harvnb |Gulia |2005 | |pp=153–4 }}</ref> They are inflluenced by [[Hinduism]], Tibetan Buddhism, [[Mun (religion)|Mun]] and Bön rites.<ref>{{harvnb |Gulia |2005 | |p=168 }}</ref>

Shamanism is still widely practiced in the [[Ryukyu Islands]] ([[Okinawa]], [[Japan]]), where shamans are known as 'Noro' (all women) and 'Yuta'. 'Noro' generally administer public or communal ceremonies while 'Yuta' focus on civil and private matters. Shamanism is also practiced in a few rural areas in Japan proper. It is commonly believed that the [[Shinto]] religion is the result of the transformation of a shamanistic tradition into a religion.
Forms of practice vary somewhat in the several Ryukyu islands, so that there is, e.g., a distinct [http://texts.00.gs/Miyako_Shamanism.htm '''Miyako''' shamanism].

Shamanism practices seem to have been preserved in the Catholic religious traditions of aborigines in [[Taiwan]].<ref>O. Lardenois, [http://www.erenlai.com/media/downloads/TheologicalShamanismLardenois.pdf Shamanism and Catholic Indigenous Communities in Taiwan]</ref>

In [[Vietnam]], shamans conduct rituals in many of the religious traditions that co-mingle in the majority and minority populations. In their rituals, music, dance, special garments and offerings are part of the performance that surround the spirit journey.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/vietnam/07_other/ |title=Journeys to Other Worlds: The Rites of Shamans |last= |first= |publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}</ref>

===Europe===
[[File:Sami shamanic drum.JPG|thumb|[[Noaide|Sami shamanic drum]] in the [[Arktikum Science Museum]], in [[Rovaniemi]], Finland]]
{{main|Shamanism in Europe}}
{{further|Noaide|Sami shamanism|Finnish mythology|}}
{{further|Hungarian mythology|Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore}}
{{further|Magic in the Greco-Roman world|European witchcraft}}
{{further|Astuvansalmi|Astuvansalmi rock paintings}}
While shamanism had a strong tradition in Europe before the rise of monotheism, shamanism remains a traditional, organized religion in northern Eurasia, including [[Mari-El]] and [[Udmurtia]], two semi-autonomous provinces of Russia with large minority populations. Shamanism in Scandinavia may be represented in rock art dating to the Neolithic era<ref>Bolin 2000: 157</ref> and was practiced throughout the Iron Age by the various [[Germanic peoples|Teutonic]] tribes and the [[Baltic-Finnic]] peoples.<ref name=jon-shaman>A. Asbjorn Jon, [http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol10/pdf/teuton.pdf Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn]</ref> People which used to live in Siberia, have wandered to their present locations since then. For example, many Uralic peoples live now outside Siberia, however the original location of the [[Proto-Uralic language|Proto-Uralic]] peoples (and its extent) is debated. Combined [[Phytogeography|phytogeographical]] and linguistic considerations (distribution of various tree species and the presence of their names in various Uralic languages) suggest that this area was north of Central [[Ural Mountains]] and on lower and middle parts of [[Ob River]].<ref name=ancloc>Hajdú 1975:35</ref> The ancestors of [[Hungarian people]] or Magyars have wandered from their ancestral proto-Uralic area to the [[Pannonian Basin]]. Shamanism played an important role in [[Mythology of the Turkic and Mongolian peoples|Turko-Mongol mythology]]. [[Tengriism]], the major belief among [[Xiongnu]] or Mongol and [[Turkic peoples]], [[Magyars]] and [[Bulgars]] in ancient times incorporates elements of shamanism. Shamanism is no more a living practice among Hungarians, but remnants have been reserved as fragments of folklore, in folktales, customs.<ref>Diószegi 1998</ref>

Various scholars have also argued that shamanism was once widespread across Europe prior to Christianisation. Some historians of the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern period have argued that traces of shamanistic traditions can be seen in the popular folk belief of this period. Most prominent among these was the Italian [[Carlo Ginzburg]], who claimed shamanistic elements in the ''[[benandanti]]'' custom of 16th century Italy,<ref>[[#Gin83|Ginzburg 1983 [1966]]].</ref> the Hungarian [[Éva Pócs]], who identified them in the ''[[táltos]]'' tradition of Hungary,<ref>[[#Poc99|Pócs 1999]].</ref> and the Frenchman [[Claude Lecouteux]], who has argued that Medieval traditions regarding the soul are based on earlier shamanic ideas.<ref>[[#Lec03|Lecouteux 2003]].</ref> Ginzburg in particular has argued that some of these shamanistic traditions influenced the conception of [[witchcraft]] in Christendom, in particular ideas regarding the [[witches' sabbath]], leading to the events of the [[witch trials in the Early Modern period]].<ref>[[#Gin90|Ginzburg 1990]].</ref>

The [[cunning folk]] is an English language term referring to professional or semi-professional Anglo-Celtic practitioners of magic active from at least the 15th up until the early 20th century particularly throughout rural United Kingdom (and possibly into the 21st century among the diaspora). They practiced [[folk magic]] – also known as "low magic" – although often combined this with elements of "high" or [[ceremonial magic]]. Such people were also frequently known across England as "wizards", "wise men" or "wise women", or in southern England and Wales as "conjurers" or as "dyn(es) hysbys" in the Welsh language. In Cornwall they were sometimes referred to as [[pellars]], which some etymologists suggest originated from the term [[expellers]], referring to the practice of expelling evil spirits. Many have argued that this is evidence that community shamanism was practiced in the UK up until to the modern era.
Christian sanctioned Laws were enacted across England, Scotland and Wales that often condemned cunning folk and their magical practices.

In Scandinavia the klok gumma ("wise woman") or klok gubbe ("wise man"), and collectively De kloka ("The Wise ones"), as they were known in Swedish, were usually elder members of the community who acted as [[naturopathic]] doctors and midwives as well as using folk magic such as magic rhymes. In Denmark they were called klog mand ("wise man") and klog kone ("wise woman") and collectively as kloge folk ("wise folk").

The names used for cunning-folk in Italy vary from region to region, although such names include praticos (wise people), guaritori (healers), fattucchiere (fixers), donne che aiutano (women who help) and mago, maga or maghiardzha (sorcerers). At times, they were sometimes called streghe (witches), although usually only "behind their backs or by those who either are sceptical of their powers or believe they deal in black magic." The cunning profession akin to Shamanism survived the 20th century and into the early 21st, allowing Italian-American sociologist Sabina Magliocco to make a brief study of them (2009).

===Circumpolar shamanism===

====Inuit and Yupik cultures====
[[File:Yupik shaman Nushagak.jpg|thumb|Yup'ik shaman exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy, [[Nushagak, Alaska]], 1890s.<ref>Fienup-Riordan, Ann. 1994:206</ref> Nushagak, located on [[Nushagak Bay]] of the Bering Sea in southwest [[Alaska]], is part of the territory of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik|Yup'ik]], speakers of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language]]]]
{{Main|Shamanism among Eskimo peoples}}
[[Eskimo]] groups inhabit a huge area stretching from [[Eastern Siberia]] through Alaska and Northern Canada (including [[Labrador Peninsula]]) to [[Greenland]]. Shamanistic practice and beliefs have been recorded at several parts of this vast area crosscutting continental borders.<ref name=Mer-BecHalfHid>Merkur 1985</ref><ref name=Gab-KarEszk/><ref name=KleiSon-Esk>Kleivan & Sonne 1985</ref>
{{IPA notice}}

When speaking of "shamanism" in various Eskimo groups, we must remember that (as mentioned above) the term "shamanism" can cover certain characteristics of ''various'' different cultures.<ref name="cogmap"/> [[#Mediator|Mediation]] is regarded often as an important aspect of shamanism in general.<ref name=med>Hoppál 2005:45–50</ref> Also in most Eskimo groups, the role of mediator is known well:<ref name=menmed>Menovščikov 1996:442</ref> the person filling it in is actually believed to be able to contact the beings who populate the belief system. Term "shaman" is used in several English-language publications also in relation to Eskimos.<ref name="Mer-BecHalfHid"/><ref name=KleiSon-Esk/><ref>Vitebsky 1996</ref><ref>Freuchen 1961: 32</ref> Also the ''alignalghi'' ({{IPA-iu|aˈliɣnalʁi|IPA}}) of the Asian Eskimos is translated as "shaman" in the Russian<ref>Рубцова 1954: 203, 209</ref> and English<ref name=menmed/> literature.

The belief system assumes specific links between the living people, the souls of hunted animals, and those of dead people.<ref>Both death of a person and successfully hunted game require that cutting, sewing etc. be tabooed, so that the invisible soul does not get hurt accidentally (Kleivan&Sonne, pp. 18–21). In Greenland, the transgression of death tabu could turn the soul of the dead into a ''tupilak'', a restless ghost which scared game away (Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 23). Animals fled from hunter in case of taboo breaches, e.g. birth taboo, death taboo (Kleivan&Sonne, pp. 12–13)</ref> The [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] concepts of several groups are specific examples of [[soul dualism]] (showing variability in details in the various cultures).

Unlike the majority of shamanisms the careers of most Eskimo shamans lack the motivation of ''force'': becoming a shaman is usually a result of deliberate consideration, not a necessity forced by the spirits.<ref name="failed-shaman"/>

====Diversity, with similarities====
Another possible concern: do the belief systems of various Eskimo groups have such common features at all, that would justify any mentioning them together? There was no political structure above the groups, their languages were relative, but differed more or less, often forming [[language continuum]]s (online<ref name=complink>[http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/yupik_inuit.html Lawrence Kaplan: Comparative Yupik and Inuit] (found on the site of [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/index.html Alaska Native Language Center])</ref>).

There are similarities in the cultures of the Eskimo groups<ref>Kleivan 1985:8</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965:366 (ch. XXIII)</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965:166 (ch. XIII)</ref><ref name=padlgreen>Rasmussen 1965:110 (ch. VIII)</ref><ref name=Mau-Mor>Mauss 1979</ref> together with diversity, far from homogeneity.<ref>Kleivan 1985:26</ref>

The Russian linguist Menovshikov (Меновщиков), an expert of [[Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]] and [[Sireniki Eskimo language]]s (while admitting that he is not a specialist in ethnology<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]:433</ref>) mentions, that the shamanistic seances of those [[Siberian Yupik]] and [[Sireniki Eskimos|Sireniki]] groups he has seen have many similarities to those of Greenland Inuit groups described by [[Fridtjof Nansen]],<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]:442</ref> although a large distance separates Siberia and Greenland. There may be certain similarities also in Asiatic groups with North American ones.<ref>Vitebsky 1996:42 (ch. ''North America'')</ref> Also the usage of a specific shaman's language is documented among several Eskimo groups, used mostly for talking to spirits.<ref>Merkur 1985:7</ref><ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985:14</ref> Also the Ungazighmiit (belonging to [[Siberian Yupik]]s) had a special [[Allegory|allegoric]] usage of some expressions.<ref>Rubcova 1954:128</ref>

The local cultures showed great diversity. The myths concerning the role of shaman had several variants, and also the name of their protagonists varied from culture to culture. For example, a mythological figure, usually referred to in the literature by the collective term [[Sedna (mythology)|Sea Woman]], has factually many local names: Nerrivik "meat dish" among Polar Inuit, Nuliayuk "lubricous" among [[Netsilingmiut]], Sedna "the nether one" among Baffin Land Inuit.<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 27</ref> Also the soul conceptions, e.g. the details of the [[soul dualism]] showed great variability, ranging from guardianship to a kind of [[reincarnation]]. Conceptions of spirits or other beings had also many variants (see e.g. the [[tupilaq]] concept).<ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 30–31</ref>

===Africa===
{{See also|African traditional religion|Witch doctor|Sangoma}}
[[File:Sangoma performing a Baptism.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Traditional Healers of South Africa|Sangoma/Inyanga]] performing a traditional baptism on a baby in order to protect the spirit of the baby, Johannesburg, South Africa]]
In central Mali, [[Dogon people|Dogon]] sorcerers (both male and female) claim to have communication with a head deity named Amma, who advises them on healing and divination practices.

In the early 19th century traditional healers in parts of Africa were often referred to in a derogatory manner as [[witch doctor|"witch doctors"]] practicing [[Juju]] by early European settlers and explorers.

Contemporary ethnology records that the [[Bushmen]], or their ancestors distributed throughout Southern Africa before the 20th century, practiced shamanism. In the semi-desert Northern Cape region, the shamans of the |Xam people were known by the compound word '!gi:ten', where '!gi' is 'power' and 'ten' indicated possession. The word is phonetically identical to the Xhosa word for 'doctor'. In areas in Eastern Free State and Lesotho, where they co-existed with the early [[Sotho people|Sotho]] tribes, local folklore describes them to have lived in caves where they drew pictures on cave walls during a trance and were also reputed to be good rainmakers.

The classical meaning of shaman as a person who, after recovering from a mental illness (or insanity) takes up the professional calling of socially recognized religious practitioner, is exemplified among the [[Sisala]] (of northern Gold Coast) : "the fairies "seized" him and made him insane for several months. Eventually, though, he learned to control their power, which he now uses to divine."<ref>Eugene L. Mendonsa : ''The Politics of Divination : a Processual View of Reactions to Illness and Deviance among the Sisala''. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1982. p. 112</ref>

The term ''[[sangoma]]'', as employed in [[Zulu people|Zulu]] and congeneric languages, is effectively equivalent to shaman. Sangomas are highly revered and respected in their society, where illness is thought to be caused by [[witchcraft]],<ref>David M Cumes"Africa in my bones" pp.14</ref> pollution (contact with impure objects or occurrences) or by the ancestors themselves,<ref>Susan Schuster Campbell"Called to Heal" pp.38</ref> either malevolently, or through neglect if they are not respected, or to show an individual her calling to become a sangoma (thwasa).<ref>Susan Schuster Campbell"Called to Heal" pp.79</ref> For harmony between the living and the dead, vital for a trouble-free life, the ancestors must be shown respect through ritual and animal sacrifice.<ref>David M Cumes"Africa in my bones" pp.10</ref>

The term ''[[inyanga]]'' also employed by the [[Nguni people|Nguni]] cultures is equivalent to 'herbalist' as used by the Zulu people and a variation used by the [[Karanga]],<ref>http://texts.00.gs/Karanga_shamanism.htm Karanga_shamanism</ref> among whom remedies (locally known as [[muti]]) for ailments are discovered by the inyanga being informed in a dream, of the herb able to effect the cure and also of where that herb is to be found. The majority of the herbal knowledge base is passed down from one ''inyanga'' to the next, often within a particular family circle in any one village.

Shamanism is known among the Nuba of Kordofan in Sudan.<ref>Nadel, S.F. "A Shaman Cult in the Nuba Mountains". ''Sudan Notes and Records'' 1941; 24(l): 85-112</ref><ref>Nadel, S.F. "A Study of Shamanism in the Nuba Mountains". ''Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute'' 1946; 76:25–37</ref>

===Americas===
{{Main|Shamanism among the indigenous peoples of the Americas}}

====North America====
{{Main|Medicine man}}
[[File:Doña ramona.jpg|thumb|right|Doña Ramona, a Seri shaman from Punta Chueca, Sonora, Mexico.]]
{{Refimprove section|date=September 2009}}
[[File:White indian conjuror.jpg|thumb|[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] "conjuror" in a 1590 engraving]]
[[File:Hamatsa shaman2.jpg|thumb|[[Hamatsa]] ritualist, 1914]]
[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] and [[First Nations]] cultures have diverse religious beliefs. There was never one universal Native American religion or spiritual system. Though many Native American cultures have traditional healers, ritualists, singers, [[Mysticism|mystics]], lore-keepers and "Medicine People", none of them ever used, or use, the term "shaman" to describe these religious leaders. Rather, like other indigenous cultures the world over, their spiritual functionaries are described by words in their own languages, and in many cases are not taught to outsiders.

Many of these indigenous religions have been grossly misrepresented by outside observers and anthropologists, even to the extent of superficial or seriously mistaken anthropological accounts being taken as more authentic than the accounts of actual members of the cultures and religions in question. Often these accounts suffer from "[[Noble savage|Noble Savage]]"-type romanticism and [[racism]]. Some contribute to the fallacy that Native American cultures and religions are something that only existed in the past, and which can be mined for data despite the opinions of Native communities.<ref>Jones, Peter N. 2008 Shamans and Shamanism: A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Terms Use in North America. Boulder, Colorado: Bauu Press.</ref>

Not all Indigenous communities have roles for specific individuals who mediate with the spirit world on behalf of the community. Among those that do have this sort of religious structure, spiritual methods and beliefs may have some commonalities, though many of these commonalities are due to some nations being closely related, from the same region, or through post-Colonial governmental policies leading to the combining of formerly independent nations on reservations. This can sometimes lead to the impression that there is more unity among belief systems than there was in antiquity.

[[Navajo people|Navajo]] medicine men and women, known as "[[Navajo people#Healing and spiritual practices|Hatałii]]", use several methods to diagnose the patient's ailments. These may include using special tools such as crystal rocks, and abilities such as hand-trembling and trances, sometimes accompanied by chanting. The ''Hatałii'' will select a specific healing chant for that type of ailment. Navajo healers must be able to correctly perform a healing ceremony from beginning to end. If they do not, the ceremony will not work. Training a Hatałii to perform ceremonies is extensive, arduous, and takes many years. The apprentice learns everything by watching his teacher, and memorizes the words to all the chants. Many times, a medicine man or woman cannot learn all sixty of the traditional ceremonies, so will opt to specialize in a select few.

=====Extirpation in North America=====
{{Expand section|date=November 2011}}
With the arrival of European [[settler]]s and [[Colony|colonial]] administration, the practice of Native American traditional beliefs was discouraged and Christianity was imposed upon the indigenous people.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

About 1888, a mass movement known as the [[Ghost Dance]] started among the Paviotso (a branch of the Pah-Utes in Nevada) and swept through many tribes of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. The belief was that through practicing the Ghost Dance, a [[messiah]] would come with rituals that would make the white man disappear and bring back game and dead native Americans.<ref>''History of the American Indian'', page 222. Oliver Lafarge 1956</ref> This spread to the Plains tribes, who were starving due to the depletion of the buffalo. Some Sioux, the Arapahos, Cheyennes and Kiowas accepted the doctrine. This form of shamanism was brutally suppressed by the United States military with the death of 128 Sioux at [[Wounded Knee Massacre|the massacre of Wounded Knee]].<ref>lib of congress 56-11375 page 224</ref>

During the last hundred years, thousands of surviving Native Americans, [[First Nations]] youngsters from many cultures were sent into [[Indian boarding school]]s to destroy any tribal, shamanic or totemic faith.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

====Mesoamerica====

=====Maya=====
{{Main|Maya priesthood}}
{{Further|Mayan astrology|Maya religion}}
[[File:Mayan priest performing healing.jpg|thumb|left|[[Maya priesthood|Maya priest]] performing a healing ritual at [[Tikal]].]]
The Maya people of Guatemala, Belize, and southern Mexico practice a highly sophisticated form of shamanism based upon astrology and a form of divination known as "the blood speaking", in which the shaman is guided in divination and healing by pulses in the veins of his arms and legs.

=====Aztec=====
{{Further|Aztec astrology|Aztec religion}}
In contemporary [[Nahuatl]], shamanism is known as ''cualli ohtli'' ("the good path") leading during dreaming by "friends of the night" to [[Tlalocan|''Tlalocán'']].

====South America====
* Shamanic healing is found among the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Kuna (people)|Kuna people]] of Panama, who rely on [[sacred]] [[Amulet|talisman]]s. As such, they enjoy a popular position among local peoples.
* The [[Urarina]] of the Peruvian [[Amazonia]] have an elaborate cosmological system predicated on the [[ritual]] consumption of [[ayahuasca]]. Urarina ayahuasca shamanism is a key feature of this poorly documented society.<ref name="upf.com">Dean, Bartholomew 2009 ''Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia'', Gainesville: University Press of Florida ISBN 978-0-8130-3378-5 [http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=DEANXS07]</ref>
* Among the Brazilian [[Tapirapé people]] shamans are called to serve in their dreams.
* The [[Shuar people]], seeking the power to defend their family against enemies, would apprentice themselves to become shamans.
* [[Santo Daime]] and [[União do Vegetal]] ( abbreviated to [[UDV]]) are syncretic religions with elements of shamanism. They use an [[entheogen]] called ayahuasca to connect with the spirit realm and receive divine guidance.<ref name="Peru" />

=====Amazonia=====
[[File:Chaman amazonie 5 06.jpg|thumb|Shaman from the shuara culture in [[Ecuador]] [[Amazonian forest]], June 2006]]
[[File:Urarina shaman B Dean.jpg|thumb|right|[[Urarina]] [[shaman]], 1988]]
In the Peruvian [[Amazon Basin]] and north coastal regions of the country, the healer shamans are known as [[curandero]]s. ''Ayahuasqueros'' are Peruvian shamans, such as among the [[Urarina people]], who specialize in the use of [[ayahuasca]], a [[psychedelic]] herbal potion used for physical and psychological healing, [[divine revelation]], and for the very reproduction of society itself.<ref name="upf.com"/> ''Ayahuasqueros'' have become popular among Western spiritual seekers, who claim that the shamans and their ayahuasca brews have cured them of everything from depression to addiction to cancer.<ref name="Peru" />

In addition to ''curanderos'' use of ayahuasca and their ritualized ingestion of [[mescaline]]-bearing [[San Pedro cactus]]es (Trichocereus pachanoi) for the [[divination]] and diagnosis of [[Maleficium (sorcery)|sorcery]], north-coastal shamans are famous throughout the region for their intricately complex and symbolically dense healing [[altar]]s called mesas (tables). Sharon (1993) has argued that the mesas symbolize the dualistic ideology underpinning the practice and experience of north-coastal shamanism.<ref>Joralemen, D and D Sharon 1993 Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.</ref> For Sharon, the mesas are the, "physical embodiment of the supernatural opposition between benevolent and malevolent energies" (Dean 1998:61).<ref>Dean, Bartholomew 1998 "Review of Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru" American Ethnologist. 25(1): 61-62.</ref>

In the [[Amazon rainforest]], at several Indian groups the shaman acts also as a manager of scarce ecological resources (paper;<ref name=eco/><ref name=ecopia>Boglár 2001:26</ref> online<ref name=coop/>). The rich symbolism behind [[Tukano people|Tukano]] shamanism has been documented in some in-depth [[field work]]s<ref name="eco"/><ref name=Hug-FrMilkRiv>Christine Hugh-Jones 1980</ref><ref name=Hug-PalmPlei>Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980</ref> even in the last decades of the 20th century.

The ''yaskomo'' of the [[Wai-Wai people|Waiwai]] is believed to be able to perform a [[soul travel|soul flight]]. The soul flight can serve several functions:
* healing
* flying to the sky to consult cosmological beings (the moon or the brother of the moon) to get a name for a newborn baby
* flying to the cave of ''peccaries' mountains'' to ask the ''father of peccaries'' for abundance of game
* flying deep down in a river, to achieve the help of other beings.
Thus, a yaskomo is believed to be able to reach sky, earth, water, in short, every element.<ref name="yaskomo soul flight">Fock 1963: 16</ref>

Shamanism among the [[Yanomamo|Yąnomamö]] (of the Venezolano Amazonas and the Brazilian Roraima) is described in ''Tales of the Yanomami'' by Jacques Lizot.

=====Mapuche=====
Among the [[Mapuche]] people of [[Chile]], the community shaman, usually a woman, is known as the ''[[Machi (Shaman)|Machi]]'', and serves the community by performing ceremonies to cure diseases, ward off evil, influence the weather and harvest, and by practicing other forms of healing such as herbalism.

=====Aymara=====
For the [[Aymara people|Aymara]] people of South America the [[Yatiri]] is a healer who heals the body and the soul, they serve the community and do the rituals for [[Pachamama]].

=====Fuegians=====
{{IPA notice}}
Although [[Fuegians]] (the indigenous peoples of [[Tierra del Fuego]]) were all [[hunter-gatherer]]s,<ref>Gusinde 1966, pp. 6–7</ref> they did not share a common culture. The material culture was not homogenous, either: the big island and the archipelago made two different adaptations possible. Some of the cultures were coast-dwelling, others were land-oriented.<ref name=Ser-Hun>Service, Elman: The Hunter. Prentice-Hall, 1966.</ref><ref name=ExtAnc>[http://www.trivia-library.com/c/extinct-ancient-societies-tierra-del-fuegians.htm Extinct Ancient Societies Tierra del Fuegians]</ref>

Both [[Selk'nam]] and [[Yámana]] had persons filling in [[shaman]]-like roles.
The Selk'nams believed their {{IPA|/xon/}}s to have supernatural capabilities, e.g. to control weather.<ref>Gusinde 1966:175</ref><ref>[http://www.victory-cruises.com/ona_indian.html About the Ona Indian Culture in Tierra del Fuego]</ref> The figure of {{IPA|/xon/}} appeared in myths, too.<ref>Gusinde 1966:15</ref> The Yámana {{IPA|/jekamuʃ/}}<ref>Gusinde 1966:156</ref> corresponds to the Selknam {{IPA|/xon/}}.<ref>Gusinde 1966:186</ref>

===Oceania===
{{See also|Umbarra|Tunggal panaluan}}
On the island of [[Papua New Guinea]], indigenous tribes believe that illness and calamity are caused by dark spirits, or ''masalai'', which cling to a person's body and [[poison]] them. Shamans are summoned in order to purge the unwholesome spirits from a person.<ref name=FourCorners_Amazon_entry>{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/Four-Corners-Journey-Heart-Guinea/dp/0792274172/ref=pd_bxgy_b_img_b |title=Amazon.com listing for the "Four Corners: A Journey into the Heart of Papua New Guinea" }}</ref><ref name=FourCornersWeb>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/FourCorners.html |title=Kira Salak's official webpage on "Four Corners" |last=Salak |first=Kira }}</ref> Shamans also perform [[rainmaking]] ceremonies and can allegedly improve a hunter's ability to catch animals.<ref name=MakingRain>{{cite web |url=http://www.kirasalak.com/MakingRain.html |title=MAKING RAIN--from Four Corners |last=Salak |first=Kira }}</ref>

In Australia various aboriginal groups refer to their shamans as "clever men" and "clever women" also as ''kadji''. These aboriginal shamans use ''[[maban]]'' or ''mabain'', the material that is believed to give them their purported magical powers. Besides healing, contact with spiritual beings, involvement in initiation and other secret ceremonies, they are also enforcers of tribal laws, keepers of special knowledge and may "[[hex]]" to death one who breaks a social taboo by singing a song only known to the "clever men".

===Contemporary Western shamanism===
{{Main|Neoshamanism|Core shamanism}}
There is an endeavor in some contemporary [[occultism|occult]] and [[esotericism|esoteric]] circles to reinvent shamanism in a modern form, often drawing from [[core shamanism]]—a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by [[Michael Harner]]—centered use of ritual drumming and dance, and Harner's interpretations of various indigenous religions. Harner has faced criticism for taking pieces of diverse religions out of their cultural contexts and synthesising a set of universal shamanic techniques. Some neoshamans focus on the ritual use of entheogens{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}, as well as embrace the philosophies of [[chaos magic]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} while others (such as [[Jan Fries]]<ref>Visual Magic:A Manual of Freestyle Shamanism:Jan Fries ISBN 1-869928-57-1</ref>) have created their own forms of shamanism.

European-based neoshamanic traditions are focused upon the researched or imagined traditions of ancient Europe, where many [[mystical]] practices and belief systems were suppressed by the Christian church. Some of these practitioners express a desire to practice a system that is based upon their own ancestral traditions. Some anthropologists and practitioners have discussed the impact of such neoshamanism as "giving extra pay" (Harvey, 1997 and elsewhere) to indigenous American traditions, particularly as many pagan or heathen shamanic practitioners do not call themselves shamans, but instead use specific names derived from the European traditions -they work within such as ''[[völva]]'' or ''seidkona'' ([[seiðr|seid-woman]]) of the sagas (see Blain 2002, Wallis 2003).

Many New Age spiritual seekers travel to Peru to work with ''ayahuasqueros'', shamans who engage in the ritual use of ayahuasca, a psychedelic tea which has been documented to cure everything from depression to addiction. When taking ayahuasca, participants frequently report meeting spirits, sometimes called [[machine elf|machine elves]], and receiving divine revelations.<ref name="Peru" /> Shamanistic techniques have also been used in New Age therapies which use enactment and association with other realities as an intervention.<ref>[http://www.ull.es/congresos/conmirel/YORK.html ULL – Universidad de La Laguna] {{es icon}}</ref><ref>[http://nlpuniversitypress.com/html/CaCom08.html Encyclopedia of NLP]</ref>

==Criticism of the term==
{{weasel words|date=June 2012}}
[[File:Shaman tableau.png|thumb|A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "shaman" in the literature. The tableau presents the diversity of this concept.]]
Certain anthropologists, most notably [[Alice Kehoe]] in her book ''Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking'', are highly critical of the term "shaman". Part of this criticism involves the notion of [[cultural appropriation]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} This includes criticism of [[New Age]] and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, according to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute indigenous practices. Alice Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such as the [[Noble Savage]].

Kehoe is highly critical of [[Mircea Eliade]]'s work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, what some scholars of shamanism treat as being definitive of shamanism (most notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogens, spirit communication and healing) are practices that exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and play similar roles even in non-shamanic cultures (such as the role of chanting in [[Judeo-Christian]] and Islamic rituals) and that in their expression are unique to each culture that uses them and cannot be generalized easily, accurately or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the notion that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the [[Paleolithic]] period.

[[Mihály Hoppál]] also discusses whether the term "shamanism" is appropriate. He recommends using the term "shamanhood"<ref name=summer/> or "shamanship"<ref>Hoppál & Szathmári & Takács 2006: 14</ref> (a term used in old Russian and German [[ethnography|ethnographic]] reports at the beginning of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on the local variations<ref name="cogmap" /> and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred [[dogma]]s, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way.<ref>Hoppál 1998:40</ref> Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift.<ref name=summer>[http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/coming.html ISSR, 2001 Summer], abstract online in 2nd half of 2nd paragraph)</ref> [[Piers Vitebsky]] also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although, as for the past, their existence is not impossible).<ref>Vitebsky 1996:11</ref>

== See also ==
{{Div col|cols=3}}
* [[Alberto Villoldo]]
* [[Astral spirits]]
* [[Animism]]
* [[Carlos Castaneda]]
* [[Cultural imperialism]]
* [[Curandero]]
* [[Heaven worship]]
* [[Inuit]]
* [[Itako]]
* [[Mana]]
* [[Machi (Shaman)]]
* [[Machine elf]]
* [[Nature worship]]
* [[Neuroanthropology]]
* [[Neurotheology]]
* [[Ovoo]]
* [[Paganism]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[Peyote]]
* [[Plastic shaman]]
* [[Power animal]]
* [[Prehistoric medicine]]
* [[Religion in China]]
* [[Sacred Hoop Magazine]]
* [[Seið]]
* [[Shaman's Drum Journal]]
* ''[[Shaman King]]''
* [[Shapeshifting]]
* [[Shintō]]
* [[Shramana]]
* [[Soul catcher]]
* [[Spirit spouse (in dreams)]]
* [[Tengri]]
* [[Terence McKenna]]
* [[Tulpa]]
* [[Turkic people]]
* [[Witch doctor]]
* [[Yatiri]]
* [[Zduhać]]
{{Div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite book |last=Barüske |first=Heinz |title=Eskimo Märchen |series=Die Märchen der Weltliteratur |publisher=Eugen Diederichs Verlag |location=Düsseldorf • Köln |year=1969 |language=German}} The title means: "Eskimo tales", the series means: "The tales of world literature".
* Berman, Michael. Shamanic Journeys through Daghestan. Winchester, UK: O, 2009.
* {{cite book |last=Boglár |first=Lajos |title=A kultúra arcai. Mozaikok a kulturális antropológia köreiből |publisher=Napvilág Kiadó |series=TÁRStudomány|location=Budapest |year=2001 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9082-94-5}} The title means "The faces of culture. Mosaics fom the area of cultural anthropology".
* {{cite journal |last=Bolin |first=Hans |title=Animal Magic: The mythological significance of elks, boats and humansin north Swedish rock art |journal=Journal of Material Culture. |volume= 5(2): 153-176. |year=2000 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Czaplicka |first=M. A. |others=preface by Marett, R. R. |chapter=Types of shaman |chapterurl=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm |title=Shamanism in Siberia. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in social anthropology |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis00.htm |publisher=Sommerville College, University of Oxford, Clarendon Press |year=1914 |isbn=1-60506-060-7}}
* <cite id=Dana04>{{cite journal |last=Dana |first=Kathleen Osgood |title=Áillohaš and his image drum: the native poet as shaman |journal=Nordlit |volume=15 |year=2004 summer |publisher=Faculty of Humanities, University of Tromsø |format=PDF |url=http://uit.no/getfile.php?PageId=977&FileId=183#search=%22Juha%20Pentik%C3%A4inen%20grammar%20of%20mind%22 |ref=harv}}</cite>
* {{cite web |last=Deschênes |first=Bruno |title=Inuit Throat-Singing |work=Musical Traditions |publisher=The Magazine for Traditional Music Throughout the World |year=2002 |url=http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm}}
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Sámánok nyomában Szibéria földjén. Egy néprajzi kutatóút története |publisher=Magvető Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |year=1960 |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02181/index.phtml}} The book has been translated to English: {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Tracing shamans in Siberia. The story of an ethnographical research expedition |others=Translated from Hungarian by Anita Rajkay Babó |publisher=Anthropological Publications |location=Oosterhout |year=1968}}
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=Samanizmus |publisher=Gondolat |series=Élet és Tudomány Kiskönyvtár |location=Budapest |year=1962 |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/01600/01639/ |language=Hungarian}} The title means: "Shamanism".
* {{cite book |last=Diószegi |first=Vilmos |title=A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben |origyear=1958 |edition=first reprint |year=1998 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-05-7542-6}} The title means: "Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore".
* {{cite book |last=Eliade |first=Mircea |authorlink=Mircea Eliade |title=Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy |publisher=Princeton University Press|location= |year=1972 |ref=Eli72 |series=Bollingen 76 |isbn=978-0-691-01779-2}} Translated from the French by Willard R. Trask.
* {{cite book |last=Eliade |first=Mircea |authorlink=Mircea Eliade |title=Le chamanisme et les techniques archaïques de'l extase |publisher=Éditions Payot |location=Paris |year=1983 |ref=Eli83}} Originally published in 1951.
* {{cite book |last=Fienup-Riordan |first=Ann |authorlink=Ann Fienup-Riordan |title=Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition |location=Norman, Oklahoma |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-585-12190-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Fock |first=Niels |title=Waiwai. Religion and society of an Amazonian tribe |series=Nationalmuseets skrifter, Etnografisk Række (Ethnographical series), VIII |publisher=The National Museum of Denmark |location=Copenhagen |year=1963}}
* {{cite book |last=Freuchen |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Freuchen |title=Book of the Eskimos |publisher=The World Publishing Company |location=Cleveland • New York |year=1961 |isbn=0-449-30802-2}}
* {{Cite book |first=Kuldip Singh |last=Gulia |year=2005 |title=Human Ecology of Sikkim - A Case Study of Upper Rangit Basin |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |place=Delhi, India |isbn=81-7835-325-3 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=J4aDVQ1KVZYC | ref = harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Gusinde |first=Martin |title=Nordwind—Südwind. Mythen und Märchen der Feuerlandindianer. |publisher=E. Röth |location=Kassel |year=1966 |language=German}} The title means: "Northern wind, southern wind. Myths and tales of Fuegians".
* {{cite book |last=Hajdú |first=Péter |editor=Hajdú, Péter |title=Uráli népek. Nyelvrokonaink kultúrája és hagyományai |year=1975 |publisher=Corvina Kiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-13-0900-2 |chapter=A rokonság nyelvi háttere}} The title means: "Uralic peoples. Culture and traditions of our linguistic relatives"; the chapter means "Linguistical background of the relationship".
* {{Cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |year=1987 |title=Shamanism: An Archaic and/or Recent System of Beliefs |publisher =Nicholson, Shirley, "Shamanism", Quest Books; 1st edition (May 25, 1987) |page=76 |isbn=0-8356-0617-1 |ref=harv |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Sámánok, lelkek és jelképek |publisher=Helikon Kiadó |location= Budapest |year=1994 |isbn=963-208-298-2 |language=Hungarian}} The title means "Shamans, souls and symbols".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Folklór és közösség |publisher=Széphalom Könyvműhely |location=Budapest |year=1998 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9028-14-2 |chapter=A honfoglalók hitvilága és a magyar samanizmus |pages=40–45}} The title means "The belief system of Hungarians when they entered the Pannonian Basin, and their shamanism".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Sámánok Eurázsiában |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2005 |isbn=963-05-8295-3 |language=Hungarian |ref=Hop05}} The title means "Shamans in Eurasia", the book is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. [http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=906&pn=2&cnt=31&catID=&prodID=17202&pdetails=1 Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian)].
* {{cite book |editor=Hoppál, Mihály & Szathmári, Botond & Takács, András |title=Sámánok és kultúrák |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |chapter=Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón |pages=9–25 |publisher=Gondolat |location=Budapest |year=2006a |isbn=963-9450-28-6}} The chapter title means "Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".
* {{cite book |editor=Hoppál, Mihály & Szathmári, Botond & Takács, András |title=Sámánok és kultúrák |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |chapter=Sámánság a nyenyecek között |pages=170–182 |publisher=Gondolat |location=Budapest |year=2006b |isbn=963-9450-28-6}} The chapter title means "Shamanhood among the Nenets", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |chapter=Music of Shamanic Healing |editor=Gerhard Kilger |title=Macht Musik. Musik als Glück und Nutzen für das Leben |publisher=Wienand Verlag |location=Köln |year=2006c |isbn=3-87909-865-4 |chapterurl=http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf |url=http://www.deutschesfachbuch.de/info/detail.php?isbn=3-87909-865-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13) |series=Bibliotheca Shamanistica |chapter=Is Shamanism a Folk Religion? |pages=11–16 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2007b |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |ref=Hop07b}}
* {{cite book |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13) |series=Bibliotheca Shamanistica |chapter=Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood |pages=17–26 |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=2007c |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |ref=Hop07c}}
* {{cite book |first=Christine |last=Hugh-Jones |title=From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia |series=Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-521-22544-2}}
* {{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Hugh-Jones |title=The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia |series=Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-521-21952-3}}
*Hutton, R., 2001, ''Shamans: Siberian Spirituality and the Western Imagination'', London and New York: Hambledon and London, ISBN 1-85295-324-7
* {{cite book |last=Kleivan |first=Inge |coauthors=B. Sonne |title=Eskimos: Greenland and Canada |year=1985 |publisher=Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |series=Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2 |isbn=90-04-07160-1}}
* *Kultkrantz, A. "The Shamans in Myths and Tales." SHAMAN 1.2 (1993): 39-55.
* Lawlor, Robert (1991). ''Voices Of The First Day: Awakening in the Aboriginal dreamtime.'' Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions International, Ltd. ISBN 0-89281-355-5
* {{cite book |last=Menovščikov |first=G. A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) |chapter=Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes |editor=Diószegi, Vilmos |title=Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=1968}}
* {{cite book |last=Merkur |first=Daniel |title=Becoming Half Hidden: Shamanism and Initiation among the Inuit |year=1985 |publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell |location=Stockholm |isbn=91-22-00752-0 |ref=Mer85 |series=: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis • Stockholm Studies in Comparative Religion}}
* {{cite book |last=Nagy |first=Beáta Boglárka |chapter=Az északi szamojédok |pages=221–234 |editor=Csepregi, Márta |title=Finnugor kalauz |series=Panoráma |publisher=Medicina Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |year=1998 |isbn=963-243-813-2 |language=Hungarian}} The chapter means "Northern Samoyedic peoples", the title means ''Finno-Ugric guide''.
* {{Cite book |last=Nattiez |first=Jean Jacques |author-link=Jean-Jacques Nattiez |title=Inuit Games and Songs • Chants et Jeux des Inuit |series=Musiques & musiciens du monde • Musics & musicians of the world |publisher=Research Group in [[Music semiology|Musical Semiotics]], Faculty of Music, University of Montreal |place=Montreal}}. The songs are [http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/inuit.html online available] from the [[ethnopoetics]] website curated by [[Jerome Rothenberg]].
* {{Cite news
| last =Noll
| first =Richard
| author-link =Richard Noll
| last2 =Shi
| first2 =Kun
| publication-date =2004
| date =
| year =
| title =Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China
| periodical =韓國宗敎硏究 (Journal of Korean Religions)
| series =
| publication-place =Seoul KR
| place =
| publisher =西江大學校. 宗教硏究所 (Sŏgang Taehakkyo. Chonggyo Yŏnʾguso.)
| volume =6
| issue =
| pages =135–162
| url =http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf
|format=PDF| issn =
| doi =
| oclc =
| accessdate =2008-07-30
| ref=NoSh04}}. It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] of Northeast China.
* {{cite book |last=Pentikäinen |first=Juha |authorlink=Juha Pentikäinen |chapter=The Revival of Shamanism in the Contemporary North |pages=263–272 |editor=Tae-gon Kim & Mihály Hoppál |title=Shamanism in Performing Arts |series=Bibiotheca Shamanistica (Vol. 1) |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=1995 |isbn=963-05-6848-9 |ref=Pen95}}
* {{cite book |last=Reichel-Dolmatoff |first=Gerardo |authorlink=Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff |year=1997 |title=Rainforest Shamans: Essays on the Tukano Indians of the Northwest Amazon |location= Dartington |publisher=Themis Books |isbn=0-9527302-4-3}}
* Reinhard, Johan (1976) "Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem." In ''Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas'', J. Hitchcock & R. Jones (eds.), New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 12–20.
* Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis G. (1995) ''Religious or Spiritual Problem. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV''. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.183, No. 7, pp. 435–444
* {{cite book |last=Vitebsky |first=Piers |authorlink=Piers Vitebsky |title=The Shaman (Living Wisdom) |year=1995 |publisher=Duncan Baird |ref=Vit95 |isbn=0-7054-3061-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Vitebsky |first=Piers |authorlink=Piers Vitebsky |title=A sámán |series=Bölcsesség • hit • mítosz |publisher=Magyar Könyvklub • Helikon Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=1996 |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-208-361-X |ref=Vit96}} Translation of [[#Vit95|Vitebsky 1995]]
* {{cite book |last=Vitebsky |first=Piers |authorlink=Piers Vitebsky |title=The Shaman: Voyages of the Soul – Trance, Ecstasy and Healing from Siberia to the Amazon |year=2001 |publisher=Duncan Baird |isbn=1-903296-18-8 |ref=Vit01}}
* {{cite book |last=Voigt |first=Vilmos |title=A varázsdob és a látó asszonyok. Lapp népmesék |series=Népek meséi |year=1966 |month= |publisher=Európa Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian}} The title means: "The magic drum and the clairvoyant women. Sami folktales", the series means: "Tales of folks".
* {{cite book |last=Voigt |first=Miklós |title=Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok |chapter=Sámán – a szó és értelme |pages=41–45 |year=2000 |publisher=Universitas Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |isbn=963-9104-39-6}} The chapter discusses the etymology and meaning of word "shaman".
</div>

== Further reading ==

<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
* [[Joseph Campbell]], ''The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology.'' 1959; reprint, New York and London: Penguin Books, 1976. ISBN 0-14-019443-6
* Richard de Mille, ed. ''The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies.'' Santa Barbara, California: Ross-Erikson, 1980.
* Ricci, Daniele ''[http://www.amazon.com/Japanese-Shamanism-trance-possession-ebook/dp/B007HM1JA4/ref=sr_1_1?s=digital-text&ie=UTF8&qid=1331559646&sr=1-1 Japanese Shamanism: trance and possession]''. Volume Edizioni (Kindle Edition, 2012).
* George Devereux, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7294%28196110%292%3A63%3A5%3C1088%3ASAN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z "Shamans as Neurotics"], [[American Anthropologist]], New Series, Vol. 63, No. 5, Part 1. (Oct., 1961), pp. 1088–1090.
* Jay Courtney Fikes, ''Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties'', Millennia Press, Canada, 1993ISBN 0-9696960-0-0
* Graham Harvey, ed. ''Shamanism: A Reader.'' New York and London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-25330-6.
* Åke Hultkrantz (Honorary Editor in Chief): [http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/about.htm Shaman]. Journal of the [http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/ International Society for Shamanistic Research]
* Philip Jenkins, ''Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-516115-7
* Alice Kehoe, ''Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking.'' 2000. London: Waveland Press. ISBN 1-57766-162-1
* [[Åke Ohlmarks]] 1939: ''Studien zum Problem des Schamanismus.'' Gleerup, Lund.
* Jordan D. Paper, ''The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion'', Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1995. ISBN 0-7914-2315-8.
* Juha Pentikäinen and Péter Simoncsics (eds): ''Shamanhood. An endangered language''. The Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture, 2005. (Series B, 117). ISBN 82-7099-391-3.
* Smith, Frederick M. (2006). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=CuB7K3bDWDsC The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature]''. Columbia University Press, USA. ISBN 0-231-13748-6. pp. 195–202.
* [[Malidoma Patrice Some]]. ''Of Water and the Spirit: Ritual, Magi, and Initiaion in the Life of an African Shaman.'' New York: Penguin Group. 1994. ISBN 0-87477-762-3
* [[Barbara Tedlock]], ''Time and the Highland Maya'',U. of New Mexico Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8263-1358-2
* [[Piers Vitebsky]], ''The Shaman: Voyages of the Soul – Trance, Ecstasy and Healing from Siberia to the Amazon'', Duncan Baird, 2001. ISBN 1-903296-18-8
* Michael Winkelman, (2000) ''Shamanism: The Neural Ecology of Consciousness and Healing''. Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey.
* Andrei Znamenski, ed. ''Shamanism: Critical Concepts'', 3 vols. London: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-31192-6
* Andrei Znamenski, ''Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Siberian Spirituality.'' Dordrech and Boston: Kluwer/Springer, 2003. ISBN 1-4020-1740-5
* Andrei Znamenski, ''The Beauty of the Primitive: Shamanism and the Western Imagination.''Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 0-19-517231-0
* 色音, ''东北亚的萨满教：韩中日俄蒙萨满教比较研究''(Northeast Asia Shamanism: Compare studies of Shamanism in Korea, China, Japan, Russia and Mongolia).中国社会科学出版社, Mar. 1998. ISBN 7-5004-2193-1</div>

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Shamanism}}

*http://donsmaps.com/dolnivi.html - Oldest prove, in the known world of female Shamans 27000 years old . Dolni Vestonice Czech republic.
* [http://www.erenlai.com/index.php?aid=175&lan=3/ Chinese Shamanka] – Short documentary about ''mop-nyit'' ceremony in Sichuan.
* {{cite web |url=http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol10/pdf/teuton.pdf |format=PDF |title=Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn |author=A. Asbjorn Jon}} It considers cross cultural similarities in shamanic belief.
* {{cite web |last=Lintrop |first=Aado |title=Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples |publisher=Folk Belief and Media Group of the Estonian Literary Museum |url=http://haldjas.folklore.ee/~aado/}}
* [http://newagefraud.org/ NAFPS] – New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans is a [[First Nations]] (American Indian) group devoted to alerting seekers about fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation.
* {{cite journal |last=Richard |first=Noll |authorlink=Richard Noll |coauthors=Shi, Kun |title=Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu). The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China |journal=Journal of Korean Religions |year=2004 |issue=6 |pages=135–162 |url=http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf |format=PDF |ref=harv}} It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]] of Northeast China.
* {{cite journal |url=http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html |title=A View from the Headwaters |author=Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff |authorlink=Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff |journal=The Ecologist |volume=29 |issue=4 |month=July |year=1999 |ref=harv}} It discusses the symbolics of shamanism of Amazonian indigenous groups, and also its "ecological" functions: avoiding the depletion of scare resources.
* {{cite web |url=http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html |title=Shamanic Healing Rituals |last=Sem |first=Tatyana |publisher=Russian Museum of Ethnography}}
* [http://www.krupar.com/index.php?file=www/en/gallery/gallery.html&cat=5 Shamanism in Siberia]
* [http://www.thespiritfoundation.com The Spirit Foundation] An NGO protecting cultural aspects of shamanism including the international shamananic network
* [http://www.akhathai.org AFECT] A charitable cultural organization protecting deep shamanism in northern Thailand
* [http://www.afghanvoice.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=34&t=604 "An Ethnographic and Historical Study of Shamanism in Afghanistan"] by Muhammad Humayun Sidky
* [http://horus.ucoz.ru/index/shamanskij_trip_shamanskoe_puteshestvie/0-26 Video "Shaman trip"]
* [http://www.sacredhoop.org Sacred Hoop Magazine] – a leading international magazine on shamanism and neoshamanic practice
* [http://cassian.memphis.edu/history/znmenski/Znamenski%20Web/Beauty.htm Shamanism Studies from the 18th century to present, Andrei Znamenski page]
* [http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=1034&catID=&prodID=7996&pdetails=1 Online abstract]) Pentikäinen, Juha. Shamanhood symbolism and epic. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 2001. ISBN 963-05-7811-5.
*[http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=1034&catID=&prodID=7996&pdetails=online similar online abstracts].
*[http://texts.00.gs Comparative Religion of Shamanism / Shamanhood / Shamanship]

{{philosophy of religion}}
{{witchcraft}}

[[Category:Shamanism| ]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Supernatural healing]]
[[Category:Anthropology of religion]]

{{Link GA|es}}
[[af:Sjamanisme]]
[[ar:شامانية]]
[[gn:Avapaje]]
[[az:Şamanizm]]
[[be:Шаманізм]]
[[be-x-old:Шаманізм]]
[[bg:Шаманизъм]]
[[ca:Xamanisme]]
[[cs:Šamanismus]]
[[cy:Siamanaeth]]
[[da:Shamanisme]]
[[de:Schamanismus]]
[[et:Šamanism]]
[[el:Σαμανισμός]]
[[es:Chamanismo]]
[[eo:Ŝamanismo]]
[[fa:شمن‌باوری]]
[[fr:Chamanisme]]
[[fy:Sjamanisme]]
[[ga:Seamanachas]]
[[ko:샤머니즘]]
[[hi:ओझा]]
[[it:Sciamanesimo]]
[[he:שמאניזם]]
[[ka:შამანიზმი]]
[[ky:Шаманчылык]]
[[lv:Šamanisms]]
[[lt:Šamanizmas]]
[[hu:Sámánizmus]]
[[mk:Шаманизам]]
[[nl:Sjamanisme]]
[[ja:シャーマニズム]]
[[no:Sjamanisme]]
[[nn:Sjamanisme]]
[[pl:Szamanizm]]
[[pt:Xamanismo]]
[[ro:Șamanism]]
[[qu:Paqu yachaq]]
[[ru:Шаманизм]]
[[simple:Shamanism]]
[[sk:Šamanizmus]]
[[sl:Šamanizem]]
[[sr:Šamanizam]]
[[sh:Šamanizam]]
[[fi:Šamanismi]]
[[sv:Schamanism]]
[[tl:Shamanismo]]
[[te:షామానిజం]]
[[th:เชมัน]]
[[tr:Şamanizm]]
[[uk:Шаманізм]]
[[war:Shamanismo]]
[[zh-yue:薩滿教]]
[[bat-smg:Šamanėzmos]]
[[zh:巫覡宗敎]]

Székelys

2013-02-11T05:38:26Z

108.173.174.134: /* Origins */

{{other uses|Székely (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Secui|the village in [[Dolj County]], [[Romania]]|Teasc}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group=Székelys
|image=[[File:Szekelyek big.jpg|250 px]]
|caption = <small>1st row: [[Kelemen Mikes]]{{•}}[[György Dózsa]]{{•}}[[Sándor Kőrösi Csoma]]{{•}}[[Róza Laborfalvi]]<br />2nd row: [[Imre Mikó]]{{•}}[[Áron Gábor]]{{•}}[[Mózes Székely]]{{•}}[[Balázs Orbán]]<br />3rd row: [[Sámuel Teleki]]{{•}}[[Elek Benedek]]{{•}}[[Áron Márton]]{{•}}[[Áron Tamási]]<br />4th row: [[Pál Péter Domokos]]{{•}}[[Tivadar Puskás]]{{•}}[[Sándor Kányádi]]{{•}}{{•}}[[Sámuel Kálnoky]]</small>
|poptime= 500,000 - 700,000<ref>Archivum Ottomanicum, Volume 20, Mouton, 2002, original from: the University of Michigan, p. 66, Cited: "A few tens of years ago the Szekler population was estimated at more than 800.000, but now they are probably ca. 500.000 in number."</ref><ref>[http://books.google.ro/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&pg=PA334&dq=%22The+Szekely,+who+now+live+in+central+Romania,+are+estimated+to+number+some+500,000.%22&hl=ro&sa=X&ei=GUIIUcWPL8i20QXn4oG4AQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Szekely%2C%20who%20now%20live%20in%20central%20Romania%2C%20are%20estimated%20to%20number%20some%20500%2C000.%22&f=false}</ref><ref>Judit Tóth and Endre Sík, "Joining and EU: integration of Hungary or the Hungarians?" In: Willfried Spohn, Anna Triandafyllidou, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gnNs_N3hXbIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Europeanisation,+National+Identities+and+Migration:+Changes+in+Boundary&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1R8IUbyqBZTa0QXV14C4DA&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA Europeanisation, National Identities and Migration: Changes in Boundary Constructions between Western and Eastern Europe],Psychology Press, 2012, p. 228</ref>
|popplace=[[Romania]] (mostly in the counties of [[Harghita]], [[Covasna]] and parts of [[Mureş County|Mureş]]), southern [[Hungary]] and the rest of the world
|langs=[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
|rels=Predominantly [[Roman Catholicism in Romania|Roman Catholic]], with [[Reformed Church in Romania|Hungarian Reformed]] and [[Unitarian Church of Transylvania|Unitarian]] minorities
|related= [[Hungarian people|Hungarians]]}}
{{History of Hungary}}
The '''Székelys''' or '''Székely''' ({{IPA-hu|ˈseːkɛj}}), sometimes also referred to as ''Szeklers'' ({{lang-hu|Székelyek}}, {{lang-ro|Secui}}, {{lang-de|Szekler}}, {{lang-la|Siculi}}), are a subgroup of the [[Hungarian people]]<ref>{{cite book |title= Protestantism and politics in eastern Europe and Russia: the communist and postcommunist eras|last=Ramet |first=Sabrina P. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1992 |volume=3|publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |location= |isbn= 0-8223-1241-7, 9780822312413|page=160 |pages= |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=O4GGgAmzl3gC&pg=PA160&lpg=PA160&dq=%22+subgroup+of+the+Hungarian+people%22&source=bl&ots=YhrN5qBKi3&sig=5-gfSElwcIlLXFyHWxDMmRd1SDI&hl=ro&ei=bkT9S9DMB4issAa3p9SfCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22%20subgroup%20of%20the%20Hungarian%20people%22&f=false|accessdate=|quote=...the Szekler community, now regarded as a subgroup of the Hungarian people.}}</ref> living mostly in the [[Székely Land]], an ethno-cultural region in eastern [[Transylvania]], [[Romania]].<ref name=Britannica/> A significant population descending from the [[Székelys of Bukovina]] lives in [[Tolna (county)|Tolna]] and [[Baranya county|Baranya]] counties in [[Hungary]] and in certain districts of [[Vojvodina]], [[Serbia]]. In 1952 the former province of Mureş (with the highest concentration of Székely population) was legally designated as the Hungarian Autonomous Region. It was superseded in 1960 by the Mureş Magyar Autonomous Region, itself divided in 1968 into three nonautonomous districts, Harghita, Covasna and Mureş .<ref name="britannica.com">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579333/Szekler</ref>

In the [[Middle Ages]], the Székelys, along with the [[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxons]], played a key role in the defense of the [[Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages|Kingdom of Hungary]] against the [[Ottomans]]<ref name=ethnic>{{cite book|title=Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe|author=Piotr Eberhardt|publisher=M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY and London, England, 2003|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ethnic+Groups+and+Population+Changes+in+Twentieth-century+Central-Eastern#PRA1-PA334,M1 | isbn=978-0-7656-0665-5}}</ref> in their posture of guards of the eastern border. With the [[Treaty of Trianon]] of 1920, Transylvania (including the Székely Land) became part of Romania, and the Székely population was a target of [[Romanianization]] efforts.<ref>{{cite book |title=Whose Democracy?: Nationalism, Religion, and the Doctrine of Collective Rights in Post-1989 Eastern Europe |last=Ramet |first=Sabrina P. |year=1997 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location= |isbn=978-0-8476-8324-6 |pages=67–69 |chapter=The Hungarians of Transylvania }}</ref> In post-[[Cold War]] Romania, where the Székelys form roughly a half of the ethnic Hungarian population, members of the group have been among the most vocal of Hungarians seeking an [[autonomy|autonomous]] Hungarian region in Transylvania.<ref name=Columbia/> They were estimated to number about 860,000 in the 1970s and are officially recognized as a distinct minority group by the Romanian government.<ref name=Britannica/>

Today's Székely Land roughly corresponds to the Romanian counties of [[Harghita County|Harghita]], [[Covasna County|Covasna]] and [[Mureş County|Mureş]]. Based on official [[Demographic history of Romania#18 March 2011 census|2011 Romanian census]] numbers, 1,237,276<ref>[http://www.recensamant.ro/ Population census of 2011] {{ro icon}} - recensamant 2002 --> rezultate --> 4. POPULATIA DUPA ETNIE</ref> ethnic Hungarians live in Romania, mostly in Transylvania. Of these, 611,391 (according to the 2011 Romanian Census) live in the counties of Harghita, Covasna and Mureş, which taken together have a Hungarian majority (58%).<ref>http://www.scribd.com/doc/86885327/CESCH-Recensamant-Populatie-2011-CV-Hr Document of the ''European Centre for Studies Covasna Harghita'' ([[NGO]]), page 28</ref>
. The Hungarians in Székely Land therefore account for half (49.41%) of the [[Hungarians in Romania]]. When given the choice on the 2011 Romanian census between ethnically identifying as ''Székely'' or as ''Hungarian'', the overwhelming majority of the Székelys chose the latter. Only 532 persons declared themselves as ethnic ''Székely''.<ref>http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/RPL2002INS/vol4/notavol4.pdf</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of the Székely people}}
[[Image:Szekelys-in-hungary.png|thumb|left|200px|Székely people in the Kingdom of Hungary]]
The Székelys derive their name from a Hungarian expression meaning "frontier guards"<ref name="britannica.com"/> and were regarded as the finest warriors of medieval Transylvania. The Székely territories came under the leadership of the [[Count of the Székelys]] (Latin: Comes Siculorum), initially a royal appointee from the non-Székely Hungarian nobility who was de facto a [[margrave]]; from the 15th century onward, the voivodes of Transylvania held the office themselves. The Székelys were considered a distinct ethnic group (''natio Siculica'')<ref>http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/71.html</ref> and formed part of the ''[[Unio Trium Nationum]]'' ("Union of Three Nations"), a coalition of three Transylvanian [[Estates of the realm|Estates]], the other two "nations" being the (also predominantly Hungarian) nobility and the [[Transylvanian Saxon|Saxon]] (that is, [[ethnic Germans|ethnic German]]) burghers. These three groups ruled Transylvania from 1438 onward, usually in harmony though sometimes in conflict with one another. During the [[Long War (Ottoman wars)|Long War]], the Székelys formed an alliance with Prince [[Michael the Brave]] of [[Wallachia]] against the army of [[Andrew Cardinal Báthory]], recently appointed Prince of [[Transylvania]].

==Origins==
[[Image:Székelykapu.gif|thumb|left|200px|A "Székely gate"]]
[[File:Derzs1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Dârjiu]] [[Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania|fortified church]] is part of the UNESCO World Heritage]]
[[Image:Székely village.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A Székely village in [[Covasna County]], [[Romania]]]]

The origin of the Székelys has been much debated. It is now generally accepted that they are descendants of [[Hungarian people|Hungarians]] (or of Magyarized [[Turkic peoples]]) transplanted to the eastern Carpathians to guard the frontier, their name meaning simply "frontier guards".<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Szekler people|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579333/Szekler}}</ref> Their organization was historically of the Turkic type, and they are probably of at least partially [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] stock. There is historical evidence that the Székelys were part of the [[Eurasian Avars|Avar]]<ref name=Columbia>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Székely|encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Szekely.html|year=2008|accessdate=25 January 2009}}</ref> confederation during the so-called [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]], but this does not mean that they were ethnically Avar. By the 11th century they had adopted the Hungarian language.<ref name="Columbia"/>

There are various ideas about Székely ancestry:
* The Székelys have historically claimed descent from [[Attila the Hun|Attila]]'s Huns<ref name=Britannica/> (repeated in Procopius's ''De bello Gothico''),<ref name=Britannica/> and believed they played a special role in shaping Hungary. Ancient legends recount that a contingent of Huns remained in Transylvania, later allying with the main Magyar army that invaded Pannonia in the 9th century.
* After the theory of Hunnic descent lost scholarly currency in the 20th century, some scholars suggested that the Székelys were simply [[Magyars]], like other Hungarians, transplanted in the Middle Ages to guard the frontiers. In this case, their strong cultural differences from other Hungarians stem from centuries of relative isolation in the mountains.{{cn|date=January 2013}}
* Some scholars believe there was a two-fold Hungarian migration to Transylvania and the [[Pannonian Plain]], one prior to the main Magyar conquest of the Pannonian Plain in 896. According to this theory, the Székelys are a Hungarian group that settled in Transylvania during this first migration.{{cn|date=January 2013}}
* The Szekelys may be descended from a Eastern Iranian Scythian tribes from central asia that parted into two waves. One wave migrated into present day North-west south asia, and were then known as the [[Sakkas]] or [[Indo-Scythians]]. Szekelys may be part of the second wave that migrated into Europe, possibly explaining the similarities between the name Sakka and Saekey. Scythian heritage has been theory for the origin of hungarians, however Scythians being an Iranic people is not acknowledged for the origin of nation that speaks language thought to be altaic then uralic. Iranic origins of adjacent populations namely for the croats,serbs and bulgarians do exist. This would mean Szekelys could be magyarized eastern iranic people.
* Other theories have suggested [[Eurasian Avars|Avar]], [[Gepid]], or [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ancestry. Some historians have dated the Székely presence in the Eastern [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]] as early as the 5th century.{{cn|date=January 2013}}

==Population by county==

The Székely live mainly in Harghita, Covasna and Mureş counties. Hungarians form a majority of the population in the counties of Covasna and Harghita. From the late 20th century onward, many{{quantify|date=November 2012}} Székelys have migrated to Hungary, with smaller numbers establishing themselves in other European countries.

{| class="wikitable"
!County
!Hungarians
!% of county population
!% of worldwide Székely population{{fact|date=November 2012}}
|-
|[[Harghita County|Harghita]]
|258,615
|84.6%
|32.7%
|-
|[[Covasna County|Covasna]]
|164,158
|73.8%
|19.4%
|-
|[[Mureş County|Mureş]]
|200,989
|37.82%
|26.9%
|}

The relatively small and isolated Székely population on the border of [[Cluj County]] and [[Alba County]] (''former [[Aranyosszék]]'') assimilated more significantly during the 20th century than inhabitants of the more concentrated Székely areas. They are estimated to be less than 20,000 today. The [[Székelys of Bukovina]], today settled mostly in Vojvodina and southern Hungary, form a culturally separate group with its own history.
==Autonomy==
[[Image:Kályhacsempe.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Székely pottery (stove tile)]]
There were Székely autonomous regions from 1952-1968. First the [[Magyar Autonomous Region]] was created in 1952. Ever since the abolition of the [[Hungarian Autonomous Province]] by the [[Nicolae Ceauşescu|Ceauşescu]] regime in 1968, some of the Székely have pressed for their autonomy to be restored. Several proposals have been discussed within the Székely Hungarian community and by the Romanian majority. One of the [[Székely autonomy initiatives]] is based on the model of the [[Autonomous communities of Spain|Spanish autonomous community]] of [[Catalonia]].<ref>{{ro icon}} [http://www.gandul.info/2006-05-27/politic/romaniei_ii_este_aplicabil României îi este aplicabil modelul de autonomie al Cataloniei] (''The Catalan autonomy model is applicable in Romania''), ''[[Gândul]]'', 27 May 2006</ref>
A major peaceful demonstration was held in 2006 in favor of autonomy.<ref>http://www.hunsor.se/avitus/szekelymanifest060316.htm</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Szekely03 original map.png|Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureş based on the 1992 data, showing areas with Hungarian (Székely) majority
Image:Szekely03.png|Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureş based on the 2002 data, showing areas with Hungarian (Székely) majority
Image:Szekely04.png|Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureş based on the 2011 data, showing areas with Hungarian (Székely) majority
</gallery>

==Symbols==

[[Image:Napeshold.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The Székely Sun and Moon]] The Sun and Moon are the symbols of the Székely, and are used in the [[Transylvania#Historical_coat_of_arms_of_Transylvania|coat of arms of Transylvania]] and on the [[Coat of arms of Romania|Romanian national coat of arms]]. The Sun and Moon symbols represented proto-Hungarian gods.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} After the Hungarians became [[Christian]]s in the 11th century, the importance of these icons became purely visual and symbolic. Their original religious significance was lost. The Székelys have succeeded in preserving traditions to an extent unusual even in Central and Eastern Europe. The most comprehensive description of the Székely Land and its traditions was written between 1859-1868 by [[Balázs Orbán]] in his ''[[Székelyföld leírása|Description of the Székely Land]]''.

[[File:Flag of Szekely Land.svg|thumb|left|150px|Flag of Székely National Council, the main political organization of the Székelys<ref>http://www.sznt.ro/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=84&Itemid=21&lang=en</ref>]]

==The Székelys in Literature==
In [[Bram Stoker]]'s novel ''[[Dracula]]'', [[Count Dracula]] regards himself as a Székely, and very explicitly presents them as a separate nation from the Hungarians. He describes a history for his people, claiming a descent both from the Huns and also from an "Ugric tribe from [[Iceland]]". He even goes so far as to claim that "after the [[Battle of Mohács|battle of Mohacs]], we threw off the Hungarian yoke". However, this version of Székely history owes far more to the imagination of Bram Stoker than to any historical fact. The historical [[Vlad III Dracula]] was actually a [[Vlach]] leader of [[Wallachia]], and Iceland was never settled by any Finno-Ugric peoples; only [[Vikings]] and [[Irish people|Irish]]. However, as Bram Stoker's Dracula is never explicitly connected to the Vlach Vlad III other than the name Dracul, the fact that Dracula states he is a Székely clearly separates the historical inspiration from the fictional vampire.

Far more accurate in their depictions of the Székely are the novels of [[Áron Tamási]], a 20th-century writer from [[Farkaslaka]] who set universal stories of love and self-individuation against the backdrop of Székely village culture. Other well-known Székely writers include the folklorist [[Elek Benedek]], the novelist [[József Nyírő]], and the poet [[Sándor Kányádi]].

==See also==
*[[Hungarians in Romania]]
*[[List of Székely settlements]]
*[[Székelys of Bukovina]]
*[[Székely Land]] (Székelyföld, Terra Siculorum, Ţinutul Secuiesc)
*[[Székely Himnusz]]
*[[Old Hungarian script]] (Székely runes)
*[[Szekler National Council]]
*[[Siculicidium]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Szeklers Encyclopedia 1911 Article]

===English===
* [http://lgi.osi.hu/documents.php?id=1098 Minority Cultures: The Szeklers Tortured History]

===Hungarian===
* [http://adatbank.transindex.ro/cedula.php?kod=60 Székely history until 1848]

{{Romanianethnicgroups}}
{{Hungarian diaspora}}
{{Uralic peoples}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}

{{Commons category|Székely}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Szekely}}
[[Category:Hungarian minorities in Europe]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Romania]]
[[Category:Hungarian people]]

[[an:Seculs]]
[[ba:Секей халҡы]]
[[be-x-old:Сэкэі]]
[[bg:Секеи]]
[[ca:Székely]]
[[cs:Sikulové]]
[[de:Szekler]]
[[dsb:Sekele]]
[[es:Székely]]
[[eo:Sikuloj]]
[[fr:Sicules (Transylvanie)]]
[[hsb:Sekeljo]]
[[hr:Sekelji]]
[[it:Siculi (Transilvania)]]
[[he:סקלרים]]
[[la:Siculi]]
[[hu:Székelyek]]
[[nl:Szeklers]]
[[ja:セーケイ人]]
[[pl:Seklerzy]]
[[pt:Székely]]
[[ro:Secui]]
[[ru:Секеи]]
[[sk:Sikuli (Rumunsko)]]
[[sr:Секељи]]
[[sh:Sekelji]]
[[fi:Székelyt]]
[[sv:Szekler]]
[[uk:Секеї]]
[[zh:塞凯伊人]]

Székelys

2013-02-11T05:32:48Z

108.173.174.134: /* Origins */

{{other uses|Székely (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Secui|the village in [[Dolj County]], [[Romania]]|Teasc}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group=Székelys
|image=[[File:Szekelyek big.jpg|250 px]]
|caption = <small>1st row: [[Kelemen Mikes]]{{•}}[[György Dózsa]]{{•}}[[Sándor Kőrösi Csoma]]{{•}}[[Róza Laborfalvi]]<br />2nd row: [[Imre Mikó]]{{•}}[[Áron Gábor]]{{•}}[[Mózes Székely]]{{•}}[[Balázs Orbán]]<br />3rd row: [[Sámuel Teleki]]{{•}}[[Elek Benedek]]{{•}}[[Áron Márton]]{{•}}[[Áron Tamási]]<br />4th row: [[Pál Péter Domokos]]{{•}}[[Tivadar Puskás]]{{•}}[[Sándor Kányádi]]{{•}}{{•}}[[Sámuel Kálnoky]]</small>
|poptime= 500,000 - 700,000<ref>Archivum Ottomanicum, Volume 20, Mouton, 2002, original from: the University of Michigan, p. 66, Cited: "A few tens of years ago the Szekler population was estimated at more than 800.000, but now they are probably ca. 500.000 in number."</ref><ref>[http://books.google.ro/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&pg=PA334&dq=%22The+Szekely,+who+now+live+in+central+Romania,+are+estimated+to+number+some+500,000.%22&hl=ro&sa=X&ei=GUIIUcWPL8i20QXn4oG4AQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Szekely%2C%20who%20now%20live%20in%20central%20Romania%2C%20are%20estimated%20to%20number%20some%20500%2C000.%22&f=false}</ref><ref>Judit Tóth and Endre Sík, "Joining and EU: integration of Hungary or the Hungarians?" In: Willfried Spohn, Anna Triandafyllidou, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gnNs_N3hXbIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Europeanisation,+National+Identities+and+Migration:+Changes+in+Boundary&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1R8IUbyqBZTa0QXV14C4DA&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA Europeanisation, National Identities and Migration: Changes in Boundary Constructions between Western and Eastern Europe],Psychology Press, 2012, p. 228</ref>
|popplace=[[Romania]] (mostly in the counties of [[Harghita]], [[Covasna]] and parts of [[Mureş County|Mureş]]), southern [[Hungary]] and the rest of the world
|langs=[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
|rels=Predominantly [[Roman Catholicism in Romania|Roman Catholic]], with [[Reformed Church in Romania|Hungarian Reformed]] and [[Unitarian Church of Transylvania|Unitarian]] minorities
|related= [[Hungarian people|Hungarians]]}}
{{History of Hungary}}
The '''Székelys''' or '''Székely''' ({{IPA-hu|ˈseːkɛj}}), sometimes also referred to as ''Szeklers'' ({{lang-hu|Székelyek}}, {{lang-ro|Secui}}, {{lang-de|Szekler}}, {{lang-la|Siculi}}), are a subgroup of the [[Hungarian people]]<ref>{{cite book |title= Protestantism and politics in eastern Europe and Russia: the communist and postcommunist eras|last=Ramet |first=Sabrina P. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1992 |volume=3|publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |location= |isbn= 0-8223-1241-7, 9780822312413|page=160 |pages= |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=O4GGgAmzl3gC&pg=PA160&lpg=PA160&dq=%22+subgroup+of+the+Hungarian+people%22&source=bl&ots=YhrN5qBKi3&sig=5-gfSElwcIlLXFyHWxDMmRd1SDI&hl=ro&ei=bkT9S9DMB4issAa3p9SfCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22%20subgroup%20of%20the%20Hungarian%20people%22&f=false|accessdate=|quote=...the Szekler community, now regarded as a subgroup of the Hungarian people.}}</ref> living mostly in the [[Székely Land]], an ethno-cultural region in eastern [[Transylvania]], [[Romania]].<ref name=Britannica/> A significant population descending from the [[Székelys of Bukovina]] lives in [[Tolna (county)|Tolna]] and [[Baranya county|Baranya]] counties in [[Hungary]] and in certain districts of [[Vojvodina]], [[Serbia]]. In 1952 the former province of Mureş (with the highest concentration of Székely population) was legally designated as the Hungarian Autonomous Region. It was superseded in 1960 by the Mureş Magyar Autonomous Region, itself divided in 1968 into three nonautonomous districts, Harghita, Covasna and Mureş .<ref name="britannica.com">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579333/Szekler</ref>

In the [[Middle Ages]], the Székelys, along with the [[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxons]], played a key role in the defense of the [[Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages|Kingdom of Hungary]] against the [[Ottomans]]<ref name=ethnic>{{cite book|title=Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe|author=Piotr Eberhardt|publisher=M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY and London, England, 2003|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ethnic+Groups+and+Population+Changes+in+Twentieth-century+Central-Eastern#PRA1-PA334,M1 | isbn=978-0-7656-0665-5}}</ref> in their posture of guards of the eastern border. With the [[Treaty of Trianon]] of 1920, Transylvania (including the Székely Land) became part of Romania, and the Székely population was a target of [[Romanianization]] efforts.<ref>{{cite book |title=Whose Democracy?: Nationalism, Religion, and the Doctrine of Collective Rights in Post-1989 Eastern Europe |last=Ramet |first=Sabrina P. |year=1997 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location= |isbn=978-0-8476-8324-6 |pages=67–69 |chapter=The Hungarians of Transylvania }}</ref> In post-[[Cold War]] Romania, where the Székelys form roughly a half of the ethnic Hungarian population, members of the group have been among the most vocal of Hungarians seeking an [[autonomy|autonomous]] Hungarian region in Transylvania.<ref name=Columbia/> They were estimated to number about 860,000 in the 1970s and are officially recognized as a distinct minority group by the Romanian government.<ref name=Britannica/>

Today's Székely Land roughly corresponds to the Romanian counties of [[Harghita County|Harghita]], [[Covasna County|Covasna]] and [[Mureş County|Mureş]]. Based on official [[Demographic history of Romania#18 March 2011 census|2011 Romanian census]] numbers, 1,237,276<ref>[http://www.recensamant.ro/ Population census of 2011] {{ro icon}} - recensamant 2002 --> rezultate --> 4. POPULATIA DUPA ETNIE</ref> ethnic Hungarians live in Romania, mostly in Transylvania. Of these, 611,391 (according to the 2011 Romanian Census) live in the counties of Harghita, Covasna and Mureş, which taken together have a Hungarian majority (58%).<ref>http://www.scribd.com/doc/86885327/CESCH-Recensamant-Populatie-2011-CV-Hr Document of the ''European Centre for Studies Covasna Harghita'' ([[NGO]]), page 28</ref>
. The Hungarians in Székely Land therefore account for half (49.41%) of the [[Hungarians in Romania]]. When given the choice on the 2011 Romanian census between ethnically identifying as ''Székely'' or as ''Hungarian'', the overwhelming majority of the Székelys chose the latter. Only 532 persons declared themselves as ethnic ''Székely''.<ref>http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/RPL2002INS/vol4/notavol4.pdf</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of the Székely people}}
[[Image:Szekelys-in-hungary.png|thumb|left|200px|Székely people in the Kingdom of Hungary]]
The Székelys derive their name from a Hungarian expression meaning "frontier guards"<ref name="britannica.com"/> and were regarded as the finest warriors of medieval Transylvania. The Székely territories came under the leadership of the [[Count of the Székelys]] (Latin: Comes Siculorum), initially a royal appointee from the non-Székely Hungarian nobility who was de facto a [[margrave]]; from the 15th century onward, the voivodes of Transylvania held the office themselves. The Székelys were considered a distinct ethnic group (''natio Siculica'')<ref>http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/71.html</ref> and formed part of the ''[[Unio Trium Nationum]]'' ("Union of Three Nations"), a coalition of three Transylvanian [[Estates of the realm|Estates]], the other two "nations" being the (also predominantly Hungarian) nobility and the [[Transylvanian Saxon|Saxon]] (that is, [[ethnic Germans|ethnic German]]) burghers. These three groups ruled Transylvania from 1438 onward, usually in harmony though sometimes in conflict with one another. During the [[Long War (Ottoman wars)|Long War]], the Székelys formed an alliance with Prince [[Michael the Brave]] of [[Wallachia]] against the army of [[Andrew Cardinal Báthory]], recently appointed Prince of [[Transylvania]].

==Origins==
[[Image:Székelykapu.gif|thumb|left|200px|A "Székely gate"]]
[[File:Derzs1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Dârjiu]] [[Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania|fortified church]] is part of the UNESCO World Heritage]]
[[Image:Székely village.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A Székely village in [[Covasna County]], [[Romania]]]]

The origin of the Székelys has been much debated. It is now generally accepted that they are descendants of [[Hungarian people|Hungarians]] (or of Magyarized [[Turkic peoples]]) transplanted to the eastern Carpathians to guard the frontier, their name meaning simply "frontier guards".<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Szekler people|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579333/Szekler}}</ref> Their organization was historically of the Turkic type, and they are probably of at least partially [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] stock. There is historical evidence that the Székelys were part of the [[Eurasian Avars|Avar]]<ref name=Columbia>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Székely|encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Szekely.html|year=2008|accessdate=25 January 2009}}</ref> confederation during the so-called [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]], but this does not mean that they were ethnically Avar. By the 11th century they had adopted the Hungarian language.<ref name="Columbia"/>

There are various ideas about Székely ancestry:
* The Székelys have historically claimed descent from [[Attila the Hun|Attila]]'s Huns<ref name=Britannica/> (repeated in Procopius's ''De bello Gothico''),<ref name=Britannica/> and believed they played a special role in shaping Hungary. Ancient legends recount that a contingent of Huns remained in Transylvania, later allying with the main Magyar army that invaded Pannonia in the 9th century.
* After the theory of Hunnic descent lost scholarly currency in the 20th century, some scholars suggested that the Székelys were simply [[Magyars]], like other Hungarians, transplanted in the Middle Ages to guard the frontiers. In this case, their strong cultural differences from other Hungarians stem from centuries of relative isolation in the mountains.{{cn|date=January 2013}}
* Some scholars believe there was a two-fold Hungarian migration to Transylvania and the [[Pannonian Plain]], one prior to the main Magyar conquest of the Pannonian Plain in 896. According to this theory, the Székelys are a Hungarian group that settled in Transylvania during this first migration.{{cn|date=January 2013}}
* The Szekelys may be descended from a Eastern Iranian Scythian tribes from central asia that parted into two waves. One wave migrated into present day North-west south asia, and were then known as the [[Sakkas]] or [[Indo-Scythians]]. Szekelys may be part of the second wave that migrated into Europe, possibly explaining the similarities between the name Sakka and Saekey. Scythian heritage has been theory for the origin of hungarians, however Scythians being an Iranic people is not acknowledged for the origin of nation that speaks language thought to be altaic then uralic. Iranic origins of adjacent populations namely for the croats,serbs and bulgarians do exist.
* Other theories have suggested [[Eurasian Avars|Avar]], [[Gepid]], or [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ancestry. Some historians have dated the Székely presence in the Eastern [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]] as early as the 5th century.{{cn|date=January 2013}}

==Population by county==

The Székely live mainly in Harghita, Covasna and Mureş counties. Hungarians form a majority of the population in the counties of Covasna and Harghita. From the late 20th century onward, many{{quantify|date=November 2012}} Székelys have migrated to Hungary, with smaller numbers establishing themselves in other European countries.

{| class="wikitable"
!County
!Hungarians
!% of county population
!% of worldwide Székely population{{fact|date=November 2012}}
|-
|[[Harghita County|Harghita]]
|258,615
|84.6%
|32.7%
|-
|[[Covasna County|Covasna]]
|164,158
|73.8%
|19.4%
|-
|[[Mureş County|Mureş]]
|200,989
|37.82%
|26.9%
|}

The relatively small and isolated Székely population on the border of [[Cluj County]] and [[Alba County]] (''former [[Aranyosszék]]'') assimilated more significantly during the 20th century than inhabitants of the more concentrated Székely areas. They are estimated to be less than 20,000 today. The [[Székelys of Bukovina]], today settled mostly in Vojvodina and southern Hungary, form a culturally separate group with its own history.
==Autonomy==
[[Image:Kályhacsempe.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Székely pottery (stove tile)]]
There were Székely autonomous regions from 1952-1968. First the [[Magyar Autonomous Region]] was created in 1952. Ever since the abolition of the [[Hungarian Autonomous Province]] by the [[Nicolae Ceauşescu|Ceauşescu]] regime in 1968, some of the Székely have pressed for their autonomy to be restored. Several proposals have been discussed within the Székely Hungarian community and by the Romanian majority. One of the [[Székely autonomy initiatives]] is based on the model of the [[Autonomous communities of Spain|Spanish autonomous community]] of [[Catalonia]].<ref>{{ro icon}} [http://www.gandul.info/2006-05-27/politic/romaniei_ii_este_aplicabil României îi este aplicabil modelul de autonomie al Cataloniei] (''The Catalan autonomy model is applicable in Romania''), ''[[Gândul]]'', 27 May 2006</ref>
A major peaceful demonstration was held in 2006 in favor of autonomy.<ref>http://www.hunsor.se/avitus/szekelymanifest060316.htm</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Szekely03 original map.png|Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureş based on the 1992 data, showing areas with Hungarian (Székely) majority
Image:Szekely03.png|Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureş based on the 2002 data, showing areas with Hungarian (Székely) majority
Image:Szekely04.png|Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureş based on the 2011 data, showing areas with Hungarian (Székely) majority
</gallery>

==Symbols==

[[Image:Napeshold.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The Székely Sun and Moon]] The Sun and Moon are the symbols of the Székely, and are used in the [[Transylvania#Historical_coat_of_arms_of_Transylvania|coat of arms of Transylvania]] and on the [[Coat of arms of Romania|Romanian national coat of arms]]. The Sun and Moon symbols represented proto-Hungarian gods.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} After the Hungarians became [[Christian]]s in the 11th century, the importance of these icons became purely visual and symbolic. Their original religious significance was lost. The Székelys have succeeded in preserving traditions to an extent unusual even in Central and Eastern Europe. The most comprehensive description of the Székely Land and its traditions was written between 1859-1868 by [[Balázs Orbán]] in his ''[[Székelyföld leírása|Description of the Székely Land]]''.

[[File:Flag of Szekely Land.svg|thumb|left|150px|Flag of Székely National Council, the main political organization of the Székelys<ref>http://www.sznt.ro/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=84&Itemid=21&lang=en</ref>]]

==The Székelys in Literature==
In [[Bram Stoker]]'s novel ''[[Dracula]]'', [[Count Dracula]] regards himself as a Székely, and very explicitly presents them as a separate nation from the Hungarians. He describes a history for his people, claiming a descent both from the Huns and also from an "Ugric tribe from [[Iceland]]". He even goes so far as to claim that "after the [[Battle of Mohács|battle of Mohacs]], we threw off the Hungarian yoke". However, this version of Székely history owes far more to the imagination of Bram Stoker than to any historical fact. The historical [[Vlad III Dracula]] was actually a [[Vlach]] leader of [[Wallachia]], and Iceland was never settled by any Finno-Ugric peoples; only [[Vikings]] and [[Irish people|Irish]]. However, as Bram Stoker's Dracula is never explicitly connected to the Vlach Vlad III other than the name Dracul, the fact that Dracula states he is a Székely clearly separates the historical inspiration from the fictional vampire.

Far more accurate in their depictions of the Székely are the novels of [[Áron Tamási]], a 20th-century writer from [[Farkaslaka]] who set universal stories of love and self-individuation against the backdrop of Székely village culture. Other well-known Székely writers include the folklorist [[Elek Benedek]], the novelist [[József Nyírő]], and the poet [[Sándor Kányádi]].

==See also==
*[[Hungarians in Romania]]
*[[List of Székely settlements]]
*[[Székelys of Bukovina]]
*[[Székely Land]] (Székelyföld, Terra Siculorum, Ţinutul Secuiesc)
*[[Székely Himnusz]]
*[[Old Hungarian script]] (Székely runes)
*[[Szekler National Council]]
*[[Siculicidium]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Szeklers Encyclopedia 1911 Article]

===English===
* [http://lgi.osi.hu/documents.php?id=1098 Minority Cultures: The Szeklers Tortured History]

===Hungarian===
* [http://adatbank.transindex.ro/cedula.php?kod=60 Székely history until 1848]

{{Romanianethnicgroups}}
{{Hungarian diaspora}}
{{Uralic peoples}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}

{{Commons category|Székely}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Szekely}}
[[Category:Hungarian minorities in Europe]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Romania]]
[[Category:Hungarian people]]

[[an:Seculs]]
[[ba:Секей халҡы]]
[[be-x-old:Сэкэі]]
[[bg:Секеи]]
[[ca:Székely]]
[[cs:Sikulové]]
[[de:Szekler]]
[[dsb:Sekele]]
[[es:Székely]]
[[eo:Sikuloj]]
[[fr:Sicules (Transylvanie)]]
[[hsb:Sekeljo]]
[[hr:Sekelji]]
[[it:Siculi (Transilvania)]]
[[he:סקלרים]]
[[la:Siculi]]
[[hu:Székelyek]]
[[nl:Szeklers]]
[[ja:セーケイ人]]
[[pl:Seklerzy]]
[[pt:Székely]]
[[ro:Secui]]
[[ru:Секеи]]
[[sk:Sikuli (Rumunsko)]]
[[sr:Секељи]]
[[sh:Sekelji]]
[[fi:Székelyt]]
[[sv:Szekler]]
[[uk:Секеї]]
[[zh:塞凯伊人]]

Székelys

2013-02-11T05:29:26Z

108.173.174.134: /* Origins */

{{other uses|Székely (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Secui|the village in [[Dolj County]], [[Romania]]|Teasc}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group=Székelys
|image=[[File:Szekelyek big.jpg|250 px]]
|caption = <small>1st row: [[Kelemen Mikes]]{{•}}[[György Dózsa]]{{•}}[[Sándor Kőrösi Csoma]]{{•}}[[Róza Laborfalvi]]<br />2nd row: [[Imre Mikó]]{{•}}[[Áron Gábor]]{{•}}[[Mózes Székely]]{{•}}[[Balázs Orbán]]<br />3rd row: [[Sámuel Teleki]]{{•}}[[Elek Benedek]]{{•}}[[Áron Márton]]{{•}}[[Áron Tamási]]<br />4th row: [[Pál Péter Domokos]]{{•}}[[Tivadar Puskás]]{{•}}[[Sándor Kányádi]]{{•}}{{•}}[[Sámuel Kálnoky]]</small>
|poptime= 500,000 - 700,000<ref>Archivum Ottomanicum, Volume 20, Mouton, 2002, original from: the University of Michigan, p. 66, Cited: "A few tens of years ago the Szekler population was estimated at more than 800.000, but now they are probably ca. 500.000 in number."</ref><ref>[http://books.google.ro/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&pg=PA334&dq=%22The+Szekely,+who+now+live+in+central+Romania,+are+estimated+to+number+some+500,000.%22&hl=ro&sa=X&ei=GUIIUcWPL8i20QXn4oG4AQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Szekely%2C%20who%20now%20live%20in%20central%20Romania%2C%20are%20estimated%20to%20number%20some%20500%2C000.%22&f=false}</ref><ref>Judit Tóth and Endre Sík, "Joining and EU: integration of Hungary or the Hungarians?" In: Willfried Spohn, Anna Triandafyllidou, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gnNs_N3hXbIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Europeanisation,+National+Identities+and+Migration:+Changes+in+Boundary&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1R8IUbyqBZTa0QXV14C4DA&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA Europeanisation, National Identities and Migration: Changes in Boundary Constructions between Western and Eastern Europe],Psychology Press, 2012, p. 228</ref>
|popplace=[[Romania]] (mostly in the counties of [[Harghita]], [[Covasna]] and parts of [[Mureş County|Mureş]]), southern [[Hungary]] and the rest of the world
|langs=[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
|rels=Predominantly [[Roman Catholicism in Romania|Roman Catholic]], with [[Reformed Church in Romania|Hungarian Reformed]] and [[Unitarian Church of Transylvania|Unitarian]] minorities
|related= [[Hungarian people|Hungarians]]}}
{{History of Hungary}}
The '''Székelys''' or '''Székely''' ({{IPA-hu|ˈseːkɛj}}), sometimes also referred to as ''Szeklers'' ({{lang-hu|Székelyek}}, {{lang-ro|Secui}}, {{lang-de|Szekler}}, {{lang-la|Siculi}}), are a subgroup of the [[Hungarian people]]<ref>{{cite book |title= Protestantism and politics in eastern Europe and Russia: the communist and postcommunist eras|last=Ramet |first=Sabrina P. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1992 |volume=3|publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |location= |isbn= 0-8223-1241-7, 9780822312413|page=160 |pages= |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=O4GGgAmzl3gC&pg=PA160&lpg=PA160&dq=%22+subgroup+of+the+Hungarian+people%22&source=bl&ots=YhrN5qBKi3&sig=5-gfSElwcIlLXFyHWxDMmRd1SDI&hl=ro&ei=bkT9S9DMB4issAa3p9SfCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22%20subgroup%20of%20the%20Hungarian%20people%22&f=false|accessdate=|quote=...the Szekler community, now regarded as a subgroup of the Hungarian people.}}</ref> living mostly in the [[Székely Land]], an ethno-cultural region in eastern [[Transylvania]], [[Romania]].<ref name=Britannica/> A significant population descending from the [[Székelys of Bukovina]] lives in [[Tolna (county)|Tolna]] and [[Baranya county|Baranya]] counties in [[Hungary]] and in certain districts of [[Vojvodina]], [[Serbia]]. In 1952 the former province of Mureş (with the highest concentration of Székely population) was legally designated as the Hungarian Autonomous Region. It was superseded in 1960 by the Mureş Magyar Autonomous Region, itself divided in 1968 into three nonautonomous districts, Harghita, Covasna and Mureş .<ref name="britannica.com">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579333/Szekler</ref>

In the [[Middle Ages]], the Székelys, along with the [[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxons]], played a key role in the defense of the [[Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages|Kingdom of Hungary]] against the [[Ottomans]]<ref name=ethnic>{{cite book|title=Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe|author=Piotr Eberhardt|publisher=M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY and London, England, 2003|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ethnic+Groups+and+Population+Changes+in+Twentieth-century+Central-Eastern#PRA1-PA334,M1 | isbn=978-0-7656-0665-5}}</ref> in their posture of guards of the eastern border. With the [[Treaty of Trianon]] of 1920, Transylvania (including the Székely Land) became part of Romania, and the Székely population was a target of [[Romanianization]] efforts.<ref>{{cite book |title=Whose Democracy?: Nationalism, Religion, and the Doctrine of Collective Rights in Post-1989 Eastern Europe |last=Ramet |first=Sabrina P. |year=1997 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location= |isbn=978-0-8476-8324-6 |pages=67–69 |chapter=The Hungarians of Transylvania }}</ref> In post-[[Cold War]] Romania, where the Székelys form roughly a half of the ethnic Hungarian population, members of the group have been among the most vocal of Hungarians seeking an [[autonomy|autonomous]] Hungarian region in Transylvania.<ref name=Columbia/> They were estimated to number about 860,000 in the 1970s and are officially recognized as a distinct minority group by the Romanian government.<ref name=Britannica/>

Today's Székely Land roughly corresponds to the Romanian counties of [[Harghita County|Harghita]], [[Covasna County|Covasna]] and [[Mureş County|Mureş]]. Based on official [[Demographic history of Romania#18 March 2011 census|2011 Romanian census]] numbers, 1,237,276<ref>[http://www.recensamant.ro/ Population census of 2011] {{ro icon}} - recensamant 2002 --> rezultate --> 4. POPULATIA DUPA ETNIE</ref> ethnic Hungarians live in Romania, mostly in Transylvania. Of these, 611,391 (according to the 2011 Romanian Census) live in the counties of Harghita, Covasna and Mureş, which taken together have a Hungarian majority (58%).<ref>http://www.scribd.com/doc/86885327/CESCH-Recensamant-Populatie-2011-CV-Hr Document of the ''European Centre for Studies Covasna Harghita'' ([[NGO]]), page 28</ref>
. The Hungarians in Székely Land therefore account for half (49.41%) of the [[Hungarians in Romania]]. When given the choice on the 2011 Romanian census between ethnically identifying as ''Székely'' or as ''Hungarian'', the overwhelming majority of the Székelys chose the latter. Only 532 persons declared themselves as ethnic ''Székely''.<ref>http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/RPL2002INS/vol4/notavol4.pdf</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of the Székely people}}
[[Image:Szekelys-in-hungary.png|thumb|left|200px|Székely people in the Kingdom of Hungary]]
The Székelys derive their name from a Hungarian expression meaning "frontier guards"<ref name="britannica.com"/> and were regarded as the finest warriors of medieval Transylvania. The Székely territories came under the leadership of the [[Count of the Székelys]] (Latin: Comes Siculorum), initially a royal appointee from the non-Székely Hungarian nobility who was de facto a [[margrave]]; from the 15th century onward, the voivodes of Transylvania held the office themselves. The Székelys were considered a distinct ethnic group (''natio Siculica'')<ref>http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/71.html</ref> and formed part of the ''[[Unio Trium Nationum]]'' ("Union of Three Nations"), a coalition of three Transylvanian [[Estates of the realm|Estates]], the other two "nations" being the (also predominantly Hungarian) nobility and the [[Transylvanian Saxon|Saxon]] (that is, [[ethnic Germans|ethnic German]]) burghers. These three groups ruled Transylvania from 1438 onward, usually in harmony though sometimes in conflict with one another. During the [[Long War (Ottoman wars)|Long War]], the Székelys formed an alliance with Prince [[Michael the Brave]] of [[Wallachia]] against the army of [[Andrew Cardinal Báthory]], recently appointed Prince of [[Transylvania]].

==Origins==
[[Image:Székelykapu.gif|thumb|left|200px|A "Székely gate"]]
[[File:Derzs1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Dârjiu]] [[Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania|fortified church]] is part of the UNESCO World Heritage]]
[[Image:Székely village.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A Székely village in [[Covasna County]], [[Romania]]]]

The origin of the Székelys has been much debated. It is now generally accepted that they are descendants of [[Hungarian people|Hungarians]] (or of Magyarized [[Turkic peoples]]) transplanted to the eastern Carpathians to guard the frontier, their name meaning simply "frontier guards".<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Szekler people|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579333/Szekler}}</ref> Their organization was historically of the Turkic type, and they are probably of at least partially [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] stock. There is historical evidence that the Székelys were part of the [[Eurasian Avars|Avar]]<ref name=Columbia>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Székely|encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Szekely.html|year=2008|accessdate=25 January 2009}}</ref> confederation during the so-called [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]], but this does not mean that they were ethnically Avar. By the 11th century they had adopted the Hungarian language.<ref name="Columbia"/>

There are various ideas about Székely ancestry:
* The Székelys have historically claimed descent from [[Attila the Hun|Attila]]'s Huns<ref name=Britannica/> (repeated in Procopius's ''De bello Gothico''),<ref name=Britannica/> and believed they played a special role in shaping Hungary. Ancient legends recount that a contingent of Huns remained in Transylvania, later allying with the main Magyar army that invaded Pannonia in the 9th century.
* After the theory of Hunnic descent lost scholarly currency in the 20th century, some scholars suggested that the Székelys were simply [[Magyars]], like other Hungarians, transplanted in the Middle Ages to guard the frontiers. In this case, their strong cultural differences from other Hungarians stem from centuries of relative isolation in the mountains.{{cn|date=January 2013}}
* Some scholars believe there was a two-fold Hungarian migration to Transylvania and the [[Pannonian Plain]], one prior to the main Magyar conquest of the Pannonian Plain in 896. According to this theory, the Székelys are a Hungarian group that settled in Transylvania during this first migration.{{cn|date=January 2013}}
* The Szekelys may be descended from a Eastern Iranian Scythian tribes from central asia that parted into two waves. One wave migrated into present day North-west south asia, and were then known as the [[Sakkas]] or [[Indo-Scythians]]. Szekelys may be part of the second wave that migrated into Europe, possibly explaining the similarities between the name Sakka and Saekey.
* Other theories have suggested [[Eurasian Avars|Avar]], [[Gepid]], or [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ancestry. Some historians have dated the Székely presence in the Eastern [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]] as early as the 5th century.{{cn|date=January 2013}}

==Population by county==

The Székely live mainly in Harghita, Covasna and Mureş counties. Hungarians form a majority of the population in the counties of Covasna and Harghita. From the late 20th century onward, many{{quantify|date=November 2012}} Székelys have migrated to Hungary, with smaller numbers establishing themselves in other European countries.

{| class="wikitable"
!County
!Hungarians
!% of county population
!% of worldwide Székely population{{fact|date=November 2012}}
|-
|[[Harghita County|Harghita]]
|258,615
|84.6%
|32.7%
|-
|[[Covasna County|Covasna]]
|164,158
|73.8%
|19.4%
|-
|[[Mureş County|Mureş]]
|200,989
|37.82%
|26.9%
|}

The relatively small and isolated Székely population on the border of [[Cluj County]] and [[Alba County]] (''former [[Aranyosszék]]'') assimilated more significantly during the 20th century than inhabitants of the more concentrated Székely areas. They are estimated to be less than 20,000 today. The [[Székelys of Bukovina]], today settled mostly in Vojvodina and southern Hungary, form a culturally separate group with its own history.
==Autonomy==
[[Image:Kályhacsempe.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Székely pottery (stove tile)]]
There were Székely autonomous regions from 1952-1968. First the [[Magyar Autonomous Region]] was created in 1952. Ever since the abolition of the [[Hungarian Autonomous Province]] by the [[Nicolae Ceauşescu|Ceauşescu]] regime in 1968, some of the Székely have pressed for their autonomy to be restored. Several proposals have been discussed within the Székely Hungarian community and by the Romanian majority. One of the [[Székely autonomy initiatives]] is based on the model of the [[Autonomous communities of Spain|Spanish autonomous community]] of [[Catalonia]].<ref>{{ro icon}} [http://www.gandul.info/2006-05-27/politic/romaniei_ii_este_aplicabil României îi este aplicabil modelul de autonomie al Cataloniei] (''The Catalan autonomy model is applicable in Romania''), ''[[Gândul]]'', 27 May 2006</ref>
A major peaceful demonstration was held in 2006 in favor of autonomy.<ref>http://www.hunsor.se/avitus/szekelymanifest060316.htm</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Szekely03 original map.png|Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureş based on the 1992 data, showing areas with Hungarian (Székely) majority
Image:Szekely03.png|Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureş based on the 2002 data, showing areas with Hungarian (Székely) majority
Image:Szekely04.png|Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureş based on the 2011 data, showing areas with Hungarian (Székely) majority
</gallery>

==Symbols==

[[Image:Napeshold.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The Székely Sun and Moon]] The Sun and Moon are the symbols of the Székely, and are used in the [[Transylvania#Historical_coat_of_arms_of_Transylvania|coat of arms of Transylvania]] and on the [[Coat of arms of Romania|Romanian national coat of arms]]. The Sun and Moon symbols represented proto-Hungarian gods.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} After the Hungarians became [[Christian]]s in the 11th century, the importance of these icons became purely visual and symbolic. Their original religious significance was lost. The Székelys have succeeded in preserving traditions to an extent unusual even in Central and Eastern Europe. The most comprehensive description of the Székely Land and its traditions was written between 1859-1868 by [[Balázs Orbán]] in his ''[[Székelyföld leírása|Description of the Székely Land]]''.

[[File:Flag of Szekely Land.svg|thumb|left|150px|Flag of Székely National Council, the main political organization of the Székelys<ref>http://www.sznt.ro/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=84&Itemid=21&lang=en</ref>]]

==The Székelys in Literature==
In [[Bram Stoker]]'s novel ''[[Dracula]]'', [[Count Dracula]] regards himself as a Székely, and very explicitly presents them as a separate nation from the Hungarians. He describes a history for his people, claiming a descent both from the Huns and also from an "Ugric tribe from [[Iceland]]". He even goes so far as to claim that "after the [[Battle of Mohács|battle of Mohacs]], we threw off the Hungarian yoke". However, this version of Székely history owes far more to the imagination of Bram Stoker than to any historical fact. The historical [[Vlad III Dracula]] was actually a [[Vlach]] leader of [[Wallachia]], and Iceland was never settled by any Finno-Ugric peoples; only [[Vikings]] and [[Irish people|Irish]]. However, as Bram Stoker's Dracula is never explicitly connected to the Vlach Vlad III other than the name Dracul, the fact that Dracula states he is a Székely clearly separates the historical inspiration from the fictional vampire.

Far more accurate in their depictions of the Székely are the novels of [[Áron Tamási]], a 20th-century writer from [[Farkaslaka]] who set universal stories of love and self-individuation against the backdrop of Székely village culture. Other well-known Székely writers include the folklorist [[Elek Benedek]], the novelist [[József Nyírő]], and the poet [[Sándor Kányádi]].

==See also==
*[[Hungarians in Romania]]
*[[List of Székely settlements]]
*[[Székelys of Bukovina]]
*[[Székely Land]] (Székelyföld, Terra Siculorum, Ţinutul Secuiesc)
*[[Székely Himnusz]]
*[[Old Hungarian script]] (Székely runes)
*[[Szekler National Council]]
*[[Siculicidium]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Szeklers Encyclopedia 1911 Article]

===English===
* [http://lgi.osi.hu/documents.php?id=1098 Minority Cultures: The Szeklers Tortured History]

===Hungarian===
* [http://adatbank.transindex.ro/cedula.php?kod=60 Székely history until 1848]

{{Romanianethnicgroups}}
{{Hungarian diaspora}}
{{Uralic peoples}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}

{{Commons category|Székely}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Szekely}}
[[Category:Hungarian minorities in Europe]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Romania]]
[[Category:Hungarian people]]

[[an:Seculs]]
[[ba:Секей халҡы]]
[[be-x-old:Сэкэі]]
[[bg:Секеи]]
[[ca:Székely]]
[[cs:Sikulové]]
[[de:Szekler]]
[[dsb:Sekele]]
[[es:Székely]]
[[eo:Sikuloj]]
[[fr:Sicules (Transylvanie)]]
[[hsb:Sekeljo]]
[[hr:Sekelji]]
[[it:Siculi (Transilvania)]]
[[he:סקלרים]]
[[la:Siculi]]
[[hu:Székelyek]]
[[nl:Szeklers]]
[[ja:セーケイ人]]
[[pl:Seklerzy]]
[[pt:Székely]]
[[ro:Secui]]
[[ru:Секеи]]
[[sk:Sikuli (Rumunsko)]]
[[sr:Секељи]]
[[sh:Sekelji]]
[[fi:Székelyt]]
[[sv:Szekler]]
[[uk:Секеї]]
[[zh:塞凯伊人]]

Magyarab people

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{{Infobox ethnic group|
|group=Magyarabs
|image=
|poptime=
|popplace={{flag|Egypt}} and {{flag|Sudan}} : 7000
|langs=[[Egyptian Arabic]] and [[Sudanese Arabic]]
|rels=[[Islam]]
|related=[[Magyars]], [[Nubians]], [[Egyptians]]
}}

The '''Magyarab''' are a people living along the [[Nile River]] in [[Egypt]] and [[Sudan]]. They are of [[Magyars|Hungarian]] ancestry, probably dating back to the late 16th century.

== Name ==

The name "Magyarab" is not a combination of the words "Magyar" and "Arab" as is commonly assumed. Rather, the name is a concatenation of "Magyar" ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]) and "Ab" which in [[Nubian language|Nubian]] simply means "tribe." So Magyarab combined translates to "Tribe of the Magyars." In fact, to the Magyarab people, their Hungarian identity specifically sets them apart from the surrounding [[Egyptians]].

== History ==

According to legend, [[Christian]] Hungarians who had only recently been brought under the control of the [[Ottoman Empire]] formed a part of the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman army]] that was fighting in southern Egypt. Evidently, a portion or the entirety of the fighting unit remained there and intermarried with the local [[Nubian people|Nubian]] women.

According to local Magyarabs, their ancestor was ''Ibrahim el-Magyar'', a [[general]] who came from [[Buda]] (present-day [[Budapest]]) in 1517, he married with a local [[Nubian people|Nubian]] woman, they had a son called Ali, Ali had five sons: Selabi, Mustafa, Djelaleddin, Musa and Iksa, Ali's five sons were the ancestor of all Magyarabs. Magyarabs are the members of the [[World Federation of Hungarians]] (''Magyarok Világszövetsége'') since 1992 and still consider themselves as [[Hungarians]].

They were not discovered by Europeans until 1935, when [[László Almásy]], himself a Magyar, and his co-worker, the German engineer and explorer [[Hansjoachim von der Esch]], happened upon their tribe in the [[Nubia]]n region. Representatives of the tribes had attempted to make contact with Hungarian officials, but were unable to do so because of the outbreak of [[World War II]].

These people now have a mixed race appearance due to the intermarriage with the local Nubian population and no longer speak the [[Hungarian language]]. Around 1934, however, Esch, who spent several weeks with the population of the Magyarab island at [[Wadi Halfa]], put together a list of non-Arabic words used only on that island and which, according to him, were recognized by Almasy as similar to Hungarian words. His notes show that all Magyarab in [[Wadi Halfa]] were convinced that their ancestors came from "Nemsa" (the Arabic word for [[Austria]]), which might refer to any region of the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]]. He was told by the chief of the Magarab island village that the their ancestors arrived in Egypt/Sudan as a group of "Austrian" soldiers led by a man called Shenghal Sendjer, which Esch assumes to be originally ''General'' Sendjer or Senger.<ref>Hansjoachim von der Esch, Weenak - die Karawane ruft (Brockhaus, Leipzig 1941)</ref>

== Magyarab communities ==

Magyarabs live along the [[Nile]], in [[Sudan]] around [[Wadi Halfa]], in [[Egypt]] around [[Aswan]] in the villages of Magyarab-irki, Magyararti, Magyariyya, Magyar-nirki, Hillit el-Magyarab and about 400 Magyarabs live in [[Cairo]].

== Proverbs about the Magyarab ==

The people of many different various ethnicities neighbouring the Magyarab have proverbs that tell us more about the historical Magyarab people.

'''Al-majāri lā jisālli fil-mesjīd.''' - The Hungarian does not pray in the mosque.

'''Rá'sz el-mágyár zejj el-hágyár.''' - The Hungarian's head is as hard as a stone.

'''El-mágyárí jilbisz burnétá.''' - The Hungarian wears a hat.<ref>The surrounding Muslim populations wear [[turban]]s, differentiating their headwear from the Magyarab.</ref>

== References and notes ==
Detailed report about a Hungarian expedition:

*{{hu icon}} [http://mn.mno.hu/portal/401039 Islands on the Nile - The Csángós of Africa, the Magyarabs (1), Magyar Nemzet, Budapest, 10 03 2007]
*{{hu icon}} [http://mn.mno.hu/portal/402001 Islands on the Nile - The Csángós of Africa, the Magyarabs (2), Magyar Nemzet, Budapest, 17 03 2007]
*{{hu icon}} [http://mn.mno.hu/portal/403135 Islands on the Nile - The Csángós of Africa, the Magyarabs (3), Magyar Nemzet, Budapest, 24 03 2007]

Other references:
*{{hu icon}} [http://web.archive.org/web/20050213015534/http://w3.datanet.hu/~demokrat/muh1-429.htm Hungarians along the Nile, Demokrata, Budapest, 17 07 1997] ([[Internet Archive|Archive]])


{{reflist}}

{{Hungarian diaspora}}
{{Uralic peoples}}

[[Category:Egyptian people of Hungarian descent| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Egypt]]
[[Category:Hungarian people]]
[[Category:History of the Hungarians]]
[[Category:Hungarian diaspora]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Sudan]]
[[Category:Ottoman period in the history of Hungary]]
[[Category:Muslim communities]]

[[cs:Magyarabové]]
[[eo:Madjaraboj]]
[[fr:Magyarabes]]
[[hu:Magyarabok]]
[[ro:Maghiarabi]]
[[ru:Мадьярабы]]
[[sr:Мађараби]]
[[fi:Madjarabit]]
[[sv:Magyarab]]

Iranian peoples

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108.173.174.134: /* Later developments */

{{About|the ethno-linguistic group|the peoples of [[Iran]]|Demographics of Iran}}
{{infobox ethnic group|
Geographic distribution of modern Iranian languages: Persian (green), Pashto (purple) and Kurdish (turquoise), Lurish (red), Baluchi (Yellow), as well as smaller communities of other Iranian languages.
|image = {{Iranians image array}}
|poptime= 135–185 million<ref>
*Iran: {{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf |title=Ethnic Groups and Languages of Iran |first=Library of Congress – Federal Research Division |last=Library of Congress|accessdate=2009-12-02}} (Persian and Caspian dialects-65% Kurdish 8%-Luri/Bakhtiari 5%- Baluchi 2%):80% of the population or approximately 63 million people.
*Afghanistan: CIA Factbook Afghanistan: unting Pashtuns, Tajiks, Baluchs, 21 million
*Tajiks of Central Asia counting Tajikistan and Uzbekistan 10–15 million
*Kurds and Zazas of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq based on CIA factbook estimate 22 million
*Ossetians, Talysh, Tats, Kurds of the Caucasus and Central Asia: 1–2 million based on CIA factbook/ethnologue.
*Tajiks of China: 50,000 to 100,000
*Iranian speakers in Bahrain, the [[Persian Gulf]] , Western Europe and USA, 3 million.
*Pakistan counting Baluchis+Pashtus+Afghan refugees based on CIA factbook and other sources: 35 million.

</ref> Communities majorly in ''[[Iran]]'' and also in ''Afghanistan, Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Armenia, Oman, China (Xinjiang), India, Pakistan, United Kingdom, Germany and United States''.
|popplace= ''[[Iran]] and [[Iranian Plateau]], [[Anatolia]], [[South Asia]], [[Central Asia]], the [[Caucasus]]'' and as immigrant communities in ''[[North America]] and [[Western Europe]]''.
|langs= [[Persian language]] and other [[Iranian languages]], a branch of the Indo-European family
|rels= '''Majority''': [[Islam]] <br /><small>'''Minority''': [[Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]],<ref>The Ossetians of the Caucasus are Orthodox Christians</ref> [[Church of the East|Nestorianism]], [[Judaism]], [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Sabians|Toshavim]], [[Atheism]], [[Agnosticism]]</small>.
|related = Other [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian peoples]]
}}

The '''Iranian peoples'''<ref>R.N Frye, "IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN" in Encycloapedia Iranica. "In the following discussion of "Iranian peoples," the term "Iranian" may be understood in two ways. It is, first of all, a linguistic classification, intended to designate any society which inherited or adopted, and transmitted, an Iranian language. The set of Iranian-speaking peoples is thus considered a kind of unity, in spite of their distinct lineage identities plus all the factors which may have further differentiated any one group’s sense of self."</ref> are an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] [[ethnolinguistics|ethno-linguistic group]] that comprise the speakers of [[Iranian languages]],<ref>J. Harmatta in "History of Civilizations of Central Asia", Chapter 14, ''The Emergence of Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages'', ed. by A. H. Dani & V.N. Masson, 1999, p. 357</ref> a major branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], as such forming a branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European-speaking]] peoples. Their historical areas of settlement were on the [[Iranian plateau]] (mainly [[Iran]]) and certain neighbouring areas of Central Asia (such as [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Afghanistan]], western Pakistan, northern Iraq and eastern Turkey, and scattered part of the [[Caucasus]] Mountains) reflecting changing geopolitical range of the [[Persian empire]]s and the Iranian history.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|title=Iranian languages|author=Ronald Eric Emmerick|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=Feb. 6, 2011|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293577/Iranian-languages}}</ref><ref name="Iranica">{{cite web|title=Iran vi. Iranian languages and scripts Also, Diba
|author=PRODS OKTOR SKJÆRVØ|date=December 15, 2006|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica}}</ref> Their current distribution spreads across the [[Iranian plateau]], and stretches from Pakistan's [[Indus River]] in the east to eastern Turkey in the west, and from [[Central Asia]] and the [[Ossetia|Caucasus]] in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south – a region that is sometimes called the [[Iranian cultural continent]], or Greater Persia by scholars, and represents the extent of the Iranian languages and influence of the [[Persian people]], through the geopolitical reach of the [[Persian empire]].<ref>[[Richard Nelson Frye|Frye, Richard Nelson]], ''Greater Iran, ISBN 1-56859-177-2 p.''xi'': ''"... Iran means all lands and people where Iranian languages were and are spoken, and where in the past, multi-faceted Iranian cultures existed. ..."''</ref>

The Iranian group emerges from an earlier Iranian group during the [[Late Bronze Age]], and it enters the historical record during the Early Iron Age.

The Iranians comprise the [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Medes]], [[Scythians]], [[Bactrians]], [[Parthians]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Alans]], [[Ossetians]] and their sub-groups. The Iranians had domesticated horses, had travelled far and wide, and from the late 2nd millennium BCE to early 1st millennium BCE they had migrated to, and settled on, the Iranian Plateau. They moved into the Zagros Mountains (inhabited by [[Gutians]], [[Kassites]] and others, home of the [[Mannaean]] kingdom) above the indigenous non Iranian [[Elamite]] Kingdom. For approximately three centuries after arriving in the region, the [[Medes]] and [[Persia]]ns fell under the domination of the [[Assyrian Empire]] (911–609 BCE), based in nearby [[Mesopotamia]]. In 646 BCE, [[Susa]] and many other cities of [[Elam]] were plundered and wrecked by [[Ashurbanipal]], King of [[Assyria]], allowing the Iranian peoples to become the predominant group in Iran. After the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BCE, the Assyrian Empire began to unravel due to a series of bitter civil wars. In 616 BCE the Median king [[Cyaxares]] threw off the Assyrian yoke, united the Medes and Persians, and in alliance with [[Nabopolassar]] of [[Babylon]] and the [[Scythians]], attacked the civil war ridden Assyrian Empire. By 609 BCE, the Assyrians and their [[Egypt]]ian allies had been defeated. This began the Iranian domination in the Iranian Plateau. Persians formed the [[Persian Empire|Achaemenid Empire]] by the 6th century BCE, while the Scythians dominated the [[Eurasian steppe]].<ref name="World Archaeology">{{cite web|url=http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(povz2d45y5bwkg555qirhyru)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,8,11;journal,15,25;linkingpublicationresults,1:104736,1 |title=Amazons in the Scythia: new finds at the Middle Don, Southern Russia |publisher=Taylorandfrancis.metapress.com |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref><ref name="PBS Amazons">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_amazon/index.html |title=Secrets of the Dead, Casefile: Amazon Warrior Women |publisher=Pbs.org |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref> With numerous artistic, scientific, architectural and philosophical achievements and numerous kingdoms and empires that bridged much of the civilized world in antiquity,{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} the Iranian peoples were often in close contact with the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Indians, and Chinese. The various religions of the Iranian peoples, including [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Mithraism]] and [[Manichaeism]], are believed by some scholars to have been significant early philosophical influences on Christianity and Judaism.<ref>{{cite book | author=Runciman, Steven | title=The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1982 | isbn=0-521-28926-2}}</ref>

== Name ==
[[File:Moderniranianlanguagesmap.jpg|thumb|350px|Geographic distribution of Iranian languages]]
{{Main|Arya#Etymology|l1=Etymology of Arya}}
The term ''Iranian'' is derived from the Old Iranian ethnical adjective ''Aryana'' which is itself a cognate of the [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[Arya]]''.<ref name="Oxford English Dictionnary">[http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50012669?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=aryan&first=1&max_to_show=10 Oxford English Dictionnary:''' "Aryan from Sanskrit Arya 'Noble'"''']</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Iranistik|series=Hanbuch Der Orientalistik – Abeteilung – Der Nahe Und Der Mittlere Osten|volume=1|chapter=Old Iranian Literature|last=Gershevitch|first=I.|editor=|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=1968|isbn=90-04-00857-8|page=203}}: page 1</ref> The name ''Iran'' is from ''Aryānām''; lit: "[Land] of the [[Name of Iran|Aryans]]".<ref name="Farsinet">[http://www.farsinet.com/farsi/ "Farsi-Persian language"] — Farsi.net . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref><ref name = "1911 Encyclopedia"/> The old [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] term ''Arya'', per [[Paul Thieme|Thieme]] meaning "hospitable", is believed to have been one of the self-referential terms used by the Aryans, at least in the areas populated by Aryans who migrated south from [[Central Asia]]. Another meaning for Aryan is noble. In the late part of the [[Avesta]] (Vendidad 1), one of their homelands was referred to as ''[[Airyanem Vaejah]]''. The homeland varied in its geographic range, the area around [[Herat]] ([[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s view) and even the entire expanse of the [[Iranian plateau]] ([[Strabo]]'s designation).<ref name="1911 Encyclopedia">{{cite web|url=http://58.1911encyclopedia.org/I/IR/IRAN.htm |title=Article in 1911 Britannica|publisher=58.1911encyclopedia.org|accessdate=2009-06-21}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

The academic usage of the term ''Iranian'' is distinct from the state of [[Iran]] and its various citizens (who are all Iranian by nationality and thus popularly referred to as ''Iranians'') in the same way that ''Germanic people'' is distinct from ''[[Germans]]''. Many citizens of Iran are not necessarily "Iranian people" by virtue of not being speakers of Iranian languages.
Unlike the various terms connected with the Aryan arya- in Old Indian, the Old Iranian term has solely an ethnic meaning<ref>G. Gnoli, "Iranian Identity as a Historical Problem: the Beginnings of a National Awareness under the Achaemenians," in The East and the Meaning of History. International Conference (23–27 November 1992), Roma, 1994, pp. 147–67. {{cite web |url=http://www.google.com/search?q=Emile+Benveniste+is+thus+quite+right+to+assert+that%2C+unlike+the+various+terms+connected+with+the+Aryan+arya-+in+Old+Indian%2C+the+Old+Iranian+arya-+is+documented+solely+as+an+ethnic&tbs=bks%3A1&tbo=1 |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}</ref> and there can be no doubt about the ethnic value of Old Iran. arya (Benveniste, 1969, I, pp. 369 f.; Szemerényi; Kellens).<ref name="iranica.com">G. Gnoli, "Iranian Identity ii. Pre-Islamic Period" in Encyclopedia Iranica. Online accessed in 2010 at {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-ii-pre-islamic-period |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}</ref>

The name Arya lives in the ethnic names like Alan, New Persian: Iran, Ossetian: Ir and Iron.<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt">R. Schmitt, "Aryans" in Encyclopedia Iranica:Excerpt:"The name "Aryan" (OInd. āˊrya-, Ir. *arya- [with short a-], in Old Pers. ariya-, Av. airiia-, etc.) is the self designation of the peoples of Ancient Iran (as well as India) who spoke Aryan languages, in contrast to the "non-Aryan" peoples of those "Aryan" countries (cf. OInd. an-āˊrya-, Av. an-airiia-, etc.), and lives on in ethnic names like Alan (Lat. Alani, NPers. Īrān, Oss. Ir and Iron.". Also accessed online: {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aryans |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}} in May, 2010</ref><ref name="Language, Gherardo Gnoli 2002">The "Aryan" Language, Gherardo Gnoli, Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, Roma, 2002.</ref><ref name="Bailey">H. W. Bailey, "Arya" in Encyclopedia Iranica. Excerpt: "ARYA an ethnic epithet in the Achaemenid inscriptions and in the Zoroastrian Avestan tradition. {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arya-an-ethnic-epithet-in-the-achaemenid-inscriptions-and-in-the-zoroastrian-avestan-tradition |title=Arya an ethnic epithet in the Achaemenid inscriptions and in the Zoroastrian Avestan tradition |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}} Also accessed online in May, 2010.</ref><ref name="Bailey"/><ref name="iranica1">D. N. Mackenzie, "Ērān, Ērānšahr" in Encyclopedia Iranica. {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-eransah |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=2010}}</ref><ref name="Dalby, Andrew 2004">Dalby, Andrew (2004), Dictionary of Languages, Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-7683-1</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/er-er-mazdesn |title=ēr, ēr mazdēsn |author=G. Gnoli |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref> The name Iran has been in usage since [[Sassanid]] times.<ref name="iranica1"/><ref name="Dalby, Andrew 2004"/>

The [[Avesta]] clearly uses airya as an ethnic name (Vd. 1; Yt. 13.143-44, etc.), where it appears in expressions such as airyāfi; daiŋˊhāvō "Iranian lands, peoples," airyō.šayanəm "land inhabited by Iranians," and airyanəm vaējō vaŋhuyāfi; dāityayāfi; "Iranian stretch of the good Dāityā," the river Oxus, the modern Āmū Daryā.<ref name="iranica.com"/>

The term "Ariya" appears in the royal Old Persian inscriptions in three different contexts: 1) As the name of the language of the Old Persian version of the inscription of [[Darius the Great]] in [[Behistun Inscription|Behistun]]; 2) as the ethnic background of [[Darius the Great|Darius]] in inscriptions at Naqsh-e-Rostam and Susa (Dna, Dse) and [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]] in the inscription from Persepolis (Xph) and 3) as the definition of the God of Iranian people, [[Ahura Mazda|Ahuramazda]], in the Elamite version of the Behistun inscription.<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt"/><ref name="Bailey"/> For example in the Dna and Dse Darius and Xerxes describe themselves as "An Achaemenian, A Persian son of a Persian and an Aryan, of Aryan stock".<ref name="ReferenceA">R. G. Kent. Old Persian. Grammer, texts, lexicon. 2nd ed., New Haven, Conn.</ref> Although Darius the Great called his language the Iranian language,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> modern scholars refer to it as [[Old Persian]]<ref name="ReferenceA"/> because it is the ancestor of modern [[Persian language]].<ref>Professor Gilbert Lazard: The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran in Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language" in Frye, R. N., ''The Cambridge History of Iran'', Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

The Old Persian and Avestan evidence is confirmed by the Greek sources".<ref name="iranica.com"/> Herodotus in his Histories remarks about the Iranian Medes that: "These Medes were called anciently by all people Arians; " (7.62).<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt"/><ref name="Bailey"/> In [[Armenians|Armenian]] sources, the Parthians, Medes and Persians are collectively referred to as Iranians.<ref>R.W. Thomson. History of Armenians by Moses Khorenat’si. Harvard University Press, 1978. Pg 118, pg 166</ref> Eudemus of Rhodes apud Damascius (Dubitationes et solutiones in Platonis Parmenidem 125 bis) refers to "the Magi and all those of Iranian (áreion) lineage"; Diodorus Siculus (1.94.2) considers Zoroaster (Zathraustēs) as one of the Arianoi.<ref name="iranica.com"/>

[[Strabo]], in his "Geography", mentions the unity of [[Medes]], Persians, Bactrians and [[Sogdians]]:<ref name="Language, Gherardo Gnoli 2002"/>{{quotation|The name of'' [[Ariana]] ''is further extended to a part of [[Persia]] and of Media, as also to the [[Bactrians]] and [[Sogdians]] on the north; for these speak approximately the same language, with but slight variations.|Geography, 15.8}}

The trilingual inscription erected by Shapur's command gives a more clear description. The languages used are [[Parthian language|Parthian]], [[Middle Persian]] and Greek. In Greek, the inscription says: "ego ... tou Arianon ethnous despotes eimi"("I am lord of the kingdom (Gk. nation) of the Aryans") which translates to "I am the king of the Iranian people". In the Middle Persian, Shapour states: "ērānšahr xwadāy hēm" and in Parthian he states: "aryānšahr xwadāy ahēm".<ref name="iranica1"/><ref>MacKenzie D.N. Corpus inscriptionum Iranicarum Part. 2., inscription of the Seleucid and Parthian periods of Eastern Iran and Central Asia. Vol. 2. Parthian, London, P. Lund, Humphries 1976–2001</ref>

The [[Bactrian language]] (a Middle Iranian language) inscription of [[Kanishka]] the founder of the [[Kushan empire]] at Rabatak, which was discovered in 1993 in an unexcavated site in the Afghanistan province of Baghlan, clearly refers to this Eastern Iranian language as Arya.<ref>N. Sims-Williams, "Further notes on the Bactrian inscription of Rabatak, with the Appendix on the name of Kujula Kadphises and VimTatku in Chinese". Proceedings of the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies (Cambridge, September 1995). Part 1: Old and Middle Iranian<Studies, N. Sims-Williams, ed. Wiesbaden, pp 79-92</ref><ref>The "Aryan" Language, Gherardo Gnoli, Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, Roma, 2002</ref>
In the post-Islamic era, one can still see a clear usage of the term Iran in the work of the 10th-century historian [[Hamzeh Isfahani]]. In his book ''the history of Prophets and Kings'' writes: "Aryan which is also called Pars ([[Persia]]) is in the middle of these countries and these six countries surround it because the South East is in the hands China, the North of the Turks, the middle South is India, the middle North is Rome, and the South West and the North West is the [[Sudan]] and Berber lands".<ref>Hamza Isfahani, Tarikh Payaambaraan o Shaahaan, translated by Jaf'ar Shu'ar,Tehran: Intishaaraat Amir Kabir, 1988.</ref> All this evidence shows that the name arya "Iranian" was a collective definition, denoting peoples (Geiger, pp. 167 f.; Schmitt, 1978, p. 31) who were aware of belonging to the one ethnic stock, speaking a common language, and having a religious tradition that centered on the cult of [[Ahura Mazda|Ahura Mazdā]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-ii-pre-islamic-period |title=Iranian Identity ii. Pre-Islamic Period |author=G. Gnoli |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate= 2010}}</ref>

== History and settlement ==
{{main|List of Ancient Iranian peoples}}

=== Roots ===
{{main|Indo-Iranians}}
[[File:BMAC.png|thumb|The extent of the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex|BMAC]] (according to the [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]]).]]

The language referred to as Proto-Indo-European (PIE): is ancestral to the Celtic, Italic (including Romance), Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Albanian, Armernian, Greek, and Tocharian languages.

'There is an agreement that the PIE community split into two major groups from wherever its homeland was situated (its location is unknown), and whenever the timing of its dispersal (also unknown). One headed west for Europe and became speakers of Indo-European (all the languages of modern Europe save for Basque, Hungarian, and Finnish) while others headed east for Eurasia to become Indo-Iranians. The Indo-Iranians were a community that spoke a common language prior to their branching off into the Iranian and Indo-Aryan languages. Iranian refers to the languages of Iran (Iranian), Pakistan (Balochi and Pashto), Afghanistan (Pashto and Dari), and Tadjikistan (Tajiki) and Indo-Aryan, Sanskrit, Urdu and its many related languages.' – (Carl C. Lamberg-Karlovsky: Case of the Bronze Age)

By the early 1st millennium, [[Ancient Iranian peoples]] such as [[Medes]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Bactria]]ns, [[Parthia]]ns and Scythians populated the [[Iranian plateau]], and other Scythian tribes, along with [[Cimmerians]], [[Sarmatians]] and [[Alans]] populated the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]]. The [[Saka]], [[Scythia]]n, tribes spread as far west as the [[Balkans]] and as far east as [[Xinjiang]]. Scythians as well formed the Indo-Scythian Empire, and Bactrians formed a Greco-Bactrian Kingdom founded by Diodotus I, the satrap of Bactria. The [[Kushan]] Empire, with Bactrian roots/connections, once controlled much of [[Pakistan]], some of [[Afghanistan]] and Tajikistan. The Kushan elite (who the Chinese called the [[Yuezhi]]) were either a Tocharian-speaking (another Indo-European branch) people or an Eastern Iranian language-speaking people.

The division into an "[[Eastern Iranian|Eastern]]" and a "[[Western Iranian|Western]]" group by the early 1st millennium is visible in [[Avestan language|Avestan]] vs. [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]], the two oldest known Iranian languages. The Old Avestan texts known as the [[Gathas]] are believed to have been composed by [[Zoroaster]], the founder of [[Zoroastrianism]], with the [[Yaz culture]] (c. 1500–1100 BCE) as a candidate for the development of [[Eastern Iranian]] culture.

Old Persian appears to have been established in written form by 519 BCE, following the creation of the [[Old Persian script]], inspired by the [[cuneiform script]] of the Assyrians.<ref name="Lubotsky">[http://www.ieed.nl/lubotsky/pdf/avestan%20xvarnah.pdf "Avestan xᵛarǝnah-, etymology and concept by Alexander Lubotsky"] — Sprache und Kultur. Akten der X. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, 22.-28. September 1996, ed. W. Meid, Innsbruck (IBS) 1998, 479–488. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

==== Western Iranian peoples ====
[[File:Scythia-Parthia 100 BC.png|thumb|Geographical extent of Iranian influence in the 1st century BCE. The [[Parthia]]n Empire (mostly [[Western Iranian languages|Western Iranian]]) is shown in red, other areas, dominated by [[Scythia]] ([[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian]]), in orange.]]
[[File:Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|[[Achaemenid empire]] at its greatest extent]]
[[File:SurenaImage.jpg|thumb|upright|<center>[[Statue, National Museum of Iran 2401|Bronze Statue of a Parthian nobleman]], National Museum of Iran.]]
{{Indo-European topics}}
During the 1st centuries of the first millennium BCE, the ancient Persians established themselves in the western portion of the Iranian plateau and appear to have interacted considerably with the Elamites and Babylonians, while the Medes also entered in contact with the [[Ancient Assyria|Assyrians]].<ref>M. Liverani, "The Medes at Esarhaddon's Court", in ''Journal of Cuneiform Studies'' 47 (1995), pp. 57–62.</ref> Remnants of the [[Median language]] and [[Old Persian]] show their common Proto-Iranian roots, emphasized in Strabo and Herodotus' description of their languages as very similar to the languages spoken by the Bactrians and [[Sogdiana|Soghdians]] in the east.<ref name="1911 Encyclopedia"/><ref name="Geo Strabo">[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2A1*.html "The Geography of Strabo"] — University of Chicago. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Following the establishment of the [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid Empire]], the Persian language (referred to as "''Farsi''" in Persian) spread from Pars or [[Fars Province]] to various regions of the Empire, with the modern dialects of Iran, Afghanistan (also known as [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]]) and Central-Asia (known as [[Tajik language|Tajiki]]) descending from Old Persian.

Old Persian is attested in the [[Behistun Inscription]] (c. 519 BCE), recording a proclamation by [[Darius the Great]]. In southwestern Iran, the [[Achaemenid]] kings usually wrote their inscriptions in trilingual form ([[Elamite language|Elamite]], [[Akkadian language|Babylonian]] and [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]])<ref>R. G. Kent, ''Old Persian: Grammar, texts and lexicon''.</ref> while elsewhere other languages were used. The administrative languages were Elamite in the early period, and later [[Imperial Aramaic]].<ref>R. Hallock (1969), ''Persepolis Fortification Tablets''; A. L. Driver (1954), ''Aramaic Documents of the V Century BC''.</ref>

The early inhabitants of the Achaemenid Empire appear to have adopted the religion of [[Zoroastrianism]].<ref name="Edinburgh">[http://www.cogsci.ed.ac.uk/~siamakr/Kurdish/iran-lang.html "Kurdish: An Indo-European Language By Siamak Rezaei Durroei"]{{dead link|date=July 2010}} — University of Edinburgh, School of Informatics. . Retrieved 4 June 2006. {{Wayback|url=http://www.cogsci.ed.ac.uk/~siamakr/Kurdish/iran-lang.html|date =20060617211537|bot=DASHBot}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref> The [[Baloch people|Baloch]] who speak a west Iranian language relate an oral tradition regarding their migration from [[Aleppo]], [[Syria]] around the year 1000 CE, whereas linguistic evidence links [[Balochi language|Balochi]] to [[Kurmanji]], [[Soranî]], [[Gorani language|Gorani]] and [[Zazaki language|Zazaki]].<ref name="Rezakhani">[http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html "The Iranian Language Family, Khodadad Rezakhani"] — Iranologie. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

==== Eastern Iranian peoples ====
While the Iranian tribes of the south are better known through their texts and modern counterparts, the tribes which remained largely in the vast Eurasian expanse are known through the references made to them by the ancient Greeks, Persians, [[Indo-Aryans]] as well as by archaeological finds. Many ancient [[Sanskrit]] texts make references to tribes like [[Sakas]], [[Paradas]], [[Kambojas]], [[Bahlikas]], [[Uttaramadra]]s, [[Madra]]s, [[Loha (tribe)|Loha]]s, [[Parama Kambojas]], [[Rishikas]], [[Tukharas]] or [[Tusharas]] etc. and locate them in the ([[Uttarapatha]]) (north-west) division, in [[Central Asia]], around [[Hindukush]] range in northern [[Pakistan]]. The [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] chronicler, [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) makes references to a nomadic people, the [[Scythia]]ns; he describes as having dwelt in what is today southern [[Russia]].

It is believed that these Scythians were conquered by their eastern cousins, the [[Sarmatians]], who are mentioned by [[Strabo]] as the dominant tribe which controlled the southern Russian steppe in the 1st millennium CE. These Sarmatians were also known to the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who conquered the western tribes in the Balkans and sent Sarmatian conscripts, as part of Roman legions, as far west as [[Roman Britain]].

The Sarmatians of the east became the [[Alans]], who also ventured far and wide, with a branch ending up in [[Western Europe]] and [[North Africa]], as they accompanied the Germanic [[Vandals]] during their migrations. The modern [[Ossetians]] are believed to be the sole direct descendants of the Alans, as other remnants of the Alans disappeared following Germanic, [[Huns|Hunnic]] and ultimately Slavic migrations and invasions.<ref name="ISBN">A History of Russia by Nicholas Riasanovsky, pp. 11–18, Russia before the Russians, ISBN 0-19-515394-4 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>
Another group of Alans allied with [[Goth]]s to defeat the Romans and ultimately settled in what is now called Catalonia (Goth-Alania).<ref>The Sarmatians: 600 BC-AD 450 (Men-at-Arms) by Richard Brzezinski and Gerry Embleton, Aug 19, 2002</ref>
[[File:AzesIITriratna.jpg|thumb|Silver coin of the [[Indo-Scythian]] king [[Azes II]] (r.c. 35–12 BCE). Buddhist [[triratna]] symbol in the left field on the reverse.]]
[[File:PazyrikHorseman.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Scythia]]n Horseman, ''[[Pazyryk culture|Pazyryk]]'' felt artifact, c. 300 BCE]]
Some of the Saka-Scythian tribes in Central Asia would later move further southeast and invade the [[Iranian plateau]], large sections of present day [[Afghanistan]] and finally deep into present day [[Pakistan]] (see [[Indo-Scythians]]). Another Iranian tribe related to the Saka-Scythians were the [[Parni]] in Central Asia, and who later become indistinguishable from the [[Parthians]], speakers of a northwest-Iranian language. Many Iranian tribes, including the [[Khwarazm]]ians, [[Massagetae]] and [[Sogdiana|Sogdians]], were assimilated and/or displaced in Central Asia by the migrations of [[Turkic people|Turkic]] tribes emanating out of Xinjiang and Siberia.<ref name="Kimball">[http://www.thirteen.org/pressroom/release.php?get=1272 "Jeannine Davis-Kimball, Archaeologist"] — Thirteen WNET New York. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

The most dominant surviving Eastern Iranian peoples are represented by the [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]], whose origins are generally believed to be from the [[Sulaiman Mountains]],{{cn|date=July 2012}} from which they began to spread until they reached as far west as [[Herat]], north to areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan;{{cn|date=July 2012}} and as eastward towards the [[Indus River|Indus]]. The [[Pashto language]] shows affinities to the [[Avestan]] and [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]]{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}}.

The modern [[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]] in southern Xinjiang and the [[Ossetians]] of the Caucasus are remnants of the various Saka tribes. The modern [[Ossetians]] claim{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} to be the descendants of the Alano-Sarmatians and their claims are supported by their Northeast Iranian language, while culturally the Ossetians resemble their Caucasian neighbors, the [[Kabard]]ians and [[Circassians]].<ref name="ISBN">From Scythia to Camelot by Littleton and Malcor, pp. 40–43, ISBN 0-8153-3566-0 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Various extinct Iranian people existed in the eastern Caucasus, including the [[Ancient Azari language|Azaris]], while some Iranian people remain in the region, including the [[Talysh people|Talysh]]<ref name="Talysh">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tly "Report for Talysh"] — Ethnologue. Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> and the [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats]]<ref name="Tats">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ttt "Report for Tats"] — Ethnologue. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> (including the [[Mountain Jews|Judeo-Tats]],<ref name="Judeo-Tat">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=jdt "Report for Judeo-Tats"] — Ethnologue. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> who have relocated to [[Israel]]), found in Azerbaijan and as far north as the Russian republic of [[Dagestan]]. A remnant of the Sogdians is found in the Yaghnobi speaking population in parts of the Zeravshan valley in Tajikistan.

=== Later developments ===

[[File:Salahaddin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Statue of Saladin]] "king of Egypt" near the [[Citadel of Damascus]]]]
Starting with the reign of [[Umar|Omar]] in 634 CE, [[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s began a conquest of the Iranian plateau. The Arabs conquered the [[Sassanid Empire]] of the Persians and seized much of the [[Byzantine Empire]] populated by the [[Kurds]] and others. Ultimately, the various Iranian people, including the Persians, Azaries, Kurds, Baluchis and Pashtuns, converted to [[Islam]]. The Iranian people would later split along sectarian lines as the Persians (and later the [[Hazara people|Hazara]]) adopted the [[SHIA Islam|Shi'a]] sect. As ancient tribes and identities changed, so did the Iranian people, many of whom assimilated foreign cultures and people.<ref>The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates by Hugh Kennedy, ISBN 0-582-40525-4 (retrieved 04 June 2006), p. 135</ref>

Later, during the 2nd millennium CE, the Iranian people would play a prominent role during the age of Islamic expansion and empire. [[Saladin]], a noted adversary of the [[Crusade]]rs, was an ethnic [[Kurd]], while various empires centered in Iran (including the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]]) re-established a modern dialect of Persian as the official language spoken throughout much of what is today Iran and adjacent parts of Central Asia. Iranian influence spread to the [[Ottoman Empire]], where Persian was often spoken at court, as well to the court of the [[Mughal Empire]]. All of the major Iranian people reasserted their use of Iranian languages following the decline of Arab rule, but would not begin to form modern [[nationalism|national]] identities until the 19th and early 20th centuries (just as Germans and Italians were beginning to formulate national identities of their own).

The following either partially descend from Iranian people or are sometimes regarded as possible descendants of ancient Iranian people:
{{Further|Turkification|Slavicisation|Sarmatism}}
* [[Turkic languages|Turkic-speakers:]]
** [[Azerbaijani people|Azeris]]: Although [[Azerbaijani people|Azeris]] speak a Turkic language (modern [[Azerbaijani language]]), they are believed to be primarily descendants of ancient Iranians.<ref>Minorsky, V.; Minorsky, V. "(Azarbaijan). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http:/iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey |title=People of Iran |author=R. N. Frye |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http:/iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-i-lands-of-iran |title=Lands of Iran |author=X.D. Planhol |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref> and [[Turkish people|Turks]]. Thus, due to their historical ties with various ancient Iranians, as well as their cultural ties to Persians,<ref name="encyclopedia1">[http://www.bartleby.com/65/az/Azerbaij.html The Columbia Encyclopedia: Azerbaijan]{{dead link|date=June 2009}}</ref> the Azeris are often associated with the Iranian people (see [[Azerbaijani people#Origins|Origin of Azerbaijani people]] and the [[Iranian theory regarding the origin of the Azerbaijanis]] for more details).<ref name="jurabchi2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranian.com/Opinion/2002/August/Azeri/index.html |title=Who are the Azeris? by Aylinah Jurabchi |publisher=The Iranian |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref>
** [[Uzbeks]]: The modern Uzbek people are believed to have both Iranian and Turkic ancestry. ''"Uzbek"'' and ''"Tajik"'' are modern designations given to the culturally homogeneous, sedentary population of Central Asia. The local ancestors of both groups – the Turkic-speaking Uzbeks and the Iranian-speaking Tajiks – were known as ''"[[Sart]]s"'' (''"sedentary merchants"'') prior to the [[Russian Empire|Russian conquest]] of Central Asia, while ''"Uzbek"'' or ''"Turk"'' were the names given to the nomadic and semi-nomadic populations of the area. Still today, modern Uzbeks and Tajiks are known as ''"Sarts"'' to their [[Turkic people|Turkic neighbours]], the [[Kazakhs]] and the [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]]. The ancient [[Soghdians]] and [[Bactrians]] are among their ancestors. Culturally, the Uzbeks are closer to their sedentary Iranian-speaking neighbours rather than to their nomadic and semi-nomadic Turkic neighbours. Some Uzbek scholars, i.e. Ahmadov and Askarov, favour the ''Iranian origin'' theory.<ref name="zbekiston1994">Askarov, A. & B.Ahmadov, O'zbek Xalqning Kilib Chiqishi Torixi. O'zbekiston Ovozi, 20 January 1994.</ref>
**The native name of [[Yakuts]] is [[Yakuts|Sakha]], very similar to the [[Sakkas]], proposing Yakuts to be related of descendants of Scythians, specifically Sakkahs.
**[[Volga Tatars]]Many are mixed from Volga bulgars. The reasons are same with Bulgarians, and the putative claim on the iranian origin of bulgars.
* [[South Slavs|Slavic-speakers]]:
** A few linguists suggest that the names of the [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] people, the [[Serbs]] and [[Croats]] are of Iranian origin. Those who entertain such a connection propose that the Sarmatian ''Serboi'' and ''Horouthos'' tribes might have migrated from the Eurasian steppe lands to eastern Europe, and assimilated with the numerically superior Slavs, passing on their name. Iranian-speaking people did inhabit parts of the Balkans in late classical times, and would have been encountered by the Slavs. However, direct linguistic, historical or archaeological proof for such a theory is lacking. (See also: [[Theories on the origin of Serbs]] and [[Theories on the origin of Croats]])Ultimately, Montenegrins and Bosniaks may be counted to this theory.
** Some modern Bulgarian historians claim that the [[Bulgars]] were of Iranian origin and that they migrated to Europe from the region of today's northern Afghanistan – Hindukush mountains, from the [[Kingdom of Balhara]].<ref>[http://sitemaker.umich.edu/mladjov/files/bulgarian_rulers.pdf Sitemaker.umich.edu]</ref><ref>[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3236.htm State.gov]</ref><ref>[http://en.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/8511032 En.academic.ru]</ref><ref name="thearchaeologicalbox.com">[http://thearchaeologicalbox.com/en/news/dna-analysis-reveals-pamir-origin-bulgarians Thearchaeilogicalbox.com]</ref> Their claims are based on medieval Armenian sources, the writings of ancient historians ("Ashharatsuyts" by Anania Shirakatsi; Agathias of Myrina, Theophylact Simocatta, Michael the Syrian) archaeological findings in modern Bulgaria, the similarities with Iranian languages (place names, people names, and Iranian words in modern Bulgarian),<ref>[http://groznijat.tripod.com/b_lang/bl_a_v.htm Groznijat.tripod.com]</ref> similarities with culture (e.g.: some buildings in [[Pliska]] were built in a Zoroastrian fashion; similarities in traditional music, dancing and carpet making) and the very close similarity of the DNA of Pamirian/Iranian people with that of modern Bulgarians<ref name="thearchaeologicalbox.com"/><ref>[http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=117006 Novinite.com]</ref> After their arrival on Balkans, the Bulgars subjugated and then formed an allience with the local Slavs and formed the Bulgarian nation. Ultimately , Slavic Macedonians could be counted due to their close linguistic affinities with the standard Bulgarian language.
***Example:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[english language|english]] !! [[persian language|persian]] !! [[zazaki]] !! [[Kurdish_language|(Kurdish) Kurmanji / Sorani]] !! [[bulgarian language|bulgarian]]
|-
| i know || midânam || ez dizono || ez dizanim /min azanim || az znam
|-
| you know || midâni || ti dizana || tu dizanî / to azanit|| ti znayş
|-
| i don't know || nemidânam || ez nizon || ez nizanim / min nazanim || az neznam
|-
| you don't know || nemidâni || ti nizona || tu nizanî / to nazanit || ti niznayş
|-
| a dog || sag || kûtik || kûtchik / sag || kutche (kûçe)
|}
*[[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan speakers]]
**Many Indo-Aryans may have Iranian admixture in them, due to Indo-Aryan clans such as Jats and Rajputs being descended from [[Scythians]]. See [[Indo-Scythians]]. In modern times, the assimilation is quite recent, notable ethnic groups are Hindkowans as well as many Sindhis being of putative Iranian descent.
*[[Dravidians]]
**[[Brahui people]], a dravidian ethnic group considered the same ethnicity as the Iranian balochis, but with a different language. Despite being dravidian speakres, Brahui culture is maintained to be Iranic.
*[[Uralic language|Uralic speakers]]
**Many [[Volga Finns]] may be of part Iranian admixture due to [[Bulgars|Bulgar]] invasion of the Volga basin, if they (Bulgars) were Iranian people.
**[[Hungarians]] have long prided themselves as Scythians in the past, [[Scythians]] being an Iranian people, prior to the Finno-Ugric/Uralic theory. It's possible they've undergone a language shift. In a Magyar folkore suggests Iranian admixture among Hungarian, when Hunor and Magor marry princesses who were [[Alans]], another Iranian people. [[Jassic people]] of Hungary are of [[Ossetia]]n origin. The [[Szekely]]<ref>pronounced approximately ''say-kay''</ref> are possibly of Iranian origin, as their name is similar to [[Sakka]].
* [[Swahili language|Swahili-speakers:]]
** [[Shirazi people|Shirazis]]:The '''Shirazi''' are a sub-group of the [[Swahili people]]<ref>[[Kilwa chronicle]]</ref> living on the [[Swahili Coast]] of [[East Africa]], especially on the islands of [[Zanzibar]], [[Pemba Island|Pemba]] and [[Comoros]].<ref>[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/tethnic.htm Tanzania Ethnic Groups], East Africa Living Encyclopedia, accessed 28 June 2010</ref> Local traditions about their origin claim they are descended from merchant princes from [[Shiraz]] in [[Persia]] who settled along the [[Swahili Coast]].

== Demographics ==
{{See also|Iranian plateau|Demographics of Iran|Ethnic minorities in Iran|Demographics of Afghanistan|Demographics of Tajikistan|Iraqi people|Demographics of Iraq|Kurdistan|Ossetia}}
{{Further|Iranian citizens abroad|Kurdish diaspora|}}
There are an estimated 150 to 200 million native speakers of Iranian languages, the five major groups of [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Lurs]], [[Kurds]], [[Baloch people|Baloch]], and [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]] accounting for about 90% of this number.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gordon|first=Raymond G., Jr. (ed.)|title=Report for Iranian languages|journal=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|year=2005|edition=Fifteenth|location=Dallas|publisher=SIL International|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90019}}</ref> Currently, most of these Iranian peoples live in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]] (mainly [[Ossetia]], other parts of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and [[Azerbaijan]]), [[Iraqi Kurdistan]] and [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] majority populated areas of [[Turkey]], [[Iran]] and [[Syria]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]].

Due to recent migrations, there are also large communities of speakers of [[Iranian languages]] in [[Europe]], the [[Americas]], and [[Israel]].

'''The following is a list of peoples that speak Iranian languages with the respective groups's core areas of settlements and their estimated sizes (in millions):'''
{| class="wikitable sortable" id="table1"
|-
! People
! region
! population
|-
| [[Persian-speaking peoples]]
:* [[Aymāq|Aimaqs]]
:* [[Hazara people|Hazara]]
:* [[Huwala]]
:* [[Persian people|Iranian Persians]]
:**[[Persians in Bahrain|Bahraini Persians]]
:* [[Tajik people|Tajiks (Central Asian Persians)]]
:**[[Farsiwan]]
:* [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats of the Caucasus]]
| Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Iraq, Bahrain
| <div style="display: none;">60</div> 72–85
|-
| [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]]
:* [[Durrani]]
:* [[Ghilzai]]
:* [[Wazir (tribe)|Wazir]]
:* [[Yusufzai]]
| Pakistan, Afghanistan
| <div style="display: none;">32</div> 35–40
|-
| [[Kurdish people|Kurds]]
:* [[Kalhor (tribe)|Kalhurs]]
:* [[Lak people (Iran)|Laks]]<ref name="Hamzehʼee, M. Reza 1990">Hamzehʼee, M. Reza. The Yaresan: a sociological, historical and religio-historical study of a Kurdish community, 1990.</ref>
:* [[Yazidi]]s
:* [[Zaza people|Zaza]]
| Turkey, Iran, Iraqi Kurdistan, Syria
| <div style="display: none;">32</div> 30–45
|-
| [[Baloch people|Baluchis]]
| Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan
| <div style="display: none;">15</div> 15–20
|-
| [[Gilaki people|Gilakis]] & [[Mazandarani people|Mazanderanis]]
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">07</div> 5–10
|-
| [[Lurs]] & [[Bakhtiari people|Bakhtiaris]]
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">026</div> 6
|-
| [[Lak people (Iran)|Laks]]<ref name="Hamzehʼee, M. Reza 1990"/>
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">010</div> 0.5
|-
| [[Pamiri people]]
:* [[Tajiks of Xinjiang|Sariqoli]]
:* [[Shughni language|Shughni]]
:* [[Tajiks of China]]
:* [[Wakhi (ethnic group)|Wakhi]]
| Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China (Xinjiang), Pakistan
| <div style="display: none;">009</div> 0.9
|-
| [[Talysh people|Talysh]]
:* [[Tat people (Iran)|Tats of Iran]]
| Azerbaijan, Iran
| <div style="display: none;">009</div> 0.5
|-
| [[Ossetians]]
:* [[Digor people|Digor]]
:* [[Iron people|Iron]]
:* [[Jasz people|Jasz]]
| South Ossetia, Georgia,<br />Russia (North Ossetia), Hungary
| <div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.7
|-
| [[Yaghnobi people|Yaghnobi]]
| Uzbekistan and Tajikistan ([[Zerafshan River|Zerafshan region]])
|<div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.025
|-
| [[Kumzari]]
| Oman ([[Musandam]])
|<div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.021
|}

== Diversity ==

It is largely through linguistic similarities that the Iranian people have been linked, as many non-Iranian people have adopted Iranian languages and cultures. However, other common traits have been identified as well, for example, a stream of common historical events have often linked the southern Iranian people, including Hellenistic conquests, the various empires based in Persia, Arab Caliphates and Turkic invasions.

== Culture ==
{{See also|Proto-Indo-European society|Indo-Iranian mythology|Iranian philosophy}}
Like other Indo-Europeans, the early Iranians practiced ritual sacrifice, had a social hierarchy consisting of warriors, clerics and farmers and poetic hymns and sagas to recount their deeds.<ref name="ISBNMallory">''In Search of the Indo-Europeans'', by J.P. Mallory, p. 112–127, ISBN 0-500-27616-1 . Retrieved 10 June 2006.</ref>

Following the Iranian split from the Indo-Iranians, the Iranians developed an increasingly distinct culture. Various common traits can be discerned among the Iranian people. For example, the social event [[Norouz]] is an Iranian festival that is practiced by nearly all of the Iranian people as well as others in the region. Its origins are traced to [[Zoroastrianism]] and pre-historic times.

Some Iranian cultures exhibit traits that are unique unto themselves. The Pashtuns adhere to a code of honor and culture known as [[Pashtunwali]], which has a similar counterpart among the [[Baloch people|Baloch]], called Mayar, that is more hierarchical.<ref name="Baloch">[http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9802.html "Pakistan — Baloch"] — Library of Congress Country Studies . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{main|Iranian religions}}{{See also|Christianity in Iran|Islam in Iran|Islam in Tajikistan|Islam in Afghanistan}}
The early Iranian people worshipped various deities found throughout other cultures where [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] immigrants established themselves.<ref name="Iranologie">[http://www.iranologie.com/history/history2.html "History of Iran-Chapter 2 Indo-Europeans and Indo-Iranians"] — Iranologie . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> The earliest major religion of the Iranian people was [[Zoroastrianism]], which spread to nearly all of the Iranian people living in the Iranian plateau. Other religions that had their origins in the Iranian world were [[Mithraism]], [[Manichaeism]], and [[Mazdakism]], among others.
[[File:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg|thumb|[[Mazari Sharif]]'s [[Shrine of Hazrat Ali|Blue Mosque]] in [[Afghanistan]] is a structure of cobalt blue and turquoise minarets, attracting visitors and pilgrims from all over the world. Many such Muslim [[Iranian architecture|architectural]] monuments can be attributed to the efforts of the Iranian people who are predominantly followers of Islam today.]]
Modern speakers of Iranian languages mainly follow [[Islam]]. Some follow [[Persian Jews|Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and the [[Bahá'í Faith]], with an unknown number showing no religious affiliation. Overall the numbers of Sunni and Shia among the Iranian people are equally distributed. Most Kurds, Tajiks, Pashtuns, and Baluch are [[Sunni]] Muslims, while the remainder are mainly [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a]], comprising mostly [[Persian people|Persians]] in Iran, and [[Hazaras]] in Afghanistan. [[Zazas]] in [[Turkey]] are largely [[Alevi]], while the [[Pamiri people]]s in [[Tajikistan]] and [[China]] are nearly all [[Ismaili]]. The Christian community is mainly represented by the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], followed by the [[Russian Orthodox]] and [[Georgian Orthodox]] Ossetians followed by [[Nestorian Church|Nestorians]]. [[Judaism]] is followed mainly by [[Persian Jews]], [[Kurdish Jews]], [[Bukharian Jews]] (of Central Asia) and the [[Mountain Jews]] (of the Caucasus), most of whom are now found in [[Israel]]. The historical religion of the Persian Empire was Zoroastrianism and it still has a few thousand followers, mostly in Yazd and Kerman. They are known as the [[Parsi people|Parsis]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]], where many of them fled in historic times following the Arab conquest of Persia, or [[Zoroastrians in Iran]]. Another ancient religion is the [[Yazidi]] faith, followed by some Kurds in northern [[Iraq]], as well as the majority of the Kurds in [[Armenia]].

Elements of pre-Islamic [[Zoroastrian]] and [[shamanistic]] beliefs persist among some Islamized groups today, such as the [[Tajik people|Tajiks]], [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]]s and [[Pamiri people]]s.

=== Cultural assimilation ===
{{See also|Persianization|Persianate society|Turko-Persian tradition|Turco-Persian|Turkification|Islamic conquest of Persia|Persian Arab|Arabization}}

In matters relating to culture, the various [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking minorities of Iran (notably the [[Azerbaijani people]]) and Afghanistan ([[Uzbeks]] and [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]]) are often conversant in Iranian languages, in addition to their own Turkic languages and also have Iranian culture to the extent that the term ''[[Turko-Iranian (disambiguation)|Turko-Iranian]]'' can be applied.<ref>Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, edited by Robert Canfield, ISBN 0-521-52291-9 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> The usage applies to various circumstances that involve historic interaction, intermarriage, cultural assimilation, bilingualism and cultural overlap or commonalities.

Notable among this synthesis of Turko-Iranian culture are the Azeris, whose culture, religion and significant periods of history are linked to the Persians.<ref name="Belfer">[http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/publication.cfm?program=CSP&ctype=event_reports&item_id=50 "Azerbaijan-Iran Relations: Challenges and Prospects"] — Harvard University, Belfer Center, Caspian Studies Program . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Certain theories and genetic tests<ref name="Iran Cambridge Genetic Study">[http://www.isna.ir/Main/NewsView.aspx?ID=News-727489&Lang=P "Cambridge Genetic Study of Iran"] — ''ISNA (Iranian Students News Agency)'', 06-12-2006, news-code: 8503-06068 . Retrieved 9 June 2006.</ref> suggest that the Azeris are genetically more Iranian than Turkic.

== Genetics ==

{{cleanup|section|date=November 2010}}
{{Further|Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA)}}

Two [[Y-DNA]] [[haplogroups]] are supposed to be connected with Iranian peoples: [[Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)|J2]] and [[R1a1]].

R1 is more closely linked to Iranians, while R1b is linked to Europeans.

'''J2a:'''

[[Haplogroup]] J2 especially the clade J2a is frequently found among almost all groups of Iranian people. In comparison with the haplogroup [[R1a1]], J2 is not only restricted to geographically eastern and western Iranian populations, but also found among north-western and south-western Iranian populations such as the Bakhtiaris and Mazanderani,<ref>t [M. Regueiro et al. (2006), "Iran: Tricontinental Nexus for Y-Chromosome Driven Migration"]</ref><ref>Y haplogroup J in Iran by Alfred A. Aburto Jr. http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/GENEALOGY-DNA/2006-06/1151592332</ref> as well as geographically north-western Iranian [[Ossetians]].<ref>Nasidze, E. Y. S. Ling, D. Quinque et al., "Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Variation in the Caucasus," Annals of Human Genetics (2004) 68,205–221. http://www.eva.mpg.de/genetics/pdf/Caucasus_big_paper.pdf http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118745631/PDFSTART</ref> Despite its supposed origin in the fertile crescent, J2a is also found among Iranian populations in the east such as the [[Yaghnobi people|Yagnobi]] which are of [[Soghdian]] origin<ref>R. Spencer Wells et al., "The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity," PNAS (August 28, 2001), vol. 98, no. 18.</ref> as well as the [[Parsis]] of India.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1086/339929|pmc=447589|pmid= 11898125|title=Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan|year=2002|last1=Qamar|first1=Raheel|last2=Ayub|first2=Qasim|last3=Mohyuddin|first3=Aisha|last4=Helgason|first4=Agnar|last5=Mazhar|first5=Kehkashan|last6=Mansoor|first6=Atika|last7=Zerjal|first7=Tatiana|last8=Tyler-Smith|first8=Chris|last9=Mehdi|first9=S. Qasim|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=70|issue=5|pages=1107–24}}</ref> Beside the relatively high percentage among the Yagnobis in Central Asia, other Iranian populations tend to have a higher frequency of J2a when compared to neighboring Turkic populations.
The relatively strong presence of J2a among [[Ossetians]] as well as [[Yagnobis]] proves distant from the supposed [[Mesopotamian]] origin region of J2, are carriers of this Haplogroup.

In the [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] context, the occurrence of J2a in South Asia is limited to caste populations, with the highest frequencies found among northern areas of South Asia.<ref name="hpgl.stanford.edu">Sengupta, 2006. Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2006_v78_p202-221.pdf</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=1380230|pmid=16400607|year=2006|last1=Sengupta|first1=S|last2=Zhivotovsky|first2=LA|last3=King|first3=R|last4=Mehdi|first4=SQ|last5=Edmonds|first5=CA|last6=Chow|first6=CE|last7=Lin|first7=AA|last8=Mitra|first8=M|last9=Sil|first9=SK|title=Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists|volume=78|issue=2|pages=202–21|doi=10.1086/499411|journal=American journal of human genetics}}</ref> Compared with [[R1a1]], J2a shows a more conservative distribution, stronger limited to Indo-Iranian origin groups.<ref name="hpgl.stanford.edu"/>

'''R:'''

Many Haplotypes of Y-chromosomal Haplogroup R have been found throughout the Iranian Plateau, and it has been suggested that this Haplogroup may have had its origins in Iran. Cambridge University geneticist Toomas Kivisild has suggested : "Given the geographic spread and STR diversities of sister clades R1 and R2, the latter of which is restricted to India, Pakistan, Iran, and southern central Asia, it is possible that southern and western Asia were the source for R1 and R1a differentiation."(Kivisild et al. 2003). A similar conclusion was given by population geneticist Miguel Regueiro in the Journal of Human Heredity (Regueiro et al. Human Heredity vol. 61 (2006), pp. 132–143)

Genetic studies conducted by [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have revealed that Iranians have weak correlation with Near Eastern groups, and are closer to surrounding Indo-Europeans speaking populations.<ref name="Genes">[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v74n5/40813/40813.html "Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor"] — University of Chicago, American Journal of Human Genetics . Retrieved 4 June 2006. {{dead link|date=June 2010| bot=DASHBot}}</ref>
This study is partially supported by another one, based on Y-Chromosome haplogroups.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16770078 Iran: tricontinental nexus for Y-chromosome driven migration] – Regueiro M, Cadenas AM, Gayden T, Underhill PA, Herrera RJ, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, University Park, OE 304, Miami, FL 33199, USA, [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]</ref>

The findings of this study reveal many common genetic markers found among the Iranian people from the [[Tigris]] river of [[Iraq]] to the [[Indus River|Indus]] of [[Pakistan]]. This correlates with the [[Iranian languages]] spoken from the [[Caucasus]] to Kurdish areas in the [[Zagros]] region and eastwards to western Pakistan and Tajikistan and parts of Uzbekistan in [[Central Asia]]. The extensive gene flow is perhaps an indication of the spread of Iranian-speaking people, whose languages are now spoken mainly on the Iranian plateau and adjacent regions.

Another recent study of the genetic landscape of Iran was done by a team of [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]] geneticists led by Dr. Maziar Ashrafian Bonab (an Iranian Azarbaijani).<ref name="Dr. Bonab page">[http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/Research/balloux.htm "Maziar Ashrafian Bonab"]{{dead link|date=July 2010}} — ''Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge'' . Retrieved 9 June 2006. {{Wayback|url=http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/Research/balloux.htm|date =20060618211320|bot=DASHBot}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref> Bonab remarked that his group had done extensive [[DNA]] testing on different language groups, including [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and non Indo-European speakers, in Iran.<ref name="Iran Cambridge Genetic Study"/> The study found that the Azerbaijanis of Iran do not have a similar FSt and other genetic markers found in Anatolian and European Turks. However, the genetic Fst and other genetic traits like MRca and mtDNA of Iranian Azeris were identical to [[Persian people|Persians]] in Iran. Azaris of Iran also show very close genetic ties to Kurds.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=S. Farjadian1, A. Ghaderi |title=HLA class II similarities in Iranian Kurds and Azeris |journal=International Journal of Immunogenetics |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=457–463 |year=2007 |month=December|pmid= 18001303|doi=10.1111/j.1744-313X.2007.00723.x}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[List of Ancient Iranian peoples]]
* [[Airyanem Vaejah]]
* [[Ajam (Bahrain)]]
{{col-3}}
* [[Bulgars]]
* [[Caspian people]]
* [[Greater Iran]]
* [[Iranian plateau]]
{{col-3}}
* [[Indo-Iranians]]
* [[Turko-Iranian (disambiguation)|Turko-Iranian]]
* [[Iraqi people]]
{{col-end}}

== Literature and further reading ==
* Banuazizi, Ali and Weiner, Myron (eds.). ''The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East)'', Syracuse University Press (August, 1988). ISBN 0-8156-2448-4.
* Canfield, Robert (ed.). ''Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2002). ISBN 0-521-52291-9
* Curzon, R. ''The Iranian People of the Caucasus''. ISBN 0-7007-0649-6.
* Derakhshani, Jahanshah. ''Die Arier in den nahöstlichen Quellen des 3. und 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr.'', 2nd edition (1999). ISBN 964-90368-6-5.
* [[Richard Frye|Frye, Richard]], ''Greater Iran'', Mazda Publishers (2005). ISBN 1-56859-177-2.
* Frye, Richard. ''Persia'', Schocken Books, Zurich (1963). ASIN B0006BYXHY.
* [[Hugh N. Kennedy|Kennedy, Hugh]]. ''The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates'', Longman, New York, NY (2004). ISBN 0-582-40525-4
* [[Philip S. Khoury|Khoury, Philip S.]] & Kostiner, Joseph. ''Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East'', University of California Press (1991). ISBN 0-520-07080-1.
* [[C. Scott Littleton|Littleton, C.]] & [[Linda A. Malcor|Malcor, L.]] ''From Scythia to Camelot'', Garland Publishing, New York, NY, (2000). ISBN 0-8153-3566-0.
* Mallory, J.P. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans'', Thames and Hudson, London (1991). ISBN 0-500-27616-1.
* McDowall, David. ''A Modern History of the Kurds'', I.B. Tauris, 3rd Rev edition (2004). ISBN 1-85043-416-6.
* Nassim, J. ''Afghanistan: A Nation of Minorities'', Minority Rights Group, London (1992). ISBN 0-946690-76-6.
* Riasanovsky, Nicholas. ''A History of Russia'', Oxford University Press, Oxford (2004). ISBN 0-19-515394-4.
* Sims-Williams, Nicholas. ''Indo-Iranian Languages and People'', British Academy (2003). ISBN 0-19-726285-6.
* Iran Nama, ([[Iran]] [[Travel literature|Travelogue]] in [[Urdu language|Urdu]]) by [[Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman]], Tibbi Academy, Aligarh, India (1998).
* [[Saga of the Aryans]], Historical novel on ancient Iranian migrations by Porus Homi Havewala, Published Mumbai, India (2005, 2010).
* Chopra, R. M.,"Indo-Iranian Cultural Relations Through The Ages", Iran Society, Kolkata, 2005.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*[http://torontoparadise.com/page/iranian Iranian]
*[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9368164 Encyclopædia Britannica: Iranian languages]
*[http://www.parstimes.com/people/ People of Iran]
*[http://www.newsweek.com/id/199011 The Changing Face of Iran] a photo essay by ''Newsweek Magazine''
*[http://www.everytongue.com/iran/ Maps and demographic information] on all the people groups of Iran found at www.EveryTongue.com/iran

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Iranian Peoples}}
[[Category:Iranian people|Iranian people]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[ar:شعوب إيرانية]]
[[az:İrandilli xalqlar]]
[[bg:Ирански народи]]
[[bo:ཏ་ཟིག་གི་མི།]]
[[bs:Iranski narodi]]
[[ca:Irànics]]
[[da:Iranske folk]]
[[de:Iranische Völker]]
[[et:Iraani rahvad]]
[[es:Pueblos iranios]]
[[fa:اقوام ایرانی‌تبار]]
[[fr:Peuples iraniens]]
[[hr:Iranski narodi]]
[[id:Bangsa Iran]]
[[os:Ирайнаг адæмтæ]]
[[it:Iranici]]
[[ka:ირანელი ხალხები]]
[[lv:Irāņu tautas]]
[[lt:Iraniečiai]]
[[mg:Iranianina]]
[[mr:इराणी]]
[[mzn:ایرانی تبارون]]
[[ms:Bangsa Iran]]
[[nl:Iraanse volkeren]]
[[pl:Ludy irańskie]]
[[pt:Povos iranianos]]
[[ru:Иранские народы]]
[[sr:Ирански народи]]
[[sh:Iranski narodi]]
[[su:Urang Iran]]
[[sv:Iranier]]
[[tr:İran halkları]]
[[uk:Іранські народи]]
[[zh:伊朗人]]

Iranian peoples

2013-02-11T05:15:45Z

108.173.174.134: /* Later developments */

{{About|the ethno-linguistic group|the peoples of [[Iran]]|Demographics of Iran}}
{{infobox ethnic group|
Geographic distribution of modern Iranian languages: Persian (green), Pashto (purple) and Kurdish (turquoise), Lurish (red), Baluchi (Yellow), as well as smaller communities of other Iranian languages.
|image = {{Iranians image array}}
|poptime= 135–185 million<ref>
*Iran: {{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf |title=Ethnic Groups and Languages of Iran |first=Library of Congress – Federal Research Division |last=Library of Congress|accessdate=2009-12-02}} (Persian and Caspian dialects-65% Kurdish 8%-Luri/Bakhtiari 5%- Baluchi 2%):80% of the population or approximately 63 million people.
*Afghanistan: CIA Factbook Afghanistan: unting Pashtuns, Tajiks, Baluchs, 21 million
*Tajiks of Central Asia counting Tajikistan and Uzbekistan 10–15 million
*Kurds and Zazas of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq based on CIA factbook estimate 22 million
*Ossetians, Talysh, Tats, Kurds of the Caucasus and Central Asia: 1–2 million based on CIA factbook/ethnologue.
*Tajiks of China: 50,000 to 100,000
*Iranian speakers in Bahrain, the [[Persian Gulf]] , Western Europe and USA, 3 million.
*Pakistan counting Baluchis+Pashtus+Afghan refugees based on CIA factbook and other sources: 35 million.

</ref> Communities majorly in ''[[Iran]]'' and also in ''Afghanistan, Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Armenia, Oman, China (Xinjiang), India, Pakistan, United Kingdom, Germany and United States''.
|popplace= ''[[Iran]] and [[Iranian Plateau]], [[Anatolia]], [[South Asia]], [[Central Asia]], the [[Caucasus]]'' and as immigrant communities in ''[[North America]] and [[Western Europe]]''.
|langs= [[Persian language]] and other [[Iranian languages]], a branch of the Indo-European family
|rels= '''Majority''': [[Islam]] <br /><small>'''Minority''': [[Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]],<ref>The Ossetians of the Caucasus are Orthodox Christians</ref> [[Church of the East|Nestorianism]], [[Judaism]], [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Sabians|Toshavim]], [[Atheism]], [[Agnosticism]]</small>.
|related = Other [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian peoples]]
}}

The '''Iranian peoples'''<ref>R.N Frye, "IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN" in Encycloapedia Iranica. "In the following discussion of "Iranian peoples," the term "Iranian" may be understood in two ways. It is, first of all, a linguistic classification, intended to designate any society which inherited or adopted, and transmitted, an Iranian language. The set of Iranian-speaking peoples is thus considered a kind of unity, in spite of their distinct lineage identities plus all the factors which may have further differentiated any one group’s sense of self."</ref> are an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] [[ethnolinguistics|ethno-linguistic group]] that comprise the speakers of [[Iranian languages]],<ref>J. Harmatta in "History of Civilizations of Central Asia", Chapter 14, ''The Emergence of Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages'', ed. by A. H. Dani & V.N. Masson, 1999, p. 357</ref> a major branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], as such forming a branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European-speaking]] peoples. Their historical areas of settlement were on the [[Iranian plateau]] (mainly [[Iran]]) and certain neighbouring areas of Central Asia (such as [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Afghanistan]], western Pakistan, northern Iraq and eastern Turkey, and scattered part of the [[Caucasus]] Mountains) reflecting changing geopolitical range of the [[Persian empire]]s and the Iranian history.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|title=Iranian languages|author=Ronald Eric Emmerick|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=Feb. 6, 2011|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293577/Iranian-languages}}</ref><ref name="Iranica">{{cite web|title=Iran vi. Iranian languages and scripts Also, Diba
|author=PRODS OKTOR SKJÆRVØ|date=December 15, 2006|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica}}</ref> Their current distribution spreads across the [[Iranian plateau]], and stretches from Pakistan's [[Indus River]] in the east to eastern Turkey in the west, and from [[Central Asia]] and the [[Ossetia|Caucasus]] in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south – a region that is sometimes called the [[Iranian cultural continent]], or Greater Persia by scholars, and represents the extent of the Iranian languages and influence of the [[Persian people]], through the geopolitical reach of the [[Persian empire]].<ref>[[Richard Nelson Frye|Frye, Richard Nelson]], ''Greater Iran, ISBN 1-56859-177-2 p.''xi'': ''"... Iran means all lands and people where Iranian languages were and are spoken, and where in the past, multi-faceted Iranian cultures existed. ..."''</ref>

The Iranian group emerges from an earlier Iranian group during the [[Late Bronze Age]], and it enters the historical record during the Early Iron Age.

The Iranians comprise the [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Medes]], [[Scythians]], [[Bactrians]], [[Parthians]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Alans]], [[Ossetians]] and their sub-groups. The Iranians had domesticated horses, had travelled far and wide, and from the late 2nd millennium BCE to early 1st millennium BCE they had migrated to, and settled on, the Iranian Plateau. They moved into the Zagros Mountains (inhabited by [[Gutians]], [[Kassites]] and others, home of the [[Mannaean]] kingdom) above the indigenous non Iranian [[Elamite]] Kingdom. For approximately three centuries after arriving in the region, the [[Medes]] and [[Persia]]ns fell under the domination of the [[Assyrian Empire]] (911–609 BCE), based in nearby [[Mesopotamia]]. In 646 BCE, [[Susa]] and many other cities of [[Elam]] were plundered and wrecked by [[Ashurbanipal]], King of [[Assyria]], allowing the Iranian peoples to become the predominant group in Iran. After the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BCE, the Assyrian Empire began to unravel due to a series of bitter civil wars. In 616 BCE the Median king [[Cyaxares]] threw off the Assyrian yoke, united the Medes and Persians, and in alliance with [[Nabopolassar]] of [[Babylon]] and the [[Scythians]], attacked the civil war ridden Assyrian Empire. By 609 BCE, the Assyrians and their [[Egypt]]ian allies had been defeated. This began the Iranian domination in the Iranian Plateau. Persians formed the [[Persian Empire|Achaemenid Empire]] by the 6th century BCE, while the Scythians dominated the [[Eurasian steppe]].<ref name="World Archaeology">{{cite web|url=http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(povz2d45y5bwkg555qirhyru)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,8,11;journal,15,25;linkingpublicationresults,1:104736,1 |title=Amazons in the Scythia: new finds at the Middle Don, Southern Russia |publisher=Taylorandfrancis.metapress.com |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref><ref name="PBS Amazons">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_amazon/index.html |title=Secrets of the Dead, Casefile: Amazon Warrior Women |publisher=Pbs.org |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref> With numerous artistic, scientific, architectural and philosophical achievements and numerous kingdoms and empires that bridged much of the civilized world in antiquity,{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} the Iranian peoples were often in close contact with the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Indians, and Chinese. The various religions of the Iranian peoples, including [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Mithraism]] and [[Manichaeism]], are believed by some scholars to have been significant early philosophical influences on Christianity and Judaism.<ref>{{cite book | author=Runciman, Steven | title=The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1982 | isbn=0-521-28926-2}}</ref>

== Name ==
[[File:Moderniranianlanguagesmap.jpg|thumb|350px|Geographic distribution of Iranian languages]]
{{Main|Arya#Etymology|l1=Etymology of Arya}}
The term ''Iranian'' is derived from the Old Iranian ethnical adjective ''Aryana'' which is itself a cognate of the [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[Arya]]''.<ref name="Oxford English Dictionnary">[http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50012669?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=aryan&first=1&max_to_show=10 Oxford English Dictionnary:''' "Aryan from Sanskrit Arya 'Noble'"''']</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Iranistik|series=Hanbuch Der Orientalistik – Abeteilung – Der Nahe Und Der Mittlere Osten|volume=1|chapter=Old Iranian Literature|last=Gershevitch|first=I.|editor=|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=1968|isbn=90-04-00857-8|page=203}}: page 1</ref> The name ''Iran'' is from ''Aryānām''; lit: "[Land] of the [[Name of Iran|Aryans]]".<ref name="Farsinet">[http://www.farsinet.com/farsi/ "Farsi-Persian language"] — Farsi.net . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref><ref name = "1911 Encyclopedia"/> The old [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] term ''Arya'', per [[Paul Thieme|Thieme]] meaning "hospitable", is believed to have been one of the self-referential terms used by the Aryans, at least in the areas populated by Aryans who migrated south from [[Central Asia]]. Another meaning for Aryan is noble. In the late part of the [[Avesta]] (Vendidad 1), one of their homelands was referred to as ''[[Airyanem Vaejah]]''. The homeland varied in its geographic range, the area around [[Herat]] ([[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s view) and even the entire expanse of the [[Iranian plateau]] ([[Strabo]]'s designation).<ref name="1911 Encyclopedia">{{cite web|url=http://58.1911encyclopedia.org/I/IR/IRAN.htm |title=Article in 1911 Britannica|publisher=58.1911encyclopedia.org|accessdate=2009-06-21}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

The academic usage of the term ''Iranian'' is distinct from the state of [[Iran]] and its various citizens (who are all Iranian by nationality and thus popularly referred to as ''Iranians'') in the same way that ''Germanic people'' is distinct from ''[[Germans]]''. Many citizens of Iran are not necessarily "Iranian people" by virtue of not being speakers of Iranian languages.
Unlike the various terms connected with the Aryan arya- in Old Indian, the Old Iranian term has solely an ethnic meaning<ref>G. Gnoli, "Iranian Identity as a Historical Problem: the Beginnings of a National Awareness under the Achaemenians," in The East and the Meaning of History. International Conference (23–27 November 1992), Roma, 1994, pp. 147–67. {{cite web |url=http://www.google.com/search?q=Emile+Benveniste+is+thus+quite+right+to+assert+that%2C+unlike+the+various+terms+connected+with+the+Aryan+arya-+in+Old+Indian%2C+the+Old+Iranian+arya-+is+documented+solely+as+an+ethnic&tbs=bks%3A1&tbo=1 |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}</ref> and there can be no doubt about the ethnic value of Old Iran. arya (Benveniste, 1969, I, pp. 369 f.; Szemerényi; Kellens).<ref name="iranica.com">G. Gnoli, "Iranian Identity ii. Pre-Islamic Period" in Encyclopedia Iranica. Online accessed in 2010 at {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-ii-pre-islamic-period |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}</ref>

The name Arya lives in the ethnic names like Alan, New Persian: Iran, Ossetian: Ir and Iron.<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt">R. Schmitt, "Aryans" in Encyclopedia Iranica:Excerpt:"The name "Aryan" (OInd. āˊrya-, Ir. *arya- [with short a-], in Old Pers. ariya-, Av. airiia-, etc.) is the self designation of the peoples of Ancient Iran (as well as India) who spoke Aryan languages, in contrast to the "non-Aryan" peoples of those "Aryan" countries (cf. OInd. an-āˊrya-, Av. an-airiia-, etc.), and lives on in ethnic names like Alan (Lat. Alani, NPers. Īrān, Oss. Ir and Iron.". Also accessed online: {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aryans |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}} in May, 2010</ref><ref name="Language, Gherardo Gnoli 2002">The "Aryan" Language, Gherardo Gnoli, Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, Roma, 2002.</ref><ref name="Bailey">H. W. Bailey, "Arya" in Encyclopedia Iranica. Excerpt: "ARYA an ethnic epithet in the Achaemenid inscriptions and in the Zoroastrian Avestan tradition. {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arya-an-ethnic-epithet-in-the-achaemenid-inscriptions-and-in-the-zoroastrian-avestan-tradition |title=Arya an ethnic epithet in the Achaemenid inscriptions and in the Zoroastrian Avestan tradition |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}} Also accessed online in May, 2010.</ref><ref name="Bailey"/><ref name="iranica1">D. N. Mackenzie, "Ērān, Ērānšahr" in Encyclopedia Iranica. {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-eransah |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=2010}}</ref><ref name="Dalby, Andrew 2004">Dalby, Andrew (2004), Dictionary of Languages, Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-7683-1</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/er-er-mazdesn |title=ēr, ēr mazdēsn |author=G. Gnoli |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref> The name Iran has been in usage since [[Sassanid]] times.<ref name="iranica1"/><ref name="Dalby, Andrew 2004"/>

The [[Avesta]] clearly uses airya as an ethnic name (Vd. 1; Yt. 13.143-44, etc.), where it appears in expressions such as airyāfi; daiŋˊhāvō "Iranian lands, peoples," airyō.šayanəm "land inhabited by Iranians," and airyanəm vaējō vaŋhuyāfi; dāityayāfi; "Iranian stretch of the good Dāityā," the river Oxus, the modern Āmū Daryā.<ref name="iranica.com"/>

The term "Ariya" appears in the royal Old Persian inscriptions in three different contexts: 1) As the name of the language of the Old Persian version of the inscription of [[Darius the Great]] in [[Behistun Inscription|Behistun]]; 2) as the ethnic background of [[Darius the Great|Darius]] in inscriptions at Naqsh-e-Rostam and Susa (Dna, Dse) and [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]] in the inscription from Persepolis (Xph) and 3) as the definition of the God of Iranian people, [[Ahura Mazda|Ahuramazda]], in the Elamite version of the Behistun inscription.<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt"/><ref name="Bailey"/> For example in the Dna and Dse Darius and Xerxes describe themselves as "An Achaemenian, A Persian son of a Persian and an Aryan, of Aryan stock".<ref name="ReferenceA">R. G. Kent. Old Persian. Grammer, texts, lexicon. 2nd ed., New Haven, Conn.</ref> Although Darius the Great called his language the Iranian language,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> modern scholars refer to it as [[Old Persian]]<ref name="ReferenceA"/> because it is the ancestor of modern [[Persian language]].<ref>Professor Gilbert Lazard: The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran in Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language" in Frye, R. N., ''The Cambridge History of Iran'', Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

The Old Persian and Avestan evidence is confirmed by the Greek sources".<ref name="iranica.com"/> Herodotus in his Histories remarks about the Iranian Medes that: "These Medes were called anciently by all people Arians; " (7.62).<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt"/><ref name="Bailey"/> In [[Armenians|Armenian]] sources, the Parthians, Medes and Persians are collectively referred to as Iranians.<ref>R.W. Thomson. History of Armenians by Moses Khorenat’si. Harvard University Press, 1978. Pg 118, pg 166</ref> Eudemus of Rhodes apud Damascius (Dubitationes et solutiones in Platonis Parmenidem 125 bis) refers to "the Magi and all those of Iranian (áreion) lineage"; Diodorus Siculus (1.94.2) considers Zoroaster (Zathraustēs) as one of the Arianoi.<ref name="iranica.com"/>

[[Strabo]], in his "Geography", mentions the unity of [[Medes]], Persians, Bactrians and [[Sogdians]]:<ref name="Language, Gherardo Gnoli 2002"/>{{quotation|The name of'' [[Ariana]] ''is further extended to a part of [[Persia]] and of Media, as also to the [[Bactrians]] and [[Sogdians]] on the north; for these speak approximately the same language, with but slight variations.|Geography, 15.8}}

The trilingual inscription erected by Shapur's command gives a more clear description. The languages used are [[Parthian language|Parthian]], [[Middle Persian]] and Greek. In Greek, the inscription says: "ego ... tou Arianon ethnous despotes eimi"("I am lord of the kingdom (Gk. nation) of the Aryans") which translates to "I am the king of the Iranian people". In the Middle Persian, Shapour states: "ērānšahr xwadāy hēm" and in Parthian he states: "aryānšahr xwadāy ahēm".<ref name="iranica1"/><ref>MacKenzie D.N. Corpus inscriptionum Iranicarum Part. 2., inscription of the Seleucid and Parthian periods of Eastern Iran and Central Asia. Vol. 2. Parthian, London, P. Lund, Humphries 1976–2001</ref>

The [[Bactrian language]] (a Middle Iranian language) inscription of [[Kanishka]] the founder of the [[Kushan empire]] at Rabatak, which was discovered in 1993 in an unexcavated site in the Afghanistan province of Baghlan, clearly refers to this Eastern Iranian language as Arya.<ref>N. Sims-Williams, "Further notes on the Bactrian inscription of Rabatak, with the Appendix on the name of Kujula Kadphises and VimTatku in Chinese". Proceedings of the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies (Cambridge, September 1995). Part 1: Old and Middle Iranian<Studies, N. Sims-Williams, ed. Wiesbaden, pp 79-92</ref><ref>The "Aryan" Language, Gherardo Gnoli, Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, Roma, 2002</ref>
In the post-Islamic era, one can still see a clear usage of the term Iran in the work of the 10th-century historian [[Hamzeh Isfahani]]. In his book ''the history of Prophets and Kings'' writes: "Aryan which is also called Pars ([[Persia]]) is in the middle of these countries and these six countries surround it because the South East is in the hands China, the North of the Turks, the middle South is India, the middle North is Rome, and the South West and the North West is the [[Sudan]] and Berber lands".<ref>Hamza Isfahani, Tarikh Payaambaraan o Shaahaan, translated by Jaf'ar Shu'ar,Tehran: Intishaaraat Amir Kabir, 1988.</ref> All this evidence shows that the name arya "Iranian" was a collective definition, denoting peoples (Geiger, pp. 167 f.; Schmitt, 1978, p. 31) who were aware of belonging to the one ethnic stock, speaking a common language, and having a religious tradition that centered on the cult of [[Ahura Mazda|Ahura Mazdā]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-ii-pre-islamic-period |title=Iranian Identity ii. Pre-Islamic Period |author=G. Gnoli |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate= 2010}}</ref>

== History and settlement ==
{{main|List of Ancient Iranian peoples}}

=== Roots ===
{{main|Indo-Iranians}}
[[File:BMAC.png|thumb|The extent of the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex|BMAC]] (according to the [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]]).]]

The language referred to as Proto-Indo-European (PIE): is ancestral to the Celtic, Italic (including Romance), Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Albanian, Armernian, Greek, and Tocharian languages.

'There is an agreement that the PIE community split into two major groups from wherever its homeland was situated (its location is unknown), and whenever the timing of its dispersal (also unknown). One headed west for Europe and became speakers of Indo-European (all the languages of modern Europe save for Basque, Hungarian, and Finnish) while others headed east for Eurasia to become Indo-Iranians. The Indo-Iranians were a community that spoke a common language prior to their branching off into the Iranian and Indo-Aryan languages. Iranian refers to the languages of Iran (Iranian), Pakistan (Balochi and Pashto), Afghanistan (Pashto and Dari), and Tadjikistan (Tajiki) and Indo-Aryan, Sanskrit, Urdu and its many related languages.' – (Carl C. Lamberg-Karlovsky: Case of the Bronze Age)

By the early 1st millennium, [[Ancient Iranian peoples]] such as [[Medes]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Bactria]]ns, [[Parthia]]ns and Scythians populated the [[Iranian plateau]], and other Scythian tribes, along with [[Cimmerians]], [[Sarmatians]] and [[Alans]] populated the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]]. The [[Saka]], [[Scythia]]n, tribes spread as far west as the [[Balkans]] and as far east as [[Xinjiang]]. Scythians as well formed the Indo-Scythian Empire, and Bactrians formed a Greco-Bactrian Kingdom founded by Diodotus I, the satrap of Bactria. The [[Kushan]] Empire, with Bactrian roots/connections, once controlled much of [[Pakistan]], some of [[Afghanistan]] and Tajikistan. The Kushan elite (who the Chinese called the [[Yuezhi]]) were either a Tocharian-speaking (another Indo-European branch) people or an Eastern Iranian language-speaking people.

The division into an "[[Eastern Iranian|Eastern]]" and a "[[Western Iranian|Western]]" group by the early 1st millennium is visible in [[Avestan language|Avestan]] vs. [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]], the two oldest known Iranian languages. The Old Avestan texts known as the [[Gathas]] are believed to have been composed by [[Zoroaster]], the founder of [[Zoroastrianism]], with the [[Yaz culture]] (c. 1500–1100 BCE) as a candidate for the development of [[Eastern Iranian]] culture.

Old Persian appears to have been established in written form by 519 BCE, following the creation of the [[Old Persian script]], inspired by the [[cuneiform script]] of the Assyrians.<ref name="Lubotsky">[http://www.ieed.nl/lubotsky/pdf/avestan%20xvarnah.pdf "Avestan xᵛarǝnah-, etymology and concept by Alexander Lubotsky"] — Sprache und Kultur. Akten der X. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, 22.-28. September 1996, ed. W. Meid, Innsbruck (IBS) 1998, 479–488. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

==== Western Iranian peoples ====
[[File:Scythia-Parthia 100 BC.png|thumb|Geographical extent of Iranian influence in the 1st century BCE. The [[Parthia]]n Empire (mostly [[Western Iranian languages|Western Iranian]]) is shown in red, other areas, dominated by [[Scythia]] ([[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian]]), in orange.]]
[[File:Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|[[Achaemenid empire]] at its greatest extent]]
[[File:SurenaImage.jpg|thumb|upright|<center>[[Statue, National Museum of Iran 2401|Bronze Statue of a Parthian nobleman]], National Museum of Iran.]]
{{Indo-European topics}}
During the 1st centuries of the first millennium BCE, the ancient Persians established themselves in the western portion of the Iranian plateau and appear to have interacted considerably with the Elamites and Babylonians, while the Medes also entered in contact with the [[Ancient Assyria|Assyrians]].<ref>M. Liverani, "The Medes at Esarhaddon's Court", in ''Journal of Cuneiform Studies'' 47 (1995), pp. 57–62.</ref> Remnants of the [[Median language]] and [[Old Persian]] show their common Proto-Iranian roots, emphasized in Strabo and Herodotus' description of their languages as very similar to the languages spoken by the Bactrians and [[Sogdiana|Soghdians]] in the east.<ref name="1911 Encyclopedia"/><ref name="Geo Strabo">[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2A1*.html "The Geography of Strabo"] — University of Chicago. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Following the establishment of the [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid Empire]], the Persian language (referred to as "''Farsi''" in Persian) spread from Pars or [[Fars Province]] to various regions of the Empire, with the modern dialects of Iran, Afghanistan (also known as [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]]) and Central-Asia (known as [[Tajik language|Tajiki]]) descending from Old Persian.

Old Persian is attested in the [[Behistun Inscription]] (c. 519 BCE), recording a proclamation by [[Darius the Great]]. In southwestern Iran, the [[Achaemenid]] kings usually wrote their inscriptions in trilingual form ([[Elamite language|Elamite]], [[Akkadian language|Babylonian]] and [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]])<ref>R. G. Kent, ''Old Persian: Grammar, texts and lexicon''.</ref> while elsewhere other languages were used. The administrative languages were Elamite in the early period, and later [[Imperial Aramaic]].<ref>R. Hallock (1969), ''Persepolis Fortification Tablets''; A. L. Driver (1954), ''Aramaic Documents of the V Century BC''.</ref>

The early inhabitants of the Achaemenid Empire appear to have adopted the religion of [[Zoroastrianism]].<ref name="Edinburgh">[http://www.cogsci.ed.ac.uk/~siamakr/Kurdish/iran-lang.html "Kurdish: An Indo-European Language By Siamak Rezaei Durroei"]{{dead link|date=July 2010}} — University of Edinburgh, School of Informatics. . Retrieved 4 June 2006. {{Wayback|url=http://www.cogsci.ed.ac.uk/~siamakr/Kurdish/iran-lang.html|date =20060617211537|bot=DASHBot}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref> The [[Baloch people|Baloch]] who speak a west Iranian language relate an oral tradition regarding their migration from [[Aleppo]], [[Syria]] around the year 1000 CE, whereas linguistic evidence links [[Balochi language|Balochi]] to [[Kurmanji]], [[Soranî]], [[Gorani language|Gorani]] and [[Zazaki language|Zazaki]].<ref name="Rezakhani">[http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html "The Iranian Language Family, Khodadad Rezakhani"] — Iranologie. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

==== Eastern Iranian peoples ====
While the Iranian tribes of the south are better known through their texts and modern counterparts, the tribes which remained largely in the vast Eurasian expanse are known through the references made to them by the ancient Greeks, Persians, [[Indo-Aryans]] as well as by archaeological finds. Many ancient [[Sanskrit]] texts make references to tribes like [[Sakas]], [[Paradas]], [[Kambojas]], [[Bahlikas]], [[Uttaramadra]]s, [[Madra]]s, [[Loha (tribe)|Loha]]s, [[Parama Kambojas]], [[Rishikas]], [[Tukharas]] or [[Tusharas]] etc. and locate them in the ([[Uttarapatha]]) (north-west) division, in [[Central Asia]], around [[Hindukush]] range in northern [[Pakistan]]. The [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] chronicler, [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) makes references to a nomadic people, the [[Scythia]]ns; he describes as having dwelt in what is today southern [[Russia]].

It is believed that these Scythians were conquered by their eastern cousins, the [[Sarmatians]], who are mentioned by [[Strabo]] as the dominant tribe which controlled the southern Russian steppe in the 1st millennium CE. These Sarmatians were also known to the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who conquered the western tribes in the Balkans and sent Sarmatian conscripts, as part of Roman legions, as far west as [[Roman Britain]].

The Sarmatians of the east became the [[Alans]], who also ventured far and wide, with a branch ending up in [[Western Europe]] and [[North Africa]], as they accompanied the Germanic [[Vandals]] during their migrations. The modern [[Ossetians]] are believed to be the sole direct descendants of the Alans, as other remnants of the Alans disappeared following Germanic, [[Huns|Hunnic]] and ultimately Slavic migrations and invasions.<ref name="ISBN">A History of Russia by Nicholas Riasanovsky, pp. 11–18, Russia before the Russians, ISBN 0-19-515394-4 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>
Another group of Alans allied with [[Goth]]s to defeat the Romans and ultimately settled in what is now called Catalonia (Goth-Alania).<ref>The Sarmatians: 600 BC-AD 450 (Men-at-Arms) by Richard Brzezinski and Gerry Embleton, Aug 19, 2002</ref>
[[File:AzesIITriratna.jpg|thumb|Silver coin of the [[Indo-Scythian]] king [[Azes II]] (r.c. 35–12 BCE). Buddhist [[triratna]] symbol in the left field on the reverse.]]
[[File:PazyrikHorseman.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Scythia]]n Horseman, ''[[Pazyryk culture|Pazyryk]]'' felt artifact, c. 300 BCE]]
Some of the Saka-Scythian tribes in Central Asia would later move further southeast and invade the [[Iranian plateau]], large sections of present day [[Afghanistan]] and finally deep into present day [[Pakistan]] (see [[Indo-Scythians]]). Another Iranian tribe related to the Saka-Scythians were the [[Parni]] in Central Asia, and who later become indistinguishable from the [[Parthians]], speakers of a northwest-Iranian language. Many Iranian tribes, including the [[Khwarazm]]ians, [[Massagetae]] and [[Sogdiana|Sogdians]], were assimilated and/or displaced in Central Asia by the migrations of [[Turkic people|Turkic]] tribes emanating out of Xinjiang and Siberia.<ref name="Kimball">[http://www.thirteen.org/pressroom/release.php?get=1272 "Jeannine Davis-Kimball, Archaeologist"] — Thirteen WNET New York. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

The most dominant surviving Eastern Iranian peoples are represented by the [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]], whose origins are generally believed to be from the [[Sulaiman Mountains]],{{cn|date=July 2012}} from which they began to spread until they reached as far west as [[Herat]], north to areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan;{{cn|date=July 2012}} and as eastward towards the [[Indus River|Indus]]. The [[Pashto language]] shows affinities to the [[Avestan]] and [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]]{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}}.

The modern [[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]] in southern Xinjiang and the [[Ossetians]] of the Caucasus are remnants of the various Saka tribes. The modern [[Ossetians]] claim{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} to be the descendants of the Alano-Sarmatians and their claims are supported by their Northeast Iranian language, while culturally the Ossetians resemble their Caucasian neighbors, the [[Kabard]]ians and [[Circassians]].<ref name="ISBN">From Scythia to Camelot by Littleton and Malcor, pp. 40–43, ISBN 0-8153-3566-0 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Various extinct Iranian people existed in the eastern Caucasus, including the [[Ancient Azari language|Azaris]], while some Iranian people remain in the region, including the [[Talysh people|Talysh]]<ref name="Talysh">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tly "Report for Talysh"] — Ethnologue. Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> and the [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats]]<ref name="Tats">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ttt "Report for Tats"] — Ethnologue. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> (including the [[Mountain Jews|Judeo-Tats]],<ref name="Judeo-Tat">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=jdt "Report for Judeo-Tats"] — Ethnologue. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> who have relocated to [[Israel]]), found in Azerbaijan and as far north as the Russian republic of [[Dagestan]]. A remnant of the Sogdians is found in the Yaghnobi speaking population in parts of the Zeravshan valley in Tajikistan.

=== Later developments ===

[[File:Salahaddin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Statue of Saladin]] "king of Egypt" near the [[Citadel of Damascus]]]]
Starting with the reign of [[Umar|Omar]] in 634 CE, [[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s began a conquest of the Iranian plateau. The Arabs conquered the [[Sassanid Empire]] of the Persians and seized much of the [[Byzantine Empire]] populated by the [[Kurds]] and others. Ultimately, the various Iranian people, including the Persians, Azaries, Kurds, Baluchis and Pashtuns, converted to [[Islam]]. The Iranian people would later split along sectarian lines as the Persians (and later the [[Hazara people|Hazara]]) adopted the [[SHIA Islam|Shi'a]] sect. As ancient tribes and identities changed, so did the Iranian people, many of whom assimilated foreign cultures and people.<ref>The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates by Hugh Kennedy, ISBN 0-582-40525-4 (retrieved 04 June 2006), p. 135</ref>

Later, during the 2nd millennium CE, the Iranian people would play a prominent role during the age of Islamic expansion and empire. [[Saladin]], a noted adversary of the [[Crusade]]rs, was an ethnic [[Kurd]], while various empires centered in Iran (including the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]]) re-established a modern dialect of Persian as the official language spoken throughout much of what is today Iran and adjacent parts of Central Asia. Iranian influence spread to the [[Ottoman Empire]], where Persian was often spoken at court, as well to the court of the [[Mughal Empire]]. All of the major Iranian people reasserted their use of Iranian languages following the decline of Arab rule, but would not begin to form modern [[nationalism|national]] identities until the 19th and early 20th centuries (just as Germans and Italians were beginning to formulate national identities of their own).

The following either partially descend from Iranian people or are sometimes regarded as possible descendants of ancient Iranian people:
{{Further|Turkification|Slavicisation|Sarmatism}}
* [[Turkic languages|Turkic-speakers:]]
** [[Azerbaijani people|Azeris]]: Although [[Azerbaijani people|Azeris]] speak a Turkic language (modern [[Azerbaijani language]]), they are believed to be primarily descendants of ancient Iranians.<ref>Minorsky, V.; Minorsky, V. "(Azarbaijan). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http:/iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey |title=People of Iran |author=R. N. Frye |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http:/iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-i-lands-of-iran |title=Lands of Iran |author=X.D. Planhol |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref> and [[Turkish people|Turks]]. Thus, due to their historical ties with various ancient Iranians, as well as their cultural ties to Persians,<ref name="encyclopedia1">[http://www.bartleby.com/65/az/Azerbaij.html The Columbia Encyclopedia: Azerbaijan]{{dead link|date=June 2009}}</ref> the Azeris are often associated with the Iranian people (see [[Azerbaijani people#Origins|Origin of Azerbaijani people]] and the [[Iranian theory regarding the origin of the Azerbaijanis]] for more details).<ref name="jurabchi2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranian.com/Opinion/2002/August/Azeri/index.html |title=Who are the Azeris? by Aylinah Jurabchi |publisher=The Iranian |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref>
** [[Uzbeks]]: The modern Uzbek people are believed to have both Iranian and Turkic ancestry. ''"Uzbek"'' and ''"Tajik"'' are modern designations given to the culturally homogeneous, sedentary population of Central Asia. The local ancestors of both groups – the Turkic-speaking Uzbeks and the Iranian-speaking Tajiks – were known as ''"[[Sart]]s"'' (''"sedentary merchants"'') prior to the [[Russian Empire|Russian conquest]] of Central Asia, while ''"Uzbek"'' or ''"Turk"'' were the names given to the nomadic and semi-nomadic populations of the area. Still today, modern Uzbeks and Tajiks are known as ''"Sarts"'' to their [[Turkic people|Turkic neighbours]], the [[Kazakhs]] and the [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]]. The ancient [[Soghdians]] and [[Bactrians]] are among their ancestors. Culturally, the Uzbeks are closer to their sedentary Iranian-speaking neighbours rather than to their nomadic and semi-nomadic Turkic neighbours. Some Uzbek scholars, i.e. Ahmadov and Askarov, favour the ''Iranian origin'' theory.<ref name="zbekiston1994">Askarov, A. & B.Ahmadov, O'zbek Xalqning Kilib Chiqishi Torixi. O'zbekiston Ovozi, 20 January 1994.</ref>
**The native name of [[Yakuts]] is [[Yakuts|Sakha]], very similar to the [[Sakkas]], proposing Yakuts to be related of descendants of Scythians, specifically Sakkahs.
**[[Volga Tatars]]Many are mixed from Volga bulgars. The reasons are same with Bulgarians, and the putative claim on the iranian origin of bulgars.
* [[South Slavs|Slavic-speakers]]:
** A few linguists suggest that the names of the [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] people, the [[Serbs]] and [[Croats]] are of Iranian origin. Those who entertain such a connection propose that the Sarmatian ''Serboi'' and ''Horouthos'' tribes might have migrated from the Eurasian steppe lands to eastern Europe, and assimilated with the numerically superior Slavs, passing on their name. Iranian-speaking people did inhabit parts of the Balkans in late classical times, and would have been encountered by the Slavs. However, direct linguistic, historical or archaeological proof for such a theory is lacking. (See also: [[Theories on the origin of Serbs]] and [[Theories on the origin of Croats]])Ultimately, Montenegrins and Bosniaks may be counted to this theory.
** Some modern Bulgarian historians claim that the [[Bulgars]] were of Iranian origin and that they migrated to Europe from the region of today's northern Afghanistan – Hindukush mountains, from the [[Kingdom of Balhara]].<ref>[http://sitemaker.umich.edu/mladjov/files/bulgarian_rulers.pdf Sitemaker.umich.edu]</ref><ref>[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3236.htm State.gov]</ref><ref>[http://en.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/8511032 En.academic.ru]</ref><ref name="thearchaeologicalbox.com">[http://thearchaeologicalbox.com/en/news/dna-analysis-reveals-pamir-origin-bulgarians Thearchaeilogicalbox.com]</ref> Their claims are based on medieval Armenian sources, the writings of ancient historians ("Ashharatsuyts" by Anania Shirakatsi; Agathias of Myrina, Theophylact Simocatta, Michael the Syrian) archaeological findings in modern Bulgaria, the similarities with Iranian languages (place names, people names, and Iranian words in modern Bulgarian),<ref>[http://groznijat.tripod.com/b_lang/bl_a_v.htm Groznijat.tripod.com]</ref> similarities with culture (e.g.: some buildings in [[Pliska]] were built in a Zoroastrian fashion; similarities in traditional music, dancing and carpet making) and the very close similarity of the DNA of Pamirian/Iranian people with that of modern Bulgarians<ref name="thearchaeologicalbox.com"/><ref>[http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=117006 Novinite.com]</ref> After their arrival on Balkans, the Bulgars subjugated and then formed an allience with the local Slavs and formed the Bulgarian nation. Ultimately , Slavic Macedonians could be counted due to their close linguistic affinities with the standard Bulgarian language.
***Example:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[english language|english]] !! [[persian language|persian]] !! [[zazaki]] !! [[Kurdish_language|(Kurdish) Kurmanji / Sorani]] !! [[bulgarian language|bulgarian]]
|-
| i know || midânam || ez dizono || ez dizanim /min azanim || az znam
|-
| you know || midâni || ti dizana || tu dizanî / to azanit|| ti znayş
|-
| i don't know || nemidânam || ez nizon || ez nizanim / min nazanim || az neznam
|-
| you don't know || nemidâni || ti nizona || tu nizanî / to nazanit || ti niznayş
|-
| a dog || sag || kûtik || kûtchik / sag || kutche (kûçe)
|}
*[[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan speakers]]
**Many Indo-Aryans may have Iranian admixture in them, due to Indo-Aryan clans such as Jats and Rajputs being descended from [[Scythians]]. See [[Indo-Scythians]].
*[[Uralic language|Uralic speakers]]
**Many [[Volga Finns]] may be of part Iranian admixture due to [[Bulgars|Bulgar]] invasion of the Volga basin, if they (Bulgars) were Iranian people.
**[[Hungarians]] have long prided themselves as Scythians in the past, [[Scythians]] being an Iranian people, prior to the Finno-Ugric/Uralic theory. It's possible they've undergone a language shift. In a Magyar folkore suggests Iranian admixture among Hungarian, when Hunor and Magor marry princesses who were [[Alans]], another Iranian people. [[Jassic people]] of Hungary are of [[Ossetia]]n origin. The [[Szekely]]<ref>pronounced approximately ''say-kay''</ref> are possibly of Iranian origin, as their name is similar to [[Sakka]].
* [[Swahili language|Swahili-speakers:]]
** [[Shirazi people|Shirazis]]:The '''Shirazi''' are a sub-group of the [[Swahili people]]<ref>[[Kilwa chronicle]]</ref> living on the [[Swahili Coast]] of [[East Africa]], especially on the islands of [[Zanzibar]], [[Pemba Island|Pemba]] and [[Comoros]].<ref>[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/tethnic.htm Tanzania Ethnic Groups], East Africa Living Encyclopedia, accessed 28 June 2010</ref> Local traditions about their origin claim they are descended from merchant princes from [[Shiraz]] in [[Persia]] who settled along the [[Swahili Coast]].

== Demographics ==
{{See also|Iranian plateau|Demographics of Iran|Ethnic minorities in Iran|Demographics of Afghanistan|Demographics of Tajikistan|Iraqi people|Demographics of Iraq|Kurdistan|Ossetia}}
{{Further|Iranian citizens abroad|Kurdish diaspora|}}
There are an estimated 150 to 200 million native speakers of Iranian languages, the five major groups of [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Lurs]], [[Kurds]], [[Baloch people|Baloch]], and [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]] accounting for about 90% of this number.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gordon|first=Raymond G., Jr. (ed.)|title=Report for Iranian languages|journal=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|year=2005|edition=Fifteenth|location=Dallas|publisher=SIL International|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90019}}</ref> Currently, most of these Iranian peoples live in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]] (mainly [[Ossetia]], other parts of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and [[Azerbaijan]]), [[Iraqi Kurdistan]] and [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] majority populated areas of [[Turkey]], [[Iran]] and [[Syria]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]].

Due to recent migrations, there are also large communities of speakers of [[Iranian languages]] in [[Europe]], the [[Americas]], and [[Israel]].

'''The following is a list of peoples that speak Iranian languages with the respective groups's core areas of settlements and their estimated sizes (in millions):'''
{| class="wikitable sortable" id="table1"
|-
! People
! region
! population
|-
| [[Persian-speaking peoples]]
:* [[Aymāq|Aimaqs]]
:* [[Hazara people|Hazara]]
:* [[Huwala]]
:* [[Persian people|Iranian Persians]]
:**[[Persians in Bahrain|Bahraini Persians]]
:* [[Tajik people|Tajiks (Central Asian Persians)]]
:**[[Farsiwan]]
:* [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats of the Caucasus]]
| Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Iraq, Bahrain
| <div style="display: none;">60</div> 72–85
|-
| [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]]
:* [[Durrani]]
:* [[Ghilzai]]
:* [[Wazir (tribe)|Wazir]]
:* [[Yusufzai]]
| Pakistan, Afghanistan
| <div style="display: none;">32</div> 35–40
|-
| [[Kurdish people|Kurds]]
:* [[Kalhor (tribe)|Kalhurs]]
:* [[Lak people (Iran)|Laks]]<ref name="Hamzehʼee, M. Reza 1990">Hamzehʼee, M. Reza. The Yaresan: a sociological, historical and religio-historical study of a Kurdish community, 1990.</ref>
:* [[Yazidi]]s
:* [[Zaza people|Zaza]]
| Turkey, Iran, Iraqi Kurdistan, Syria
| <div style="display: none;">32</div> 30–45
|-
| [[Baloch people|Baluchis]]
| Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan
| <div style="display: none;">15</div> 15–20
|-
| [[Gilaki people|Gilakis]] & [[Mazandarani people|Mazanderanis]]
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">07</div> 5–10
|-
| [[Lurs]] & [[Bakhtiari people|Bakhtiaris]]
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">026</div> 6
|-
| [[Lak people (Iran)|Laks]]<ref name="Hamzehʼee, M. Reza 1990"/>
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">010</div> 0.5
|-
| [[Pamiri people]]
:* [[Tajiks of Xinjiang|Sariqoli]]
:* [[Shughni language|Shughni]]
:* [[Tajiks of China]]
:* [[Wakhi (ethnic group)|Wakhi]]
| Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China (Xinjiang), Pakistan
| <div style="display: none;">009</div> 0.9
|-
| [[Talysh people|Talysh]]
:* [[Tat people (Iran)|Tats of Iran]]
| Azerbaijan, Iran
| <div style="display: none;">009</div> 0.5
|-
| [[Ossetians]]
:* [[Digor people|Digor]]
:* [[Iron people|Iron]]
:* [[Jasz people|Jasz]]
| South Ossetia, Georgia,<br />Russia (North Ossetia), Hungary
| <div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.7
|-
| [[Yaghnobi people|Yaghnobi]]
| Uzbekistan and Tajikistan ([[Zerafshan River|Zerafshan region]])
|<div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.025
|-
| [[Kumzari]]
| Oman ([[Musandam]])
|<div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.021
|}

== Diversity ==

It is largely through linguistic similarities that the Iranian people have been linked, as many non-Iranian people have adopted Iranian languages and cultures. However, other common traits have been identified as well, for example, a stream of common historical events have often linked the southern Iranian people, including Hellenistic conquests, the various empires based in Persia, Arab Caliphates and Turkic invasions.

== Culture ==
{{See also|Proto-Indo-European society|Indo-Iranian mythology|Iranian philosophy}}
Like other Indo-Europeans, the early Iranians practiced ritual sacrifice, had a social hierarchy consisting of warriors, clerics and farmers and poetic hymns and sagas to recount their deeds.<ref name="ISBNMallory">''In Search of the Indo-Europeans'', by J.P. Mallory, p. 112–127, ISBN 0-500-27616-1 . Retrieved 10 June 2006.</ref>

Following the Iranian split from the Indo-Iranians, the Iranians developed an increasingly distinct culture. Various common traits can be discerned among the Iranian people. For example, the social event [[Norouz]] is an Iranian festival that is practiced by nearly all of the Iranian people as well as others in the region. Its origins are traced to [[Zoroastrianism]] and pre-historic times.

Some Iranian cultures exhibit traits that are unique unto themselves. The Pashtuns adhere to a code of honor and culture known as [[Pashtunwali]], which has a similar counterpart among the [[Baloch people|Baloch]], called Mayar, that is more hierarchical.<ref name="Baloch">[http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9802.html "Pakistan — Baloch"] — Library of Congress Country Studies . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{main|Iranian religions}}{{See also|Christianity in Iran|Islam in Iran|Islam in Tajikistan|Islam in Afghanistan}}
The early Iranian people worshipped various deities found throughout other cultures where [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] immigrants established themselves.<ref name="Iranologie">[http://www.iranologie.com/history/history2.html "History of Iran-Chapter 2 Indo-Europeans and Indo-Iranians"] — Iranologie . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> The earliest major religion of the Iranian people was [[Zoroastrianism]], which spread to nearly all of the Iranian people living in the Iranian plateau. Other religions that had their origins in the Iranian world were [[Mithraism]], [[Manichaeism]], and [[Mazdakism]], among others.
[[File:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg|thumb|[[Mazari Sharif]]'s [[Shrine of Hazrat Ali|Blue Mosque]] in [[Afghanistan]] is a structure of cobalt blue and turquoise minarets, attracting visitors and pilgrims from all over the world. Many such Muslim [[Iranian architecture|architectural]] monuments can be attributed to the efforts of the Iranian people who are predominantly followers of Islam today.]]
Modern speakers of Iranian languages mainly follow [[Islam]]. Some follow [[Persian Jews|Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and the [[Bahá'í Faith]], with an unknown number showing no religious affiliation. Overall the numbers of Sunni and Shia among the Iranian people are equally distributed. Most Kurds, Tajiks, Pashtuns, and Baluch are [[Sunni]] Muslims, while the remainder are mainly [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a]], comprising mostly [[Persian people|Persians]] in Iran, and [[Hazaras]] in Afghanistan. [[Zazas]] in [[Turkey]] are largely [[Alevi]], while the [[Pamiri people]]s in [[Tajikistan]] and [[China]] are nearly all [[Ismaili]]. The Christian community is mainly represented by the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], followed by the [[Russian Orthodox]] and [[Georgian Orthodox]] Ossetians followed by [[Nestorian Church|Nestorians]]. [[Judaism]] is followed mainly by [[Persian Jews]], [[Kurdish Jews]], [[Bukharian Jews]] (of Central Asia) and the [[Mountain Jews]] (of the Caucasus), most of whom are now found in [[Israel]]. The historical religion of the Persian Empire was Zoroastrianism and it still has a few thousand followers, mostly in Yazd and Kerman. They are known as the [[Parsi people|Parsis]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]], where many of them fled in historic times following the Arab conquest of Persia, or [[Zoroastrians in Iran]]. Another ancient religion is the [[Yazidi]] faith, followed by some Kurds in northern [[Iraq]], as well as the majority of the Kurds in [[Armenia]].

Elements of pre-Islamic [[Zoroastrian]] and [[shamanistic]] beliefs persist among some Islamized groups today, such as the [[Tajik people|Tajiks]], [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]]s and [[Pamiri people]]s.

=== Cultural assimilation ===
{{See also|Persianization|Persianate society|Turko-Persian tradition|Turco-Persian|Turkification|Islamic conquest of Persia|Persian Arab|Arabization}}

In matters relating to culture, the various [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking minorities of Iran (notably the [[Azerbaijani people]]) and Afghanistan ([[Uzbeks]] and [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]]) are often conversant in Iranian languages, in addition to their own Turkic languages and also have Iranian culture to the extent that the term ''[[Turko-Iranian (disambiguation)|Turko-Iranian]]'' can be applied.<ref>Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, edited by Robert Canfield, ISBN 0-521-52291-9 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> The usage applies to various circumstances that involve historic interaction, intermarriage, cultural assimilation, bilingualism and cultural overlap or commonalities.

Notable among this synthesis of Turko-Iranian culture are the Azeris, whose culture, religion and significant periods of history are linked to the Persians.<ref name="Belfer">[http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/publication.cfm?program=CSP&ctype=event_reports&item_id=50 "Azerbaijan-Iran Relations: Challenges and Prospects"] — Harvard University, Belfer Center, Caspian Studies Program . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Certain theories and genetic tests<ref name="Iran Cambridge Genetic Study">[http://www.isna.ir/Main/NewsView.aspx?ID=News-727489&Lang=P "Cambridge Genetic Study of Iran"] — ''ISNA (Iranian Students News Agency)'', 06-12-2006, news-code: 8503-06068 . Retrieved 9 June 2006.</ref> suggest that the Azeris are genetically more Iranian than Turkic.

== Genetics ==

{{cleanup|section|date=November 2010}}
{{Further|Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA)}}

Two [[Y-DNA]] [[haplogroups]] are supposed to be connected with Iranian peoples: [[Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)|J2]] and [[R1a1]].

R1 is more closely linked to Iranians, while R1b is linked to Europeans.

'''J2a:'''

[[Haplogroup]] J2 especially the clade J2a is frequently found among almost all groups of Iranian people. In comparison with the haplogroup [[R1a1]], J2 is not only restricted to geographically eastern and western Iranian populations, but also found among north-western and south-western Iranian populations such as the Bakhtiaris and Mazanderani,<ref>t [M. Regueiro et al. (2006), "Iran: Tricontinental Nexus for Y-Chromosome Driven Migration"]</ref><ref>Y haplogroup J in Iran by Alfred A. Aburto Jr. http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/GENEALOGY-DNA/2006-06/1151592332</ref> as well as geographically north-western Iranian [[Ossetians]].<ref>Nasidze, E. Y. S. Ling, D. Quinque et al., "Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Variation in the Caucasus," Annals of Human Genetics (2004) 68,205–221. http://www.eva.mpg.de/genetics/pdf/Caucasus_big_paper.pdf http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118745631/PDFSTART</ref> Despite its supposed origin in the fertile crescent, J2a is also found among Iranian populations in the east such as the [[Yaghnobi people|Yagnobi]] which are of [[Soghdian]] origin<ref>R. Spencer Wells et al., "The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity," PNAS (August 28, 2001), vol. 98, no. 18.</ref> as well as the [[Parsis]] of India.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1086/339929|pmc=447589|pmid= 11898125|title=Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan|year=2002|last1=Qamar|first1=Raheel|last2=Ayub|first2=Qasim|last3=Mohyuddin|first3=Aisha|last4=Helgason|first4=Agnar|last5=Mazhar|first5=Kehkashan|last6=Mansoor|first6=Atika|last7=Zerjal|first7=Tatiana|last8=Tyler-Smith|first8=Chris|last9=Mehdi|first9=S. Qasim|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=70|issue=5|pages=1107–24}}</ref> Beside the relatively high percentage among the Yagnobis in Central Asia, other Iranian populations tend to have a higher frequency of J2a when compared to neighboring Turkic populations.
The relatively strong presence of J2a among [[Ossetians]] as well as [[Yagnobis]] proves distant from the supposed [[Mesopotamian]] origin region of J2, are carriers of this Haplogroup.

In the [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] context, the occurrence of J2a in South Asia is limited to caste populations, with the highest frequencies found among northern areas of South Asia.<ref name="hpgl.stanford.edu">Sengupta, 2006. Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2006_v78_p202-221.pdf</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=1380230|pmid=16400607|year=2006|last1=Sengupta|first1=S|last2=Zhivotovsky|first2=LA|last3=King|first3=R|last4=Mehdi|first4=SQ|last5=Edmonds|first5=CA|last6=Chow|first6=CE|last7=Lin|first7=AA|last8=Mitra|first8=M|last9=Sil|first9=SK|title=Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists|volume=78|issue=2|pages=202–21|doi=10.1086/499411|journal=American journal of human genetics}}</ref> Compared with [[R1a1]], J2a shows a more conservative distribution, stronger limited to Indo-Iranian origin groups.<ref name="hpgl.stanford.edu"/>

'''R:'''

Many Haplotypes of Y-chromosomal Haplogroup R have been found throughout the Iranian Plateau, and it has been suggested that this Haplogroup may have had its origins in Iran. Cambridge University geneticist Toomas Kivisild has suggested : "Given the geographic spread and STR diversities of sister clades R1 and R2, the latter of which is restricted to India, Pakistan, Iran, and southern central Asia, it is possible that southern and western Asia were the source for R1 and R1a differentiation."(Kivisild et al. 2003). A similar conclusion was given by population geneticist Miguel Regueiro in the Journal of Human Heredity (Regueiro et al. Human Heredity vol. 61 (2006), pp. 132–143)

Genetic studies conducted by [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have revealed that Iranians have weak correlation with Near Eastern groups, and are closer to surrounding Indo-Europeans speaking populations.<ref name="Genes">[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v74n5/40813/40813.html "Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor"] — University of Chicago, American Journal of Human Genetics . Retrieved 4 June 2006. {{dead link|date=June 2010| bot=DASHBot}}</ref>
This study is partially supported by another one, based on Y-Chromosome haplogroups.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16770078 Iran: tricontinental nexus for Y-chromosome driven migration] – Regueiro M, Cadenas AM, Gayden T, Underhill PA, Herrera RJ, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, University Park, OE 304, Miami, FL 33199, USA, [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]</ref>

The findings of this study reveal many common genetic markers found among the Iranian people from the [[Tigris]] river of [[Iraq]] to the [[Indus River|Indus]] of [[Pakistan]]. This correlates with the [[Iranian languages]] spoken from the [[Caucasus]] to Kurdish areas in the [[Zagros]] region and eastwards to western Pakistan and Tajikistan and parts of Uzbekistan in [[Central Asia]]. The extensive gene flow is perhaps an indication of the spread of Iranian-speaking people, whose languages are now spoken mainly on the Iranian plateau and adjacent regions.

Another recent study of the genetic landscape of Iran was done by a team of [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]] geneticists led by Dr. Maziar Ashrafian Bonab (an Iranian Azarbaijani).<ref name="Dr. Bonab page">[http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/Research/balloux.htm "Maziar Ashrafian Bonab"]{{dead link|date=July 2010}} — ''Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge'' . Retrieved 9 June 2006. {{Wayback|url=http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/Research/balloux.htm|date =20060618211320|bot=DASHBot}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref> Bonab remarked that his group had done extensive [[DNA]] testing on different language groups, including [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and non Indo-European speakers, in Iran.<ref name="Iran Cambridge Genetic Study"/> The study found that the Azerbaijanis of Iran do not have a similar FSt and other genetic markers found in Anatolian and European Turks. However, the genetic Fst and other genetic traits like MRca and mtDNA of Iranian Azeris were identical to [[Persian people|Persians]] in Iran. Azaris of Iran also show very close genetic ties to Kurds.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=S. Farjadian1, A. Ghaderi |title=HLA class II similarities in Iranian Kurds and Azeris |journal=International Journal of Immunogenetics |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=457–463 |year=2007 |month=December|pmid= 18001303|doi=10.1111/j.1744-313X.2007.00723.x}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[List of Ancient Iranian peoples]]
* [[Airyanem Vaejah]]
* [[Ajam (Bahrain)]]
{{col-3}}
* [[Bulgars]]
* [[Caspian people]]
* [[Greater Iran]]
* [[Iranian plateau]]
{{col-3}}
* [[Indo-Iranians]]
* [[Turko-Iranian (disambiguation)|Turko-Iranian]]
* [[Iraqi people]]
{{col-end}}

== Literature and further reading ==
* Banuazizi, Ali and Weiner, Myron (eds.). ''The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East)'', Syracuse University Press (August, 1988). ISBN 0-8156-2448-4.
* Canfield, Robert (ed.). ''Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2002). ISBN 0-521-52291-9
* Curzon, R. ''The Iranian People of the Caucasus''. ISBN 0-7007-0649-6.
* Derakhshani, Jahanshah. ''Die Arier in den nahöstlichen Quellen des 3. und 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr.'', 2nd edition (1999). ISBN 964-90368-6-5.
* [[Richard Frye|Frye, Richard]], ''Greater Iran'', Mazda Publishers (2005). ISBN 1-56859-177-2.
* Frye, Richard. ''Persia'', Schocken Books, Zurich (1963). ASIN B0006BYXHY.
* [[Hugh N. Kennedy|Kennedy, Hugh]]. ''The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates'', Longman, New York, NY (2004). ISBN 0-582-40525-4
* [[Philip S. Khoury|Khoury, Philip S.]] & Kostiner, Joseph. ''Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East'', University of California Press (1991). ISBN 0-520-07080-1.
* [[C. Scott Littleton|Littleton, C.]] & [[Linda A. Malcor|Malcor, L.]] ''From Scythia to Camelot'', Garland Publishing, New York, NY, (2000). ISBN 0-8153-3566-0.
* Mallory, J.P. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans'', Thames and Hudson, London (1991). ISBN 0-500-27616-1.
* McDowall, David. ''A Modern History of the Kurds'', I.B. Tauris, 3rd Rev edition (2004). ISBN 1-85043-416-6.
* Nassim, J. ''Afghanistan: A Nation of Minorities'', Minority Rights Group, London (1992). ISBN 0-946690-76-6.
* Riasanovsky, Nicholas. ''A History of Russia'', Oxford University Press, Oxford (2004). ISBN 0-19-515394-4.
* Sims-Williams, Nicholas. ''Indo-Iranian Languages and People'', British Academy (2003). ISBN 0-19-726285-6.
* Iran Nama, ([[Iran]] [[Travel literature|Travelogue]] in [[Urdu language|Urdu]]) by [[Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman]], Tibbi Academy, Aligarh, India (1998).
* [[Saga of the Aryans]], Historical novel on ancient Iranian migrations by Porus Homi Havewala, Published Mumbai, India (2005, 2010).
* Chopra, R. M.,"Indo-Iranian Cultural Relations Through The Ages", Iran Society, Kolkata, 2005.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*[http://torontoparadise.com/page/iranian Iranian]
*[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9368164 Encyclopædia Britannica: Iranian languages]
*[http://www.parstimes.com/people/ People of Iran]
*[http://www.newsweek.com/id/199011 The Changing Face of Iran] a photo essay by ''Newsweek Magazine''
*[http://www.everytongue.com/iran/ Maps and demographic information] on all the people groups of Iran found at www.EveryTongue.com/iran

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Iranian Peoples}}
[[Category:Iranian people|Iranian people]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[ar:شعوب إيرانية]]
[[az:İrandilli xalqlar]]
[[bg:Ирански народи]]
[[bo:ཏ་ཟིག་གི་མི།]]
[[bs:Iranski narodi]]
[[ca:Irànics]]
[[da:Iranske folk]]
[[de:Iranische Völker]]
[[et:Iraani rahvad]]
[[es:Pueblos iranios]]
[[fa:اقوام ایرانی‌تبار]]
[[fr:Peuples iraniens]]
[[hr:Iranski narodi]]
[[id:Bangsa Iran]]
[[os:Ирайнаг адæмтæ]]
[[it:Iranici]]
[[ka:ირანელი ხალხები]]
[[lv:Irāņu tautas]]
[[lt:Iraniečiai]]
[[mg:Iranianina]]
[[mr:इराणी]]
[[mzn:ایرانی تبارون]]
[[ms:Bangsa Iran]]
[[nl:Iraanse volkeren]]
[[pl:Ludy irańskie]]
[[pt:Povos iranianos]]
[[ru:Иранские народы]]
[[sr:Ирански народи]]
[[sh:Iranski narodi]]
[[su:Urang Iran]]
[[sv:Iranier]]
[[tr:İran halkları]]
[[uk:Іранські народи]]
[[zh:伊朗人]]

Iranian peoples

2013-02-11T05:12:25Z

108.173.174.134: /* Later developments */

{{About|the ethno-linguistic group|the peoples of [[Iran]]|Demographics of Iran}}
{{infobox ethnic group|
Geographic distribution of modern Iranian languages: Persian (green), Pashto (purple) and Kurdish (turquoise), Lurish (red), Baluchi (Yellow), as well as smaller communities of other Iranian languages.
|image = {{Iranians image array}}
|poptime= 135–185 million<ref>
*Iran: {{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf |title=Ethnic Groups and Languages of Iran |first=Library of Congress – Federal Research Division |last=Library of Congress|accessdate=2009-12-02}} (Persian and Caspian dialects-65% Kurdish 8%-Luri/Bakhtiari 5%- Baluchi 2%):80% of the population or approximately 63 million people.
*Afghanistan: CIA Factbook Afghanistan: unting Pashtuns, Tajiks, Baluchs, 21 million
*Tajiks of Central Asia counting Tajikistan and Uzbekistan 10–15 million
*Kurds and Zazas of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq based on CIA factbook estimate 22 million
*Ossetians, Talysh, Tats, Kurds of the Caucasus and Central Asia: 1–2 million based on CIA factbook/ethnologue.
*Tajiks of China: 50,000 to 100,000
*Iranian speakers in Bahrain, the [[Persian Gulf]] , Western Europe and USA, 3 million.
*Pakistan counting Baluchis+Pashtus+Afghan refugees based on CIA factbook and other sources: 35 million.

</ref> Communities majorly in ''[[Iran]]'' and also in ''Afghanistan, Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Armenia, Oman, China (Xinjiang), India, Pakistan, United Kingdom, Germany and United States''.
|popplace= ''[[Iran]] and [[Iranian Plateau]], [[Anatolia]], [[South Asia]], [[Central Asia]], the [[Caucasus]]'' and as immigrant communities in ''[[North America]] and [[Western Europe]]''.
|langs= [[Persian language]] and other [[Iranian languages]], a branch of the Indo-European family
|rels= '''Majority''': [[Islam]] <br /><small>'''Minority''': [[Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]],<ref>The Ossetians of the Caucasus are Orthodox Christians</ref> [[Church of the East|Nestorianism]], [[Judaism]], [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Sabians|Toshavim]], [[Atheism]], [[Agnosticism]]</small>.
|related = Other [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian peoples]]
}}

The '''Iranian peoples'''<ref>R.N Frye, "IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN" in Encycloapedia Iranica. "In the following discussion of "Iranian peoples," the term "Iranian" may be understood in two ways. It is, first of all, a linguistic classification, intended to designate any society which inherited or adopted, and transmitted, an Iranian language. The set of Iranian-speaking peoples is thus considered a kind of unity, in spite of their distinct lineage identities plus all the factors which may have further differentiated any one group’s sense of self."</ref> are an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] [[ethnolinguistics|ethno-linguistic group]] that comprise the speakers of [[Iranian languages]],<ref>J. Harmatta in "History of Civilizations of Central Asia", Chapter 14, ''The Emergence of Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages'', ed. by A. H. Dani & V.N. Masson, 1999, p. 357</ref> a major branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], as such forming a branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European-speaking]] peoples. Their historical areas of settlement were on the [[Iranian plateau]] (mainly [[Iran]]) and certain neighbouring areas of Central Asia (such as [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Afghanistan]], western Pakistan, northern Iraq and eastern Turkey, and scattered part of the [[Caucasus]] Mountains) reflecting changing geopolitical range of the [[Persian empire]]s and the Iranian history.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|title=Iranian languages|author=Ronald Eric Emmerick|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=Feb. 6, 2011|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293577/Iranian-languages}}</ref><ref name="Iranica">{{cite web|title=Iran vi. Iranian languages and scripts Also, Diba
|author=PRODS OKTOR SKJÆRVØ|date=December 15, 2006|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica}}</ref> Their current distribution spreads across the [[Iranian plateau]], and stretches from Pakistan's [[Indus River]] in the east to eastern Turkey in the west, and from [[Central Asia]] and the [[Ossetia|Caucasus]] in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south – a region that is sometimes called the [[Iranian cultural continent]], or Greater Persia by scholars, and represents the extent of the Iranian languages and influence of the [[Persian people]], through the geopolitical reach of the [[Persian empire]].<ref>[[Richard Nelson Frye|Frye, Richard Nelson]], ''Greater Iran, ISBN 1-56859-177-2 p.''xi'': ''"... Iran means all lands and people where Iranian languages were and are spoken, and where in the past, multi-faceted Iranian cultures existed. ..."''</ref>

The Iranian group emerges from an earlier Iranian group during the [[Late Bronze Age]], and it enters the historical record during the Early Iron Age.

The Iranians comprise the [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Medes]], [[Scythians]], [[Bactrians]], [[Parthians]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Alans]], [[Ossetians]] and their sub-groups. The Iranians had domesticated horses, had travelled far and wide, and from the late 2nd millennium BCE to early 1st millennium BCE they had migrated to, and settled on, the Iranian Plateau. They moved into the Zagros Mountains (inhabited by [[Gutians]], [[Kassites]] and others, home of the [[Mannaean]] kingdom) above the indigenous non Iranian [[Elamite]] Kingdom. For approximately three centuries after arriving in the region, the [[Medes]] and [[Persia]]ns fell under the domination of the [[Assyrian Empire]] (911–609 BCE), based in nearby [[Mesopotamia]]. In 646 BCE, [[Susa]] and many other cities of [[Elam]] were plundered and wrecked by [[Ashurbanipal]], King of [[Assyria]], allowing the Iranian peoples to become the predominant group in Iran. After the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BCE, the Assyrian Empire began to unravel due to a series of bitter civil wars. In 616 BCE the Median king [[Cyaxares]] threw off the Assyrian yoke, united the Medes and Persians, and in alliance with [[Nabopolassar]] of [[Babylon]] and the [[Scythians]], attacked the civil war ridden Assyrian Empire. By 609 BCE, the Assyrians and their [[Egypt]]ian allies had been defeated. This began the Iranian domination in the Iranian Plateau. Persians formed the [[Persian Empire|Achaemenid Empire]] by the 6th century BCE, while the Scythians dominated the [[Eurasian steppe]].<ref name="World Archaeology">{{cite web|url=http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(povz2d45y5bwkg555qirhyru)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,8,11;journal,15,25;linkingpublicationresults,1:104736,1 |title=Amazons in the Scythia: new finds at the Middle Don, Southern Russia |publisher=Taylorandfrancis.metapress.com |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref><ref name="PBS Amazons">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_amazon/index.html |title=Secrets of the Dead, Casefile: Amazon Warrior Women |publisher=Pbs.org |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref> With numerous artistic, scientific, architectural and philosophical achievements and numerous kingdoms and empires that bridged much of the civilized world in antiquity,{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} the Iranian peoples were often in close contact with the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Indians, and Chinese. The various religions of the Iranian peoples, including [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Mithraism]] and [[Manichaeism]], are believed by some scholars to have been significant early philosophical influences on Christianity and Judaism.<ref>{{cite book | author=Runciman, Steven | title=The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1982 | isbn=0-521-28926-2}}</ref>

== Name ==
[[File:Moderniranianlanguagesmap.jpg|thumb|350px|Geographic distribution of Iranian languages]]
{{Main|Arya#Etymology|l1=Etymology of Arya}}
The term ''Iranian'' is derived from the Old Iranian ethnical adjective ''Aryana'' which is itself a cognate of the [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[Arya]]''.<ref name="Oxford English Dictionnary">[http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50012669?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=aryan&first=1&max_to_show=10 Oxford English Dictionnary:''' "Aryan from Sanskrit Arya 'Noble'"''']</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Iranistik|series=Hanbuch Der Orientalistik – Abeteilung – Der Nahe Und Der Mittlere Osten|volume=1|chapter=Old Iranian Literature|last=Gershevitch|first=I.|editor=|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=1968|isbn=90-04-00857-8|page=203}}: page 1</ref> The name ''Iran'' is from ''Aryānām''; lit: "[Land] of the [[Name of Iran|Aryans]]".<ref name="Farsinet">[http://www.farsinet.com/farsi/ "Farsi-Persian language"] — Farsi.net . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref><ref name = "1911 Encyclopedia"/> The old [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] term ''Arya'', per [[Paul Thieme|Thieme]] meaning "hospitable", is believed to have been one of the self-referential terms used by the Aryans, at least in the areas populated by Aryans who migrated south from [[Central Asia]]. Another meaning for Aryan is noble. In the late part of the [[Avesta]] (Vendidad 1), one of their homelands was referred to as ''[[Airyanem Vaejah]]''. The homeland varied in its geographic range, the area around [[Herat]] ([[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s view) and even the entire expanse of the [[Iranian plateau]] ([[Strabo]]'s designation).<ref name="1911 Encyclopedia">{{cite web|url=http://58.1911encyclopedia.org/I/IR/IRAN.htm |title=Article in 1911 Britannica|publisher=58.1911encyclopedia.org|accessdate=2009-06-21}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

The academic usage of the term ''Iranian'' is distinct from the state of [[Iran]] and its various citizens (who are all Iranian by nationality and thus popularly referred to as ''Iranians'') in the same way that ''Germanic people'' is distinct from ''[[Germans]]''. Many citizens of Iran are not necessarily "Iranian people" by virtue of not being speakers of Iranian languages.
Unlike the various terms connected with the Aryan arya- in Old Indian, the Old Iranian term has solely an ethnic meaning<ref>G. Gnoli, "Iranian Identity as a Historical Problem: the Beginnings of a National Awareness under the Achaemenians," in The East and the Meaning of History. International Conference (23–27 November 1992), Roma, 1994, pp. 147–67. {{cite web |url=http://www.google.com/search?q=Emile+Benveniste+is+thus+quite+right+to+assert+that%2C+unlike+the+various+terms+connected+with+the+Aryan+arya-+in+Old+Indian%2C+the+Old+Iranian+arya-+is+documented+solely+as+an+ethnic&tbs=bks%3A1&tbo=1 |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}</ref> and there can be no doubt about the ethnic value of Old Iran. arya (Benveniste, 1969, I, pp. 369 f.; Szemerényi; Kellens).<ref name="iranica.com">G. Gnoli, "Iranian Identity ii. Pre-Islamic Period" in Encyclopedia Iranica. Online accessed in 2010 at {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-ii-pre-islamic-period |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}</ref>

The name Arya lives in the ethnic names like Alan, New Persian: Iran, Ossetian: Ir and Iron.<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt">R. Schmitt, "Aryans" in Encyclopedia Iranica:Excerpt:"The name "Aryan" (OInd. āˊrya-, Ir. *arya- [with short a-], in Old Pers. ariya-, Av. airiia-, etc.) is the self designation of the peoples of Ancient Iran (as well as India) who spoke Aryan languages, in contrast to the "non-Aryan" peoples of those "Aryan" countries (cf. OInd. an-āˊrya-, Av. an-airiia-, etc.), and lives on in ethnic names like Alan (Lat. Alani, NPers. Īrān, Oss. Ir and Iron.". Also accessed online: {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aryans |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}} in May, 2010</ref><ref name="Language, Gherardo Gnoli 2002">The "Aryan" Language, Gherardo Gnoli, Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, Roma, 2002.</ref><ref name="Bailey">H. W. Bailey, "Arya" in Encyclopedia Iranica. Excerpt: "ARYA an ethnic epithet in the Achaemenid inscriptions and in the Zoroastrian Avestan tradition. {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arya-an-ethnic-epithet-in-the-achaemenid-inscriptions-and-in-the-zoroastrian-avestan-tradition |title=Arya an ethnic epithet in the Achaemenid inscriptions and in the Zoroastrian Avestan tradition |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}} Also accessed online in May, 2010.</ref><ref name="Bailey"/><ref name="iranica1">D. N. Mackenzie, "Ērān, Ērānšahr" in Encyclopedia Iranica. {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-eransah |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=2010}}</ref><ref name="Dalby, Andrew 2004">Dalby, Andrew (2004), Dictionary of Languages, Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-7683-1</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/er-er-mazdesn |title=ēr, ēr mazdēsn |author=G. Gnoli |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref> The name Iran has been in usage since [[Sassanid]] times.<ref name="iranica1"/><ref name="Dalby, Andrew 2004"/>

The [[Avesta]] clearly uses airya as an ethnic name (Vd. 1; Yt. 13.143-44, etc.), where it appears in expressions such as airyāfi; daiŋˊhāvō "Iranian lands, peoples," airyō.šayanəm "land inhabited by Iranians," and airyanəm vaējō vaŋhuyāfi; dāityayāfi; "Iranian stretch of the good Dāityā," the river Oxus, the modern Āmū Daryā.<ref name="iranica.com"/>

The term "Ariya" appears in the royal Old Persian inscriptions in three different contexts: 1) As the name of the language of the Old Persian version of the inscription of [[Darius the Great]] in [[Behistun Inscription|Behistun]]; 2) as the ethnic background of [[Darius the Great|Darius]] in inscriptions at Naqsh-e-Rostam and Susa (Dna, Dse) and [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]] in the inscription from Persepolis (Xph) and 3) as the definition of the God of Iranian people, [[Ahura Mazda|Ahuramazda]], in the Elamite version of the Behistun inscription.<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt"/><ref name="Bailey"/> For example in the Dna and Dse Darius and Xerxes describe themselves as "An Achaemenian, A Persian son of a Persian and an Aryan, of Aryan stock".<ref name="ReferenceA">R. G. Kent. Old Persian. Grammer, texts, lexicon. 2nd ed., New Haven, Conn.</ref> Although Darius the Great called his language the Iranian language,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> modern scholars refer to it as [[Old Persian]]<ref name="ReferenceA"/> because it is the ancestor of modern [[Persian language]].<ref>Professor Gilbert Lazard: The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran in Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language" in Frye, R. N., ''The Cambridge History of Iran'', Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

The Old Persian and Avestan evidence is confirmed by the Greek sources".<ref name="iranica.com"/> Herodotus in his Histories remarks about the Iranian Medes that: "These Medes were called anciently by all people Arians; " (7.62).<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt"/><ref name="Bailey"/> In [[Armenians|Armenian]] sources, the Parthians, Medes and Persians are collectively referred to as Iranians.<ref>R.W. Thomson. History of Armenians by Moses Khorenat’si. Harvard University Press, 1978. Pg 118, pg 166</ref> Eudemus of Rhodes apud Damascius (Dubitationes et solutiones in Platonis Parmenidem 125 bis) refers to "the Magi and all those of Iranian (áreion) lineage"; Diodorus Siculus (1.94.2) considers Zoroaster (Zathraustēs) as one of the Arianoi.<ref name="iranica.com"/>

[[Strabo]], in his "Geography", mentions the unity of [[Medes]], Persians, Bactrians and [[Sogdians]]:<ref name="Language, Gherardo Gnoli 2002"/>{{quotation|The name of'' [[Ariana]] ''is further extended to a part of [[Persia]] and of Media, as also to the [[Bactrians]] and [[Sogdians]] on the north; for these speak approximately the same language, with but slight variations.|Geography, 15.8}}

The trilingual inscription erected by Shapur's command gives a more clear description. The languages used are [[Parthian language|Parthian]], [[Middle Persian]] and Greek. In Greek, the inscription says: "ego ... tou Arianon ethnous despotes eimi"("I am lord of the kingdom (Gk. nation) of the Aryans") which translates to "I am the king of the Iranian people". In the Middle Persian, Shapour states: "ērānšahr xwadāy hēm" and in Parthian he states: "aryānšahr xwadāy ahēm".<ref name="iranica1"/><ref>MacKenzie D.N. Corpus inscriptionum Iranicarum Part. 2., inscription of the Seleucid and Parthian periods of Eastern Iran and Central Asia. Vol. 2. Parthian, London, P. Lund, Humphries 1976–2001</ref>

The [[Bactrian language]] (a Middle Iranian language) inscription of [[Kanishka]] the founder of the [[Kushan empire]] at Rabatak, which was discovered in 1993 in an unexcavated site in the Afghanistan province of Baghlan, clearly refers to this Eastern Iranian language as Arya.<ref>N. Sims-Williams, "Further notes on the Bactrian inscription of Rabatak, with the Appendix on the name of Kujula Kadphises and VimTatku in Chinese". Proceedings of the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies (Cambridge, September 1995). Part 1: Old and Middle Iranian<Studies, N. Sims-Williams, ed. Wiesbaden, pp 79-92</ref><ref>The "Aryan" Language, Gherardo Gnoli, Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, Roma, 2002</ref>
In the post-Islamic era, one can still see a clear usage of the term Iran in the work of the 10th-century historian [[Hamzeh Isfahani]]. In his book ''the history of Prophets and Kings'' writes: "Aryan which is also called Pars ([[Persia]]) is in the middle of these countries and these six countries surround it because the South East is in the hands China, the North of the Turks, the middle South is India, the middle North is Rome, and the South West and the North West is the [[Sudan]] and Berber lands".<ref>Hamza Isfahani, Tarikh Payaambaraan o Shaahaan, translated by Jaf'ar Shu'ar,Tehran: Intishaaraat Amir Kabir, 1988.</ref> All this evidence shows that the name arya "Iranian" was a collective definition, denoting peoples (Geiger, pp. 167 f.; Schmitt, 1978, p. 31) who were aware of belonging to the one ethnic stock, speaking a common language, and having a religious tradition that centered on the cult of [[Ahura Mazda|Ahura Mazdā]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-ii-pre-islamic-period |title=Iranian Identity ii. Pre-Islamic Period |author=G. Gnoli |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate= 2010}}</ref>

== History and settlement ==
{{main|List of Ancient Iranian peoples}}

=== Roots ===
{{main|Indo-Iranians}}
[[File:BMAC.png|thumb|The extent of the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex|BMAC]] (according to the [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]]).]]

The language referred to as Proto-Indo-European (PIE): is ancestral to the Celtic, Italic (including Romance), Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Albanian, Armernian, Greek, and Tocharian languages.

'There is an agreement that the PIE community split into two major groups from wherever its homeland was situated (its location is unknown), and whenever the timing of its dispersal (also unknown). One headed west for Europe and became speakers of Indo-European (all the languages of modern Europe save for Basque, Hungarian, and Finnish) while others headed east for Eurasia to become Indo-Iranians. The Indo-Iranians were a community that spoke a common language prior to their branching off into the Iranian and Indo-Aryan languages. Iranian refers to the languages of Iran (Iranian), Pakistan (Balochi and Pashto), Afghanistan (Pashto and Dari), and Tadjikistan (Tajiki) and Indo-Aryan, Sanskrit, Urdu and its many related languages.' – (Carl C. Lamberg-Karlovsky: Case of the Bronze Age)

By the early 1st millennium, [[Ancient Iranian peoples]] such as [[Medes]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Bactria]]ns, [[Parthia]]ns and Scythians populated the [[Iranian plateau]], and other Scythian tribes, along with [[Cimmerians]], [[Sarmatians]] and [[Alans]] populated the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]]. The [[Saka]], [[Scythia]]n, tribes spread as far west as the [[Balkans]] and as far east as [[Xinjiang]]. Scythians as well formed the Indo-Scythian Empire, and Bactrians formed a Greco-Bactrian Kingdom founded by Diodotus I, the satrap of Bactria. The [[Kushan]] Empire, with Bactrian roots/connections, once controlled much of [[Pakistan]], some of [[Afghanistan]] and Tajikistan. The Kushan elite (who the Chinese called the [[Yuezhi]]) were either a Tocharian-speaking (another Indo-European branch) people or an Eastern Iranian language-speaking people.

The division into an "[[Eastern Iranian|Eastern]]" and a "[[Western Iranian|Western]]" group by the early 1st millennium is visible in [[Avestan language|Avestan]] vs. [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]], the two oldest known Iranian languages. The Old Avestan texts known as the [[Gathas]] are believed to have been composed by [[Zoroaster]], the founder of [[Zoroastrianism]], with the [[Yaz culture]] (c. 1500–1100 BCE) as a candidate for the development of [[Eastern Iranian]] culture.

Old Persian appears to have been established in written form by 519 BCE, following the creation of the [[Old Persian script]], inspired by the [[cuneiform script]] of the Assyrians.<ref name="Lubotsky">[http://www.ieed.nl/lubotsky/pdf/avestan%20xvarnah.pdf "Avestan xᵛarǝnah-, etymology and concept by Alexander Lubotsky"] — Sprache und Kultur. Akten der X. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, 22.-28. September 1996, ed. W. Meid, Innsbruck (IBS) 1998, 479–488. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

==== Western Iranian peoples ====
[[File:Scythia-Parthia 100 BC.png|thumb|Geographical extent of Iranian influence in the 1st century BCE. The [[Parthia]]n Empire (mostly [[Western Iranian languages|Western Iranian]]) is shown in red, other areas, dominated by [[Scythia]] ([[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian]]), in orange.]]
[[File:Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|[[Achaemenid empire]] at its greatest extent]]
[[File:SurenaImage.jpg|thumb|upright|<center>[[Statue, National Museum of Iran 2401|Bronze Statue of a Parthian nobleman]], National Museum of Iran.]]
{{Indo-European topics}}
During the 1st centuries of the first millennium BCE, the ancient Persians established themselves in the western portion of the Iranian plateau and appear to have interacted considerably with the Elamites and Babylonians, while the Medes also entered in contact with the [[Ancient Assyria|Assyrians]].<ref>M. Liverani, "The Medes at Esarhaddon's Court", in ''Journal of Cuneiform Studies'' 47 (1995), pp. 57–62.</ref> Remnants of the [[Median language]] and [[Old Persian]] show their common Proto-Iranian roots, emphasized in Strabo and Herodotus' description of their languages as very similar to the languages spoken by the Bactrians and [[Sogdiana|Soghdians]] in the east.<ref name="1911 Encyclopedia"/><ref name="Geo Strabo">[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2A1*.html "The Geography of Strabo"] — University of Chicago. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Following the establishment of the [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid Empire]], the Persian language (referred to as "''Farsi''" in Persian) spread from Pars or [[Fars Province]] to various regions of the Empire, with the modern dialects of Iran, Afghanistan (also known as [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]]) and Central-Asia (known as [[Tajik language|Tajiki]]) descending from Old Persian.

Old Persian is attested in the [[Behistun Inscription]] (c. 519 BCE), recording a proclamation by [[Darius the Great]]. In southwestern Iran, the [[Achaemenid]] kings usually wrote their inscriptions in trilingual form ([[Elamite language|Elamite]], [[Akkadian language|Babylonian]] and [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]])<ref>R. G. Kent, ''Old Persian: Grammar, texts and lexicon''.</ref> while elsewhere other languages were used. The administrative languages were Elamite in the early period, and later [[Imperial Aramaic]].<ref>R. Hallock (1969), ''Persepolis Fortification Tablets''; A. L. Driver (1954), ''Aramaic Documents of the V Century BC''.</ref>

The early inhabitants of the Achaemenid Empire appear to have adopted the religion of [[Zoroastrianism]].<ref name="Edinburgh">[http://www.cogsci.ed.ac.uk/~siamakr/Kurdish/iran-lang.html "Kurdish: An Indo-European Language By Siamak Rezaei Durroei"]{{dead link|date=July 2010}} — University of Edinburgh, School of Informatics. . Retrieved 4 June 2006. {{Wayback|url=http://www.cogsci.ed.ac.uk/~siamakr/Kurdish/iran-lang.html|date =20060617211537|bot=DASHBot}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref> The [[Baloch people|Baloch]] who speak a west Iranian language relate an oral tradition regarding their migration from [[Aleppo]], [[Syria]] around the year 1000 CE, whereas linguistic evidence links [[Balochi language|Balochi]] to [[Kurmanji]], [[Soranî]], [[Gorani language|Gorani]] and [[Zazaki language|Zazaki]].<ref name="Rezakhani">[http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html "The Iranian Language Family, Khodadad Rezakhani"] — Iranologie. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

==== Eastern Iranian peoples ====
While the Iranian tribes of the south are better known through their texts and modern counterparts, the tribes which remained largely in the vast Eurasian expanse are known through the references made to them by the ancient Greeks, Persians, [[Indo-Aryans]] as well as by archaeological finds. Many ancient [[Sanskrit]] texts make references to tribes like [[Sakas]], [[Paradas]], [[Kambojas]], [[Bahlikas]], [[Uttaramadra]]s, [[Madra]]s, [[Loha (tribe)|Loha]]s, [[Parama Kambojas]], [[Rishikas]], [[Tukharas]] or [[Tusharas]] etc. and locate them in the ([[Uttarapatha]]) (north-west) division, in [[Central Asia]], around [[Hindukush]] range in northern [[Pakistan]]. The [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] chronicler, [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) makes references to a nomadic people, the [[Scythia]]ns; he describes as having dwelt in what is today southern [[Russia]].

It is believed that these Scythians were conquered by their eastern cousins, the [[Sarmatians]], who are mentioned by [[Strabo]] as the dominant tribe which controlled the southern Russian steppe in the 1st millennium CE. These Sarmatians were also known to the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who conquered the western tribes in the Balkans and sent Sarmatian conscripts, as part of Roman legions, as far west as [[Roman Britain]].

The Sarmatians of the east became the [[Alans]], who also ventured far and wide, with a branch ending up in [[Western Europe]] and [[North Africa]], as they accompanied the Germanic [[Vandals]] during their migrations. The modern [[Ossetians]] are believed to be the sole direct descendants of the Alans, as other remnants of the Alans disappeared following Germanic, [[Huns|Hunnic]] and ultimately Slavic migrations and invasions.<ref name="ISBN">A History of Russia by Nicholas Riasanovsky, pp. 11–18, Russia before the Russians, ISBN 0-19-515394-4 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>
Another group of Alans allied with [[Goth]]s to defeat the Romans and ultimately settled in what is now called Catalonia (Goth-Alania).<ref>The Sarmatians: 600 BC-AD 450 (Men-at-Arms) by Richard Brzezinski and Gerry Embleton, Aug 19, 2002</ref>
[[File:AzesIITriratna.jpg|thumb|Silver coin of the [[Indo-Scythian]] king [[Azes II]] (r.c. 35–12 BCE). Buddhist [[triratna]] symbol in the left field on the reverse.]]
[[File:PazyrikHorseman.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Scythia]]n Horseman, ''[[Pazyryk culture|Pazyryk]]'' felt artifact, c. 300 BCE]]
Some of the Saka-Scythian tribes in Central Asia would later move further southeast and invade the [[Iranian plateau]], large sections of present day [[Afghanistan]] and finally deep into present day [[Pakistan]] (see [[Indo-Scythians]]). Another Iranian tribe related to the Saka-Scythians were the [[Parni]] in Central Asia, and who later become indistinguishable from the [[Parthians]], speakers of a northwest-Iranian language. Many Iranian tribes, including the [[Khwarazm]]ians, [[Massagetae]] and [[Sogdiana|Sogdians]], were assimilated and/or displaced in Central Asia by the migrations of [[Turkic people|Turkic]] tribes emanating out of Xinjiang and Siberia.<ref name="Kimball">[http://www.thirteen.org/pressroom/release.php?get=1272 "Jeannine Davis-Kimball, Archaeologist"] — Thirteen WNET New York. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

The most dominant surviving Eastern Iranian peoples are represented by the [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]], whose origins are generally believed to be from the [[Sulaiman Mountains]],{{cn|date=July 2012}} from which they began to spread until they reached as far west as [[Herat]], north to areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan;{{cn|date=July 2012}} and as eastward towards the [[Indus River|Indus]]. The [[Pashto language]] shows affinities to the [[Avestan]] and [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]]{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}}.

The modern [[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]] in southern Xinjiang and the [[Ossetians]] of the Caucasus are remnants of the various Saka tribes. The modern [[Ossetians]] claim{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} to be the descendants of the Alano-Sarmatians and their claims are supported by their Northeast Iranian language, while culturally the Ossetians resemble their Caucasian neighbors, the [[Kabard]]ians and [[Circassians]].<ref name="ISBN">From Scythia to Camelot by Littleton and Malcor, pp. 40–43, ISBN 0-8153-3566-0 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Various extinct Iranian people existed in the eastern Caucasus, including the [[Ancient Azari language|Azaris]], while some Iranian people remain in the region, including the [[Talysh people|Talysh]]<ref name="Talysh">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tly "Report for Talysh"] — Ethnologue. Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> and the [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats]]<ref name="Tats">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ttt "Report for Tats"] — Ethnologue. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> (including the [[Mountain Jews|Judeo-Tats]],<ref name="Judeo-Tat">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=jdt "Report for Judeo-Tats"] — Ethnologue. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> who have relocated to [[Israel]]), found in Azerbaijan and as far north as the Russian republic of [[Dagestan]]. A remnant of the Sogdians is found in the Yaghnobi speaking population in parts of the Zeravshan valley in Tajikistan.

=== Later developments ===

[[File:Salahaddin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Statue of Saladin]] "king of Egypt" near the [[Citadel of Damascus]]]]
Starting with the reign of [[Umar|Omar]] in 634 CE, [[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s began a conquest of the Iranian plateau. The Arabs conquered the [[Sassanid Empire]] of the Persians and seized much of the [[Byzantine Empire]] populated by the [[Kurds]] and others. Ultimately, the various Iranian people, including the Persians, Azaries, Kurds, Baluchis and Pashtuns, converted to [[Islam]]. The Iranian people would later split along sectarian lines as the Persians (and later the [[Hazara people|Hazara]]) adopted the [[SHIA Islam|Shi'a]] sect. As ancient tribes and identities changed, so did the Iranian people, many of whom assimilated foreign cultures and people.<ref>The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates by Hugh Kennedy, ISBN 0-582-40525-4 (retrieved 04 June 2006), p. 135</ref>

Later, during the 2nd millennium CE, the Iranian people would play a prominent role during the age of Islamic expansion and empire. [[Saladin]], a noted adversary of the [[Crusade]]rs, was an ethnic [[Kurd]], while various empires centered in Iran (including the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]]) re-established a modern dialect of Persian as the official language spoken throughout much of what is today Iran and adjacent parts of Central Asia. Iranian influence spread to the [[Ottoman Empire]], where Persian was often spoken at court, as well to the court of the [[Mughal Empire]]. All of the major Iranian people reasserted their use of Iranian languages following the decline of Arab rule, but would not begin to form modern [[nationalism|national]] identities until the 19th and early 20th centuries (just as Germans and Italians were beginning to formulate national identities of their own).

The following either partially descend from Iranian people or are sometimes regarded as possible descendants of ancient Iranian people:
{{Further|Turkification|Slavicisation|Sarmatism}}
* [[Turkic languages|Turkic-speakers:]]
** [[Azerbaijani people|Azeris]]: Although [[Azerbaijani people|Azeris]] speak a Turkic language (modern [[Azerbaijani language]]), they are believed to be primarily descendants of ancient Iranians.<ref>Minorsky, V.; Minorsky, V. "(Azarbaijan). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http:/iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey |title=People of Iran |author=R. N. Frye |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http:/iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-i-lands-of-iran |title=Lands of Iran |author=X.D. Planhol |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref> and [[Turkish people|Turks]]. Thus, due to their historical ties with various ancient Iranians, as well as their cultural ties to Persians,<ref name="encyclopedia1">[http://www.bartleby.com/65/az/Azerbaij.html The Columbia Encyclopedia: Azerbaijan]{{dead link|date=June 2009}}</ref> the Azeris are often associated with the Iranian people (see [[Azerbaijani people#Origins|Origin of Azerbaijani people]] and the [[Iranian theory regarding the origin of the Azerbaijanis]] for more details).<ref name="jurabchi2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranian.com/Opinion/2002/August/Azeri/index.html |title=Who are the Azeris? by Aylinah Jurabchi |publisher=The Iranian |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref>
** [[Uzbeks]]: The modern Uzbek people are believed to have both Iranian and Turkic ancestry. ''"Uzbek"'' and ''"Tajik"'' are modern designations given to the culturally homogeneous, sedentary population of Central Asia. The local ancestors of both groups – the Turkic-speaking Uzbeks and the Iranian-speaking Tajiks – were known as ''"[[Sart]]s"'' (''"sedentary merchants"'') prior to the [[Russian Empire|Russian conquest]] of Central Asia, while ''"Uzbek"'' or ''"Turk"'' were the names given to the nomadic and semi-nomadic populations of the area. Still today, modern Uzbeks and Tajiks are known as ''"Sarts"'' to their [[Turkic people|Turkic neighbours]], the [[Kazakhs]] and the [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]]. The ancient [[Soghdians]] and [[Bactrians]] are among their ancestors. Culturally, the Uzbeks are closer to their sedentary Iranian-speaking neighbours rather than to their nomadic and semi-nomadic Turkic neighbours. Some Uzbek scholars, i.e. Ahmadov and Askarov, favour the ''Iranian origin'' theory.<ref name="zbekiston1994">Askarov, A. & B.Ahmadov, O'zbek Xalqning Kilib Chiqishi Torixi. O'zbekiston Ovozi, 20 January 1994.</ref>
**The native name of [[Yakuts]] is [[Yakuts|Sakha]], very similar to the [[Sakkas]], proposing Yakuts to be related of descendants of Scythians, specifically Sakkahs.
**[[Volga Tatars]]Many are mixed from Volga bulgars. The reasons are same with Bulgarians, and the putative claim on the iranian origin of bulgars.
* [[South Slavs|Slavic-speakers]]:
** A few linguists suggest that the names of the [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] people, the [[Serbs]] and [[Croats]] are of Iranian origin. Those who entertain such a connection propose that the Sarmatian ''Serboi'' and ''Horouthos'' tribes might have migrated from the Eurasian steppe lands to eastern Europe, and assimilated with the numerically superior Slavs, passing on their name. Iranian-speaking people did inhabit parts of the Balkans in late classical times, and would have been encountered by the Slavs. However, direct linguistic, historical or archaeological proof for such a theory is lacking. (See also: [[Theories on the origin of Serbs]] and [[Theories on the origin of Croats]])
** Some modern Bulgarian historians claim that the [[Bulgars]] were of Iranian origin and that they migrated to Europe from the region of today's northern Afghanistan – Hindukush mountains, from the [[Kingdom of Balhara]].<ref>[http://sitemaker.umich.edu/mladjov/files/bulgarian_rulers.pdf Sitemaker.umich.edu]</ref><ref>[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3236.htm State.gov]</ref><ref>[http://en.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/8511032 En.academic.ru]</ref><ref name="thearchaeologicalbox.com">[http://thearchaeologicalbox.com/en/news/dna-analysis-reveals-pamir-origin-bulgarians Thearchaeilogicalbox.com]</ref> Their claims are based on medieval Armenian sources, the writings of ancient historians ("Ashharatsuyts" by Anania Shirakatsi; Agathias of Myrina, Theophylact Simocatta, Michael the Syrian) archaeological findings in modern Bulgaria, the similarities with Iranian languages (place names, people names, and Iranian words in modern Bulgarian),<ref>[http://groznijat.tripod.com/b_lang/bl_a_v.htm Groznijat.tripod.com]</ref> similarities with culture (e.g.: some buildings in [[Pliska]] were built in a Zoroastrian fashion; similarities in traditional music, dancing and carpet making) and the very close similarity of the DNA of Pamirian/Iranian people with that of modern Bulgarians<ref name="thearchaeologicalbox.com"/><ref>[http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=117006 Novinite.com]</ref> After their arrival on Balkans, the Bulgars subjugated and then formed an allience with the local Slavs and formed the Bulgarian nation.
***Example:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[english language|english]] !! [[persian language|persian]] !! [[zazaki]] !! [[Kurdish_language|(Kurdish) Kurmanji / Sorani]] !! [[bulgarian language|bulgarian]]
|-
| i know || midânam || ez dizono || ez dizanim /min azanim || az znam
|-
| you know || midâni || ti dizana || tu dizanî / to azanit|| ti znayş
|-
| i don't know || nemidânam || ez nizon || ez nizanim / min nazanim || az neznam
|-
| you don't know || nemidâni || ti nizona || tu nizanî / to nazanit || ti niznayş
|-
| a dog || sag || kûtik || kûtchik / sag || kutche (kûçe)
|}
*[[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan speakers]]
**Many Indo-Aryans may have Iranian admixture in them, due to Indo-Aryan clans such as Jats and Rajputs being descended from [[Scythians]]. See [[Indo-Scythians]].
*[[Uralic language|Uralic speakers]]
**Many [[Volga Finns]] may be of part Iranian admixture due to [[Bulgars|Bulgar]] invasion of the Volga basin, if they (Bulgars) were Iranian people.
**[[Hungarians]] have long prided themselves as Scythians in the past, [[Scythians]] being an Iranian people, prior to the Finno-Ugric/Uralic theory. It's possible they've undergone a language shift. In a Magyar folkore suggests Iranian admixture among Hungarian, when Hunor and Magor marry princesses who were [[Alans]], another Iranian people. [[Jassic people]] of Hungary are of [[Ossetia]]n origin. The [[Szekely]]<ref>pronounced approximately ''say-kay''</ref> are possibly of Iranian origin, as their name is similar to [[Sakka]].
* [[Swahili language|Swahili-speakers:]]
** [[Shirazi people|Shirazis]]:The '''Shirazi''' are a sub-group of the [[Swahili people]]<ref>[[Kilwa chronicle]]</ref> living on the [[Swahili Coast]] of [[East Africa]], especially on the islands of [[Zanzibar]], [[Pemba Island|Pemba]] and [[Comoros]].<ref>[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/tethnic.htm Tanzania Ethnic Groups], East Africa Living Encyclopedia, accessed 28 June 2010</ref> Local traditions about their origin claim they are descended from merchant princes from [[Shiraz]] in [[Persia]] who settled along the [[Swahili Coast]].

== Demographics ==
{{See also|Iranian plateau|Demographics of Iran|Ethnic minorities in Iran|Demographics of Afghanistan|Demographics of Tajikistan|Iraqi people|Demographics of Iraq|Kurdistan|Ossetia}}
{{Further|Iranian citizens abroad|Kurdish diaspora|}}
There are an estimated 150 to 200 million native speakers of Iranian languages, the five major groups of [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Lurs]], [[Kurds]], [[Baloch people|Baloch]], and [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]] accounting for about 90% of this number.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gordon|first=Raymond G., Jr. (ed.)|title=Report for Iranian languages|journal=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|year=2005|edition=Fifteenth|location=Dallas|publisher=SIL International|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90019}}</ref> Currently, most of these Iranian peoples live in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]] (mainly [[Ossetia]], other parts of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and [[Azerbaijan]]), [[Iraqi Kurdistan]] and [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] majority populated areas of [[Turkey]], [[Iran]] and [[Syria]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]].

Due to recent migrations, there are also large communities of speakers of [[Iranian languages]] in [[Europe]], the [[Americas]], and [[Israel]].

'''The following is a list of peoples that speak Iranian languages with the respective groups's core areas of settlements and their estimated sizes (in millions):'''
{| class="wikitable sortable" id="table1"
|-
! People
! region
! population
|-
| [[Persian-speaking peoples]]
:* [[Aymāq|Aimaqs]]
:* [[Hazara people|Hazara]]
:* [[Huwala]]
:* [[Persian people|Iranian Persians]]
:**[[Persians in Bahrain|Bahraini Persians]]
:* [[Tajik people|Tajiks (Central Asian Persians)]]
:**[[Farsiwan]]
:* [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats of the Caucasus]]
| Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Iraq, Bahrain
| <div style="display: none;">60</div> 72–85
|-
| [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]]
:* [[Durrani]]
:* [[Ghilzai]]
:* [[Wazir (tribe)|Wazir]]
:* [[Yusufzai]]
| Pakistan, Afghanistan
| <div style="display: none;">32</div> 35–40
|-
| [[Kurdish people|Kurds]]
:* [[Kalhor (tribe)|Kalhurs]]
:* [[Lak people (Iran)|Laks]]<ref name="Hamzehʼee, M. Reza 1990">Hamzehʼee, M. Reza. The Yaresan: a sociological, historical and religio-historical study of a Kurdish community, 1990.</ref>
:* [[Yazidi]]s
:* [[Zaza people|Zaza]]
| Turkey, Iran, Iraqi Kurdistan, Syria
| <div style="display: none;">32</div> 30–45
|-
| [[Baloch people|Baluchis]]
| Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan
| <div style="display: none;">15</div> 15–20
|-
| [[Gilaki people|Gilakis]] & [[Mazandarani people|Mazanderanis]]
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">07</div> 5–10
|-
| [[Lurs]] & [[Bakhtiari people|Bakhtiaris]]
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">026</div> 6
|-
| [[Lak people (Iran)|Laks]]<ref name="Hamzehʼee, M. Reza 1990"/>
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">010</div> 0.5
|-
| [[Pamiri people]]
:* [[Tajiks of Xinjiang|Sariqoli]]
:* [[Shughni language|Shughni]]
:* [[Tajiks of China]]
:* [[Wakhi (ethnic group)|Wakhi]]
| Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China (Xinjiang), Pakistan
| <div style="display: none;">009</div> 0.9
|-
| [[Talysh people|Talysh]]
:* [[Tat people (Iran)|Tats of Iran]]
| Azerbaijan, Iran
| <div style="display: none;">009</div> 0.5
|-
| [[Ossetians]]
:* [[Digor people|Digor]]
:* [[Iron people|Iron]]
:* [[Jasz people|Jasz]]
| South Ossetia, Georgia,<br />Russia (North Ossetia), Hungary
| <div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.7
|-
| [[Yaghnobi people|Yaghnobi]]
| Uzbekistan and Tajikistan ([[Zerafshan River|Zerafshan region]])
|<div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.025
|-
| [[Kumzari]]
| Oman ([[Musandam]])
|<div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.021
|}

== Diversity ==

It is largely through linguistic similarities that the Iranian people have been linked, as many non-Iranian people have adopted Iranian languages and cultures. However, other common traits have been identified as well, for example, a stream of common historical events have often linked the southern Iranian people, including Hellenistic conquests, the various empires based in Persia, Arab Caliphates and Turkic invasions.

== Culture ==
{{See also|Proto-Indo-European society|Indo-Iranian mythology|Iranian philosophy}}
Like other Indo-Europeans, the early Iranians practiced ritual sacrifice, had a social hierarchy consisting of warriors, clerics and farmers and poetic hymns and sagas to recount their deeds.<ref name="ISBNMallory">''In Search of the Indo-Europeans'', by J.P. Mallory, p. 112–127, ISBN 0-500-27616-1 . Retrieved 10 June 2006.</ref>

Following the Iranian split from the Indo-Iranians, the Iranians developed an increasingly distinct culture. Various common traits can be discerned among the Iranian people. For example, the social event [[Norouz]] is an Iranian festival that is practiced by nearly all of the Iranian people as well as others in the region. Its origins are traced to [[Zoroastrianism]] and pre-historic times.

Some Iranian cultures exhibit traits that are unique unto themselves. The Pashtuns adhere to a code of honor and culture known as [[Pashtunwali]], which has a similar counterpart among the [[Baloch people|Baloch]], called Mayar, that is more hierarchical.<ref name="Baloch">[http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9802.html "Pakistan — Baloch"] — Library of Congress Country Studies . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{main|Iranian religions}}{{See also|Christianity in Iran|Islam in Iran|Islam in Tajikistan|Islam in Afghanistan}}
The early Iranian people worshipped various deities found throughout other cultures where [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] immigrants established themselves.<ref name="Iranologie">[http://www.iranologie.com/history/history2.html "History of Iran-Chapter 2 Indo-Europeans and Indo-Iranians"] — Iranologie . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> The earliest major religion of the Iranian people was [[Zoroastrianism]], which spread to nearly all of the Iranian people living in the Iranian plateau. Other religions that had their origins in the Iranian world were [[Mithraism]], [[Manichaeism]], and [[Mazdakism]], among others.
[[File:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg|thumb|[[Mazari Sharif]]'s [[Shrine of Hazrat Ali|Blue Mosque]] in [[Afghanistan]] is a structure of cobalt blue and turquoise minarets, attracting visitors and pilgrims from all over the world. Many such Muslim [[Iranian architecture|architectural]] monuments can be attributed to the efforts of the Iranian people who are predominantly followers of Islam today.]]
Modern speakers of Iranian languages mainly follow [[Islam]]. Some follow [[Persian Jews|Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and the [[Bahá'í Faith]], with an unknown number showing no religious affiliation. Overall the numbers of Sunni and Shia among the Iranian people are equally distributed. Most Kurds, Tajiks, Pashtuns, and Baluch are [[Sunni]] Muslims, while the remainder are mainly [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a]], comprising mostly [[Persian people|Persians]] in Iran, and [[Hazaras]] in Afghanistan. [[Zazas]] in [[Turkey]] are largely [[Alevi]], while the [[Pamiri people]]s in [[Tajikistan]] and [[China]] are nearly all [[Ismaili]]. The Christian community is mainly represented by the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], followed by the [[Russian Orthodox]] and [[Georgian Orthodox]] Ossetians followed by [[Nestorian Church|Nestorians]]. [[Judaism]] is followed mainly by [[Persian Jews]], [[Kurdish Jews]], [[Bukharian Jews]] (of Central Asia) and the [[Mountain Jews]] (of the Caucasus), most of whom are now found in [[Israel]]. The historical religion of the Persian Empire was Zoroastrianism and it still has a few thousand followers, mostly in Yazd and Kerman. They are known as the [[Parsi people|Parsis]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]], where many of them fled in historic times following the Arab conquest of Persia, or [[Zoroastrians in Iran]]. Another ancient religion is the [[Yazidi]] faith, followed by some Kurds in northern [[Iraq]], as well as the majority of the Kurds in [[Armenia]].

Elements of pre-Islamic [[Zoroastrian]] and [[shamanistic]] beliefs persist among some Islamized groups today, such as the [[Tajik people|Tajiks]], [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]]s and [[Pamiri people]]s.

=== Cultural assimilation ===
{{See also|Persianization|Persianate society|Turko-Persian tradition|Turco-Persian|Turkification|Islamic conquest of Persia|Persian Arab|Arabization}}

In matters relating to culture, the various [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking minorities of Iran (notably the [[Azerbaijani people]]) and Afghanistan ([[Uzbeks]] and [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]]) are often conversant in Iranian languages, in addition to their own Turkic languages and also have Iranian culture to the extent that the term ''[[Turko-Iranian (disambiguation)|Turko-Iranian]]'' can be applied.<ref>Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, edited by Robert Canfield, ISBN 0-521-52291-9 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> The usage applies to various circumstances that involve historic interaction, intermarriage, cultural assimilation, bilingualism and cultural overlap or commonalities.

Notable among this synthesis of Turko-Iranian culture are the Azeris, whose culture, religion and significant periods of history are linked to the Persians.<ref name="Belfer">[http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/publication.cfm?program=CSP&ctype=event_reports&item_id=50 "Azerbaijan-Iran Relations: Challenges and Prospects"] — Harvard University, Belfer Center, Caspian Studies Program . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Certain theories and genetic tests<ref name="Iran Cambridge Genetic Study">[http://www.isna.ir/Main/NewsView.aspx?ID=News-727489&Lang=P "Cambridge Genetic Study of Iran"] — ''ISNA (Iranian Students News Agency)'', 06-12-2006, news-code: 8503-06068 . Retrieved 9 June 2006.</ref> suggest that the Azeris are genetically more Iranian than Turkic.

== Genetics ==

{{cleanup|section|date=November 2010}}
{{Further|Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA)}}

Two [[Y-DNA]] [[haplogroups]] are supposed to be connected with Iranian peoples: [[Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)|J2]] and [[R1a1]].

R1 is more closely linked to Iranians, while R1b is linked to Europeans.

'''J2a:'''

[[Haplogroup]] J2 especially the clade J2a is frequently found among almost all groups of Iranian people. In comparison with the haplogroup [[R1a1]], J2 is not only restricted to geographically eastern and western Iranian populations, but also found among north-western and south-western Iranian populations such as the Bakhtiaris and Mazanderani,<ref>t [M. Regueiro et al. (2006), "Iran: Tricontinental Nexus for Y-Chromosome Driven Migration"]</ref><ref>Y haplogroup J in Iran by Alfred A. Aburto Jr. http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/GENEALOGY-DNA/2006-06/1151592332</ref> as well as geographically north-western Iranian [[Ossetians]].<ref>Nasidze, E. Y. S. Ling, D. Quinque et al., "Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Variation in the Caucasus," Annals of Human Genetics (2004) 68,205–221. http://www.eva.mpg.de/genetics/pdf/Caucasus_big_paper.pdf http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118745631/PDFSTART</ref> Despite its supposed origin in the fertile crescent, J2a is also found among Iranian populations in the east such as the [[Yaghnobi people|Yagnobi]] which are of [[Soghdian]] origin<ref>R. Spencer Wells et al., "The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity," PNAS (August 28, 2001), vol. 98, no. 18.</ref> as well as the [[Parsis]] of India.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1086/339929|pmc=447589|pmid= 11898125|title=Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan|year=2002|last1=Qamar|first1=Raheel|last2=Ayub|first2=Qasim|last3=Mohyuddin|first3=Aisha|last4=Helgason|first4=Agnar|last5=Mazhar|first5=Kehkashan|last6=Mansoor|first6=Atika|last7=Zerjal|first7=Tatiana|last8=Tyler-Smith|first8=Chris|last9=Mehdi|first9=S. Qasim|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=70|issue=5|pages=1107–24}}</ref> Beside the relatively high percentage among the Yagnobis in Central Asia, other Iranian populations tend to have a higher frequency of J2a when compared to neighboring Turkic populations.
The relatively strong presence of J2a among [[Ossetians]] as well as [[Yagnobis]] proves distant from the supposed [[Mesopotamian]] origin region of J2, are carriers of this Haplogroup.

In the [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] context, the occurrence of J2a in South Asia is limited to caste populations, with the highest frequencies found among northern areas of South Asia.<ref name="hpgl.stanford.edu">Sengupta, 2006. Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2006_v78_p202-221.pdf</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=1380230|pmid=16400607|year=2006|last1=Sengupta|first1=S|last2=Zhivotovsky|first2=LA|last3=King|first3=R|last4=Mehdi|first4=SQ|last5=Edmonds|first5=CA|last6=Chow|first6=CE|last7=Lin|first7=AA|last8=Mitra|first8=M|last9=Sil|first9=SK|title=Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists|volume=78|issue=2|pages=202–21|doi=10.1086/499411|journal=American journal of human genetics}}</ref> Compared with [[R1a1]], J2a shows a more conservative distribution, stronger limited to Indo-Iranian origin groups.<ref name="hpgl.stanford.edu"/>

'''R:'''

Many Haplotypes of Y-chromosomal Haplogroup R have been found throughout the Iranian Plateau, and it has been suggested that this Haplogroup may have had its origins in Iran. Cambridge University geneticist Toomas Kivisild has suggested : "Given the geographic spread and STR diversities of sister clades R1 and R2, the latter of which is restricted to India, Pakistan, Iran, and southern central Asia, it is possible that southern and western Asia were the source for R1 and R1a differentiation."(Kivisild et al. 2003). A similar conclusion was given by population geneticist Miguel Regueiro in the Journal of Human Heredity (Regueiro et al. Human Heredity vol. 61 (2006), pp. 132–143)

Genetic studies conducted by [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have revealed that Iranians have weak correlation with Near Eastern groups, and are closer to surrounding Indo-Europeans speaking populations.<ref name="Genes">[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v74n5/40813/40813.html "Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor"] — University of Chicago, American Journal of Human Genetics . Retrieved 4 June 2006. {{dead link|date=June 2010| bot=DASHBot}}</ref>
This study is partially supported by another one, based on Y-Chromosome haplogroups.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16770078 Iran: tricontinental nexus for Y-chromosome driven migration] – Regueiro M, Cadenas AM, Gayden T, Underhill PA, Herrera RJ, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, University Park, OE 304, Miami, FL 33199, USA, [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]</ref>

The findings of this study reveal many common genetic markers found among the Iranian people from the [[Tigris]] river of [[Iraq]] to the [[Indus River|Indus]] of [[Pakistan]]. This correlates with the [[Iranian languages]] spoken from the [[Caucasus]] to Kurdish areas in the [[Zagros]] region and eastwards to western Pakistan and Tajikistan and parts of Uzbekistan in [[Central Asia]]. The extensive gene flow is perhaps an indication of the spread of Iranian-speaking people, whose languages are now spoken mainly on the Iranian plateau and adjacent regions.

Another recent study of the genetic landscape of Iran was done by a team of [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]] geneticists led by Dr. Maziar Ashrafian Bonab (an Iranian Azarbaijani).<ref name="Dr. Bonab page">[http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/Research/balloux.htm "Maziar Ashrafian Bonab"]{{dead link|date=July 2010}} — ''Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge'' . Retrieved 9 June 2006. {{Wayback|url=http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/Research/balloux.htm|date =20060618211320|bot=DASHBot}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref> Bonab remarked that his group had done extensive [[DNA]] testing on different language groups, including [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and non Indo-European speakers, in Iran.<ref name="Iran Cambridge Genetic Study"/> The study found that the Azerbaijanis of Iran do not have a similar FSt and other genetic markers found in Anatolian and European Turks. However, the genetic Fst and other genetic traits like MRca and mtDNA of Iranian Azeris were identical to [[Persian people|Persians]] in Iran. Azaris of Iran also show very close genetic ties to Kurds.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=S. Farjadian1, A. Ghaderi |title=HLA class II similarities in Iranian Kurds and Azeris |journal=International Journal of Immunogenetics |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=457–463 |year=2007 |month=December|pmid= 18001303|doi=10.1111/j.1744-313X.2007.00723.x}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[List of Ancient Iranian peoples]]
* [[Airyanem Vaejah]]
* [[Ajam (Bahrain)]]
{{col-3}}
* [[Bulgars]]
* [[Caspian people]]
* [[Greater Iran]]
* [[Iranian plateau]]
{{col-3}}
* [[Indo-Iranians]]
* [[Turko-Iranian (disambiguation)|Turko-Iranian]]
* [[Iraqi people]]
{{col-end}}

== Literature and further reading ==
* Banuazizi, Ali and Weiner, Myron (eds.). ''The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East)'', Syracuse University Press (August, 1988). ISBN 0-8156-2448-4.
* Canfield, Robert (ed.). ''Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2002). ISBN 0-521-52291-9
* Curzon, R. ''The Iranian People of the Caucasus''. ISBN 0-7007-0649-6.
* Derakhshani, Jahanshah. ''Die Arier in den nahöstlichen Quellen des 3. und 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr.'', 2nd edition (1999). ISBN 964-90368-6-5.
* [[Richard Frye|Frye, Richard]], ''Greater Iran'', Mazda Publishers (2005). ISBN 1-56859-177-2.
* Frye, Richard. ''Persia'', Schocken Books, Zurich (1963). ASIN B0006BYXHY.
* [[Hugh N. Kennedy|Kennedy, Hugh]]. ''The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates'', Longman, New York, NY (2004). ISBN 0-582-40525-4
* [[Philip S. Khoury|Khoury, Philip S.]] & Kostiner, Joseph. ''Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East'', University of California Press (1991). ISBN 0-520-07080-1.
* [[C. Scott Littleton|Littleton, C.]] & [[Linda A. Malcor|Malcor, L.]] ''From Scythia to Camelot'', Garland Publishing, New York, NY, (2000). ISBN 0-8153-3566-0.
* Mallory, J.P. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans'', Thames and Hudson, London (1991). ISBN 0-500-27616-1.
* McDowall, David. ''A Modern History of the Kurds'', I.B. Tauris, 3rd Rev edition (2004). ISBN 1-85043-416-6.
* Nassim, J. ''Afghanistan: A Nation of Minorities'', Minority Rights Group, London (1992). ISBN 0-946690-76-6.
* Riasanovsky, Nicholas. ''A History of Russia'', Oxford University Press, Oxford (2004). ISBN 0-19-515394-4.
* Sims-Williams, Nicholas. ''Indo-Iranian Languages and People'', British Academy (2003). ISBN 0-19-726285-6.
* Iran Nama, ([[Iran]] [[Travel literature|Travelogue]] in [[Urdu language|Urdu]]) by [[Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman]], Tibbi Academy, Aligarh, India (1998).
* [[Saga of the Aryans]], Historical novel on ancient Iranian migrations by Porus Homi Havewala, Published Mumbai, India (2005, 2010).
* Chopra, R. M.,"Indo-Iranian Cultural Relations Through The Ages", Iran Society, Kolkata, 2005.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*[http://torontoparadise.com/page/iranian Iranian]
*[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9368164 Encyclopædia Britannica: Iranian languages]
*[http://www.parstimes.com/people/ People of Iran]
*[http://www.newsweek.com/id/199011 The Changing Face of Iran] a photo essay by ''Newsweek Magazine''
*[http://www.everytongue.com/iran/ Maps and demographic information] on all the people groups of Iran found at www.EveryTongue.com/iran

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Iranian Peoples}}
[[Category:Iranian people|Iranian people]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[ar:شعوب إيرانية]]
[[az:İrandilli xalqlar]]
[[bg:Ирански народи]]
[[bo:ཏ་ཟིག་གི་མི།]]
[[bs:Iranski narodi]]
[[ca:Irànics]]
[[da:Iranske folk]]
[[de:Iranische Völker]]
[[et:Iraani rahvad]]
[[es:Pueblos iranios]]
[[fa:اقوام ایرانی‌تبار]]
[[fr:Peuples iraniens]]
[[hr:Iranski narodi]]
[[id:Bangsa Iran]]
[[os:Ирайнаг адæмтæ]]
[[it:Iranici]]
[[ka:ირანელი ხალხები]]
[[lv:Irāņu tautas]]
[[lt:Iraniečiai]]
[[mg:Iranianina]]
[[mr:इराणी]]
[[mzn:ایرانی تبارون]]
[[ms:Bangsa Iran]]
[[nl:Iraanse volkeren]]
[[pl:Ludy irańskie]]
[[pt:Povos iranianos]]
[[ru:Иранские народы]]
[[sr:Ирански народи]]
[[sh:Iranski narodi]]
[[su:Urang Iran]]
[[sv:Iranier]]
[[tr:İran halkları]]
[[uk:Іранські народи]]
[[zh:伊朗人]]

Iranian peoples

2013-02-11T05:11:43Z

108.173.174.134: /* Later developments */

{{About|the ethno-linguistic group|the peoples of [[Iran]]|Demographics of Iran}}
{{infobox ethnic group|
Geographic distribution of modern Iranian languages: Persian (green), Pashto (purple) and Kurdish (turquoise), Lurish (red), Baluchi (Yellow), as well as smaller communities of other Iranian languages.
|image = {{Iranians image array}}
|poptime= 135–185 million<ref>
*Iran: {{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf |title=Ethnic Groups and Languages of Iran |first=Library of Congress – Federal Research Division |last=Library of Congress|accessdate=2009-12-02}} (Persian and Caspian dialects-65% Kurdish 8%-Luri/Bakhtiari 5%- Baluchi 2%):80% of the population or approximately 63 million people.
*Afghanistan: CIA Factbook Afghanistan: unting Pashtuns, Tajiks, Baluchs, 21 million
*Tajiks of Central Asia counting Tajikistan and Uzbekistan 10–15 million
*Kurds and Zazas of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq based on CIA factbook estimate 22 million
*Ossetians, Talysh, Tats, Kurds of the Caucasus and Central Asia: 1–2 million based on CIA factbook/ethnologue.
*Tajiks of China: 50,000 to 100,000
*Iranian speakers in Bahrain, the [[Persian Gulf]] , Western Europe and USA, 3 million.
*Pakistan counting Baluchis+Pashtus+Afghan refugees based on CIA factbook and other sources: 35 million.

</ref> Communities majorly in ''[[Iran]]'' and also in ''Afghanistan, Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Armenia, Oman, China (Xinjiang), India, Pakistan, United Kingdom, Germany and United States''.
|popplace= ''[[Iran]] and [[Iranian Plateau]], [[Anatolia]], [[South Asia]], [[Central Asia]], the [[Caucasus]]'' and as immigrant communities in ''[[North America]] and [[Western Europe]]''.
|langs= [[Persian language]] and other [[Iranian languages]], a branch of the Indo-European family
|rels= '''Majority''': [[Islam]] <br /><small>'''Minority''': [[Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]],<ref>The Ossetians of the Caucasus are Orthodox Christians</ref> [[Church of the East|Nestorianism]], [[Judaism]], [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Sabians|Toshavim]], [[Atheism]], [[Agnosticism]]</small>.
|related = Other [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian peoples]]
}}

The '''Iranian peoples'''<ref>R.N Frye, "IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN" in Encycloapedia Iranica. "In the following discussion of "Iranian peoples," the term "Iranian" may be understood in two ways. It is, first of all, a linguistic classification, intended to designate any society which inherited or adopted, and transmitted, an Iranian language. The set of Iranian-speaking peoples is thus considered a kind of unity, in spite of their distinct lineage identities plus all the factors which may have further differentiated any one group’s sense of self."</ref> are an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] [[ethnolinguistics|ethno-linguistic group]] that comprise the speakers of [[Iranian languages]],<ref>J. Harmatta in "History of Civilizations of Central Asia", Chapter 14, ''The Emergence of Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages'', ed. by A. H. Dani & V.N. Masson, 1999, p. 357</ref> a major branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], as such forming a branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European-speaking]] peoples. Their historical areas of settlement were on the [[Iranian plateau]] (mainly [[Iran]]) and certain neighbouring areas of Central Asia (such as [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Afghanistan]], western Pakistan, northern Iraq and eastern Turkey, and scattered part of the [[Caucasus]] Mountains) reflecting changing geopolitical range of the [[Persian empire]]s and the Iranian history.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|title=Iranian languages|author=Ronald Eric Emmerick|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=Feb. 6, 2011|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293577/Iranian-languages}}</ref><ref name="Iranica">{{cite web|title=Iran vi. Iranian languages and scripts Also, Diba
|author=PRODS OKTOR SKJÆRVØ|date=December 15, 2006|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica}}</ref> Their current distribution spreads across the [[Iranian plateau]], and stretches from Pakistan's [[Indus River]] in the east to eastern Turkey in the west, and from [[Central Asia]] and the [[Ossetia|Caucasus]] in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south – a region that is sometimes called the [[Iranian cultural continent]], or Greater Persia by scholars, and represents the extent of the Iranian languages and influence of the [[Persian people]], through the geopolitical reach of the [[Persian empire]].<ref>[[Richard Nelson Frye|Frye, Richard Nelson]], ''Greater Iran, ISBN 1-56859-177-2 p.''xi'': ''"... Iran means all lands and people where Iranian languages were and are spoken, and where in the past, multi-faceted Iranian cultures existed. ..."''</ref>

The Iranian group emerges from an earlier Iranian group during the [[Late Bronze Age]], and it enters the historical record during the Early Iron Age.

The Iranians comprise the [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Medes]], [[Scythians]], [[Bactrians]], [[Parthians]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Alans]], [[Ossetians]] and their sub-groups. The Iranians had domesticated horses, had travelled far and wide, and from the late 2nd millennium BCE to early 1st millennium BCE they had migrated to, and settled on, the Iranian Plateau. They moved into the Zagros Mountains (inhabited by [[Gutians]], [[Kassites]] and others, home of the [[Mannaean]] kingdom) above the indigenous non Iranian [[Elamite]] Kingdom. For approximately three centuries after arriving in the region, the [[Medes]] and [[Persia]]ns fell under the domination of the [[Assyrian Empire]] (911–609 BCE), based in nearby [[Mesopotamia]]. In 646 BCE, [[Susa]] and many other cities of [[Elam]] were plundered and wrecked by [[Ashurbanipal]], King of [[Assyria]], allowing the Iranian peoples to become the predominant group in Iran. After the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BCE, the Assyrian Empire began to unravel due to a series of bitter civil wars. In 616 BCE the Median king [[Cyaxares]] threw off the Assyrian yoke, united the Medes and Persians, and in alliance with [[Nabopolassar]] of [[Babylon]] and the [[Scythians]], attacked the civil war ridden Assyrian Empire. By 609 BCE, the Assyrians and their [[Egypt]]ian allies had been defeated. This began the Iranian domination in the Iranian Plateau. Persians formed the [[Persian Empire|Achaemenid Empire]] by the 6th century BCE, while the Scythians dominated the [[Eurasian steppe]].<ref name="World Archaeology">{{cite web|url=http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(povz2d45y5bwkg555qirhyru)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,8,11;journal,15,25;linkingpublicationresults,1:104736,1 |title=Amazons in the Scythia: new finds at the Middle Don, Southern Russia |publisher=Taylorandfrancis.metapress.com |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref><ref name="PBS Amazons">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_amazon/index.html |title=Secrets of the Dead, Casefile: Amazon Warrior Women |publisher=Pbs.org |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref> With numerous artistic, scientific, architectural and philosophical achievements and numerous kingdoms and empires that bridged much of the civilized world in antiquity,{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} the Iranian peoples were often in close contact with the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Indians, and Chinese. The various religions of the Iranian peoples, including [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Mithraism]] and [[Manichaeism]], are believed by some scholars to have been significant early philosophical influences on Christianity and Judaism.<ref>{{cite book | author=Runciman, Steven | title=The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1982 | isbn=0-521-28926-2}}</ref>

== Name ==
[[File:Moderniranianlanguagesmap.jpg|thumb|350px|Geographic distribution of Iranian languages]]
{{Main|Arya#Etymology|l1=Etymology of Arya}}
The term ''Iranian'' is derived from the Old Iranian ethnical adjective ''Aryana'' which is itself a cognate of the [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[Arya]]''.<ref name="Oxford English Dictionnary">[http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50012669?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=aryan&first=1&max_to_show=10 Oxford English Dictionnary:''' "Aryan from Sanskrit Arya 'Noble'"''']</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Iranistik|series=Hanbuch Der Orientalistik – Abeteilung – Der Nahe Und Der Mittlere Osten|volume=1|chapter=Old Iranian Literature|last=Gershevitch|first=I.|editor=|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=1968|isbn=90-04-00857-8|page=203}}: page 1</ref> The name ''Iran'' is from ''Aryānām''; lit: "[Land] of the [[Name of Iran|Aryans]]".<ref name="Farsinet">[http://www.farsinet.com/farsi/ "Farsi-Persian language"] — Farsi.net . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref><ref name = "1911 Encyclopedia"/> The old [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] term ''Arya'', per [[Paul Thieme|Thieme]] meaning "hospitable", is believed to have been one of the self-referential terms used by the Aryans, at least in the areas populated by Aryans who migrated south from [[Central Asia]]. Another meaning for Aryan is noble. In the late part of the [[Avesta]] (Vendidad 1), one of their homelands was referred to as ''[[Airyanem Vaejah]]''. The homeland varied in its geographic range, the area around [[Herat]] ([[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s view) and even the entire expanse of the [[Iranian plateau]] ([[Strabo]]'s designation).<ref name="1911 Encyclopedia">{{cite web|url=http://58.1911encyclopedia.org/I/IR/IRAN.htm |title=Article in 1911 Britannica|publisher=58.1911encyclopedia.org|accessdate=2009-06-21}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

The academic usage of the term ''Iranian'' is distinct from the state of [[Iran]] and its various citizens (who are all Iranian by nationality and thus popularly referred to as ''Iranians'') in the same way that ''Germanic people'' is distinct from ''[[Germans]]''. Many citizens of Iran are not necessarily "Iranian people" by virtue of not being speakers of Iranian languages.
Unlike the various terms connected with the Aryan arya- in Old Indian, the Old Iranian term has solely an ethnic meaning<ref>G. Gnoli, "Iranian Identity as a Historical Problem: the Beginnings of a National Awareness under the Achaemenians," in The East and the Meaning of History. International Conference (23–27 November 1992), Roma, 1994, pp. 147–67. {{cite web |url=http://www.google.com/search?q=Emile+Benveniste+is+thus+quite+right+to+assert+that%2C+unlike+the+various+terms+connected+with+the+Aryan+arya-+in+Old+Indian%2C+the+Old+Iranian+arya-+is+documented+solely+as+an+ethnic&tbs=bks%3A1&tbo=1 |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}</ref> and there can be no doubt about the ethnic value of Old Iran. arya (Benveniste, 1969, I, pp. 369 f.; Szemerényi; Kellens).<ref name="iranica.com">G. Gnoli, "Iranian Identity ii. Pre-Islamic Period" in Encyclopedia Iranica. Online accessed in 2010 at {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-ii-pre-islamic-period |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}</ref>

The name Arya lives in the ethnic names like Alan, New Persian: Iran, Ossetian: Ir and Iron.<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt">R. Schmitt, "Aryans" in Encyclopedia Iranica:Excerpt:"The name "Aryan" (OInd. āˊrya-, Ir. *arya- [with short a-], in Old Pers. ariya-, Av. airiia-, etc.) is the self designation of the peoples of Ancient Iran (as well as India) who spoke Aryan languages, in contrast to the "non-Aryan" peoples of those "Aryan" countries (cf. OInd. an-āˊrya-, Av. an-airiia-, etc.), and lives on in ethnic names like Alan (Lat. Alani, NPers. Īrān, Oss. Ir and Iron.". Also accessed online: {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aryans |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}} in May, 2010</ref><ref name="Language, Gherardo Gnoli 2002">The "Aryan" Language, Gherardo Gnoli, Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, Roma, 2002.</ref><ref name="Bailey">H. W. Bailey, "Arya" in Encyclopedia Iranica. Excerpt: "ARYA an ethnic epithet in the Achaemenid inscriptions and in the Zoroastrian Avestan tradition. {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arya-an-ethnic-epithet-in-the-achaemenid-inscriptions-and-in-the-zoroastrian-avestan-tradition |title=Arya an ethnic epithet in the Achaemenid inscriptions and in the Zoroastrian Avestan tradition |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}} Also accessed online in May, 2010.</ref><ref name="Bailey"/><ref name="iranica1">D. N. Mackenzie, "Ērān, Ērānšahr" in Encyclopedia Iranica. {{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-eransah |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=2010}}</ref><ref name="Dalby, Andrew 2004">Dalby, Andrew (2004), Dictionary of Languages, Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-7683-1</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/er-er-mazdesn |title=ēr, ēr mazdēsn |author=G. Gnoli |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref> The name Iran has been in usage since [[Sassanid]] times.<ref name="iranica1"/><ref name="Dalby, Andrew 2004"/>

The [[Avesta]] clearly uses airya as an ethnic name (Vd. 1; Yt. 13.143-44, etc.), where it appears in expressions such as airyāfi; daiŋˊhāvō "Iranian lands, peoples," airyō.šayanəm "land inhabited by Iranians," and airyanəm vaējō vaŋhuyāfi; dāityayāfi; "Iranian stretch of the good Dāityā," the river Oxus, the modern Āmū Daryā.<ref name="iranica.com"/>

The term "Ariya" appears in the royal Old Persian inscriptions in three different contexts: 1) As the name of the language of the Old Persian version of the inscription of [[Darius the Great]] in [[Behistun Inscription|Behistun]]; 2) as the ethnic background of [[Darius the Great|Darius]] in inscriptions at Naqsh-e-Rostam and Susa (Dna, Dse) and [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]] in the inscription from Persepolis (Xph) and 3) as the definition of the God of Iranian people, [[Ahura Mazda|Ahuramazda]], in the Elamite version of the Behistun inscription.<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt"/><ref name="Bailey"/> For example in the Dna and Dse Darius and Xerxes describe themselves as "An Achaemenian, A Persian son of a Persian and an Aryan, of Aryan stock".<ref name="ReferenceA">R. G. Kent. Old Persian. Grammer, texts, lexicon. 2nd ed., New Haven, Conn.</ref> Although Darius the Great called his language the Iranian language,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> modern scholars refer to it as [[Old Persian]]<ref name="ReferenceA"/> because it is the ancestor of modern [[Persian language]].<ref>Professor Gilbert Lazard: The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran in Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language" in Frye, R. N., ''The Cambridge History of Iran'', Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

The Old Persian and Avestan evidence is confirmed by the Greek sources".<ref name="iranica.com"/> Herodotus in his Histories remarks about the Iranian Medes that: "These Medes were called anciently by all people Arians; " (7.62).<ref name="iranica.com"/><ref name="Schmitt"/><ref name="Bailey"/> In [[Armenians|Armenian]] sources, the Parthians, Medes and Persians are collectively referred to as Iranians.<ref>R.W. Thomson. History of Armenians by Moses Khorenat’si. Harvard University Press, 1978. Pg 118, pg 166</ref> Eudemus of Rhodes apud Damascius (Dubitationes et solutiones in Platonis Parmenidem 125 bis) refers to "the Magi and all those of Iranian (áreion) lineage"; Diodorus Siculus (1.94.2) considers Zoroaster (Zathraustēs) as one of the Arianoi.<ref name="iranica.com"/>

[[Strabo]], in his "Geography", mentions the unity of [[Medes]], Persians, Bactrians and [[Sogdians]]:<ref name="Language, Gherardo Gnoli 2002"/>{{quotation|The name of'' [[Ariana]] ''is further extended to a part of [[Persia]] and of Media, as also to the [[Bactrians]] and [[Sogdians]] on the north; for these speak approximately the same language, with but slight variations.|Geography, 15.8}}

The trilingual inscription erected by Shapur's command gives a more clear description. The languages used are [[Parthian language|Parthian]], [[Middle Persian]] and Greek. In Greek, the inscription says: "ego ... tou Arianon ethnous despotes eimi"("I am lord of the kingdom (Gk. nation) of the Aryans") which translates to "I am the king of the Iranian people". In the Middle Persian, Shapour states: "ērānšahr xwadāy hēm" and in Parthian he states: "aryānšahr xwadāy ahēm".<ref name="iranica1"/><ref>MacKenzie D.N. Corpus inscriptionum Iranicarum Part. 2., inscription of the Seleucid and Parthian periods of Eastern Iran and Central Asia. Vol. 2. Parthian, London, P. Lund, Humphries 1976–2001</ref>

The [[Bactrian language]] (a Middle Iranian language) inscription of [[Kanishka]] the founder of the [[Kushan empire]] at Rabatak, which was discovered in 1993 in an unexcavated site in the Afghanistan province of Baghlan, clearly refers to this Eastern Iranian language as Arya.<ref>N. Sims-Williams, "Further notes on the Bactrian inscription of Rabatak, with the Appendix on the name of Kujula Kadphises and VimTatku in Chinese". Proceedings of the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies (Cambridge, September 1995). Part 1: Old and Middle Iranian<Studies, N. Sims-Williams, ed. Wiesbaden, pp 79-92</ref><ref>The "Aryan" Language, Gherardo Gnoli, Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, Roma, 2002</ref>
In the post-Islamic era, one can still see a clear usage of the term Iran in the work of the 10th-century historian [[Hamzeh Isfahani]]. In his book ''the history of Prophets and Kings'' writes: "Aryan which is also called Pars ([[Persia]]) is in the middle of these countries and these six countries surround it because the South East is in the hands China, the North of the Turks, the middle South is India, the middle North is Rome, and the South West and the North West is the [[Sudan]] and Berber lands".<ref>Hamza Isfahani, Tarikh Payaambaraan o Shaahaan, translated by Jaf'ar Shu'ar,Tehran: Intishaaraat Amir Kabir, 1988.</ref> All this evidence shows that the name arya "Iranian" was a collective definition, denoting peoples (Geiger, pp. 167 f.; Schmitt, 1978, p. 31) who were aware of belonging to the one ethnic stock, speaking a common language, and having a religious tradition that centered on the cult of [[Ahura Mazda|Ahura Mazdā]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-ii-pre-islamic-period |title=Iranian Identity ii. Pre-Islamic Period |author=G. Gnoli |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate= 2010}}</ref>

== History and settlement ==
{{main|List of Ancient Iranian peoples}}

=== Roots ===
{{main|Indo-Iranians}}
[[File:BMAC.png|thumb|The extent of the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex|BMAC]] (according to the [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]]).]]

The language referred to as Proto-Indo-European (PIE): is ancestral to the Celtic, Italic (including Romance), Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Albanian, Armernian, Greek, and Tocharian languages.

'There is an agreement that the PIE community split into two major groups from wherever its homeland was situated (its location is unknown), and whenever the timing of its dispersal (also unknown). One headed west for Europe and became speakers of Indo-European (all the languages of modern Europe save for Basque, Hungarian, and Finnish) while others headed east for Eurasia to become Indo-Iranians. The Indo-Iranians were a community that spoke a common language prior to their branching off into the Iranian and Indo-Aryan languages. Iranian refers to the languages of Iran (Iranian), Pakistan (Balochi and Pashto), Afghanistan (Pashto and Dari), and Tadjikistan (Tajiki) and Indo-Aryan, Sanskrit, Urdu and its many related languages.' – (Carl C. Lamberg-Karlovsky: Case of the Bronze Age)

By the early 1st millennium, [[Ancient Iranian peoples]] such as [[Medes]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Bactria]]ns, [[Parthia]]ns and Scythians populated the [[Iranian plateau]], and other Scythian tribes, along with [[Cimmerians]], [[Sarmatians]] and [[Alans]] populated the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]]. The [[Saka]], [[Scythia]]n, tribes spread as far west as the [[Balkans]] and as far east as [[Xinjiang]]. Scythians as well formed the Indo-Scythian Empire, and Bactrians formed a Greco-Bactrian Kingdom founded by Diodotus I, the satrap of Bactria. The [[Kushan]] Empire, with Bactrian roots/connections, once controlled much of [[Pakistan]], some of [[Afghanistan]] and Tajikistan. The Kushan elite (who the Chinese called the [[Yuezhi]]) were either a Tocharian-speaking (another Indo-European branch) people or an Eastern Iranian language-speaking people.

The division into an "[[Eastern Iranian|Eastern]]" and a "[[Western Iranian|Western]]" group by the early 1st millennium is visible in [[Avestan language|Avestan]] vs. [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]], the two oldest known Iranian languages. The Old Avestan texts known as the [[Gathas]] are believed to have been composed by [[Zoroaster]], the founder of [[Zoroastrianism]], with the [[Yaz culture]] (c. 1500–1100 BCE) as a candidate for the development of [[Eastern Iranian]] culture.

Old Persian appears to have been established in written form by 519 BCE, following the creation of the [[Old Persian script]], inspired by the [[cuneiform script]] of the Assyrians.<ref name="Lubotsky">[http://www.ieed.nl/lubotsky/pdf/avestan%20xvarnah.pdf "Avestan xᵛarǝnah-, etymology and concept by Alexander Lubotsky"] — Sprache und Kultur. Akten der X. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, 22.-28. September 1996, ed. W. Meid, Innsbruck (IBS) 1998, 479–488. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

==== Western Iranian peoples ====
[[File:Scythia-Parthia 100 BC.png|thumb|Geographical extent of Iranian influence in the 1st century BCE. The [[Parthia]]n Empire (mostly [[Western Iranian languages|Western Iranian]]) is shown in red, other areas, dominated by [[Scythia]] ([[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian]]), in orange.]]
[[File:Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|[[Achaemenid empire]] at its greatest extent]]
[[File:SurenaImage.jpg|thumb|upright|<center>[[Statue, National Museum of Iran 2401|Bronze Statue of a Parthian nobleman]], National Museum of Iran.]]
{{Indo-European topics}}
During the 1st centuries of the first millennium BCE, the ancient Persians established themselves in the western portion of the Iranian plateau and appear to have interacted considerably with the Elamites and Babylonians, while the Medes also entered in contact with the [[Ancient Assyria|Assyrians]].<ref>M. Liverani, "The Medes at Esarhaddon's Court", in ''Journal of Cuneiform Studies'' 47 (1995), pp. 57–62.</ref> Remnants of the [[Median language]] and [[Old Persian]] show their common Proto-Iranian roots, emphasized in Strabo and Herodotus' description of their languages as very similar to the languages spoken by the Bactrians and [[Sogdiana|Soghdians]] in the east.<ref name="1911 Encyclopedia"/><ref name="Geo Strabo">[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2A1*.html "The Geography of Strabo"] — University of Chicago. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Following the establishment of the [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid Empire]], the Persian language (referred to as "''Farsi''" in Persian) spread from Pars or [[Fars Province]] to various regions of the Empire, with the modern dialects of Iran, Afghanistan (also known as [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]]) and Central-Asia (known as [[Tajik language|Tajiki]]) descending from Old Persian.

Old Persian is attested in the [[Behistun Inscription]] (c. 519 BCE), recording a proclamation by [[Darius the Great]]. In southwestern Iran, the [[Achaemenid]] kings usually wrote their inscriptions in trilingual form ([[Elamite language|Elamite]], [[Akkadian language|Babylonian]] and [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]])<ref>R. G. Kent, ''Old Persian: Grammar, texts and lexicon''.</ref> while elsewhere other languages were used. The administrative languages were Elamite in the early period, and later [[Imperial Aramaic]].<ref>R. Hallock (1969), ''Persepolis Fortification Tablets''; A. L. Driver (1954), ''Aramaic Documents of the V Century BC''.</ref>

The early inhabitants of the Achaemenid Empire appear to have adopted the religion of [[Zoroastrianism]].<ref name="Edinburgh">[http://www.cogsci.ed.ac.uk/~siamakr/Kurdish/iran-lang.html "Kurdish: An Indo-European Language By Siamak Rezaei Durroei"]{{dead link|date=July 2010}} — University of Edinburgh, School of Informatics. . Retrieved 4 June 2006. {{Wayback|url=http://www.cogsci.ed.ac.uk/~siamakr/Kurdish/iran-lang.html|date =20060617211537|bot=DASHBot}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref> The [[Baloch people|Baloch]] who speak a west Iranian language relate an oral tradition regarding their migration from [[Aleppo]], [[Syria]] around the year 1000 CE, whereas linguistic evidence links [[Balochi language|Balochi]] to [[Kurmanji]], [[Soranî]], [[Gorani language|Gorani]] and [[Zazaki language|Zazaki]].<ref name="Rezakhani">[http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html "The Iranian Language Family, Khodadad Rezakhani"] — Iranologie. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

==== Eastern Iranian peoples ====
While the Iranian tribes of the south are better known through their texts and modern counterparts, the tribes which remained largely in the vast Eurasian expanse are known through the references made to them by the ancient Greeks, Persians, [[Indo-Aryans]] as well as by archaeological finds. Many ancient [[Sanskrit]] texts make references to tribes like [[Sakas]], [[Paradas]], [[Kambojas]], [[Bahlikas]], [[Uttaramadra]]s, [[Madra]]s, [[Loha (tribe)|Loha]]s, [[Parama Kambojas]], [[Rishikas]], [[Tukharas]] or [[Tusharas]] etc. and locate them in the ([[Uttarapatha]]) (north-west) division, in [[Central Asia]], around [[Hindukush]] range in northern [[Pakistan]]. The [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] chronicler, [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) makes references to a nomadic people, the [[Scythia]]ns; he describes as having dwelt in what is today southern [[Russia]].

It is believed that these Scythians were conquered by their eastern cousins, the [[Sarmatians]], who are mentioned by [[Strabo]] as the dominant tribe which controlled the southern Russian steppe in the 1st millennium CE. These Sarmatians were also known to the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who conquered the western tribes in the Balkans and sent Sarmatian conscripts, as part of Roman legions, as far west as [[Roman Britain]].

The Sarmatians of the east became the [[Alans]], who also ventured far and wide, with a branch ending up in [[Western Europe]] and [[North Africa]], as they accompanied the Germanic [[Vandals]] during their migrations. The modern [[Ossetians]] are believed to be the sole direct descendants of the Alans, as other remnants of the Alans disappeared following Germanic, [[Huns|Hunnic]] and ultimately Slavic migrations and invasions.<ref name="ISBN">A History of Russia by Nicholas Riasanovsky, pp. 11–18, Russia before the Russians, ISBN 0-19-515394-4 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>
Another group of Alans allied with [[Goth]]s to defeat the Romans and ultimately settled in what is now called Catalonia (Goth-Alania).<ref>The Sarmatians: 600 BC-AD 450 (Men-at-Arms) by Richard Brzezinski and Gerry Embleton, Aug 19, 2002</ref>
[[File:AzesIITriratna.jpg|thumb|Silver coin of the [[Indo-Scythian]] king [[Azes II]] (r.c. 35–12 BCE). Buddhist [[triratna]] symbol in the left field on the reverse.]]
[[File:PazyrikHorseman.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Scythia]]n Horseman, ''[[Pazyryk culture|Pazyryk]]'' felt artifact, c. 300 BCE]]
Some of the Saka-Scythian tribes in Central Asia would later move further southeast and invade the [[Iranian plateau]], large sections of present day [[Afghanistan]] and finally deep into present day [[Pakistan]] (see [[Indo-Scythians]]). Another Iranian tribe related to the Saka-Scythians were the [[Parni]] in Central Asia, and who later become indistinguishable from the [[Parthians]], speakers of a northwest-Iranian language. Many Iranian tribes, including the [[Khwarazm]]ians, [[Massagetae]] and [[Sogdiana|Sogdians]], were assimilated and/or displaced in Central Asia by the migrations of [[Turkic people|Turkic]] tribes emanating out of Xinjiang and Siberia.<ref name="Kimball">[http://www.thirteen.org/pressroom/release.php?get=1272 "Jeannine Davis-Kimball, Archaeologist"] — Thirteen WNET New York. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

The most dominant surviving Eastern Iranian peoples are represented by the [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]], whose origins are generally believed to be from the [[Sulaiman Mountains]],{{cn|date=July 2012}} from which they began to spread until they reached as far west as [[Herat]], north to areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan;{{cn|date=July 2012}} and as eastward towards the [[Indus River|Indus]]. The [[Pashto language]] shows affinities to the [[Avestan]] and [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]]{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}}.

The modern [[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]] in southern Xinjiang and the [[Ossetians]] of the Caucasus are remnants of the various Saka tribes. The modern [[Ossetians]] claim{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} to be the descendants of the Alano-Sarmatians and their claims are supported by their Northeast Iranian language, while culturally the Ossetians resemble their Caucasian neighbors, the [[Kabard]]ians and [[Circassians]].<ref name="ISBN">From Scythia to Camelot by Littleton and Malcor, pp. 40–43, ISBN 0-8153-3566-0 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Various extinct Iranian people existed in the eastern Caucasus, including the [[Ancient Azari language|Azaris]], while some Iranian people remain in the region, including the [[Talysh people|Talysh]]<ref name="Talysh">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tly "Report for Talysh"] — Ethnologue. Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> and the [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats]]<ref name="Tats">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ttt "Report for Tats"] — Ethnologue. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> (including the [[Mountain Jews|Judeo-Tats]],<ref name="Judeo-Tat">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=jdt "Report for Judeo-Tats"] — Ethnologue. . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> who have relocated to [[Israel]]), found in Azerbaijan and as far north as the Russian republic of [[Dagestan]]. A remnant of the Sogdians is found in the Yaghnobi speaking population in parts of the Zeravshan valley in Tajikistan.

=== Later developments ===

[[File:Salahaddin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Statue of Saladin]] "king of Egypt" near the [[Citadel of Damascus]]]]
Starting with the reign of [[Umar|Omar]] in 634 CE, [[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s began a conquest of the Iranian plateau. The Arabs conquered the [[Sassanid Empire]] of the Persians and seized much of the [[Byzantine Empire]] populated by the [[Kurds]] and others. Ultimately, the various Iranian people, including the Persians, Azaries, Kurds, Baluchis and Pashtuns, converted to [[Islam]]. The Iranian people would later split along sectarian lines as the Persians (and later the [[Hazara people|Hazara]]) adopted the [[SHIA Islam|Shi'a]] sect. As ancient tribes and identities changed, so did the Iranian people, many of whom assimilated foreign cultures and people.<ref>The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates by Hugh Kennedy, ISBN 0-582-40525-4 (retrieved 04 June 2006), p. 135</ref>

Later, during the 2nd millennium CE, the Iranian people would play a prominent role during the age of Islamic expansion and empire. [[Saladin]], a noted adversary of the [[Crusade]]rs, was an ethnic [[Kurd]], while various empires centered in Iran (including the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]]) re-established a modern dialect of Persian as the official language spoken throughout much of what is today Iran and adjacent parts of Central Asia. Iranian influence spread to the [[Ottoman Empire]], where Persian was often spoken at court, as well to the court of the [[Mughal Empire]]. All of the major Iranian people reasserted their use of Iranian languages following the decline of Arab rule, but would not begin to form modern [[nationalism|national]] identities until the 19th and early 20th centuries (just as Germans and Italians were beginning to formulate national identities of their own).

The following either partially descend from Iranian people or are sometimes regarded as possible descendants of ancient Iranian people:
{{Further|Turkification|Slavicisation|Sarmatism}}
* [[Turkic languages|Turkic-speakers:]]
** [[Azerbaijani people|Azeris]]: Although [[Azerbaijani people|Azeris]] speak a Turkic language (modern [[Azerbaijani language]]), they are believed to be primarily descendants of ancient Iranians.<ref>Minorsky, V.; Minorsky, V. "(Azarbaijan). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http:/iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey |title=People of Iran |author=R. N. Frye |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http:/iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-i-lands-of-iran |title=Lands of Iran |author=X.D. Planhol |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |accessdate=}}</ref> and [[Turkish people|Turks]]. Thus, due to their historical ties with various ancient Iranians, as well as their cultural ties to Persians,<ref name="encyclopedia1">[http://www.bartleby.com/65/az/Azerbaij.html The Columbia Encyclopedia: Azerbaijan]{{dead link|date=June 2009}}</ref> the Azeris are often associated with the Iranian people (see [[Azerbaijani people#Origins|Origin of Azerbaijani people]] and the [[Iranian theory regarding the origin of the Azerbaijanis]] for more details).<ref name="jurabchi2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranian.com/Opinion/2002/August/Azeri/index.html |title=Who are the Azeris? by Aylinah Jurabchi |publisher=The Iranian |date= |accessdate=2009-06-21}}</ref>
** [[Uzbeks]]: The modern Uzbek people are believed to have both Iranian and Turkic ancestry. ''"Uzbek"'' and ''"Tajik"'' are modern designations given to the culturally homogeneous, sedentary population of Central Asia. The local ancestors of both groups – the Turkic-speaking Uzbeks and the Iranian-speaking Tajiks – were known as ''"[[Sart]]s"'' (''"sedentary merchants"'') prior to the [[Russian Empire|Russian conquest]] of Central Asia, while ''"Uzbek"'' or ''"Turk"'' were the names given to the nomadic and semi-nomadic populations of the area. Still today, modern Uzbeks and Tajiks are known as ''"Sarts"'' to their [[Turkic people|Turkic neighbours]], the [[Kazakhs]] and the [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]]. The ancient [[Soghdians]] and [[Bactrians]] are among their ancestors. Culturally, the Uzbeks are closer to their sedentary Iranian-speaking neighbours rather than to their nomadic and semi-nomadic Turkic neighbours. Some Uzbek scholars, i.e. Ahmadov and Askarov, favour the ''Iranian origin'' theory.<ref name="zbekiston1994">Askarov, A. & B.Ahmadov, O'zbek Xalqning Kilib Chiqishi Torixi. O'zbekiston Ovozi, 20 January 1994.</ref>
**The native name of [[Yakuts]] is [[Yakuts|Sakha]], very similar to the [[Sakkas]], proposing Yakuts to be related of descendants of Scythians, specifically Sakkahs.
**[[Volga Tatars]]
Many are mixed from Volga bulgars. The reasons are same with Bulgarians, and the putative claim on the iranian origin of bulgars.
* [[South Slavs|Slavic-speakers]]:
** A few linguists suggest that the names of the [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] people, the [[Serbs]] and [[Croats]] are of Iranian origin. Those who entertain such a connection propose that the Sarmatian ''Serboi'' and ''Horouthos'' tribes might have migrated from the Eurasian steppe lands to eastern Europe, and assimilated with the numerically superior Slavs, passing on their name. Iranian-speaking people did inhabit parts of the Balkans in late classical times, and would have been encountered by the Slavs. However, direct linguistic, historical or archaeological proof for such a theory is lacking. (See also: [[Theories on the origin of Serbs]] and [[Theories on the origin of Croats]])
** Some modern Bulgarian historians claim that the [[Bulgars]] were of Iranian origin and that they migrated to Europe from the region of today's northern Afghanistan – Hindukush mountains, from the [[Kingdom of Balhara]].<ref>[http://sitemaker.umich.edu/mladjov/files/bulgarian_rulers.pdf Sitemaker.umich.edu]</ref><ref>[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3236.htm State.gov]</ref><ref>[http://en.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/8511032 En.academic.ru]</ref><ref name="thearchaeologicalbox.com">[http://thearchaeologicalbox.com/en/news/dna-analysis-reveals-pamir-origin-bulgarians Thearchaeilogicalbox.com]</ref> Their claims are based on medieval Armenian sources, the writings of ancient historians ("Ashharatsuyts" by Anania Shirakatsi; Agathias of Myrina, Theophylact Simocatta, Michael the Syrian) archaeological findings in modern Bulgaria, the similarities with Iranian languages (place names, people names, and Iranian words in modern Bulgarian),<ref>[http://groznijat.tripod.com/b_lang/bl_a_v.htm Groznijat.tripod.com]</ref> similarities with culture (e.g.: some buildings in [[Pliska]] were built in a Zoroastrian fashion; similarities in traditional music, dancing and carpet making) and the very close similarity of the DNA of Pamirian/Iranian people with that of modern Bulgarians<ref name="thearchaeologicalbox.com"/><ref>[http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=117006 Novinite.com]</ref> After their arrival on Balkans, the Bulgars subjugated and then formed an allience with the local Slavs and formed the Bulgarian nation.
***Example:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[english language|english]] !! [[persian language|persian]] !! [[zazaki]] !! [[Kurdish_language|(Kurdish) Kurmanji / Sorani]] !! [[bulgarian language|bulgarian]]
|-
| i know || midânam || ez dizono || ez dizanim /min azanim || az znam
|-
| you know || midâni || ti dizana || tu dizanî / to azanit|| ti znayş
|-
| i don't know || nemidânam || ez nizon || ez nizanim / min nazanim || az neznam
|-
| you don't know || nemidâni || ti nizona || tu nizanî / to nazanit || ti niznayş
|-
| a dog || sag || kûtik || kûtchik / sag || kutche (kûçe)
|}
*[[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan speakers]]
**Many Indo-Aryans may have Iranian admixture in them, due to Indo-Aryan clans such as Jats and Rajputs being descended from [[Scythians]]. See [[Indo-Scythians]].
*[[Uralic language|Uralic speakers]]
**Many [[Volga Finns]] may be of part Iranian admixture due to [[Bulgars|Bulgar]] invasion of the Volga basin, if they (Bulgars) were Iranian people.
**[[Hungarians]] have long prided themselves as Scythians in the past, [[Scythians]] being an Iranian people, prior to the Finno-Ugric/Uralic theory. It's possible they've undergone a language shift. In a Magyar folkore suggests Iranian admixture among Hungarian, when Hunor and Magor marry princesses who were [[Alans]], another Iranian people. [[Jassic people]] of Hungary are of [[Ossetia]]n origin. The [[Szekely]]<ref>pronounced approximately ''say-kay''</ref> are possibly of Iranian origin, as their name is similar to [[Sakka]].
* [[Swahili language|Swahili-speakers:]]
** [[Shirazi people|Shirazis]]:The '''Shirazi''' are a sub-group of the [[Swahili people]]<ref>[[Kilwa chronicle]]</ref> living on the [[Swahili Coast]] of [[East Africa]], especially on the islands of [[Zanzibar]], [[Pemba Island|Pemba]] and [[Comoros]].<ref>[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/tethnic.htm Tanzania Ethnic Groups], East Africa Living Encyclopedia, accessed 28 June 2010</ref> Local traditions about their origin claim they are descended from merchant princes from [[Shiraz]] in [[Persia]] who settled along the [[Swahili Coast]].

== Demographics ==
{{See also|Iranian plateau|Demographics of Iran|Ethnic minorities in Iran|Demographics of Afghanistan|Demographics of Tajikistan|Iraqi people|Demographics of Iraq|Kurdistan|Ossetia}}
{{Further|Iranian citizens abroad|Kurdish diaspora|}}
There are an estimated 150 to 200 million native speakers of Iranian languages, the five major groups of [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Lurs]], [[Kurds]], [[Baloch people|Baloch]], and [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]] accounting for about 90% of this number.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gordon|first=Raymond G., Jr. (ed.)|title=Report for Iranian languages|journal=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|year=2005|edition=Fifteenth|location=Dallas|publisher=SIL International|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90019}}</ref> Currently, most of these Iranian peoples live in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]] (mainly [[Ossetia]], other parts of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and [[Azerbaijan]]), [[Iraqi Kurdistan]] and [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] majority populated areas of [[Turkey]], [[Iran]] and [[Syria]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]].

Due to recent migrations, there are also large communities of speakers of [[Iranian languages]] in [[Europe]], the [[Americas]], and [[Israel]].

'''The following is a list of peoples that speak Iranian languages with the respective groups's core areas of settlements and their estimated sizes (in millions):'''
{| class="wikitable sortable" id="table1"
|-
! People
! region
! population
|-
| [[Persian-speaking peoples]]
:* [[Aymāq|Aimaqs]]
:* [[Hazara people|Hazara]]
:* [[Huwala]]
:* [[Persian people|Iranian Persians]]
:**[[Persians in Bahrain|Bahraini Persians]]
:* [[Tajik people|Tajiks (Central Asian Persians)]]
:**[[Farsiwan]]
:* [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats of the Caucasus]]
| Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Iraq, Bahrain
| <div style="display: none;">60</div> 72–85
|-
| [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]]
:* [[Durrani]]
:* [[Ghilzai]]
:* [[Wazir (tribe)|Wazir]]
:* [[Yusufzai]]
| Pakistan, Afghanistan
| <div style="display: none;">32</div> 35–40
|-
| [[Kurdish people|Kurds]]
:* [[Kalhor (tribe)|Kalhurs]]
:* [[Lak people (Iran)|Laks]]<ref name="Hamzehʼee, M. Reza 1990">Hamzehʼee, M. Reza. The Yaresan: a sociological, historical and religio-historical study of a Kurdish community, 1990.</ref>
:* [[Yazidi]]s
:* [[Zaza people|Zaza]]
| Turkey, Iran, Iraqi Kurdistan, Syria
| <div style="display: none;">32</div> 30–45
|-
| [[Baloch people|Baluchis]]
| Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan
| <div style="display: none;">15</div> 15–20
|-
| [[Gilaki people|Gilakis]] & [[Mazandarani people|Mazanderanis]]
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">07</div> 5–10
|-
| [[Lurs]] & [[Bakhtiari people|Bakhtiaris]]
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">026</div> 6
|-
| [[Lak people (Iran)|Laks]]<ref name="Hamzehʼee, M. Reza 1990"/>
| Iran
| <div style="display: none;">010</div> 0.5
|-
| [[Pamiri people]]
:* [[Tajiks of Xinjiang|Sariqoli]]
:* [[Shughni language|Shughni]]
:* [[Tajiks of China]]
:* [[Wakhi (ethnic group)|Wakhi]]
| Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China (Xinjiang), Pakistan
| <div style="display: none;">009</div> 0.9
|-
| [[Talysh people|Talysh]]
:* [[Tat people (Iran)|Tats of Iran]]
| Azerbaijan, Iran
| <div style="display: none;">009</div> 0.5
|-
| [[Ossetians]]
:* [[Digor people|Digor]]
:* [[Iron people|Iron]]
:* [[Jasz people|Jasz]]
| South Ossetia, Georgia,<br />Russia (North Ossetia), Hungary
| <div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.7
|-
| [[Yaghnobi people|Yaghnobi]]
| Uzbekistan and Tajikistan ([[Zerafshan River|Zerafshan region]])
|<div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.025
|-
| [[Kumzari]]
| Oman ([[Musandam]])
|<div style="display: none;">007</div> 0.021
|}

== Diversity ==

It is largely through linguistic similarities that the Iranian people have been linked, as many non-Iranian people have adopted Iranian languages and cultures. However, other common traits have been identified as well, for example, a stream of common historical events have often linked the southern Iranian people, including Hellenistic conquests, the various empires based in Persia, Arab Caliphates and Turkic invasions.

== Culture ==
{{See also|Proto-Indo-European society|Indo-Iranian mythology|Iranian philosophy}}
Like other Indo-Europeans, the early Iranians practiced ritual sacrifice, had a social hierarchy consisting of warriors, clerics and farmers and poetic hymns and sagas to recount their deeds.<ref name="ISBNMallory">''In Search of the Indo-Europeans'', by J.P. Mallory, p. 112–127, ISBN 0-500-27616-1 . Retrieved 10 June 2006.</ref>

Following the Iranian split from the Indo-Iranians, the Iranians developed an increasingly distinct culture. Various common traits can be discerned among the Iranian people. For example, the social event [[Norouz]] is an Iranian festival that is practiced by nearly all of the Iranian people as well as others in the region. Its origins are traced to [[Zoroastrianism]] and pre-historic times.

Some Iranian cultures exhibit traits that are unique unto themselves. The Pashtuns adhere to a code of honor and culture known as [[Pashtunwali]], which has a similar counterpart among the [[Baloch people|Baloch]], called Mayar, that is more hierarchical.<ref name="Baloch">[http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9802.html "Pakistan — Baloch"] — Library of Congress Country Studies . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{main|Iranian religions}}{{See also|Christianity in Iran|Islam in Iran|Islam in Tajikistan|Islam in Afghanistan}}
The early Iranian people worshipped various deities found throughout other cultures where [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] immigrants established themselves.<ref name="Iranologie">[http://www.iranologie.com/history/history2.html "History of Iran-Chapter 2 Indo-Europeans and Indo-Iranians"] — Iranologie . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> The earliest major religion of the Iranian people was [[Zoroastrianism]], which spread to nearly all of the Iranian people living in the Iranian plateau. Other religions that had their origins in the Iranian world were [[Mithraism]], [[Manichaeism]], and [[Mazdakism]], among others.
[[File:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg|thumb|[[Mazari Sharif]]'s [[Shrine of Hazrat Ali|Blue Mosque]] in [[Afghanistan]] is a structure of cobalt blue and turquoise minarets, attracting visitors and pilgrims from all over the world. Many such Muslim [[Iranian architecture|architectural]] monuments can be attributed to the efforts of the Iranian people who are predominantly followers of Islam today.]]
Modern speakers of Iranian languages mainly follow [[Islam]]. Some follow [[Persian Jews|Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and the [[Bahá'í Faith]], with an unknown number showing no religious affiliation. Overall the numbers of Sunni and Shia among the Iranian people are equally distributed. Most Kurds, Tajiks, Pashtuns, and Baluch are [[Sunni]] Muslims, while the remainder are mainly [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a]], comprising mostly [[Persian people|Persians]] in Iran, and [[Hazaras]] in Afghanistan. [[Zazas]] in [[Turkey]] are largely [[Alevi]], while the [[Pamiri people]]s in [[Tajikistan]] and [[China]] are nearly all [[Ismaili]]. The Christian community is mainly represented by the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], followed by the [[Russian Orthodox]] and [[Georgian Orthodox]] Ossetians followed by [[Nestorian Church|Nestorians]]. [[Judaism]] is followed mainly by [[Persian Jews]], [[Kurdish Jews]], [[Bukharian Jews]] (of Central Asia) and the [[Mountain Jews]] (of the Caucasus), most of whom are now found in [[Israel]]. The historical religion of the Persian Empire was Zoroastrianism and it still has a few thousand followers, mostly in Yazd and Kerman. They are known as the [[Parsi people|Parsis]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]], where many of them fled in historic times following the Arab conquest of Persia, or [[Zoroastrians in Iran]]. Another ancient religion is the [[Yazidi]] faith, followed by some Kurds in northern [[Iraq]], as well as the majority of the Kurds in [[Armenia]].

Elements of pre-Islamic [[Zoroastrian]] and [[shamanistic]] beliefs persist among some Islamized groups today, such as the [[Tajik people|Tajiks]], [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]]s and [[Pamiri people]]s.

=== Cultural assimilation ===
{{See also|Persianization|Persianate society|Turko-Persian tradition|Turco-Persian|Turkification|Islamic conquest of Persia|Persian Arab|Arabization}}

In matters relating to culture, the various [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking minorities of Iran (notably the [[Azerbaijani people]]) and Afghanistan ([[Uzbeks]] and [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]]) are often conversant in Iranian languages, in addition to their own Turkic languages and also have Iranian culture to the extent that the term ''[[Turko-Iranian (disambiguation)|Turko-Iranian]]'' can be applied.<ref>Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, edited by Robert Canfield, ISBN 0-521-52291-9 . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> The usage applies to various circumstances that involve historic interaction, intermarriage, cultural assimilation, bilingualism and cultural overlap or commonalities.

Notable among this synthesis of Turko-Iranian culture are the Azeris, whose culture, religion and significant periods of history are linked to the Persians.<ref name="Belfer">[http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/publication.cfm?program=CSP&ctype=event_reports&item_id=50 "Azerbaijan-Iran Relations: Challenges and Prospects"] — Harvard University, Belfer Center, Caspian Studies Program . Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref> Certain theories and genetic tests<ref name="Iran Cambridge Genetic Study">[http://www.isna.ir/Main/NewsView.aspx?ID=News-727489&Lang=P "Cambridge Genetic Study of Iran"] — ''ISNA (Iranian Students News Agency)'', 06-12-2006, news-code: 8503-06068 . Retrieved 9 June 2006.</ref> suggest that the Azeris are genetically more Iranian than Turkic.

== Genetics ==

{{cleanup|section|date=November 2010}}
{{Further|Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA)}}

Two [[Y-DNA]] [[haplogroups]] are supposed to be connected with Iranian peoples: [[Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)|J2]] and [[R1a1]].

R1 is more closely linked to Iranians, while R1b is linked to Europeans.

'''J2a:'''

[[Haplogroup]] J2 especially the clade J2a is frequently found among almost all groups of Iranian people. In comparison with the haplogroup [[R1a1]], J2 is not only restricted to geographically eastern and western Iranian populations, but also found among north-western and south-western Iranian populations such as the Bakhtiaris and Mazanderani,<ref>t [M. Regueiro et al. (2006), "Iran: Tricontinental Nexus for Y-Chromosome Driven Migration"]</ref><ref>Y haplogroup J in Iran by Alfred A. Aburto Jr. http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/GENEALOGY-DNA/2006-06/1151592332</ref> as well as geographically north-western Iranian [[Ossetians]].<ref>Nasidze, E. Y. S. Ling, D. Quinque et al., "Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Variation in the Caucasus," Annals of Human Genetics (2004) 68,205–221. http://www.eva.mpg.de/genetics/pdf/Caucasus_big_paper.pdf http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118745631/PDFSTART</ref> Despite its supposed origin in the fertile crescent, J2a is also found among Iranian populations in the east such as the [[Yaghnobi people|Yagnobi]] which are of [[Soghdian]] origin<ref>R. Spencer Wells et al., "The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity," PNAS (August 28, 2001), vol. 98, no. 18.</ref> as well as the [[Parsis]] of India.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1086/339929|pmc=447589|pmid= 11898125|title=Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan|year=2002|last1=Qamar|first1=Raheel|last2=Ayub|first2=Qasim|last3=Mohyuddin|first3=Aisha|last4=Helgason|first4=Agnar|last5=Mazhar|first5=Kehkashan|last6=Mansoor|first6=Atika|last7=Zerjal|first7=Tatiana|last8=Tyler-Smith|first8=Chris|last9=Mehdi|first9=S. Qasim|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=70|issue=5|pages=1107–24}}</ref> Beside the relatively high percentage among the Yagnobis in Central Asia, other Iranian populations tend to have a higher frequency of J2a when compared to neighboring Turkic populations.
The relatively strong presence of J2a among [[Ossetians]] as well as [[Yagnobis]] proves distant from the supposed [[Mesopotamian]] origin region of J2, are carriers of this Haplogroup.

In the [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] context, the occurrence of J2a in South Asia is limited to caste populations, with the highest frequencies found among northern areas of South Asia.<ref name="hpgl.stanford.edu">Sengupta, 2006. Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2006_v78_p202-221.pdf</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=1380230|pmid=16400607|year=2006|last1=Sengupta|first1=S|last2=Zhivotovsky|first2=LA|last3=King|first3=R|last4=Mehdi|first4=SQ|last5=Edmonds|first5=CA|last6=Chow|first6=CE|last7=Lin|first7=AA|last8=Mitra|first8=M|last9=Sil|first9=SK|title=Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists|volume=78|issue=2|pages=202–21|doi=10.1086/499411|journal=American journal of human genetics}}</ref> Compared with [[R1a1]], J2a shows a more conservative distribution, stronger limited to Indo-Iranian origin groups.<ref name="hpgl.stanford.edu"/>

'''R:'''

Many Haplotypes of Y-chromosomal Haplogroup R have been found throughout the Iranian Plateau, and it has been suggested that this Haplogroup may have had its origins in Iran. Cambridge University geneticist Toomas Kivisild has suggested : "Given the geographic spread and STR diversities of sister clades R1 and R2, the latter of which is restricted to India, Pakistan, Iran, and southern central Asia, it is possible that southern and western Asia were the source for R1 and R1a differentiation."(Kivisild et al. 2003). A similar conclusion was given by population geneticist Miguel Regueiro in the Journal of Human Heredity (Regueiro et al. Human Heredity vol. 61 (2006), pp. 132–143)

Genetic studies conducted by [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have revealed that Iranians have weak correlation with Near Eastern groups, and are closer to surrounding Indo-Europeans speaking populations.<ref name="Genes">[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v74n5/40813/40813.html "Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor"] — University of Chicago, American Journal of Human Genetics . Retrieved 4 June 2006. {{dead link|date=June 2010| bot=DASHBot}}</ref>
This study is partially supported by another one, based on Y-Chromosome haplogroups.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16770078 Iran: tricontinental nexus for Y-chromosome driven migration] – Regueiro M, Cadenas AM, Gayden T, Underhill PA, Herrera RJ, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, University Park, OE 304, Miami, FL 33199, USA, [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]</ref>

The findings of this study reveal many common genetic markers found among the Iranian people from the [[Tigris]] river of [[Iraq]] to the [[Indus River|Indus]] of [[Pakistan]]. This correlates with the [[Iranian languages]] spoken from the [[Caucasus]] to Kurdish areas in the [[Zagros]] region and eastwards to western Pakistan and Tajikistan and parts of Uzbekistan in [[Central Asia]]. The extensive gene flow is perhaps an indication of the spread of Iranian-speaking people, whose languages are now spoken mainly on the Iranian plateau and adjacent regions.

Another recent study of the genetic landscape of Iran was done by a team of [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]] geneticists led by Dr. Maziar Ashrafian Bonab (an Iranian Azarbaijani).<ref name="Dr. Bonab page">[http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/Research/balloux.htm "Maziar Ashrafian Bonab"]{{dead link|date=July 2010}} — ''Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge'' . Retrieved 9 June 2006. {{Wayback|url=http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/Research/balloux.htm|date =20060618211320|bot=DASHBot}}{{dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref> Bonab remarked that his group had done extensive [[DNA]] testing on different language groups, including [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and non Indo-European speakers, in Iran.<ref name="Iran Cambridge Genetic Study"/> The study found that the Azerbaijanis of Iran do not have a similar FSt and other genetic markers found in Anatolian and European Turks. However, the genetic Fst and other genetic traits like MRca and mtDNA of Iranian Azeris were identical to [[Persian people|Persians]] in Iran. Azaris of Iran also show very close genetic ties to Kurds.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=S. Farjadian1, A. Ghaderi |title=HLA class II similarities in Iranian Kurds and Azeris |journal=International Journal of Immunogenetics |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=457–463 |year=2007 |month=December|pmid= 18001303|doi=10.1111/j.1744-313X.2007.00723.x}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[List of Ancient Iranian peoples]]
* [[Airyanem Vaejah]]
* [[Ajam (Bahrain)]]
{{col-3}}
* [[Bulgars]]
* [[Caspian people]]
* [[Greater Iran]]
* [[Iranian plateau]]
{{col-3}}
* [[Indo-Iranians]]
* [[Turko-Iranian (disambiguation)|Turko-Iranian]]
* [[Iraqi people]]
{{col-end}}

== Literature and further reading ==
* Banuazizi, Ali and Weiner, Myron (eds.). ''The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East)'', Syracuse University Press (August, 1988). ISBN 0-8156-2448-4.
* Canfield, Robert (ed.). ''Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2002). ISBN 0-521-52291-9
* Curzon, R. ''The Iranian People of the Caucasus''. ISBN 0-7007-0649-6.
* Derakhshani, Jahanshah. ''Die Arier in den nahöstlichen Quellen des 3. und 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr.'', 2nd edition (1999). ISBN 964-90368-6-5.
* [[Richard Frye|Frye, Richard]], ''Greater Iran'', Mazda Publishers (2005). ISBN 1-56859-177-2.
* Frye, Richard. ''Persia'', Schocken Books, Zurich (1963). ASIN B0006BYXHY.
* [[Hugh N. Kennedy|Kennedy, Hugh]]. ''The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates'', Longman, New York, NY (2004). ISBN 0-582-40525-4
* [[Philip S. Khoury|Khoury, Philip S.]] & Kostiner, Joseph. ''Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East'', University of California Press (1991). ISBN 0-520-07080-1.
* [[C. Scott Littleton|Littleton, C.]] & [[Linda A. Malcor|Malcor, L.]] ''From Scythia to Camelot'', Garland Publishing, New York, NY, (2000). ISBN 0-8153-3566-0.
* Mallory, J.P. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans'', Thames and Hudson, London (1991). ISBN 0-500-27616-1.
* McDowall, David. ''A Modern History of the Kurds'', I.B. Tauris, 3rd Rev edition (2004). ISBN 1-85043-416-6.
* Nassim, J. ''Afghanistan: A Nation of Minorities'', Minority Rights Group, London (1992). ISBN 0-946690-76-6.
* Riasanovsky, Nicholas. ''A History of Russia'', Oxford University Press, Oxford (2004). ISBN 0-19-515394-4.
* Sims-Williams, Nicholas. ''Indo-Iranian Languages and People'', British Academy (2003). ISBN 0-19-726285-6.
* Iran Nama, ([[Iran]] [[Travel literature|Travelogue]] in [[Urdu language|Urdu]]) by [[Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman]], Tibbi Academy, Aligarh, India (1998).
* [[Saga of the Aryans]], Historical novel on ancient Iranian migrations by Porus Homi Havewala, Published Mumbai, India (2005, 2010).
* Chopra, R. M.,"Indo-Iranian Cultural Relations Through The Ages", Iran Society, Kolkata, 2005.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*[http://torontoparadise.com/page/iranian Iranian]
*[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9368164 Encyclopædia Britannica: Iranian languages]
*[http://www.parstimes.com/people/ People of Iran]
*[http://www.newsweek.com/id/199011 The Changing Face of Iran] a photo essay by ''Newsweek Magazine''
*[http://www.everytongue.com/iran/ Maps and demographic information] on all the people groups of Iran found at www.EveryTongue.com/iran

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Iranian Peoples}}
[[Category:Iranian people|Iranian people]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[ar:شعوب إيرانية]]
[[az:İrandilli xalqlar]]
[[bg:Ирански народи]]
[[bo:ཏ་ཟིག་གི་མི།]]
[[bs:Iranski narodi]]
[[ca:Irànics]]
[[da:Iranske folk]]
[[de:Iranische Völker]]
[[et:Iraani rahvad]]
[[es:Pueblos iranios]]
[[fa:اقوام ایرانی‌تبار]]
[[fr:Peuples iraniens]]
[[hr:Iranski narodi]]
[[id:Bangsa Iran]]
[[os:Ирайнаг адæмтæ]]
[[it:Iranici]]
[[ka:ირანელი ხალხები]]
[[lv:Irāņu tautas]]
[[lt:Iraniečiai]]
[[mg:Iranianina]]
[[mr:इराणी]]
[[mzn:ایرانی تبارون]]
[[ms:Bangsa Iran]]
[[nl:Iraanse volkeren]]
[[pl:Ludy irańskie]]
[[pt:Povos iranianos]]
[[ru:Иранские народы]]
[[sr:Ирански народи]]
[[sh:Iranski narodi]]
[[su:Urang Iran]]
[[sv:Iranier]]
[[tr:İran halkları]]
[[uk:Іранські народи]]
[[zh:伊朗人]]

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-10T20:58:00Z

108.173.174.134: /* Equivalent terms for Ethnic groups west of the indus river */

'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]].

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Equivalent terms for Ethnic groups west of the indus river==
The only ethnic groups living here that would use Gora are Hindkowans, as other languages of non-indo-aryan origin lack the word Gora. Instead terms like Farangi is used to denote Europeans. "Sur" means red, and Sur Farangi means "red-skinned foreigner", which denotes the pinkish tint on light skin of Northern European peoples in contrast to the olive complexion of the natives. The indegenous ethnic groups residing at the edge of the Iranain plateau are chiefly of Mediterranean complexion, maintaining that most have dark hair, dark eyes and a swarthy complexion though frequencies of light hair, light skin and eyes can occur.

Colloquially, the indegenous populations showning nordic features have been called descendants of greeks from Alexander the Great's campaigns, however scholars object to this claim, saying that the nordic features has already been among the indigenous people's whom are of proto-indo-iranian heritage. The Brahui and Burushos don't speak an indo-european language but are just assumed being the same race as the dards and iranian peoples.

==Attractiveness/Beauty==
Light or pale skin or being Gora is trait for beauty for females among many ethnic groups in the Indian subcontinent and Iranian plateau where white women are sought for, however it is not desirable for the males for which a tanned complexion is preferred.

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-09T19:17:56Z

108.173.174.134: /* Equivalent terms for Ethnic groups west of the indus river */

'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]].

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Equivalent terms for Ethnic groups west of the indus river==
The only ethnic groups living here that would use Gora are Hindkowans, as other languages of non-indo-aryan origin lack the word Gora. Instead terms like Farangi is used to denote Europeans. "Sur" means red, and Sur Farangi means "red-skinned foreigner", which denotes the pinkish tint on light skin of Northern European peoples in contrast to the olive complexion of the natives. The indegenous ethnic groups residing at the edge of the Iranain plateau are chiefly of Mediterranean complexion, maintaining that most have dark hair, dark eyes and a swarthy complexion though frequencies of light hair, light skin and eyes can occur.

==Attractiveness/Beauty==
Light or pale skin or being Gora is trait for beauty for females among many ethnic groups in the Indian subcontinent and Iranian plateau where white women are sought for, however it is not desirable for the males for which a tanned complexion is preferred.

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-09T19:12:59Z

108.173.174.134:

'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]].

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Equivalent terms for Ethnic groups west of the indus river==
The only ethnic groups living here that would use Gora are Hindkowans, as other languages of non-indo-aryan origin lack the word Gora. Instead terms like Farangi is used to denote Europeans. "Sur" means red, and Sur Farangi means "red-skinned foreigner", which denotes the pinkish tint on light skin of Northern European peoples. The indegenous ethnic groups residing at the edge of the Iranain plateau are chiefly of Mediterranean complexion, maintaining that most have dark hair, dark eyes and a swarthy complexion though frequencies of light hair, light skin and eyes can occur.

==Attractiveness/Beauty==
Light or pale skin or being Gora is trait for beauty for females among many ethnic groups in the Indian subcontinent and Iranian plateau where white women are sought for, however it is not desirable for the males for which a tanned complexion is preferred.

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-09T19:08:49Z

108.173.174.134:

'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]].

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Equivalent terms for Ethnic groups west of the indus river==
The only ethnic groups living here that would use Gora are Hindkowans, as other languages of non-indo-aryan origin lack the word Gora. Instead terms like Farangi is used to denote Europeans. "Sur" means red, and Sur Farangi means "red-skinned foreigner", which denotes the pinkish tint on light skin of Northern European peoples.

==Attractiveness/Beauty==
Light or pale skin or being Gora is trait for beauty for females among many ethnic groups in the Indian subcontinent and Iranian plateau where white women are sought for, however it is not desirable for the males for which a tanned complexion is preferred.

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-09T18:41:50Z

108.173.174.134:

'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]. It also refers to [[Europeans]], such as people of [[British]] or other [[northern european]] heritage.

The word is typically not used by ethnic groups west of the Indus river ([[Pashtuns]], [[Balochis]] and several other ethic groups), because their languages are not Indo-Aryan, so lack the term "gora". Also, the indigenous populations there are racially of [[mediterranean race|Mediterranean]] complexion, making them significantly fairer than ethnic groups east of the Indus river yet darker than Nordic complexion of northern Europeans. Therefore, the term "farangi" is used instead to refer to British people and other Northern European nationalities. Occasionally, a few Pashtuns, Baloch-Brahui, Dardic peoples (notably [[Kalash]]), [[Burusho people|Burushos]], and other groups in such regions may be born with a Nordic appearance and thus be colloquially called a Farangi or Gora with their appearance resembling Northern Europeans such as the British. Colloquially, they're considered to be proof European descendants from Alexander the great's Macedonian/Greek empire, however some deny this claim stating that ancient Greeks had the same [[Mediterranean]] complexion as the peoples related to proto-indo-iranians, and that Nordic appearence is notable for other ethnic groups living much north in Europe such as the proto-Germanic peoples.

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> the Gora Kabrastan in [[Karachi]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/031002/review6.htm Grave business]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/030824/dmag11.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-09T18:41:15Z

108.173.174.134:

'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]. It also refers to [[Europeans]], such as the [[British]].

The word is typically not used by ethnic groups west of the Indus river ([[Pashtuns]], [[Balochis]] and several other ethic groups), because their languages are not Indo-Aryan, so lack the term "gora". Also, the indigenous populations there are racially of [[mediterranean race|Mediterranean]] complexion, making them significantly fairer than ethnic groups east of the Indus river yet darker than Nordic complexion of northern Europeans. Therefore, the term "farangi" is used instead to refer to British people and other Northern European nationalities. Occasionally, a few Pashtuns, Baloch-Brahui, Dardic peoples (notably [[Kalash]]), [[Burusho people|Burushos]], and other groups in such regions may be born with a Nordic appearance and thus be colloquially called a Farangi or Gora with their appearance resembling Northern Europeans such as the British. Colloquially, they're considered to be proof European descendants from Alexander the great's Macedonian/Greek empire, however some deny this claim stating that ancient Greeks had the same [[Mediterranean]] complexion as the peoples related to proto-indo-iranians, and that Nordic appearence is notable for other ethnic groups living much north in Europe such as the proto-Germanic peoples.

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> the Gora Kabrastan in [[Karachi]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/031002/review6.htm Grave business]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/030824/dmag11.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-09T18:40:51Z

108.173.174.134:

'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]. It also refers to [[Europeans]], specifically more to those with a [[Nordic complexion]] which is rare among almost all indigenous peoples of the Iranian plateu and India subcontinent.

The word is typically not used by ethnic groups west of the Indus river ([[Pashtuns]], [[Balochis]] and several other ethic groups), because their languages are not Indo-Aryan, so lack the term "gora". Also, the indigenous populations there are racially of [[mediterranean race|Mediterranean]] complexion, making them significantly fairer than ethnic groups east of the Indus river yet darker than Nordic complexion of northern Europeans. Therefore, the term "farangi" is used instead to refer to British people and other Northern European nationalities. Occasionally, a few Pashtuns, Baloch-Brahui, Dardic peoples (notably [[Kalash]]), [[Burusho people|Burushos]], and other groups in such regions may be born with a Nordic appearance and thus be colloquially called a Farangi or Gora with their appearance resembling Northern Europeans such as the British. Colloquially, they're considered to be proof European descendants from Alexander the great's Macedonian/Greek empire, however some deny this claim stating that ancient Greeks had the same [[Mediterranean]] complexion as the peoples related to proto-indo-iranians, and that Nordic appearence is notable for other ethnic groups living much north in Europe such as the proto-Germanic peoples.

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> the Gora Kabrastan in [[Karachi]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/031002/review6.htm Grave business]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/030824/dmag11.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-09T18:31:17Z

108.173.174.134:

'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]. It also refers to [[Europeans]].

The word is typically not used by ethnic groups west of the Indus river ([[Pashtuns]], [[Balochis]] and several other ethic groups), because their languages are not Indo-Aryan, so lack the term "gora". Also, the indigenous populations there are racially of [[mediterranean race|Mediterranean]] complexion, making them significantly fairer than ethnic groups east of the Indus river yet darker than Nordic complexion of northern Europeans. Therefore, the term "farangi" is used instead to refer to British people and other Northern European nationalities. Occasionally, a few Pashtuns, Baloch-Brahui, Dardic peoples (notably [[Kalash]]), [[Burusho people|Burushos]], and other groups in such regions may be born with a Nordic appearance and thus be colloquially called a Farangi or Gora with their appearance resembling Northern Europeans such as the British. Colloquially, they're considered to be proof European descendants from Alexander the great's Macedonian/Greek empire, however some deny this claim stating that ancient Greeks had the same [[Mediterranean]] complexion as the peoples related to proto-indo-iranians, and that Nordic appearence is notable for other ethnic groups living much north in Europe such as the proto-Germanic peoples.

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> the Gora Kabrastan in [[Karachi]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/031002/review6.htm Grave business]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/030824/dmag11.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-09T18:30:41Z

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'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]. It also refers to [[Europeans]].

The word is typically not used by ethnic groups west of the Indus river ([[Pashtuns]], [[Balochis]] and several other ethic groups), because their languages are not Indo-Aryan, so lack the term "gora". Also, the indigenous populations there are racially of [[mediterranean race|Mediterranean]] complexion, making them significantly fairer than ethnic groups east of the Indus river yet darker than Nordic complexion of northern Europeans. Therefore, the term "farangi" is used instead to refer to British people and other Northern European nationalities. Occasionally, a few Pashtuns, Baloch-Brahui, Dardic peoples (notably [[Kalash]]), [[Burushos]], and other groups in such regions may be born with a Nordic appearance and thus be colloquially called a Farangi or Gora with their appearance resembling Northern Europeans such as the British. Colloquially, they're considered to be proof European descendants from Alexander the great's Macedonian/Greek empire, however some deny this claim stating that ancient Greeks had the same [[Mediterranean]] complexion as the peoples related to proto-indo-iranians, and that Nordic appearence is notable for other ethnic groups living much north in Europe such as the proto-Germanic peoples.

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> the Gora Kabrastan in [[Karachi]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/031002/review6.htm Grave business]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/030824/dmag11.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}

Peoples' Aman Committee

2013-02-05T05:23:06Z

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The '''Peoples' Aman Committee''' ({{lang-ur|پیپلز امن کمیٹی}}) or '''Peoples' Peace Committee''' is a paramilitary group tied to the [[Pakistan People's Party]] and based in [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]]. The PAC was founded by the infamous Karachi gangster [[Rehman Dakait]] in 2008 and is accused of being involved in organized crime and gang wars.<ref>{{cite news|title=Beyond the Grave|url=http://www.newslinemagazine.com/2010/02/beyond-the-grave/|newspaper=[[Newsline (magazine)]]|date=28 February 2010}}</ref><ref name="ET1">{{cite news|title=The war may be over, but the Lyari battlefield has just opened up|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/155380/the-war-may-be-over-but-the-lyari-battlefield-has-just-opened-up/|newspaper=[[The Express Tribune]]|date=24 April 2011}}</ref> After Rehman's death in 2009, leadership of the group was taken over by Uzair Baloch.<ref>{{cite news|title=Uzair Baloch ‘crowned’ as new ‘don’ in Lyari|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2009\08\13\story_13-8-2009_pg12_2|newspaper=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)]]|date=13 August 2009}}</ref>

The PAC is avowedly a support group for the [[Pakistan Peoples Party]], the current ruling party in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news|title=People’s Aman Committee is PPP’s wing: Mirza|url=http://www.samaa.tv/newsdetail.aspx?ID=29257|newspaper=[[SAMAA TV]]|date=6 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Mirza says People’s Aman Committee social organisation|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=4533&Cat=13|newspaper=[[The News International]]|date=11 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=I want to contest election from Lyari: Uzair Baloch|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2010\12\14\story_14-12-2010_pg7_17|newspaper=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)]]|date=14 December 2010}}</ref>

The organization initially only served Lyari, but soon offices were set up in other [[Baloch people|Baloch]] populated neighbourhoods of Karachi, such as Dalmiya (Shantinagar), [[Malir]], [[Gadap]], [[Old Golimar]], Mawach Goth, and even in some nearby town and villages in [[Sindh]] and [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]].

The PAC has a bitter rivalry with the [[Muttahida Qaumi Movement]] (MQM) in the city of Karachi.<ref name="ET1" /><ref>{{cite news|title=MQM holds ANP, Peoples Aman Committee responsible for killings|url=http://www.arynews.tv/english/newsdetail.asp?nid=38408|newspaper=[[ARY News]]|date=17 October 2010}}</ref> In March 2011, the PAC agreed to disband after its parent organization the Pakistan Peoples Party was pressured by its then allies, the MQM.<ref>{{cite news|title=Lyari group: Peoples Amn Committee to shut offices|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/133576/lyari-group-peoples-amn-committee-to-shut-offices/|newspaper=[[The Express Tribune]]|date=17 March 2011}}</ref> Despite being officially defunct, the organization continues to function ''de facto'' on the ground.<ref name="ET1" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Defunct Peoples Amn Committee : Govt given three days to bring peace to Lyari|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/165276/defunct-peoples-amn-committee-govt-given-three-days-to-bring-peace-to-lyari/|newspaper=[[The Express Tribune]]|date=10 May 2011}}</ref>

==Peoples Aman Committee Banned==
The notification issued on October 11, 2011 banned Peoples' Aman Committee under Clause (11/B) of Anti-terrorism Act 1997.<ref>[http://www.thenews.com.pk/article-24325-People%E2%80%99s-Aman-Committee-banned Peoples Aman Committee Banned]. Thenews.com.pk. October 11, 2011. Retrieved on 2012-05-04.</ref>

Sindh Home Ministry, after putting ban on People’s Aman Committee (PAC), has finally issued its notification. Also, the ministry in its order has directed the law enforcement agencies to monitor activities of the committee.<ref>[http://samaa.tv/newsdetail.aspx?ID=37476&CID=1 Ban on Peoples Aman Committee Notified]. Samaa.tv (2011-10-11). Retrieved on 2012-05-04.</ref>

According to home ministry-issued notification, the PAC has been declared defunct outfit, outlawing establishment of its offices and restricting its activities anywhere in the province.

Meanwhile, the order has also directed security agencies to keep stern eye over the activities of committee.

Earlier on Friday, former Home Minister Sindh Dr. Zulfiqar Mirza said to a press conference that he was going to revive activities of PAC, challenging Interior Minister A. Rehman Malik to dare ban committee in what is known to be the Headquarters of the PAC – Lyari.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

[[Category:Pakistan Peoples Party]]
[[Category:Politics of Karachi]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Karachi]]
[[Category:Organised crime in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Crime in Karachi]]

== See also==
*[[Baloch Nationalism]]

Land ownership in Canada

2013-02-04T06:16:53Z

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'''Land ownership in Canada''' is held by governments, Native groups, corporations, and individuals. [[Canada]] is the second largest country in the world by area; at 9,093,507 km² or 3,511,085 mi² of land (and more if fresh water is included) it occupies more than 6% of the Earth's surface. Since Canada uses primarily English-derived [[common law]], the holders of the land actually have [[land tenure]] (permission to hold land from [[the Crown]]) rather than absolute ownership.<ref>http://www.aucc.ca/_pdf/english/programs/cepra/cad-wp3.pdf</ref>

== Crown Lands ==
{{See also|Crown_land#Canada}}

The majority of all lands in Canada are held by governments in the name of the monarch and are called [[Crown Land]]s. About 89% of Canada's land area (8,886,356 km²) is Crown Land, which may either be [[Government of Canada|federal]] (41%) or [[Legislative Assemblies of Canadian provinces and territories|provincial]] (48%); the remaining 11% is privately owned.<ref name="Crown">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0002049|
title=Crown Land|accessdate=2007-02-12|author=V.P. NEIMANIS|work=The Canadian Encyclopedia: Geography|publisher=Historica Foundation of Canada}}</ref>
Most federal Crown land is in the Canadian territories ([[Northwest Territories]], [[Nunavut]] and [[Yukon]]), and is administered on behalf of [[Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada]]; only 4% of land in the provinces is federally controlled, largely in the form of [[National Parks of Canada|National Parks]], [[Indian reserves]], or [[Canadian Forces]] bases. In contrast, provinces hold much of their territory as provincial Crown Land, which may be held as [[List of Canadian provincial parks|Provincial Parks]] or wilderness.

The largest class of landowners are the provincial governments, who hold all unclaimed land in their jurisdiction in the name of the Crown ([[Crown Lands]]). Over 90% of the sprawling [[boreal forest of Canada]] is provincial Crown land.<ref>State of Canada's Forests 2004-2005, p. 49</ref> Provincial lands account for 60% of the area of the province of Alberta,<ref>[http://www.srd.alberta.ca/lands/geographicinformation/resourcedataproductcatalogue/greenwwhiteareas.aspx]</ref> 94% of the land in [[British Columbia]],<ref>[http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/clad/crownland_factsheet.pdf; Minister of Agriculture and Lands; ''Crown Land Fact Sheet''.]</ref> 95% of [[Newfoundland and Labrador]],<ref name="Crown" /> and 48% of [[New Brunswick]].<ref>[http://www.elements.nb.ca/theme/sustainableforestry/simon/mitchell.htm Mitchell; Simon, J.; ''Who Owns Crown Lands?''; Falls Brook Centre; June, 2003]</ref>

The largest single landowner in Canada by far, and by extension one of the world's largest, is the [[Government of Canada|federal government]]. The bulk of the federal government's lands are in the vast [[Northern Canada|northern territories]] where Crown Lands are vested in the federal, rather than territorial, government. In addition the federal government owns [[National Parks of Canada|national parks]], [[First Nations reserves]] and [[Canadian Forces Base|national defence installations]].

Until the [[Natural Resources Acts]] of 1930 the prairie provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, and to a limited extent British Columbia, did not control Crown Lands or subsoil rights within their boundaries, which instead rested with the federal government. This deprived them of the benefits of [[royalties]] from mining, oil and gas, or forestry (stumpage) within their boundaries. This was a major source of [[Western alienation]] at the time.

== History of land distribution ==
In [[New France]] land was settled according to the [[seigneurial system of New France|seigneurial system]], which was similar to the type of late feudalism practised in France at the time, and land was divided into long strip lots running back from the riverfront. This land pattern was also used in certain areas of Western Canada by French and Metis settlers.

In contrast, areas of British settlement used square block patterns of land distribution. Those in Eastern Canada contoured around geographical features and consisted of smaller lots. In Western Canada, where the American-influenced [[Dominion Land Survey]] was used, geographical features were ignored in favour of geometric standardization, and lots were much larger.

In [[Canadian law]] all lands are subject to the Crown, and this has been true since Britain acquired much of [[Eastern Canada]] from France by the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]]. However, the British and Canadian authorities recognized that indigenous peoples already on the lands had a prior claim, [[Aboriginal title]], which was not extinguished by the arrival of the Europeans. This is in direct contrast to the situation in Australia where the continent was declared [[Terra nullius]], or vacant land, and was seized from Aboriginal peoples without compensation. In consequence, all of Canada, save a section of southern Quebec exempted by the [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]], is subject to Aboriginal title. Native groups historically negotiated treaties in which they traded tenure to the land for annuities and certain legal exemptions and privileges. Most of Western Canada was secured in this way by the government via the [[Numbered Treaties]] of 1871 to 1921, though not all groups signed treaties. In particular, in most of Brirish Columbia Aboriginal title has never been transferred to the Crown. Native groups, either those that never signed treaties or those that are dissatisfied with the execution of treaties can lodge [[Aboriginal land claims]] against the government.

The Crown also gave tenure to much of Canada to a private company, the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] which from 1670 to 1870 had a legal and economic monopoly on all land in the [[Rupert's Land]] territory (identical to the [[drainage basin]] of [[Hudson Bay]]), and later the [[Columbia District]] and the [[North-Western Territory]] (now British Columbia, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and [[Nunavut]]) were added to the HBC's lands, making it one of the largest private landowners in world history. In 1868 the [[Imperial Parliament]] passed the ''[[Rupert's Land Act]]'' that saw most of this land ownership transferred to the Dominion of Canada.

After Canada acquired the HBC's land in 1870, it used the land as an economic tool to promote development. Under the [[Dominion Lands Act]] system of 1871, huge areas were given to the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] to fund its transcontinental line, other areas were reserved for school boards to be sold to fund education, and the rest was distributed to settlers for agriculture. Settlers paid a $10 fee and agreed to make some improvements within a specified time for {{convert|180|acres}} of land. This was at a time of extreme land shortage in many agricultural areas of Europe, and aided in the rapid settlement of Western Canada. In areas where ranching was preferred to field agriculture (e.g. [[southern Alberta]]), large areas were leased to [[cattle baron]]s at a nominal rate, allowing the development of an industrial-scale beef export industry centred on the city of [[Calgary]].

At the same time, major land reforms were underway in Prince Edward Island to end the practise of [[absentee landlordism]], which locals felt exploited them. The Government of Canada agreed to provide the Island with an $800,000 fund to purchase the remaining absentee landlord's estates as part of negotiations that brought PEI into Confederation.

Lands given out in the early years of the Dominion Lands Act included rights to the subsoil, including all minerals, oil, or natural gas found below the property. Later grants (after circa 1900) did not include subsoil rights. As a result, in the leading petroleum producing province of Alberta,
81% of the subsurface mineral rights are owned by the provincial Crown. The remaining 19% are owned by the federal Crown, individuals, or corporations.<ref>http://www.energy.alberta.ca/Org/pdfs/FS_Royalties.pdf</ref>

== Characteristics of modern distribution ==
The result of cheaply distributed land and land reforms has been that modern Canada's land holding pattern is very egalitarian and large-scale. The majority of the population owns some land, often in large quantities. This is distinct from the few large landed estates and masses of tenant farmers typical of [[Old World]] and Latin American countries that have not enacted [[land reforms]], the communal and state ownership typical of Communist countries, or the small-holdings in those parts of Europe and Latin America where the estates were broken up.

== Recent trends ==
In the last century, the trend in Canada has been for a smaller percentage of people to own land, as more urbanization has turned people into renters. Still Canada has one of the world's highest rates of home ownership, which actually increased during the economic boom of the mid 2000s. In 2008, of the 12.4 million households in Canada, more than 8.5 million, over two-thirds (68.4%) owned their home, the highest rate since 1971. Much of the recent increases were in the form of [[condominium]]s, however, which are not land ownership in the traditional sense. In 1981, less than 4% of owner households owned condominiums. By 2001, this proportion had more than doubled to 9%, and by 2006, it had reached 10.9%.<ref>http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/080604/dq080604a-eng.htm</ref> Again, this reflects the impact of urbanization which has changed land holding patterns substantially.

In rural areas, the trend has been towards further farm consolidation. The number of farms has continually decreased since the end of the pioneering era in Western Canada (as recently as the 1930s in some regions, but more generally 1914), and at the same time, farm sizes have increased.

The other trend in rural Canada is for more urbanites to own summer homes, cottages, cabins, acreages, and hobby farms, taking land out of agricultural use.

==See also==
* [[Land tenure]]
* [[Landholder]]
* Patterns of landholding: [[Feudalism]] / [[Smallholding]] / [[Commune (intentional community)|Commune]] / [[Sharecropping]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Land Ownership In Canada}}
[[Category:Geography of Canada]]
[[Category:Property law of Canada]]
[[Category:Real estate in Canada]]

Afghans in India

2013-02-04T06:02:52Z

108.173.174.134:

{{Citations missing|date=August 2012}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group= Afghans in India
|image=
|langs= [[Persian language|Persian]] <small>([[Dari (Persian)|Dari]])</small>{{·}} [[Pashto language|Pashto]]{{·}} [[Urdu]] / [[Hindi]]{{·}} [[Languages of Afghanistan|others]]
|poptime= 10,000
|popplace= [[Delhi]], [[Chennai]]
|rels= [[Hinduism]]{{·}} [[Sikhism]]{{·}} [[Islam]]
|related= [[Afghan diaspora]], [[Pashtun diaspora]], [[Rohilla]]
}}

'''Afghans in India''' are a large community numbering up to 10,000.<ref>[http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/news/opendoc.htm?tbl=NEWS&id=441190254&page=news UNHCR]</ref> Most are recent [[Hindu]] and [[Sikh]] refugees who fled the [[Taliban]] regime and political instability back in [[Afghanistan]]; they are concentrated in and around [[Delhi]]. Muslim families account for only 10% of Afghan nationals in India, although recent migration has seen a boost in numbers.

Apart from citizens and expatriates, there are hundreds of [[Islam in India|Muslim communities in India]] which trace their ancestries back to Afghan [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] forefathers. Before the founding of the modern state of Afghanistan, Afghan used to be synonymous with Pashtuns, and there's been much history of Pashtun people that have been in India, and Indian muslims that claim to be of Pashtun descent (however some have moved to Pakistan).

Tribal divisions among Pashtuns maybe important, for example the Pashtun rulers that were the Khilji,Lodi,Suri dynasty were Ghilzais as opposed to many Indian muslim communities that call themselves Yusufzai, a Pashtun tribal branch distinct from the Ghilzais.

Currently, there are no or very few Ethnic Afghans (excluding modern Afghanistani nationalities) that retained their culture in India, except for a few in the disputed Jammu and Kashmir region that India has claims over. NWFP was incorporated into India by the British empire's campaigns against Afghanistan, where Frontier province Pashtuns were known as Afghans of India, however it is now part of Pakistan. [[Kader Khan]] is a notable example of a Pashtun who was born on the british side of the [[Durand line]] and moved to mumbai post partition, thus being an indian only national with Pashtun culture, as he is still knowledgeable of Pashto.

==History==
===Ancient Era===
The Aryan invasion says likely that the origin of Aryans likely came from Afghanistan, then moved into India. Another source states that Aryans were heavily concentrated as many tribes in Nurestan. Interestingly is also clues the origin of Sanskrit, and the idea of Indo-Iranians, where Zoroaster is likely thought to be of such an ethnic group based on the convergence between [[Sanskrit]] and [[Avestan]], and the divergence between Nuristani languages and the typical Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi and Urdu.

There have been a connection between Afghanistan and India. Known kingdoms during the [[Mahajanapadas]] were [[Kambojas]] which constitutes [[Nuristan]] and [[Gandhara]] which constitutes Peshawar.

===Pashtun===
The history of Afghans in India is ambiguous since in the medieval era, Afghan and Pashtun were synonymous, meaning that the other ethnic groups in Afghanistan such as Tajiks and Hazaras were not considered Afghan in the past[Citation Required]. So in general, this means that in the past, any mentioning of Afghan means Pashtun, and not as a nationality since no such state of "Afghanistan" existed however the region constituting Afghanistan has been connected with India, since the start of the [[Mauryan dynasty]] to the end of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] empire, where Afghanistan was connected with India. So really, Afghanistan in the past meant the land directly south of Kabul, denoting Pashtun territories, excluding non-Pashtuns for being Afghan. The rise the [[Durrani Empire]] is what caused the adoption of the term Afghan by non-Pashtuns, which is what led to the change of such a demonym.

===Georgraphic region of present day Afghanistan===
Apart from Pashtuns, when considering the Afghan geographic region itself apart from the synonym with Pashtun, dynasties that was controlled part of the Indian subcontinent are as fallows: [[Saffarids]], [[Samanids]], [[Ghaznavids]], [[Ghurids]] up until the [[Delhi Sultanate]], all have which centered in a city that falls in present day Afghanistan, and not necessarily ethnic Pashtun dynasties.

==Indians of Ethnic Afghan descent (old defintion)==
Also note that many Pashtun Indian muslims have moved to Pakistan after the partition of India and then became citizens of Pakistan.

See: [[Rohillas]], [[Pathans of Uttar Pradesh]], [[Pathans of Bihar]], [[Pathans of Punjab]], [[Pathans of Rajasthan]], [[Pathans of Gujarat]]

==Indians of National Afghan descent (new definition)==
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2012}}

* [[Shahrukh Khan]]- [[Bollywood]] Actor, Director and Producer
* [[Salman Khan]]-[[Bollywood]] Actor
* [[Aamir Khan]]-Bollywood Actor
* [[Naseeruddin Shah]]-Bollywood Actor
* [[Salim Durani]] - Indian cricketer
* [[Feroz Khan]] - Indian actor
* [[Sanjay Khan]] - Indian actor
* [[Akbar Khan (director)|Akbar Khan]] - Film director
* [[Fardeen Khan]] - Indian actor
* [[Zayed Khan]] - Indian actor
* [[Saleem Iqbal Shervani]] - Indian politician
* [[Celina Jaitley]] - Indian actress

==See also==
* [[Afghans in Pakistan]]
* [[Afghanistan-India relations]]
* [[Indians in Afghanistan]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Afghan diaspora}}
{{Immigration to India}}

[[Category:Afghan expatriates in India| ]]
[[Category:Indian people of Afghan descent| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Immigration to India]]

Tibetan Muslims

2013-02-04T03:18:34Z

108.173.174.134: /* See also */

[[Image:Entrance to old mosque in Lhasa - 1993.jpg|thumb|250px|Entrance to old mosque in Lhasa - 1993.]]
[[Image:Lhasa mosque.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Tibetan mosque in Lhasa]]

The '''Tibetan Muslims''', also known as the '''Kachee''' ({{bo|t=ཀ་ཆེ་|w=ka-che}}; also spelled Kache), form a small minority in [[Tibet]]. Despite being [[Muslim]], they are [[List of ethnic groups in China#Officially recognized ethnic groups in mainland China|officially recognized]] as [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China|government]] of the [[People's Republic of China]], unlike the [[Hui (Chinese ethnic group)|Hui]] Muslims, who are separately recognized. The Tibetan word '''Kachee''' literally means '''Kashmiri''' and [[Kashmir]] was known as '''Kachee Yul''' (Yul means Country).

== Ancestry ==

Generally speaking, the Tibetan Muslims are unique in the fact that they are largely of [[Persian people|Persian]]/[[Arab]]/[[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] descent through the [[patrilineal]] lineage and also often descendants of native [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] through the [[matrilineal]] lineage, although the reverse is not uncommon. Thus, many of them display a mixture of [[Indo-Iranians|Indo European]] and [[Tibetan people|indigenous Tibetan]] features.

== History ==

The appearance of the first Muslims in [[Tibet]] has been lost in the mists of time, although variants of the names of Tibet can be found in Arabic history books.

During the reign of the [[Ummayad]] [[Caliph]] [[Umar bin Abdul Aziz]], a delegation from [[Tibet]] and [[China]] requested him to send Islamic missionaries to their countries, and [[Salah bin Abdullah Hanafi]] was sent to Tibet. Between the eighth and ninth centuries, the [[Abbasid]] rulers of [[Baghdad]] maintained relations with Tibet. However, there was little [[proselytisation]] among the missionaries at first, although many of them decided to settle in Tibet and marry Tibetan women. In 710-720,during the reign of [[Me Agtsom]] the [[Arabs]], who now had more of a presence in [[China]], started to appear in [[Tibet]] and were allied with them along with the Eastern [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] against the Chinese. During the reign of [[Sadnalegs]] (799-815), there was a protracted war with Arab powers to the West. It appears that Tibetans captured a number of [[Arab]] troops and pressed them into service on the Eastern frontier in 801. Tibetans were active as far West as [[Samarkand]] and [[Kabul]]. Arab forces began to gain the upper hand, and the Tibetan governor of [[Kabul]] submitted to the Arabs and became a Muslim about 812 or 815 <ref>Beckwith, Christopher I. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages, 1987, Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02469-3, p. 14, 48, 50.</ref>

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[Islam in China]]
*[[Hui people]]
*[[Dungan people]]
*[[Salar people]]
*[[Balti people]]

==References==
* Siddiqui, Ataullah. (1991). "Muslims of Tibet." ''The Tibet Journal''. Vol. XVI, No. 4. Winter, 1991, pp. 71–85.
* Sheikh, Abdul Ghani. (1991). "Tibetan Muslims." ''The Tibet Journal''. Vol. XVI, No. 4. Winter, 1991, pp. 86–89.

==External links==
* [http://www.tibet.com/Muslim/index.html Tibetan Muslims]
* [http://www.fonsvitae.com/tibetbook.html Islam in Tibet: Preface by His Holiness The Dalai Lama; Including 'Islam in the Tibetan Cultural Sphere'; 'Buddhist and Islamic Viewpoints of Ultimate Reality'; and The Illustrated Narrative 'Tibetan Caravans'- Fons Vitae books]
* [http://www.fonsvitae.com/tibetvideo.html Islam in Tibet 'The Ornaments of Llasa' Video - Fons Vitae books]
* [http://www.informatik.uni-freiburg.de/~danlee/photo-albums/tb-photos/ Gallery of Tibet (Includes picture of a Minaret)]
* [http://liquidcycles.com/albums/tibet/muslim_quarter_in_lhasa.jpg Mosque in Lhasa]
* [http://warburg.sas.ac.uk/islamtibet/indexit.htm Islam and Tibet: cultural interactions, 8th to 17th centuries]
* [http://www.eurasiareview.com/20122012-exploring-ethnicities-a-sociological-profile-of-tibetan-muslim-community-on-kashmir-valley-analysis/ Exploring Ethnicities: A Sociological Profile Of Tibetan Muslim Community In Kashmir Valley – Analysis]

{{Asia in topic|Islam in}}

[[Category:Islam by country|Tibet]]
[[Category:Tibetan people]]
[[Category:Muslim communities]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of China]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in China]]
[[Category:Religion in Tibet]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora by country]]

[[ar:الإسلام في التبت]]
[[es:Islam en Tíbet]]
[[fr:Musulmans tibétains]]
[[id:Muslim Tibet]]
[[ms:Islam di Tibet]]
[[nl:Islam in Tibet]]
[[simple:Tibetan Muslims]]
[[zh:古格人]]

Pakistani clothing

2013-02-03T05:34:24Z

108.173.174.134:

The term '''Pakistani clothing''' refers to the [[ethnic]] [[clothing]] that is typically worn by individuals in the country of [[Pakistan]] and by the People of Pakistani descent. Pakistani clothes express the [[Culture of Pakistan]], the [[People of Pakistan|Demographics of Pakistan]] and regional Cultures which include [[Punjabi culture]], [[Sindhi culture]], [[Baloch people#Baluchi culture|Balochi culture]], [[Pashtun culture]] and [[Culture of Kashmir|Kashmiri culture]]. Dresses in each regional culture reflect weather conditions, way of living and distinctive style which gives it a unique identity among all cultures.

Pakistani dressing has similarities with Indian dressing because of pre-[[Partition of India|partition]] culture which was shared by these nations for thousand years but the religious factor was always there which makes a difference. Traditional Pakistani dressing also shares similarities between the ethnic groups of central asia and ethnicities of the Iranian plateau such as the turkic ethnic groups (I.E Khazakhs, Uzbecks, Turkmens) and Iranic ethnic groups (Tajiks,Khorasani persians and Pashtoons), that have been seperate from the cultures of modern day Pakistan during the [[Durand line| Durand agreement]] between Afghanistan and the British raj.

With the passage of time Pakistanis are adapting modern dresses and cultural clothing, especially in big countries.

== Pakistani national dress ==
[[Image:Shalwar Kameez.jpg|thumb|right|Pakistani man and a child wearing shalwar kameez]]
The [[shalwar kameez]] is the [[national dress]] of [[Pakistan]] and is worn by men and women in all four provinces [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Sindh]], [[Baluchistan]], [[Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa]] and [[FATA]] in the country and in [[Azad Kashmir]]. Each province has its own style of wearing the Shalwar Qameez.Pakistanis wairclothes range from exquisite colors and designs to the type of fabric ([[silk]], [[chiffon]], [[cotton]], etc.).<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7li2jpQgYvAC&pg=PA382&dq=national+dress+of+pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aIPZT7KnCIXJ0QXcsuj3Aw&ved=0CEsQ6AEwAQ |title=Unquiet Pasts: Risk Society, Lived Cultural Heritage, Re-Designing Reflexivity - Stephanie Koerner, Ian Russell - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.com |date=2010-08-16 |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>

== Men's clothing ==
Men all over Pakistan prefer shalwar kameez with some additional accessories which include Pakistani [[Waistcoat]], [[Achkan]] and [[Sherwani]] with the shalwar kameez or with [[Churidar]] [[Pajama]]. Jinnah Cap also called [[Karakul (hat)|Karakul]], [[Karakul (hat)|Fez]] also called Rumi Topi and [[Taqiyah (cap)]] is used with Shalwar Kameez. [[Khussa]] is a popular foot wear with shalwar kameez. Men like to wear traditional [[shawl]]s made of [[Pashmina]] or other warm materials especially in Northern part of the country.

===Regional clothing===

In regional clothing, Balochi people wear shalwar kameez of thick cloth with very wide shalwar to prevent themselves from the hot wind of dry [[Sulaiman Mountains|Sulaiman Range]] and [[Kharan Desert]]. They wear Balochi [[turban]] made of a very long cloth, often in white color to prevent their head from sun rays.Sindhi people wear shalwar kameez with traditional [[Sindhi cap]] and [[Ajrak]] of beautiful designs which are made locally.Punjabi men wear simple shalwar kameez, [[Kurta]] Shalwar and [[Dhoti]] kurta according to Punjabi climate. Turban of a thin cloth is also used with Shalwar Kameez especially in rural areas of Punjab where it is called [[Pagri (turban)|Pagri]]. [[Khussa]] is also used with Dhoti Kurta. In [[Pashtun dress]], people wear traditional Peshawari Chappal<ref>{{cite web|last=Shah |first=Danial |url=http://www.flickr.com/photos/edanial/3701053305/ |title=Peshawari Chappal | Flickr - Photo Sharing! |publisher=Flickr |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> in feet and [[Pakul]] with Shalwar kameez. Kashmiri people use Pheran,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://treasurekashmir.com/kashmir-coats-n-tops/pheran-traditional-kashmiri-gown/ |title=Pheran (Traditional Kashmiri Gown) |publisher=Treasure Kashmir |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> [[Shahmina]], [[Shahtoosh]] and [[Jamavar]] which makes them warm in the cold climate of Kashmir.

== Women's clothing ==
[[Image:Model in Traditional Dress.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pakistani Model displaying Traditional Dress in a Fashion Show]]

===Shalwar kameez===
The most favorite dressing among [[Women in Pakistan|Pakistani women]] is [[shalwar kameez]] which is worn in different styles, colors and designs especially the front part of kameez is decorated with different styles and designs of [[embroidery]]. It is worn with different sleeve length, shirt length, necklines and different types of shalwars like [[patiala salwar]], [[churidar]] [[pajama]] and simple [[trouser]]. [[Kurta]] is also worn by women in latest designs. [[Dupatta]] is an essential part of shalwar kameez and considered a symbol of woman's respect.It is used with different embroidery designs of Kamdani<ref>[http://www.alibaba.com/product-free/115961352/Kamdani.html ]{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref> and [[Gota Work|Gota]].

===Other traditional dresses===
Pakistani women have variety of traditional dresses other than Shalwar Kameez but they mostly wear them in special occasions like Wedding, Engagement, [[Mehndi]] and other traditional ceremonies. Among these dresses [[Sari]]s are very popular and its each design and color seems unique from the other e.g. [[Lehenga Style Saree|Lehenga Style Sari]]. [[Lehenga#Lehenga|Lehenga]] is another popular dress which resembles with skirt but a typical traditional dress. [[Gharara]] and Sharara are two resembling dresses which are often used in ceremonies. [[Farshi Pajama]] is an old traditional dress which is worn occasionally. Laacha is worn in Eastern part of the country, its a dress which resembles with [[Dhoti]] from its lower part.

===Regional clothing===
In regional clothing, Balochi women wear heavy embroided Shalwar Kameez and Dupatta according to the weather conditions. They wear Kameez full of heavy Embroided [[Shisha (embroidery)|Shisha work]]. Sindhi costumes have different styles of embroidery and some women use [[Ajrak]] as Dupatta. these women also wear [[bangle]]s in their traditional way. Punjabi women prefer light embroidery on simple Shalwar Kameez or Kurta. Traditional Lacha and Bangles are also used. Paranda is the special traditional, colorful and unique Punjabi item which is used to tie the hair. Pathan women wear embroided Kameez with a farak with a heavy Dupatta.

===Religious clothing===
By women's religious clothing we mean the dressing in which they try to cover all their body parts except face and hands while going outside from their home.Mostly women cover their heads with Dupatta or Chadar in outdoors but religious women prefer to wear [[Scarf]], [[Burqa]] or [[Hijab]] and wear lose, long and full [[sleeve]] shirts.

===New trends===
With the passage of time Pakistani women has started to adapt new styles some of which are the combination of Pakistani and Western clothing. Like women wear Embroided Kurta with [[Jeans]] and Trousers. Tight half sleeve and sleeveless shirts with [[Capri pants|Capri]] trousers have also been adopted.

==Wedding dresses==
In Pakistan the [[Pakistani wedding|traditional wedding ceremony]] is celebrated by wearing different clothes in each wedding event. In [[Mehndi]] function, Men wear Embroided Kurta in glittering colors with simple Shalwar, [[Patiala salwar|Patiala Shalwar]] or Patiala Dhoti and a colorful Shawl which they put on their shoulders and sometimes round the neck. In some weddings, dress code is decided before the ceremony and all men wear the same color. women usually wear yellow or orange Shalwar Kameez with simple Shalwar, Patiala Shalwar or Dhoti Shalwar.<ref>http://www.paklinks.com/gsmedia/files/61479/vijaydhoti.jpg</ref> Yellow Dupatta and Yellow Paranda is also preferred with it.

During [[Baraat]] and [[Walima]] functions, the [[Bridegroom|Groom]] usually wears Kurta Shalwar or Kurta [[Churidar]] with special [[Sherwani]] and [[Khussa]]. During the event of Baraat, Grooms also wear Traditional [[Sehra]] on their head. [[Bride]]s normally wear expensive Lehnga preferably in red, maroon and pink colors with heavy [[Jewellery]].

==Pakistani clothing companies and brands==
Here is a list of Pakistani clothing companies and brands.
*[[Karma (clothing)|Karma]]
*deZined.com by Mehwish Abbas [http://dezined.com]
*[[Amir Adnan]]
*[[Gul Ahmed]]
*[[HSY Studio]]
*[[Hussain Industries]]
*[[Minhas Gloves Industries]]
*[[Batapur]]
* [[CrossRoads (clothing)|CrossRoads]]
*[[Charizma Riaz Arts]]
* Marvelous Fashion Studio [http://www.ralli.com.pk (Ralli)]

==Pakistani fashion websites==
* [http://www.daraz.pk Daraz.Pk]
* [http://dezined.com deZined.com]
* [http://style.pk/ Pakistan Fashion Magazine Style.Pk]
* [http://fashioninstep.com/ Pakistan Fashion in Pakistan]
* [http://www.forma.pk FORMA.pk]
* [http://www.PakistanBridal.com PakistanBridal]
* [http://profashionstyle.com Fashion Pakistan]

==Pakistani fashion==
Pakistani [[fashion]] has flourished well in the changing environment of fashion world. Since Pakistan came into being its fashion has been historically evolved from different phases and made its unique identity apart from Indian fashion and culture. At this time, Pakistani fashion is a combination of traditional and modern dresses and it has become the cultural identification of Pakistan. Despite of all modern trends, the regional and traditional dresses have developed their own significance as a symbol of native tradition. This regional fashion is not static but evolving into more modern and pure forms.

Pakistan Fashion Design Council based in [[Lahore]] organizes ''Fashion Week'' and Fashion Pakistan based in [[Karachi]] organizes fashion shows in that city. Credit goes to Ayesha Tammy Haq, a British-trained lawyer and chief executive of Fashion Pakistan, who came up with the idea for Pakistan’s first fashion week, held in November 2009.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-pakistan-fashion-weeks-thrive-beyond-the-style-capitals-of-the-world/2012/04/24/gIQAt3qcgT_story.html In Pakistan, fashion weeks thrive beyond the style capitals of the world]</ref>

===Make-up===
[[Makeup|Make-up]] is considered an essential part of Fashion and Dressing in Pakistan.Some people in Pakistan and many south Asian countries think as white or pale skin beautiful. In the US it is the opposite.In Pakistan, make-up plays a big part for weddings. There is an odd part of the culture saying that a bride must be lighter than her husband. This is when skin lightening is used.

===Pakistani fashion industry===
Pakistani fashion industry is introducing Pakistani traditional dresses all over the world as cultural representatives and becoming a reason to introduce international trends in Pakistan. [[Pakistani media]], [[Pakistani film industry|Film Industry]] and [[Internet in Pakistan|Internet]] has the biggest role in promoting fashion in Pakistan. There are a lot of [[TV channel|TV Channels]], [[Magazine]]s, Portals<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itservices.hku.hk/news/ccnews100/portal.htm |title=What is a Portal? |publisher=Itservices.hku.hk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> and [[website]]s which are working only for fashion industry. Despite of the religious boundaries Pakistani Fashion Industry has become recognized all over the world through its [[Model (person)|models]], [[designer]]s, [[stylists]] and [[fashion show]]s.
[[Image:Group Photo of Artists.jpg|thumb|350px|right|A Group Photo of Pakistani Fashion Industry's Designers, Models and Stylists.]]

====Pakistani fashion designers====
Pakistani fashion designers are very creative. They have deep insight of Pakistani and international fashion. They are well-known all over the world and won many international awards. Here is a list of Pakistani fashion designers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/designers/ |title=Pakistani Designers, Fashion Designers Pakistan, Designer Boutiques |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Maheen Ali]]
*[[Sadaf Malaterre]]
*[[Mehmood Bhatti]]
*[[Deepak Perwani]]
*[[Kamiar Rokni]]
*[[Hassan Sheheryar Yasin]]
* [[Amir Adnan]]
* [[Junaid Jamshed]]

====Pakistani fashion models====
Here is the list of Pakistani models.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/models/ |title=Pakistani Fashion Models Pakistan Female Fashion Models |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date=1976-07-15 |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>

=====Male models=====
*[[Ali Zafar]]
*[[Ahmed Butt]]
*[[Ameer Zeb Khan]]
*[[Aijaz Aslam]]
*[[Bilal Khan]]
*[[Fawad Afzal Khan]]
*[[Fahad Mustafa]]
*[[Azfar Rehman]]
*[[Babrik Shah]]
*[[Mikaal Zulfiqar]]

=====Female models=====
* [[Amina Haq]]
* [[Amina Shafaat]]
* [[Ayesha Gilani]]
* [[Ayesha Omar]]
* [[Ayyan Ali]]
* [[Iman Ali]]
* [[Jia Ali]]
* [[Juggan Kazim]]
* [[Iffat Rahim]]
* [[Mariyah Moten]]
* [[Meera (Pakistani actress)|Meera]]
* [[Mehreen Raheel]]
* [[Mehreen Syed]]
* [[Nargis Fakhri]]
* [[Noor (actress)|Noor]]
* [[Nosheen Idrees]]
* [[Neha Ahmed]]
* [[Rachel Gill]]
* [[Reema Khan]]
* [[Rubya Chaudhry]]
* [[Saba Qamar]]
* [[Sadia Imam]]
* [[Saman Hasnain]]
* [[Sana (Lollywood)]]
* [[Suneeta Marshall]]
* [[Tanya Shafi]]
* [[Tooba Siddiqui]]
* [[Vaneeza Ahmad]]
* [[Veena Malik]]
* [[Yasmeen Ghauri]]
* [[Zara Sheikh]]
* [[Zainab Qayyum]]

====Pakistani fashion photographers====
Like other fields of fashion, Pakistani fashion photographers have made their way in the industry. These [[Fashion photography|Fashion Photographers]] are the eyes of fashion industry through which they observe and present beauty to the people.
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion photographers<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/photographers/ |title=Pakistan Fashion Photographers, Top Pakistani Fashion Photographers |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Amean J]]
*[[Maram & Aabroo|Maram Aabroo]]

====Pakistani fashion stylists====
Pakistani stylists have also a major contribution in giving the celebrities a new look. Their work is also appreciated within and outside of Pakistan.
Here is a list of Pakistani Fashion stylists<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/stylists/ |title=List of top Pakistani Fashion Stylists at Fashion Central |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Tariq Amin]]
*[[Anusheh Asad]]
[[Image:Pakistani Fashion Event.JPG|thumb|400px|right|Models in a Pakistani Fashion Event]]

====Pakistani fashion events====
Extensive fashion activities are shown in Pakistani Fashion Events held in different parts of the country as well as abroad in which versatile approaches towards new trends always amuse the spectators. The famous Pakistani Fashion Events<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/ramp/ |title=Fashion Ramp Pakistan Fashion Shows, Pakistani Fashion Weeks |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> are as follows.
*[[Lahore Fashion Week]]
*[[Karachi Fashion Week]]
*PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/tags/pfdc-sunsilk-fashion-week-2012-karachi/ |title=PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week 2012 - Karachi, PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week Karachi |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Miss Pakistan World]]
*[[Mrs. Pakistan World]]

====Pakistani fashion awards====
[[Lux Style Award]] is the biggest award till now and the industry have plans to start new awards as well.

====Pakistani fashion schools====
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion institutes.
*[[Pakistan Institute of Fashion and Design]]

====Pakistani fashion media====
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion media.
*[[Fashion Central (Pakistani magazine)|Fashion Central]]
*[[Style 360]]
*[[Fashion TV#Pakistan|Fashion TV Pakistan]]

==Gallery==
<center>
<gallery>
File:Punjabi Couple.jpg|Traditional Punjabi Dress of Punjab, Pakistan
File:Pashtun Couple.jpg|Traditional Pashtun Dress of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
File:Sindhi Couple.jpg|Traditional Sindhi Dress of Sindh, Pakistan
</gallery>
</center>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Clothing in South Asia}}
{{Pakistan topics}}
{{Pakistani fashion}}

[[Category:Pakistani clothing]]

Pakistani clothing

2013-02-03T05:33:59Z

108.173.174.134:

The term '''Pakistani clothing''' refers to the [[ethnic]] [[clothing]] that is typically worn by individuals in the country of [[Pakistan]] and by the People of Pakistani descent. Pakistani clothes express the [[Culture of Pakistan]], the [[People of Pakistan|Demographics of Pakistan]] and regional Cultures which include [[Punjabi culture]], [[Sindhi culture]], [[Baloch people#Baluchi culture|Balochi culture]], [[Pashtun culture]] and [[Culture of Kashmir|Kashmiri culture]]. Dresses in each regional culture reflect weather conditions, way of living and distinctive style which gives it a unique identity among all cultures.

Pakistani dressing has similarities with Indian dressing because of pre-[[Partition of India|partition]] culture which was shared by these nations for thousand years but the religious factor was always there which makes a difference. Traditional Pakistani dressing also shares similarities between the ethnic groups of central asia and ethnicities of the Iranian plateau such as the turkic ethnic groups (I.E Khazakhs, Uzbecks, Turkmens) and Iranic ethnic groups (Tajiks,Khorasani persians and Pashtoons), that have been seperate from the cultures of modern day Pakistan during the [[Durand agreement]] between Afghanistan and the British raj.

With the passage of time Pakistanis are adapting modern dresses and cultural clothing, especially in big countries.

== Pakistani national dress ==
[[Image:Shalwar Kameez.jpg|thumb|right|Pakistani man and a child wearing shalwar kameez]]
The [[shalwar kameez]] is the [[national dress]] of [[Pakistan]] and is worn by men and women in all four provinces [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Sindh]], [[Baluchistan]], [[Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa]] and [[FATA]] in the country and in [[Azad Kashmir]]. Each province has its own style of wearing the Shalwar Qameez.Pakistanis wairclothes range from exquisite colors and designs to the type of fabric ([[silk]], [[chiffon]], [[cotton]], etc.).<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7li2jpQgYvAC&pg=PA382&dq=national+dress+of+pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aIPZT7KnCIXJ0QXcsuj3Aw&ved=0CEsQ6AEwAQ |title=Unquiet Pasts: Risk Society, Lived Cultural Heritage, Re-Designing Reflexivity - Stephanie Koerner, Ian Russell - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.com |date=2010-08-16 |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>

== Men's clothing ==
Men all over Pakistan prefer shalwar kameez with some additional accessories which include Pakistani [[Waistcoat]], [[Achkan]] and [[Sherwani]] with the shalwar kameez or with [[Churidar]] [[Pajama]]. Jinnah Cap also called [[Karakul (hat)|Karakul]], [[Karakul (hat)|Fez]] also called Rumi Topi and [[Taqiyah (cap)]] is used with Shalwar Kameez. [[Khussa]] is a popular foot wear with shalwar kameez. Men like to wear traditional [[shawl]]s made of [[Pashmina]] or other warm materials especially in Northern part of the country.

===Regional clothing===

In regional clothing, Balochi people wear shalwar kameez of thick cloth with very wide shalwar to prevent themselves from the hot wind of dry [[Sulaiman Mountains|Sulaiman Range]] and [[Kharan Desert]]. They wear Balochi [[turban]] made of a very long cloth, often in white color to prevent their head from sun rays.Sindhi people wear shalwar kameez with traditional [[Sindhi cap]] and [[Ajrak]] of beautiful designs which are made locally.Punjabi men wear simple shalwar kameez, [[Kurta]] Shalwar and [[Dhoti]] kurta according to Punjabi climate. Turban of a thin cloth is also used with Shalwar Kameez especially in rural areas of Punjab where it is called [[Pagri (turban)|Pagri]]. [[Khussa]] is also used with Dhoti Kurta. In [[Pashtun dress]], people wear traditional Peshawari Chappal<ref>{{cite web|last=Shah |first=Danial |url=http://www.flickr.com/photos/edanial/3701053305/ |title=Peshawari Chappal | Flickr - Photo Sharing! |publisher=Flickr |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> in feet and [[Pakul]] with Shalwar kameez. Kashmiri people use Pheran,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://treasurekashmir.com/kashmir-coats-n-tops/pheran-traditional-kashmiri-gown/ |title=Pheran (Traditional Kashmiri Gown) |publisher=Treasure Kashmir |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> [[Shahmina]], [[Shahtoosh]] and [[Jamavar]] which makes them warm in the cold climate of Kashmir.

== Women's clothing ==
[[Image:Model in Traditional Dress.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pakistani Model displaying Traditional Dress in a Fashion Show]]

===Shalwar kameez===
The most favorite dressing among [[Women in Pakistan|Pakistani women]] is [[shalwar kameez]] which is worn in different styles, colors and designs especially the front part of kameez is decorated with different styles and designs of [[embroidery]]. It is worn with different sleeve length, shirt length, necklines and different types of shalwars like [[patiala salwar]], [[churidar]] [[pajama]] and simple [[trouser]]. [[Kurta]] is also worn by women in latest designs. [[Dupatta]] is an essential part of shalwar kameez and considered a symbol of woman's respect.It is used with different embroidery designs of Kamdani<ref>[http://www.alibaba.com/product-free/115961352/Kamdani.html ]{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref> and [[Gota Work|Gota]].

===Other traditional dresses===
Pakistani women have variety of traditional dresses other than Shalwar Kameez but they mostly wear them in special occasions like Wedding, Engagement, [[Mehndi]] and other traditional ceremonies. Among these dresses [[Sari]]s are very popular and its each design and color seems unique from the other e.g. [[Lehenga Style Saree|Lehenga Style Sari]]. [[Lehenga#Lehenga|Lehenga]] is another popular dress which resembles with skirt but a typical traditional dress. [[Gharara]] and Sharara are two resembling dresses which are often used in ceremonies. [[Farshi Pajama]] is an old traditional dress which is worn occasionally. Laacha is worn in Eastern part of the country, its a dress which resembles with [[Dhoti]] from its lower part.

===Regional clothing===
In regional clothing, Balochi women wear heavy embroided Shalwar Kameez and Dupatta according to the weather conditions. They wear Kameez full of heavy Embroided [[Shisha (embroidery)|Shisha work]]. Sindhi costumes have different styles of embroidery and some women use [[Ajrak]] as Dupatta. these women also wear [[bangle]]s in their traditional way. Punjabi women prefer light embroidery on simple Shalwar Kameez or Kurta. Traditional Lacha and Bangles are also used. Paranda is the special traditional, colorful and unique Punjabi item which is used to tie the hair. Pathan women wear embroided Kameez with a farak with a heavy Dupatta.

===Religious clothing===
By women's religious clothing we mean the dressing in which they try to cover all their body parts except face and hands while going outside from their home.Mostly women cover their heads with Dupatta or Chadar in outdoors but religious women prefer to wear [[Scarf]], [[Burqa]] or [[Hijab]] and wear lose, long and full [[sleeve]] shirts.

===New trends===
With the passage of time Pakistani women has started to adapt new styles some of which are the combination of Pakistani and Western clothing. Like women wear Embroided Kurta with [[Jeans]] and Trousers. Tight half sleeve and sleeveless shirts with [[Capri pants|Capri]] trousers have also been adopted.

==Wedding dresses==
In Pakistan the [[Pakistani wedding|traditional wedding ceremony]] is celebrated by wearing different clothes in each wedding event. In [[Mehndi]] function, Men wear Embroided Kurta in glittering colors with simple Shalwar, [[Patiala salwar|Patiala Shalwar]] or Patiala Dhoti and a colorful Shawl which they put on their shoulders and sometimes round the neck. In some weddings, dress code is decided before the ceremony and all men wear the same color. women usually wear yellow or orange Shalwar Kameez with simple Shalwar, Patiala Shalwar or Dhoti Shalwar.<ref>http://www.paklinks.com/gsmedia/files/61479/vijaydhoti.jpg</ref> Yellow Dupatta and Yellow Paranda is also preferred with it.

During [[Baraat]] and [[Walima]] functions, the [[Bridegroom|Groom]] usually wears Kurta Shalwar or Kurta [[Churidar]] with special [[Sherwani]] and [[Khussa]]. During the event of Baraat, Grooms also wear Traditional [[Sehra]] on their head. [[Bride]]s normally wear expensive Lehnga preferably in red, maroon and pink colors with heavy [[Jewellery]].

==Pakistani clothing companies and brands==
Here is a list of Pakistani clothing companies and brands.
*[[Karma (clothing)|Karma]]
*deZined.com by Mehwish Abbas [http://dezined.com]
*[[Amir Adnan]]
*[[Gul Ahmed]]
*[[HSY Studio]]
*[[Hussain Industries]]
*[[Minhas Gloves Industries]]
*[[Batapur]]
* [[CrossRoads (clothing)|CrossRoads]]
*[[Charizma Riaz Arts]]
* Marvelous Fashion Studio [http://www.ralli.com.pk (Ralli)]

==Pakistani fashion websites==
* [http://www.daraz.pk Daraz.Pk]
* [http://dezined.com deZined.com]
* [http://style.pk/ Pakistan Fashion Magazine Style.Pk]
* [http://fashioninstep.com/ Pakistan Fashion in Pakistan]
* [http://www.forma.pk FORMA.pk]
* [http://www.PakistanBridal.com PakistanBridal]
* [http://profashionstyle.com Fashion Pakistan]

==Pakistani fashion==
Pakistani [[fashion]] has flourished well in the changing environment of fashion world. Since Pakistan came into being its fashion has been historically evolved from different phases and made its unique identity apart from Indian fashion and culture. At this time, Pakistani fashion is a combination of traditional and modern dresses and it has become the cultural identification of Pakistan. Despite of all modern trends, the regional and traditional dresses have developed their own significance as a symbol of native tradition. This regional fashion is not static but evolving into more modern and pure forms.

Pakistan Fashion Design Council based in [[Lahore]] organizes ''Fashion Week'' and Fashion Pakistan based in [[Karachi]] organizes fashion shows in that city. Credit goes to Ayesha Tammy Haq, a British-trained lawyer and chief executive of Fashion Pakistan, who came up with the idea for Pakistan’s first fashion week, held in November 2009.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-pakistan-fashion-weeks-thrive-beyond-the-style-capitals-of-the-world/2012/04/24/gIQAt3qcgT_story.html In Pakistan, fashion weeks thrive beyond the style capitals of the world]</ref>

===Make-up===
[[Makeup|Make-up]] is considered an essential part of Fashion and Dressing in Pakistan.Some people in Pakistan and many south Asian countries think as white or pale skin beautiful. In the US it is the opposite.In Pakistan, make-up plays a big part for weddings. There is an odd part of the culture saying that a bride must be lighter than her husband. This is when skin lightening is used.

===Pakistani fashion industry===
Pakistani fashion industry is introducing Pakistani traditional dresses all over the world as cultural representatives and becoming a reason to introduce international trends in Pakistan. [[Pakistani media]], [[Pakistani film industry|Film Industry]] and [[Internet in Pakistan|Internet]] has the biggest role in promoting fashion in Pakistan. There are a lot of [[TV channel|TV Channels]], [[Magazine]]s, Portals<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itservices.hku.hk/news/ccnews100/portal.htm |title=What is a Portal? |publisher=Itservices.hku.hk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> and [[website]]s which are working only for fashion industry. Despite of the religious boundaries Pakistani Fashion Industry has become recognized all over the world through its [[Model (person)|models]], [[designer]]s, [[stylists]] and [[fashion show]]s.
[[Image:Group Photo of Artists.jpg|thumb|350px|right|A Group Photo of Pakistani Fashion Industry's Designers, Models and Stylists.]]

====Pakistani fashion designers====
Pakistani fashion designers are very creative. They have deep insight of Pakistani and international fashion. They are well-known all over the world and won many international awards. Here is a list of Pakistani fashion designers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/designers/ |title=Pakistani Designers, Fashion Designers Pakistan, Designer Boutiques |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Maheen Ali]]
*[[Sadaf Malaterre]]
*[[Mehmood Bhatti]]
*[[Deepak Perwani]]
*[[Kamiar Rokni]]
*[[Hassan Sheheryar Yasin]]
* [[Amir Adnan]]
* [[Junaid Jamshed]]

====Pakistani fashion models====
Here is the list of Pakistani models.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/models/ |title=Pakistani Fashion Models Pakistan Female Fashion Models |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date=1976-07-15 |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>

=====Male models=====
*[[Ali Zafar]]
*[[Ahmed Butt]]
*[[Ameer Zeb Khan]]
*[[Aijaz Aslam]]
*[[Bilal Khan]]
*[[Fawad Afzal Khan]]
*[[Fahad Mustafa]]
*[[Azfar Rehman]]
*[[Babrik Shah]]
*[[Mikaal Zulfiqar]]

=====Female models=====
* [[Amina Haq]]
* [[Amina Shafaat]]
* [[Ayesha Gilani]]
* [[Ayesha Omar]]
* [[Ayyan Ali]]
* [[Iman Ali]]
* [[Jia Ali]]
* [[Juggan Kazim]]
* [[Iffat Rahim]]
* [[Mariyah Moten]]
* [[Meera (Pakistani actress)|Meera]]
* [[Mehreen Raheel]]
* [[Mehreen Syed]]
* [[Nargis Fakhri]]
* [[Noor (actress)|Noor]]
* [[Nosheen Idrees]]
* [[Neha Ahmed]]
* [[Rachel Gill]]
* [[Reema Khan]]
* [[Rubya Chaudhry]]
* [[Saba Qamar]]
* [[Sadia Imam]]
* [[Saman Hasnain]]
* [[Sana (Lollywood)]]
* [[Suneeta Marshall]]
* [[Tanya Shafi]]
* [[Tooba Siddiqui]]
* [[Vaneeza Ahmad]]
* [[Veena Malik]]
* [[Yasmeen Ghauri]]
* [[Zara Sheikh]]
* [[Zainab Qayyum]]

====Pakistani fashion photographers====
Like other fields of fashion, Pakistani fashion photographers have made their way in the industry. These [[Fashion photography|Fashion Photographers]] are the eyes of fashion industry through which they observe and present beauty to the people.
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion photographers<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/photographers/ |title=Pakistan Fashion Photographers, Top Pakistani Fashion Photographers |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Amean J]]
*[[Maram & Aabroo|Maram Aabroo]]

====Pakistani fashion stylists====
Pakistani stylists have also a major contribution in giving the celebrities a new look. Their work is also appreciated within and outside of Pakistan.
Here is a list of Pakistani Fashion stylists<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/stylists/ |title=List of top Pakistani Fashion Stylists at Fashion Central |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Tariq Amin]]
*[[Anusheh Asad]]
[[Image:Pakistani Fashion Event.JPG|thumb|400px|right|Models in a Pakistani Fashion Event]]

====Pakistani fashion events====
Extensive fashion activities are shown in Pakistani Fashion Events held in different parts of the country as well as abroad in which versatile approaches towards new trends always amuse the spectators. The famous Pakistani Fashion Events<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/ramp/ |title=Fashion Ramp Pakistan Fashion Shows, Pakistani Fashion Weeks |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> are as follows.
*[[Lahore Fashion Week]]
*[[Karachi Fashion Week]]
*PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/tags/pfdc-sunsilk-fashion-week-2012-karachi/ |title=PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week 2012 - Karachi, PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week Karachi |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Miss Pakistan World]]
*[[Mrs. Pakistan World]]

====Pakistani fashion awards====
[[Lux Style Award]] is the biggest award till now and the industry have plans to start new awards as well.

====Pakistani fashion schools====
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion institutes.
*[[Pakistan Institute of Fashion and Design]]

====Pakistani fashion media====
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion media.
*[[Fashion Central (Pakistani magazine)|Fashion Central]]
*[[Style 360]]
*[[Fashion TV#Pakistan|Fashion TV Pakistan]]

==Gallery==
<center>
<gallery>
File:Punjabi Couple.jpg|Traditional Punjabi Dress of Punjab, Pakistan
File:Pashtun Couple.jpg|Traditional Pashtun Dress of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
File:Sindhi Couple.jpg|Traditional Sindhi Dress of Sindh, Pakistan
</gallery>
</center>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Clothing in South Asia}}
{{Pakistan topics}}
{{Pakistani fashion}}

[[Category:Pakistani clothing]]

Pakistani clothing

2013-02-03T05:32:10Z

108.173.174.134:

The term '''Pakistani clothing''' refers to the [[ethnic]] [[clothing]] that is typically worn by individuals in the country of [[Pakistan]] and by the People of Pakistani descent. Pakistani clothes express the [[Culture of Pakistan]], the [[People of Pakistan|Demographics of Pakistan]] and regional Cultures which include [[Punjabi culture]], [[Sindhi culture]], [[Baloch people#Baluchi culture|Balochi culture]], [[Pashtun culture]] and [[Culture of Kashmir|Kashmiri culture]]. Dresses in each regional culture reflect weather conditions, way of living and distinctive style which gives it a unique identity among all cultures.

Pakistani dressing has similarities with Indian dressing because of pre-[[Partition of India|partition]] culture which was shared by these nations for thousand years but the religious factor was always there which makes a difference. Pakistani dressing also shares similarities between the ethnic groups of central asia such as the turkic ethnic groups (I.E Khazakhs, Uzbecks, Turkmens) and Iranic ethnic groups (Tajiks and Pashtoons), that have been seperate from Pakistan during the [[Durand agreement]] between Afghanistan and the British raj.

With the passage of time Pakistanis are adapting modern dresses and cultural clothing, especially in big countries.

== Pakistani national dress ==
[[Image:Shalwar Kameez.jpg|thumb|right|Pakistani man and a child wearing shalwar kameez]]
The [[shalwar kameez]] is the [[national dress]] of [[Pakistan]] and is worn by men and women in all four provinces [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Sindh]], [[Baluchistan]], [[Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa]] and [[FATA]] in the country and in [[Azad Kashmir]]. Each province has its own style of wearing the Shalwar Qameez.Pakistanis wairclothes range from exquisite colors and designs to the type of fabric ([[silk]], [[chiffon]], [[cotton]], etc.).<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7li2jpQgYvAC&pg=PA382&dq=national+dress+of+pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aIPZT7KnCIXJ0QXcsuj3Aw&ved=0CEsQ6AEwAQ |title=Unquiet Pasts: Risk Society, Lived Cultural Heritage, Re-Designing Reflexivity - Stephanie Koerner, Ian Russell - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.com |date=2010-08-16 |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>

== Men's clothing ==
Men all over Pakistan prefer shalwar kameez with some additional accessories which include Pakistani [[Waistcoat]], [[Achkan]] and [[Sherwani]] with the shalwar kameez or with [[Churidar]] [[Pajama]]. Jinnah Cap also called [[Karakul (hat)|Karakul]], [[Karakul (hat)|Fez]] also called Rumi Topi and [[Taqiyah (cap)]] is used with Shalwar Kameez. [[Khussa]] is a popular foot wear with shalwar kameez. Men like to wear traditional [[shawl]]s made of [[Pashmina]] or other warm materials especially in Northern part of the country.

===Regional clothing===

In regional clothing, Balochi people wear shalwar kameez of thick cloth with very wide shalwar to prevent themselves from the hot wind of dry [[Sulaiman Mountains|Sulaiman Range]] and [[Kharan Desert]]. They wear Balochi [[turban]] made of a very long cloth, often in white color to prevent their head from sun rays.Sindhi people wear shalwar kameez with traditional [[Sindhi cap]] and [[Ajrak]] of beautiful designs which are made locally.Punjabi men wear simple shalwar kameez, [[Kurta]] Shalwar and [[Dhoti]] kurta according to Punjabi climate. Turban of a thin cloth is also used with Shalwar Kameez especially in rural areas of Punjab where it is called [[Pagri (turban)|Pagri]]. [[Khussa]] is also used with Dhoti Kurta. In [[Pashtun dress]], people wear traditional Peshawari Chappal<ref>{{cite web|last=Shah |first=Danial |url=http://www.flickr.com/photos/edanial/3701053305/ |title=Peshawari Chappal | Flickr - Photo Sharing! |publisher=Flickr |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> in feet and [[Pakul]] with Shalwar kameez. Kashmiri people use Pheran,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://treasurekashmir.com/kashmir-coats-n-tops/pheran-traditional-kashmiri-gown/ |title=Pheran (Traditional Kashmiri Gown) |publisher=Treasure Kashmir |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> [[Shahmina]], [[Shahtoosh]] and [[Jamavar]] which makes them warm in the cold climate of Kashmir.

== Women's clothing ==
[[Image:Model in Traditional Dress.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pakistani Model displaying Traditional Dress in a Fashion Show]]

===Shalwar kameez===
The most favorite dressing among [[Women in Pakistan|Pakistani women]] is [[shalwar kameez]] which is worn in different styles, colors and designs especially the front part of kameez is decorated with different styles and designs of [[embroidery]]. It is worn with different sleeve length, shirt length, necklines and different types of shalwars like [[patiala salwar]], [[churidar]] [[pajama]] and simple [[trouser]]. [[Kurta]] is also worn by women in latest designs. [[Dupatta]] is an essential part of shalwar kameez and considered a symbol of woman's respect.It is used with different embroidery designs of Kamdani<ref>[http://www.alibaba.com/product-free/115961352/Kamdani.html ]{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref> and [[Gota Work|Gota]].

===Other traditional dresses===
Pakistani women have variety of traditional dresses other than Shalwar Kameez but they mostly wear them in special occasions like Wedding, Engagement, [[Mehndi]] and other traditional ceremonies. Among these dresses [[Sari]]s are very popular and its each design and color seems unique from the other e.g. [[Lehenga Style Saree|Lehenga Style Sari]]. [[Lehenga#Lehenga|Lehenga]] is another popular dress which resembles with skirt but a typical traditional dress. [[Gharara]] and Sharara are two resembling dresses which are often used in ceremonies. [[Farshi Pajama]] is an old traditional dress which is worn occasionally. Laacha is worn in Eastern part of the country, its a dress which resembles with [[Dhoti]] from its lower part.

===Regional clothing===
In regional clothing, Balochi women wear heavy embroided Shalwar Kameez and Dupatta according to the weather conditions. They wear Kameez full of heavy Embroided [[Shisha (embroidery)|Shisha work]]. Sindhi costumes have different styles of embroidery and some women use [[Ajrak]] as Dupatta. these women also wear [[bangle]]s in their traditional way. Punjabi women prefer light embroidery on simple Shalwar Kameez or Kurta. Traditional Lacha and Bangles are also used. Paranda is the special traditional, colorful and unique Punjabi item which is used to tie the hair. Pathan women wear embroided Kameez with a farak with a heavy Dupatta.

===Religious clothing===
By women's religious clothing we mean the dressing in which they try to cover all their body parts except face and hands while going outside from their home.Mostly women cover their heads with Dupatta or Chadar in outdoors but religious women prefer to wear [[Scarf]], [[Burqa]] or [[Hijab]] and wear lose, long and full [[sleeve]] shirts.

===New trends===
With the passage of time Pakistani women has started to adapt new styles some of which are the combination of Pakistani and Western clothing. Like women wear Embroided Kurta with [[Jeans]] and Trousers. Tight half sleeve and sleeveless shirts with [[Capri pants|Capri]] trousers have also been adopted.

==Wedding dresses==
In Pakistan the [[Pakistani wedding|traditional wedding ceremony]] is celebrated by wearing different clothes in each wedding event. In [[Mehndi]] function, Men wear Embroided Kurta in glittering colors with simple Shalwar, [[Patiala salwar|Patiala Shalwar]] or Patiala Dhoti and a colorful Shawl which they put on their shoulders and sometimes round the neck. In some weddings, dress code is decided before the ceremony and all men wear the same color. women usually wear yellow or orange Shalwar Kameez with simple Shalwar, Patiala Shalwar or Dhoti Shalwar.<ref>http://www.paklinks.com/gsmedia/files/61479/vijaydhoti.jpg</ref> Yellow Dupatta and Yellow Paranda is also preferred with it.

During [[Baraat]] and [[Walima]] functions, the [[Bridegroom|Groom]] usually wears Kurta Shalwar or Kurta [[Churidar]] with special [[Sherwani]] and [[Khussa]]. During the event of Baraat, Grooms also wear Traditional [[Sehra]] on their head. [[Bride]]s normally wear expensive Lehnga preferably in red, maroon and pink colors with heavy [[Jewellery]].

==Pakistani clothing companies and brands==
Here is a list of Pakistani clothing companies and brands.
*[[Karma (clothing)|Karma]]
*deZined.com by Mehwish Abbas [http://dezined.com]
*[[Amir Adnan]]
*[[Gul Ahmed]]
*[[HSY Studio]]
*[[Hussain Industries]]
*[[Minhas Gloves Industries]]
*[[Batapur]]
* [[CrossRoads (clothing)|CrossRoads]]
*[[Charizma Riaz Arts]]
* Marvelous Fashion Studio [http://www.ralli.com.pk (Ralli)]

==Pakistani fashion websites==
* [http://www.daraz.pk Daraz.Pk]
* [http://dezined.com deZined.com]
* [http://style.pk/ Pakistan Fashion Magazine Style.Pk]
* [http://fashioninstep.com/ Pakistan Fashion in Pakistan]
* [http://www.forma.pk FORMA.pk]
* [http://www.PakistanBridal.com PakistanBridal]
* [http://profashionstyle.com Fashion Pakistan]

==Pakistani fashion==
Pakistani [[fashion]] has flourished well in the changing environment of fashion world. Since Pakistan came into being its fashion has been historically evolved from different phases and made its unique identity apart from Indian fashion and culture. At this time, Pakistani fashion is a combination of traditional and modern dresses and it has become the cultural identification of Pakistan. Despite of all modern trends, the regional and traditional dresses have developed their own significance as a symbol of native tradition. This regional fashion is not static but evolving into more modern and pure forms.

Pakistan Fashion Design Council based in [[Lahore]] organizes ''Fashion Week'' and Fashion Pakistan based in [[Karachi]] organizes fashion shows in that city. Credit goes to Ayesha Tammy Haq, a British-trained lawyer and chief executive of Fashion Pakistan, who came up with the idea for Pakistan’s first fashion week, held in November 2009.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-pakistan-fashion-weeks-thrive-beyond-the-style-capitals-of-the-world/2012/04/24/gIQAt3qcgT_story.html In Pakistan, fashion weeks thrive beyond the style capitals of the world]</ref>

===Make-up===
[[Makeup|Make-up]] is considered an essential part of Fashion and Dressing in Pakistan.Some people in Pakistan and many south Asian countries think as white or pale skin beautiful. In the US it is the opposite.In Pakistan, make-up plays a big part for weddings. There is an odd part of the culture saying that a bride must be lighter than her husband. This is when skin lightening is used.

===Pakistani fashion industry===
Pakistani fashion industry is introducing Pakistani traditional dresses all over the world as cultural representatives and becoming a reason to introduce international trends in Pakistan. [[Pakistani media]], [[Pakistani film industry|Film Industry]] and [[Internet in Pakistan|Internet]] has the biggest role in promoting fashion in Pakistan. There are a lot of [[TV channel|TV Channels]], [[Magazine]]s, Portals<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itservices.hku.hk/news/ccnews100/portal.htm |title=What is a Portal? |publisher=Itservices.hku.hk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> and [[website]]s which are working only for fashion industry. Despite of the religious boundaries Pakistani Fashion Industry has become recognized all over the world through its [[Model (person)|models]], [[designer]]s, [[stylists]] and [[fashion show]]s.
[[Image:Group Photo of Artists.jpg|thumb|350px|right|A Group Photo of Pakistani Fashion Industry's Designers, Models and Stylists.]]

====Pakistani fashion designers====
Pakistani fashion designers are very creative. They have deep insight of Pakistani and international fashion. They are well-known all over the world and won many international awards. Here is a list of Pakistani fashion designers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/designers/ |title=Pakistani Designers, Fashion Designers Pakistan, Designer Boutiques |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Maheen Ali]]
*[[Sadaf Malaterre]]
*[[Mehmood Bhatti]]
*[[Deepak Perwani]]
*[[Kamiar Rokni]]
*[[Hassan Sheheryar Yasin]]
* [[Amir Adnan]]
* [[Junaid Jamshed]]

====Pakistani fashion models====
Here is the list of Pakistani models.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/models/ |title=Pakistani Fashion Models Pakistan Female Fashion Models |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date=1976-07-15 |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>

=====Male models=====
*[[Ali Zafar]]
*[[Ahmed Butt]]
*[[Ameer Zeb Khan]]
*[[Aijaz Aslam]]
*[[Bilal Khan]]
*[[Fawad Afzal Khan]]
*[[Fahad Mustafa]]
*[[Azfar Rehman]]
*[[Babrik Shah]]
*[[Mikaal Zulfiqar]]

=====Female models=====
* [[Amina Haq]]
* [[Amina Shafaat]]
* [[Ayesha Gilani]]
* [[Ayesha Omar]]
* [[Ayyan Ali]]
* [[Iman Ali]]
* [[Jia Ali]]
* [[Juggan Kazim]]
* [[Iffat Rahim]]
* [[Mariyah Moten]]
* [[Meera (Pakistani actress)|Meera]]
* [[Mehreen Raheel]]
* [[Mehreen Syed]]
* [[Nargis Fakhri]]
* [[Noor (actress)|Noor]]
* [[Nosheen Idrees]]
* [[Neha Ahmed]]
* [[Rachel Gill]]
* [[Reema Khan]]
* [[Rubya Chaudhry]]
* [[Saba Qamar]]
* [[Sadia Imam]]
* [[Saman Hasnain]]
* [[Sana (Lollywood)]]
* [[Suneeta Marshall]]
* [[Tanya Shafi]]
* [[Tooba Siddiqui]]
* [[Vaneeza Ahmad]]
* [[Veena Malik]]
* [[Yasmeen Ghauri]]
* [[Zara Sheikh]]
* [[Zainab Qayyum]]

====Pakistani fashion photographers====
Like other fields of fashion, Pakistani fashion photographers have made their way in the industry. These [[Fashion photography|Fashion Photographers]] are the eyes of fashion industry through which they observe and present beauty to the people.
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion photographers<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/photographers/ |title=Pakistan Fashion Photographers, Top Pakistani Fashion Photographers |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Amean J]]
*[[Maram & Aabroo|Maram Aabroo]]

====Pakistani fashion stylists====
Pakistani stylists have also a major contribution in giving the celebrities a new look. Their work is also appreciated within and outside of Pakistan.
Here is a list of Pakistani Fashion stylists<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/stylists/ |title=List of top Pakistani Fashion Stylists at Fashion Central |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Tariq Amin]]
*[[Anusheh Asad]]
[[Image:Pakistani Fashion Event.JPG|thumb|400px|right|Models in a Pakistani Fashion Event]]

====Pakistani fashion events====
Extensive fashion activities are shown in Pakistani Fashion Events held in different parts of the country as well as abroad in which versatile approaches towards new trends always amuse the spectators. The famous Pakistani Fashion Events<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/ramp/ |title=Fashion Ramp Pakistan Fashion Shows, Pakistani Fashion Weeks |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> are as follows.
*[[Lahore Fashion Week]]
*[[Karachi Fashion Week]]
*PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/tags/pfdc-sunsilk-fashion-week-2012-karachi/ |title=PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week 2012 - Karachi, PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week Karachi |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Miss Pakistan World]]
*[[Mrs. Pakistan World]]

====Pakistani fashion awards====
[[Lux Style Award]] is the biggest award till now and the industry have plans to start new awards as well.

====Pakistani fashion schools====
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion institutes.
*[[Pakistan Institute of Fashion and Design]]

====Pakistani fashion media====
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion media.
*[[Fashion Central (Pakistani magazine)|Fashion Central]]
*[[Style 360]]
*[[Fashion TV#Pakistan|Fashion TV Pakistan]]

==Gallery==
<center>
<gallery>
File:Punjabi Couple.jpg|Traditional Punjabi Dress of Punjab, Pakistan
File:Pashtun Couple.jpg|Traditional Pashtun Dress of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
File:Sindhi Couple.jpg|Traditional Sindhi Dress of Sindh, Pakistan
</gallery>
</center>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Clothing in South Asia}}
{{Pakistan topics}}
{{Pakistani fashion}}

[[Category:Pakistani clothing]]

Pakistani clothing

2013-02-03T05:28:17Z

108.173.174.134:

The term '''Pakistani clothing''' refers to the [[ethnic]] [[clothing]] that is typically worn by individuals in the country of [[Pakistan]] and by the People of Pakistani descent. Pakistani clothes express the [[Culture of Pakistan]], the [[People of Pakistan|Demographics of Pakistan]] and regional Cultures which include [[Punjabi culture]], [[Sindhi culture]], [[Baloch people#Baluchi culture|Balochi culture]], [[Pashtun culture]] and [[Culture of Kashmir|Kashmiri culture]]. Dresses in each regional culture reflect weather conditions, way of living and distinctive style which gives it a unique identity among all cultures.

Pakistani dressing has similarities with Indian dressing because of pre-[[Partition of India|partition]] culture which was shared by these nations for thousand years but the religious factor was always there which makes a difference. Pakistani dressing also shares similarities between the Turkic-Iranic ethnic groups in central asia. With the passage of time Pakistanis are adapting modern dresses and cultural clothing, especially in big countries.

== Pakistani national dress ==
[[Image:Shalwar Kameez.jpg|thumb|right|Pakistani man and a child wearing shalwar kameez]]
The [[shalwar kameez]] is the [[national dress]] of [[Pakistan]] and is worn by men and women in all four provinces [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Sindh]], [[Baluchistan]], [[Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa]] and [[FATA]] in the country and in [[Azad Kashmir]]. Each province has its own style of wearing the Shalwar Qameez.Pakistanis wairclothes range from exquisite colors and designs to the type of fabric ([[silk]], [[chiffon]], [[cotton]], etc.).<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7li2jpQgYvAC&pg=PA382&dq=national+dress+of+pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aIPZT7KnCIXJ0QXcsuj3Aw&ved=0CEsQ6AEwAQ |title=Unquiet Pasts: Risk Society, Lived Cultural Heritage, Re-Designing Reflexivity - Stephanie Koerner, Ian Russell - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.com |date=2010-08-16 |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>

== Men's clothing ==
Men all over Pakistan prefer shalwar kameez with some additional accessories which include Pakistani [[Waistcoat]], [[Achkan]] and [[Sherwani]] with the shalwar kameez or with [[Churidar]] [[Pajama]]. Jinnah Cap also called [[Karakul (hat)|Karakul]], [[Karakul (hat)|Fez]] also called Rumi Topi and [[Taqiyah (cap)]] is used with Shalwar Kameez. [[Khussa]] is a popular foot wear with shalwar kameez. Men like to wear traditional [[shawl]]s made of [[Pashmina]] or other warm materials especially in Northern part of the country.

===Regional clothing===

In regional clothing, Balochi people wear shalwar kameez of thick cloth with very wide shalwar to prevent themselves from the hot wind of dry [[Sulaiman Mountains|Sulaiman Range]] and [[Kharan Desert]]. They wear Balochi [[turban]] made of a very long cloth, often in white color to prevent their head from sun rays.Sindhi people wear shalwar kameez with traditional [[Sindhi cap]] and [[Ajrak]] of beautiful designs which are made locally.Punjabi men wear simple shalwar kameez, [[Kurta]] Shalwar and [[Dhoti]] kurta according to Punjabi climate. Turban of a thin cloth is also used with Shalwar Kameez especially in rural areas of Punjab where it is called [[Pagri (turban)|Pagri]]. [[Khussa]] is also used with Dhoti Kurta. In [[Pashtun dress]], people wear traditional Peshawari Chappal<ref>{{cite web|last=Shah |first=Danial |url=http://www.flickr.com/photos/edanial/3701053305/ |title=Peshawari Chappal | Flickr - Photo Sharing! |publisher=Flickr |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> in feet and [[Pakul]] with Shalwar kameez. Kashmiri people use Pheran,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://treasurekashmir.com/kashmir-coats-n-tops/pheran-traditional-kashmiri-gown/ |title=Pheran (Traditional Kashmiri Gown) |publisher=Treasure Kashmir |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> [[Shahmina]], [[Shahtoosh]] and [[Jamavar]] which makes them warm in the cold climate of Kashmir.

== Women's clothing ==
[[Image:Model in Traditional Dress.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Pakistani Model displaying Traditional Dress in a Fashion Show]]

===Shalwar kameez===
The most favorite dressing among [[Women in Pakistan|Pakistani women]] is [[shalwar kameez]] which is worn in different styles, colors and designs especially the front part of kameez is decorated with different styles and designs of [[embroidery]]. It is worn with different sleeve length, shirt length, necklines and different types of shalwars like [[patiala salwar]], [[churidar]] [[pajama]] and simple [[trouser]]. [[Kurta]] is also worn by women in latest designs. [[Dupatta]] is an essential part of shalwar kameez and considered a symbol of woman's respect.It is used with different embroidery designs of Kamdani<ref>[http://www.alibaba.com/product-free/115961352/Kamdani.html ]{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref> and [[Gota Work|Gota]].

===Other traditional dresses===
Pakistani women have variety of traditional dresses other than Shalwar Kameez but they mostly wear them in special occasions like Wedding, Engagement, [[Mehndi]] and other traditional ceremonies. Among these dresses [[Sari]]s are very popular and its each design and color seems unique from the other e.g. [[Lehenga Style Saree|Lehenga Style Sari]]. [[Lehenga#Lehenga|Lehenga]] is another popular dress which resembles with skirt but a typical traditional dress. [[Gharara]] and Sharara are two resembling dresses which are often used in ceremonies. [[Farshi Pajama]] is an old traditional dress which is worn occasionally. Laacha is worn in Eastern part of the country, its a dress which resembles with [[Dhoti]] from its lower part.

===Regional clothing===
In regional clothing, Balochi women wear heavy embroided Shalwar Kameez and Dupatta according to the weather conditions. They wear Kameez full of heavy Embroided [[Shisha (embroidery)|Shisha work]]. Sindhi costumes have different styles of embroidery and some women use [[Ajrak]] as Dupatta. these women also wear [[bangle]]s in their traditional way. Punjabi women prefer light embroidery on simple Shalwar Kameez or Kurta. Traditional Lacha and Bangles are also used. Paranda is the special traditional, colorful and unique Punjabi item which is used to tie the hair. Pathan women wear embroided Kameez with a farak with a heavy Dupatta.

===Religious clothing===
By women's religious clothing we mean the dressing in which they try to cover all their body parts except face and hands while going outside from their home.Mostly women cover their heads with Dupatta or Chadar in outdoors but religious women prefer to wear [[Scarf]], [[Burqa]] or [[Hijab]] and wear lose, long and full [[sleeve]] shirts.

===New trends===
With the passage of time Pakistani women has started to adapt new styles some of which are the combination of Pakistani and Western clothing. Like women wear Embroided Kurta with [[Jeans]] and Trousers. Tight half sleeve and sleeveless shirts with [[Capri pants|Capri]] trousers have also been adopted.

==Wedding dresses==
In Pakistan the [[Pakistani wedding|traditional wedding ceremony]] is celebrated by wearing different clothes in each wedding event. In [[Mehndi]] function, Men wear Embroided Kurta in glittering colors with simple Shalwar, [[Patiala salwar|Patiala Shalwar]] or Patiala Dhoti and a colorful Shawl which they put on their shoulders and sometimes round the neck. In some weddings, dress code is decided before the ceremony and all men wear the same color. women usually wear yellow or orange Shalwar Kameez with simple Shalwar, Patiala Shalwar or Dhoti Shalwar.<ref>http://www.paklinks.com/gsmedia/files/61479/vijaydhoti.jpg</ref> Yellow Dupatta and Yellow Paranda is also preferred with it.

During [[Baraat]] and [[Walima]] functions, the [[Bridegroom|Groom]] usually wears Kurta Shalwar or Kurta [[Churidar]] with special [[Sherwani]] and [[Khussa]]. During the event of Baraat, Grooms also wear Traditional [[Sehra]] on their head. [[Bride]]s normally wear expensive Lehnga preferably in red, maroon and pink colors with heavy [[Jewellery]].

==Pakistani clothing companies and brands==
Here is a list of Pakistani clothing companies and brands.
*[[Karma (clothing)|Karma]]
*deZined.com by Mehwish Abbas [http://dezined.com]
*[[Amir Adnan]]
*[[Gul Ahmed]]
*[[HSY Studio]]
*[[Hussain Industries]]
*[[Minhas Gloves Industries]]
*[[Batapur]]
* [[CrossRoads (clothing)|CrossRoads]]
*[[Charizma Riaz Arts]]
* Marvelous Fashion Studio [http://www.ralli.com.pk (Ralli)]

==Pakistani fashion websites==
* [http://www.daraz.pk Daraz.Pk]
* [http://dezined.com deZined.com]
* [http://style.pk/ Pakistan Fashion Magazine Style.Pk]
* [http://fashioninstep.com/ Pakistan Fashion in Pakistan]
* [http://www.forma.pk FORMA.pk]
* [http://www.PakistanBridal.com PakistanBridal]
* [http://profashionstyle.com Fashion Pakistan]

==Pakistani fashion==
Pakistani [[fashion]] has flourished well in the changing environment of fashion world. Since Pakistan came into being its fashion has been historically evolved from different phases and made its unique identity apart from Indian fashion and culture. At this time, Pakistani fashion is a combination of traditional and modern dresses and it has become the cultural identification of Pakistan. Despite of all modern trends, the regional and traditional dresses have developed their own significance as a symbol of native tradition. This regional fashion is not static but evolving into more modern and pure forms.

Pakistan Fashion Design Council based in [[Lahore]] organizes ''Fashion Week'' and Fashion Pakistan based in [[Karachi]] organizes fashion shows in that city. Credit goes to Ayesha Tammy Haq, a British-trained lawyer and chief executive of Fashion Pakistan, who came up with the idea for Pakistan’s first fashion week, held in November 2009.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-pakistan-fashion-weeks-thrive-beyond-the-style-capitals-of-the-world/2012/04/24/gIQAt3qcgT_story.html In Pakistan, fashion weeks thrive beyond the style capitals of the world]</ref>

===Make-up===
[[Makeup|Make-up]] is considered an essential part of Fashion and Dressing in Pakistan.Some people in Pakistan and many south Asian countries think as white or pale skin beautiful. In the US it is the opposite.In Pakistan, make-up plays a big part for weddings. There is an odd part of the culture saying that a bride must be lighter than her husband. This is when skin lightening is used.

===Pakistani fashion industry===
Pakistani fashion industry is introducing Pakistani traditional dresses all over the world as cultural representatives and becoming a reason to introduce international trends in Pakistan. [[Pakistani media]], [[Pakistani film industry|Film Industry]] and [[Internet in Pakistan|Internet]] has the biggest role in promoting fashion in Pakistan. There are a lot of [[TV channel|TV Channels]], [[Magazine]]s, Portals<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itservices.hku.hk/news/ccnews100/portal.htm |title=What is a Portal? |publisher=Itservices.hku.hk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> and [[website]]s which are working only for fashion industry. Despite of the religious boundaries Pakistani Fashion Industry has become recognized all over the world through its [[Model (person)|models]], [[designer]]s, [[stylists]] and [[fashion show]]s.
[[Image:Group Photo of Artists.jpg|thumb|350px|right|A Group Photo of Pakistani Fashion Industry's Designers, Models and Stylists.]]

====Pakistani fashion designers====
Pakistani fashion designers are very creative. They have deep insight of Pakistani and international fashion. They are well-known all over the world and won many international awards. Here is a list of Pakistani fashion designers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/designers/ |title=Pakistani Designers, Fashion Designers Pakistan, Designer Boutiques |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Maheen Ali]]
*[[Sadaf Malaterre]]
*[[Mehmood Bhatti]]
*[[Deepak Perwani]]
*[[Kamiar Rokni]]
*[[Hassan Sheheryar Yasin]]
* [[Amir Adnan]]
* [[Junaid Jamshed]]

====Pakistani fashion models====
Here is the list of Pakistani models.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/models/ |title=Pakistani Fashion Models Pakistan Female Fashion Models |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date=1976-07-15 |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>

=====Male models=====
*[[Ali Zafar]]
*[[Ahmed Butt]]
*[[Ameer Zeb Khan]]
*[[Aijaz Aslam]]
*[[Bilal Khan]]
*[[Fawad Afzal Khan]]
*[[Fahad Mustafa]]
*[[Azfar Rehman]]
*[[Babrik Shah]]
*[[Mikaal Zulfiqar]]

=====Female models=====
* [[Amina Haq]]
* [[Amina Shafaat]]
* [[Ayesha Gilani]]
* [[Ayesha Omar]]
* [[Ayyan Ali]]
* [[Iman Ali]]
* [[Jia Ali]]
* [[Juggan Kazim]]
* [[Iffat Rahim]]
* [[Mariyah Moten]]
* [[Meera (Pakistani actress)|Meera]]
* [[Mehreen Raheel]]
* [[Mehreen Syed]]
* [[Nargis Fakhri]]
* [[Noor (actress)|Noor]]
* [[Nosheen Idrees]]
* [[Neha Ahmed]]
* [[Rachel Gill]]
* [[Reema Khan]]
* [[Rubya Chaudhry]]
* [[Saba Qamar]]
* [[Sadia Imam]]
* [[Saman Hasnain]]
* [[Sana (Lollywood)]]
* [[Suneeta Marshall]]
* [[Tanya Shafi]]
* [[Tooba Siddiqui]]
* [[Vaneeza Ahmad]]
* [[Veena Malik]]
* [[Yasmeen Ghauri]]
* [[Zara Sheikh]]
* [[Zainab Qayyum]]

====Pakistani fashion photographers====
Like other fields of fashion, Pakistani fashion photographers have made their way in the industry. These [[Fashion photography|Fashion Photographers]] are the eyes of fashion industry through which they observe and present beauty to the people.
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion photographers<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/photographers/ |title=Pakistan Fashion Photographers, Top Pakistani Fashion Photographers |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Amean J]]
*[[Maram & Aabroo|Maram Aabroo]]

====Pakistani fashion stylists====
Pakistani stylists have also a major contribution in giving the celebrities a new look. Their work is also appreciated within and outside of Pakistan.
Here is a list of Pakistani Fashion stylists<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/stylists/ |title=List of top Pakistani Fashion Stylists at Fashion Central |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Tariq Amin]]
*[[Anusheh Asad]]
[[Image:Pakistani Fashion Event.JPG|thumb|400px|right|Models in a Pakistani Fashion Event]]

====Pakistani fashion events====
Extensive fashion activities are shown in Pakistani Fashion Events held in different parts of the country as well as abroad in which versatile approaches towards new trends always amuse the spectators. The famous Pakistani Fashion Events<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/pakistani/ramp/ |title=Fashion Ramp Pakistan Fashion Shows, Pakistani Fashion Weeks |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> are as follows.
*[[Lahore Fashion Week]]
*[[Karachi Fashion Week]]
*PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashioncentral.pk/tags/pfdc-sunsilk-fashion-week-2012-karachi/ |title=PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week 2012 - Karachi, PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week Karachi |publisher=Fashioncentral.pk |date= |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref>
*[[Miss Pakistan World]]
*[[Mrs. Pakistan World]]

====Pakistani fashion awards====
[[Lux Style Award]] is the biggest award till now and the industry have plans to start new awards as well.

====Pakistani fashion schools====
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion institutes.
*[[Pakistan Institute of Fashion and Design]]

====Pakistani fashion media====
Here is a list of Pakistani fashion media.
*[[Fashion Central (Pakistani magazine)|Fashion Central]]
*[[Style 360]]
*[[Fashion TV#Pakistan|Fashion TV Pakistan]]

==Gallery==
<center>
<gallery>
File:Punjabi Couple.jpg|Traditional Punjabi Dress of Punjab, Pakistan
File:Pashtun Couple.jpg|Traditional Pashtun Dress of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
File:Sindhi Couple.jpg|Traditional Sindhi Dress of Sindh, Pakistan
</gallery>
</center>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Clothing in South Asia}}
{{Pakistan topics}}
{{Pakistani fashion}}

[[Category:Pakistani clothing]]

Brahui people

2013-02-03T05:19:39Z

108.173.174.134: /* Physical appearence */

{{Refimprove|date=June 2008}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Brahui <br> بروہی
|image = [[File:Brahui people of Quetta.jpg|250px]]
|caption = A photograph from 1910 with the caption reading "Brahui of [[Quetta]]".
|poptime = 2,528,000<ref name="joshuaproject">http://www.joshuaproject.net/peoples.php?peo3=10959&rog3=AF.</ref>
|region1 = {{flagcountry|PAK}}
|pop1 = 2,234,000<ref name="joshuaproject" />
|region2 = {{flagcountry|AFG}}
|pop2 = 271,000<ref name="joshuaproject" />
|region3 = {{flag|Iran}}
|pop3 = 21,000<ref name="joshuaproject" />
|region4 = {{Flag|Bangladesh}}
|pop4 = 400<ref>http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=10959&rog3=BG.</ref>
|langs = [[Brahui language|Brahui]]<br><small> ''[[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Urdu]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] spoken as second languages''</small>
|rels = [[Sunni Islam]] ([[Hanafi]])
|related = [[Balochis]] and [[Sindhis]] as well as [[Indo-Aryans]], [[Iranian peoples]] and [[Dravidians]] }}

The '''Brahui''' or '''Brohi''' ([[Brahui language|Brahui]]: براہوی, {{lang-sd|بروہي}}) are an ethnic group of about 2.5 million people with the majority found in [[Sindh]] and [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Baluchistan]], [[Pakistan]], but they are also found in smaller numbers in neighboring [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iran]]. The Brahuis are almost entirely [[Sunni]] [[Muslim]]s.<ref name="Andrew Dalby - Hindu origin of Brahui people">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=CnckpL8auSIC&pg=PA96&dq=brahui+hindu#v=onepage&q=brahui%20hindu&f=false| title = Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages|publisher = Columbia University Press|accessdate = 2010-09-09|isbn = 9780231115698|date = 2004-03-01}}</ref>

==Origins==
The ethnonym "Brahui" is a very old term and a purely Dravidian one.<ref name="Mikhail Sergeevich Andronov - Dravidian Brahui language">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=K4lkAAAAMAAJ&q=brahui+dravidian&dq=brahui+dravidian| title = Brahui, a Dravidian language: a descriptive and comparative study|publisher = Foreign Language Study|accessdate = 2010-09-09|isbn = 9783895863486|year = 2006}}</ref> According some historians Brahvis and Balochs belong to same race. Balochi speaking people entered Mekran while Brahvi speaking people entered from Chagi defeated the Dravadian rulers of Kalat and entered into matrimonial relationship with the Dravadian and Balochi languages were mixed up and a new language of “Brahvi” was born due to same relationship.<ref name=nap>{{ cite web |url=http://www.brahvilanguage.com/Origin%20of%20Brahvi%20Language.html |author=Noor Ahmed Pirkani |title=Origin of Brahvi Language |publisher=Brahvi Brohi Language |accessdate=January 9, 2013}}</ref>{{clarify|This sentence needs to improve its grammar to have it make sense. I would have fixed it myself if I could unravel its meaning, but I cannot - Hamamelis|date=January 2013}} The fact that other Dravidian languages only exist further south in India has led to some speculation about the origins of the Brahui. Here are three hypotheses regarding the Brahui that have been proposed by academics: one theory is that the Brahui are a [[relic population]] of Dravidians, surrounded by speakers of [[Indo-Iranian languages]], remaining from a time when Dravidian was more widespread; another theory is that they migrated to [[Baluchistan]] from [[Mainland India|inner India]] during the early Muslim period of the 13th or 14th centuries;<ref>[Sergent, ''Genèse de l'Inde'']</ref> a third theory says the Brahui migrated to Balochistan from [[South India]] after 1000 AD. The absence of evidence of older Iranian (Avestan) influence in Brahui supports this hypothesis. The main Iranian contributor to the Brahui vocabulary is a northwestern [[Iranic language]], [[Baluchi]]; and southeastern [[Iranic language]], [[Pashto]].<ref>J. H. Elfenbein, A periplous of the ‘Brahui problem’, ''Studia Iranica'' vol. 16 (1987), pp. 215-233.</ref>

{{Quotation|The History of the Brahui emerges from total darkness with the displacement of a shadowy Hindu dynasty in [[Kalat]] called Sewa by the [[Mirwari]] Brahuis. There is a [[Mughal (tribe)|Mughal]] interlude and then Brahui ascendancy again.<ref>Language and linguistic area: essays By Murray Barnson Emeneau, Selected and introduced by Anwar S. Dil, Stanford University Press. Page 334</ref>}}
{{Quotation|It is said that a [[Hindu]] dynasty, the [[Sewa Dynasty|Sewa]] by name, ruled over this part of the country prior to the seventh century, Kalat is still known as Kalat-i-Sewa.<ref>Population Census Organisation, Statistics Division, Govt. of Pakistan, 1999, 1998 district census report of Kalat Page 7.</ref>}}
Over the centuries, due to their location, the Brahui have mixed with [[Iranian peoples]] as well as the [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]], among other [[Indo-Aryan peoples]]. They culturally resemble their Baloch and Sindhi neighbors, although they still continue to speak their Brahui language.

==Tribes==
Brahui tribes include [[Mengal]], [[Zagar Mengal]], [[Mirwani]], [[Bangulzai tribe|Bangulzai]], [[Banulzai]], [[Bizenjo]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasani]], [[Kheazai]], [[Lango tribe|Langov]], [[Lehri tribe|Lehri]], [[Sarparah]], [[Muhammed Hasni]], [[Muhammad Shahi]], [[Raisani]], [[Kurd_(Baloch_tribe)|Kurd]], [[Sumulani]], Yusufzai ([[Dehwar]]) Zarakzai ([[Zehri]]), [[Sasoli]], [[Sataksai]], [[Musiani]], [[Saya Paadh]], [[Qambarani]], [[Rodeni]], [[Jattak]].<ref>[http://www.ipdf.gov.pk/tmpnew/DF_Baluchistan.php Infrastructure Project Development Facility: Balochistan]</ref>

==Language==
[[File:Dravidische Sprachen.png|400px|thumb|Dravidian ethnic groups in South Asia.]]
{{main|Brahui language}}
The Brahui language is a language within the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian subgroup of languages]].<ref name="Mikhail Sergeevich Andronov - Dravidian Brahui language" /> While it does contain many similar words as the ''Iranic'' Baloch language, it also has many loan words from Indo-Aryan languages as well as the Dravidian words of its own. It is mainly spoken in the Kalat areas of [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]], Pakistan, although there are a considerable number of speakers in Southern [[Afghanistan]] and Iranian [[Balochistan (Iran)|Balochistan]]. It includes three dialects including Sarawani (spoken in the north), Jhalawani (spoken in the southeast), and Chaghi (spoken in the northwest and west). According to a survey it has about 2,000,000 speakers in Pakistan (1998), 200,000 speakers in Afghanistan<ref>Dupree 1989: Afghanistan, p. 62</ref> and 20,000 speakers in Iran, which would amount to 2,220,000 in the world. Due to its isolation, Brahui's vocabulary is only 15% Dravidian, while the remainder is dominated by Perso-Arabic, [[Balochi language|Balochi]], and [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]], while the grammar and overall morphology still resemble other Dravidian tongues. Brahui is generally written in the [[Perso-Arabic script]] and there is even a [[Latin script|Latin alphabet]] that has been developed for use with Brahui.

===Dialects===
Kalat, Jhalawan, and Sarawan, with Kalat as the standard dialect.
Presently Brahui is spoken in [[Sistan va Baluchestan]], [[Pakistani Balochistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Sindh]] and the Persian Gulf [[Arab]] states.

==Physical appearence==
Brahui's are [[Caucasian]], of the [[Mediterranean race|Mediterranean]] subbranch being in the same race with the neighboring Pashtun and Balochi tribes who are ethno-linguistically Iranian people. The majority of Brahuis have dark hair ,dark eyes and [[olive skin]] like their neighbouring ethnic groups, and the occurrence of light hair, light eyes and light skin among brahuis is possible as it is with the adjacent ethnic groups like the Pashtuns and Balochis who are Iranian peoples. As such, Brahui's generally have a racial affinity with the Iranian Pashtuns and Balochis than with the Dravidian speakers of south India, moreover the a big portion of Sindhis have Baloch/Brahui admixture.

==Genetics==
Brahuis display a variety of [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-DNA]] [[haplogroups]], the two most important of which being haplogroup [[Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)|R1a]] - with it's mass diffusion among populations of [[Central Asia|Central]]/[[South Asia]] and associated with the early eastern migrations of [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] nomads - and haplogroup [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|J]], which, though found among other [[South Asia|subcontinental]] peoples, is nevertheless more typical of Near-Eastern populations.<ref name="QamarRaheel">Qamar Raheel et al. "Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan". American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (1107–1124): 2002.</ref><ref name="Sengupta">Sengupta, S; Zhivotovsky, LA; King, R; Mehdi, SQ; Edmonds, CA; Chow, CE; Lin, AA; Mitra, M et al. (2006).</ref> Other, relatively minor, low-frequency haplogroups among the Brahui are those of [[haplogroup L (Y-DNA)|L]], [[Haplogroup E1b1a (Y-DNA)|E1b1a]], [[Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)|G]], and [[Haplogroup N (Y-DNA)|N]].<ref name="QamarRaheel" /><ref name="Sengupta" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Brahui}}
*[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/workshops/ South Asia Language Resource Center]
*[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77226/Brahui Brahui people], Britannica.com
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC447589/

{{DEFAULTSORT:Brahui People}}

[[Category:Brahui people]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Social groups of Balochistan, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Muslim communities]]
[[Category:Dravidian peoples|*]]
[[Category:Historical definitions of race]]
[[Category:Dravidians]]



[[be:Брагуі]]
[[ca:Brahuis]]
[[fa:براهویی (طایفه)]]
[[fr:Brahouis]]
[[kn:ಬ್ರಾಹುಯಿ]]
[[lt:Brahujai]]
[[ml:ബ്രഹൂയി ജനത]]
[[pnb:براہوی لوک]]
[[ru:Брагуи (народ)]]
[[simple:Brahui people]]
[[sr:Брагуји]]
[[sh:Brahui]]
[[tr:Brohiler]]
[[uk:Брагуї]]
[[ur:بروہی]]
[[zh:布拉灰人]]

Talk:Pashtun culture

2013-02-03T05:17:42Z

108.173.174.134:

{{WikiProject Afghanistan}}
{{WikiProject Pakistan|class=start|importance=mid}}
{{PashtunWikiProject}}

==Isn't Pashtun culture considered Iranian like Balochi culture??==
what is your say on this.

Baloch people

2013-02-03T04:52:52Z

108.173.174.134: /* Physical appearance */

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Baloch<br>بلوچ
|pop = approximately 15 million
|region1 = {{flagcountry|Pakistan}}
|pop1 = 8,800,000 (2010)
|ref1 = {{lower|<ref name="Ethnic Groups Pakistan">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk&regionCode=sas&#pk Ethnic Groups (Pakistan)], [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]]</ref>}}
|region2 = {{flagcountry|Iran}}
|pop2 = 1,557,000
|ref2 = {{lower|<ref name="Iran Profile, Library of Congress">[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf Iran], ''Library of Congress, Country Profile'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref>}}
|region3 = {{flagcountry|Afghanistan}}
|religions = Predominantly [[Sunni Islam]]
|pop3 = 300,000 (2009)
|ref3 = {{lower|<ref name="CIA Afghanistan">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html Afghanistan], ''CIA World Factbook'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref>}}
|region4 = {{flagcountry|Oman}}
|pop4 = 434,000 (2009)
|ref4 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|author=Joshua Project |url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=15034&rog3=MU |title=Baloch, Southern of Oman Ethnic People Profile |publisher=Joshuaproject.net |date=2006-10-28 |accessdate=2012-08-01}}</ref><ref name="OM">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=OM Languages of Oman], ''Ethnologue.com'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref><ref name="CIA Factbook, Oman">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mu.html Oman], ''CIA World Factbook'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref>}}
|region5 = {{flagcountry|United Arab Emirates}}
|pop5 = 100,000 
|ref5 = {{lower|<ref name="Languages of United Arab Emirates">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=AE Languages of United Arab Emirates], ''Ethnologue.com'' (retrieved 5 December 2009)</ref>}}
|region6 = {{flagcountry|India}}
|pop6 = 60,000 
|ref6 = {{lower|<ref name="Balochi in IND">http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=11684&rog3=IN</ref>}}
|region7 = {{flagcountry|Turkmenistan}}
|pop7 = 30,000 
|ref7 = {{lower|<ref name="Balochi in TM">[http://www.central-asia.su/beludz.php KOKAISLOVÁ, Pavla, KOKAISL Petr. Ethnic Identity of The Baloch People. ''Central Asia and The Caucasus. Journal of Social and Political Studies.'' Volume 13, Issue 3, 2012, p. 45-55.], ISSN 1404-6091</ref>}}
|langs = [[Balochi language|Balochi]]<br />other: [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] and [[Brahui language|Brahui]], are used as second languages by the Baloch.
|related = [[Sindhis]], [[Persian people|Persians]],[[Pashtuns]], [[Brahui people|Brahuis]], and [[Kurdish people|Kurds]]}}
The '''Baloch''' or '''Baluch''' ([[Balochi language|Balochi]]: بلوچ) are a tribal society and an ethnic group who are native to the [[Balochistan|Balochistan region]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and southeast corner of the [[Iranian plateau]] in Southwest Asia.

The Baloch people mainly speak [[Balochi language|Balochi]]. Balochi language is a branch of the [[Iranian languages]], and more specifically of the [[Western Iranian languages|Northwestern Iranian languages]], that is [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] and other Iranic languages of the region. It also contains archaic features reminiscent of [[Old Persian]] and [[Avestan language|Avestan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html|title=Iranian Language Family|publisher=iranologie.com|accessdate=2010-12-08}}</ref> They inhabit mountainous terrains and deserts, and maintain a very distinct cultural identity. The Baloch-speaking population worldwide is estimated to be in the range of 10 to 15 million. However, the exact number of Baloch and those who are or claim to be of Baloch ancestry is difficult to determine. Most of Baloches in [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] speak the [[Seraiki language]].

It is possible that there are more Baloch than simply those who claim Balochi as their mother tongue. This, however, raises the question as to who is and is not a Baloch, as many surrounding peoples claim to be of Baloch descent but do not speak Balochi. The [[Brahui people|Brahui]], having lived in proximity to the Baloch, have absorbed substantial linguistic and genetic admixture from the Baloch and in many cases are indistinguishable. Despite very few cultural differences from the Baloch, the Brahui are still regarded as a separate group on account of language difference.

The higher population figures for the Baloch may only be possible if a large number of "Baloch" are included who speak different languages like Saraiki, Sindhi, Punjabi and Brahui, and who often claim descent from Baloch ancestors. Many Baloch outside of Balochistan are also bilingual or of mixed ancestry due to their proximity to other ethnic groups, including the Sindhis, Brahui, Persians, Seraikis and Pashtuns. A large number of Baloch have been migrating to or living in provinces adjacent to Balochistan for centuries. Balochs make up 2% of Iran's population (1.5 million), there are many Baloch living in other parts of the world, with the bulk living in the GCC countries of the Persian Gulf.

About 60% percent of the Baluch live in [[Balochistan, Pakistan|East Balochistan]], a western province in the [[Pakistan]].<ref>Blood, Peter, ed. [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0055) "Baloch"]. ''Pakistan: A Country Study''. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995.</ref> Around 25% percent inhabit the eastern province of [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province]] in the [[Islamic Republic of Iran]], 35 to 40% Pakistani Sindhis claim Baloch ancestry{{Citation needed|date=September 2012}} and are settled in [[Sindh]] and also a significant number of Baloch people in [[South Punjab]] of Pakistan. Many of the rest live in [[Afghanistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]], [[Qatar]], [[Oman]], [[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]], [[India]], [[United Arab Emirates]] and in some parts of [[Africa]], namely Kenya, and Tanzania (Tabora has a large community). Small communities of Baluch people also live in [[Europe]] particularly [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], [[England]] and in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth, Australia]], where they arrived in the 19th century.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

==Origin==

Like other [[Middle east]]ern ethnic groups, the Baloch claim Arabian extraction, however this is disputed, asserting that they are descendant of [[Amir Hamza]], a paternal uncle of [[Islamic Prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. They consistently place their first settlement in [[Aleppo]], where they remained until, siding the sons of [[Ali]] and taking part in the [[Battle of Karbala]], they were expelled by [[Yazid I|Yazid]], the second of the Umayyad Caliphs, in 680 A.D. Thence they first went to [[Kerman Province|Kerman]], and eventually to [[Sistan]] where they were hospitably received by Shams-ud-Din, ruler of that country. According to [[Mansel Longworth Dames|Dames]] there was a Shams-ud-Din, independent Malik of [[Sistan]], who claimed descent from the [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarids of Persia]] who died in 1164 A.D. (559 A.H.) or nearly 500 years after the Baloch migration from [[Aleppo]]. Badr-ud-Din appears to be unknown to history. His successor, Badr-ud-Din, demanded, according to eastern usage, a bride from each of the 44 bolaks or clans of the Baloch. But the Baloch race had never yet been tribute in this form to any ruler, and they sent therefore 44 boys dressed in girls' clothes and fled before the deception could be discovered. Badr-ud-Din sent the boys back but pursued the Baloch, who had fled south-eastwards, into Kech-Makran where he was defeated at their hands. At this period [[Mir Jalal Khan]], son of Mir Jiand the first, was the ruler of all the Baloch. He left four sons, Rind, Lashar, Hooth, and Korai, and a daughter Jato, who married his nephew Murad. These five are the eponymous founders of the five great divisions of the tribe, the [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rinds]], [[Lashari]]s, [[Hooth]]s, [[Korai]]s, and [[Jatoi (Baloch tribe)|Jatois]].<ref>[Encyclopaedia Of Untouchables Ancient, Medieval And Modern By Raj Kumar, page no. 337 http://books.google.com/books?id=e8o5HyC0-FUC]</ref>

==History==

{{Main|History of the Baloch people}}
[[File:Median Empire.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Medes|Median Empire]], [[Lydia|Lydian Empire]], and [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], before [[Cyrus the Great]]'s conquests.]]

[[File:Persia-Cyrus2-World3.png|thumb|right|alt=Cyrus after conquest|Superimposed on modern borders, the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus's rule extended approximately from [[Turkey]], [[Israel]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Arabia]] in the west to [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], to [[Pakistan]] and [[Oman]] in the east.]]

[[File:Map achaemenid empire en.png|thumb|left|alt=Baloch and Alexander's empire|The Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent, including the [[satrap]] of ancient [[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]]]]

[[File:Persepolis The Persian Soldiers.jpg|thumb|right|alt=soldiers|Persian and Median soldiers at [[Persepolis]]]]

[[File:MacedonEmpire-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Baloch and Alexander's empire|Baluch tribes and the paths that [[Alexander the Great]] took.]]

[[File:Gwadar Beach.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Gwadar in Makran|View of a beach in [[Makran]] region.]]

[[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]] is mentioned by Greek historian [[Herodotus]] as one of the early [[satrap]]s of [[Cyrus the Great]], who successfully united several ancient Iranian tribes to create an empire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty|title=Iranica Articles |publisher=R. Schmitt |date=December 15, 1983|accessdate=2010-09-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://balln.cwahi.net/amuse_amenace/ancient_09.htm|title=5th century BC 499-400 |publisher=cwahi.net |accessdate=2010-09-08| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100906123243/http://balln.cwahi.net/amuse_amenace/ancient_09.htm| archivedate= 6 September 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In the Behistun Inscription, [[Darius the Great]] mentions Maka as one of his eastern territories.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun03.html |title=The Behistun Inscription, translation|publisher=livius.org |date=accessdate=2010-10-03}}</ref> Darius is recorded to have personally led his elite [[Persian Immortals|forces]], whose ranks were restricted to those with [[Persian people|Persian]], [[Mede]] or [[Elamite]] ancestry, to fight the invading [[Scythians]] of [[Asia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.4.iv.html |title=Iranian Provinces: Sistan and Balochistan |publisher=mit.edu |date=accessdate=2010-10-03}}</ref> and then led the conquests in [[South Asia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/empire2/unkemptgoose/Persian.html |title=Persia |publisher=Angelfire.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranchamber.com/provinces/21_sistan_Balochistan/21_sistan_Balochistan.php |title=Iranian Provinces: Sistan and Balochistan |publisher=Iranchamber.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ancientpersia.com/war/immortal.htm |title=Ancient Persia |publisher=Ancientpersia.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-09}}</ref> where he conquered [[Sindh]] in 519 BC, constituted it as his 20th [[Satrapy]], and made use of the oceans there.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.mdc.edu/jmcnair/Joe12pages/darius_the_great.htm |title=Darius the great |publisher=mdc.edu |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.axehd.com/Home/2010/05/04/the-largest-empire-in-ancient-history/|title=The largest empire in ancient history |publisher=axehd.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref> Darius wanted to know more about Asia, according to Herodotus; he also wished to know where the "Indus (which is the only river save one that produces crocodiles) emptied itself into the sea".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.4.iv.html |title=History of Herodotus by Herodotus - Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) |publisher=mit.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-09-11| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101007074335/http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.4.iv.html| archivedate= 7 October 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

The present region of [[Makran]], which is inhabited by Baluch people, derived its name from the word "[[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]]". The [[Babylonians]] made voyages using Maka to communicate with [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/max-duncker/the-history-of-antiquity-volume-3-cnu/page-28-the-history-of-antiquity-volume-3-cnu.shtml |title=The history of antiquity|publisher=Max Duncker |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref> Maka communicated with [[Euphrates]], [[Tigris]] and [[Indus valley]]; objects from the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Harappan]] culture have been found in modern-day [[Oman]], other [[archaeology]] suggest that Maka was exporting [[copper]]. Herodotus mentions the inhabitants of Maka as "Mykians" who were previously involved in several conquests with [[Cyrus the Great]]. After the conquest of [[Egypt]] with [[Cambyses]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.3.iii.html |title=History of Herodotus - Book 3 |publisher=mit.edu |date=accessdate=2010-09-09}}</ref> they went to [[Sindh]] in command of [[Darius I]] and took in army of [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes the great]] at the battle of [[Thermopylae]], where they were equipped the same as [[Pakthas|Pactyans]], Utians and Paricanians, the tribes adjacent to the Mykians. The word [[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]] later became [[Makran]] as it is common in closely related ancient [[Avestan]] and [[Old Persian language]]s to use "an" and "ran" at the end of plurals,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zoroastrian.org/articles/Iran_Turan_in_Avesta.htm |title=Iranians and Turanians in Avesta|publisher=Ali A. Jafarey |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref> which then translates as "the land of Mykians". They are mentioned as "the men from Maka" in ''daeva'' inscriptions. The "''[[daeva]]'' inscription" is one of the most important of all [[Achaemenid]] inscriptions; in the Baluchi language, ''dêw'' translates as "giant [[devil]] or [[monster]]".

Mykians were responsible for many inventions, such as ''[[qanat]]s'' and underground drainage galleries that brought water from aquifers on the piedmont to gardens or palm groves on the plains. These inventions were important reasons behind the success of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] and survival of Mykians in their largely harsh [[natural environment]]. Other inscriptions record that [[gold]], [[silver]], [[lapis lazuli]], [[turquise]], [[cornalin]], [[cedar wood]], [[wood]] and the decoration for the relief at [[Susa]] were from Maka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/inscriptions_1.html#DSz |title=Some Royal Achaemenid Inscriptions|publisher=livius.org|date=accessdate=2010-10-14}}</ref> The Mykians of the other side of ancient Maka, the present-day region of Baluchistan and Sindh, had later taken independence because they are not mentioned in the book written by [[Arrian of Nicomedia]] about campaigns of [[Alexander the Great]]. He only mentions the Oman side of Maka which he calls "Maketa". The reasons for this may have been the arguably unjust rule of Xerxes.<ref name="The History, by Herodotus book7">{{cite web |url=http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/h/herodotus/h4/book7.html |title=The History, by Herodotus (book7)|publisher=cadelaide.edu.au |date=accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref><ref name="The History, by Herodotus book7"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/maa-mam/maka/maka.html |title=Maka|publisher=livius.org|date=accessdate=2010-10-1}}</ref> they are not mentioned as one of the ancient Iranian tribes that [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Darius I]] had fought with. Cyrus himself was of Persian and Median ancestry as his father was [[Cambyses I]], who is believed to have married [[Mandane of Media]], the daughter of [[Astyages]], a Median king.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/cyrus.html |title=Cyrus|publisher=livius.org|date=accessdate=2010-10-08}}</ref>

Historical evidence suggests that Baluch people were the ancient inhabitants of the Maka satrapy in [[Achaemenid empire]]. Baluch inhabiting the coastal areas in the region of [[Makran]] [[Chabahar]], [[Gwadar]], Gulf [[Oman]], [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]]) and [[Arabian Sea]] [[Karachi]] and other parts of [[Sindh]] and tribes including the [[Jatoi (tribe)|Jatoi]], [[Mirani Tribe|Mirani]], [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rind]], [[Bizenjo]], [[Brahui people|Brahui]] and [[Gabol]] are highly skilled in designing boats, fishing and other skills required to survive in their environment. [[Herodotus]] mentions that Darius had made use of the ocean in this region of [[Sindh]]. The Sulemani Baluch who inhabit the region of Balochistan including [[Makran]]—for example, tribes including the [[Marri]],[[dasti or dashti]] [[Bugti]], [[Buzdar]], [[Lund (tribe)|Lund]], [[Ranjhani]], [[Ahmedani]], [[Mazari tribe|Mazari]], [[Mengal]], [[Nutkani]], [[Jiskani]], [[Chandio]], [[Muhammad Hassani]], [[Nausherwani]], Rind, [[Bizenjo]], [[Zehri]], [[Dehwar]], [[Changwani]] and others—carry different skills to survive in their mostly mountainous environment and have a history of aggressive behavior towards invasions. These tribes are not confined to one specific location as they also contain [[List of Baloch tribes|sub-tribes]] and can be found all over the region.

The origin of the word "Baluch" or "Baloch" is shrouded in controversy. According to an English researcher says that Baloch is a modified form of "Barlooch", which means "Plunderer" or "Desert Fighter".

==Physical appearance==
Balochis are Caucasian primarily of the [[Mediterranean race]] branch, meaning that dark hair, dark eyes and an olive complexion is a prevalent phenotype among Balochis, which is the same among neighbouring Pashtun tribes as well as the Brahui speakers within the Baloch nation. The occurrence of fair hair, light eyes and fair skin is possible at it is with the Pashtuns and with the endo-ethnic group Brahuis, as well as other Iranian peoples. Also it should be noted that many Sindhis have Baloch ancestry.

==Genetics==
Although Baluch lore has it that they may have migrated to their current location in the beginning of the Islamic period from the Near East, recent genetic evidence points to a largely [[South Asia|South]]/[[Central Asia]]n origin with regards to their paternal ancestry.<ref name="Qamar Raheel 1124">Qamar Raheel et al. "Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan". American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (1107–1124): 2002.</ref> Specifically, [[Y-Chromosome]] analysis has revealed a [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-DNA]] profile largely inconsistent with a [[Levant|Near-Eastern]] ethnogenesis, with over one-quarter of the Baluch belonging to haplogroup [[Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)|R1a1]] - a lineage defined by the presence of [[Single-nucleotide polymorphism|SNP]] marker M420 and generally found at significant frequencies over [[Central Asia|Central]]/[[South Asia|South]] [[Eurasia]], an area into which [[Indo-Iranians|Iranic]] diffusion was of great significance following the early [[Kurgan Culture|bronze age]]<ref>R. Spencer Wells et al., "''The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity,''" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (August 28, 2001)</ref> - and over another quarter belonging to haplogroup [[haplogroup L (Y-DNA)|L]], a haplogroup with a diversity of subclades in [[Pakistan]]. Only some 12% were reported positive for [[haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|haplogroup J]],<ref name="Qamar Raheel 1124"/> the mutation typical of Near Eastern peoples. On the other hand, the presence of [[Haplogroup E (Y-DNA)|haplogroup E]] in the Baluch, among whom the highest frequencies in Pakistan were found,<ref name="Qamar Raheel 1124"/> does lend some additional weight to their claims of a Near Eastern origin.

==Baluchi culture==

[[File:Balochi traditional dress.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|A teenage Baluchi girl wearing a traditional Baluchi dress.]]
[[File:Baluch women jewelery.jpg|thumb|right|alt=jewelery|Some jewellery traditional to Baluch women.]]

Baluchi customs and traditions are conducted according to codes imposed by tribal laws. These strong traditions and cultural values are important to Baluch people and have enabled them to keep their distinctive ancient cultural identity and way of life with little change to thi
<gallery>
</gallery>
s day. The culture and traditions of the Baluch have historically been passed down from mother to daughter, and men from father to son.

Baluchi culture is mentioned in the Pir M. Zehi's account of his travel to the province of Sakestan, or the present-day [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province|Sistan]] province of [[Iran]], which holds strong significance to the culture of Baluch people. Baluch people have preserved their traditional dress with little change over the centuries. The Baluch men wear long shirts with long sleeves and loose pants. the dress is occasionally accompanied by a [[pagh]] (turban) or a hat on their heads.

The Baluchi costume varies from Iran to Pakistan; the above pictures and description are for Pakistan Baluchi tribes. Iran Baluch dress code is more conservative in sense of length and material. Some Baluch women in Iran also cover their faces with thick red color wools (Burqah) and wear a (Sareeg) which is the head scarf and (Chadar) which is a long veil. No pictures are available.

The dress worn by Baluch women is one of the most interesting aspects of Baluchi culture. They are of strong significance to the culture of [[Iran]] and hold a special place in the society. The women put on loose dress and pants with sophisticated and colourful needlework, including a large pocket at the front of the dress to hold their accessories. The upper part of the dress and sleeves are also decorated with needlework, a form of artistry that is specific to the clothing of the Baluch women. Often the dress also contains round or square pieces of glass to further enhance the presentation. They cover their hair with a scarf, called a ''sarig'' in the local dialect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranchamber.com/people/articles/cultural_anthropology_of_Balochis.php |title=People of Iran: A Cultural Anthropology of Balochis |publisher=Iranchamber.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

These customs are unique to the people of [[Iran]] and the art of this needlework on women's clothing may provide one with a picture of the freedom and high status of Baluch women in [[Achaemenid]] era.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranheritage.org/achaemenidconference/abstracts_full.htm|title=The World of Achaemenid Persia |publisher=Iranchamber.com |date=|accessdate=2010-09-13}}</ref>

[[Gold]] ornaments such as [[necklaces]] and [[bracelets]] are an important aspect of Baluch women's traditions and among their most favoured items of jewellery are ''dorr'', heavy earrings that are fastened to the head with gold chains so that the heavy weight will not cause harm to the ears. They usually wear a gold brooch (''tasni'') that is made by local jewellers in different shapes and sizes and is used to fasten the two parts of the dress together over the chest. In ancient times, especially during the pre-Islamic era, it was common for Baluch women to perform [[Persian dance|dances]] and sing [[Balochi music|folk songs]] at different events. The tradition of a Baluch mother singing lullabies to her children has played an important role in the transfer of knowledge from generation to generation since ancient times. Apart from the dressing style of the Baluch, indigenous and local traditions and customs are also of great importance to the Baluch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://baask.com/diwwan/index.php?topic=4273.0;wap2 |title=Baloch Society & culture |publisher=Baask.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

Baluch people are culturally and traditionally regarded as [[secular]]. However, Baluch people are a minority, and growing [[Islamic fundamentalism]] in the region is seen as a threat to Baluchi culture.

===Baluchi music===
{{Main|Balochi music}}
Folk music has always played a great role in Baluchi traditions. Baluchi music belong to the same branch of Iranian music performed by many other [[Iranian peoples]] including [[Persia]]ns, [[Kurds]], [[Lurs]], [[Tajiks]] and others. Traditions like the transfer of knowledge from generation to generation by singing lullabies to children and praising warriors also have a significant role in Baluchi music traditions. The fact that both men and women participate in folk music reflects on the pre-Islamic significance of folk music in Baluchi culture. Many years of invasions, wars and later adopted religious values have prevented Balouchi music from prevailing further in the 21st century. However, a Swedish folk band, Golbang and Padik with the lead singer [[Rostam Mirlashari]] originally from [[Zahedan]] & [[Lashar]] in [[Balochistan]], has made progress in introducing Balouchi folk music to the Western world. The most commonly used instruments in Balouchi folk music are ''[[tembûr|tanbur]]'', long-necked lutes. Lutes have been present in [[Mesopotamia]] since the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] era, or the third millennium BCE. The ''[[dohol]]'', a large cylindrical drum with two skin heads, is the principal accompaniment for the ''[[zurna|surna]]'', an ancient Iranian woodwind instrument that dates back to the [[Achaemenid Dynasty]] (550-330 BCE). The ''[[flute|ney]]'' is also commonly played, using single or double flutes. The ''suroz'', a Baluchi folk violin, which is considered as the official instrument of the Baluches. Other Baluchi musical instruments include the ''[[tar]]'' and the ''[[baglama|saz]]''.

==Cuisine==
{{Main|Baloch cuisine}}

==Geographic distribution==
{{See also|Baloch diaspora}}
{| class="wikitable" style="border:1px #000; float:right;"
|}

The total population of [[Ethnicity|ethnic]] Baluch people is estimated to be around 15 million worldwide. However, the exact number of those who are Baluch or claim to be of Baluch ancestry is difficult to determine. As of 2010, the Baluch are 4.97% of Pakistan's 177 million people.<ref name="Ethnic Groups Pakistan"/> They make up 2% of Afghanistan's roughly 30 million people<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html?countryName=Afghanistan&countryCode=af&regionCode=sas&#af Ethnic Groups (Afghanistan)], CIA World Factbook</ref> and 2% of Iran's estimated 77 million.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&regionCode=me&#ir Ethnic Groups (Iran)], CIA World Factbook</ref>
[[File:Major ethnic groups of Pakistan in 1980.jpg|left|thumb|Major ethnic groups in Pakistan, Afghanistan and the surrounding areas, 1980. The Baluch are shown in pink.]]

Baluch ancestry is also claimed in the neighboring areas that adjoin Baluch majority lands. Those who speak Brahui are known as Brahuis.<ref name="freevar">http://pasnionline.freevar.com/Artical/The_Brahui_people/index.htm</ref> Many Baluch outside of Balochistan are also [[bilingual]] or of mixed ancestry due to their proximity to other ethnic groups, including the [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]], [[Saraiki people|Saraikis]] and [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]]. A large number of Baluch have been migrating to or living in provinces adjacent to Balochistan for centuries. In addition, there are many Baluch living in other parts of the world, with the bulk living in the [[Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf|GCC]] countries of the [[Persian Gulf]]. The Baluch are an important community in [[Oman]], where they make up a sizable minority.

Many Baloch over the years have migrated to Punjab for its lush green fertility and they can be found in large numbers in South Punjab, Central Punjab and in Lahore but most of them identify themselves now as [[Punjabi people|Punjabis]]. There is a small population of Baluch in several Western countries such as [[Sweden]] and [[Australia]]. Some Baluch settled in Australia in the 19th century; some fourth-generation Baluch still live there, mainly in the western city of [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]].

===Baluch in Oman===
The Baluch in Oman have maintained their ethnic and linguistic distinctions. The Southern Baluch comprise approximately 22% of the country's population. The traditional economy of Baluch in [[Oman]] is based on a combination of trade, farming and [[semi-nomadic]] shepherding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?rop3=109469&rog3=MU|title=Joshua Project - Baloch, Southern of Oman Ethnic People Profile|publisher=joshuaproject.net|date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

[[File:Iranian Family Tree v2.0.png|thumb|alt=Iranian language tree|[[Iranian languages]] family tree]]
[[File:IndoEuropeanTree.svg|thumb|200px|alt=language family tree|Indo-European language family tree]]

==Baluchi language==

The [[Balochi language]] is spoken in Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, the Persian Gulf Arab states, Turkmenistan, and as far as East Africa and some Western countries. It is classified as a member of the Iranian group of the Indo-European language family, which includes [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto]], [[Dari]], [[Tajik language|Tajik]] and [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]]. The Baluchi language has the closest similarities to [[Avestan]], [[old Persian]] and other [[Iranian languages]].

Two main dialects are spoken in [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province|Sistan va Balochestan]] and [[Balochistan (region)|Balochestan]]: Eastern and Western. The exact number of Baluch speakers is difficult to know, but the estimated number could be around 15 million. The majority speak Western Baluchi, which is also the dialect that has been most widely used in Baluchi literature. Within the Western dialect are two further dialects, Rakhshani and Nousherwani (spoken mainly in the northern areas) and Makurani (in the south).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.middleeastexplorer.com/Category/Languages-of-Iran|title=Languages of Iran. Iran at Middle East Explorer|publisher=Middleeastexplorer.com|date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

The Baluch have several tribes and sub-tribes. Some of these tribes speak [[Brahui language|Brahui]], while most speak [[Balochi language|Balochi]]. Multilingualism is common, with many Baluch speaking both Brahui and Baluchi. The [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rind]] [[Marri]], [[Magsi]], [[Domki]] and [[Bugti]] tribe speak [[Balochi language|Balochi]]. The [[Mengal]] tribe, who live in the [[Chagai District|Chagai]], [[Khuzdar District|Khuzdar]], [[Kharan District|Kharan]] districts of [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] and in southern parts of [[Afghanistan]], speak [[Brahui language|Brahui]]. The [[Muhammad Hasni]] tribe speak [[Brahui language|Brahui]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]] and some other languages according to the area they are living. The [[Lango (tribe)|Lango]] tribe, who live in central [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] in the Mangochar area, speak Brahui as their first language and Balochi as their second. The [[Bizenjo]] tribe speak both languages. The [[Bangulzai (tribe)|Bangulzai]] tribe mostly speaks Brahui, but has a Baluchi-speaking minority known as [[Garani]].

The [[Mazari tribe]] and [[Jamali]] tribe widely speak Baluchi or both dialects as well as [[Sindhi language]]. The Malghani are part of the [[Nutkani]] tribe, which is the largest tribe in the [[Tehsil]]. The [[Talpur]], [[Mastoi]](sub-tribe of Rind), [[Jatoi (Baloch tribe)|Jatoi]], Wahocha, Gabol, [[Chandio]], [[Mirani Tribe|Mirani]], [[Nutkani]], [[Ahmedani]], [[Jagirani]], [[Marri]], [[Magsi]], [[Domki]], [[Khosa]], [[Bozdar]], [[Jiskani]], [[Bijarani]], [[Hesbani]], [[Magsi]], [[Leghari]], [[Lashari]], [[Muhammad Hasni]], [[Kalpar]], [[Korai]], [[Talpur|Zardari]], [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rind]], [[Bhurgari]], [[Jakhrani]], [[Sarki]] and other Baluch tribes that are settled in [[Sindh]] speak [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Balochi language|Baluchi]] and [[Seraiki language|Seraiki]]. The [[Gadhi]] and [[Qaisrani]] Baluch living near [[Taunsa Sharif]] in the [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] province of Pakistan speak Seraiki and Baluchi, while their clansmen living in [[Dera Ghazi Khan]] tribal areas speak Baluchi. The [[Lund (tribe)|Lund]] Baluch living in [[Shadan Lund]] speak Sindhi, Seraiki and Baluchi. The [[Leghari]], [[Lashari]], [[Dasti]], [[Soomrani]], [[Pitafi]], [[Korai]], and [[Kunara]] Baluch in the [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ismail Khan]] and [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]] districts of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] speak [[Saraiki language|Seraiki]] as their first language. The [[Tauqi]] Baluch in the [[Khara, Punjab|Khara]], [[Noshki]], [[Chagai District|Chaghai]] and Washuk districts of Balochistan can speak both Baluchi and Brahui, but their primary language is Baluchi. The [[Buzdar]] is one of the largest tribes of Baluch in southern Punjab, living in the Koh-e-Suleman range tribes speak [[Saraiki language|Seraiki]] and [[Balochi language|Baluchi]]. Changwani Baluch with lands in Chotti Zaren speak [[Saraiki language|Seraiki]] and [[Balochi language|Baluchi]].

==See also==

* [[Ancient Persia]]
* [[Balouch rug|Baloch Rugs]]
* [[Baloch diaspora|Baloch Diaspora]]
* [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]]
* [[Balochistan conflict|Balochistan Conflict]]
* [[Firoud]]
* [[Iranian peoples|Iranian Peoples]]
* [[Kai Khosrow]]
* [[Makran]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
{{Commons category|Baloch}}
*[http://en.iran.ir/ Iran.ir]
*{{CIA World Factbook link|ir|Iran|voy=Baloch people}}
*{{dmoz|Regional/Middle_East/Iran}}
*{{wikiatlas|Iran}}

{{Balochistan, Pakistan topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baloch People}}
[[Category:Baloch people| ]]
[[Category:Social groups of Balochistan, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Social groups of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]
[[Category:Iranian peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Iran]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]
[[Category:Balochistan, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Nimruz Province]]
[[Category:Sistan and Baluchestan Province]]

[[ar:بلوش]]
[[ast:Etnia Baluchi]]
[[az:Bəluclar]]
[[be-x-old:Бэлуджы]]
[[bg:Белуджи]]
[[bs:Baluči]]
[[ca:Balutxis]]
[[de:Belutschen]]
[[et:Belutšid]]
[[es:Baluchi]]
[[fa:مردم بلوچ]]
[[fr:Baloutches]]
[[ko:발루치족]]
[[hi:बलोच लोग]]
[[hr:Baludži]]
[[it:Baluchi]]
[[ku:Belûç]]
[[lt:Beludžiai]]
[[hu:Beludzsok]]
[[ml:ബലൂചികൾ]]
[[mn:Балуч]]
[[nl:Beloetsjen]]
[[no:Balutsjer]]
[[pnb:بلوچ]]
[[pl:Beludżowie]]
[[pt:Balúchis]]
[[ru:Белуджи]]
[[simple:Baloch people]]
[[sr:Белуџи]]
[[sh:Baluči]]
[[sv:Balucher]]
[[tr:Beluciler]]
[[uk:Белуджі]]
[[ur:بلوچ]]
[[vi:Người Baloch]]
[[yo:Bàlúṣì]]
[[zh:俾路支人]]

Baloch people

2013-02-03T04:51:07Z

108.173.174.134: /* Physical appearance */

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Baloch<br>بلوچ
|pop = approximately 15 million
|region1 = {{flagcountry|Pakistan}}
|pop1 = 8,800,000 (2010)
|ref1 = {{lower|<ref name="Ethnic Groups Pakistan">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk&regionCode=sas&#pk Ethnic Groups (Pakistan)], [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]]</ref>}}
|region2 = {{flagcountry|Iran}}
|pop2 = 1,557,000
|ref2 = {{lower|<ref name="Iran Profile, Library of Congress">[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf Iran], ''Library of Congress, Country Profile'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref>}}
|region3 = {{flagcountry|Afghanistan}}
|religions = Predominantly [[Sunni Islam]]
|pop3 = 300,000 (2009)
|ref3 = {{lower|<ref name="CIA Afghanistan">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html Afghanistan], ''CIA World Factbook'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref>}}
|region4 = {{flagcountry|Oman}}
|pop4 = 434,000 (2009)
|ref4 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|author=Joshua Project |url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=15034&rog3=MU |title=Baloch, Southern of Oman Ethnic People Profile |publisher=Joshuaproject.net |date=2006-10-28 |accessdate=2012-08-01}}</ref><ref name="OM">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=OM Languages of Oman], ''Ethnologue.com'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref><ref name="CIA Factbook, Oman">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mu.html Oman], ''CIA World Factbook'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref>}}
|region5 = {{flagcountry|United Arab Emirates}}
|pop5 = 100,000 
|ref5 = {{lower|<ref name="Languages of United Arab Emirates">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=AE Languages of United Arab Emirates], ''Ethnologue.com'' (retrieved 5 December 2009)</ref>}}
|region6 = {{flagcountry|India}}
|pop6 = 60,000 
|ref6 = {{lower|<ref name="Balochi in IND">http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=11684&rog3=IN</ref>}}
|region7 = {{flagcountry|Turkmenistan}}
|pop7 = 30,000 
|ref7 = {{lower|<ref name="Balochi in TM">[http://www.central-asia.su/beludz.php KOKAISLOVÁ, Pavla, KOKAISL Petr. Ethnic Identity of The Baloch People. ''Central Asia and The Caucasus. Journal of Social and Political Studies.'' Volume 13, Issue 3, 2012, p. 45-55.], ISSN 1404-6091</ref>}}
|langs = [[Balochi language|Balochi]]<br />other: [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] and [[Brahui language|Brahui]], are used as second languages by the Baloch.
|related = [[Sindhis]], [[Persian people|Persians]],[[Pashtuns]], [[Brahui people|Brahuis]], and [[Kurdish people|Kurds]]}}
The '''Baloch''' or '''Baluch''' ([[Balochi language|Balochi]]: بلوچ) are a tribal society and an ethnic group who are native to the [[Balochistan|Balochistan region]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and southeast corner of the [[Iranian plateau]] in Southwest Asia.

The Baloch people mainly speak [[Balochi language|Balochi]]. Balochi language is a branch of the [[Iranian languages]], and more specifically of the [[Western Iranian languages|Northwestern Iranian languages]], that is [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] and other Iranic languages of the region. It also contains archaic features reminiscent of [[Old Persian]] and [[Avestan language|Avestan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html|title=Iranian Language Family|publisher=iranologie.com|accessdate=2010-12-08}}</ref> They inhabit mountainous terrains and deserts, and maintain a very distinct cultural identity. The Baloch-speaking population worldwide is estimated to be in the range of 10 to 15 million. However, the exact number of Baloch and those who are or claim to be of Baloch ancestry is difficult to determine. Most of Baloches in [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] speak the [[Seraiki language]].

It is possible that there are more Baloch than simply those who claim Balochi as their mother tongue. This, however, raises the question as to who is and is not a Baloch, as many surrounding peoples claim to be of Baloch descent but do not speak Balochi. The [[Brahui people|Brahui]], having lived in proximity to the Baloch, have absorbed substantial linguistic and genetic admixture from the Baloch and in many cases are indistinguishable. Despite very few cultural differences from the Baloch, the Brahui are still regarded as a separate group on account of language difference.

The higher population figures for the Baloch may only be possible if a large number of "Baloch" are included who speak different languages like Saraiki, Sindhi, Punjabi and Brahui, and who often claim descent from Baloch ancestors. Many Baloch outside of Balochistan are also bilingual or of mixed ancestry due to their proximity to other ethnic groups, including the Sindhis, Brahui, Persians, Seraikis and Pashtuns. A large number of Baloch have been migrating to or living in provinces adjacent to Balochistan for centuries. Balochs make up 2% of Iran's population (1.5 million), there are many Baloch living in other parts of the world, with the bulk living in the GCC countries of the Persian Gulf.

About 60% percent of the Baluch live in [[Balochistan, Pakistan|East Balochistan]], a western province in the [[Pakistan]].<ref>Blood, Peter, ed. [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0055) "Baloch"]. ''Pakistan: A Country Study''. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995.</ref> Around 25% percent inhabit the eastern province of [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province]] in the [[Islamic Republic of Iran]], 35 to 40% Pakistani Sindhis claim Baloch ancestry{{Citation needed|date=September 2012}} and are settled in [[Sindh]] and also a significant number of Baloch people in [[South Punjab]] of Pakistan. Many of the rest live in [[Afghanistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]], [[Qatar]], [[Oman]], [[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]], [[India]], [[United Arab Emirates]] and in some parts of [[Africa]], namely Kenya, and Tanzania (Tabora has a large community). Small communities of Baluch people also live in [[Europe]] particularly [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], [[England]] and in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth, Australia]], where they arrived in the 19th century.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

==Origin==

Like other [[Middle east]]ern ethnic groups, the Baloch claim Arabian extraction, however this is disputed, asserting that they are descendant of [[Amir Hamza]], a paternal uncle of [[Islamic Prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. They consistently place their first settlement in [[Aleppo]], where they remained until, siding the sons of [[Ali]] and taking part in the [[Battle of Karbala]], they were expelled by [[Yazid I|Yazid]], the second of the Umayyad Caliphs, in 680 A.D. Thence they first went to [[Kerman Province|Kerman]], and eventually to [[Sistan]] where they were hospitably received by Shams-ud-Din, ruler of that country. According to [[Mansel Longworth Dames|Dames]] there was a Shams-ud-Din, independent Malik of [[Sistan]], who claimed descent from the [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarids of Persia]] who died in 1164 A.D. (559 A.H.) or nearly 500 years after the Baloch migration from [[Aleppo]]. Badr-ud-Din appears to be unknown to history. His successor, Badr-ud-Din, demanded, according to eastern usage, a bride from each of the 44 bolaks or clans of the Baloch. But the Baloch race had never yet been tribute in this form to any ruler, and they sent therefore 44 boys dressed in girls' clothes and fled before the deception could be discovered. Badr-ud-Din sent the boys back but pursued the Baloch, who had fled south-eastwards, into Kech-Makran where he was defeated at their hands. At this period [[Mir Jalal Khan]], son of Mir Jiand the first, was the ruler of all the Baloch. He left four sons, Rind, Lashar, Hooth, and Korai, and a daughter Jato, who married his nephew Murad. These five are the eponymous founders of the five great divisions of the tribe, the [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rinds]], [[Lashari]]s, [[Hooth]]s, [[Korai]]s, and [[Jatoi (Baloch tribe)|Jatois]].<ref>[Encyclopaedia Of Untouchables Ancient, Medieval And Modern By Raj Kumar, page no. 337 http://books.google.com/books?id=e8o5HyC0-FUC]</ref>

==History==

{{Main|History of the Baloch people}}
[[File:Median Empire.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Medes|Median Empire]], [[Lydia|Lydian Empire]], and [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], before [[Cyrus the Great]]'s conquests.]]

[[File:Persia-Cyrus2-World3.png|thumb|right|alt=Cyrus after conquest|Superimposed on modern borders, the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus's rule extended approximately from [[Turkey]], [[Israel]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Arabia]] in the west to [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], to [[Pakistan]] and [[Oman]] in the east.]]

[[File:Map achaemenid empire en.png|thumb|left|alt=Baloch and Alexander's empire|The Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent, including the [[satrap]] of ancient [[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]]]]

[[File:Persepolis The Persian Soldiers.jpg|thumb|right|alt=soldiers|Persian and Median soldiers at [[Persepolis]]]]

[[File:MacedonEmpire-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Baloch and Alexander's empire|Baluch tribes and the paths that [[Alexander the Great]] took.]]

[[File:Gwadar Beach.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Gwadar in Makran|View of a beach in [[Makran]] region.]]

[[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]] is mentioned by Greek historian [[Herodotus]] as one of the early [[satrap]]s of [[Cyrus the Great]], who successfully united several ancient Iranian tribes to create an empire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty|title=Iranica Articles |publisher=R. Schmitt |date=December 15, 1983|accessdate=2010-09-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://balln.cwahi.net/amuse_amenace/ancient_09.htm|title=5th century BC 499-400 |publisher=cwahi.net |accessdate=2010-09-08| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100906123243/http://balln.cwahi.net/amuse_amenace/ancient_09.htm| archivedate= 6 September 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In the Behistun Inscription, [[Darius the Great]] mentions Maka as one of his eastern territories.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun03.html |title=The Behistun Inscription, translation|publisher=livius.org |date=accessdate=2010-10-03}}</ref> Darius is recorded to have personally led his elite [[Persian Immortals|forces]], whose ranks were restricted to those with [[Persian people|Persian]], [[Mede]] or [[Elamite]] ancestry, to fight the invading [[Scythians]] of [[Asia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.4.iv.html |title=Iranian Provinces: Sistan and Balochistan |publisher=mit.edu |date=accessdate=2010-10-03}}</ref> and then led the conquests in [[South Asia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/empire2/unkemptgoose/Persian.html |title=Persia |publisher=Angelfire.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranchamber.com/provinces/21_sistan_Balochistan/21_sistan_Balochistan.php |title=Iranian Provinces: Sistan and Balochistan |publisher=Iranchamber.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ancientpersia.com/war/immortal.htm |title=Ancient Persia |publisher=Ancientpersia.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-09}}</ref> where he conquered [[Sindh]] in 519 BC, constituted it as his 20th [[Satrapy]], and made use of the oceans there.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.mdc.edu/jmcnair/Joe12pages/darius_the_great.htm |title=Darius the great |publisher=mdc.edu |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.axehd.com/Home/2010/05/04/the-largest-empire-in-ancient-history/|title=The largest empire in ancient history |publisher=axehd.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref> Darius wanted to know more about Asia, according to Herodotus; he also wished to know where the "Indus (which is the only river save one that produces crocodiles) emptied itself into the sea".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.4.iv.html |title=History of Herodotus by Herodotus - Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) |publisher=mit.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-09-11| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101007074335/http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.4.iv.html| archivedate= 7 October 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

The present region of [[Makran]], which is inhabited by Baluch people, derived its name from the word "[[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]]". The [[Babylonians]] made voyages using Maka to communicate with [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/max-duncker/the-history-of-antiquity-volume-3-cnu/page-28-the-history-of-antiquity-volume-3-cnu.shtml |title=The history of antiquity|publisher=Max Duncker |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref> Maka communicated with [[Euphrates]], [[Tigris]] and [[Indus valley]]; objects from the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Harappan]] culture have been found in modern-day [[Oman]], other [[archaeology]] suggest that Maka was exporting [[copper]]. Herodotus mentions the inhabitants of Maka as "Mykians" who were previously involved in several conquests with [[Cyrus the Great]]. After the conquest of [[Egypt]] with [[Cambyses]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.3.iii.html |title=History of Herodotus - Book 3 |publisher=mit.edu |date=accessdate=2010-09-09}}</ref> they went to [[Sindh]] in command of [[Darius I]] and took in army of [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes the great]] at the battle of [[Thermopylae]], where they were equipped the same as [[Pakthas|Pactyans]], Utians and Paricanians, the tribes adjacent to the Mykians. The word [[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]] later became [[Makran]] as it is common in closely related ancient [[Avestan]] and [[Old Persian language]]s to use "an" and "ran" at the end of plurals,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zoroastrian.org/articles/Iran_Turan_in_Avesta.htm |title=Iranians and Turanians in Avesta|publisher=Ali A. Jafarey |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref> which then translates as "the land of Mykians". They are mentioned as "the men from Maka" in ''daeva'' inscriptions. The "''[[daeva]]'' inscription" is one of the most important of all [[Achaemenid]] inscriptions; in the Baluchi language, ''dêw'' translates as "giant [[devil]] or [[monster]]".

Mykians were responsible for many inventions, such as ''[[qanat]]s'' and underground drainage galleries that brought water from aquifers on the piedmont to gardens or palm groves on the plains. These inventions were important reasons behind the success of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] and survival of Mykians in their largely harsh [[natural environment]]. Other inscriptions record that [[gold]], [[silver]], [[lapis lazuli]], [[turquise]], [[cornalin]], [[cedar wood]], [[wood]] and the decoration for the relief at [[Susa]] were from Maka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/inscriptions_1.html#DSz |title=Some Royal Achaemenid Inscriptions|publisher=livius.org|date=accessdate=2010-10-14}}</ref> The Mykians of the other side of ancient Maka, the present-day region of Baluchistan and Sindh, had later taken independence because they are not mentioned in the book written by [[Arrian of Nicomedia]] about campaigns of [[Alexander the Great]]. He only mentions the Oman side of Maka which he calls "Maketa". The reasons for this may have been the arguably unjust rule of Xerxes.<ref name="The History, by Herodotus book7">{{cite web |url=http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/h/herodotus/h4/book7.html |title=The History, by Herodotus (book7)|publisher=cadelaide.edu.au |date=accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref><ref name="The History, by Herodotus book7"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/maa-mam/maka/maka.html |title=Maka|publisher=livius.org|date=accessdate=2010-10-1}}</ref> they are not mentioned as one of the ancient Iranian tribes that [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Darius I]] had fought with. Cyrus himself was of Persian and Median ancestry as his father was [[Cambyses I]], who is believed to have married [[Mandane of Media]], the daughter of [[Astyages]], a Median king.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/cyrus.html |title=Cyrus|publisher=livius.org|date=accessdate=2010-10-08}}</ref>

Historical evidence suggests that Baluch people were the ancient inhabitants of the Maka satrapy in [[Achaemenid empire]]. Baluch inhabiting the coastal areas in the region of [[Makran]] [[Chabahar]], [[Gwadar]], Gulf [[Oman]], [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]]) and [[Arabian Sea]] [[Karachi]] and other parts of [[Sindh]] and tribes including the [[Jatoi (tribe)|Jatoi]], [[Mirani Tribe|Mirani]], [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rind]], [[Bizenjo]], [[Brahui people|Brahui]] and [[Gabol]] are highly skilled in designing boats, fishing and other skills required to survive in their environment. [[Herodotus]] mentions that Darius had made use of the ocean in this region of [[Sindh]]. The Sulemani Baluch who inhabit the region of Balochistan including [[Makran]]—for example, tribes including the [[Marri]],[[dasti or dashti]] [[Bugti]], [[Buzdar]], [[Lund (tribe)|Lund]], [[Ranjhani]], [[Ahmedani]], [[Mazari tribe|Mazari]], [[Mengal]], [[Nutkani]], [[Jiskani]], [[Chandio]], [[Muhammad Hassani]], [[Nausherwani]], Rind, [[Bizenjo]], [[Zehri]], [[Dehwar]], [[Changwani]] and others—carry different skills to survive in their mostly mountainous environment and have a history of aggressive behavior towards invasions. These tribes are not confined to one specific location as they also contain [[List of Baloch tribes|sub-tribes]] and can be found all over the region.

The origin of the word "Baluch" or "Baloch" is shrouded in controversy. According to an English researcher says that Baloch is a modified form of "Barlooch", which means "Plunderer" or "Desert Fighter".

==Physical appearance==
Balochis are Caucasian primarily of the [[Mediterranean race]] branch, meaning that dark hair, dark eyes and an olive complexion is a prevalent phenotype among Balochis, which is the same among neighbouring Pashtun tribes as well as the Brahui speakers within the Baloch nation. The occurrence of fair hair, light eyes and fair skin is possible at it is with the Pashtuns and with the endo-ethnic group Brahuis. Also it should be noted that many Sindhis have Baloch ancestry.

==Genetics==
Although Baluch lore has it that they may have migrated to their current location in the beginning of the Islamic period from the Near East, recent genetic evidence points to a largely [[South Asia|South]]/[[Central Asia]]n origin with regards to their paternal ancestry.<ref name="Qamar Raheel 1124">Qamar Raheel et al. "Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan". American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (1107–1124): 2002.</ref> Specifically, [[Y-Chromosome]] analysis has revealed a [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-DNA]] profile largely inconsistent with a [[Levant|Near-Eastern]] ethnogenesis, with over one-quarter of the Baluch belonging to haplogroup [[Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)|R1a1]] - a lineage defined by the presence of [[Single-nucleotide polymorphism|SNP]] marker M420 and generally found at significant frequencies over [[Central Asia|Central]]/[[South Asia|South]] [[Eurasia]], an area into which [[Indo-Iranians|Iranic]] diffusion was of great significance following the early [[Kurgan Culture|bronze age]]<ref>R. Spencer Wells et al., "''The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity,''" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (August 28, 2001)</ref> - and over another quarter belonging to haplogroup [[haplogroup L (Y-DNA)|L]], a haplogroup with a diversity of subclades in [[Pakistan]]. Only some 12% were reported positive for [[haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|haplogroup J]],<ref name="Qamar Raheel 1124"/> the mutation typical of Near Eastern peoples. On the other hand, the presence of [[Haplogroup E (Y-DNA)|haplogroup E]] in the Baluch, among whom the highest frequencies in Pakistan were found,<ref name="Qamar Raheel 1124"/> does lend some additional weight to their claims of a Near Eastern origin.

==Baluchi culture==

[[File:Balochi traditional dress.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|A teenage Baluchi girl wearing a traditional Baluchi dress.]]
[[File:Baluch women jewelery.jpg|thumb|right|alt=jewelery|Some jewellery traditional to Baluch women.]]

Baluchi customs and traditions are conducted according to codes imposed by tribal laws. These strong traditions and cultural values are important to Baluch people and have enabled them to keep their distinctive ancient cultural identity and way of life with little change to thi
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s day. The culture and traditions of the Baluch have historically been passed down from mother to daughter, and men from father to son.

Baluchi culture is mentioned in the Pir M. Zehi's account of his travel to the province of Sakestan, or the present-day [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province|Sistan]] province of [[Iran]], which holds strong significance to the culture of Baluch people. Baluch people have preserved their traditional dress with little change over the centuries. The Baluch men wear long shirts with long sleeves and loose pants. the dress is occasionally accompanied by a [[pagh]] (turban) or a hat on their heads.

The Baluchi costume varies from Iran to Pakistan; the above pictures and description are for Pakistan Baluchi tribes. Iran Baluch dress code is more conservative in sense of length and material. Some Baluch women in Iran also cover their faces with thick red color wools (Burqah) and wear a (Sareeg) which is the head scarf and (Chadar) which is a long veil. No pictures are available.

The dress worn by Baluch women is one of the most interesting aspects of Baluchi culture. They are of strong significance to the culture of [[Iran]] and hold a special place in the society. The women put on loose dress and pants with sophisticated and colourful needlework, including a large pocket at the front of the dress to hold their accessories. The upper part of the dress and sleeves are also decorated with needlework, a form of artistry that is specific to the clothing of the Baluch women. Often the dress also contains round or square pieces of glass to further enhance the presentation. They cover their hair with a scarf, called a ''sarig'' in the local dialect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranchamber.com/people/articles/cultural_anthropology_of_Balochis.php |title=People of Iran: A Cultural Anthropology of Balochis |publisher=Iranchamber.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

These customs are unique to the people of [[Iran]] and the art of this needlework on women's clothing may provide one with a picture of the freedom and high status of Baluch women in [[Achaemenid]] era.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranheritage.org/achaemenidconference/abstracts_full.htm|title=The World of Achaemenid Persia |publisher=Iranchamber.com |date=|accessdate=2010-09-13}}</ref>

[[Gold]] ornaments such as [[necklaces]] and [[bracelets]] are an important aspect of Baluch women's traditions and among their most favoured items of jewellery are ''dorr'', heavy earrings that are fastened to the head with gold chains so that the heavy weight will not cause harm to the ears. They usually wear a gold brooch (''tasni'') that is made by local jewellers in different shapes and sizes and is used to fasten the two parts of the dress together over the chest. In ancient times, especially during the pre-Islamic era, it was common for Baluch women to perform [[Persian dance|dances]] and sing [[Balochi music|folk songs]] at different events. The tradition of a Baluch mother singing lullabies to her children has played an important role in the transfer of knowledge from generation to generation since ancient times. Apart from the dressing style of the Baluch, indigenous and local traditions and customs are also of great importance to the Baluch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://baask.com/diwwan/index.php?topic=4273.0;wap2 |title=Baloch Society & culture |publisher=Baask.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

Baluch people are culturally and traditionally regarded as [[secular]]. However, Baluch people are a minority, and growing [[Islamic fundamentalism]] in the region is seen as a threat to Baluchi culture.

===Baluchi music===
{{Main|Balochi music}}
Folk music has always played a great role in Baluchi traditions. Baluchi music belong to the same branch of Iranian music performed by many other [[Iranian peoples]] including [[Persia]]ns, [[Kurds]], [[Lurs]], [[Tajiks]] and others. Traditions like the transfer of knowledge from generation to generation by singing lullabies to children and praising warriors also have a significant role in Baluchi music traditions. The fact that both men and women participate in folk music reflects on the pre-Islamic significance of folk music in Baluchi culture. Many years of invasions, wars and later adopted religious values have prevented Balouchi music from prevailing further in the 21st century. However, a Swedish folk band, Golbang and Padik with the lead singer [[Rostam Mirlashari]] originally from [[Zahedan]] & [[Lashar]] in [[Balochistan]], has made progress in introducing Balouchi folk music to the Western world. The most commonly used instruments in Balouchi folk music are ''[[tembûr|tanbur]]'', long-necked lutes. Lutes have been present in [[Mesopotamia]] since the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] era, or the third millennium BCE. The ''[[dohol]]'', a large cylindrical drum with two skin heads, is the principal accompaniment for the ''[[zurna|surna]]'', an ancient Iranian woodwind instrument that dates back to the [[Achaemenid Dynasty]] (550-330 BCE). The ''[[flute|ney]]'' is also commonly played, using single or double flutes. The ''suroz'', a Baluchi folk violin, which is considered as the official instrument of the Baluches. Other Baluchi musical instruments include the ''[[tar]]'' and the ''[[baglama|saz]]''.

==Cuisine==
{{Main|Baloch cuisine}}

==Geographic distribution==
{{See also|Baloch diaspora}}
{| class="wikitable" style="border:1px #000; float:right;"
|}

The total population of [[Ethnicity|ethnic]] Baluch people is estimated to be around 15 million worldwide. However, the exact number of those who are Baluch or claim to be of Baluch ancestry is difficult to determine. As of 2010, the Baluch are 4.97% of Pakistan's 177 million people.<ref name="Ethnic Groups Pakistan"/> They make up 2% of Afghanistan's roughly 30 million people<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html?countryName=Afghanistan&countryCode=af&regionCode=sas&#af Ethnic Groups (Afghanistan)], CIA World Factbook</ref> and 2% of Iran's estimated 77 million.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&regionCode=me&#ir Ethnic Groups (Iran)], CIA World Factbook</ref>
[[File:Major ethnic groups of Pakistan in 1980.jpg|left|thumb|Major ethnic groups in Pakistan, Afghanistan and the surrounding areas, 1980. The Baluch are shown in pink.]]

Baluch ancestry is also claimed in the neighboring areas that adjoin Baluch majority lands. Those who speak Brahui are known as Brahuis.<ref name="freevar">http://pasnionline.freevar.com/Artical/The_Brahui_people/index.htm</ref> Many Baluch outside of Balochistan are also [[bilingual]] or of mixed ancestry due to their proximity to other ethnic groups, including the [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]], [[Saraiki people|Saraikis]] and [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]]. A large number of Baluch have been migrating to or living in provinces adjacent to Balochistan for centuries. In addition, there are many Baluch living in other parts of the world, with the bulk living in the [[Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf|GCC]] countries of the [[Persian Gulf]]. The Baluch are an important community in [[Oman]], where they make up a sizable minority.

Many Baloch over the years have migrated to Punjab for its lush green fertility and they can be found in large numbers in South Punjab, Central Punjab and in Lahore but most of them identify themselves now as [[Punjabi people|Punjabis]]. There is a small population of Baluch in several Western countries such as [[Sweden]] and [[Australia]]. Some Baluch settled in Australia in the 19th century; some fourth-generation Baluch still live there, mainly in the western city of [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]].

===Baluch in Oman===
The Baluch in Oman have maintained their ethnic and linguistic distinctions. The Southern Baluch comprise approximately 22% of the country's population. The traditional economy of Baluch in [[Oman]] is based on a combination of trade, farming and [[semi-nomadic]] shepherding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?rop3=109469&rog3=MU|title=Joshua Project - Baloch, Southern of Oman Ethnic People Profile|publisher=joshuaproject.net|date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

[[File:Iranian Family Tree v2.0.png|thumb|alt=Iranian language tree|[[Iranian languages]] family tree]]
[[File:IndoEuropeanTree.svg|thumb|200px|alt=language family tree|Indo-European language family tree]]

==Baluchi language==

The [[Balochi language]] is spoken in Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, the Persian Gulf Arab states, Turkmenistan, and as far as East Africa and some Western countries. It is classified as a member of the Iranian group of the Indo-European language family, which includes [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto]], [[Dari]], [[Tajik language|Tajik]] and [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]]. The Baluchi language has the closest similarities to [[Avestan]], [[old Persian]] and other [[Iranian languages]].

Two main dialects are spoken in [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province|Sistan va Balochestan]] and [[Balochistan (region)|Balochestan]]: Eastern and Western. The exact number of Baluch speakers is difficult to know, but the estimated number could be around 15 million. The majority speak Western Baluchi, which is also the dialect that has been most widely used in Baluchi literature. Within the Western dialect are two further dialects, Rakhshani and Nousherwani (spoken mainly in the northern areas) and Makurani (in the south).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.middleeastexplorer.com/Category/Languages-of-Iran|title=Languages of Iran. Iran at Middle East Explorer|publisher=Middleeastexplorer.com|date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

The Baluch have several tribes and sub-tribes. Some of these tribes speak [[Brahui language|Brahui]], while most speak [[Balochi language|Balochi]]. Multilingualism is common, with many Baluch speaking both Brahui and Baluchi. The [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rind]] [[Marri]], [[Magsi]], [[Domki]] and [[Bugti]] tribe speak [[Balochi language|Balochi]]. The [[Mengal]] tribe, who live in the [[Chagai District|Chagai]], [[Khuzdar District|Khuzdar]], [[Kharan District|Kharan]] districts of [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] and in southern parts of [[Afghanistan]], speak [[Brahui language|Brahui]]. The [[Muhammad Hasni]] tribe speak [[Brahui language|Brahui]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]] and some other languages according to the area they are living. The [[Lango (tribe)|Lango]] tribe, who live in central [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] in the Mangochar area, speak Brahui as their first language and Balochi as their second. The [[Bizenjo]] tribe speak both languages. The [[Bangulzai (tribe)|Bangulzai]] tribe mostly speaks Brahui, but has a Baluchi-speaking minority known as [[Garani]].

The [[Mazari tribe]] and [[Jamali]] tribe widely speak Baluchi or both dialects as well as [[Sindhi language]]. The Malghani are part of the [[Nutkani]] tribe, which is the largest tribe in the [[Tehsil]]. The [[Talpur]], [[Mastoi]](sub-tribe of Rind), [[Jatoi (Baloch tribe)|Jatoi]], Wahocha, Gabol, [[Chandio]], [[Mirani Tribe|Mirani]], [[Nutkani]], [[Ahmedani]], [[Jagirani]], [[Marri]], [[Magsi]], [[Domki]], [[Khosa]], [[Bozdar]], [[Jiskani]], [[Bijarani]], [[Hesbani]], [[Magsi]], [[Leghari]], [[Lashari]], [[Muhammad Hasni]], [[Kalpar]], [[Korai]], [[Talpur|Zardari]], [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rind]], [[Bhurgari]], [[Jakhrani]], [[Sarki]] and other Baluch tribes that are settled in [[Sindh]] speak [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Balochi language|Baluchi]] and [[Seraiki language|Seraiki]]. The [[Gadhi]] and [[Qaisrani]] Baluch living near [[Taunsa Sharif]] in the [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] province of Pakistan speak Seraiki and Baluchi, while their clansmen living in [[Dera Ghazi Khan]] tribal areas speak Baluchi. The [[Lund (tribe)|Lund]] Baluch living in [[Shadan Lund]] speak Sindhi, Seraiki and Baluchi. The [[Leghari]], [[Lashari]], [[Dasti]], [[Soomrani]], [[Pitafi]], [[Korai]], and [[Kunara]] Baluch in the [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ismail Khan]] and [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]] districts of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] speak [[Saraiki language|Seraiki]] as their first language. The [[Tauqi]] Baluch in the [[Khara, Punjab|Khara]], [[Noshki]], [[Chagai District|Chaghai]] and Washuk districts of Balochistan can speak both Baluchi and Brahui, but their primary language is Baluchi. The [[Buzdar]] is one of the largest tribes of Baluch in southern Punjab, living in the Koh-e-Suleman range tribes speak [[Saraiki language|Seraiki]] and [[Balochi language|Baluchi]]. Changwani Baluch with lands in Chotti Zaren speak [[Saraiki language|Seraiki]] and [[Balochi language|Baluchi]].

==See also==

* [[Ancient Persia]]
* [[Balouch rug|Baloch Rugs]]
* [[Baloch diaspora|Baloch Diaspora]]
* [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]]
* [[Balochistan conflict|Balochistan Conflict]]
* [[Firoud]]
* [[Iranian peoples|Iranian Peoples]]
* [[Kai Khosrow]]
* [[Makran]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
{{Commons category|Baloch}}
*[http://en.iran.ir/ Iran.ir]
*{{CIA World Factbook link|ir|Iran|voy=Baloch people}}
*{{dmoz|Regional/Middle_East/Iran}}
*{{wikiatlas|Iran}}

{{Balochistan, Pakistan topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baloch People}}
[[Category:Baloch people| ]]
[[Category:Social groups of Balochistan, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Social groups of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]
[[Category:Iranian peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Iran]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]
[[Category:Balochistan, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Nimruz Province]]
[[Category:Sistan and Baluchestan Province]]

[[ar:بلوش]]
[[ast:Etnia Baluchi]]
[[az:Bəluclar]]
[[be-x-old:Бэлуджы]]
[[bg:Белуджи]]
[[bs:Baluči]]
[[ca:Balutxis]]
[[de:Belutschen]]
[[et:Belutšid]]
[[es:Baluchi]]
[[fa:مردم بلوچ]]
[[fr:Baloutches]]
[[ko:발루치족]]
[[hi:बलोच लोग]]
[[hr:Baludži]]
[[it:Baluchi]]
[[ku:Belûç]]
[[lt:Beludžiai]]
[[hu:Beludzsok]]
[[ml:ബലൂചികൾ]]
[[mn:Балуч]]
[[nl:Beloetsjen]]
[[no:Balutsjer]]
[[pnb:بلوچ]]
[[pl:Beludżowie]]
[[pt:Balúchis]]
[[ru:Белуджи]]
[[simple:Baloch people]]
[[sr:Белуџи]]
[[sh:Baluči]]
[[sv:Balucher]]
[[tr:Beluciler]]
[[uk:Белуджі]]
[[ur:بلوچ]]
[[vi:Người Baloch]]
[[yo:Bàlúṣì]]
[[zh:俾路支人]]

Baloch people

2013-02-03T04:48:46Z

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{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Baloch<br>بلوچ
|pop = approximately 15 million
|region1 = {{flagcountry|Pakistan}}
|pop1 = 8,800,000 (2010)
|ref1 = {{lower|<ref name="Ethnic Groups Pakistan">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk&regionCode=sas&#pk Ethnic Groups (Pakistan)], [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]]</ref>}}
|region2 = {{flagcountry|Iran}}
|pop2 = 1,557,000
|ref2 = {{lower|<ref name="Iran Profile, Library of Congress">[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf Iran], ''Library of Congress, Country Profile'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref>}}
|region3 = {{flagcountry|Afghanistan}}
|religions = Predominantly [[Sunni Islam]]
|pop3 = 300,000 (2009)
|ref3 = {{lower|<ref name="CIA Afghanistan">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html Afghanistan], ''CIA World Factbook'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref>}}
|region4 = {{flagcountry|Oman}}
|pop4 = 434,000 (2009)
|ref4 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|author=Joshua Project |url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=15034&rog3=MU |title=Baloch, Southern of Oman Ethnic People Profile |publisher=Joshuaproject.net |date=2006-10-28 |accessdate=2012-08-01}}</ref><ref name="OM">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=OM Languages of Oman], ''Ethnologue.com'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref><ref name="CIA Factbook, Oman">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mu.html Oman], ''CIA World Factbook'' . Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref>}}
|region5 = {{flagcountry|United Arab Emirates}}
|pop5 = 100,000 
|ref5 = {{lower|<ref name="Languages of United Arab Emirates">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=AE Languages of United Arab Emirates], ''Ethnologue.com'' (retrieved 5 December 2009)</ref>}}
|region6 = {{flagcountry|India}}
|pop6 = 60,000 
|ref6 = {{lower|<ref name="Balochi in IND">http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=11684&rog3=IN</ref>}}
|region7 = {{flagcountry|Turkmenistan}}
|pop7 = 30,000 
|ref7 = {{lower|<ref name="Balochi in TM">[http://www.central-asia.su/beludz.php KOKAISLOVÁ, Pavla, KOKAISL Petr. Ethnic Identity of The Baloch People. ''Central Asia and The Caucasus. Journal of Social and Political Studies.'' Volume 13, Issue 3, 2012, p. 45-55.], ISSN 1404-6091</ref>}}
|langs = [[Balochi language|Balochi]]<br />other: [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] and [[Brahui language|Brahui]], are used as second languages by the Baloch.
|related = [[Sindhis]], [[Persian people|Persians]],[[Pashtuns]], [[Brahui people|Brahuis]], and [[Kurdish people|Kurds]]}}
The '''Baloch''' or '''Baluch''' ([[Balochi language|Balochi]]: بلوچ) are a tribal society and an ethnic group who are native to the [[Balochistan|Balochistan region]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and southeast corner of the [[Iranian plateau]] in Southwest Asia.

The Baloch people mainly speak [[Balochi language|Balochi]]. Balochi language is a branch of the [[Iranian languages]], and more specifically of the [[Western Iranian languages|Northwestern Iranian languages]], that is [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] and other Iranic languages of the region. It also contains archaic features reminiscent of [[Old Persian]] and [[Avestan language|Avestan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html|title=Iranian Language Family|publisher=iranologie.com|accessdate=2010-12-08}}</ref> They inhabit mountainous terrains and deserts, and maintain a very distinct cultural identity. The Baloch-speaking population worldwide is estimated to be in the range of 10 to 15 million. However, the exact number of Baloch and those who are or claim to be of Baloch ancestry is difficult to determine. Most of Baloches in [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] speak the [[Seraiki language]].

It is possible that there are more Baloch than simply those who claim Balochi as their mother tongue. This, however, raises the question as to who is and is not a Baloch, as many surrounding peoples claim to be of Baloch descent but do not speak Balochi. The [[Brahui people|Brahui]], having lived in proximity to the Baloch, have absorbed substantial linguistic and genetic admixture from the Baloch and in many cases are indistinguishable. Despite very few cultural differences from the Baloch, the Brahui are still regarded as a separate group on account of language difference.

The higher population figures for the Baloch may only be possible if a large number of "Baloch" are included who speak different languages like Saraiki, Sindhi, Punjabi and Brahui, and who often claim descent from Baloch ancestors. Many Baloch outside of Balochistan are also bilingual or of mixed ancestry due to their proximity to other ethnic groups, including the Sindhis, Brahui, Persians, Seraikis and Pashtuns. A large number of Baloch have been migrating to or living in provinces adjacent to Balochistan for centuries. Balochs make up 2% of Iran's population (1.5 million), there are many Baloch living in other parts of the world, with the bulk living in the GCC countries of the Persian Gulf.

About 60% percent of the Baluch live in [[Balochistan, Pakistan|East Balochistan]], a western province in the [[Pakistan]].<ref>Blood, Peter, ed. [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0055) "Baloch"]. ''Pakistan: A Country Study''. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995.</ref> Around 25% percent inhabit the eastern province of [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province]] in the [[Islamic Republic of Iran]], 35 to 40% Pakistani Sindhis claim Baloch ancestry{{Citation needed|date=September 2012}} and are settled in [[Sindh]] and also a significant number of Baloch people in [[South Punjab]] of Pakistan. Many of the rest live in [[Afghanistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]], [[Qatar]], [[Oman]], [[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]], [[India]], [[United Arab Emirates]] and in some parts of [[Africa]], namely Kenya, and Tanzania (Tabora has a large community). Small communities of Baluch people also live in [[Europe]] particularly [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], [[England]] and in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth, Australia]], where they arrived in the 19th century.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

==Origin==

Like other [[Middle east]]ern ethnic groups, the Baloch claim Arabian extraction, however this is disputed, asserting that they are descendant of [[Amir Hamza]], a paternal uncle of [[Islamic Prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. They consistently place their first settlement in [[Aleppo]], where they remained until, siding the sons of [[Ali]] and taking part in the [[Battle of Karbala]], they were expelled by [[Yazid I|Yazid]], the second of the Umayyad Caliphs, in 680 A.D. Thence they first went to [[Kerman Province|Kerman]], and eventually to [[Sistan]] where they were hospitably received by Shams-ud-Din, ruler of that country. According to [[Mansel Longworth Dames|Dames]] there was a Shams-ud-Din, independent Malik of [[Sistan]], who claimed descent from the [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarids of Persia]] who died in 1164 A.D. (559 A.H.) or nearly 500 years after the Baloch migration from [[Aleppo]]. Badr-ud-Din appears to be unknown to history. His successor, Badr-ud-Din, demanded, according to eastern usage, a bride from each of the 44 bolaks or clans of the Baloch. But the Baloch race had never yet been tribute in this form to any ruler, and they sent therefore 44 boys dressed in girls' clothes and fled before the deception could be discovered. Badr-ud-Din sent the boys back but pursued the Baloch, who had fled south-eastwards, into Kech-Makran where he was defeated at their hands. At this period [[Mir Jalal Khan]], son of Mir Jiand the first, was the ruler of all the Baloch. He left four sons, Rind, Lashar, Hooth, and Korai, and a daughter Jato, who married his nephew Murad. These five are the eponymous founders of the five great divisions of the tribe, the [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rinds]], [[Lashari]]s, [[Hooth]]s, [[Korai]]s, and [[Jatoi (Baloch tribe)|Jatois]].<ref>[Encyclopaedia Of Untouchables Ancient, Medieval And Modern By Raj Kumar, page no. 337 http://books.google.com/books?id=e8o5HyC0-FUC]</ref>

==History==

{{Main|History of the Baloch people}}
[[File:Median Empire.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Medes|Median Empire]], [[Lydia|Lydian Empire]], and [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], before [[Cyrus the Great]]'s conquests.]]

[[File:Persia-Cyrus2-World3.png|thumb|right|alt=Cyrus after conquest|Superimposed on modern borders, the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus's rule extended approximately from [[Turkey]], [[Israel]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Arabia]] in the west to [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], to [[Pakistan]] and [[Oman]] in the east.]]

[[File:Map achaemenid empire en.png|thumb|left|alt=Baloch and Alexander's empire|The Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent, including the [[satrap]] of ancient [[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]]]]

[[File:Persepolis The Persian Soldiers.jpg|thumb|right|alt=soldiers|Persian and Median soldiers at [[Persepolis]]]]

[[File:MacedonEmpire-2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Baloch and Alexander's empire|Baluch tribes and the paths that [[Alexander the Great]] took.]]

[[File:Gwadar Beach.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Gwadar in Makran|View of a beach in [[Makran]] region.]]

[[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]] is mentioned by Greek historian [[Herodotus]] as one of the early [[satrap]]s of [[Cyrus the Great]], who successfully united several ancient Iranian tribes to create an empire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty|title=Iranica Articles |publisher=R. Schmitt |date=December 15, 1983|accessdate=2010-09-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://balln.cwahi.net/amuse_amenace/ancient_09.htm|title=5th century BC 499-400 |publisher=cwahi.net |accessdate=2010-09-08| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100906123243/http://balln.cwahi.net/amuse_amenace/ancient_09.htm| archivedate= 6 September 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In the Behistun Inscription, [[Darius the Great]] mentions Maka as one of his eastern territories.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun03.html |title=The Behistun Inscription, translation|publisher=livius.org |date=accessdate=2010-10-03}}</ref> Darius is recorded to have personally led his elite [[Persian Immortals|forces]], whose ranks were restricted to those with [[Persian people|Persian]], [[Mede]] or [[Elamite]] ancestry, to fight the invading [[Scythians]] of [[Asia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.4.iv.html |title=Iranian Provinces: Sistan and Balochistan |publisher=mit.edu |date=accessdate=2010-10-03}}</ref> and then led the conquests in [[South Asia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/empire2/unkemptgoose/Persian.html |title=Persia |publisher=Angelfire.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranchamber.com/provinces/21_sistan_Balochistan/21_sistan_Balochistan.php |title=Iranian Provinces: Sistan and Balochistan |publisher=Iranchamber.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ancientpersia.com/war/immortal.htm |title=Ancient Persia |publisher=Ancientpersia.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-09}}</ref> where he conquered [[Sindh]] in 519 BC, constituted it as his 20th [[Satrapy]], and made use of the oceans there.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.mdc.edu/jmcnair/Joe12pages/darius_the_great.htm |title=Darius the great |publisher=mdc.edu |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.axehd.com/Home/2010/05/04/the-largest-empire-in-ancient-history/|title=The largest empire in ancient history |publisher=axehd.com |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref> Darius wanted to know more about Asia, according to Herodotus; he also wished to know where the "Indus (which is the only river save one that produces crocodiles) emptied itself into the sea".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.4.iv.html |title=History of Herodotus by Herodotus - Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) |publisher=mit.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-09-11| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101007074335/http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.4.iv.html| archivedate= 7 October 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

The present region of [[Makran]], which is inhabited by Baluch people, derived its name from the word "[[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]]". The [[Babylonians]] made voyages using Maka to communicate with [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/max-duncker/the-history-of-antiquity-volume-3-cnu/page-28-the-history-of-antiquity-volume-3-cnu.shtml |title=The history of antiquity|publisher=Max Duncker |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref> Maka communicated with [[Euphrates]], [[Tigris]] and [[Indus valley]]; objects from the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Harappan]] culture have been found in modern-day [[Oman]], other [[archaeology]] suggest that Maka was exporting [[copper]]. Herodotus mentions the inhabitants of Maka as "Mykians" who were previously involved in several conquests with [[Cyrus the Great]]. After the conquest of [[Egypt]] with [[Cambyses]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.3.iii.html |title=History of Herodotus - Book 3 |publisher=mit.edu |date=accessdate=2010-09-09}}</ref> they went to [[Sindh]] in command of [[Darius I]] and took in army of [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes the great]] at the battle of [[Thermopylae]], where they were equipped the same as [[Pakthas|Pactyans]], Utians and Paricanians, the tribes adjacent to the Mykians. The word [[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]] later became [[Makran]] as it is common in closely related ancient [[Avestan]] and [[Old Persian language]]s to use "an" and "ran" at the end of plurals,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zoroastrian.org/articles/Iran_Turan_in_Avesta.htm |title=Iranians and Turanians in Avesta|publisher=Ali A. Jafarey |date=accessdate=2010-09-10}}</ref> which then translates as "the land of Mykians". They are mentioned as "the men from Maka" in ''daeva'' inscriptions. The "''[[daeva]]'' inscription" is one of the most important of all [[Achaemenid]] inscriptions; in the Baluchi language, ''dêw'' translates as "giant [[devil]] or [[monster]]".

Mykians were responsible for many inventions, such as ''[[qanat]]s'' and underground drainage galleries that brought water from aquifers on the piedmont to gardens or palm groves on the plains. These inventions were important reasons behind the success of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] and survival of Mykians in their largely harsh [[natural environment]]. Other inscriptions record that [[gold]], [[silver]], [[lapis lazuli]], [[turquise]], [[cornalin]], [[cedar wood]], [[wood]] and the decoration for the relief at [[Susa]] were from Maka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/inscriptions_1.html#DSz |title=Some Royal Achaemenid Inscriptions|publisher=livius.org|date=accessdate=2010-10-14}}</ref> The Mykians of the other side of ancient Maka, the present-day region of Baluchistan and Sindh, had later taken independence because they are not mentioned in the book written by [[Arrian of Nicomedia]] about campaigns of [[Alexander the Great]]. He only mentions the Oman side of Maka which he calls "Maketa". The reasons for this may have been the arguably unjust rule of Xerxes.<ref name="The History, by Herodotus book7">{{cite web |url=http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/h/herodotus/h4/book7.html |title=The History, by Herodotus (book7)|publisher=cadelaide.edu.au |date=accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref><ref name="The History, by Herodotus book7"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/maa-mam/maka/maka.html |title=Maka|publisher=livius.org|date=accessdate=2010-10-1}}</ref> they are not mentioned as one of the ancient Iranian tribes that [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Darius I]] had fought with. Cyrus himself was of Persian and Median ancestry as his father was [[Cambyses I]], who is believed to have married [[Mandane of Media]], the daughter of [[Astyages]], a Median king.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/cyrus.html |title=Cyrus|publisher=livius.org|date=accessdate=2010-10-08}}</ref>

Historical evidence suggests that Baluch people were the ancient inhabitants of the Maka satrapy in [[Achaemenid empire]]. Baluch inhabiting the coastal areas in the region of [[Makran]] [[Chabahar]], [[Gwadar]], Gulf [[Oman]], [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]]) and [[Arabian Sea]] [[Karachi]] and other parts of [[Sindh]] and tribes including the [[Jatoi (tribe)|Jatoi]], [[Mirani Tribe|Mirani]], [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rind]], [[Bizenjo]], [[Brahui people|Brahui]] and [[Gabol]] are highly skilled in designing boats, fishing and other skills required to survive in their environment. [[Herodotus]] mentions that Darius had made use of the ocean in this region of [[Sindh]]. The Sulemani Baluch who inhabit the region of Balochistan including [[Makran]]—for example, tribes including the [[Marri]],[[dasti or dashti]] [[Bugti]], [[Buzdar]], [[Lund (tribe)|Lund]], [[Ranjhani]], [[Ahmedani]], [[Mazari tribe|Mazari]], [[Mengal]], [[Nutkani]], [[Jiskani]], [[Chandio]], [[Muhammad Hassani]], [[Nausherwani]], Rind, [[Bizenjo]], [[Zehri]], [[Dehwar]], [[Changwani]] and others—carry different skills to survive in their mostly mountainous environment and have a history of aggressive behavior towards invasions. These tribes are not confined to one specific location as they also contain [[List of Baloch tribes|sub-tribes]] and can be found all over the region.

The origin of the word "Baluch" or "Baloch" is shrouded in controversy. According to an English researcher says that Baloch is a modified form of "Barlooch", which means "Plunderer" or "Desert Fighter".

==Physical appearance==
Balochis are Caucasian primarily of the [[Mediterranean race]] branch, meaning that dark hair, dark eyes and a [[swarthy]] complexion is a prevalent phenotype among Balochis, which is the same among neighbouring Pashtun tribes as well as the Brahui speakers within the Baloch nation. Also it should be noted that many Sindhis have Baloch ancestry.

==Genetics==
Although Baluch lore has it that they may have migrated to their current location in the beginning of the Islamic period from the Near East, recent genetic evidence points to a largely [[South Asia|South]]/[[Central Asia]]n origin with regards to their paternal ancestry.<ref name="Qamar Raheel 1124">Qamar Raheel et al. "Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan". American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (1107–1124): 2002.</ref> Specifically, [[Y-Chromosome]] analysis has revealed a [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-DNA]] profile largely inconsistent with a [[Levant|Near-Eastern]] ethnogenesis, with over one-quarter of the Baluch belonging to haplogroup [[Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)|R1a1]] - a lineage defined by the presence of [[Single-nucleotide polymorphism|SNP]] marker M420 and generally found at significant frequencies over [[Central Asia|Central]]/[[South Asia|South]] [[Eurasia]], an area into which [[Indo-Iranians|Iranic]] diffusion was of great significance following the early [[Kurgan Culture|bronze age]]<ref>R. Spencer Wells et al., "''The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity,''" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (August 28, 2001)</ref> - and over another quarter belonging to haplogroup [[haplogroup L (Y-DNA)|L]], a haplogroup with a diversity of subclades in [[Pakistan]]. Only some 12% were reported positive for [[haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|haplogroup J]],<ref name="Qamar Raheel 1124"/> the mutation typical of Near Eastern peoples. On the other hand, the presence of [[Haplogroup E (Y-DNA)|haplogroup E]] in the Baluch, among whom the highest frequencies in Pakistan were found,<ref name="Qamar Raheel 1124"/> does lend some additional weight to their claims of a Near Eastern origin.

==Baluchi culture==

[[File:Balochi traditional dress.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|A teenage Baluchi girl wearing a traditional Baluchi dress.]]
[[File:Baluch women jewelery.jpg|thumb|right|alt=jewelery|Some jewellery traditional to Baluch women.]]

Baluchi customs and traditions are conducted according to codes imposed by tribal laws. These strong traditions and cultural values are important to Baluch people and have enabled them to keep their distinctive ancient cultural identity and way of life with little change to thi
<gallery>
</gallery>
s day. The culture and traditions of the Baluch have historically been passed down from mother to daughter, and men from father to son.

Baluchi culture is mentioned in the Pir M. Zehi's account of his travel to the province of Sakestan, or the present-day [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province|Sistan]] province of [[Iran]], which holds strong significance to the culture of Baluch people. Baluch people have preserved their traditional dress with little change over the centuries. The Baluch men wear long shirts with long sleeves and loose pants. the dress is occasionally accompanied by a [[pagh]] (turban) or a hat on their heads.

The Baluchi costume varies from Iran to Pakistan; the above pictures and description are for Pakistan Baluchi tribes. Iran Baluch dress code is more conservative in sense of length and material. Some Baluch women in Iran also cover their faces with thick red color wools (Burqah) and wear a (Sareeg) which is the head scarf and (Chadar) which is a long veil. No pictures are available.

The dress worn by Baluch women is one of the most interesting aspects of Baluchi culture. They are of strong significance to the culture of [[Iran]] and hold a special place in the society. The women put on loose dress and pants with sophisticated and colourful needlework, including a large pocket at the front of the dress to hold their accessories. The upper part of the dress and sleeves are also decorated with needlework, a form of artistry that is specific to the clothing of the Baluch women. Often the dress also contains round or square pieces of glass to further enhance the presentation. They cover their hair with a scarf, called a ''sarig'' in the local dialect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranchamber.com/people/articles/cultural_anthropology_of_Balochis.php |title=People of Iran: A Cultural Anthropology of Balochis |publisher=Iranchamber.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

These customs are unique to the people of [[Iran]] and the art of this needlework on women's clothing may provide one with a picture of the freedom and high status of Baluch women in [[Achaemenid]] era.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranheritage.org/achaemenidconference/abstracts_full.htm|title=The World of Achaemenid Persia |publisher=Iranchamber.com |date=|accessdate=2010-09-13}}</ref>

[[Gold]] ornaments such as [[necklaces]] and [[bracelets]] are an important aspect of Baluch women's traditions and among their most favoured items of jewellery are ''dorr'', heavy earrings that are fastened to the head with gold chains so that the heavy weight will not cause harm to the ears. They usually wear a gold brooch (''tasni'') that is made by local jewellers in different shapes and sizes and is used to fasten the two parts of the dress together over the chest. In ancient times, especially during the pre-Islamic era, it was common for Baluch women to perform [[Persian dance|dances]] and sing [[Balochi music|folk songs]] at different events. The tradition of a Baluch mother singing lullabies to her children has played an important role in the transfer of knowledge from generation to generation since ancient times. Apart from the dressing style of the Baluch, indigenous and local traditions and customs are also of great importance to the Baluch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://baask.com/diwwan/index.php?topic=4273.0;wap2 |title=Baloch Society & culture |publisher=Baask.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

Baluch people are culturally and traditionally regarded as [[secular]]. However, Baluch people are a minority, and growing [[Islamic fundamentalism]] in the region is seen as a threat to Baluchi culture.

===Baluchi music===
{{Main|Balochi music}}
Folk music has always played a great role in Baluchi traditions. Baluchi music belong to the same branch of Iranian music performed by many other [[Iranian peoples]] including [[Persia]]ns, [[Kurds]], [[Lurs]], [[Tajiks]] and others. Traditions like the transfer of knowledge from generation to generation by singing lullabies to children and praising warriors also have a significant role in Baluchi music traditions. The fact that both men and women participate in folk music reflects on the pre-Islamic significance of folk music in Baluchi culture. Many years of invasions, wars and later adopted religious values have prevented Balouchi music from prevailing further in the 21st century. However, a Swedish folk band, Golbang and Padik with the lead singer [[Rostam Mirlashari]] originally from [[Zahedan]] & [[Lashar]] in [[Balochistan]], has made progress in introducing Balouchi folk music to the Western world. The most commonly used instruments in Balouchi folk music are ''[[tembûr|tanbur]]'', long-necked lutes. Lutes have been present in [[Mesopotamia]] since the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] era, or the third millennium BCE. The ''[[dohol]]'', a large cylindrical drum with two skin heads, is the principal accompaniment for the ''[[zurna|surna]]'', an ancient Iranian woodwind instrument that dates back to the [[Achaemenid Dynasty]] (550-330 BCE). The ''[[flute|ney]]'' is also commonly played, using single or double flutes. The ''suroz'', a Baluchi folk violin, which is considered as the official instrument of the Baluches. Other Baluchi musical instruments include the ''[[tar]]'' and the ''[[baglama|saz]]''.

==Cuisine==
{{Main|Baloch cuisine}}

==Geographic distribution==
{{See also|Baloch diaspora}}
{| class="wikitable" style="border:1px #000; float:right;"
|}

The total population of [[Ethnicity|ethnic]] Baluch people is estimated to be around 15 million worldwide. However, the exact number of those who are Baluch or claim to be of Baluch ancestry is difficult to determine. As of 2010, the Baluch are 4.97% of Pakistan's 177 million people.<ref name="Ethnic Groups Pakistan"/> They make up 2% of Afghanistan's roughly 30 million people<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html?countryName=Afghanistan&countryCode=af&regionCode=sas&#af Ethnic Groups (Afghanistan)], CIA World Factbook</ref> and 2% of Iran's estimated 77 million.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&regionCode=me&#ir Ethnic Groups (Iran)], CIA World Factbook</ref>
[[File:Major ethnic groups of Pakistan in 1980.jpg|left|thumb|Major ethnic groups in Pakistan, Afghanistan and the surrounding areas, 1980. The Baluch are shown in pink.]]

Baluch ancestry is also claimed in the neighboring areas that adjoin Baluch majority lands. Those who speak Brahui are known as Brahuis.<ref name="freevar">http://pasnionline.freevar.com/Artical/The_Brahui_people/index.htm</ref> Many Baluch outside of Balochistan are also [[bilingual]] or of mixed ancestry due to their proximity to other ethnic groups, including the [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]], [[Saraiki people|Saraikis]] and [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]]. A large number of Baluch have been migrating to or living in provinces adjacent to Balochistan for centuries. In addition, there are many Baluch living in other parts of the world, with the bulk living in the [[Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf|GCC]] countries of the [[Persian Gulf]]. The Baluch are an important community in [[Oman]], where they make up a sizable minority.

Many Baloch over the years have migrated to Punjab for its lush green fertility and they can be found in large numbers in South Punjab, Central Punjab and in Lahore but most of them identify themselves now as [[Punjabi people|Punjabis]]. There is a small population of Baluch in several Western countries such as [[Sweden]] and [[Australia]]. Some Baluch settled in Australia in the 19th century; some fourth-generation Baluch still live there, mainly in the western city of [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]].

===Baluch in Oman===
The Baluch in Oman have maintained their ethnic and linguistic distinctions. The Southern Baluch comprise approximately 22% of the country's population. The traditional economy of Baluch in [[Oman]] is based on a combination of trade, farming and [[semi-nomadic]] shepherding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?rop3=109469&rog3=MU|title=Joshua Project - Baloch, Southern of Oman Ethnic People Profile|publisher=joshuaproject.net|date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

[[File:Iranian Family Tree v2.0.png|thumb|alt=Iranian language tree|[[Iranian languages]] family tree]]
[[File:IndoEuropeanTree.svg|thumb|200px|alt=language family tree|Indo-European language family tree]]

==Baluchi language==

The [[Balochi language]] is spoken in Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, the Persian Gulf Arab states, Turkmenistan, and as far as East Africa and some Western countries. It is classified as a member of the Iranian group of the Indo-European language family, which includes [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto]], [[Dari]], [[Tajik language|Tajik]] and [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]]. The Baluchi language has the closest similarities to [[Avestan]], [[old Persian]] and other [[Iranian languages]].

Two main dialects are spoken in [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province|Sistan va Balochestan]] and [[Balochistan (region)|Balochestan]]: Eastern and Western. The exact number of Baluch speakers is difficult to know, but the estimated number could be around 15 million. The majority speak Western Baluchi, which is also the dialect that has been most widely used in Baluchi literature. Within the Western dialect are two further dialects, Rakhshani and Nousherwani (spoken mainly in the northern areas) and Makurani (in the south).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.middleeastexplorer.com/Category/Languages-of-Iran|title=Languages of Iran. Iran at Middle East Explorer|publisher=Middleeastexplorer.com|date= |accessdate=2010-09-07}}</ref>

The Baluch have several tribes and sub-tribes. Some of these tribes speak [[Brahui language|Brahui]], while most speak [[Balochi language|Balochi]]. Multilingualism is common, with many Baluch speaking both Brahui and Baluchi. The [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rind]] [[Marri]], [[Magsi]], [[Domki]] and [[Bugti]] tribe speak [[Balochi language|Balochi]]. The [[Mengal]] tribe, who live in the [[Chagai District|Chagai]], [[Khuzdar District|Khuzdar]], [[Kharan District|Kharan]] districts of [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] and in southern parts of [[Afghanistan]], speak [[Brahui language|Brahui]]. The [[Muhammad Hasni]] tribe speak [[Brahui language|Brahui]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]] and some other languages according to the area they are living. The [[Lango (tribe)|Lango]] tribe, who live in central [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] in the Mangochar area, speak Brahui as their first language and Balochi as their second. The [[Bizenjo]] tribe speak both languages. The [[Bangulzai (tribe)|Bangulzai]] tribe mostly speaks Brahui, but has a Baluchi-speaking minority known as [[Garani]].

The [[Mazari tribe]] and [[Jamali]] tribe widely speak Baluchi or both dialects as well as [[Sindhi language]]. The Malghani are part of the [[Nutkani]] tribe, which is the largest tribe in the [[Tehsil]]. The [[Talpur]], [[Mastoi]](sub-tribe of Rind), [[Jatoi (Baloch tribe)|Jatoi]], Wahocha, Gabol, [[Chandio]], [[Mirani Tribe|Mirani]], [[Nutkani]], [[Ahmedani]], [[Jagirani]], [[Marri]], [[Magsi]], [[Domki]], [[Khosa]], [[Bozdar]], [[Jiskani]], [[Bijarani]], [[Hesbani]], [[Magsi]], [[Leghari]], [[Lashari]], [[Muhammad Hasni]], [[Kalpar]], [[Korai]], [[Talpur|Zardari]], [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rind]], [[Bhurgari]], [[Jakhrani]], [[Sarki]] and other Baluch tribes that are settled in [[Sindh]] speak [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Balochi language|Baluchi]] and [[Seraiki language|Seraiki]]. The [[Gadhi]] and [[Qaisrani]] Baluch living near [[Taunsa Sharif]] in the [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] province of Pakistan speak Seraiki and Baluchi, while their clansmen living in [[Dera Ghazi Khan]] tribal areas speak Baluchi. The [[Lund (tribe)|Lund]] Baluch living in [[Shadan Lund]] speak Sindhi, Seraiki and Baluchi. The [[Leghari]], [[Lashari]], [[Dasti]], [[Soomrani]], [[Pitafi]], [[Korai]], and [[Kunara]] Baluch in the [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ismail Khan]] and [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]] districts of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] speak [[Saraiki language|Seraiki]] as their first language. The [[Tauqi]] Baluch in the [[Khara, Punjab|Khara]], [[Noshki]], [[Chagai District|Chaghai]] and Washuk districts of Balochistan can speak both Baluchi and Brahui, but their primary language is Baluchi. The [[Buzdar]] is one of the largest tribes of Baluch in southern Punjab, living in the Koh-e-Suleman range tribes speak [[Saraiki language|Seraiki]] and [[Balochi language|Baluchi]]. Changwani Baluch with lands in Chotti Zaren speak [[Saraiki language|Seraiki]] and [[Balochi language|Baluchi]].

==See also==

* [[Ancient Persia]]
* [[Balouch rug|Baloch Rugs]]
* [[Baloch diaspora|Baloch Diaspora]]
* [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]]
* [[Balochistan conflict|Balochistan Conflict]]
* [[Firoud]]
* [[Iranian peoples|Iranian Peoples]]
* [[Kai Khosrow]]
* [[Makran]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
{{Commons category|Baloch}}
*[http://en.iran.ir/ Iran.ir]
*{{CIA World Factbook link|ir|Iran|voy=Baloch people}}
*{{dmoz|Regional/Middle_East/Iran}}
*{{wikiatlas|Iran}}

{{Balochistan, Pakistan topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baloch People}}
[[Category:Baloch people| ]]
[[Category:Social groups of Balochistan, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Social groups of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]
[[Category:Iranian peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Iran]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]
[[Category:Balochistan, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Nimruz Province]]
[[Category:Sistan and Baluchestan Province]]

[[ar:بلوش]]
[[ast:Etnia Baluchi]]
[[az:Bəluclar]]
[[be-x-old:Бэлуджы]]
[[bg:Белуджи]]
[[bs:Baluči]]
[[ca:Balutxis]]
[[de:Belutschen]]
[[et:Belutšid]]
[[es:Baluchi]]
[[fa:مردم بلوچ]]
[[fr:Baloutches]]
[[ko:발루치족]]
[[hi:बलोच लोग]]
[[hr:Baludži]]
[[it:Baluchi]]
[[ku:Belûç]]
[[lt:Beludžiai]]
[[hu:Beludzsok]]
[[ml:ബലൂചികൾ]]
[[mn:Балуч]]
[[nl:Beloetsjen]]
[[no:Balutsjer]]
[[pnb:بلوچ]]
[[pl:Beludżowie]]
[[pt:Balúchis]]
[[ru:Белуджи]]
[[simple:Baloch people]]
[[sr:Белуџи]]
[[sh:Baluči]]
[[sv:Balucher]]
[[tr:Beluciler]]
[[uk:Белуджі]]
[[ur:بلوچ]]
[[vi:Người Baloch]]
[[yo:Bàlúṣì]]
[[zh:俾路支人]]

Brahui people

2013-02-03T04:48:01Z

108.173.174.134: /* Physical appearence */

{{Refimprove|date=June 2008}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Brahui <br> بروہی
|image = [[File:Brahui people of Quetta.jpg|250px]]
|caption = A photograph from 1910 with the caption reading "Brahui of [[Quetta]]".
|poptime = 2,528,000<ref name="joshuaproject">http://www.joshuaproject.net/peoples.php?peo3=10959&rog3=AF.</ref>
|region1 = {{flagcountry|PAK}}
|pop1 = 2,234,000<ref name="joshuaproject" />
|region2 = {{flagcountry|AFG}}
|pop2 = 271,000<ref name="joshuaproject" />
|region3 = {{flag|Iran}}
|pop3 = 21,000<ref name="joshuaproject" />
|region4 = {{Flag|Bangladesh}}
|pop4 = 400<ref>http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=10959&rog3=BG.</ref>
|langs = [[Brahui language|Brahui]]<br><small> ''[[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Urdu]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] spoken as second languages''</small>
|rels = [[Sunni Islam]] ([[Hanafi]])
|related = [[Balochis]] and [[Sindhis]] as well as [[Indo-Aryans]], [[Iranian peoples]] and [[Dravidians]] }}

The '''Brahui''' or '''Brohi''' ([[Brahui language|Brahui]]: براہوی, {{lang-sd|بروہي}}) are an ethnic group of about 2.5 million people with the majority found in [[Sindh]] and [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Baluchistan]], [[Pakistan]], but they are also found in smaller numbers in neighboring [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iran]]. The Brahuis are almost entirely [[Sunni]] [[Muslim]]s.<ref name="Andrew Dalby - Hindu origin of Brahui people">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=CnckpL8auSIC&pg=PA96&dq=brahui+hindu#v=onepage&q=brahui%20hindu&f=false| title = Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages|publisher = Columbia University Press|accessdate = 2010-09-09|isbn = 9780231115698|date = 2004-03-01}}</ref>

==Origins==
The ethnonym "Brahui" is a very old term and a purely Dravidian one.<ref name="Mikhail Sergeevich Andronov - Dravidian Brahui language">{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=K4lkAAAAMAAJ&q=brahui+dravidian&dq=brahui+dravidian| title = Brahui, a Dravidian language: a descriptive and comparative study|publisher = Foreign Language Study|accessdate = 2010-09-09|isbn = 9783895863486|year = 2006}}</ref> According some historians Brahvis and Balochs belong to same race. Balochi speaking people entered Mekran while Brahvi speaking people entered from Chagi defeated the Dravadian rulers of Kalat and entered into matrimonial relationship with the Dravadian and Balochi languages were mixed up and a new language of “Brahvi” was born due to same relationship.<ref name=nap>{{ cite web |url=http://www.brahvilanguage.com/Origin%20of%20Brahvi%20Language.html |author=Noor Ahmed Pirkani |title=Origin of Brahvi Language |publisher=Brahvi Brohi Language |accessdate=January 9, 2013}}</ref>{{clarify|This sentence needs to improve its grammar to have it make sense. I would have fixed it myself if I could unravel its meaning, but I cannot - Hamamelis|date=January 2013}} The fact that other Dravidian languages only exist further south in India has led to some speculation about the origins of the Brahui. Here are three hypotheses regarding the Brahui that have been proposed by academics: one theory is that the Brahui are a [[relic population]] of Dravidians, surrounded by speakers of [[Indo-Iranian languages]], remaining from a time when Dravidian was more widespread; another theory is that they migrated to [[Baluchistan]] from [[Mainland India|inner India]] during the early Muslim period of the 13th or 14th centuries;<ref>[Sergent, ''Genèse de l'Inde'']</ref> a third theory says the Brahui migrated to Balochistan from [[South India]] after 1000 AD. The absence of evidence of older Iranian (Avestan) influence in Brahui supports this hypothesis. The main Iranian contributor to the Brahui vocabulary is a northwestern [[Iranic language]], [[Baluchi]]; and southeastern [[Iranic language]], [[Pashto]].<ref>J. H. Elfenbein, A periplous of the ‘Brahui problem’, ''Studia Iranica'' vol. 16 (1987), pp. 215-233.</ref>

{{Quotation|The History of the Brahui emerges from total darkness with the displacement of a shadowy Hindu dynasty in [[Kalat]] called Sewa by the [[Mirwari]] Brahuis. There is a [[Mughal (tribe)|Mughal]] interlude and then Brahui ascendancy again.<ref>Language and linguistic area: essays By Murray Barnson Emeneau, Selected and introduced by Anwar S. Dil, Stanford University Press. Page 334</ref>}}
{{Quotation|It is said that a [[Hindu]] dynasty, the [[Sewa Dynasty|Sewa]] by name, ruled over this part of the country prior to the seventh century, Kalat is still known as Kalat-i-Sewa.<ref>Population Census Organisation, Statistics Division, Govt. of Pakistan, 1999, 1998 district census report of Kalat Page 7.</ref>}}
Over the centuries, due to their location, the Brahui have mixed with [[Iranian peoples]] as well as the [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]], among other [[Indo-Aryan peoples]]. They culturally resemble their Baloch and Sindhi neighbors, although they still continue to speak their Brahui language.

==Tribes==
Brahui tribes include [[Mengal]], [[Zagar Mengal]], [[Mirwani]], [[Bangulzai tribe|Bangulzai]], [[Banulzai]], [[Bizenjo]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasani]], [[Kheazai]], [[Lango tribe|Langov]], [[Lehri tribe|Lehri]], [[Sarparah]], [[Muhammed Hasni]], [[Muhammad Shahi]], [[Raisani]], [[Kurd_(Baloch_tribe)|Kurd]], [[Sumulani]], Yusufzai ([[Dehwar]]) Zarakzai ([[Zehri]]), [[Sasoli]], [[Sataksai]], [[Musiani]], [[Saya Paadh]], [[Qambarani]], [[Rodeni]], [[Jattak]].<ref>[http://www.ipdf.gov.pk/tmpnew/DF_Baluchistan.php Infrastructure Project Development Facility: Balochistan]</ref>

==Language==
[[File:Dravidische Sprachen.png|400px|thumb|Dravidian ethnic groups in South Asia.]]
{{main|Brahui language}}
The Brahui language is a language within the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian subgroup of languages]].<ref name="Mikhail Sergeevich Andronov - Dravidian Brahui language" /> While it does contain many similar words as the ''Iranic'' Baloch language, it also has many loan words from Indo-Aryan languages as well as the Dravidian words of its own. It is mainly spoken in the Kalat areas of [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]], Pakistan, although there are a considerable number of speakers in Southern [[Afghanistan]] and Iranian [[Balochistan (Iran)|Balochistan]]. It includes three dialects including Sarawani (spoken in the north), Jhalawani (spoken in the southeast), and Chaghi (spoken in the northwest and west). According to a survey it has about 2,000,000 speakers in Pakistan (1998), 200,000 speakers in Afghanistan<ref>Dupree 1989: Afghanistan, p. 62</ref> and 20,000 speakers in Iran, which would amount to 2,220,000 in the world. Due to its isolation, Brahui's vocabulary is only 15% Dravidian, while the remainder is dominated by Perso-Arabic, [[Balochi language|Balochi]], and [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]], while the grammar and overall morphology still resemble other Dravidian tongues. Brahui is generally written in the [[Perso-Arabic script]] and there is even a [[Latin script|Latin alphabet]] that has been developed for use with Brahui.

===Dialects===
Kalat, Jhalawan, and Sarawan, with Kalat as the standard dialect.
Presently Brahui is spoken in [[Sistan va Baluchestan]], [[Pakistani Balochistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Sindh]] and the Persian Gulf [[Arab]] states.

==Physical appearence==
Brahui's are [[Caucasian]], of the [[Mediterranean race|Mediterranean]] subbranch being in the same race with the neighboring Pashtun and Balochi tribes who are ethno-linguistically Iranian people. The majority of Brahuis have dark hair ,dark eyes and [[olive skin]] like their neighbouring ethnic groups, and the occurrence of light hair, light eyes and light skin among brahuis is possible as it is with the adjacent ethnic groups like the Pashtuns and Balochis. As such, Brahui's generally have a racial affinity with the Iranian Pashtuns and Balochis than with the Dravidian speakers of south India, moreover the a big portion of Sindhis have Baloch/Brahui admixture.

==Genetics==
Brahuis display a variety of [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-DNA]] [[haplogroups]], the two most important of which being haplogroup [[Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)|R1a]] - with it's mass diffusion among populations of [[Central Asia|Central]]/[[South Asia]] and associated with the early eastern migrations of [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] nomads - and haplogroup [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|J]], which, though found among other [[South Asia|subcontinental]] peoples, is nevertheless more typical of Near-Eastern populations.<ref name="QamarRaheel">Qamar Raheel et al. "Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan". American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (1107–1124): 2002.</ref><ref name="Sengupta">Sengupta, S; Zhivotovsky, LA; King, R; Mehdi, SQ; Edmonds, CA; Chow, CE; Lin, AA; Mitra, M et al. (2006).</ref> Other, relatively minor, low-frequency haplogroups among the Brahui are those of [[haplogroup L (Y-DNA)|L]], [[Haplogroup E1b1a (Y-DNA)|E1b1a]], [[Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)|G]], and [[Haplogroup N (Y-DNA)|N]].<ref name="QamarRaheel" /><ref name="Sengupta" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Brahui}}
*[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/workshops/ South Asia Language Resource Center]
*[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77226/Brahui Brahui people], Britannica.com
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC447589/

{{DEFAULTSORT:Brahui People}}

[[Category:Brahui people]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Social groups of Balochistan, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Muslim communities]]
[[Category:Dravidian peoples|*]]
[[Category:Historical definitions of race]]
[[Category:Dravidians]]



[[be:Брагуі]]
[[ca:Brahuis]]
[[fa:براهویی (طایفه)]]
[[fr:Brahouis]]
[[kn:ಬ್ರಾಹುಯಿ]]
[[lt:Brahujai]]
[[ml:ബ്രഹൂയി ജനത]]
[[pnb:براہوی لوک]]
[[ru:Брагуи (народ)]]
[[simple:Brahui people]]
[[sr:Брагуји]]
[[sh:Brahui]]
[[tr:Brohiler]]
[[uk:Брагуї]]
[[ur:بروہی]]
[[zh:布拉灰人]]

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-03T04:45:52Z

108.173.174.134:

'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]. It also refers to [[Europeans]].

Gora is typically not used by ethnic groups west of the indus river comprising of [[Pashtuns]], [[Balochis]] and several other ethic groups, due to the fact that they their languages not classed as Indo-Aryan thus lack the term "gora" in their native lexicon, and the indegenous populations there are racially of [[mediterranean race|mediterranean]] complexion, making them significantly fairer than ethnic groups east of the indus river yet darker than nordic complexion of northern europeans, as such, the term "farangi" is used instead to refer to British people and other northern european nationalities. Occasionally, a few Pashtuns, Baloch-Brahui,Dardic peoples(notably [[Kalash]]) and other groups in such regions may be born with a Nordic appearance and thus be colliqualy called a Farangi or Gora with their appearance ressembling Northern Europeans such as the British.

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> the Gora Kabrastan in [[Karachi]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/031002/review6.htm Grave business]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/030824/dmag11.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}

Gora

2013-02-03T04:40:18Z

108.173.174.134:

{{Wiktionary}}
'''Gora''' may refer to:
__NOTOC__
*[[Gora (clan)]], a clan of Jats found in north India
*[[Gora (racial epithet)]] or ''gaura'', a Hindi and Indo-Aryan word for [[Europeans]] or a light-skinned person
*[[Gora (novel)|''Gora'' (novel)]], by Indian Nobel laureate [[Rabindranath Tagore]]
*''[[G.O.R.A.]]'', a Turkish comedy film
*[[Apache Gora]], an open source framework provides an in-memory data model and persistence for big data.

==People==
*[[Claudio Gora]], Italian actor and director
*[[Jo Ann M. Gora]], President of Ball State University
*[[Ronald Gora]], American swimmer
*[[Goparaju Ramachandra Rao]] ("Gora"), Indian atheist author and confidante of Gandhi

==Places==
*[[Gora (region)]], in Serbia and adjacent eastern Albania
*[[Gora, Croatia]], a village near Petrinja, Croatia
*[[Gora, Japan]], a tourist hub and spa town near [[Mount Fuji]], Japan
*[[Góra (disambiguation)]], places in Poland
*[[Gora, Russia]], name of several rural localities in Russia
*[[Gora, Krško]], a settlement in the Municipality of Krško, Slovenia
*[[Gora nad Sodražico]] (also known as Gora), Slovenia, a community and parish comprising the villages of [[Betonovo]], [[Kračali]], [[Janeži]], [[Petrinci]], and [[Kržeti]]
*[[Gora Ardan]], a peak in the western plains of Turkmenistan
*[[Gora Cemetery (disambiguation)]]

{{Disambiguation|surname|geo}}

[[de:Gora]]
[[fr:Gora]]
[[hr:Gora]]
[[it:Gora]]
[[nl:Gora]]
[[ru:Гора (значения)]]
[[sr:Гора]]
[[sh:Gora]]
[[tr:Gora (anlam ayrımı)]]
[[uk:Гора (значення)]]

Gora Qabaristan, Karachi

2013-02-03T04:39:42Z

108.173.174.134:

{{refimprove|date=April 2012}}
[[Image:Gora kabristan karachi general view 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|A general view of the cemetery (2005)]]
The '''Gora Qabaristan''' ([[Urdu]]: {{Nastaliq|گورا قبرِستان}}; also spelled as ''Gora Kabristan''), or '''Gora Cemetery''', literally transliterated as ''Fair skinned graveyard'' is [[Karachi]]'s only operational [[Christian]] [[cemetery]]. The original consecration of the Karachi Christian Cemetery was in 1845 during [[British Raj|colonial rule]] but there is a tombstone set in the wall near the main gate of the cemetery bearing the date 1843.

After the [[partition of India]], the British High Commission in Karachi invited the members of the various Christian bodies to form the Karachi Christian Cemeteries Board.<ref>{{cite web |title = The Karachi Christian Cemetery| url= http://www.karachigoraqabristan.org/history.html}}</ref>

==Location==
It is located on main [[Shahrah-e-Faisal]].

==Division==
Until around 1981, the cemetery was divided into two parts, [[Protestant]] and [[Catholic]]. However, since then, the wall separating them was removed and the two merged.

==Management==
The Karachi Christian Cemetery Board manages its affairs.

Over time the condition of the cemetery has deteriorated. In 1995, a group called CARE (Caring, putting into Action, and Restoring the Environmental degradation of the cemetery), made up of people from all parishes and churches, made it their objective to make the cemetery a clean and peaceful resting place for the departed.

Among the problems identified requiring attention were: stopping the continuous flow of sewage into the cemetery grounds; the cutting and clearing of weeds almost 8 feet high, removal of garbage piled up at least 3 feet high over an area of almost 2000 square yards along the West wall; the construction of a concrete wall (estimated to be 6,000 feet), and a permanent pumping station to drain out rain water during the monsoons.<ref>The Christian Voice, Karachi, December 24, 1995</ref>

In 2006 the cemetery continues to be desecrated with boys of the surrounding localities playing cricket and football here causing damage to the graves.<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/2006/07/20/local15.htm Dawn 20 July 2006]</ref>

==Burial services==
From 1885, burial services have been performed by a family firm, Anthony Coutinho & Company. The office still exists on Shahrah-e-Iraq, near [[Saint Patrick's Cathedral, Karachi|St. Patrick's Cathedral]], but it has all but stopped functioning. More recently, the St. Joseph's Association, a diocesan organization that organises burials has taken over this function.<ref>{{cite web |title =St. Joseph's Association| url=http://www.medicalmissionsisters.org/healing/karachi.htm}}</ref>

==Polish memorial==
[[File:Polish memorial Karachi.jpg|thumb|right|During 1942-1945, nearly 30,000 Poles were deported by the Soviet Union to [[Karachi]] (then under British rule). This photo shows a memorial to the refugees who died in Karachi and were buried at the Karachi graveyard.]]
Following the [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|Germany invasion of Poland]], between 1942-1945 some 30,000 refugees escaped to Karachi.<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/2005/11/09/local16.htm KARACHI: Cemetery renovated]</ref> In memory of the 58 [[Poland|Polish]] citizens who died in Karachi in the 1940s, a memorial has been erected by the Polish government.<ref name="polandconsulatekarachi.com">[http://www.polandconsulatekarachi.com/news2.html Consulate General of the Republic of Poland in Karachi - Consulate's Activity in '2005]</ref> It lists the names of all 58 individuals.<ref name="polandconsulatekarachi.com"/>

The most prominent Pole buried in the cemetery is Air Commodore [[Władysław Turowicz]] who played a key role in Pakistan's aviation and aerospace industry.

==Renovations==
The city’s district government in 2011 installed two new gates and paved the pathways inside the graveyard.<ref>[http://www.ucanews.com/2011/11/04/christians-worry-about-cemetery/ UCANews 4 November 2011]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Pakistan}}

[[Category:Cemeteries in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Cemeteries in Karachi]]
[[Category:Christianity in Pakistan]]

{{Sindh-geo-stub}}
{{Pakistan-hist-stub}}

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-03T04:35:21Z

108.173.174.134:

'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]. It also refers to [[Europeans]].

Gora is typically not used by ethnic groups west of the indus river comprising of Pashtuns, Balochis and several other ethic groups, due to the fact that they their languages not classed as Indo-Aryan, and the indegenous populations there are of [[mediterranean race|mediterranean]] complexion, making them significantly fairer than ethnic groups east of the indus river yet darker than nordic complexion of northern europeans, as such, the term "farangi" is used instead to refer to British people and other northern european nationalities.

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> the Gora Kabrastan in [[Karachi]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/031002/review6.htm Grave business]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/030824/dmag11.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}

Gora (racial epithet)

2013-02-02T02:06:11Z

108.173.174.134:

'''Gora''' (or '''gaura''') is a [[South Asian]] adjective for a yellow-skinned or light-brown person, whether from [[India]], [[Pakistan]] or other regions. The word literally means "white" or "fair-skinned" in [[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi-Urdu), and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]].

Gora is typically not used by ethnic groups west of the indus river comprising of Pashtuns, Balochis and several other ethic groups, due to the fact that they their languages not classed as Indo-Aryan, and the indegenous populations there are of [[mediterranean race|mediterranean]] complexion, making them significantly fairer than ethnic groups east of the indus river yet darker than nordic complexion of northern europeans, as such, the term "farangi" is used instead to refer to British people and other northern european nationalities.

Although the word distinctly means "yellowish", it is sometimes used informally to include any light-skinned person, whether light-brown, yellow or even white. In place names that date back to the colonial era - there are a number of graveyards in Pakistan such as the Gora Qabristan (the lighter-skinned graveyard) in [[Peshawar]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/050612/dmag7.htm A vanishing landmark]</ref> the Gora Kabrastan in [[Karachi]],<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/031002/review6.htm Grave business]</ref> as well as one in [[Chillianwala]], the site of a [[Battle of Chillianwala|famous battle]] involving the [[British East India Company]].<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/030824/dmag11.htm Battlefields of Chillianwallah]</ref>

According to the ''Natyasastra'', an Indian text, the term refers to "yellowish-reddish".<ref>''Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra : with special reference to the Sanskrit drama in performance'', G.H. Tārḷekar, p. 138</ref> Because of Sri [[Chaitanya]] Mahaprabhu's explicitly yellow skin, he was termed "Gauranga".<ref>P. 52 ''Chaitanya Mahaprabhu'' By Prem Lata</ref>

==Usage in Britain and among anglophones on the Subcontinent==
The term ''gora'' is often used by [[British Asian]]s and among English-speaking South Asians in the Subcontinent to refer to [[white people]], the feminine form being '''''gori'''''.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/linguists-get-chuddies-in-twist-over-dialects-568408.html ''The Independent'', 1 April 2004]</ref>{{dead link|date=August 2012}} The plural term ''gore'' is also used to refer to white people of both genders. In this form it has taken on racial connotations so has acquired the status of a slur, though it is not inherently pejorative.

==Usage in Sikhism==
The term has been used to describe [[Sikh]]s of non-[[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent, especially [[White American]]s.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=YN9jC2_7UHYC&pg=PA985&lpg=PA985&dq=gora+sikhs+united+states&source=bl&ots=Bfint1_Hrt&sig=dEGyiSAjxd117ZpofR8cpYctX9I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VIcqUJ2YAoHA6AHB74GoDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=gora%20sikhs%20united%20states&f=false</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
[[Farangi]]

[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Human appearance]]

{{India-stub}}
{{Pakistan-stub}}