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Chinese pond turtle

2020-05-08T07:10:29Z

118.46.55.151:

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2011}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Mauremys reevesii.jpg
| image_caption = ''Mauremys reevesii'' in [[East Timor]]
| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>van Dijk, P.P. 2011. ''Mauremys reevesii'' (errata version published in 2016). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011: e.T170502A97431862. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T170502A6783291.en. Downloaded on 08 May 2020.</ref>
| genus = Mauremys
| species = reevesii
| authority = ([[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1831)<ref name="Rhodin">{{cite journal|url=http://www.iucn-tftsg.org/wp-content/uploads/file/Accounts/crm_5_000_checklist_v3_2010.pdf |title=Turtles of the world, 2010 update: Annotated checklist of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution and conservation status |journal=Chelonian Research Monographs |volume=5 |date=2010-12-14 |author1=Rhodin, Anders G.J. |author2=van Dijk, Peter Paul |author3=Iverson, John B. |author4=Shaffer, H. Bradley |page=000.112 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uzfktoIh?url=http://www.iucn-tftsg.org/wp-content/uploads/file/Accounts/crm_5_000_checklist_v3_2010.pdf |archivedate=15 December 2010 |doi=10.3854/crm.5.000.checklist.v3.2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy |isbn=978-0965354097 }}</ref>
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|title=click to expand
|* ''Emys reevesii'' Gray, 1831
|* ''Clemmys (Clemmys) reevesii'' — [[Leopold Fitzinger|Fitzinger]], 1835
|* ''Emys vulgaris picta'' [[Hermann Schlegel|Schlegel]], 1844
|* ''Emys japonica'' [[André Marie Constant Duméril|A.M.C. Duméril]] & [[Gabriel Bibron|Bibron]] ''in'' A.M.C. Duméril & [[Auguste Duméril|A.H.A. Duméril]], 1851
|* ''Geoclemys reevesii'' — Gray, 1856
|* ''Damonia reevesii'' — Gray, 1869
|* ''Damonia unicolor'' Gray, 1873
|* ''Clemmys unicolor'' — [[William Lutley Sclater|Sclater]], 1873
|* ''Damonia reevesii'' var. ''unicolor'' — [[George Albert Boulenger|Boulenger]], 1889
|* ''Geoclemys [reevesii] reevesii'' — [[Friedrich Siebenrock|Siebenrock]], 1907
|* ''Geoclemys reevesii unicolor'' — Siebenrock, 1907
|* ''Geoclemmys'' [sic] ''reevesi'' — Vogt, 1924 ''([[ex errore]])''
|* ''Geoclemys grangeri'' [[Karl Patterson Schmidt|Schmidt]], 1925
|* ''Geoclemys paracaretta'' Chang, 1929
|* ''Geoclemys reevesi grangeri'' — Mell, 1929
|* ''Chinemys reevesi'' — [[Hobart Muir Smith|H.M. Smith]], 1931
|* ''Geoclemys papacaretta'' [sic] Fang, 1934 ''(ex errore)''
|* ''Emys reevesi'' — [[René Léon Bourret|Bourret]], 1941
|* ''Chinemys reevesii'' [[Robert Mertens|Mertens]] & Wermuth, 1955
|* ''Chinemys reevesi'' — Mao, 1971
|* ''Chinemys grangeri'' — [[Peter Pritchard|Pritchard]], 1979
|* ''Chinemys pani'' Tao, 1988
|* ''Chinemys reevessi'' [sic] Obst, 1996 ''(ex errore)''
|* ''Chinemys reveesii'' [sic] Fritz, 1996 ''(ex errore)''
|* ''Mauremys reevesii'' — Spinks, Shaffer, Iverson & McCord, 2004}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="Fritz 2007">{{Cite journal|journal=Vertebrate Zoology |title=Checklist of Chelonians of the World |year=2007 |author=Fritz, Uwe |author2=Havaš, Peter |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=232–233 |issn=1864-5755 |url=http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5v20ztMND?url=http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archivedate=17 December 2010 |accessdate=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref>
}}

[[File:Chinemys reevesii 02.jpg|thumb|''Chinemys reevesii'']]
'''''Mauremys reevesii''''', commonly known as the '''Chinese pond turtle''', the '''Chinese three-keeled pond turtle''', or '''Reeves' turtle''', is a [[species]] of [[turtle]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Geoemydidae]], a family which was formerly called Bataguridae.<ref name="Rhodin"/> The species is [[Endemism|endemic]] to Asia.

It is one of the two most commonly found species used for [[Oracle bone#Shang divination|divination]] that have been recovered from [[Shang dynasty]] sites.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Keightley |first1=David N. |title=Sources of Shang history : the oracle-bone inscriptions of Bronze Age Chin |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley ; London |isbn=0-520-05455-5 |page=9 |edition=2}}</ref>

==Geographic range==
''Mauremys reevesii'' is found in China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan.<ref name="Rhodin"/><ref name = attwg2000>ATTWG (2000)</ref>

==Habitat and behaviour==
''M. reevesii'' is semiaquatic, and basks in the sun on rocks or logs and can often be found leaving water to do so. It can usually be found in marshes, relatively shallow ponds, streams, and canals with muddy or sandy bottoms.

==Conservation status==
The Chinese three-keeled pond turtle (''M. reevesii)'' is threatened by competition with released pet [[red-eared slider]]s (''Trachemys scripta elegans''), overhunting (its [[plastron]] is used in [[traditional Chinese medicine]]),<ref>{{aut|da Nóbrega Alves, Rômulo Romeu; da Silva Vieira; Washington Luiz & Gomes Santana, Gindomar}} (2008): Reptiles used in traditional folk medicine: conservation implications. ''Biodiversity and Conservation'' '''17'''(8): 2037–2049. {{doi|10.1007/s10531-007-9305-0}} (HTML abstract, PDF first page)</ref><ref name=dharma>{{cite web|title=Endangered species issues affecting turtles and tortoises used in Chinese medicine|author=Subhuti Dharmananda|url=http://www.itmonline.org/arts/turtles.htm}}</ref> capturing for the pet trade, and wild [[habitat destruction]]. The [[IUCN]] considers ''M. reevesii'' an [[endangered species]].<ref name = attwg2000 /> This species, fortunately, breeds well in captivity.

==Etymology==
The [[Specific name (zoology)|specific name]], ''reevesii'', is in honor of English naturalist [[John Reeves (naturalist)|John Reeves]].<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. (''Chinemys reevesii'', p. 218).</ref>

==Hybridization==
This species, ''Mauremys reevesii'', is notorious for its ability to produce [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] with other Geoemydidae, even species that are only distantly related. The supposed new species "''[[Mauremys pritchardi]]'' " was based on a hybrid of unknown origin between a male of this species and a female [[yellow pond turtle]] (''Mauremys mutica''). Furthermore, it has hybridized with the [[Chinese stripe-necked turtle]] (''Ocadia sinensis''), female [[Malayan box turtle]]s (''Cuora amboinensis''), a male [[four-eyed turtle]] (''Sacalia quadriocellata''), and the [[Japanese pond turtle]] (''Mauremys japonica'') in captivity.<ref>* {{aut|Parham, James Ford; Simison, W. Brian; Kozak, Kenneth H.; Feldman, Chris R. & Shi, Haitao}} (2001): New Chinese turtles: endangered or invalid? A reassessment of two species using mitochondrial DNA, allozyme electrophoresis and known-locality specimens. ''Animal Conservation'' '''4'''(4): 357–367. [http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/ee/wienslab/kozakpdfs/Parham_Simison_Kozak_2001.pdf PDF fulltext] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724021637/http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/ee/wienslab/kozakpdfs/Parham_Simison_Kozak_2001.pdf |date=24 July 2008 }} '''Erratum:''' ''Animal Conservation'' '''5'''(1): 86 [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=100113&fulltextType=ER&fileId=S1367943002001117 HTML abstract]</ref><ref>{{aut|Buskirk, James R.; Parham, James F. & Feldman, Chris R.}} (2005): On the hybridisation between two distantly related Asian turtles (Testudines: ''Sacalia'' × ''Mauremys''). ''[[Salamandra (journal)|Salamandra]]'' '''41''': 21-26. [http://www.salamandra-journal.com/index.php/home/contents/2005-vol-41/150-buskirk-j-r-j-f-parham-c-r-feldman/file PDF fulltext]
</ref>

Any individuals that are available as pets therefore need to be kept separate from other members of the family.

==Farming==
High demand for turtle plastrons for [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] [[Oracle bone|divination rites]] and archaeological findings of large caches of turtle shells has led some scholars to speculate that ''Mauremys reevesii'' may have been farmed for this purpose in antiquity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Keightley |first1=David N. |title=Sources of Shang history : the oracle-bone inscriptions of Bronze Age Chin |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley ; London |isbn=0-520-05455-5 |page=12 |edition=2}}</ref>

''M. reevesii'' is one of the species raised on China's modern-day [[turtle farm]]s. According to a 1998 survey, 548 farms raised this turtle species in four provinces in China.
The statistical data from different provinces were in different formats; however, two provinces reported 20,650 turtles living on 26 farms, with 5,000 animals reproduced annually; the other two provinces reported the total weight of their turtles, namely some 260 tons of these animals on 522 farms. Over the five-year period, 1990–1995, 13 traditional Chinese medicine factories consumed 430 tons of ''C. reevesii'' plastrons.<ref>
GUO Yinfeng, ZOU Xueying, CHEN Yan, WANG Di & WANG Sung.
{{cite web|title=Sustainability of Wildlife Use in Traditional Chinese Medicine|url=http://monkey.ioz.ac.cn/bwg-cciced/english/bwg-cciced/tech-34.htm|year=1998|access-date=27 December 2009|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710055424/http://monkey.ioz.ac.cn/bwg-cciced/english/bwg-cciced/tech-34.htm|archive-date=10 July 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}; also quoted in:
{{cite web|title=Endangered species issues affecting turtles and tortoises used in Chinese medicine|author=Subhuti Dharmananda|url=http://www.itmonline.org/arts/turtles.htm}}</ref>

Based on a more recent (2002) survey of 684 Chinese turtle farms (less than half of all 1,499 turtle farms that were registered at the time), researchers found that 2.8 million of turtles of this species (reported there as ''Chinemys reevesii'') lived on these farms, with some 566,000 specimens sold by farmers every year. The total weight of the annual product was 320 tons, with the estimated value of over US$6 million, which makes the market value of a Chinese pond turtle equal to around $12—about twice as much that of the most common farmed species, ''[[Pelodiscus sinensis]]''. Taking into account the registered farms that did not respond to the survey, as well as the unregistered producers, the total amounts must be considerably higher.<ref name=scale>{{citation|title=Evidence for the massive scale of turtle farming in China
|last =Shi | first =Haitao
|last2=Parham|first2=James F
|last3=Fan |first3=Zhiyong
|last4=Hong |first4=Meiling
|last5=Yin |first5=Feng
| publication-date =
|date =2008-01-01
| periodical =Oryx
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| volume =42
| pages =147–150
| doi =10.1017/S0030605308000562
|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Pet trade===
Chinese pond turtles are also farmed for the pet trade. In captivity, they require similar care to [[red-eared slider]]s (''T. s. elegans'').

===East Timor===
During surveys in [[East Timor]] (Timor-Leste), a small but well-established population of ''M. reevesii'' was found living in marshes near the city of [[Dili]]. The species is not native to the island and was possibly [[Introduced species|introduced]] by locals of Chinese origin.<ref name=EastTimor>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.markoshea.info/downloads/kaiser_et_al_2013_conservation_education_in_a_post-conflict_country.pdf|title = Conservation education in a post-conflict country five hematological case studies in Timor-Leste|last = Kaiser|first = Hinrich|date = 30 June 2013|journal = Salamandra|access-date = 18 January 2016|last2 = Taylor|first2 = David|last3 = Heacox|first3 = Scott|issn = 0036-3375|last4 = Landry|first4 = Paul|last5 = Sanchez|first5 = Caitlin|last6 = Varela Ribeiro|first6 = Agivedo|last7 = Lemos de Araujo|first7 = Luis|last8 = Kathriner|first8 = Andrew|last9 = O'Shea|first9 = Mark|volume = 49 |issue = 2}}</ref> East Timor is home to the [[Roti Island snake-necked turtle]] (''Chelodina mccordi)'', more specifically the [[subspecies]] ''C. m. timorensis'' (sometimes considered a species of its own). Although the introduced population of ''M. reevesii'' is not known to present a risk to the native turtles ''[[wikt:per se|per se]]'', they could indirectly present a threat to the natives if confused. ''M. reevesii'' from the introduced population are sometimes captured to be sold to people of Chinese origin and this may cause problems if extended to the native turtles.<ref name=EastTimor/> A potential solution is to remove the introduced ''M. reevesii'' (thereby restricting the trade to captive farmed ''M. reevesii'').<ref name=EastTimor/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*[[John Edward Gray|Gray JE]] (1831). ''Synopsis Reptilium; or Short Descriptions of the Species of Reptiles. Part I.—Cataphracta. Tortoises, Crocodiles, and Enaliosaurians.'' London: Treuttel, Wertz, and Co. viii + 85 pp. (''Emys reevesii'', new species, pp. 73–74). (in English and Latin).

==External links==
{{Commons category|Mauremys reevesii}}
* https://web.archive.org/web/20081024163050/http://chinesische-dreikiel.npage.de/
*https://web.archive.org/web/20110320235607/http://nlbif.eti.uva.nl/bis/turtles.php?menuentry=soorten
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081112035911/http://www.arkive.org/chinese-pond-turtle/chinemys-reevesii/ ARKive]
*[http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species?genus=Mauremys&species=reevesii&search_param=%28%28genus%3D%27Mauremys%27%29%29 ''Chinemys reevesii''], The Reptile
*http://www.biosch.hku.hk/ecology/hkreptiles/turtle/Mauremys_reevesii.html

{{Geoemydidae}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q495153}}

[[Category:Chinemys]]
[[Category:Reptiles of China]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Japan]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Korea]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1831]]
[[Category:Taxonomy articles created by Polbot]]

Bali myna

2020-05-08T05:07:09Z

118.46.55.151:

{{speciesbox
| name = Bali myna
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>BirdLife International. 2018. ''Leucopsar rothschildi''. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T22710912A129874226. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22710912A129874226.en. Downloaded on 08 May 2020.</ref>
| image = Leucopsar rothschildi -Brookfield Zoo, Chicago, USA-8a (1).jpg
| image_caption=At [[Brookfield Zoo]] in [[Brookfield]], [[Illinois]]
| genus = Leucopsar
| parent_authority = Stresemann, 1912
| species = rothschildi
| authority = [[Erwin Stresemann|Stresemann]], 1912
}}
The '''Bali myna''' (''Leucopsar rothschildi''), also known as '''Rothschild's mynah''', '''Bali starling''', or '''Bali mynah''', locally known as '''jalak Bali''', is a medium-sized (up to {{convert|25|cm|in}} long), stocky [[myna]], almost wholly white with a long, drooping crest, and black tips on the wings and tail. The bird has blue bare skin around the eyes, greyish legs and a yellow [[Beak|bill]]. Both sexes are similar. It is [[critically endangered]] and fewer than 100 adults are assumed to currently exist in the wild.

==Taxonomy and systematics==
Placed in the [[monotypic]] [[genus]] '''''Leucopsar''''', it appears to be most closely related to ''[[Sturnia]]'' and the [[brahminy starling]] which is currently placed in ''[[Sturnus]]'' but will probably soon be split therefrom as ''Sturnus'' as presently delimited is highly [[paraphyletic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jønsson|first=Knud A. |last2= Fjeldså|first2= Jon|year=2006|title=A phylogenetic supertree of oscine passerine birds (Aves: Passeri)|journal=[[Zoologica Scripta]]|volume=35|issue=2|pages=149–186|doi=10.1111/j.1463-6409.2006.00221.x}}</ref> The [[specific name (zoology)|specific epithet]] commemorates the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[ornithologist]] [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Lord Rothschild]].

==Description==
[[File:A Bali Starling or Rothschild Mynah at the Waddesdon Aviary.jpg|left|thumb|At the [https://waddesdon.org.uk/your-visit/grounds/aviary/ Waddesdon Aviary]]]
The Bali myna is a medium-large bird around {{convert|25|cm|in}} in length. It is almost wholly white with a long, drooping crest, black wing-tips and tail tip. It has a yellow bill with blue bare skin around the eyes and legs. The [[black-winged starling]] (''Sturnus melanopterus''), a similar species, has a shorter crest and a much larger area of black on wings and tail, plus a yellow eye-ring (without feathers) and legs.<ref name=IUCN/>

==Distribution and habitat==
The Bali myna is restricted to the island of [[Bali]] (and its offshore islands) in [[Indonesia]], where it is the island's only [[Endemism in birds|endemic]] vertebrate species. (An endemic [[subspecies]], the [[Bali tiger]], has been extinct since 1937). The bird was discovered in 1910, and in 1991 was designated the faunal emblem of Bali. Featured on the Indonesian 200 [[Indonesian rupiah|rupiah]] coin, its local name is ''jalak Bali''.

==Behaviour and ecology==
[[File:Balispreeuw (802328533).jpg|thumb|180px|left|Two juveniles]]
In its natural [[habitat]] it is inconspicuous, using tree tops for cover and–unlike other starlings–usually coming to the ground only to drink or to find nesting materials; this would seem to be an [[adaptation]] to its noticeability to [[predator]]s when out in the open. The Bali mynah often gathers in groups when it is young to better locate food and watch out for predators.<ref name ="LPZBaliMynah">[http://www.lpzoo.org/animals/factsheet/bali-mynah "Bali Mynah Fact Sheet, Lincoln Park Zoo"]</ref> The vocalizations are a variety of sharp chattering calls and an emphatic twat.<ref name=IUCN/>

The Bali myna's diet includes fruit, seeds, worms and insects.<ref name ="LPZBaliMynah" />

===Breeding===
During the breeding season (the rainy season of Bali), males attract females by calling loudly and bobbing up and down. The birds nest in tree cavities, with the female laying and incubating two or three eggs. Both males and females bring food to the nest for chicks after hatching.<ref name ="LPZBaliMynah" />

==Status and conservation==
[[File:Bali Starling - Bali Barat MG 8974 (29654702785).jpg|right|thumb|150px|At [[West Bali National Park]], Bali, Indonesia.]]
The Bali myna is [[critically endangered]], and the wild population has been close to extinction since at least 1994. As of 2015, less than 100 adults are assumed to exist in the wild, with about 1,000 believed to survive in captivity. The Bali myna is listed in Appendix I of [[CITES]]. Trade even in captive-bred specimens is strictly regulated and the species is not generally available legally to private individuals. However, experienced aviculturalists may become affiliated with captive-breeding programs, allowing them to legally keep this species. The number of captive birds bought on the [[black market]] is estimated to be twice the number of legally acquired individuals in the captive breeding programs.<ref name=IUCN/>

There are currently three locations on Bali where the birds exist in the wild: the [[West Bali National Park]]; Bali's small island of [[Nusa Penida]] and Begawan Foundation's breeding and release site at Melinggih Kelod, Payangan.<ref name=IUCN/>

===Bali myna breeding program===
A "breeding loan" involves 12 breeders who each received 15 male and 15 female from the Association of Starling Conservationists from [[Bogor]], [[West Java]]. As collateral every breeder should put up a cow in case all the birds died. The breeders are obliged to release 10 percent of the brood into the national park and the rest can be sold off privately.<ref>[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/03/bali-launches-starling-breeding-program.html Bali launches starling breeding program | The Jakarta Post]</ref>

===West Bali National Park===
There were an estimated 350 birds in the West Bali National Park in the 1980s. During the 1990s over 400 cage-bred birds were released into the park to increase their numbers. But by 2005, the park authorities estimated the number to have fallen to less than 10. This decline was caused primarily by poachers responding to the lucrative demand for rare birds in the [[Aviculture|caged bird market]].

===Nusa Penida island===
[[File:Bali Mynah.jpg|thumb|right|150px|At [[Milwaukee County Zoological Gardens]], United States]]
A population of Bali mynas now exists on the island of Nusa Penida and its sister islands of Nusa Ceningan, Nusa Lembongan, which are 14 km off the south east coast of Bali. The islands have been transformed into an unofficial bird sanctuary by
Friends of National Parks Foundation (FNPF), an Indonesian NGO based in Bali.<ref>{{cite web|title=Friends of the National Park Foundation|url=http://www.fnpf.org}}</ref> This was achieved by FNPF working for many years with the 40+ villages on the islands and persuading every village to pass a traditional Balinese village regulation to protect birds, and effectively removing the threat of poachers. Since then, FNPF has rehabilitated and released several endangered birds onto the island of Nusa Penida, including many Bali mynas supplied from multiple breeders.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fnpf.org/what-we-do/nusa-penida-bali/wildlife/bali-starling-conservation-project|title=Bali Starling Conservation Project on Nusa Penida Island|website=Friends of the National parks Foundation}}</ref>

The Begawan Foundation began its Bali Starling Breeding Program in Begawan Giri in 1999 with two pairs, which had grown to a population of 97 in 2005. A release program was started on Nusa Penida, where 64 individuals were released in 2006 and 2007. Monitoring of the released birds suggests that their numbers had increased to +100 by 2009, and had spread across Penida, with small numbers also breeding on Ceningan and Lembongan. A number of further captive-bred individuals have since been rewilded, including 6 individuals on neighboring Nusa Lembongan. The foundation expects to release approximately 10 Bali mynas each year. The birds will continue to be sourced from different breeders to increase the genetic diversity of the growing wild population on Nusa Penida. Begawan Foundation field staff have monitored the released birds on a daily basis since their release and have a dedicated Field Officer since 2010. Findings are regularly reported their findings to the Forestry Department, with photos and films taken of the birds' activities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://begawanfoundation.org/|title=Begawan Foundation}}</ref>

[[File:Coin of Bali.jpg|thumb|Coin with Bali starling]]

However, according to an audit undertaken by Begawan Foundation on both Nusa Penida and Nusa Lembongan in February and March 2015, less than 15 birds were seen to be flying in the wild. Calculations undertaken suggest that by 2015, even taking natural predation and death of older birds into account, there should be at least 200 birds flying on Nusa Penida today, indicating that illegal wildlife trade is heavily impacting the population.<ref name ="BFDiary">{{cite web|url=http://us9.campaign-archive2.com/?u=bc678d8b4569ffd30fd7266c0&id=a6b43d9f47&e=522cb86cc7|title=Begawan Foundation Diary Vol.03/Mar 2015: Bird Audit}}</ref>

===Sibang, Central Bali===
[[File:Dr Jane Goodall releases a Bali Starling at Sibang Jun 2014.jpg|thumb|left|Dr [[Jane Goodall]] releases a Bali starling born and bred at Begawan Foundation's Breeding & Release Centre at Sibang, Bali]]
In 2010, Begawan Foundation made a decision to move all its captive breeding Bali starlings from Nusa Penida to a new site at Sibang, near Ubud. The breeding program then recommenced with the aim to research new release sites close by. During 2011, a total of 23 Bali starlings were donated to BF's breeding program. Three birds were donated by Jurong Bird Park, and 20 came from a variety of zoos across Europe, members of the European Endangered Species Program, whose contributions of birds meant that new genetic lines would be introduced when the imported birds were paired with the local birds held at the breeding centre in Bali.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}

In November 2012, Begawan Foundation released four pairs of Bali starlings at its breeding site in Sibang. These birds were observed and their daily habits recorded by staff of the Foundation and students of the adjacent Green School. A program of conservation was undertaken with the local villages prior to the release and has the full support of the King of Sibang. Each bird has been ringed in order to identify it as it adapts to life in the wild. As this was a soft release, the birds often take the opportunity to return to the breeding site to find food and water. However, it is evident that new sources of fruit and a variety of insects are available in the immediate vicinity that provide a full and healthy diet for these birds and their offspring.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.balidiscovery.com/messages/message.asp?Id=8786|title=Rare Bali Starlings Released into New Environmental Context at Green School|website=Bali Discovery Tours}}</ref>

In 2014, there were three releases by Begawan Foundation at their site in Sibang. Three male birds and one female were released in April, with support from the local community. In June, Dr. [[Jane Goodall]], during her visit to Bali, assisted in the release of two Bali starlings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.birdwatch.co.uk/channel/newsitem.asp?cate=__15525|title=Jane Goodall visits Bali Myna conservation project to release birds|website=Birdwatch.co.uk}}</ref>

=== Melinggih Kelod, Payangan ===
In late 2017, Begawan Foundation decided to concentrate its programs in Melinggih Kelod, Payangan, north of Ubud. A community-based conservation program began in the village in late 2017, providing local residents with the opportunity to breed Bali Starlings, and to be able to release F2 generation offspring within two years, and again in subsequent years. It is also envisaged that the community will be responsible for the safety of the Bali Starlings in the wild through serious monitoring and village traditional law enforcement. The Village officiated an “awik-awik” (local law) in November 2018, which has been signed by the Village Head as well as the Kelians (heads) of the banjars (village sections). The local law states that shooting/trapping/hunting the Bali Starling or any other protected wildlife in the area is prohibited. Any person from the community that is caught doing any of the above will pay a penalty of Rp10,000,000.

The Foundation also released a number of Starlings in late 2018, creating a wild flock of Bali Starlings in the Village, which is protected by the community. It is hoped that the soft releases will give the offspring the chance to reproduce in the wild and that a program of eco-tourism can be developed to provide income for the village.

Along with the community-based conservation program in Melinggih Kelod Village, the Foundation's Breeding and Release Centre has been relocated and is now centred in Banjar Begawan, one of the districts in the Village. This centre is open to the local community and the general public.<ref>http://begawanfoundation.org/bali-starling</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Leucopsar rothschildi}}
* ARKive – [https://web.archive.org/web/20040515181729/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Leucopsar_rothschildi/ images and movies of the Bali Starling ''(Leucopsar rothschildi)'']
* [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=6822&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311005809/http://www.rdb.or.id/view_html.php?id=280&op=leucroth Red Data Book]
* [http://www.fnpf.org/what-we-do/nusa-penida-bali/wildlife/bali-starling-conservation-project Bali Starling Conservation Project on Nusa Penida]
* [http://www.fnpf.org/what-we-do/nusa-penida-bali/wildlife Bali Bird Sanctuary on Nusa Penida]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101005211140/http://baliadvertiser.biz/articles/greenspeak/2010/sanctuary.html A Sanctuary in the making]
* [http://hidden-worlds.com/text/bcp_end_of_the_road.htm End of the Road for the Bali Starling]
* [http://www.waddesdon.org.uk/gardens/the-aviary Waddesdon Manor (aviary) UK]
* [https://www.plataran.com/eco-tourism/plataran-lharmonie Plataran L'Harmonie - West Bali National Park]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q756868}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:myna, Bali}}
[[Category:Sturnidae|Bali myna]]
[[Category:Birds of Bali]]
[[Category:Mynas]]
[[Category:Endemic fauna of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Critically endangered fauna of Asia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1912|Bali myna]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Erwin Stresemann|Bali myna]]]
[[Category:Waddesdon Manor]]

Dolphin gull

2020-05-08T04:45:04Z

118.46.55.151:

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Dolphin gull
| image = Dolphin Gull - Leucophaeus scoresbii.jpg
| image_caption = In [[Beagle Channel]], [[Argentina]]
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22694271/0 |title=''Leucophaeus scoresbii'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2012 |access-date=26 November 2013|ref=harv}}</ref>
| genus = Leucophaeus
| species = scoresbii
| authority = [[Thomas Stewart Traill|Traill]], 1823
| synonyms =
''Larus scoresbii'', ''Gabianus scoresbii''
}}

The '''dolphin gull''' (''Leucophaeus scoresbii''), sometimes erroneously called the [[red-billed gull]] (a somewhat similar but unrelated species from [[New Zealand]]), is a gull native to southern [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]], and the [[Falkland Islands]]. It is a coastal bird inhabiting rocky, muddy and sandy shores and is often found around [[seabird]] colonies. They have greyish [[feather]]s, and the feathers on their wings are a darker shade. Dolphin gulls have a varied diet, eating many things ranging from [[mussel]]s to [[carrion]].

The modern scientific name ''Leucophaeus scoresbii'', together with the obsolete common name '''Scoresby's gull''', commemorates the English explorer [[William Scoresby]] (1789–1857).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hince |first=Bernadette |title=The Antarctic Dictionary: A Complete Guide to Antarctic English |year=2000 |publisher=Csiro Publishing |page=299 |isbn=978-0-643-10232-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=upcoFJXWT38C&pg=PA299 |accessdate=23 November 2011 }}</ref>

==Distribution==
The dolphin gull is found round the coasts of Chile, Argentina and the Falkland Islands. It is a vagrant to South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. It is found on rocky coasts and in the vicinity of other colonies of seabirds, slaughterhouses, sewage outflows and farmyards.<ref name=IUCN/>

==Behaviour==
The dolphin gull is a [[scavenger]] and opportunistic [[Predation|predator]]. It feeds on carrion, offal, bird eggs, nestlings, marine invertebrates and other natural food. When humans disturb nesting seabirds, it takes advantage of the absence of adult birds to raid their vacated nests. It was found that excluding humans from areas where cormorants were nesting increased the reproductive success of the [[Cormorant|cormorants]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Channing R. Kury |author2=Michael Gochfeld |year=1975 |title=Human interference and gull predation in cormorant colonies |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=23–34 |doi=10.1016/0006-3207(75)90076-2 }}</ref> It also takes advantage of the activities of marine mammals to scavenge for dead fish, placentae and faeces, which are a major attraction.<ref name=IUCN/>
[[File:Dolphin Gull - Leucophaeus scoresbii - Immature.jpg|left|thumb|Immature]]
Dolphin gulls nest in small colonies of up to 200 pairs and are usually on low cliffs, sand or shingle beaches, headlands or marshy depressions. Two to three eggs are laid in December and the chicks fledge in March. The older chicks gather together in [[Crèche (zoology)|crèches]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.falklands.net/BirdGuideDolphinGull.shtml |title=Dolphin Gull |publisher=Falklands.net |accessdate=12 December 2013}}</ref>

==Status==
The dolphin gull is listed by the [[IUCN]] as being of "[[Least Concern]]". This is because it has a very wide range, has a stable population and an estimated total population of 10,000 to 28,000 individuals.<ref name=IUCN/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Gulls}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q886789}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:gull, dolphin}}
[[Category:Leucophaeus|dolphin gull]]
[[Category:Birds of Patagonia]]
[[Category:Birds of Tierra del Fuego]]
[[Category:Birds of the Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Southeastern South American coastal fauna]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1823|dolphin gull]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Thomas Stewart Traill|dolphin gull]]

Sclater's monal

2020-05-08T04:41:22Z

118.46.55.151:

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Sclater's monal
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22679185/0 |title=''Lophophorus sclateri'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2013 |access-date=26 November 2013|ref=harv}}</ref>
| image = Lophophorus sclateri.jpg
| image_caption = Female (hen)
| genus = Lophophorus
| species = sclateri
| authority = [[Thomas Claverhill Jerdon|Jerdon]], 1870
}}

'''Sclater's monal''', ''Lophophorus sclateri'', also known as the '''crestless monal''', is a large, approximately {{convert|68|cm|in}} long, [[pheasant]] of the east [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] region. As other [[monal]]s, the male is a colorful bird. It has a highly [[iridescent]] purplish-green upperparts [[plumage]], short and curly metallic green crown feathers, copper neck, purplish-black throat, white back, blue orbital skin, yellowish-orange [[Beak|bill]] and brown [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]]. In the [[nominate subspecies]], the tail is white with a broad chestnut band, while the tail is entirely white in ''L. s. arunachalensis'' from western [[Arunachal Pradesh]] in [[India]].<ref>Suresh Kumar R. & P. Singh (2004). ''A new subspecies of Sclater’s monal Lophophorus sclateri from western Arunachal Pradesh, India.'' Bulletin of the British Ornithologists Club 124(1): 16-27.</ref> The crestless female is mostly a dark brown bird with a white throat and tail-tip, dull bluish orbital skin and a pale yellow bill.
[[File:LophophorusSclateriKeulemans.jpg|thumb|left|Male]]
Sclater's monal is distributed to mountain forests of northeast [[India]], southeast [[Tibet]] and northern [[Burma]], at altitudes of {{convert|2500|to|4200|m|ft}}. The diet of the Sclater's monal is like that of other members of the genus ''[[Lophophorus]]'', probably consists mainly of [[tuber]]s, roots, [[bulb]]s, [[arthropod]]s, [[rodent]]s, seeds and flowers. The female usually lays between three and five eggs. It is not known if the Sclater's monal male participates in nest defense, but it is likely.

The name commemorates the British zoologist [[Philip Lutley Sclater]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Beolens|first=Bo|title=Whose Bird? Men and Women Commemorated in the Common Names of Birds|year=2003|publisher=Christopher Helm|location=London|page=304|author2=Watkins, Michael }}</ref>

Due to ongoing [[habitat loss]], small population size, limited range and overhunting in some areas for food and its feathers, Sclater's monal is evaluated as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] on [[IUCN Red List]] of Threatened Species. It is listed on Appendix I of [[CITES]].

==Taxonomy==
There are two recognized [[subspecies]]:
* ''L. s. arunachalensis'' (Kumar and Singh, 2004) - northern India
* ''L. s. sclateri'' (Jerdon, 1870, ) - nominate - Himalayas of northeast India to southwest China

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Lophophorus sclateri}}
{{wikispecies|Lophophorus sclateri}}
* ARKive - [https://web.archive.org/web/20070622215400/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Lophophorus_sclateri/ images and movies of the Sclater's Monal ''(Lophophorus sclateri)'']
* [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=244&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q252488}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:monal, Sclater's}}
[[Category:Lophophorus|Sclater's monal]]
[[Category:Birds of Northeast India]]
[[Category:Birds of Myanmar]]
[[Category:Birds of Tibet]]
[[Category:Birds of Yunnan]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1870|Sclater's monal]]

African bush elephant

2020-04-23T04:37:57Z

118.46.55.151:

{{short description|Species of mammal}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{speciesbox
| name = African bush elephant
| image = African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) male (17289351322).jpg
| image_caption = Male in [[Kruger National Park]], South Africa
| image2 = African Bush Elephant.jpg
| image2_caption = Female in [[Mikumi National Park]], Tanzania
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn">Blanc, J. 2008. ''Loxodonta africana''. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T12392A3339343. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T12392A3339343.en. Downloaded on 23 April 2020.</ref>
| status2 = T
| status2_system = ESA
| status2_ref = <ref>https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/profile/speciesProfile?sId=7724</ref>
| genus = Loxodonta
| species = africana<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Proboscidea | id = 11500009 | page = 91}}</ref>
| authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach]], 1797)
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = See text
| range_map = African Elephant distribution map without borders.svg
| range_map_caption = Distribution of ''Loxodonta'' (2007)
| range_map_alt = Distribution of African elephant, showing a highlighted range (in green) with many fragmented patches scattered across the continent south of the Sahara Desert
| synonyms =''Elephas africanus''
}}

The '''African bush elephant''' (''Loxodonta africana''), also known as the '''African savanna elephant''', is the largest living [[terrestrial animal]] with bulls reaching a shoulder height of up to {{convert|3.96|m|ft|abbr=on|1}}. Both sexes have tusks, which erupt when they are 1–3 years old and grow throughout life.

It is distributed across 37 [[Africa]]n countries and inhabits forests, grasslands and woodlands, wetlands and agricultural land. It is a social mammal, traveling in herds composed of cows and their offspring. Adult bulls usually live alone or in small bachelor groups. It is a herbivore, feeding on grasses, creepers, herbs, leaves and bark.

The description of the species was published in 1797. Since 2004, it has been listed as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] on the [[IUCN Red List]]. It is threatened foremost by [[habitat destruction]], and in parts of its range also by [[poaching]] for meat and [[ivory]].

== Taxonomy ==
''Elephas africanus'' was the [[scientific name]] proposed by [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]] in 1797.<ref>{{cite book |author=Blumenbach, J. F. |year=1797 |title=Handbuch der Naturgeschichte |trans-title=Handbook of Natural History |edition=Fifth |location=Göttingen |publisher=Johann Christian Dieterich |chapter=2. ''Africanus'' |page=125 |chapterurl=http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/view/blumenbach_naturgeschichte_1797?p=147}}</ref>
''Loxodonte'' was proposed as [[Genus (biology)|generic]] name for [[African elephant]]s by [[Georges Cuvier]] in 1824. This name refers to the [[lozenge]]-shaped [[Enamel of teeth|enamel]] of the [[molar teeth]], which differs significantly from the shape of the Asian elephant's molar enamel.<ref name=Cuvier>{{cite book |editor1=Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire, É. |editor2=Cuvier, F. |year=1824 |title=Histoire Naturelle des Mammifères, avec des figures originales, coloriées, dessinées d'après des animaux vivans |volume=Tome 6 |location=Paris |publisher=A. Belain |last1=Cuvier |first1=G. |chapter=Éléphants d’Afrique |pages=117–118 |chapterurl=https://archive.org/details/histoirenaturel6geof/page/n115}}</ref>

In the 19th and 20th centuries, several [[zoological specimen]]s were described by naturalists and curators of [[natural history museum]]s from various parts of Africa, including:
*''Elephas'' (''Loxodonta'') ''oxyotis'' and ''Elephas'' (''Loxodonta'') ''knochenhaueri'' by [[Paul Matschie]] in 1900. The first was a specimen from the upper [[Atbara River]] in northern [[Ethiopia]], and the second a specimen from the [[Kilwa District|Kilwa]] area in [[Tanzania]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Matschie, P. |year=1900 |title=Geographische Abarten des Afrikanischen Elefanten |journal=Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin |volume=3 |pages=189–197 |url=https://archive.org/details/sitzungsberichte1900gese/page/196}}</ref>
*''Elephas africanus toxotis'', ''selousi'', ''peeli'', ''cavendishi'', ''orleansi'' and ''rothschildi'' by [[Richard Lydekker]] in 1907 who assumed that ear size is a distinguishing character for a race. These specimens were shot in South Africa, [[Mashonaland]] in Zimbabwe, [[Aberdare Mountains]] and [[Lake Turkana]] area in Kenya, in Somaliland and in western Sudan, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lydekker, R. |year=1907 |title=The Ears as a Race-Character in the African Elephant |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London |issue=January to April |pages=380–403 |url=https://archive.org/details/proceedingsofzoo19071446zool/page/380}}</ref>
*[[North African elephant]] (''L. a. pharaohensis'') by [[Paulus Edward Pieris Deraniyagala]] in 1948 was a specimen from [[Fayum]] in Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |author=Deraniyagala, P. E. P. |year=1955 |title=Some extinct elephants, their relatives, and the two living species |publisher=Ceylon National Museums Publication |location=Colombo}}</ref>
Today, these names are all considered [[synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]]s.<ref name=MSW3/>

=== Phylogeny ===
A genetic study based on [[mitogenomic]] analysis revealed that the African and [[Asian elephant]] [[Genetic divergence|genetically diverged]] about 7.6 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rohland |first1=N. |last2=Malaspinas |first2=A. S. |last3=Pollack, J. L. |last4=Slatkin, M. |last5=Matheus, P. |last6=Hofreiter, M. |year=2007 |title=Proboscidean mitogenomics: chronology and mode of elephant evolution using mastodon as outgroup |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=5 |issue=8 |page=e207 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0050207 |pmc=1925134 |pmid=17676977}}</ref>
[[Phylogenetic]] analysis of [[nuclear DNA]] of African bush and forest elephants, Asian elephant, [[woolly mammoth]] and [[American mastodon]] revealed that the African bush elephant and the [[African forest elephant]] form a [[sister group]] that genetically diverged at least 1.9 million years ago. They are therefore considered distinct species. [[Gene flow]] between the two species might have occurred after the split, though.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rohland |first1=N.| last2=Reich |first2=D. |last3=Mallick |first3=S. |last4=Meyer |first4=M. |last5=Green |first5=R. E. |last6=Georgiadis |first6=N. J.|last7=Roca |first7=A. L. |last8=Hofreiter |first8=M. |year=2010 |title=Genomic DNA Sequences from Mastodon and Woolly Mammoth Reveal Deep Speciation of Forest and Savanna Elephants |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=8 |issue=12 |page=e1000564 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000564 |pmc=3006346 |pmid=21203580}}</ref>


<gallery widths="180" heights="180">
Loxodonta africana-cyclotis skulls PZSL.png|Skulls of African bush elephant (left) and African forest elephant (right)
African Bush Elephant Skull.jpg|Skull of a male African bush elephant on display at the Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City
African bush elephant skeleton.jpg|Skeleton of a female African bush elephant on display at the [[Museum of Osteology]], [[Oklahoma City]]
</gallery>

== Characteristics ==
=== Skin and ears ===
[[File:Elephant (Loxodonta Africana) 03.jpg|thumb|right|Large ears ([[Kruger National Park]], [[South Africa]])]]
The African bush elephant has grey skin with scanty hairs. Its large ears cover the whole shoulder.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jardine |first1=W. |year=1836 |title=The Naturalist's Library |volume=Volume V. Natural History of the Pachydermes, Or, Thick-skinned Quadrupeds |location=Edinburgh, London, Dublin |publisher=W.H. Lizars, Samuel Highley, W. Curry, jun. & Company |pages=124–132 |chapter=The Elephant of Africa |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=XyYOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA124#v=onepage&f=false}}</ref>
They can grow as large as {{convert|2|x|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Estes1999>{{cite book |last=Estes |first=R. D. |title=The Safari Companion: A Guide to Watching African Mammals Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, and Primates |publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing Company |location=Vermont |year=1999 |edition=Revised and expanded |isbn=1-890132-44-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xqp7poFviNcC |chapter=Elephant ''Loxodonta africana'' Family Elephantidae, Order Proboscidea |page=223–233}}</ref>
Large ears help to reduce body heat; flapping them creates air currents and exposes the ears' inner sides where large blood vessels increase heat loss during hot weather.<ref name=Shoshani1978>{{cite journal |last1=Shoshani |first1=J. |year=1978 |title=General information on elephants with emphasis on tusks |journal=Elephant |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=20–31 |doi=10.22237/elephant/1491234053 |url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1016&context=elephant|doi-access=free }}</ref> The African bush elephant's ears are pointed and triangular shaped. Its [[occipital plane]] slopes forward. Its back is shaped markedly concave. Its sturdy [[tusk]]s are curved out and point forward.<ref name=Grubb_al2000>{{Cite journal |author1=Grubb, P. |author2=Groves, C. P. |author3=Dudley, J. P. |author4=Shoshani, J. |year=2000 |title=Living African elephants belong to two species: ''Loxodonta africana'' (Blumenbach, 1797) and ''Loxodonta cyclotis'' (Matschie, 1900) |journal=Elephant |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=1–4 |doi= 10.22237/elephant/1521732169|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Size ===
[[File:African-Elephant-Scale-Chart-SVG-Steveoc86.svg|thumb|right|Average size of adults with the largest recorded individual included]]
The African bush elephant is the largest and heaviest land animal on Earth, being up to {{convert|3.96|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} tall at the shoulder and an estimated weight of up to {{convert|10.4|MT|ST|abbr=on|1}}.<ref name=probos_mass>{{Cite journal |last=Larramendi |first=A. |year=2016 |title=Shoulder height, body mass and shape of proboscideans |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=537–574 |doi=10.4202/app.00136.2014 |url=https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app61/app001362014.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=G. |title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9 |publisher=Guinness Superlatives |location=Enfield, Middlesex |chapter= |page=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood/page/ ] |chapterurl= |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood/page/ }}</ref> On average, males are about {{convert|3.20|m|ft|abbr=on|1}} tall at the shoulder and weigh {{convert|6.00|MT|ST|abbr=on|}}, while females are much smaller at about {{convert|2.60|m|ft|abbr=on|2}} tall at the shoulder and {{convert|3.00|MT|ST|abbr=on}} in weight.<ref name=probos_mass/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Laws |first1=R. M. |last2=Parker |first2=I. S. C. |year=1968 |title=Recent studies on elephant populations in East Africa |url= |journal=Symposia of the Zoological Society of London |volume=21 |issue= |pages=319–359}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hanks |first1=J. |year=1972 |title=Growth of the African elephant (''Loxodonta africana'') |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1972.tb00870.x |journal=East African Wildlife Journal |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=251–272}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Laws |first1=R. M. |last2=Parker |first2=I. S. C. |last3=Johnstone |first3=R. C. B. |year=1975 |title=Elephants and Their Habitats: The Ecology of Elephants in North Bunyoro, Uganda |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |location=[[Oxford]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]]}}</ref> Elephants attain their maximum stature when they complete the fusion of long-bone [[Epiphysis|epiphyses]], occurring in males around the age of 40 and females around the age of 25.<ref name=probos_mass/>

=== Trunk ===
The trunk is a [[prehensile]] elongation of its upper lip and nose. Short tactile hair grows on the trunk, which has two finger-like processes on the tip.<ref name=Laurson1978>{{cite journal |last1=Laurson |first1=B. |last2=Bekoff |first2=M. |title=''Loxodonta africana'' |journal=Mammalian Species |date=1978 |issue=92 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.2307/3503889 |jstor=3503889}}</ref>
This highly sensitive organ is innervated primarily by the [[trigeminal nerve]], and thought to be manipulated by about 40–60,000 [[muscle]]s. Because of this muscular structure, the trunk is so strong that elephants can use it for lifting about 3% of their own body weight. They use it for smelling, touching, feeding, drinking, dusting, producing sounds, loading, defending and attacking.<ref name=Shoshani1978/>
Functional loss of the trunk due to [[flaccid]] trunk [[paralysis]] sometimes makes the elephant carry the trunk over the tusk and walk into deep water in order to drink.<ref name=Kock1994>{{cite journal |last1=Kock |first1=N. D. |last2=Goedegebuure |first2=S. A. |last3=Lane |first3=E. P. |last4=Lucke |first4=V. |last5=Tyrrel l|first5=D. |last6=Kock |first6=M. D. |year=1994 |title=Flaccid Trunk Paralysis in Free-ranging Elephants (''Loxodonta africana'') in Zimbabwe |journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=432–435 |doi=10.7589/0090-3558-30.3.432 |pmid=7933290 }}</ref>

=== Tusks ===
[[File:Nezpracovaný kel samice afrického savanového slona.JPG|thumb|right|Tusk of an African bush elephant]]
The tusks grow from [[deciduous teeth]] known as tushes that develop in the [[upper jaw]] and consist of a [[Crown (tooth)|crown]], root and [[Pulp (tooth)|pulp]]al cavity, which are completely formed soon after birth. Tushes reach a length of {{convert|5|cm|abbr=on|0}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Raubenheimer |first1=E. J. |last2=Van Heerden |first2=W. F. P. |last3=Van Niekerk |first3=P. J. |last4=De Vos |first4=V. |last5=Turner |first5=M. J. |year=1995 |title=Morphology of the deciduous tusk (tush) of the African elephant (''Loxodonta africana'') |journal=Archives of Oral Biology |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=571–576 |doi=10.1016/0003-9969(95)00008-D |pmid=7677604 |url=https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/28439/Complete.pdf?sequence=10#page=135}}</ref>
The tusks erupt when elephants are 1–3 years old and grow throughout life.<ref name=Laws1966>{{cite journal |last1=Laws |first1=R. M. |year=1966 |title=Age criteria for the African elephant: ''Loxodonta a. africana'' |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–37 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1966.tb00878.x}}</ref>
They are composed of [[dentin]] and coated with a thin layer of [[cementum]]. Their tips bear a conical layer of [[Enamel of teeth|enamel]] that is usually worn off when the elephant is five years old.<ref>{{cite book |editor1= Shoshani, J. |editor2=Tassy, P. |year=1996 |title=The Proboscidea: Evolution and Palaeoecology of Elephants and Their Relatives |author1=Shoshani, J. |chapter=Skeletal and other basic anatomical features of elephants |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=9–20}}</ref>
Tusks of bulls grow faster than tusks of females. Mean weight of tusks at the age of 60 years is {{convert|109|kg|abbr=on}} in bulls, and {{convert|17.7|kg|abbr=on|1}} in cows.<ref name=Laws1966/>
The longest known tusk of an African bush elephant measured {{convert|3.51|m|abbr=on}} and weighed {{convert|117|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Raubenheimer |first1=E. J. |last2=Bosman |first2=M. C. |last3=Vorster |first3=R. |last4=and Noffke |first4=C. E. |year=1998 |title=Histogenesis of the chequered pattern of ivory of the African elephant (''Loxodonta africana'') |journal=Archives of Oral Biology |volume=43 |issue=12 |pages=969–977 |doi=10.1016/S0003-9969(98)00077-6|pmid=9877328 }}</ref>

=== Molars ===
[[File:Loxodonta africana - Molar of an adult.JPG |thumb|right|Molar of an adult African bush elephant]]
The [[dental formula]] of the African bush elephant is {{DentalFormula|upper=1.0.3.3|lower=0.0.3.3|total=26}}. It develops six molars in each jaw quadrant that erupt at different ages and differ in size.<ref name=Laws1966/> The first molars grow to a size of {{convert|2|cm|abbr=on}} wide by {{convert|4|cm|abbr=on}} long, are worn by the age of one year and lost by the age of about 2.5 years. The second molars start protruding at the age of about six months, grow to a size of {{convert|4|cm|abbr=on}} wide by {{convert|7|cm|abbr=on}} long and are lost by the age of 6–7 years. The third molars protrude at the age of about one year, grow to a size of {{convert|5.2|cm|abbr=on}} wide by {{convert|14|cm|abbr=on}} long and are lost by the age of 8–10 years. The fourth molars show by the age of 6–7 years, grow to a size of {{convert|6.8|cm|abbr=on}} wide by {{convert|17.5|cm|abbr=on}} long and are lost by the age of 22–23 years. The [[dental alveoli]] of the fifth molars are visible by the age of 10–11 years. They grow to a size of {{convert|8.5|cm|abbr=on}} wide by {{convert|22|cm|abbr=on}} long and are worn by the age of 45–48 years. The dental alveoli of the last molars are visible by the age of 26–28 years. They grow to a size of {{convert|9.4|cm|abbr=on}} wide by {{convert|31|cm|ft|abbr=on|1}} long and are well worn by the age of 65 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jachmann |first=H. |year=1988 |title=Estimating age in African elephants: a revision of Laws' molar evaluation technique |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=51–56 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1988.tb01127.x}}</ref>

== Distribution and habitat ==
The African bush elephant occurs in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] including [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Botswana]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Namibia]], [[Zambia]], and [[Angola]]. It moves between a variety of habitats, including subtropical and [[temperate forest]]s, dry and seasonally flooded [[grassland]]s and woodlands, [[wetland]]s and agricultural land from sea level to mountain slopes. In [[Mali]] and Namibia, it also inhabits desert areas.<ref name="iucn"/>

In Ethiopia, the African bush elephant has historically been recorded up to an altitude of {{convert|2500|m|abbr=on}}. By the late 1970s, the population had declined to a herd in the [[Dawa River]] valley and one close to the Kenyan border.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Yalden |first1=D. W. |last2=Largen |first2=M. J. |last3=Kock |first3= D. |year=1986 |title=Catalogue of the Mammals of Ethiopia. 6. Perissodactyla, Proboscidea, Hyracoidea, Lagomorpha, Tubulidentata, Sirenia, and Cetacea |journal=Monitore Zoologico Italiano. Supplemento |volume=21 |issue =1 |pages=31–103 |doi=10.1080/03749444.1986.10736707 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Behavior and ecology ==

=== Social behavior ===
{{multiple image |perrow=1 |image1=Herd of Elephants.jpg |caption1=Elephant family in [[Amboseli National Park]], Kenya |image2=Down the water hole.jpg |caption2=Young bulls in a bachelor group in [[Hwange National Park]], Zimbabwe}}

The core of elephant society is the family unit, which comprises several adult cows, their daughters of all ages and their sons of [[prepubertal]] age. Two or more family units that have close ties was termed a 'kinship group' by [[Iain Douglas-Hamilton]] who observed African bush elephants for 4.5 years in [[Lake Manyara National Park]]. The family unit is led by a [[matriarch]] who at times also leads the kinship group.<ref name=Douglas-Hamilton1972>{{cite thesis |last1=Douglas-Hamilton |first1=I. |year=1972 |title=On the ecology and behaviour of the African elephant: the elephants of Lake Manyara |type=PhD thesis |publisher=University of Oxford |location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Douglas-Hamilton |first1=I. |year=1973 |title=On the ecology and behaviour of the Lake Manyara elephants |journal=East African Wildlife Journal |volume=11 |issue=3–4 |pages=401–403|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1973.tb00101.x }}</ref>
[[Group size]] varies between sites and at different seasons. In [[Tsavo East National Park|Tsavo East]] and [[Tsavo West National Park]]s, groups are bigger in the rainy season and in areas with open vegetation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leuthold, W. |year=1976 |title=Group size in elephants of Tsavo National Park and possible factors influencing it |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=425–439 |doi=10.2307/3883|jstor=3883 }}</ref>
Aerial surveys in the late 1960s to early 1970s revealed an average group size of 6.3 individuals in Uganda's [[Rwenzori National Park]] and 28.8 individuals in Chambura Game Reserve. In both sites, elephants aggregated during the wet season, whereas groups were smaller in the dry season.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eltringham, S. K. |year=1977 |title=The numbers and distribution of elephant ''Loxodonta africana'' in the Rwenzori National Park and Chambura Game Reserve, Uganda |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=19–39 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1977.tb00375.x}}</ref>

Groups cooperate in locating food and water, in defending the group, and in caring for the group’s offspring, termed [[allomothering]].<ref name=Douglas-Hamilton1972/> Young bulls gradually separate from the family unit when they are between 10 and 19 years old. They range alone for some time or form all-male groups.<ref>{{cite book |year=1983 |title=Primate Social Relationships: An Integrated Approach |editor1=Hinde, R. A. |editor2=Berman, C. M. |publisher=Blackwell |location=Oxford |author1=Moss, C. J. |author2=Poole, J. H. |chapter=Relationships and social structure of African elephants |pages=315–325}}</ref>

[[File:African elephant (Loxodonta africana) reaching up 3.jpg|thumb|right|A bull elephant stretching up to break off a branch in the [[Okavango Delta]], Botswana]]

=== Diet ===
The African bush elephant is [[herbivory|herbivorous]]. Its diet consists mainly of grasses, creepers and herbs. Adults can consume up to {{convert|150|kg|lb|abbr=on}} per day.<ref name=Estes1999/> During the dry season, the diet also includes leaves and bark. Tree bark in particular contains a high level of [[calcium]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bax, P. N. |author2=Sheldrick, D. L. W. |year=1963 |title=Some preliminary observations on the food of elephant in the Tsavo Royal National Park (East) of Kenya |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=40–51 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1963.tb00177.x}}</ref> Elephants in [[Babille Elephant Sanctuary]] consume leaves and fruit of [[cherimoya]], [[papaya]], [[banana]], [[guava]] and leaves, stems and seeds of [[maize]], [[sorghum]] and [[sugarcane]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Biru, Y. |author2=Bekele, A. |year=2012 |title=Food habits of African elephant (''Loxodonta africana'') in Babile Elephant Sanctuary, Ethiopia |journal=Tropical Ecology |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=43–52 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267715070}}</ref>
To supplement their diet with [[mineral]]s, they congregate at mineral-rich water-holes, [[termite]] mounds and [[mineral lick]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ruggiero, R. G. & Fay, J. M. |year=1994 |title=Utilization of termitarium soils by elephants and its ecological implications |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=222–232 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1994.tb00573.x}}</ref> Salt licks visited by elephants in the Kalahari contain high concentrations of water-soluble [[sodium]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Weir, J. S. |year=1969 |title=Chemical properties and occurrence on Kalahari sand of salt licks created by elephants |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=158 |issue=3 |pages=293–310 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1969.tb02148.x}}</ref> Elephants drink {{convert|180-230|l|-1|lk=in|sp=us|abbr=on}} of water daily, and seem to prefer sites where water and soil contains sodium. In Kruger National Park and on the shore of [[Lake Kariba]], elephants were observed to ingest [[wood ash]], which also contains sodium.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Weir, J. S. |year=1972 |title=Spatial distribution of Elephants in an African National Park in relation to environmental sodium |journal=Oikos |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.2307/3543921|jstor=3543921 }}</ref>

[[File:African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) eye close-up showing the Musth gland opening (16689303126).jpg|thumb|right|Bull in musth]]

=== Musth ===
Observations of adult African bush elephant bulls in [[Amboseli National Park]] revealed that they experience a swelling of the [[temporal gland]]s and a secretion of fluid, the [[musth]] fluid, which flows down their cheeks. They begin to dribble urine, initially as discrete drops and later in a regular stream. These manifestations of musth last from a few days to months, depending on the age and condition of the bull. When a bull has been urinating for a long time, the proximal part of the [[penis]] and the distal end of the sheath show a greenish coloration, termed the 'green penis syndrome' by [[Joyce Poole]] and [[Cynthia Moss]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Poole |first1=J. H. |last2=Moss |first2=C. J. |year=1981 |title=Musth in the African elephant, ''Loxodonta africana'' |journal=Nature |volume=292 |issue=5826 |page=830–831 |doi=10.1038/292830a0|pmid=7266649 |bibcode=1981Natur.292..830P }}</ref> Males in musth become more aggressive. They guard and mate with females in [[estrus]] who stay closer to bulls in musth than to non-musth bulls.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Poole |first1=J. H. |year=1982 |title=Musth and male-male competition in the African elephant |type=PhD thesis |publisher=University of Cambridge |location=Cambridge}}</ref> Urinary [[testosterone]] increases during musth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Poole |first1=J. H. |last2=Kasman |first2=L. H. |last3=Ramsay |first3=E. C. |last4=Lasley |first4=B. L. |year=1984 |title=Musth and urinary testosterone concentrations in the African elephant (''Loxodonta africana'') |journal=Reproduction |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=255–260 |doi=10.1530/jrf.0.0700255|pmid=6694143 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Bulls begin to experience musth by the age of 24 years. Periods of musth are short and sporadic in young bulls up to 35 years old, lasting a few days to weeks. Older bulls are in musth for 2–5 months every year. Musth occurs mainly during and following the rainy season, and when females are in estrus.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Poole |first1=J. H. |year=1987 |title=Rutting behavior in African elephants: the phenomenon of musth |journal=Behaviour |volume=102 |issue=3–4 |pages=283–316 |doi=10.1163/156853986X00171}}</ref> Bulls in musth often chase each other and are aggressive towards other bulls in musth. When old and high-ranking bulls in musth threaten and chase young bulls in musth, the latter either leave the group or their musth ceases.<ref name=Poole1989>{{cite journal |last1=Poole |first1=J. H. |year=1989 |title=Announcing intent: the aggressive state of musth in African elephants |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=37 |issue=37 |pages=140–152 |url= https://www.kotafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Poole1989AggressiveStateofMusth.pdf|doi=10.1016/0003-3472(89)90014-6 }}</ref>

[[File:African Elephants (Loxodonta africana) and White Rhinos (Ceratotherium simum) (7035695177).jpg|thumb|right|Elephants and white rhinos meet in Pilanesberg National Park]]

Young bulls in musth killed about 50 [[white rhinoceros]] in [[Pilanesberg National Park]] between 1992 and 1997. This unusual behavior was attributed to the age and socialisation of the young bulls: they were 17–25 year old orphans remaining from [[culling|culled]] families and grew up without the guidance of dominant bulls. When six adult bulls were introduced into the park, the young bulls did not attack rhinos any more. This experience indicates that older bulls suppress musth and aggressiveness of younger bulls.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Slotow, R. |last2=van Dyk, G. |last3=Poole |first3=J. |last4=Page |first4=B. |last5=Klocke |first5=A. |year=2000 |title=Older bull elephants control young males |journal=Nature |volume=408 |issue=6811 |pages=425–426|doi=10.1038/35044191 |pmid=11100713 |bibcode=2000Natur.408..425S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Slotow, R. |last2=van Dyk, G. |year=2001 |title=Role of delinquent young 'orphan' male elephants in high mortality of white rhinoceros in Pilanesberg National Park, South Africa |journal=Koedoe |issue=44 |pages=85–94 |url=http://koedoe.co.za/index.php/koedoe/article/download/188/172}}</ref> Similar incidents were recorded in [[Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park]], where young bulls killed five [[black rhinoceros|black]] and 58 white rhinoceros between 1991 and 2001. After the introduction of 10 up to 45 year old bulls, the number of rhinos killed by elephants decreased considerably.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Slotow, R. |last2=Balfour, D. |last3=Howison, O. |year=2001 |title=Killing of black and white rhinoceroses by African elephants in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park, South Africa |journal=Pachyderm |issue=31 |pages=14–20 |url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20071025140816/http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/afesg/pachy/pdfs/pachy31.pdf}}</ref>

=== Reproduction ===
{{multiple image |perrow=1 |image1=Elephant (Loxodonta africana) mating ritual composite.jpg |caption1=Mating ritual in [[Addo Elephant Park]] |image2=African bush elephants (Loxodonta africana) female with six-week-old baby.jpg |caption2=Female with six-week old calf in [[Zimbabwe]] |image3=African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) baby 6 weeks.jpg|caption3=Calf of six weeks in [[Zimbabwe]]}}

[[Spermatogenesis]] starts when bulls are about 15 years old.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hanks |first1=J. |year=1973 |title=Reproduction in the male African elephant in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia |journal=South African Journal of Wildlife Research |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=31–39 |url=https://journals.co.za/content/wild/3/2/AJA03794369_2812?crawler=true&mimetype=application/pdf}}</ref>
Females [[ovulate]] for the first time at the age of 11 years.<ref name=Williamson1976>{{cite journal |last1=Williamson |first1=B. R. |year=1976 |title=Reproduction in female African elephant in the Wankie National Park, Rhodesia |journal=South African Journal of Wildlife Research |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=89–93 |url=https://journals.co.za/content/wild/6/2/AJA03794369_3213?crawler=true&mimetype=application/pdf}}</ref> They are in estrus for 2–6 days.<ref name=Moss1983>{{cite journal |last1=Moss |first1=C. J. |year=1983 |title=Oestrous behaviour and female choice in the African elephant |journal=Behaviour |volume=86 |issue=3/4 |pages=167–196 |jstor=4534283|doi=10.1163/156853983X00354 }}</ref>
In captivity, cows have an [[oestrous cycle]] lasting 14–15 weeks. [[Foetal]] [[gonad]]s enlarge during the second half of pregnancy.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Allen|first1=W. |title=Ovulation, Pregnancy, Placentation and Husbandry in the African Elephant (''Loxodonta africana'') |journal=Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences |date=2006 |volume=361|issue=1469|pages=821–834 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1831 |pmid=16627297 |pmc=1609400}}</ref>

African bush elephants mate during the rainy season.<ref name=Williamson1976/> Bulls in musth cover long distances in search for females and associate with large family units. They listen for the females loud, [[very low frequency]] calls and attract females by calling and by leaving trails of strong-smelling urine. Females search for bulls in musth, listen for their calls and follow their urine trails.<ref name=Poole1987>{{cite book |year=1989 |title=The Biology of Large African Mammals in Their Environment |series=Symposia of the Zoological Society of London |volume=61 |editor1=Jewell, P. A. |editor2=Maloiy, G. M. O. |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=London |last1=Poole |first1=J. H. |last2=Moss |first2=C. J. |chapter=Elephant mate searching: group dynamics and vocal and olfactory communication |pages=111–125}}</ref>
Bulls in musth are more successful at obtaining [[mating]] opportunities than non-musth bulls. Females move away from bulls that attempt to test her estrous condition. If pursued by several bulls, they run away. Once they choose their mating partners, they stay away from other bulls that are threatened and chased away by the favoured bull. Competition between bulls overrides their choice sometimes.<ref name=Moss1983/>

[[Gestation]] lasts 22 months. Interval between births was estimated at 3.9 to 4.7 years in [[Wankie National Park]].<ref name=Williamson1976/> Where hunting pressure on adult elephants was high in the 1970s, cows gave birth once in 2.9 to 3.8 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kerr |first1=M. A. |year=1978 |title=Reproduction of elephant in the Mana Pools National Park, Rhodesia |journal=Arnoldia (Rhodesia) |volume=8 |issue=29 |pages=1–11}}</ref> Cows in Amboseli National Park gave birth once in five years on average.<ref name=Moss1983/>

The birth of a calf was observed in Tsavo East National Park in October 1990. A group of 80 elephants including eight bulls had gathered in the morning in a {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} radius around the birth site. A small group of calves and females stood near the pregnant female, rumbling and flapping their ears. One cow seemed to assist her. While in labour, fluid streamed from her [[Temple (anatomy)|temporal]] and ear canals. She kept standing while giving birth. The newborn calf struggled to its feet within 30 minutes and walked 20 minutes later. The mother expelled the [[placenta]] about 100 minutes after birth and covered it with soil immediately.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McKnight |first1=B. L. |year=1992 |title=Birth of an African elephant in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=87–89 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1992.tb00481.x}}</ref>
Captive-born calves weigh between {{convert|100|and|120|kg|abbr=on}} at birth and gain about {{convert|0.5|kg|abbr=on}} weight per day.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lang |first1=E. M. |year=1967 |title=The birth of an African elephant Loxodonta africana at Basle Zoo |journal=International Zoo Yearbook |volume=7 |issue=1|pages=154–157 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.1967.tb00359.x}}</ref>
Cows [[Lactation|lactate]] for about 4.8 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=N. S. |last2=Buss |first2=I. O. |year=1973 |title=Reproductive ecology of the female African elephant |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=524–534 |doi=10.2307/3800318 |jstor=3800318}}</ref>
Calves exclusively suckle their mother’s milk during the first three months. Thereafter, they start feeding independently and slowly increase the time spent feeding until they are two years old. During the first three years, male calves spend more time suckling and grow faster than female calves. After this period, cows reject male calves more frequently from their nipples than female calves.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=P. C. |last2= Moss |first2=C. J. |year=1986 |title=Early maternal investment in male and female African elephant calves |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=353–361 |doi=10.1007/BF00299666 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225904541}}</ref>

The maximum lifespan of the African bush elephant is between 70 and 75 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=P. C. |last2=Sayialel |first2=S. |last3=Lindsay |first3=W. K. |last4=Moss |first4=C. J. |year=2012 |title=African elephant age determination from teeth: validation from known individuals |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=9–20 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01286.x}}</ref> Its [[Generation time|generation length]] is 25 years.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Generation length for mammals |author=Pacifici, M. |author2=Santini, L. |author3=Di Marco, M. |author4=Baisero, D. |author5=Francucci, L. |author6=Grottolo Marasini, G. |author7=Visconti, P. |author8=Rondinini, C. |journal=Nature Conservation |volume=5 |year=2013 |issue=5 |pages=87–94 |doi=10.3897/natureconservation.5.5734|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Predators ===
In Botswana's [[Chobe National Park]], subadult elephants are preyed upon by [[lion]]s. They attacked and fed on elephants when smaller prey species were scarce. Between 1993 and 1996, lions successfully attacked 74 elephants; 26 were older than nine, and one was a bull of over 15 years. Most were killed at night, and hunts occurred more often during [[waning moon]] nights than during bright moon nights.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Joubert |first1=D. |year=2006 |title=Hunting behaviour of lions (''Panthera leo'') on elephants (''Loxodonta africana'') in the Chobe National Park, Botswana |journal= African Journal of Ecology |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=279–281 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00626.x}}</ref> In the same park, lions killed eight elephants in October 2005 that were aged between one and 11 years, two of them older than eight years. Successful hunts took place after dark when prides exceeded 27 lions and herds were smaller than five elephants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Power |first1=R. J. |last2=Compion |first2=R. X. S. |title=Lion predation on elephants in the Savuti, Chobe National Park, Botswana |journal=African Zoology |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=36–44 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232693088 |doi=10.3377/004.044.0104 |year=2009}}</ref>

== Threats ==
The African bush elephant is threatened foremost by [[habitat loss]] and fragmentation following conversion of natural habitat for livestock farming, plantations of non-timber crops and building of urban and industrial areas. As a result, human-elephant conflict has increased.<ref name="iucn"/>

=== Poaching ===
Poachers target foremost elephant bulls for their tusks, which leads to a skewed [[sex ratio]] and affects the survival chances of a population. Access of poachers to unregulated [[black market]]s is facilitated by [[corruption]] and in periods of [[civil war]] in some elephant range countries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lemieux |first1=A. M. |last2=Clarke |first2=R. V. |year=2009 |title=The international ban on ivory sales and its effects on elephant poaching in Africa |journal=The British Journal of Criminology |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=451–471 |doi=10.1093/bjc/azp030|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In June 2002, a container packed with more than {{convert|6.5|t|abbr=on}} [[ivory]] was confiscated in [[Singapore]]. It contained 42,120 [[hanko (stamp)|hanko stamp]]s and 532 tusks of African bush elephants that originated in Southern Africa, centered in Zambia and neighboring countries. Between 2005 and 2006, a total of {{convert|23.461|t|abbr=on}} ivory plus 91 unweighed tusks of African bush elephants were confiscated in 12 major consignments being shipped to Asia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wasser |first=S. K. |last2=Mailand |first2=C. |last3=Booth |first3=R. |last4=Mutayoba |first4=B. |last5=Kisamo |first5=E. |last6=Clark |first6=B. |last7=Stephens |first7=M. |date=2007 |title=Using DNA to track the origin of the largest ivory seizure since the 1989 trade ban |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=10 |pages=4228–4233 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0609714104|pmc=1805457 |pmid=17360505}}</ref>

When the international ivory trade reopened in 2006, the demand and price for ivory increased in Asia. The African bush elephant population in [[Chad]]'s [[Zakouma National Park]] numbered 3,900 individuals in 2005. Within five years, more than 3,200 elephants were killed. The park did not have sufficient guards to combat poaching, and their weapons were outdated. Well organized networks facilitated smuggling the ivory through Sudan.<ref name=Poilecot2010>{{cite journal |last1=Poilecot |first1=P. |year=2010 |title= Le braconnage et la population d'éléphants au Parc National de Zakouma (Tchad) |journal=Bois et Forêts des Tropiques |volume=303 |issue=303 |pages=93–102 |doi=10.19182/bft2010.303.a20454 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291781119}}</ref>
Poaching also increased in Kenya in those years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Douglas-Hamilton |first1=I. |year=2009 |title=The current elephant poaching trend |journal=Pachyderm |issue=45 |pages=154–157 |url=http://savetheelephants.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/2009ElephantPoachingTrendSWARA.pdf}}</ref>
In [[Samburu National Reserve]], 41 bulls were illegally killed between 2008 and 2012, equivalent to 31% of the reserve’s elephant population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wittemyer |first1=G. |last2=Daballen |first2=D. |last3=Douglas-Hamilton |first3=I. |year=2013 |title=Comparative Demography of an At-Risk African Elephant Population |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=e53726 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053726|pmid=23341984 |pmc=3547063 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...853726W }}</ref>

These killings were linked to [[confiscation]]s of ivory and increased prices for ivory on the local black market.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wittemyer |first1=G. |last2=Northrup |first2=J. M. |last3=Blanc |first3=J. |last4=Douglas-Hamilton |first4=I. |last5=Omondi |first5=P. |last6=Burnham |first6=K. P. |year=2014 |title=Illegal killing for ivory drives global decline in African elephants |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=111 |issue=36 |pages=13117–13121 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1403984111 |pmid=25136107 |pmc=4246956 |url=|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113117W }}</ref>
About 10,370 tusks were confiscated in Singapore, [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]], [[Philippines]], [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], Kenya and Uganda between 2007 and 2013. [[Genetic analysis]] of tusk samples showed that they originated from African bush elephants killed in Tanzania, Mozambique, Zambia, Kenya and Uganda. Most of the ivory was smuggled through East African countries.<ref>{{cite journal |first=S. K. |last=Wasser |last2=Brown |first2=L. |last3=Mailand |first3=C. |last4=Mondol |first4=S. |date=2015 |title=Genetic assignment of large seizures of elephant ivory reveals Africa's major poaching hotspots |journal=Science |volume=349 |issue=6243 |pages=84–87 |doi=10.1126/science.aaa2457 |last5=Clark |first5=W. |last6=Laurie |first6=C. |last7=Weir |first7=B. S.|pmc=5535781 |pmid=26089357}}</ref>

Between 2003 and 2015, illegal killing of 14,606 African bush elephants was reported by rangers across 29 range countries. Chad is a major transit country for [[smuggling]] of ivory in West Africa. This trend was curtailed by raising penalties for poaching and improving law enforcement.<ref name=AfESG2016>{{cite book |last1=Thouless |first1=C. R. |last2=Dublin |first2=H. T. |last3=Blanc |first3=J. J. |last4=Skinner |first4=D. P. |last5=Daniel |first5=T. E. |last6=Taylor |first6=R. D. |last7=Maisels |first7=F. |last8=Frederick |first8=H. L. |last9=Bouché |first9=P. |year=2016 |title=African Elephant Status Report 2016 : an update from the African Elephant Database |publisher=IUCN SSC African Elephant Specialist Group |location=Gland |isbn=978-2-8317-1813-2 |series=Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 60 |url=https://www.dropbox.com/s/7a8w3kk6r9hzm0r/AfESG%20African%20Elephant%20Status%20Report%202016.pdf?dl=1}}</ref>

During the 20th century, the African bush elephant population was severely decimated.<ref name=Ceballos>Ceballos, G.; Ehrlich, A. H.; Ehrlich, P. R. (2015). ''The Annihilation of Nature: Human Extinction of Birds and Mammals''. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 102. {{ISBN|1421417189}}.</ref> Poaching of the elephant has dated back all the way to the years of 1970 and 1980, which was considered the largest killings in history. Unfortunately, the species is placed in harm's way due to the limited conservation areas provided in Africa. In most cases, the killings of the African bush elephant have occurred near the outskirts of the protected areas.<ref name="iucn"/>

In addition to being poached, the carcasses of elephants may get poisoned by the poachers, to avoid detection by vultures which help rangers track poaching activity by circling around dead animals, and pose a threat to those vultures or birds that scavenge on them. On the 20th of June 2019, the carcasses of 468 [[white-backed vulture]]s, 17 [[white-headed vulture]]s, 28 [[hooded vulture]]s, 14 [[lappet-faced vulture]]s and 10 [[cape vulture]]s, altogether 537 endangered [[Old World vulture|vulture]]s, besides 2 [[tawny eagle]]s, were found in northern Botswana. It is suspected that they died after eating the poisoned carcasses of 3 elephants.<ref name="NDTV AFP 06-2019">{{cite news |publisher=[[NDTV]] |work=[[Agence France-Press]] |title=Over 500 Rare Vultures Die After Eating Poisoned Elephants In Botswana |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/over-500-rare-vultures-die-after-eating-poisoned-elephants-in-botswana-2056740 |date=2019-06-21 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="CNN 06-2019">{{cite news |last=Hurworth |first=Ella |title=More than 500 endangered vultures die after eating poisoned elephant carcasses |publisher=[[CNN]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/06/21/africa/botswana-vultures-endangered-elephants-intl-hnk/index.html |date=2019-06-24 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="Smithsonian 06-2019">{{cite news |last=Solly |first=Meilan |title=Poachers' Poison Kills 530 Endangered Vultures in Botswana |publisher=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/poachers-poison-kills-530-endangered-vultures-botswana-180972477/ |date=2019-06-24 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="Afrik21 06-2019">{{cite news |last=Ngounou |first=Boris |title=BOTSWANA: Over 500 vultures found dead after massive poisoning |publisher=Afrik21 |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/botswana-over-500-vultures-found-dead-after-massive-poisoning/ |date=2019-06-27 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref>

=== Habitat loss ===
Vast areas in Sub-Saharan Africa were transformed for agricultural use and building of infrastructure. This disturbance leaves the elephants without a stable habitat and limits their ability to roam freely. Large corporations associated with [[commercial logging]] and [[mining]] have stripped apart the land, giving poachers easy access to the African bush elephant.<ref name="Zoo">{{Cite news|url=http://www.marylandzoo.org/animals-conservation/elephant-program/facts-about-african-elephants/|title=Facts About African Elephants - The Maryland Zoo in Baltimore|work=The Maryland Zoo in Baltimore|access-date=2017-11-13}}</ref> As human development grows, the human population faces the trouble of contact with the elephants more frequently, due to the species need for food and water. Farmers residing in nearby areas get into conflict with the African bush elephants rummaging through their crops. In many cases, they kill the elephants instantly as they disturb a village or forage upon their crops.<ref name=Ceballos/>

== Conservation ==
The African bush elephants has been listed on [[CITES Appendix I|Appendix I]] of the [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]] since 1989. In 1997, Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe placed it on [[CITES Appendix II|Appendix II]]. So did South Africa in 2000. [[Community-based conservation]] programmes have been initiated in several range countries, which contributed to reduce human-elephant conflict and to increase local people's tolerance towards elephants.<ref name="iucn"/>

In 1986, the African Elephant Database was initiated with the aim to collate and update information on distribution and status of elephant populations in Africa. The database includes results from aerial surveys, dung counts, interviews with local people and data on poaching.<ref name=AfESG2016/>

Researchers discovered that playing back the recorded sounds of [[African bee]]s is an effective method to drive elephants away from settlements.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=L. E. |last1=King |first2=I. |last2=Douglas-Hamilton |first3=F. |last3=Vollrath |year=2007 |title=African elephants run from the sound of disturbed bees |journal=Current Biology |volume=17 |issue=19 |pages=R832–R833 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2007.07.038 |pmid=17925207}}</ref>

=== Status ===
In 1996, [[IUCN Red List]] assessors for the African bush elephant considered the species [[Endangered]]. Since 2004, it has been assessed [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]], as the global population was estimated to be increasing at a rate of 4% per year. About 70% of its range is located outside protected areas.<ref name="iucn"/>

In 2016, the global population was estimated at 415,428 ± 20,111 individuals distributed in a total area of {{convert|20731202|sqkm|abbr=on}}, of which 30% is protected. 42% of the total population lives in nine Southern African countries comprising 293,447 ± 16,682 individuals; Africa's largest population lives in Botswana with 131,626 ± 12,508 individuals.<ref name=AfESG2016/>
[[File:Berlin Tierpark Friedrichsfelde 12-2015 img13 African elephant.jpg|thumb|African elephants mating in [[Tierpark Berlin]]]]
[[File:Villeneuve d'Ascq.- Eté2016 Carthago-Asnapio (5).jpg|thumb|African elephant used for show in Parc archéologique Asnapio, [[France]]]]

=== In captivity ===
The social behavior of elephants in captivity mimics that of those in the wild. Females are kept with other females, in groups, while males tend to be separated from their mothers at a young age, and are kept apart. According to Schulte, in the 1990s, in North America, a few facilities allowed male interaction. Elsewhere, males were only allowed to smell each other. Males and females were allowed to interact for specific purposes such as breeding. In that event, females were more often moved to the male than the male to the female. Females are more often kept in captivity because they are easier and less expensive to house.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schulte |first=B. A. |title=Social structure and helping behavior in captive elephants |journal=Zoo Biology |date=2000 |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=447–459 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230242723 |doi=10.1002/1098-2361(2000)19:5<447::aid-zoo12>3.0.co;2-#}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{stack|{{portal|Mammals}}}}
* [[2006 Zakouma elephant slaughter]]
* [[Elephant cognition]]
* [[Dwarf elephant]]
* [[Knysna elephants]]
* [[Pygmy elephant]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title=Elephant Don: The Politics of a Pachyderm Posse |author=Caitlin O'Connell |year=2015 |isbn=978-0226106113 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |url=https://archive.org/details/elephantdonpolit0000ocon }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Loxodonta africana}}
{{Wikispecies|Loxodonta africana}}
* [http://elephant.elehost.com/About_Elephants/about_elephants.htm Elephant Information Repository] – An in-depth resource on elephants
*{{EOL|289808|African Bush Elephant ''Loxodonta africana'' (Blumenbach 1797)}}
* ARKive – [https://web.archive.org/web/20051125223213/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Loxodonta_africana/ images and movies of the African Bush Elephant ''(Loxodonta africana)'']
* BBC Wildlife Finder – [http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/species/African_Bush_Elephant Clips from the BBC archive, news stories and sound files of the African Bush Elephant]
* View the [http://www.ensembl.org/Loxodonta_africana/Info/Index/ elephant genome] on [[Ensembl]]
* [https://www.peoplenotpoaching.org/ People Not Poaching: The Communities and IWT Learning Platform]
*{{cite web |title=African Elephants Slaughtered in Herds Near Chad Wildlife Park |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/08/060830-elephants-chad.html |author=Handwerk, B. |date=2006 |accessdate=1 September 2006 |work=National Geographic |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901103227/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/08/060830-elephants-chad.html |archivedate=1 September 2006 |url-status= live}}

{{Elephants}}
{{Proboscidea}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q36557}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:elephant, African}}
[[Category:Elephants|African bush elephant]]
[[Category:Mammals of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Afrotropical realm fauna]]
[[Category:Species endangered by habitat fragmentation]]
[[Category:Herbivorous mammals]]
[[Category:Vulnerable animals]]
[[Category:Vulnerable biota of Africa]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1797|African bush elephant]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|African bush elephant]]

Sarus crane

2020-04-23T04:34:22Z

118.46.55.151:

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Good article}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Sarus crane
| image = Sarus crane (Grus antigone).jpg
| image_caption = ''A. a. antigone'' from India with the distinct white "collar"
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>BirdLife International. 2016. ''Antigone antigone''. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T22692064A93335364. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22692064A93335364.en. Downloaded on 23 April 2020.</ref>
| genus = Antigone
| species = antigone
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = * ''A. a. antigone'' ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]) (Indian sarus crane)
* ''A. a. sharpii'' (=''sharpei'') Blanford, 1895<ref>{{cite journal|author=Blanford, W.T|year=1896|title=A note on the two sarus cranes of the Indian region|journal=Ibis|volume=2|pages=135–136|doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1896.tb06980.x}}</ref> (Indochinese or Burmese sarus crane, Sharpe's crane, red-headed crane)
* ''A. a. gilliae'' (=''gillae'') Schodde, 1988 (Australian sarus crane)
* ''A. a. luzonica'' [[Masauji Hachisuka|Hachisuka]], 1941 (Luzon sarus crane – [[extinct]])
| synonyms = *''Ardea antigone'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}
*''Grus antigone'' {{small|(Linnaeus, 1758)}}
*''Grus collaris'' Boddaert, 1783
| range_map = SarusMap.svg
| range_map_caption = <div style="margin-left: 1em; text-align: left;">
{{Legend|#007D1D|Approximate current global distribution |border=1px solid #aaa}}
</div>
}}

The '''sarus crane''' (''Antigone antigone'') is a large [[bird migration|non-migratory]] [[Crane (bird)|crane]] found in parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]], Southeast Asia, and Australia. The tallest of the flying birds, standing at a height up to {{convert|1.8|m|ftin|abbr=on}}, they are a conspicuous species of open [[wetland]]s in south Asia, seasonally flooded ''Dipterocarp'' forests in Southeast Asia, and ''Eucalyptus''-dominated woodlands and grasslands in Australia.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|title=Crane Conservation Strategy|last=Sundar|first=K. S. Gopi|publisher=International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, USA.|year=2019|editor-last=Mirande|editor-first=Claire M.|pages=323–345|chapter=Species review: Sarus Crane (Grus antigone)|editor-last2=Harris|editor-first2=James T.}}</ref>

The sarus crane is easily distinguished from other cranes in the region by the overall grey colour and the contrasting red head and upper neck. They forage on [[marsh]]es and shallow wetlands for roots, tubers, insects, crustaceans, and small vertebrate prey. Like other cranes, they form long-lasting [[pair bond]]s and maintain territories within which they perform territorial and courtship [[Display (zoology)|displays]] that include loud trumpeting, leaps, and dance-like movements. In India, they are considered symbols of marital fidelity, believed to mate for life and pine the loss of their mates even to the point of starving to death.

The main breeding season is during the [[wet season|rainy season]], when the pair builds an enormous nest "island", a circular platform of reeds and grasses nearly 2 m in diameter and high enough to stay above the shallow water surrounding it. Increased agricultural intensity is often thought to have led to declines in sarus crane numbers but they also benefit from wetland crops and the construction of canals and reservoirs. The stronghold of the species is in India, where it is traditionally revered and lives in agricultural lands in close proximity to humans. Elsewhere, the species has been [[Local extinction|extirpated]] in many parts of its former [[range (biology)|range]].

== Description ==
[[File:Sarus Crane I IMG 8628.jpg|thumb|left|In flight, the black primaries contrast with the otherwise grey wings ([[Bharatpur, India]]).]]
The adult sarus crane is very large with grey wings and body, a bare red head and part of the upper neck; a greyish crown, and a long greenish-grey pointed [[beak|bill]]. In flight, the long neck is held straight, unlike that of a [[heron]], which folds it back, and the black wing tips can be seen; the crane's long, pink legs trail behind them. This bird has a grey ear [[Covert (feather)|covert]] patch, orange-red [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]]es, and a greenish-grey bill. Juveniles have a yellowish base to the bill and the brown-grey head is fully feathered.<ref name=pcr/>
{{Infobox bird|
| collapsible = yes
| state = collapsed
|pop1=''G. a. antigone''<ref name=hbk>{{cite book|title=Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 2|edition=2nd|author1=Ali, S |author2=S. D. Ripley |lastauthoramp=yes |year=1980|publisher=Oxford University Press| place= New Delhi| pages=141–144}}</ref>
|data1={{birdbox/population
|unit=mm
|culmenm=172–182
|wingm=670–685
|wingf=625–645
|tailm=255–263
|tarsusm=310–355
}}
|pop2=Combined<ref name=johnsgard>{{cite book|first=Paul A.|last=Johnsgard|publisher=Indiana University Press, Bloomington|year=1983|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/bioscicranes/26|title=Cranes of the world|journal=Cranes of the World, by Paul Johnsgard|isbn=978-0-253-11255-2}}</ref>
|data2={{birdbox/population
|unit=mm
|culmenm=156–187
|culmenf=155–169
|wingf=557–671
|wingm=514–675
|tailm=150–200
|tailf=100–200
|tarsusm=269–352
|tarsusf=272–350
|weight=8.4|massunit=kg
}}
}}
The bare red skin of the adult's head and neck is brighter during the breeding season. This skin is rough and covered by [[hair follicle|papillae]], and a narrow area around and behind the head is covered by black bristly [[feather]]s. The sexes do not differ in [[plumage]], although males are on average larger than females; males of the Indian population can attain a maximum height around {{convert|180|cm|ft|abbr=on}}, making them the world's tallest [[Extant taxon|extant]] flying bird. The weight of [[nominate race]] individuals is {{convert|6.8|-|7.8|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, while five adult ''A. a. sharpii'' averaged {{convert|8.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Across the distribution range, the weight can vary from {{convert|5|to|12|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, height typically from {{convert|115|to|167|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and wingspan from {{convert|220|to|250|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name=johnsgard/>

While individuals from northern populations are among the heaviest cranes, alongside the [[Red-crowned crane|red-crowned]] and [[wattled crane]]s, and the largest in their range, birds from Australia tend to be smaller.<ref name=jones/> In Australia, the sarus can easily be mistaken for the more widespread [[brolga]]. The brolga has the red colouring confined to the head and not extending into the neck.<ref name=johnsgard/> Body mass in Australian sarus cranes was found to average {{convert|6.68|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in males and {{convert|5.25|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in females, with a range for both sexes of {{convert|5.0|to|6.9|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Thus, Australian sarus cranes average about 25% lighter than the northern counterparts and are marginally lighter on average than brolgas.<ref name = "CRC">{{cite book|title=CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses|edition=2nd|editor1=Dunning Jr.|editor2=John B. |publisher=CRC Press |year=2008|isbn=9781420064445|page=87}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
The species has historically been widely distributed on the lowlands of India along the [[Ganges|Gangetic]] plains, extending south to the [[Godavari River]], west to coastal [[Gujarat]], the [[Tharparkar District]] of Pakistan,<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Rec. Zool. Surv. Pakistan |volume=16 |pages=26–32 |year=2005 |title=Birdlife in Nagarparkar, district Tharparkar, Sindh |author1=Azam, Mirza Mohammad |author2=Chaudhry M. Shafique |lastauthoramp=yes |url=http://www.zsd.gov.pk/images/records/2005/ZSD%28XVI%29--26-32%282005%29.pdf }}{{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and east to [[West Bengal]] and [[Assam]]. The species no longer breeds in [[Punjab region|Punjab]], though it winters regularly in the state.<ref name=":9">{{cite journal|author1=Bal, R. |author2=Dua, A.|year=2010|title= Cranes in unlisted wetlands of north-west Punjab|journal= Birding Asia|volume= 14|pages= 103–106}}</ref> Sarus cranes are rare in West Bengal and Assam,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Choudhury, A. |year=1998|title= Mammals, birds and reptiles of Dibru-Saikhowa Sanctuary, Assam, India|journal= Oryx|volume= 32|issue= 3|pages= 192–200|doi=10.1017/S0030605300029951}}</ref> and are no longer found in the state of [[Bihar]]. In Nepal, its distribution is restricted to the western and central lowland plains, with most of the population occurring in [[Rupandehi District|Rupandehi]], [[Kapilvastu District|Kapilvastu]], and [[Nawalparasi District|Nawalparasi districts]].<ref name="sarusreview">{{cite journal|author1=Sundar, KSG |author2=Choudhury, BC|year=2003|title= The Indian Sarus Crane ''Grus a. antigone'': a literature review|journal= J. Ecol. Soc.|volume= 16|pages= 16–41|url=https://archive.org/stream/JEcologicalSociety16/JES16#page/n15/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name="indiadistr">{{cite journal|author1=Sundar, K.S.G. |author2=Kaur, J. |author3=Choudhury, BC|year=2000|title= Distribution, demography and conservation status of the Indian Sarus Crane (''Grus a. antigone'') in India|journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.|volume= 97|issue= 3|pages= 319–339|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48567763}}</ref>

Two distinct populations of sarus cranes occur in Southeast Asia: the northern population in China and Myanmar, and the southern population in Cambodia and Vietnam.<ref name=":10" /><ref name="sarusreview2">{{cite journal|author1=Archibald, G.W. |author2=Sundar, KSG |author3=Barzen, J.|year=2003|title= A review of the three subspecies of Sarus Cranes ''Grus antigone''|journal= J. Ecol. Soc.|volume= 16|pages= 5–15}}</ref> The sarus used to extend to Thailand and further east into the Philippines, but may now be extinct in both these countries. In 2011, 24 captive-bred cranes raised from five founders were reintroduced into Thailand.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Zoological Science |volume=31|issue=2|pages=95–100|year=2014 |doi=10.2108/zsj.31.95|pmid=24521319|title=PCR-based Method for Sex Identification of Eastern Sarus Crane (Grus antigone sharpii): Implications for Reintroduction Programs in Thailand |first1=Jiranan |last1=Insee|first2= Sumate |last2=Kamolnorranath|first3=Sudarat |last3=Baicharoen|first4=Sriphapai |last4=Chumpadang|first5= Wanchai |last5=Sawasu|first6=Worawidh |last6=Wajjwalku}}</ref> A reasonably sized population of over 150 cranes has recently been discovered breeding in rice fields in the Ayeyarwadi delta, Myanmar with additional cranes confirmed in the states of Kachin, Shan, and Rakhine.<ref name=":10" /> In Australia they are found only in the north-east, and are partly migratory in some areas.<ref>{{cite book|title=Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic birds|author1=Marchant, S. |author2= Higgins, P.J.|year=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press, Melbourne}}</ref> The global range has shrunk and the largest occupied area, and the largest known population, is in India. Increasing paddy fields accompanied by an increase in the network of irrigation canals during and prior to the Green Revolution may have facilitated increases in the distribution and numbers of sarus cranes due to an increase in reliable moisture levels in various locations in India.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":4" /> Although now found mainly at a low elevation on the plains, some historical records exist from highland marshes further north in Harkit Sar and Kahag in [[Kashmir]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Travels in Kashmir, Ladak, Iskardo. Vol. 2|author=Vigne, GT|year=1842|publisher=Henry Colburn, London|url=https://archive.org/stream/travelsinkashmir02vign#page/18/mode/2up}}</ref> The sarus crane breeds in some high elevation regions such as near the [[Maharana Pratap Sagar|Pong Dam]] in Himachal Pradesh, where populations may be growing in response to increasing rice cultivation along the reservoir.<ref name="sarusreview"/><ref name=indiadistr/> In rice-dominated districts of Uttar Pradesh, sarus crane abundance (estimated as occupancy) was highest in the western districts, intermediate in the central districts, and minimal in the eastern districts. Sarus crane abundance was positively associated with percentage of wetlands on the landscape, and negatively with the percentage of area under rice cultivation.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Sundar, K.S.G.|author2=Kittur, S.|year=2012|title= Methodological, temporal and spatial factors affecting modeled occupancy of resident birds in the perennially cultivated landscape of Uttar Pradesh, India|journal= Landscape Ecology|volume= 27|pages= 59–71|doi=10.1007/s10980-011-9666-3}}</ref>

Until recently, little was known of sarus crane ecology from Australia. Breeding records (confirmed sightings of nests with eggs, or of adult birds with flightless young) were known from only three locations, all in the Gulf Plains in Queensland. Two records are from near Normanton town: one of adults with flightless chicks seen about 30 km west of the town<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Gill|first=H.B.|date=1967|title=First record of the Sarus Crane in Australia|journal=The Emu|volume=69|pages=48–52}}</ref> and another of adults incubating eggs seen 7-km south of the town.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cranes of the world|last=Walkinshaw|first=L.H.|publisher=Winchester Press|year=1973|location=New York}}</ref> The third record is a one-month study that provides details of 32 nests located within 10-km around Morr Morr cattle station in the Gilbert River floodplains.<ref name=":0" /> A 3,000-km survey along the Gulf of Carpentaria located 141 territorial, breeding pairs spread out across the floodplains of the Mitchell, Gilbert, and Flinders Rivers.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Sundar|first=K. S. Gopi|last2=Grant|first2=John, D.A.|last3=Veltheim|first3=Inka|last4=Kittur|first4=Swati|last5=Brandis|first5=Kate|last6=McCarthy|first6=Michael A.|last7=Scambler|first7=Elinor|title=Sympatric cranes in northern Australia: abundance, breeding success, habitat preference and diet|journal=Emu - Austral Ornithology|volume=119|pages=79–89|doi=10.1080/01584197.2018.1537673|year=2019}}</ref> Carefully mapping of breeding areas of sarus cranes in Australia is needed to understand their distribution range.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":1" /> They are uncommon in [[Kakadu National Park]], where the species is often hard to find among the more numerous brolgas.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|author=Beruldsen, G.R.|title= Is the Sarus Crane under threat in Australia? |journal=Sunbird: Journal of the Queensland Ornithological Society| volume= 27|issue=3| year= 1997|pages= 72–78}}</ref> Flocks in the non-breeding season are commonly seen in the Atherton Tablelands in eastern Queensland.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Grant|first=John|date=2005|title=Recruitment rates of Sarus Crane (Grus antigone) in northern Queensland|journal=The Emu|volume=105|issue=4|pages=311–315|doi=10.1071/mu05056}}</ref>

In India, sarus cranes preferentially use wetlands<ref name="SundarCondor">{{cite journal|author=Sundar, K.S.G.|year=2009|title= Are rice paddies suboptimal breeding habitat for Sarus Cranes in Uttar Pradesh, India?|journal= The Condor|volume= 111|pages= 611–623|doi=10.1525/cond.2009.080032|issue=4}}</ref> for nesting, but also nest in uncultivated patches amid flooded rice paddies (called ''khet-taavadi'' in Gujarat<ref name=nestsite>{{cite journal|author1=Borad, C.K.|author2=Mukherjee, A.|author3=Parasharya, B.M.|year=2001|title= Nest site selection by the Indian sarus crane in the paddy crop agrosystem|journal= Biological Conservation|volume= 98|issue=1|pages= 89–96|doi=10.1016/s0006-3207(00)00145-2}}</ref>), and in the rice paddies especially when wetlands are not available to breeding pairs.<ref name="SundarCondor" /> Breeding pairs are territorial and prefer to forage in natural wetlands, though wetland crops like rice and wheat are also frequented.<ref name="sarusreview"/><ref name=indiadistr/><ref name=Sundar&Choudhury2006>{{cite journal|author1=Sundar, KSG |author2=Choudhury, BC |year=2006|title= Conservation of the Sarus Crane ''Grus antigone'' in Uttar Pradesh, India|journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.|volume= 103|issue=2–3|pages= 182–190}}</ref> In south-western Uttar Pradesh, sarus cranes were found in wetlands of all sizes with larger numbers in larger wetlands.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Sundar, K.S.G. |author2=Kittur, S. |year=2013|title= Can wetlands maintained for human use also help conserve biodiversity? Landscape-scale patterns of bird use of wetlands in an agriculture landscape in north India|journal= Biological Conservation|volume= 168|issue=1|pages= 49–56|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2013.09.016}}</ref> In Australia, wintering, non-breeding sarus cranes forage in areas with intensive agriculture (primarily maize, sugarcane, groundnuts) and smaller patches of cattle grazing areas in the Atherton Tablelands in eastern Queensland.<ref name=":3" /> They were observed to feed on grain, nuts, and insects from a range of crop fields, including stubble of maize and peanut crops, hay crops, fields with potato, legumes and seed crops, and after harvest in fields of sugarcane, grass, and fodder crops.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Nevard|first=Timothy D.|last2=Leiper|first2=Ian|last3=Archibald|first3=George|last4=Garnett|first4=Stephen T.|title=Farming and cranes on the Atherton Tablelands, Australia|journal=Pacific Conservation Biology|volume=online first|issue=2|pages=184|doi=10.1071/PC18055|year=2018}}</ref> Territorial, breeding sarus crane pairs in northern Queensland along the Gulf of Carpentaria use a range of habitats, but preferentially use low, open woodland on quaternary alluvial plains in outer river deltas and levees with a vegetation of ''[[Lysiphyllum cunninghamii]]'', ''[[Eucalyptus microtheca]]'', ''[[Corymbia confertiflora]]'', ''[[Melaleuca]]'' spp., ''[[Excoecaria parvifolia]]'', ''[[Atalaya hemiglauca]]'', ''[[Grevillea striata]]'', ''[[Eucalyptus leptophleba]]'', [[Corymbia polycarpa|''C. polycarpa'']], [[Corymbia confertiflora|''C. confertiflora'']], and ''[[Corymbia bella|C. bella]]''.<ref name=":7" />

==Taxonomy and systematics==
[[File:SarusFoot.jpg|thumb|left|All cranes have a raised and much reduced hind toe.]]
This species was described by [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]] and placed in the genus ''Ardea'' that included the larger herons.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gmelin, JF|year=1788|title=Systema Naturae|edition=13th|volume=1|page=622| url=https://archive.org/stream/carolilinnsy01linn#page/622/mode/1up/|publisher=Lipsiae : impensis Georg. Emanuel. Beer}}</ref> [[Edward Blyth]] published a [[monograph]] on the cranes in 1881, in which he considered the "sarus crane" of India to be made up of two species, ''Grus collaris'' and ''Grus antigone''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924000102149#page/n71/mode/2up/ |pages=45–51|title= The natural history of the cranes | author= Blyth, Edward | year=1881 | authorlink =Edward Blyth| publisher=R H Porter}}</ref> Most modern authors recognize one species with three disjunct populations that are sometimes treated as subspecies, although the status of one extinct population from the Philippines is uncertain. The sarus cranes in India (referred to as ''A. a. antigone'') are the largest, and in the east from Myanmar is replaced by a population that extends into Southeast Asia (referred to as ''A. a. sharpii''). The sarus cranes from the Indian subcontinent are well marked and differentiated from the south-eastern population by having a white collar below the bare head and upper neck, and white tertiary [[remiges]]. The population in Australia (initially placed in ''A. a. sharpii'' (sometimes spelt ''sharpei'' but amended to conform to the rules of [[Latin grammar]]<ref name=pcr>{{cite book|author1=Rasmussen, PC |author2=JC Anderton |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2005| title= Birds of South Asia: The Ripley Guide|volume=2 |publisher= Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions|pages=138–139}}</ref>) was separated and named as the race ''A. a. gilliae,'' sometimes spelt ''gillae'' or even ''gilli''), prior to a genetic analysis. A 2005 genetic analysis suggested that these three populations are representatives of a formerly continuous population that varied [[cline (biology)|clinally]].<ref name="jones" /> The Australian subspecies was designated only in 1988, with the species itself first noticed in Australia in 1966 and regarded as a recent immigrant.<ref name=":2" /> Native Australians, however, differentiated the sarus and the brolga and called the sarus "the crane that dips its head in blood". Sarus cranes of the Australian population are similar to those in Southeast Asia in having no white on the neck and tertiary remiges, but are distinguished by a larger grey patch of ear coverts. The Australian population shows the most recent divergence from the ancestral form with an estimated 3000 generations of breeding within Australia.<ref name=wood/> An additional subspecies ''A. a. luzonica'' was suggested for the population once found, but now extinct, in the Philippines. No distinctive character is known of this population.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|year=1996|title=The cranes: Status survey and conservation action plan|publisher=IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.|isbn=978-2-8317-0326-8|editor=Meine, Curt D. |editor2=Archibald, George W. |page=126}}</ref>

Analysis of [[mitochondrial DNA]], from a limited number of specimens, suggested that [[gene flow]] occurred within the continental Asian populations until the 20th-century reductions in range, and that Australia was colonized only in the [[Late Pleistocene]], some 35,000 years ago.<ref name=wood>{{cite journal|year=1996|title= Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation among the subspecies of Sarus Crane (''Grus antigone'')|journal=The Auk|volume=113|issue=3|pages=655–663|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v113n03/p0655-p0663.pdf|author1=Wood, T.C. |author2=Krajewsky, C |lastauthoramp=yes |doi=10.2307/4088986|jstor= 4088986}}</ref> This has been corroborated by [[nDNA]] [[Microsatellite (genetics)|microsatellite]] analyses on a large and widely distributed set of individuals in the [[sample size|sample]].<ref name=jones>{{cite journal|last=Jones|first=Kenneth L. |author2=Barzen, Jeb A. |author3=Ashley, Mary V.|year=2005|title= Geographical partitioning of microsatellite variation in the sarus crane|journal=Animal Conservation| volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1017/S1367943004001842}}</ref> This study further suggests that the Australian population shows low genetic variability. As there exists the possibility of (limited) [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] with the genetically distinct brolga, the Australian sarus crane can be expected to be an incipient species.<ref name=jones/>

The sarus crane was formerly placed in the genus ''[[Grus (genus)|Grus]]'', but a [[molecular phylogenetic]] study published in 2010 found that the genus, as then defined, was [[polyphyletic]].<ref>{{ cite journal | last1=Krajewski | first1=C. | last2=Sipiorski | first2=J.T. | last3=Anderson | first3=F.E. | year=2010 | title=Mitochondrial genome sequences and the phylogeny of cranes (Gruiformes: Gruidae) | journal=Auk | volume=127 | issue=2 | pages=440–452 | doi=10.1525/auk.2009.09045 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277486138 }}</ref> In the resulting rearrangement to create [[monophyletic]] genera, four species, including the sarus crane, were placed in the resurrected genus ''[[Antigone (genus)|Antigone]]'' that had originally been erected by the German naturalist [[Ludwig Reichenbach]] in 1853.<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | year=2019 | title=Flufftails, finfoots, rails, trumpeters, cranes, limpkin | work=World Bird List Version 9.2 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/flufftails/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | accessdate=26 June 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | last=Reichenbach | first=Ludwig | author-link=Ludwig Reichenbach | year=1853 | title=Handbuch der speciellen Ornithologie | publisher=Friedrich Hofmeister | place=Leipzig | page=xxiii | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47618653 }}</ref>

===Etymology===
The [[common name]] sarus is from the [[Hindi]] name (''sāras'') for the species. The Hindi word is derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''sarasa'' for the "lake bird", (sometimes corrupted to ''sārhans'').<ref name="sarusreview" /> While Indians held the species in veneration, British soldiers in colonial India hunted the bird, calling it the ''serious''<ref>{{cite book|author=Yule, Henry |title=Hobson-Jobson: A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases, and of kindred terms |editor1=etymological, historical |editor2=geographical |editor3=discursive. New |editor4=William Crooke, B.A.|publisher=J. Murray, London|year=1903|url=http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/hobsonjobson/ |accessdate=9 November 2016}}</ref> or even ''cyrus''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Stocqueler, JH |title=The Oriental Interpreter|publisher=C. Cox, London |year=1848 |url=https://archive.org/stream/theorientalinter00stoc#page/202/mode/2up}}</ref> The generic and [[specific name (zoology)|specific name]]s —after [[Antigone]], the daughter of [[Oedipus]], who hanged herself—may relate to the bare skin of the head and neck.<ref>{{cite book|first=Paul A.|last=Johnsgard|publisher=Indiana University Press, Bloomington|year=1983|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/bioscicranes/26|title=Cranes of the world|journal=Cranes of the World, by Paul Johnsgard|isbn=978-0-253-11255-2|page= 239}}</ref>

== Ecology and behaviour ==
[[File:Saus Crane I IMG 8663.jpg|thumb|left|Foraging in marshland ([[Bharatpur, India|Bharatpur]])]]
Unlike many other cranes that make long [[bird migration|migration]]s, sarus cranes are largely nonmigratory and few populations make relative short-distance migrations. In South Asia, four distinct population-level behaviours have been noted.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=Cranes and Agriculture: A Global Guide for Sharing the Landscape|last=Sundar|first=K. S. Gopi|publisher=International Crane Foundation|year=2018|editor-last=Austin|editor-first=Jane E.|location=https://www.savingcranes.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/cranes_and_agriculture_web_2018.pdf|pages=206–210|chapter=Case study. Sarus Cranes and Indian farmers: an ancient coexistence|editor-last2=Morrison|editor-first2=Kerryn|editor-last3=Harris|editor-first3=James T.}}</ref> The first is the "wintering population" of a small number of sarus cranes that use wetlands in the state of Punjab during winters.<ref name=":9" /> The source of this population is unclear, but is very likely to be from the growing population in Himachal Pradesh. The second is the "expanding population" consisting of cranes appearing in new areas following new irrigation structures in semi-arid and arid areas primarily in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The third is the "seasonally migratory" population, also primarily in the arid zone of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Cranes from this population aggregates in remaining wetlands and reservoirs during the dry summer, and breeding pairs set up territories during the rainy season (July – October) remaining on territories throughout the winter (November – March). The fourth population is "perennially resident" and found in areas such as southwestern Uttar Pradesh, where artificial and natural water sources enable cranes to stay in the same location throughout the year. Migratory populations are also known from Southeast Asia and Australia.<ref name="sarusreview2" /><ref name=":3" /> In Southeast Asia, cranes congregate in few remnant wetlands during the dry season. In Australia, flocks aggregate on the Atherton Highlands, where agriculture is conducive for sarus cranes.
<gallery mode=packed caption="Pair behaviour">
File:Sarus_Dance_02.jpg|Bowing display
File:Sarus_dance_03.jpg|
File:Sarus_Call_04.jpg|Leap
File:Sarus_Call_01.jpg|Unison calling
</gallery>

Breeding pairs maintain territories that are defended from other cranes using a large repertoire of calls and displays. In Uttar Pradesh, less than a tenth of the breeding pairs maintain territories at wetlands while the rest of the pairs are scattered in smaller wetlands and agricultural fields.<ref name="SundarCondor" /><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Sundar, K.S.G. |year=2005|title= Effectiveness of road transects and wetland visits for surveying Black-necked Storks ''Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus'' and Sarus Cranes ''Grus antigone'' in India|journal= Forktail|volume= 21|pages= 27–32}}</ref> Non-breeding birds form flocks that vary from 1–430 birds.<ref name="sarusreview" /><ref>{{cite journal|author=Livesey, TR |year=1937|title=Sarus flocks|journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.|volume= 39|issue=2|pages= 420–421|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47602170}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Sarus congregation in Uttar Pradesh|author1=Prasad, SN |author2=NK Ramachandran |author3=HS Das |author4=DF Singh |lastauthoramp=yes |page=68 | url=https://archive.org/stream/NLBW33_4#page/n9/mode/1up|journal=[[Newsletter for Birdwatchers]] | volume=33| issue=4|year=1993}}</ref> In semi-arid areas, breeding pairs and successfully fledged juveniles depart from territories in the dry season and join non-breeding flocks. In areas with perennial water supply, as in the western plains of Uttar Pradesh, breeding pairs maintain perennial territories.<ref name="SundarCondor" /> The largest known flocks are from the 29 km2 [[Keoladeo National Park]]<ref name="bharatpur">{{cite journal|author1=Ramachandran, N.K. |author2=Vijayan, V.S. |year=1994|title=Distribution and general ecology of the Sarus Crane (''Grus antigone'') in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan|journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.|volume= 91|issue=2|pages= 211–223}}</ref> – with as many as 430 birds, and from unprotected, community-owned wetlands in Etawah, Mainpuri, [[Etah district|Etah]] and [[Kasganj district|Kasganj]] districts in Uttar Pradesh, ranging from 245–412 birds.<ref name="sarusreview" /> Flocks of over 100 birds are also reported from Gujarat in India<ref>{{cite journal|author=Acharya, Hari Narayan G|year=1936|title=Sarus flocks|journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.|volume= 38|issue=4|page=831|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47603227}}</ref> and Australia.<ref name=":3" /> Sarus crane populations in Keoladeo National Park have been noted to drop from over 400 birds in summer to just 20 birds during the [[monsoon]].<ref name="bharatpur" /> In areas with perennial wetlands on the landscape such as in western Uttar Pradesh, numbers of non-breeding sarus cranes in flocks can be relatively stable throughout the year. In Etawah, Mainpuri, [[Etah district|Etah]] and [[Kasganj district|Kasganj]] districts, non-breeding sarus cranes form up to 65% of the regional population.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Sundar, K.S.G. |year=2005|title= Effectiveness of road transects and wetland visits for surveying Black-necked Storks ''Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus'' and Sarus Cranes ''Grus antigone'' in India|url=http://birdingasia.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Sundar-Effectiveness.pdf|journal= Forktail|volume= 21|pages= 27–32}}</ref> Breeding pairs in Australia similarly defend territories from neighbouring crane pairs, and nonbreeding birds are found in flocks frequently mixed with brolgas.<ref name=":7" /> In their breeding grounds in north-eastern Australia, non-breeding sarus cranes constitute less than 25% of the population in some years.

They roost in shallow water, where they may be safe from some ground predators.<ref name="johnsgard" /> Adult birds do not [[moult]] their feathers annually but feathers are replaced about once every two to three years.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Hartert, Ernst |author2=F Young |lastauthoramp=yes |year=1928|title=Some observations on a pair of Sarus Cranes at Tring|journal=Novitates Zoologicae |volume=34|pages=75–76|url=https://archive.org/stream/novitateszoologi34lond#page/74/mode/2up}}</ref>

=== Feeding ===
[[File:Sarus crane (Grus antigone antigone) feeding juvenile Lumbini.jpg|thumb|feeding juvenile, [[Lumbini]], [[Nepal]]]]
Sarus cranes forage in shallow water (usually with less than {{convert|30|cm|ft|abbr=on}} depth of water) or in fields, frequently probing in mud with their long bills. In the dry season (after breeding), sarus cranes in Anlung Pring Sarus Crane Conservation Area, Cambodia, used wetlands with 8–10 cm of water.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Yav|first=Net|last2=Parrott|first2=Marissa|last3=Seng|first3=Kimhout|last4=Zalinge|first4=Robert van|date=2015|title=Foraging preferences of eastern Sarus Crane Antigone antigone sharpii in Cambodia|journal=Cambodian Journal of Natural History|volume=2015|pages=165.171}}</ref> They are [[omnivore|omnivorous]], eating insects (especially grasshoppers), aquatic plants, fish (perhaps only in captivity<ref>{{cite journal|author=Law, SC|year=1930|title=Fish-eating habit of the Sarus Crane (''Antigone antigone'')|journal=J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.|volume=34|issue=2|pages=582–583| url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48296091}}</ref>), frogs, crustaceans, and seeds.<ref name=sarusreview/> Occasionally tackling larger vertebrate prey such as water snakes (''[[Fowlea piscator]]''),<ref name=johnsgard/> sarus cranes may in rare cases feed on the eggs of birds<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Sundar, K.S.G.|year=2000|title=Eggs in the diet of the Sarus Crane ''Grus antigone'' (Linn.)|journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume= 97|issue=3|pages=428–429|url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48567872}}</ref> and turtles.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Chauhan, R |author2= Andrews, Harry |year=2006|title= Black-necked Stork ''Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus'' and Sarus Crane ''Grus antigone'' depredating eggs of the three-striped roofed turtle ''Kachuga dhongoka''|url=http://orientalbirdclub.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Chauhan-BlackneckedStork.pdf|journal= Forktail |volume= 22|pages=174–175}}</ref> Plant matter eaten includes tubers, corms of aquatic plants, grass shoots as well as seeds and grains from cultivated crops such as [[Peanut|groundnut]]s and cereal crops such as rice.<ref name=johnsgard/> In the dry season, cranes flocking in Southeast Asian wetlands are in areas with an abundance of ''Eleocharis dulcis'' and ''E. spiralis'', both of which produce tubers on whicn the cranes are known to feed.<ref name=":5" /> In their breeding grounds in north-eastern Australia, isotopic analyses on molted feathers revealed sarus crane diets to comprise a great diversity of vegetation, and restricted to a narrow range of trophic levels.<ref name=":7" />

=== Courtship and breeding ===
[[File:SarusTrachea.jpg|thumb|The long, coiled trachea that produces the trumpeting calls]]
Sarus cranes have loud, trumpeting calls. These calls are, as in other cranes, produced by the elongated [[Vertebrate trachea|trachea]] that form coils within the sternal region.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Fitch, WT|year=1999|title=Acoustic exaggeration of size in birds via tracheal elongation: comparative and theoretical analyses|journal=J. Zool. Lond.|volume=248|pages=31–48|url=http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~wtsf/downloads/Fitch1999Trachea.pdf|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1999.tb01020.x|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605221541/http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~wtsf/downloads/Fitch1999Trachea.pdf|archivedate=5 June 2011}}</ref> Pairs may indulge in spectacular displays of calling in unison and posturing. These include "dancing" movements that are performed both during and outside the breeding season and involve a short series of jumping and bowing movements made as one of the pair circles around the other.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.|volume=99|issue=1|year=2002| pages=108–113|title=Observations on the mating behaviour of the Indian Sarus Crane ''Grus antigone'' in the wild|author=Mukherjee, A|url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48603998}}</ref> Dancing may also be a [[displacement activity]], when the nest or young is threatened.<ref name=johnsgard/> The cranes breed mainly during the monsoons in India (from July to October, although a second brood may occur),<ref name=bharatpur /> and breeding has been recorded in all the months.<ref name="sarusreview"/> They build large nests, platforms made of reeds and vegetation in wet marshes or paddy fields.<ref name=nestsite /> The nest is constructed within shallow water by piling up rushes, straw, grasses with their roots, and mud so that the platform rises above the level of the water to form a little island. The nest is unconcealed and conspicuous, being visible from afar, and defended fiercely by the pair.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/popularhandbooko033226mbp#page/n495/mode/2up|pages=446–447|author=Whistler, Hugh |year=1949|title= Popular Handbook of Indian Birds|edition= 4th|publisher=Gurney and Jackson, London}}</ref>

Data collated over a century from South Asia show sarus cranes nesting throughout the year.<ref name="sarusreview" /> More focused observations, however, show nesting patterns to be closely tied to rainfall patterns.<ref name="SundarCondor" /><ref name="nestsite" /> An exception to this rule was the unseasonal nesting observed in the artificially flooded Keoladeo-Ghana National Park,<ref name="bharatpur" /> and in marshes created by irrigation canals in Kota district of Rajasthan, India.<ref name="KaurOryx" /> Based on these observations, unseasonal nesting (or nesting outside of the monsoon) of sarus cranes were thought to be due to either the presence of two populations, some pairs raising a second brood, and unsuccessful breeding by some pairs in the normal monsoon season, prompting them to nest again when conditions such as flooded marshes remain. A comprehensive assessment of unseasonal nesting based on collation of over 5,000 breeding records, however, showed that unseasonal nesting by sarus cranes in south Asia was very rare and was only carried out by pairs that did not succeed in raising chicks in the normal nesting season.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sundar|first=K.S. Gopi|last2=Yaseen|first2=Mohammed|last3=Kathju|first3=Kandarp|date=2018|title=The role of artificial habitats and rainfall patterns in the unseasonal nesting of Sarus Cranes (Antigone antigone) in South Asia.|journal=Waterbirds|volume=41 |issue=1|pages=81–86|doi=10.1675/063.041.0111}}</ref> Unseasonal nests were initiated in years with unusual rainfall patterns, when rainfall extended beyond the normal June–October period, and when rainfall volume was higher than normal; or when artificial wet habitats were created by man-made structures such as reservoirs and irrigation canals to enhance crop production.<ref name=":4" /> Nest initiation in northern Queensland is also closely tied to rainfall patterns, with most nests being initiated immediately after the first major rains.<ref name=":7" /> [[File:Grus antigone MHNT 226 Australie.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Egg, [[Muséum de Toulouse]]]]

The nests can be more than 2 m (6 ft) in diameter and nearly 1 m (3 ft) high.<ref name=walkinshaw>{{cite journal|author=Walkinshaw, Lawrence H.|year=1947|title=Some nesting records of the sarus crane in North American zoological parks|journal=The Auk|volume=64|issue=4|pages=602–615|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v064n04/p0602-p0615.pdf|doi=10.2307/4080719|jstor=4080719}}</ref> Pairs show high fidelity to the nest site, often refurbishing and reusing a nest for as many as five breeding seasons.<ref name="zoosprint.org">{{cite journal|date=December 2000|volume=15|issue=12|pages=375–385|title=Nest and eggs of Sarus Crane (''Grus antigone antigone'' Linn.)|journal=Zoos' Print Journal|author1=Mukherjee, A|author2=Soni, V.C.|author3=Parasharya, C.K. Borad B.M.|doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.15.12.375-85}}</ref> The [[Clutch (eggs)|clutch]] is one or two eggs (rarely three<ref name=SundarCondor/><ref>{{cite journal|title=Clutch size of sarus crane ''Grus antigone'' in the Northern Plains of Cambodia and incidence of clutches with three eggs|author1=Handschuh, Markus |author2=Vann Rours |author3=Hugo Rainey |lastauthoramp=yes | journal= Cambodian Journal of Natural History |year=2010 |volume=2|pages=103–105|url=http://www.fauna-flora.org/wp-content/uploads/CJNH-2010-December-2010-FINAL-low-res.pdf}}</ref> or four<ref name="Sundar, KSG & BC Choudhury 2005 179–181">{{cite journal|year=2005|pages=179–181|title=Effect of incubating adult sex and clutch size on egg orientation in Sarus Cranes ''Grus antigone''|journal=Forktail|volume=21|url=http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/21pdf/Sundar-Sarus.pdf|author1=Sundar, KSG|author2=Choudhury, BC|lastauthoramp=yes|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011024312/http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/21pdf/Sundar-Sarus.pdf|archivedate=11 October 2008}}</ref>) which are incubated by both sexes<ref name="Sundar, KSG & BC Choudhury 2005 179–181"/> for about 31 days ([[Range (statistics)|range]] 26–35 days<ref name="SundarCondor"/><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v103n01/p0125-p0134.pdf | title= Growth rates of cranes reared in captivity|jstor=4086970| author=Ricklefs RE| author2=Bruning, DF| author3=Archibald, G W| last-author-amp=yes | journal=The Auk| volume=103| issue=1| pages=125–134| year= 1986| doi= 10.1093/auk/103.1.125}}</ref>). Eggs are chalky white and weigh about 240 grams.<ref name=johnsgard/> When disturbed from the nest, parents may sometimes attempt to conceal the eggs by attempting to cover them with material from the edge of the nest.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Observations of unusual clutch size, renesting and egg concealment by Sarus Cranes ''Grus antigone'' in Gujarat, India |author= Kathju, K |journal= Forktail |volume= 23 |year= 2007 |pages= 165–167 |url= http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/23pdfs/Kathju-SarusCrane.pdf |url-status= dead |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20120311215201/http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/23pdfs/Kathju-SarusCrane.pdf |archivedate= 11 March 2012 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> The eggshells are removed by the parents after the chicks hatch either by carrying away the fragments or by swallowing them.<ref name=nestsan>{{cite journal|title=Nest sanitation in Sarus Cranes ''Grus antigone'' in Uttar Pradesh, India|year=2003|journal=Forktail|volume=19|url=http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/19pdfs/Sundar-Sarus.pdf|pages=144–146|author1=Sundar, K.S.G.|author2=Choudhury, B.C.|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011234942/http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/19pdfs/Sundar-Sarus.pdf|archivedate=11 October 2008}}</ref> About 30% of all breeding pairs succeed in raising chicks in any year, and most of the successful pairs raise one or two chicks each, with brood sizes of three being rare.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sundar, KSG |year=2006|title= Instances of successful raising of three chicks by Sarus Crane ''Grus antigone'' pairs|url=http://birdingasia.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Sundar-SarusCrane.pdf|journal= Forktail|volume= 22|pages= 124–125}}</ref><ref name="SundarBiolCons">{{cite journal|author=Sundar, K.S.G. |year=2011|title= Agricultural intensification, rainfall patterns, and breeding success of large waterbirds breeding success in the extensively cultivated landscape of Uttar Pradesh, India|journal= Biological Conservation|volume= 144|pages= 3055–3063|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2011.09.012|issue=12}}</ref> One survey in Australia found 60% of breeding pairs to have successfully fledged chicks.<ref name=":7" /> This high success rate is attributed to above-normal rainfall that year. The chicks are fed by the parents for the first few days, but are able to feed independently after that and follow their parents for food.<ref>{{Cite journal |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48180512 |pages=130–131 |title= Breeding of the sarus crane [Antigone a. antigone (Linn.)] in captivity| author=Lahiri, R.K.| journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=53| year=1955}}</ref> When alarmed, the parent cranes use a low ''korr-rr'' call that signals chicks to freeze and lie still.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ali, S|year=1957|title=Notes on the Sarus Crane|journal=J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.|volume=55|issue=1|pages=166–168}}</ref> Young birds stay with their parents until the subsequent breeding season.<ref name="SundarCondor"/> In captivity, birds breed only after their fifth year.<ref name=johnsgard/> The sarus crane is widely believed to pair for life, but cases of "divorce" and mate replacement have been recorded.<ref name=pair>{{cite journal|title=Observations of mate change and other aspects of pair-bond in the Sarus Crane ''Grus antigone''|author=Sundar, K.S.G.|year=2005|journal=J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. | volume=102| issue=1|pages=109–112|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48378792}}</ref>

=== Mortality factors ===
[[File:Saras Cranes with a chick.jpg|thumb | upright |A pair with young in [[Blackbuck National Park, Velavadar|Velavadar]]]]
Eggs are often destroyed at the nest by [[Jungle crow|jungle]] (''Corvus macrorhynchos'') and [[house crow]]s (''C. splendens'') in India.<ref name=nestsan/> In Australia, suspected [[predation|predators]] of young birds include the [[dingo]] (''Canis dingo'') and fox (''Vulpes vulpes''), while [[brahminy kite]]s (''Haliastur indus'') have been known to take eggs.<ref name=johnsgard/> Removal of eggs by farmers (to reduce crop damage) or children (in play),<ref name="SundarCondor"/> or by migrant labourers for food<ref name=KaurOryx>{{cite journal| title=Conservation of the vulnerable Sarus Crane ''Grus antigone antigone'' in Kota, Rajasthan, India: a case study of community involvement| author1=Kaur, J. | author2=Choudhury, B.C.| journal=Oryx| year=2008| volume=42| issue=3| pages=452–455 | doi=10.1017/S0030605308000215| last3=Choudhury| first3=B.C.| doi-access=free}}</ref> or opportunistic egg collection during trips to collect forest resources<ref name=Clements2012>{{cite journal| title=An evaluation of the effectiveness of a direct payment for biodiversity conservation: The Bird Nest Protection Program in the Northern plains of Cambodia|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2012.07.020|author1=Clements, T. |author2=Rainey, H. |author3=An, D. |author4=Rours, V. |author5=Tan, S. |author6=Thong, S. |author7=Sutherland, W. J. |author8=Milner-Gulland, E. J. |lastauthoramp=yes |journal=Biological Conservation| year=2012| volume=157| pages=50–59}}</ref> are prominent causes of egg mortality. Between 31 and 100% of nests with eggs can fail to hatch eggs for these reasons. Chicks are also prone to predation (estimated at about 8%) and collection at the nest, but more than 30% die of unknown reasons.<ref name="SundarCondor"/><ref name=Clements2012/><ref name=breedperf>{{cite journal|journal=Biological Conservation |volume=105|issue=2|year=2002|pages=263–269 |title=Breeding performance of the Indian sarus crane in the agricultural landscape of western India|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(01)00186-0 |author1=Mukherjee, A |author2=C. K. Borad |author3=B. M. Parasharya |lastauthoramp=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| title=Predation by Marsh Harrier ''Circus aeruginosus'' on chick of Sarus Crane ''Grus antigone antigone'' in Kota, Rajasthan|author1=Kaur J |author2=Choudhury, BC |lastauthoramp=yes |journal=J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.| year=2005| volume=102| issue=1| page=102|url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48378785}}</ref>

Breeding success (percentage of eggs hatching and surviving to fledging stage) has been estimated at about 20% in Gujarat<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |title=Breeding performance of Indian Sarus Crane ''Grus antigone'' antigone in the paddy crop agroecosystem|volume=11|issue=5 |pages= 795–805|year=2002|doi=10.1023/A:1015367406200|author1=Borad, CK|author2=Mukherjee, Aeshita|author3=Parasharya, BM|author4=S.B. Patel|last-author-amp=yes}}</ref> and 51–58% in south-western Uttar Pradesh.<ref name="SundarCondor" /> In areas where farmers are tolerant, nests in flooded rice fields and those in wetlands have similar rates of survival.<ref name="SundarCondor" /> Pairs that nest later in the season have a lower chance of raising chicks successfully, but this improves when territories have more wetlands.<ref name="SundarCondor" /> Nest success (percentage of nests in which at least one egg hatched) for 96 sarus nests that were protected by locals during 2009–2011 via a payment-for-conservation program was 87%.<ref name="Clements2012" /> More pairs are able to raise chicks in years with higher total rainfall, and when territory quality was undisturbed due to increased farming or development. Permanent removal of pairs from the population due to developmental activities caused reduced population viability, and was a far more important factor impacting breeding success relative to total annual rainfall.<ref name="SundarBiolCons" />

Breeding success in Australia has been estimated by counting the proportion of young-of-the-year in wintering flocks in the crop fields of Atherton Tablelands in north-eastern Queensland.<ref name=":3" /> Young birds constituted 5.32% to 7.36% of the wintering population between 1997 and 2002. It is not known if this variation represents annual differences in conditions in the breeding areas or if it included biases such as different proportions of breeding pairs traveling to Atherton to over-winter. It is also not known how these proportions equate to more standard metrics of breeding success such as proportions of breeding pairs succeeding in raising young birds. One multi-floodplain survey in Australia found 60% of all breeding pairs to have raised at least one chick, with 34% of successful pairs fledging two chicks each.<ref name=":7" /> Breeding success, and proportions of pairs that raised two chicks each, was similar in each floodplain.[[File:Sarus Age.svg|thumb|left|Age and plumage changes]]Little is known about the diseases and parasites of the sarus crane, and their effects on wild bird populations. A study conducted at the [[Bioparco (Rome)|Rome zoo]] noted that these birds were resistant to [[anthrax]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ambrosioni P, Cremisini ZE|lastauthoramp=yes |year=1948 | title= Epizoozia de carbonchi ematico negli animali del giardino zoologico di Roma| journal=Clin. Vet. | volume=71 | pages=143–151|language=Italian}}</ref> Endoparasites that have been described include a [[trematode]], ''Opisthorhis dendriticus'' from the liver of a captive crane at the London zoo<ref>{{cite journal|year=1939| pages=111–200 | title= Studies in Helminthology-Trematode parasites of birds| author=Lal, Makund Behari| volume=10 | url=https://archive.org/stream/proceedingsofthe020220mbp#page/n149/mode/2up/search/Antigone| journal= Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section B|issue=2}}</ref> and a [[Cyclocoelidae|Cyclocoelid]] (''Allopyge antigones'') from an Australian bird.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Johnston, SJ |year=1913 | title= On some Queensland trematodes, with anatomical observations and descriptions of new species and genera|url=http://jcs.biologists.org/content/s2-59/235/361.full.pdf| journal= Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science | volume=59| pages=361–400}}</ref> Like most birds, they have [[bird lice]] and the species recorded include ''Heleonomus laveryi'' and ''Esthiopterum indicum''.<ref>{{cite journal| title= The genus ''Esthiopterum'' (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera)| author=Tandan, BK| journal= Journal of Entomology Series B, Taxonomy| volume=42| issue=1| pages=85–101| url=http://www.phthiraptera.org/Publications/0456.pdf| doi=10.1111/j.1365-3113.1973.tb00059.x| year=2009}}</ref>

In captivity, sarus cranes have been known to live for as long as 42 years.<ref group=note>Flower (1938) notes only 26 years in captivity</ref><ref>{{cite journal| author=Flower, M.S.S. |year=1938| title= The duration of life in animals – IV. Birds: special notes by orders and families|journal=Proc. Zool. Soc. London|pages=195–235}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Ricklefs, R. E.|year=2000|title=Intrinsic aging-related mortality in birds|journal=J. Avian Biol.|volume=31|pages=103–111|url=http://www.umsl.edu/~ricklefsr/Reprints/R2000.pdf|doi=10.1034/j.1600-048X.2000.210201.x|issue=2}}</ref> Premature adult mortality is often the result of human actions. Accidental poisoning by [[monocrotophos]], [[chlorpyrifos]] and [[dieldrin]]-treated seeds used in agricultural areas has been noted.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Pain, D.J.|author2=Gargi, R.|author3=Cunningham, A.A.|author4=Jones, A.|author5=Prakash, V. |year=2004 |title=Mortality of globally threatened Sarus cranes ''Grus antigone'' from monocrotophos poisoning in India| journal= Science of the Total Environment |volume=326| issue=1–3|pages=55–61|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2003.12.004|pmid=15142765|bibcode=2004ScTEn.326...55P}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| author=Muralidharan, S. |year=1993 |title=Aldrin poisoning of Sarus cranes (''Grus antigone'') and a few granivorous birds in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, India| journal= Ecotoxicology |volume=2 |issue=3|pages=196–202| doi=10.1007/BF00116424|pmid=24201581 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Unusually high mortality of cranes in areas adjoining Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan|journal=J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.|page=317|volume=101| issue=2|year=2004|last1=Rana|first1=Gargi|last2=Prakash|first2=Vibhu|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48568245}}</ref> Adults have been known to fly into power lines and die of electrocution, this is responsible for killing about 1% of the local population each year.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2005|title= Mortality of sarus cranes (''Grus antigone'') due to electricity wires in Uttar Pradesh, India|journal= Environmental Conservation |volume= 32|pages= 260–269|doi=10.1017/S0376892905002341|author1=Sundar, KSG |author2=BC Choudhury |lastauthoramp=yes |issue=3}}</ref>

== Conservation status ==
[[File:Sarus cranes (Grus antigone).jpg|thumb|left|Two adults with a subadult in the middle]]
There were about an estimated 15–20,000 mature sarus cranes left in the wild in 2009.<ref name=IUCN/> The Indian population is less than 10,000, but of the three subspecies, is the healthiest in terms of numbers. They are considered sacred and the birds are traditionally left unharmed,<ref name=KaurOryx/> and in many areas they are unafraid of humans. They used to be found on occasion in [[Pakistan]], but have not been seen there since the late 1980s. The population in India has however declined.<ref name=IUCN/> Estimates of the global population suggest that the population in 2000 was at best about 10% and at the worst just 2.5% of the numbers that existed in 1850.<ref name=tba2001>{{cite book|author=BirdLife International|year=2001|title=Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. |publisher=BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK|url=http://birdbase.hokkaido-ies.go.jp/rdb/rdb_en/grusanti.pdf|isbn=978-0-946888-42-9}}</ref> Many farmers in India believe that these cranes damage standing crops,<ref name=indiadistr /> particularly rice, although studies show that direct feeding on rice grains resulted in losses amounting to less than one percent and trampling could account for grain loss of about {{convert|0.4|-|15|kg|lb}}.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Borad, C.K.|author2=Mukherjee, A.|author3=Parasharya, B.M.|year=2001|title=Damage potential of Indian sarus crane in paddy crop agroecosystem in Kheda district Gujarat, India|journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment| volume = 86|issue=2|pages=211–215|doi=10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00275-9}}</ref> The attitude of farmers tends to be positive in spite of these damages, and this has helped in conserving the species within agricultural areas.<ref name="SundarBiolCons"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Donald, C.H. |title=In nature's garden |publisher=John Lane|place=London|year=1922 |url=https://archive.org/stream/innaturesgarden00donaiala#page/198/mode/2up|pages=199–208}}</ref> The role of rice paddies and associated irrigation structures may be particularly important for the birds' conservation, since natural wetlands are increasingly threatened by human activity.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name="SundarCondor"/> The conversion of wetlands to farmland, and farmland to more urban uses are major causes for habitat loss and long-term population decline.<ref name="SundarBiolCons"/> Compensating farmers for crop losses has been suggested as a measure that may help, but needs to be implemented judiciously so as not to corrupt and remove existing local traditions of tolerance.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=breedperf/> Farmers in sarus crane wintering areas in Australia are beginning to use efficient methods to harvest crops, which may lead to lowered food availability. Farmers are also transitioning from field crops to perennial and tree crops that have higher returns. This may reduce available foraging habitat for cranes, and may increase conflict with farmers in the remaining, few crop fields.<ref name=":6" />

A review of literature and assessment of abundance of Sarus Cranes in Nepal suggests that past field methods were either inadequate or incomplete to properly estimate abundances, and that the population of cranes in Nepal may be on the increase.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Katuwal|first=Hem Bahadur|date=2016|title=Sarus cranes in lowlands of Nepal: Is it declining really?|journal=Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity|volume=9 |issue=3|pages=259–262|doi=10.1016/j.japb.2016.06.003|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Australian population is greater than 5,000 birds and may be increasing,<ref name="jones" /> however, the Southeast Asian population has been decimated by war and habitat change (such as intensive agriculture, deforestation, and draining of wetlands), and by the mid-20th century, had disappeared from large parts of its range which once stretched up to southern China. Some 1500–2000 birds are left in several fragmented [[subpopulation]]s, though recent surveys in Myanmar have discovered previously-unknown breeding populations in several locations.<ref name=":10" />

Payment to locals to guard nests and help increase breeding success has been attempted in northern Cambodia. Nest success of protected nests was significantly higher than that of unprotected nests, and positive population-level impacts were apparent.<ref name="Clements2012" /> However, the program also caused local jealousies leading to deliberate disturbance of nests, and did nothing to alleviate larger-scale and more permanent threats due to habitat losses leading to the conclusion that such payment-for-conservation programs are at best a short-term complement, and not a substitute, to more permanent interventions that include habitat preservation.<ref name="Clements2012" /> The little-known Philippine population became extinct in the late-<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hutasingh |first1=Onnucha |title=Thai cranes make comeback |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/1749904/thai-cranes-make-comeback |accessdate=14 September 2019 |work=Bangkok Post |date=14 September 2019}}</ref> 1960s.<ref name="IUCN" />

The sarus crane is classified as [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]] on the [[IUCN Red List]].<ref name=IUCN/> Threats include habitat destruction and/or degradation, hunting and collecting, as well as environmental pollution and possibly diseases or competing species. The effects of [[inbreeding]] in the Australian population, once thought to be a significant threat due to hybridization with brolgas producing hybrid birds called "sarolgas", is now confirmed to be minimal suggesting that it is not a major threat.<ref name=":10" /> New plans for developing the floodplain areas of northern Queensland may have detrimental impacts on breeding sarus crane populations, and require to incorporate the needs of cranes via conservation of a diversity of habitats that are currently found in the region.<ref name=":7" />

The species has been extirpated in Malaysia and the Philippines. [[Reintroduction]] programs in Thailand have made use of birds from Cambodia.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} {{asof|2019}}, attempts to reintroduce the birds to eastern Thailand have shown some promise.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hutasingh |first1=Onnucha |title=Thai cranes make a comeback |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/1749904/thai-cranes-make-comeback |accessdate=14 September 2019 |work=Bangkok Post |date=14 September 2019}}</ref>

== In culture ==
[[File:Melchior de Hondecoeter Birds in a Park 1680.jpg|thumb|left|''[[The Floating Feather]]'' : a painting by [[Melchior d'Hondecoeter]] ({{circa}}1680) of the birds in the menagerie of [[William III of England]] at the [[Het Loo Palace]] showing a sarus crane in the background.]]
The species is venerated in India and legend has it that the poet [[Valmiki]] cursed a hunter for killing a sarus crane and was then inspired to write the epic [[Ramayana]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Leslie|first=J.|year=1998|title=A bird bereaved: The identity and significance of Valmiki's kraunca|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|volume=26|issue=5|pages=455–487|doi=10.1023/A:1004335910775}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hammer|first=Niels|year=2009|title= Why Sārus Cranes epitomize Karuṇarasa in the Rāmāyaṇa|journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland]] | series = (Third Series)|volume= 19|pages=187–211|doi=10.1017/S1356186308009334|issue=2}}</ref> The species was a close contender to the [[Indian peafowl]] as the national bird of India.<ref name=Sundar&Choudhury2006/> Among the [[Gondi people]], the tribes classified as "five-god worshippers" consider the sarus crane as sacred.<ref>{{cite book|page =66 | url=https://archive.org/stream/tribescastesofce03russ#page/66/mode/2up/search/crane | author=Russell, RV | title=The tribes and castes of the Central Provinces of India. Volume 3|year=1916| publisher= Macmillan and Co., London}}</ref> The meat of the sarus was considered [[taboo]] in ancient Hindu scriptures.<ref>{{cite journal| url=https://archive.org/stream/sacredlawsofarya00buhliala#page/n129/mode/2up/search/crane| page= 64| author=Bühler, Georg| title=The sacred laws of the Aryas. Part 1 and 2| year=1898| publisher= The Christian Literature Company, New York}}</ref> It is widely believed that the sarus pairs for life and that death of one partner leads to the other pining to death.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kipling, John Lockwood|title=Beast and Man in India|publisher=Macmillan and Co.|place=London|page=37|url=https://archive.org/stream/beastmaninindiap00kipliala#page/36/mode/2up|year=1904}}</ref> They are a symbol of marital virtue and in parts of Gujarat, it is a custom to take a newly wed couple to see a pair of sarus cranes.<ref name="sarusreview"/>
[[File:SarusCraneSeligmann.jpg|thumb|A plate by [[Johann Michael Seligmann]] published between 1749 and 1776 based on a work by [[George Edwards (naturalist)|George Edwards]]]]
Although venerated and protected by Indians, these birds were hunted during the colonial period. It was noted that killing a bird would lead to its surviving partner trumpeting for many days and it was traditionally believed that the other would starve to death. Even sport hunting guides discouraged shooting these birds.<ref>{{cite book|pages=117–120 | url= https://archive.org/stream/indiansportingbi00finn#page/117/mode/1up/search/Sarus | title= Indian sporting birds| author=Finn, F |authorlink=Frank Finn| year=1915| publisher= Francis Edwards, London}}</ref> According to 19th-century British zoologist [[Thomas C. Jerdon]], young birds were good to eat, while older ones were "worthless for the table".<ref>{{cite book|author=Jerdon, TC |title=Birds of India| volume=3|publisher=George Wyman & Co, Calcutta|year=1864|url=https://archive.org/stream/birdsofindiabein03jerd#page/662/mode/2up}}</ref> Eggs of the sarus crane are however used in [[Folk medicine|folk remedies]] in some parts of India.<ref name="sarusreview"/><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Kaur, J |author2=Choudhury, BC |lastauthoramp=yes |url=http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/dec102003/1515a.pdf| title=Stealing of Sarus crane eggs| journal=Current Science|volume=85| issue=11| year=2003| pages=1515–1516}}</ref>

Young birds were often captured and kept in [[menagerie]]s both in India and in Europe in former times. They were also successfully bred in captivity early in the 17th century by Emperor Jehangir<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ali, S|year=1927|title= The Moghul emperors of India as naturalists and sportsmen. Part 2|journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume=32|issue=1|pages=34–63|url=https://archive.org/stream/journalofbomb32121927bomb#page/57/mode/1up}}</ref> who also noted that the eggs were laid with an interval of two days and that incubation period was 34 days.<ref name="johnsgard" /> They were also bred in zoos in Europe and the United States in the early 1930s.<ref name=walkinshaw/><ref>{{cite journal|author=Rothschild D|year=1930|title=Sarus crane breeding at Tring|journal=Bull. Brit. Orn. Club|volume=50|pages=57–68}}</ref>
{{quote|... The young birds are easily reared by hand, and become very tame and attached to the person who feeds them, following him like a dog. They are very amusing birds, going through the most grotesque dances and antics, and are well worth keeping in captivity. One which I kept, when bread and milk was given to him, would take the bread out of the milk, and wash it in his pan of water before eating it. This bird, which was taken out of the King's palace at Lucknow, was very fierce towards strangers and dogs, especially if they were afraid of him. He was very noisy—the only bad habit he possessed|[[Leonard Howard Loyd Irby|Irby]], 1861<ref>{{cite journal|author=Irby, LH |year=1861| title= Notes on birds observed in Oudh and Kumaon|journal= Ibis |volume=3| issue=2| pages=217–251| url = https://archive.org/stream/ibis03brit#page/242/mode/2up/search/antigone|doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1861.tb07456.x}}</ref>}}

The Indian state of [[Uttar Pradesh]] has declared the sarus crane as its official state bird.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://knowindia.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=16#up|title=States and Union Territories Symbols|publisher=Government of India|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112080035/http://knowindia.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=16#up|archivedate=12 November 2013}}</ref> An Indian 14-seater propeller aircraft, the [[NAL Saras|Saras]], is named after this crane.<ref>{{cite journal|title=India works to overcome Saras design glitches|author=Norris, Guy| journal=Flight International| volume=168|issue=5006|pages=28|year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=After IAF, Indian Posts shows interest for NAL Saras |author=Mishra, Bibhu Ranjan |newspaper=Business Standard |date= 16 November 2009|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/after-iaf-indian-posts-shows-interest-for-nal-saras/12/47/376711/ |accessdate=13 January 2010}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|35em}}

==Other sources==
* [[Peter Matthiessen|Matthiessen, Peter]] & Bateman, Robert (2001). ''The Birds of Heaven: Travels with Cranes''. North Point Press, New York. {{ISBN|0-374-19944-2}}
* {{cite journal|first=Martin L.|last= Weitzman |year=1993|title=What to preserve? An application of diversity theory to crane conservation|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=108|issue=1|pages=157–183|doi=10.2307/2118499|issn=0033-5533|jstor=2118499}}
*{{cite journal|author1=Haigh, J. C. |author2=Holt, P. E. |lastauthoramp=yes |year=1976|title= The use of the anaesthetic "CT1341" in a Sarus crane|journal=Can Vet J|volume=17|issue=11|pages= 291–292|pmc=1697384|pmid=974983}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Duan, W. |author2=Fuerst, P. A. |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2001|title= Isolation of a sex-Linked DNA sequence in cranes|journal=J. Hered.|volume=92|issue=5|pages= 392–397|doi=10.1093/jhered/92.5.392|pmid=11773245|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|author=Menon, G. K.|author2=R. V. Shah|author3=M. B. Jani|last-author-amp=yes |year=1980|title= Observations on integumentary modifications and feathering on head and neck of the Sarus Crane, ''Grus antigone antigone''|journal=Pavo|volume=18|pages= 10–16}}
* {{cite journal|author=Sundar, K. S. G. |year=2006|title= Flock size, density and habitat selection of four large waterbirds species in an agricultural landscape in Uttar Pradesh, India: implications for management|journal=Waterbirds|volume=29|issue=3|pages= 365–374|doi=10.1675/1524-4695(2006)29[365:fsdahs]2.0.co;2}}


== External links ==
{{Commons|Grus antigone}}
{{Wikispecies|Grus antigone}}
* International Crane Foundation: [https://web.archive.org/web/20051025162221/http://www.savingcranes.org/species/sarus.cfm Sarus Crane, ''Grus antigone'']. Retrieved 2007-FEB-22.
* [[USGS]] Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center: [https://web.archive.org/web/20050824212045/http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/distr/birds/cranes/grusanti.htm The Cranes Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Sarus Crane (''Grus antigone'')]. Retrieved 2007-FEB-22.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090503081955/http://www.savingcranes.org/saruscrane.html Sarus Crane (International Crane Foundation)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110603233228/http://www.savingcranes.org/dissertationstheses.html International Crane Foundation (literature)]
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/bioscicranes/26/ Sarus Crane (''Grus antigone'')] from ''Cranes of the World'' (1983) by Paul Johnsgard
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090717012020/http://www.arkive.org/sarus-crane/grus-antigone/info.html Arkive]

{{Birds}}
{{Gruidae|state=all}}
{{Portal bar|Birds}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q333166}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Antigone (genus)]]
[[Category:Birds of Cambodia]]
[[Category:Birds of Myanmar]]
[[Category:Birds of South Asia]]
[[Category:Birds of Queensland]]
[[Category:Fauna of South Asia]]
[[Category:Vulnerable fauna of Australia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1758]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Symbols of Uttar Pradesh]]

List of environmental dates

2020-04-23T02:01:21Z

118.46.55.151: /* Days */

{{short description|Wikipedia list article}}
{{Refimprove|date=July 2014}}

This is a '''list of environmental dates'''. These dates are designated for creating awareness of [[environmental issue]]s.

==Hours==
*[[Earth Hour]] - 8:30pm (local time), 28 March 2020<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.earthhour.org/|title=Homepage|date=2 February 2018|website=Earth Hour}}</ref>

==Days==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| International Zebra Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Zebra Day (January 31st)|url=https://www.asiaforanimals.com/news/post/international-zebra-day-january-31st|publisher=Asia for Animals Coalition|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wildlife Wednesday: Celebrate International Zebra Day|URL=https://disneyparks.disney.go.com/blog/2017/01/wildlife-wednesday-celebrate-international-zebra-day/|publisher=Disney Parks|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Earn Your Stripes! It’s International Zebra Day!|URL=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-zebra-day|publisher=Safari Ltd|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 01-31: January 31
|-
| [[World Wetlands Day]] || 02-02: February 2
|-
| World Pangolin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day - WORLD PANGOLIN DAY|url=https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|publisher=Pangolins.org|accessdate=16 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526113907/https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|archive-date=26 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day 2019|url=https://www.wildlifealliance.org/world-pangolin-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Alliance|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || Third Saturday of February
|-
| World Bonobo Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Valentine's Day Is also World Bonobo Day; Here's Why|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/valentines-day-is-also-world-bonobo-day-heres-why_b_58a22b17e4b0cd37efcfec0b|publisher=HuffPost|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://bonoboproject.org/save-the-bonobo/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=The Bonobo Project|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://www.peoplemagazine.co.za/life/animal-news/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=People Magazine|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 02-14: February 14
|-
| World Hippopotamus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Hippo Day: Learn about the world's 3rd largest mammal|url=https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d774d31457a4e32457a6333566d54/index.html|publisher=CGTN|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Hippo Day|url=https://happydays365.org/hippo-day/national-hippo-day-february-15/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Hippo Day (15th February)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/hippo-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 02-15: February 15
|-
| [[International Polar Bear Day]] || 02-27: February 27
|-
| [[World Wildlife Day]] || 03-03: March 3
|-
| Solar Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://www.belmontsolar.com/blog/uncategorized/national-solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Solar Appreciation Belmont Solar|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://greenstepssociety.org/solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Green Step Society|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Solar Appreciation Day|URL=http://thegreentimes.co.za/event/solar-appreciation-day/|publisher=The Green Times|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || Second Friday of March
|-
| International Day of Action for Rivers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/ |title=International Day of Action for Rivers}}</ref> || 03-14: March 14
|-
| [[World Consumer Rights Day]] || 03-15: March 15
|-
| Buzzards Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Buzzards Day - March 15, 2020|URL=https://happydays365.org/buzzards-day/buzzards-day-march-15/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=2020-04-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Buzzards Day (15th March)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/buzzards-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-04-23}}</ref> || 03-15: March 15
|-
| National Panda Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL PANDA DAY - March 16|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-panda-day-march-16/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Panda Day (16th March)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/panda-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Panda Day - March 16, 2020|URL=https://happydays365.org/panda-day/national-panda-day-march-16/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref> || 03-16: March 16
|-
| Global Recycling Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalrecyclingday.com/ |title=Global Recycling Day}}</ref> || 03-18: March 18th
|-
| Taxonomist Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taxonomist Appreciation Day 19 March 2017|URL=http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/blogs/linette-umbrello/taxonomist-appreciation-day-19-march-2017|publisher=Western Australian Museum|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 03-19 : March 19
|-
| [[World Sparrow Day]] || 03-20: March 20
|-
| World Frog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day|url=https://www.nationalday.com/days/world-frog-day/|
publisher=National Day Foundation|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day 2019: Let's Save the Frogs From Extinction|url=http://greenubuntu.com/world-frog-day-2019-lets-save-the-frogs-from-extinction/|
publisher=Green Ubuntu|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day – March 20, 2019|URL=https://happydays365.org/frog-day/world-frog-day-march-20/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-20: March 20
|-
| [[International Day of Forests]] || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Planting Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day – 21 of March 2015|URL=https://blog.plantwise.org/2015/03/20/world-planting-day-21-of-march-2015/|publisher=The Plantwise Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day 2018|URL=https://www.adama.com/en/media/events/international-events/world-planting-day-2018|publisher=ADAMA|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day - 21st March|URL=https://www.clifton.co.uk/blog/celebrating-spring-and-world-planting-day|publisher=Clifton Nurseries|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Wood Day || 03-21: March 21
|-
| [[World Water Day]] || 03-22: March 22
|-
| International Seal Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Day of the Seal is Here!|url=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-seal-day|publisher=Safari ltd|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 03-22: March 22
|-
| World Bear Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bear Day|URL=http://www.zoomontana.org/event/world-bear-day/|publisher=ZooMontana|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || March 23: 03-23
|-
| [[World Meteorological Day]] || 03-23: March 23
|-
| Manatee Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=MANATEE APPRECIATION DAY - Last Wednesday in March|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/manatee-appreciation-day-last-wednesday-in-march/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day Should Be Every Day|URL=https://www.peta.org/features/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=PETA|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 03: Last Wednesday in March
|-
| International Beaver Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Beaver Day (7th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/beaver-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BEAVER DAY - April 7 |URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-beaver-day-april-7/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 04-07: April 7
|-
| Zoo Lovers Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL ZOO LOVERS DAY - April 8|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/national-zoo-lovers-day-april-8/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Zoo Lovers Day (8th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/zoo-lovers-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 04-08: April 8
|-
| [[Arbor Day]] || 04-10: April 10
|-
| Bat Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BAT APPRECIATION DAY - April 17|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/international-bat-appreciation-day-april-17/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Bat Appreciation Day (17th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/bat-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref> || 04-17: April 17
|-
| [[World Fish Migration Day]] || April 21, 2018
|-
| [[Earth Day]] || 04-22: April 22<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.earthday.org |title=Earth Day Network | Earth Day 2015 |publisher=Earthday.org |date=2015-04-22 |accessdate=2015-05-16}}</ref>
|-
| World Tapir Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-tapir-day/|publisher=Day of the Year|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day: 24 reasons tapirs are your new favourite animal|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/27/world-tapir-day-24-reasons-tapirs-are-your-new-favourite-animal/|publisher=The Telegraph|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=ELEVEN YEARS OF WORLD TAPIR DAY: 2008 - 2019|url=https://www.tapirday.org/|publisher=Tapir Day|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| International Hyena Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=international hyena day|url=http://tales-of-avalon.com/tales/?tag=international-hyena-day|publisher=Tales of Avalon|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| [[Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare]] || 04-29: April 29
|-
| [[Green Up Day]] || 05: First Saturday of May in Vermont
|-
| World Tuna Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2 May|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/tunaday/|publisher=the United Nations|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2019|url=http://ipnlf.org/news/world-tuna-day-2019|publisher=IPNLF|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate World Tuna Day on May 2nd!|url=https://chickenofthesea.com/fresh-ideas/good-living/celebrate-world-tuna-day-on-may-2nd|publisher=Chicken of the Sea|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-02: May 2
|-
| International Leopard Day<ref name=>{{Cite news|title=International Leopard Day|URL=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/international-leopard-day-2/|publisher=International Leopard Day|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| Wild Koala Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=25 Koala Facts for Wild Koala Day|url=https://blog.goway.com/globetrotting/2017/05/25-koala-facts-wild-koala-day/|publisher=blog.goway.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wild Koala Day|url=http://www.wildkoaladay.com.au/|publisher=www.wildkoaladay.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| [[Greenery Day]] || 05-04: May 4 in Japan (previously April 29)
|-
| World Donkey Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Donkey Day (Every May 8th)|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-donkey-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-08: May 8
|-
| World Cactus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Cactus Day|URL=https://whatnationaldayisit.com/day/Cactus/|publisher=WhatNationalDayIsIt|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 05-10: May 10
|-
| [[World Migratory Bird Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldmigratorybirdday.org/|title=STORIES - World Migratory Bird Day|website=www.worldmigratorybirdday.org}}</ref> || Second Saturday of May. Second Saturday of May in the U.S. and Canada; Second Saturday of October in Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean.
|-
| Endangered Species Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.endangered.org/campaigns/endangered-species-day/|title=Endangered Species Day|website=endangered.org}}</ref> ||05: Third Friday of May
|-
| [[International Day for Biological Diversity]] (World Biodiversity Day) || 05-22: May 22
|-
| [[World Turtle Day]] || 05-23: May 23
|-
| European Day of Parks - [[EUROPARC Federation|Europarc Federation]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarc.org/nature/european-day-of-parks/ |title=European Day of Parks}}</ref> || 05-24: May 24
|-
| [[Bike-to-Work Day]] || 05: Third Friday of May
|-
| World Otter Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Otter Day|url=https://muddyfaces.co.uk/event/world-otter-day-2/2020-05-27/|publisher=Muddy Faces|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 05-27: May 27
|-
| [[World No Tobacco Day]] || 05-31:May 31
|-
| World Parrot Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.northernparrots.com/mobile/world-parrot-day-blog277/|publisher=Northern Parrots|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-parrot-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.birdorable.com/blog/world-parrot-day/|
publisher=Birdorable Blog|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-31: May 31 since 2004
|-
| [[World Environment Day]] || 06-05: June 5
|-
| [[World Oceans Day]] || 06-08: June 8
|-
| [[Coral Triangle Day]] || 06-09: June 9
|-
| National Cougar Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Cougar Day|URL=https://whatnationaldayisit.com/day/Cougar/|publisher=WhatNationalDayIsIt|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref> || 06-12: June 12
|-
| [[Global Wind Day]] || 06-15: June 15
|-
| World Sea Turtle Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/world-sea-turtle-day |title=World Sea Turtle Day}}</ref> || 06-16: June 16
|-
| [[World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought]] || 06-17: June 17
|-
| World Croc Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Croc Day|URL=https://thereptilereport.com/world-croc-day/|publisher=The Reptile Report|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref> || 06-17: June 17
|-
| World Giraffe Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://giraffeconservation.org/world-giraffe-day/ |title=World Giraffe Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day 2019|URL=https://giraffeconservation.org/2019/03/19/world-giraffe-day-2019/|publisher=Giraffe Conservation Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day (21st June)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-giraffe-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-21: June 21
|-
| International Climate Change Day || 06-21: June 21
|-
| World Camel Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://zoonewsdigest.blogspot.com/2013/06/world-camel-day.html?m=1|publisher=Zoo News Digest|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=https://www.nps.gov/planyourvisit/event-details.htm?id=98A7FF8A-07F4-4FE5-1ABC749235C08DE6|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/6/22/world-camel-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| World Rainforest Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treefoundation.org/2018/06/21/world-rainforest-day-is-june-22nd/|title=World Rainforest Day is June 22nd|date=21 June 2018|website=treefoundation.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldrainforestday.com/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=World Rainforest Day}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rainforestpartnership.org/worldrainforestday/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=RAINFOREST PARTNERSHIP}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| [[World Population Day]] || 07-11: July 11
|-
| Shark Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Duuuun. Dun. It’s Shark Awareness Day!|URL=https://blog.margaritaville.com/2018/07/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Margaritaville Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day (14th July)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day|URL=https://www.sharktrust.org/blog/shark-awareness-day|publisher=The Shark Trust|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Shark Awareness Day Has Arrived! |URL=http://awesomeocean.com/news/national-shark-awareness-day-has-arrived/|publisher=Awesome Ocean|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Chimpanzee Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day 2019 – How Will You Celebrate?|URL=https://projectchimps.org/world-chimpanzee-day-2019/|publisher=Project Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day – 14 July 2019|URL=https://www.janegoodall.be/world-chimpanzee-day-2019|publisher=Jane Goodall Institute Belgium|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day!|URL=https://www.savethechimps.org/worldchimpanzeeday/|publisher=Save the Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Nature Conservation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Nature Conservation Day 2019: History and Significance|URL=https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/world-nature-conservation-day-1564220763-1|publisher=Jagran Josh|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref>
|| 07-28: July 28
|-
| [[International Tiger Day]] || 07-29: July 29
|-
| World Ranger Day - [[International Ranger Federation]] || July 31: 07-31
|-
| International Clouded Leopard Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day (4th August)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-clouded-leopard-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day|URL=https://www.aspinallfoundation.org/icld/|publisher=The Aspinall Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 08-04: August 4
|-
| World Lion Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldlionday.com/ |title=World Lion Day}}</ref> || 08-10: August 10
|-
| [[World Elephant Day]] || 08-12: August 12
|-
| World Hirola Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Hirola Day|URL=http://hirolaconservation.org/whd/index.php|publisher=Hirola Conservation Programme|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref> || 08-12: August 12
|-
| International Wolf Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate International Wolf Day - the future of our Earth depends on them|url=http://www.whitewolfpack.com/2011/08/international-wolf-day.html?m=1|publisher=White Wolf Pack|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WOLF DAY AUGUST 13TH 2019|url=http://onehealthproductions.com/internationalwolfday2019|publisher=one health productions|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref> || 08-13: August 13
|-
| World Orangutan Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Orangutan Day|url=http://www.worldorangutanevents.org/international-orangutan-day.php|publisher=World Orangutan Events|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> ||08-19: August 19
|-
| [[National Honey Bee Day]] || 08-22: August 22
|-
| World African Wild Dog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Painted Dog Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-painted-dog-day/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 08-26: August 26
|-
| International Whale Shark Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WHALE SHARK DAY – August 30|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-whale-shark-day-august-30/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Whale Shark Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-whale-shark-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 08-30: August 30
|-
| Japan Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2019|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2019/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2018|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2018/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-01: September 1
|-
| Amazon Rainforest Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=September 5: Amazon Day|URL=https://wwf.panda.org/?206103/september-5-amazonday|publisher=WWF|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-05: September 5
|-
| International Vulture Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.sustainablelearning.com/event/international-vulture-awareness-day|publisher=Sustainable Learning|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL VULTURE AWARENESS DAY – First Saturday in September|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-vulture-awareness-day-first-saturday-in-september/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=23 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=One week to go to International Vulture Awareness Day!|url=https://www.4vultures.org/one-week-to-go-for-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=www.4vultures.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: First Saturday of September
|-
| [[International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer]] || 09-16: September 16
|-
| [[World Water Monitoring Day]] || 09-18: September 18
|-
| [[:de:Parking Day|PARK(ing) Day]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seattle.gov/transportation/projects-and-programs/programs/public-space-management-programs/park(ing)-day|title=PARK(ing) Day - Transportation | seattle.gov|website=www.seattle.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strasse-zurueckerobern.de/anleitungen/parking-day/|title=PARK(ing) Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parkingday.fr/|title=Parking Day|website=Parking Day}}</ref>|| 09: September 20, 2019, Third Friday in September
|-
| [[World Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldcleanupday.org/|title=World Cleanup Day|website=www.worldcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| [[National Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalcleanupday.org/|title=National Cleanup Day|website=www.nationalcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| International Red Panda Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL RED PANDA DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-red-panda-day-third-saturday-in-september/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: Third Saturday of September
|-
| Zero Emissions Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeroemissionsday.org|title=Zero Emissions Day|date=2017-08-06}}</ref> || 09-21: September 21
|-
| [[Car Free Day]] || 09-22: September 22
|-
| World Rhino Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldrhinoday.org/|title=WORLD RHINO DAY :: World Rhino Day 2017|website=WORLD RHINO DAY}}</ref> || 09-22: September 22
|-
| [[Ecological Debt Day]] (Earth Overshoot Day) || 09-23: September 23 in 2008, but receding
|-
| World Gorilla Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=5TF: World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://gorillafund.org/world-gorilla-day-2019/|publisher=gorillafund.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=WORLD GORILLA DAY|url=https://www.wcs.org/world-gorilla-day|publisher=WCS.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://www.cms.int/en/news/world-gorilla-day-2019|publisher=CMS|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09-24: September 24
|-
| World Environmental Health Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://anydayguide.com/calendar/1252|title=World Environmental Health Day / September 26, 2019|last=AnydayGuide|website=AnydayGuide}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26 since 2011 [[International Federation of Environmental Health|(IFEH)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifeh.org/|title=International Federation of Environmental Health|website=ifeh.org}}</ref>
|-
| World Cassowary Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day 2018|url=https://www.wettropics.gov.au/world-cassowary-day-2018|publisher=Wet Tropics Management Authority|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day|url=https://www.worldcassowaryday.org/|publisher=World Cassowary Day|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26
|-
| World Rivers Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldriversday.com/|title=World Rivers Day|website=worldriversday.com}}</ref> || 09: Last Sunday of September
|-
| World Farm Animals Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Farm Animals Day (2nd October)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/farm-animals-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-02: October 2
|-
| [[World Habitat Day]] || 10: First Monday of October
|-
| [[World Animal Day]] || 10-04: October 4
|-
| Energy Efficiency Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energyefficiencyday.org/ |title=Energy Efficiency Day}}</ref> || 10: First Wednesday in October
|-
| [[International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 10-13: October 13
|-
| International E-Waste Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate the second International E-Waste Day|URL=https://inhabitat.com/celebrate-the-second-international-e-waste-day/|publisher=Inhabitat|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International E-Waste Day|URL=https://weee-forum.org/iewd-about/|publisher=WEEE Forum|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Raising awareness on International E-Waste Day|URL=https://www.orgalim.eu/news/raising-awareness-international-e-waste-day|publisher=Orgalim|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-14: October 14
|-
| Sustainability Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uvu.edu/sustainability/sustainabilityday/index.html|title=- Sustainability - Utah Valley University|website=www.uvu.edu}}</ref> || 10: Fourth Wednesday of October
|-
| World Okapi Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Okapi Day|url=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/10/18/world-okapi-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=7 Fun Facts about World Okapi Day|url=https://www.twpark.com/blog/conservation/7-fun-facts-about-world-okapi-day|publisher=Tanganyika Wildlife Park|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 10-18: October 18
|-
| International Sloth Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Fun Holiday – International Sloth Day|URL=https://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/fun/international-sloth-day|publisher=Time and Date|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL SLOTH DAY - October 20|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-sloth-day-october-20/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Sloth Day (20th October)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-sloth-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-20: October 20
|-
| National Reptile Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL REPTILE AWARENESS DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-reptile-awareness-day-october-21/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Reptile Awareness Day (Every October 21st) |url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/reptile-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 10-21: October 21
|-
| International Wombat Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Wombat Day October 22|URL=https://www.wombania.com/wombat-day.htm|publisher=Wombania|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-22: October 22
|-
| International Snow Leopard Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snowleopard.org/international-snow-leopard-day-hope-and-concern-for-the-cat/ |title=International Snow Leopard Day 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsnowleopard.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/SnowLeopard_Bishkek_Declaration_EN.pdf.pdf |title=The Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards}}</ref> || 10-23: October 23
|-
| Freshwater Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=24th October is Freshwater Dolphin Day!|URL=https://iucn-csg.org/24th-october-is-freshwater-dolphin-day-2/|publisher=IUCN – SSC Cetacean Specialist Group|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 10-24: October 24
|-
| International Gibbon Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Gibbon Day 2019|URL=https://www.wildlifealliance.org/international-gibbon-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Alliance|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=It's International Gibbon Day! Check Out These Magnificent Primates|URL=https://www.ecowatch.com/international-gibbon-day-2614836646.html|publisher=EcoWatch|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Gibbon Day|URL=https://monkeyworld.org/events/international-gibbon-day/|publisher=Monkey World|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-24: October 24
|-
| [[International Day of Climate Action]] || 10-24: October 24
|-
| World Lemur Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.lemurconservationnetwork.org/world-lemur-day/|publisher=Lemur Conservation Network|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.checkiday.com/895d28d65cd0d952b00b605f80e57a9f/world-lemur-day|publisher=Checkiday|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref> || 10: Last Friday of October
|-
| [[World Vegan Day]] || 11-01: November 1
|-
| [[International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environment in War and Armed Conflict]] || 11-06: November 6
|-
| [[National Bison Day]] || 11: First Saturday in November
|-
| [[America Recycles Day]] || 11-15: November 15
|-
| World Fisheries Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Fisheries Day|URL=https://sandrp.in/tag/world-fisheries-day/|publisher=SANDRP|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref> || 11-21: November 21
|-
| International Jaguar Day<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/news-centre/news/2018/latin-america-launches-new-roadmap-to-save-the-jaguar.html|title=Latin America Launches New Roadmap to Save the Jaguar|website=UNDP|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wcs.org/international-jaguar-day|title=International Jaguar Day|website=www.wcs.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref>
|| 11-29: November 29
|-
| International Cheetah Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Cheetah Day|url=https://internationalcheetahday.com/|publisher=International Cheetah Day|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Cheetahs Need Us: December 4 is International Cheetah Day!|url=https://dayofthejaguar.org/2018/11/28/cheetahs-need-us-december-4-is-international-cheetah-day/|publisher=Day Of The Jaguar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 12-04: December 4
|-
| [[World Soil Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/en/|title=Global Soil Partnership - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> || 12-05: December 5
|-
| [[International Mountain Day]] || 12-11: December 11
|-
| [[Monkey Day]] || 12-14: December 14
|-
| [[Ozone Action Day]] || Variable date depending weather conditions
|-
| [[eDay]] - Electronic Waste Day || Variable date, in New Zealand
|}

==Weeks==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[Great Backyard Bird Count]] 2019 date, February 15-18
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] || | 2016 date, April 18-22
|-
| Keep Australia Beautiful Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kab.org.au/keep-australia-beautiful-week/|title=Keep Australia Beautiful Week|website=Keep Australia Beautiful}}</ref> || Last full week of August
|-
| [[National Green Week]] || 02 (first week in February every year in the United States)
|-
| National Wildlife Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Error-Page|title=Error-Page|website=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref> ||
|-
| [[National Dark-Sky Week]] || 04 (week of new moon in April)
|-
| [[Bike to Work Week Victoria]] ||
|-
| National Pollinator Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pollinator.org/pollinator-week|title=Pollinator Week|website=Pollinator.org}}</ref> || third week in June
|-
| National Clean Beaches Week, Van Mohatsav Saptah(Forest Festival Week) || 07-01 to 07-07: July 1 to 7
|-
| [[Conservation Week]] ||

|-World Water Week 08-26: August 26 - 31

| European Mobility Week || 09-16 to 09-22: September 16 to 22
|-
| Bike Week || 06: second week in June
|-
| Recycle Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.recyclenow.com/|title=Recycle Now - Where and How to Recycle|website=www.recyclenow.com}}</ref> || 06: 20 to 26 June 2011
|-
| [https://www.zerowasteweek.co.uk/ Zero Waste Week] || first week of September
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] ||
|-
| [[European Week for Waste Reduction]] (EWWR) || 11: 9 days, last complete week in November
|-
| [[Science Literacy Week (Canada)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scienceliteracy.ca/|title=Science Literacy Week – September 16 – 22, 2019|website=www.scienceliteracy.ca}}</ref> || 16-22: September
|-
| [[No Car Day]] || 09: China, week of September 22
|-
| [[World Water Week in Stockholm]] || 08 or 09: each year in August or September
|-
| [[National Op Shop Week (Australia)]] || August 21st - 27th
|-
| [[World Oceans Week]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldoceansday.org/|title=World Oceans Day - Uniting Ocean Action Worldwide on 8 June 2020|first=|last=|website=worldoceansday.org}}</ref> || 01-08: June
|}

==Years==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 1882–1883
|-
| International Polar Year || 1932–1933
|-1992
|-
|[[International Year of the Child]]
|1979
|-
| [[World Population Year]] || 1974
|-
| [[International Year of the Ocean]] (IYO) || 1998
|-
| [[International Year of Mountains]] (IYM) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Ecotourism]] (IYE) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Freshwater]] (IYF) || 2003
|-
| [[International Year of Deserts and Desertification]] || 2006
|-
| International [[Year of the Dolphin]] || 2007–2008
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 2007–2009
|-
| [[International Year of Planet Earth]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Sanitation]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Natural Fibres 2009]] || 2009
|-
| Year of the Gorilla<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yog2009.org/|title=FX初心者の勉強・情報収集 - 【FXガイド】　FX初心者のための勉強サイト|website=www.yog2009.org}}</ref> || 2009
|-
| [[International Year of Biodiversity]] || 2010
|-
| [[International Year of Forests]] || 2011
|-
| [[International Year of Soils]] || 2015
|-
| [[International Year of Pulses]] || 2016
|-
| [[International Year of Sustainable tourism for all]] || 2017
|-
| [[International Year of Indigenous languages]] || 2019
|}

==Decades==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Drinking Water Decade, 1981-1990]] || 1980s
|-
| [[International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 1990s
|-
| [[United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development]] || 2005-2014
|-
| [[Water for Life Decade]] || 2005-2015
|-
| [[United Nations Decade on Biodiversity]] || 2011-2020
|-
| United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification || 2010-2020
|}

==See also==
*[[Index of environmental articles]]
**[[List of environmental issues]]
*[[Index of conservation articles]]
**[[List of conservation issues]]
*[[List of international environmental agreements]]
*[[List of awareness days]]
*[[International observance]]
*[[List of commemorative days]]
*[[List of Month-long observances|List of commemorative months]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050405210808/http://unac.org/en/news_events/un_days/index.asp News & Events - UN Days, Weeks and Years]
*[http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2013/Mar/21/the-world-plantation-day-58.asp - World Plantation Day, Great Kashmir]
*[http://www.saveourwaterwaysnow.com.au/02_cal/details.asp?ID=561 - Save your water]
*[http://edugreen.teri.res.in/misc/dates.htm - EDU Green]

[[Category:Environmental awareness days| ]]
[[Category:Lists of observances|Environmental]]

Hooded crane

2020-04-22T02:53:46Z

118.46.55.151:

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{speciesbox
| image = Grus monacha -Kyushu, Japan -three-8.jpg
| image_caption = Wintering in Kyushu, Japan
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>BirdLife International 2016. ''Grus monacha''. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T22692151A93337861. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22692151A93337861.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| genus = Grus
| species = monacha
| authority = [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1835
| range_map = Grus monacha distribution.png
| range_map_caption = Hooded crane distribution Yellow : breeding range Blue : wintering range
}}

The '''hooded crane''' (''Grus monacha'') is a small, dark [[Crane (bird)|crane]]. It has a grey body. The top of the neck and head is white, except for a patch of bare red skin above the eye. It is one of the smallest cranes, but is still a fairly large bird, at 1 m (3.3 ft) long, a weight of 3.7 kg (8.2 lbs) and a wingspan of 1.87 m (6.2 ft).

The hooded crane breeds in south-central and south-eastern [[Siberia]]. Breeding is also suspected to occur in [[Mongolia]]. Over 80% of its population winters at [[Izumi crane migration grounds|Izumi]], southern [[Japan]]. There are also wintering grounds in [[South Korea]] and [[China]]. There are about 100 hooded cranes wintering in Chongming Dongtan, Shanghai every year. Dongtan Nature Reserve is the largest natural wintering site in the world. In December 2011, a hooded crane was seen overwintering at the Hiwassee Refuge in southeastern Tennessee, well outside its normal range.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/12/28/us-tennessee-birds-asian-crane-idUSTRE7BR03R20111228 Reuters. Rare Asian bird takes "wrong turn," lands in Tennessee]</ref> In February 2012, one was seen at Goose Pond in southern Indiana, and is suspected to be the same bird, which may have migrated to North America by following [[sandhill crane]]s.<ref>[http://www.indystar.com/article/20120209/NEWS/120209020/Rare-hooded-crane-found-living-Greene-County?odyssey=tab|topnews|text|IndyStar.com]</ref>

The estimated population of the species is 11,600 individuals.<ref>http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=2795</ref> The major threats to its survival are wetland loss and degradation in its wintering grounds in China and South Korea as a result of reclamation for development and dam building. Conservation activities have been taken since 2008. Local universities, NGOs and communities are working together for a better and safer wintering location.

The hooded crane is evaluated as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] on the [[IUCN Red List]] of Threatened Species.<ref name=IUCN/> It is listed on Appendix I and II of [[CITES]]. A society, ''Grus monacha'' International Aid (白头鹤的故事), has been formed to find ways to protect the species.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809181613/http://grusmonacha.org/ ''Grus monacha'' International Aid]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Grus monacha}}
* [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=2795&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet]
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/bioscicranes/18/ Hooded Crane (''Grus monachus'')] from ''Cranes of the World'' (1983) by Paul Johnsgard

{{Birds}}
{{Gruidae|state=all}}
{{Portal bar|Birds}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q494983}}

[[Category:Grus (genus)]]
[[Category:Birds of North Asia]]
[[Category:Birds of Manchuria]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1835]]

{{Gruiformes-stub}}

Common crane

2020-04-22T02:52:22Z

118.46.55.151:

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Common crane
| image = Common crane grus grus.jpg
| image_caption = Common crane
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>BirdLife International 2016. ''Grus grus''. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T22692146A86219168. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22692146A86219168.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| genus = Grus
| species = grus
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])
| synonyms = *''Ardea grus'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}
*''Grus turfa'' Portis, 1884
| range_map = Distribución grullas.jpg
| range_map_caption = Distribution of common crane Yellow : breeding area Blue : wintering area green line : route
}}

The '''common crane''' (''Grus grus''), also known as the '''Eurasian crane''', is a [[bird]] of the family Gruidae, the [[crane (bird)|cranes]]. A medium-sized species, it is the only crane commonly found in Europe besides the [[demoiselle crane]] (''Anthropoides virgo''). Along with the [[sandhill crane|sandhill]] (''Grus canadensis'') and demoiselle cranes and the [[brolga]] (''Grus rubicunda''), it is one of only four crane species not currently classified as threatened with extinction or conservation dependent on the species level. Despite the species' large numbers, local extinctions and extirpations have taken place in part of its range, and an ongoing [[Reintroduction of a species|reintroduction project]] is underway in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web |title=Common cranes 'here to stay' after recolonising eastern England |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jul/17/common-cranes-here-to-stay-after-recolonising-eastern-england |website=[[The Guardian]] |accessdate=25 April 2019}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The first [[Species description|formal description]] of the common crane was by the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1758 in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' under the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Ardea grus''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=C. | authorlink=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title= Systema Naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | volume=Volume 1| edition=10th | pages=141–142 | publisher=Holmiae:Laurentii Salvii | language=Latin | url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727048 }}</ref> The current [[genus]] ''Grus'' was erected by the French zoologist [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson]] in 1760.<ref>{{cite book | last=Brisson | first=Mathurin Jacques | author-link=Mathurin Jacques Brisson | year=1760 | title=Ornithologie, ou, Méthode contenant la division des oiseaux en ordres, sections, genres, especes & leurs variétés | volume=Volume 5 | language=French, Latin | pages=374–375 | place=Paris | publisher=Jean-Baptiste Bauche | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/36294736 }}</ref> ''Grus'' is the Latin word for a "crane".<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | url=https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn= 978-1-4081-2501-4 | page=[https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n179 179] }}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Grus grus hunneberget.ogg|thumb|Common crane (''Grus grus'')]]

The common crane is a large, stately bird and a medium-sized crane. It is {{convert|100|–|130|cm|in|abbr=on}} long with a {{convert|180|–|240|cm|in|abbr=on}} wingspan. The body weight can range from {{convert|3|to|6.1|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, with the nominate subspecies averaging around {{convert|5.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and the eastern subspecies (''G. g. lilfordi'') averaging {{convert|4.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Among standard measurements, the [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] is {{convert|50.7|-|60.8|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] is {{convert|20.1|-|25.2|cm|in|abbr=on}} and the [[Culmen (bird)|exposed culmen]] is {{convert|9.5|-|11.6|cm|in|abbr=on}}.

Males are slightly heavier and larger than females, with weight showing the largest [[sexual size dimorphism]], followed by wing, central toe, and head length in adults and juveniles. <ref name=Alonso2019/>

This species is slate-grey overall. The forehead and [[lore (anatomy)|lores]] are blackish with a bare red crown and a white streak extending from behind the eyes to the upper back. The overall colour is darkest on the back and rump and palest on the breast and wings. The primaries, the tips of secondaries, the [[alula]], the tip of the tail, and the edges of upper tail coverts are all black and the greater coverts droop into explosive plumes. This combination of colouration ultimately distinguishes it from similar species in Asia, like the [[hooded crane|hooded]] (''G. monacha'') and [[black-necked crane]]s (''G. nigricollis''). The juvenile has yellowish-brown tips to its body feathers and lacks the drooping wing feathers and the bright neck pattern of the adult, and has a fully feathered crown. Every two years, before migration, the adult common crane undergoes a complete moult, remaining flightless for six weeks, until the new feathers grow.

It has a loud trumpeting call, given in flight and display. The call is piercing and can be heard from a considerable distance. It has a dancing display, leaping with wings uplifted, described in detail below.

==Distribution==
[[File:Verbreitungskarte des Kranichs.png|thumb|Distribution and migration]]
[[File:Common Crane, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|Flock of common cranes (Grus grus) flying over Castilla, Spain, during their winter migration]]
This species is found in the northern parts of Europe and across the [[Palearctic]] to Siberia. Formerly the species was spread as far west as Ireland, but about 200 years ago, it became extinct there. However, it has since started to return to Ireland naturally and there are now plans to help it return to Ireland on a greater scale. The common crane is an uncommon breeder in southern Europe, smaller numbers breeding in Greece, former-Yugoslavia, Romania, Denmark and Germany. Larger breeding populations can be found in Scandinavia, especially Finland and Sweden. The heart of the breeding population for the species is in Russia, however, where possibly up to 100,000 cranes of this species can be found seasonally. It is distributed as a breeder from Ukraine to the Chukchi Peninsula in Russia. The breeding population extends as far south as [[Manchuria]] but almost the entire Asian breeding population is restricted to Russia. Approximately 48-50 breeding pairs exist in the UK, with population centres in Somerset and Norfolk.

The species is a long distance [[bird migration|migrant]] predominantly wintering in northern Africa. Autumn migration is from August to October and spring migration is in March through May. Important staging areas occur anywhere from Sweden, The Netherlands and Germany to China (with a large one around the [[Caspian Sea]]) and many thousand cranes can be seen in one day in the Autumn. Some birds winter in southern Europe, including Portugal, Spain and France. Most eastern common cranes winter in the river valleys of Sudan, Ethiopia, Tunisia and Eritrea with smaller numbers in Turkey, northern Israel, Iraq and parts of Iran. The third major wintering region is in the northern half of [[Indian subcontinent]], including Pakistan. Minimal wintering also occurs in Burma, Vietnam and Thailand. Lastly, they winter in eastern China, where they are often the most common crane (outnumbering black-necked cranes ten-to-one). Migrating flocks fly in a "V" formation.

It is a rare visitor to Japan and Korea, mostly blown over from the Chinese wintering population, and is a rare vagrant to western North America, where birds are occasionally seen with flocks of [[bird migration|migrating]] [[sandhill crane]]s.

==Habitat==
[[File:Osmussaar. 15.jpg|thumb|Common cranes in [[Osmussaar]], [[Estonia]]. Wetlands are preferred habitats for the cranes.]]
In Europe, the common crane predominantly breeds in [[Taiga|boreal and taiga]] forest and mixed forests, from an elevation of sea-level to {{convert|2200|m|ft|abbr=on}}. In northern [[climes]], it breeds in treeless moors, on bogs, or on dwarf heather habitats, usually where small lakes or pools are also found. In [[Sweden]], breeders are usually found in small, swampy openings amongst pine forests, while in Germany, marshy wetlands are used. Breeding habitat used in Russia are similar, though they can be found nesting in less likely habitat such as [[steppe]] and even semi-desert, so long as water is near. Primarily, the largest number of common cranes are found breeding in wooded swamps, bogs and wetlands and seem to require quiet, peaceful environs with minimal human interference. They occur at low density as breeders even where common, typically ranging from 1 to 5 pairs per {{convert|100|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.

In winter, this species moves to flooded areas, shallow sheltered bays, and swampy meadows. During the flightless moulting period there is a need for shallow waters or high reed cover for concealment. Later, after the migration period, the birds winter regularly in open country, often on cultivated lands and sometimes also in [[savanna]]-like areas, for example on the [[Iberian Peninsula]].

==Behaviour==

===Diet===
The common crane is [[omnivorous]], as are all cranes. It largely eats plant matter, including [[root]]s, [[rhizome]]s, [[tuber]]s, [[Plant stem|stem]]s, [[leaf|leaves]], [[fruit]]s and [[seed]]s. They also commonly eat, when available, pond-weeds, [[Heath|heath berries]], [[pea]]s, [[potato]]es, [[olive]]s, [[acorn]]s, [[Cedrus|cedarnuts]] and pods of [[peanut]]s. Notably amongst the berries consumed, the [[cranberry]], is possibly named after the species.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

Animal foods become more important during the summer breeding season and may be the primary food source at that time of year, especially while regurgitating to young. Their animal foods are [[insect]]s, especially [[dragonflies]], and also [[snail]]s, [[earthworm]]s, [[crab]]s, [[spider]]s, [[millipede]]s, [[woodlice]], [[amphibian]]s, [[rodent]]s, and small [[bird]]s.

Common cranes may either forage on land or in shallow water, probing around with their bills for any edible organism. Although crops may locally be damaged by the species, they mostly consume waste grain in winter from previously harvested fields and so actually benefit farmers by cleaning fields for use in the following year.<ref name=Alonso1994/> As with other cranes, all foraging (as well as drinking and roosting) is done in small groups, which may variously consist of pairs, family groups or winter flocks.

===Breeding===
[[File:Grus grus MWNH 2041.JPG|left|thumb|Egg, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden, Germany]]]]
[[File:PSM V09 D158 Crane throat structure.jpg|thumb|The long coiled [[Vertebrate trachea|trachea]] (TR) penetrating the [[Keel (bird anatomy)|sternum]] (S, K, A) produces the trumpeting calls of the crane. L on the left - [[Lung#Avian_lungs#Avian lungs|lungs]], LA - [[larynx]], L on the right - [[tongue]].]]
This species usually lays eggs in May, though seldom will do so earlier or later. Like most cranes, this species displays indefinite monogamous pair bonds. If one mate dies, a crane may attempt to court a new mate the following year. Although a pair may be together for several years, the courtship rituals of the species are enacted by every pair each spring. The dancing of common cranes has complex, social meanings and may occur at almost any time of year. Dancing may include bobs, bows, pirouettes, and stops, as in various crane species. Aggressive displays may include ruffled wing feathers, throwing vegetation in the air and pointing the bare red patch on their heads at each other. Courtship displays begin with a male following the female in a stately, march-like walk. The unison call, consists of the female holding her head up and gradually lowering down as she calls out. The female calls out a high note and then the male follows with a longer scream in a similar posture. Copulation consists of a similar, dramatic display.

The nesting territory of common cranes is variable and is based on the local habitat. It can range in size from variously {{convert|2|to|500|ha|acre|abbr=on}}. In common with sandhill cranes (and no other crane species), common cranes "paint" their bodies with mud or decaying vegetation, apparently in order to blend into their nesting environment. The nest is either in or very near shallow water, often with dense shore vegetation nearby, and may be used over several years. The size and placement of the nest varies considerably over the range, with Arctic birds building relatively small nests. In Sweden, an average nest is around {{convert|90|cm|in|abbr=on}} across.

The clutch of the common crane usually contains two eggs, with seldom one laid and, even more rarely, 3 or 4. If a clutch is lost early in incubation, the cranes may be able to lay another one within a couple of weeks. The incubation period is around 30 days and is done primarily by the female but occasionally by both sexes. If humans approach the nest both parents may engage in a [[distraction display]] but known ground predators (including [[Dog|domestic dogs]] (''Canis lupus familiaris'')) are physically attacked almost immediately.

New hatchlings are generally quite helpless but are able to crawl away from danger within a few hours, can swim soon after hatching and can run with their parents at 24 hours old. Chicks respond to danger by freezing, using their camouflaged brownish down to defend them beyond their fierce parents. Young chicks use their wings to stabilise them while running, while by 9 weeks of age they can fly short distances. The adult birds go through their postbreeding moult while caring for their young, rendering them flightless for about 5 to 6 weeks around the time the young also can't fly yet. According to figures of cranes wintering in Spain, around 48% birds have surviving young by the time they winter and around 18% are leading two young by winter. By the next breeding season, the previous years young often flock together. The age of sexual maturity in wild birds has been estimated at variously from 3 to 6 years of age. It is thought that it is common for this species to live up to 30 or 40 years of age.<ref name=Burton2002/>
[[File:Baltsende en parende kraanvogels-Stichting Natuurbeelden-170687.webm|thumb|450x450px|A pair of common cranes showing the specific mating behavior]]

===Sociality===
The common crane is a fairly social bird while not breeding. Flocks of up to 400 birds may be seen flying together during migration. Staging sites, where migrating birds gather to rest and feed in the middle of their migration, may witness thousands of cranes gathering at once. However, the flocks of the species are not stable social units but rather groups that ensure greater safety in numbers and collectively draw each other's attention to ideal foraging and roosting sites.<ref name=Bautista1995/> Possibly due to a longer molt, younger and non-breeding cranes are usually the earliest fall migrants and may band together at that time of year. During these migratory flights, common cranes have been known to fly at altitudes of up to {{convert|33000|ft|m|abbr=on}}, one of the highest of any species of bird, second only to the [[Ruppell's Griffin Vulture]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://themysteriousworld.com/10-highest-flying-birds-in-the-world/|title=Top 10 Highest Flying Birds In The World - The Mysterious World|date=31 March 2015|publisher=}}</ref>

Cranes use a kleptoparasitic strategy to recover from temporary reductions in feeding rate, particularly when the rate is below the threshold of intake necessary for survival.<ref name=Bautista1998/> Accumulated intake of common cranes during daytime at a site of stopover and wintering shows a typical anti-sigmoid shape, with greatest increases of intake after dawn and before dusk.<ref name=Bautista2013/>

===Interspecies interactions===
There are few natural predators of adult cranes, although [[white-tailed eagle]] (''Haliaeetus albicilla''), [[Bonelli's eagle]]s (''Aquila fasciata'') and [[golden eagle]]s (''Aquila chrysaetos'') are a potential predatory threat to common cranes of all ages.<ref name=Moll1963/><ref name=Sulkava1984/><ref name=Munoz-Pulido1993/><ref name=Aviles1998/> The crane has been known to counterattack eagles both on the land and in mid-flight, using their bill as a weapon and kicking with their feet. Common cranes were additionally recorded as prey for [[Eurasian eagle-owl]]s (''Bubo bubo'') in the [[Ukok Plateau]] of [[Russia]].<ref name=Vazhov2011/> Mammals such as [[wild boar]] (''Sus scrofa''), [[wolverine]] (''Gulo gulo'') and [[red fox]]es (''Vulpes vulpes'') are attacked at the nest, as they are potential predators. When facing off against mammals, cranes jab with their bill, hit with their wings and kick with their feet. The cranes nimbly avoid strikes against themselves by jumping into the air. It is probable that are threatened by a wider range of large mammalian predators as is the black-necked crane but these have not yet been recorded.<ref name=Choki2011/> Herbivorous mammals such as [[red deer]] (''Cervus elaphus'') may also be attacked at the nest, indicating the high aggressiveness of the birds while nesting. The determined attack of a parent crane often assures safety from predators, but occasional losses to predation are inevitable. The [[carrion crow]] (''Corvus corone'') is locally a successful predator of common cranes' eggs, trickily using distraction displays to steal them. Other species of ''[[Corvus (genus)|Corvus]]'' may also cause some loss of eggs, with [[common raven]]s (''Corvus corax'') also taking some small chicks.<ref name=EOL/><ref name=Leito2005/> Common cranes may loosely associate with any other crane in the genus ''Grus'' in migration or winter as well as [[greater white-fronted goose|greater white-fronted geese]] and [[bean goose|bean geese]].

==Status==
The global population is 600,000 (2014 estimate) with the vast majority nesting in [[Russia]] and [[Scandinavia]]. In some areas the breeding population appears to be increasing, such as in Sweden, whereas on the fringes of its range, it is often becoming rare to non-existent. In [[Great Britain]], the common crane became [[Local extinction|extirpated]] in the 17th century, but a tiny population now breeds again in the [[Norfolk Broads]]<ref name=norfolkwildlifetrust/> and is slowly increasing and a reintroduction has been underway since 2010 for the [[Somerset levels]].<ref name=rspb/> In [[Ireland]], it died out as a breeding species in the 18th century, but a flock of about 30 appeared in [[County Cork]] in November 2011, and a smaller flock a year later. It was additionally extirpated as a breeder from [[Austria]] around 1900, from [[Hungary]] by 1952 and from [[Spain]] by 1954. The recovering [[Germany|German]] breeding population of 8,000 pairs is still also a fraction of the size of the large numbers that once bred in the country. Poland has 15,000 breeding pairs, 50 pairs breed in the Czech Republic and 2009 was the first confirmed breeding in Slovakia.

The main threat to the species, and the primary reason for its decline in the [[Western Palearctic]], comes from [[habitat loss]] and [[habitat degradation|degradation]], as a result of [[dam]] construction, [[urbanisation]], [[agricultural expansion]],<ref name=Alonso2018 /> and [[drainage]] of [[wetlands]]. Although it has adapted to human settlement in many areas, nest disturbance, continuing changes in [[land use]], and collision with utility lines are still potential problems. Further threats may include persecution due to crop damage, [[pesticide poisoning]], egg collection, and hunting.<ref name=birdlife/><ref name=HBW/> The common crane is one of the species to which the ''Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds'' ([[AEWA]]) applies.

==Culture==
In [[Ireland]], despite being extinct for over 200 years, the common crane plays a very important part in Irish culture and folklore and so thus recent efforts to encourage it back to [[Ireland]] are received with much enthusiasm.

The [[Kranich Museum]] in [[Hessenburg]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], Germany, is dedicated to art and folklore related to the common crane.

The common crane is the sacred bird of the god [[Hephaestus]],<ref name=Theoi.com/> and it features heavily in the god's iconography.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Common Cranes (Grus grus) at Sultanpur I Picture 076.jpg|Flock in flight
File:Flickr - Rainbirder - Eurasian Crane (Grus grus) (cropped).jpg|Individual in flight
File:Common Cranes (Grus grus)- Adults & Immatures at Bharatpur I IMG 5659.jpg| Adults and immatures at [[Keoladeo National Park]], India
File:GreyCranesHula02.JPG|In flight at Israel ha-Hula
File:Common cranes before sunrise.jpg|Common cranes at Hula Valley in Israel
File:Common crane in flight.jpg|Common crane in flight
File:Flying common crane.jpg|Juvenile in flight
File:Common Crane from the Crossley ID Guide Britain and Ireland.jpg|ID composite
File:Zurawie Bobrowniki 03.jpg|Large flock of cranes near Bobrowniki, Poland
File:Common crane David Raju.jpg| From India
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Cranes in Britain]]
* [[Lake Der-Chantecoq]] (migration stopover site)
* [[Hula Valley]] (migration stopover site)
* [[Lake Hornborga]] (migration stopover site)

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=

<ref name=Alonso1994>{{cite journal |last1=Alonso |first1=J.C. |last2=Alonso |first2=J.A. |last3=Bautista |first3=L.M. |year=1994 |title=Carrying capacity of staging areas and facultative migration extension in common cranes |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=212–222 |doi=10.2307/2404537 |hdl=10261/51859 |jstor=2404537 }}</ref>

<ref name=Alonso2019>{{cite journal |last1=Alonso |first1=J.C. |last2=Bautista |first2=L.M. |last3=Alonso |first3=J.A. |year=2019 |title=Sexual size dimorphism in the Common Crane, a monogamous, plumage-monomorphic bird |journal=Ornis Fennica |volume=96 |pages=194–204 |url=https://www.ornisfennica.org/ornisfennica.org/pdf/latest/19Alonso.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name=Alonso2018>{{cite journal |last1=Alonso |first1=J.C. |last2=Alonso |first2=J.A. |last3=Bautista |first3=L.M. |year=2018 |title=A review of the crane-agriculture conflict at Gallocanta Lake |journal=Cranes and Agriculture: A Global Guide for Sharing the Landscape |pages=272–279 |lay-url=http://hdl.handle.net/10261/171439 |url=http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/171439/1/Alonso%20CapLibro%20CranesAgri%20p272%202018.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name=Aviles1998>{{cite journal |last1=Avilés |first1=J.M. |last2=Sánchez |first2=J.M. |last3=Medina |first3=F.J. |year=1998 |title=Response of the crane Grus grus to potential predators in traditional wintering areas |journal=Vogelwarte |volume=39 |pages=202–203}}</ref>

<ref name=Bautista2013>{{cite journal |last1=Bautista |first1=L.M. |last2=Alonso |first2=J.C. |year=2013 |title=Factors influencing daily food intake patterns in birds: a case study with wintering common cranes |journal=Condor |volume=115 |pages=330–339 |doi=10.1525/cond.2013.120080 |hdl=10261/77900 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=Bautista1995>{{cite journal |last1=Bautista |first1=L.M. |last2=Alonso |first2=J.C. |last3=Alonso |first3=J.A. |year=1995 |title=A field test of ideal free distribution in flock-feeding common cranes |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |volume=64 |issue=6 |pages=747–757 |doi=10.2307/5853 |hdl=10261/52629 |jstor=5853 }}</ref>

<ref name=Bautista1998>{{cite journal |last1=Bautista |first1=L.M. |last2=Alonso |first2=J.C. |last3=Alonso |first3=J.A. |year=1998 |title=Foraging site displacement in common crane flocks |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=56 |issue=5 |pages=1237–1243 |doi=10.1006/anbe.1998.0882 |pmid=9819341 |hdl=10261/46357 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=birdlife>{{cite web |publisher=BirdLife International |year=2015 |title=Species factsheet: Grus grus |website=www.birdlife.org |url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/factsheet/22692146 |accessdate=15 May 2015}}</ref>

<ref name=Burton2002>{{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=Maurice |last2=Burton |first2=Robert |title=International Wildlife Encyclopedia Set |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ojMQP6aWW6sC&pg=PA585 |accessdate=19 December 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-7266-7 |pages=585–}}</ref>

<ref name=Choki2011>{{cite journal |last1=Choki |first1=T. |last2=Tshering |first2=J. |last3=Norbu |first3=T. |last4=Stenkewitz |first4=U. |last5=Kamler |first5=J. |year=2011 |title=Predation by leopards of Black-necked Cranes Grus nigricollis in Bhutan |journal=Forktail |volume=27 |pages=117–119 |url=http://orientalbirdclub.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Black-necked-Cranes.pdf |access-date=2015-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200210/http://orientalbirdclub.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Black-necked-Cranes.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=EOL>{{cite web |url=http://eol.org/pages/1049273/details |title=''Grus grus'' Common Crane |publisher=Encyclopedia of Life |website=www.eol.org eol.or |date=16 July 2012 |accessdate=19 December 2012}}</ref>

<ref name=HBW>{{cite book |title=Handbook of the Birds of the World |editor-last1=del Hoyo |editor-first1=J. |editor-last2=Elliot |editor-first2=A. |editor-last3=Sargatal |editor-first3=J. |year=1996 |publisher=[[Lynx Edicions]] |location=[[Barcelona]] |isbn=84-87334-20-2 |volume=3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/88 88] |title-link=Handbook of the Birds of the World }}</ref>

<ref name=Leito2005>{{cite journal |url=http://www.avibirds.com/pdf/K/Kraanvogel3.pdf |last1=Leito |first1=A. |last2=Ojaste |first2=I. |last3=Truu |first3=J. |last4=Palo |first4=A. |year=2005 |title=Nest site selection of the Eurasian Crane Grus grus in Estonia: an analysis of nest record cards |journal=Ornis Fennica |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=44–54}}</ref>

<ref name=Moll1963>{{cite journal |last=Moll |first=K.H. |year=1963 |title=Kranichbeobachtungen aus dem Müritzgebiet |journal=Beiträge zur Vogelkunde |volume=8 |pages=221–253 |trans-title=Crane observations from the Müritz region |language=de}}</ref>

<ref name=Munoz-Pulido1993>{{cite journal |last1=Muñoz-Pulido |first1=R. |last2=Alonso |first2=J.C. |last3=Alonso |first3=J.A. |year=1993 |title=Common Crane (Grus grus) killed by golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos) |journal=Vogelwarte |volume=37 |pages=78–79}}</ref>

<ref name=norfolkwildlifetrust>{{cite web |url=http://www.norfolkwildlifetrust.org.uk/Wildlife-in-Norfolk/Species/Birds/Common-crane.aspx |title=Common crane |publisher=Norfolk Wildlife Trust |accessdate=19 December 2012}}</ref>

<ref name=rspb>{{cite web |url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/supporting/campaigns/greatcraneproject/project.aspx |title=The Great Crane Project: About the project |publisher=The RSPB |accessdate=19 December 2012}}</ref>

<ref name=Sulkava1984>{{cite journal |last1=Sulkava |first1=S. |last2=Huhtala |first2=K. |last3=Rajala |first3=P. |date=January 1984 |title=Diet and breeding success of the Golden Eagle in Finland 1958–82 |journal=Annales Zoologici Fennici |volume=21 |pages=283–286 |publisher=Finnish Academy of Sciences, Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo |url=http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anzf21/anzf21-283-286.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name=Theoi.com>{{cite web |first=Aaron J. |last=Atsma |url=http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/HephaistosTreasures.html#Animals |website=www.theoi.com|title=Hephaistos (Sacred Birds & Animals)}}</ref>

<ref name=Vazhov2011>{{cite journal |last1=Vazhov |first1=S.V. |last2=Karyakin |first2=I.V. |last3=Nikolenko |first3=E.G. |last4=Barashkova |first4=A.N. |last5=Smelansky |first5=I.E. |last6=Tomilenko |first6=A.A. |last7=Bekmansurov |first7=R.H. |year=2011 |title=Raptors of the Ukok Plateau, Russia |journal=Raptors Conservation |issue=22 |pages=153–175 |url=http://docs.sibecocenter.ru/programs/raptors/RC22/RC22_153-175_Vazhov_etal.pdf}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Grus grus}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131229055749/http://www.savingcranes.org/eurasian-crane.html Eurasian Crane] at the [http://www.savingcranes.org/ International Crane Foundation]
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/bioscicranes/17/ Eurasian Crane (''Grus grus'')] from ''Cranes of the World'' (1983) by Paul Johnsgard
* {{InternetBirdCollection|eurasian-crane-grus-grus|Eurasian crane}}
* [http://reportages.aube-nature.com/decouverte-des-grues-cendrees.php Découverte des grues cendrées] at [http://reportages.aube-nature.com Reportages Aube Nature] {{in lang|fr}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100514165139/http://www.nigge.com/projects/common_crane/thumbnails.html Photos of the Common Crane] by Klaus Nigge
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120321003535/http://www.treffpunkt-ostsee.de/english/cranes/crane-grus-grus.php Observing cranes without disturbing them]
* {{Avibase|name=Grus grus}}
* {{VIREO|Common+Crane}}
* {{IUCN_Map|22692146|Grus grus}}
* {{Xeno-canto species|Grus|grus|Common crane}}

{{Birds}}
{{Gruidae|state=all}}
{{Portal bar|Birds}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q4764}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Grus (genus)]]
[[Category:Birds of Eurasia]]
[[Category:Birds of Russia]]
[[Category:Birds of North Africa]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1758]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

Red-crowned crane

2020-04-22T02:50:39Z

118.46.55.151:

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{Other uses|Crowned crane}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Red-crowned crane
| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>BirdLife International 2016. ''Grus japonensis''. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T22692167A93339099. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22692167A93339099.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| image = Grus japonensis -Hokkaido, Japan -several-8 (1).jpg
| image_caption=In snow in [[Hokkaido]], Japan
| image_upright = 1.2
| genus = Grus
| species = japonensis
| authority = ([[Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller|Statius Müller]], 1776)
}}

The '''red-crowned crane''' (''Grus japonensis''), also called the '''Manchurian crane''' or '''Japanese crane''' ({{cjkv|s=丹顶鹤|t=丹頂鶴|p=dāndǐng hè|j=丹頂鶴 or タンチョウヅル|r=tanchōzuru|k=두루미|rr=durumi}}; the Chinese character '丹' means 'red', '頂/顶' means 'crown' and '鶴/鹤' means 'crane'), is a large [[East Asia]]n [[Crane (bird)|crane]] among the rarest cranes in the world. In some parts of its range, it is known as a symbol of luck, longevity, and fidelity.

==Description==
[[File:Grus japonensis -Marwell Wildlife, Hampshire, England-8a.jpg|left|thumb|upright|At [[Marwell Wildlife]], England]]
Adult red-crowned cranes are named for a patch of red bare skin on the crown, which becomes brighter during mating season. Overall, they are snow white in color with black on the wing secondaries, which can appear almost like a black tail when the birds are standing, but the real tail feathers are actually white. Males are black on the cheeks, throat, and neck, while females are pearly gray in these spots. The bill is olive green to greenish horn, the legs are slate to grayish black, and the iris is dark brown.<ref name= Archibald>Archibald G.W. & Meine, C.D. 1996. ''Family Gruidae (Cranes)''. In: del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J. (Eds.). Hoatzin to Auks. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 3. pp. 60-89.</ref>

This species is among the largest cranes, typically measuring about {{convert|150|to|158|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} tall and {{convert|101.2|-|150|cm|ftin|0|abbr=on}} in length (from bill to tail tip). Across the large wingspan, the red-crowned crane measures {{convert|220|–|250|cm|ftin|abbr=on}}.<ref>del Hoyo, J. Elliott, A. and Sargatal, J.(1996) [[Handbook of the Birds of the World]] Volume 3: Hoatzins to Auks [[Lynx Edicions]], [[Barcelona]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://scenery.cultural-china.com/en/22Scenery489.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=27 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128000023/http://scenery.cultural-china.com/en/22Scenery489.html |archive-date=28 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/Birds/Facts/FactSheets/fact-redcrowncrane.cfm |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-12-14 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011015617/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/Birds/Facts/FactSheets/fact-redcrowncrane.cfm |archivedate=11 October 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name= Sandie>[http://library.sandiegozoo.org/factsheets/red_crowned_crane/red_crowned_crane_summary.html]</ref> Typical body weight can range from {{convert|4.8|to|10.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, with males being slightly larger and heavier than females and weight ranging higher just prior to migration.<ref>[BirdLife International (2000), Threatened Birds of the World, Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, Barcelona and Cambridge] [http://www.savingcranes.org/species/red_crowned.cfm Red-crowned crane - ICF] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051120111334/http://www.savingcranes.org/species/red_crowned.cfm |date=20 November 2005 }}</ref><ref name= "CRC">''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), {{ISBN|978-0-8493-4258-5}}.</ref><ref name="Burnie">Burnie D and Wilson DE (Eds.), ''Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife''. DK Adult (2005), {{ISBN|0789477645}}</ref> On average, it is the heaviest crane species, although both the [[sarus crane|sarus]] and [[wattled crane]] can grow taller and exceed this species in linear measurements.<ref name= "CRC"/><ref>[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=bioscicranes&sei-redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DWattled%2BCrane%2Btarsus%2Bdigitalcommons%26btnG%3DSearch%26hl%3Den%26gs_sm%3De%26gs_upl%3D3501l8658l0l8893l27l26l3l11l11l0l188l1671l1.11l12l0%26oq%3DWattled%2BCrane%2Btarsus%2Bdigitalcommons%26aq%3Df%26aqi%3D%26aql%3D#search=%22Wattled%20Crane%20tarsus%20digitalcommons%22|Johnsgaard- Wattled Crane profile] (2011).</ref><ref>[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&context=bioscicranes&sei-redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dsarus%2BCrane%2Btarsus%2Bdigitalcommons%26hl%3Den%26gs_sm%3De%26gs_upl%3D3501l8658l0l8893l27l26l3l11l11l0l188l1671l1.11l12l0%26oq%3Dsarus%2BCrane%2Btarsus%2Bdigitalcommons%26aq%3Df%26aqi%3D%26aql%3D#search=%22sarus%20Crane%20tarsus%20digitalcommons%22|Johnsgaard- Sarus Crane profile] (2011).</ref> On average, adult males from [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidō]] weighed around {{convert|8.2|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and adult females there averaged around {{convert|7.3|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, while a Russian study found males averaged {{convert|10|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and females averaged {{convert|8.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}}; in some cases, females could outweigh their mates despite the males' slightly larger average body weight. Another study found the average weight of the species to be {{convert|8.9|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= "CRC"/><ref name= Inoue>Inoue, M., Shimura, R., Uebayashi, A., Ikoma, S., Iima, H., Sumiyoshi, T., & Masatomi, H. (2013). Physical body parameters of red-crowned cranes ''Grus japonensis'' by sex and life stage in eastern Hokkaido, Japan. ''Journal of Veterinary Medical Science'', 75(8), 1055-1060.</ref><ref name= Klenova>Klenova, A. V., Volodin, I. A., & Volodina, E. V. (2008). Duet structure provides information about pair identity in the red-crowned crane (''Grus japonensis''). ''Journal of Ethology'', 26(3), 317-325.</ref> The maximum known weight of the red-crowned crane is {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://crane.gumi.go.kr/eng/main/sub_main.asp?Fcode=about&Ccode=class01 |title=Welcome to Cyber Crane |access-date=12 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722140248/http://crane.gumi.go.kr/eng/main/sub_main.asp?Fcode=about&Ccode=class01 |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>''The Wildlife Year'', The Reader's Digest Association, Inc. (1991). {{ISBN|0-276-42012-8}}.</ref> Among standard measurements, the wing chord measures {{convert|50.2|-|74|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the exposed [[Culmen (bird)|culmen]] measures {{convert|13.5|-|17.7|cm|in|abbr=on}}, [[tail]] length is {{convert|21.5|-|30|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] measures {{convert|23.7|-|31.9|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Inoue/>

==Range and habitat==
In the spring and summer, the [[bird migration|migratory]] populations of the red-crowned crane breed in [[Siberia]] (eastern [[Russia]]), north-eastern [[China]] and occasionally in north-eastern [[Mongolia]]<ref name=IUCN/> (i.e., Mongol Daguur Strictly Protected Area). The breeding range centers in [[Khanka Lake|Lake Khanka]], on the border of China and Russia. Normally, the crane lays two eggs, with only one surviving. Later, in the fall, they migrate in flocks to the [[Korean Peninsula]] and east-central China to spend the winter.<ref name=IUCN/> [[Vagrancy (biology)|Vagrants]] have also been recorded in [[Taiwan]].<ref name=IUCN/> In addition to the migratory populations, a resident population is found in eastern [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidō]] in [[Japan]].<ref name=IUCN/> This species nests in wetlands and rivers. In the wintering range, their habitat is comprised mainly by paddy fields, grassy tidal flats, and mudflats. In the flats, the birds feed on aquatic invertebrates and, in cold, snowy conditions, the birds switch to mainly living on rice gleanings from the paddy fields.

==Ecology and behaviour==

===Diet===
[[File:Mandschurenkranich02.jpg|right|thumb|Head and upper neck]]

Red-crowned cranes have a highly omnivorous diet, though the dietary preferences have not been fully studied. They eat rice, parsley, carrots, redbuds, [[acorn]]s, buckwheat and a variety of water plants. The animal matter in their diet consists of fish, including [[carp]] and [[goldfish]], [[amphibian]]s, especially [[salamander]]s, [[snail]]s, [[crab]]s, [[dragonflies]], small [[reptile]]s, [[shrimp]], small mammals like rodents and small [[bird]]s like ducklings. They seem to prefer a carnivorous diet, although rice is now essential to survival for wintering birds in Japan and grass seeds are another important food source. While all cranes are omnivorous, per Johnsgard, the two most common crane species today (the [[sandhill crane|sandhill]] and [[common crane]]s) are among the most herbivorous species while the two rarest species (the red-crowned and [[whooping crane]]s) are perhaps the most carnivorous species. When feeding on plants, red-crowned cranes exhibit a preference for plants with a high content of crude protein and low content of crude fiber.<ref>Hongfei, Z., Yining, W., Qingming, W., Xiaodong, G., Meng, H., & Jianzhang, M. (2012). ''Diet Composition and Preference of Grus japonensis in Zhalong Nature Reserve During Courtship Period [J]''. Journal of Northeast Forestry University, 6, 021.</ref>

They typically forage by keeping their heads close to the ground, jabbing their beaks into mud when they encounter something edible. When capturing fish or other slippery prey, they strike rapidly by extending their necks outward, a feeding style similar to that of the [[heron]]. Although animal prey can be swallowed whole, red-crowned cranes more often tear up prey by grasping with their beaks and shaking it vigorously, eating pieces as they fall apart. Most foraging occurs in wet grasslands, cultivated fields, shallow rivers, or on the shores of lakes.

===Migration===
The population of red-crowned cranes in Japan is mostly non-migratory, with the race in [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidō]] moving only {{convert|150|km|mi|abbr=on}} to its wintering grounds. Only the mainland population experiences a long-distance migration. They leave their wintering grounds in spring by February and are established on territories by April. In fall, they leave their breeding territories in October and November, with the migration fully over by mid-December.

===Sociality===
Flock sizes are affected by the small numbers of the red-crowned crane, and given their largely carnivorous diet, some feeding dispersal is needed in natural conditions. Wintering cranes have been observed foraging, variously, in family groups, pairs, and singly, although all roosting is in larger groups (up to 80 individuals) with unrelated cranes. By the early spring, pairs begin to spend more time together, with nonbreeding birds and juveniles dispersing separately. Even while not nesting, red-crowned cranes tend to be aggressive towards conspecifics and maintain a minimum distance of {{convert|2|to|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} to keep out of pecking range of other cranes while roosting nocturnally during winter. In circumstances where a crane violates these boundaries, it may be violently attacked.<ref name= Britton>Britton, D. & Hayashida T. 1981. ''The Japanese crane: bird of happiness''. Tokyo, New York, San Francisco: Kodansha International. 64 pp.</ref>

[[File:Grus japonensis-tokyosealifepark-egg-2019-1-8.jpg|thumb|Egg of a Red-crowned crane]]
===Breeding===
[[File:Japanse kraanvogels in Akan International Crane Centre, -24 februari 2012 a.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Cranes honking]]
Breeding maturity is thought to be reached at 3–4 years of age. All mating and egg-laying is largely restricted to April and early May. A red-crowned crane pair duets in various situations, helping to establish formation and maintenance of the pair bond, as well as territorial advertisement and agonistic signaling. The pair moves rhythmically until they are standing close, throwing their heads back and letting out a fluting call in unison, often triggering other pairs to start duetting, as well. As it is occurs year around, the social implications of dancing are complex in meaning. However, dancing behavior is generally thought to show excitement in the species.<ref name= Klenova/><ref>Klenova, A. V., Volodin, I. A., & Volodina, E. V. (2007). ''The vocal development of the Red-crowned Crane Grus japonensis''. Ornithological Science, 6(2), 107-119.</ref> To strengthen the bond, red-crowned cranes engage in dual honking rituals before performing a dance.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}

Pairs are territorial during the breeding season.<ref>Carpenter JW. 1986. ''Cranes (Order Gruiformes)'' In: Fowler ME. (Ed.) Zoo and wild animal medicine. Philadelphia, London, Toronto, Mexico City: W.B. Saunders Company. pp. 316-326.</ref> Nesting territories range from {{convert|1|to|7|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} and are often the same year after year. Most nesting territories are characterized by flat terrain, access to wetland habitat, and tall grasses. Nest sites are selected by females, but built by both sexes and are frequently in a small clearing made by the cranes, either on wet ground or shallow water over waters no more than {{convert|20|to|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep. Sometimes, nests are built on the frozen surface of water, as frigid temperatures may persist well into nesting season.<ref>Ma, Y-C. 1981. ''The annual cycle of red-crowned crane''. In: Lewis JC, Masatomi H. (Eds.). 1981. Crane research around the world: Proceedings of the International Crane Symposium at Sapporo Japan in 1980 and papers from the World Working Group on Cranes, International Council for Bird Preservation. Baraboo, WI: International Crane Foundation.</ref> Nest building takes about a week.<ref name= Britton/> A majority of nests contains two eggs, though one to three have been recorded. Both sexes incubate the eggs for at least 30 days. They also both feed the young when they hatch. Staying in the nest for the first few weeks, the young start to follow their parents as they forage in marshes by around 3 months of age. New hatchlings weigh about {{convert|150|g|oz|abbr=on}} and are covered in yellow natal down for two weeks.<ref name= Klenova/><ref>Ling, Z., Yanzhu, S., Dajun, L. & Yang A. 1998. ''Plumage growth and molt sequence in red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis) chicks''. In: Cranes in East Asia: Proceedings of the Symposium held in Harbin, People's Republic of China June 9–18. Open File Report 01-403. Fort Collins: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.</ref> By early fall, about 95 days after hatching, the young are fledged and are assured fliers by migration time. Although they can fly well, crane young remain together with their parents for around 9 months.<ref name= Sandie/> Young cranes maintain a higher-pitched voice that may serve to distinguish them from outwardly similar mature birds, this stage lasting until the leave parental care.<ref name= Klenova/><ref>Klenova, A. V., Volodin, I. A., Volodina, E. V., & Postelnykh, K. A. (2010). ''Voice breaking in adolescent red-crowned cranes (Grus japonensis)''. Behaviour, 147(4), 505-524.</ref> The average adult lifespan is around 30 to 40 years, with some specimens living to 75 years of age in captivity. It is one of the longest-living species of bird.<ref name= Sandie/><ref>Stott, K. (1948). Notes on the longevity of captive birds. ''The Auk'', 65(3), 402-405.</ref>

===Interspecies interactions===
[[File:Grus japonensis in flight at Akan International Crane Center.jpg|thumb|upright|Red-crowned cranes flying]]

With their height averaging 1.5 m (5 ft), their large size deters most predators.<ref>Wang, Z., Li, Z., Beauchamp, G., & Jiang, Z. (2011). Flock size and human disturbance affect vigilance of endangered red-crowned cranes (''Grus japonensis''). ''Biological Conservation'', 144(1), 101-105.</ref> As a result, red-crowned cranes often react indifferently to the presence of other birds such as small raptors; with [[Harrier (bird)|harrier]]s, [[falcon]]s, [[owl]]s, and small [[buzzard]]s being allowed to hunt small prey near a crane nest without any of these parties harassing each other. However, birds more likely to be egg or nest predators, such as [[corvid]]s, some [[buzzard]]s, and various [[eagle]]s, are treated aggressively and are threatened until they leave the crane's territory. Mammalian carnivores, including [[gray wolf|gray wolves]], [[red fox]]es, [[badger]]s, [[raccoon dog]]s, [[Eurasian lynx]]es, and [[domestic dog]]s, are attacked immediately, with the parent cranes attempting to jab them in the flanks until the predators leave the vicinity, sometimes killing smaller enemies such as foxes.<ref name= Vinter>Vinter, S.V. 1981. Nesting of the red-crowned crane in the Central Amur Region. In: Lewis JC, Masatomi H. 1981. ''Crane research around the world: Proceedings of the International Crane Symposium at Sapporo Japan in 1980 and papers from the World Working Group on Cranes, International Council for Bird Preservation''. Baraboo, WI: International Crane Foundation.</ref> Occasionally, losses at the nest occur to some of the above predators. Introduced [[American mink]] on [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidō]] are one of the most successful predators of eggs and nestlings.<ref>USGS. 2006. The cranes: status survey and conservation action plan: threats: biological factors.</ref> Also, immature and unwary adult cranes may be killed by the largest raptors, such as [[Haliaeetus|sea eagles]], or mammalian carnivores, though this is rare, especially with adults. [[White-naped crane]]s often nest near red-crowned cranes, but competition between these species for food in a common nesting area is lessened due to the greater portion of vegetation in the white-naped crane's diet.<ref>Pae, S. H., & Won, P. (1994). ''Wintering ecology of red-crowned cranes and white-naped cranes Grus japonensis and G. vipio in the Cheolwon Basin, Korea''. In The future of cranes and wetlands: Proceedings of the International Symposium. Wild Bird Society of Japan, Tokyo (pp. 97-196). Chicago.</ref> In cases where interactions turn aggressive between white-naped and red-crowned cranes, red-crowned cranes are dominant, as expected due to their considerably larger size.<ref>Lee, S.D., Jablonski, P.G. & Higuchi H. 2007. Effect of heterospecifics on foraging of endangered red-crowned and white-napped cranes in the Korean Demilitarized Zone. ''Ecological Research'' 22:635-640.</ref>

==Status==
The estimated total population of the species is only 2,750 in the wild, including about 1,000 birds in the resident Japanese population.<ref name=IUCN/> Of the migratory populations, about 1,000 winter in China (mainly at the [[Yellow River]] delta and [[Yancheng Coastal Wetlands]]), and the remaining winter in Korea.<ref name=IUCN/> It received endangered status on June 2, 1970.

The [[National Aviary]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], ran a program where U.S. [[zoo]]s donated eggs which were flown to Russia and raised in the Khinganski Nature Reserve and released into the wild. This program sent 150 eggs between 1995 and 2005. The program has been put on hold to concentrate on different crane conservation programs in Russia, such as education and fire suppression. Several hundred red-crowned cranes are kept in zoos around the world.<ref>[[International Species Information System|ISIS]] (2011). ''[https://app.isis.org/abstracts/Abs55063.asp#15.0 Grus japonensis.]'' Version 28 March 2011</ref> Assuredly, the international efforts of Russia, China, Japan, and Korea are needed to keep the species from extinction. The most pressing threat is habitat destruction, with a general lack of remaining pristine wetland habitats for the species to nest. In Japan, little proper nesting habitat remains and the local breeding population is close to the saturation point.<ref name= Archibald/><ref name= Britton/>

In South Korea, it has been designated natural monument 202 and a first-class endangered species.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

==Culture==

===China===
[[File:Grus japonensis-tokyosealifepark-video-2019-1-8.webm|left|thumb|thumbtime=3|(video) A red-crowned crane [[Preening (bird)|preening]]]]
{{Further information|Crane in Chinese mythology}}

In China, the red-crowned crane is often featured in myths and legends. In [[Taoism]], the red-crowned crane is a symbol of longevity and immortality. In art and literature, immortals are often depicted riding on cranes. A mortal who attains immortality is similarly carried off by a crane. Reflecting this association, red-crowned cranes are called ''xian-he'' ({{CJKV|t=仙鶴|s=仙鹤|p=xiānhè|l=fairy-crane" or "crane of the immortals"}}). The red-crowned crane is also a symbol of nobility. Depictions of the crane have been found in [[Shang Dynasty]] tombs and [[Zhou Dynasty]] ceremonial bronzeware. A common theme in later Chinese art is the reclusive scholar who cultivates bamboo and keeps cranes. Some literati even reared cranes and trained them to dance to ''[[guqin]]'' music.

Because of its importance in Chinese culture, the red-crowned crane was selected by the National Forestry Bureau of the [[People's Republic of China]] as a candidate for the title of national animal of China. This decision was deferred due to the red-crowned crane's [[Latin]] name translation as "Japanese crane".<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/society/2008-09/04/content_9766221.htm Controversy over the red-crowned crane's candidacy for national bird status (丹顶鹤作为候选国鸟上报国务院因争议未获批)]</ref>

===Japan===
[[File:Jal60s.png|left|thumb|The official logo of [[Japan Airlines]] features a red-crowned crane.]]
[[File:100 views edo 102.jpg|right|thumb|upright|''[[One Hundred Famous Views of Edo]]'', 1857 [[Hiroshige]].]]
In Japan, this crane is known as the ''tanchōzuru'' and is said to live for 1,000 years. A pair of red-crowned cranes was used in the design for the [[Banknotes of the Japanese yen#1984|Series D 1000-yen]] note (reverse side). In the [[Ainu language]], the red-crowned crane is known as ''sarurun kamuy'' or "marsh-[[kamuy]]". At [[Tsurui]], they are one of the [[100 Soundscapes of Japan]]. Cranes are said to grant favours in return for acts of sacrifice, as in ''[[Tsuru no Ongaeshi]]'' ("crane's return of a favor").

Given its reputation, Jerry Huff, an American branding expert, recommended it as the international logo of [[Japan Airlines]], after seeing a representation of it in a gallery of samurai crests. Huff wrote “I had faith that it was the perfect symbol for Japan Air Lines. I found that the crane myth was all positive—it mates for life (loyalty), and flies high for miles without tiring (strength).”<ref name="tsurumaru creation">{{cite book|last=Huff|first=Jerry|title=Notes on Creation of Tsurumaru Logo|year=2011|publisher=self|location=unpublished|page=3}}</ref>

[[File:500 won 1982 obverse.jpeg|thumb|left|The crane is carved in a Korean 500-[[South Korean won|won]] coin.]]
[[Robert Kuok]]'s Kerry/Kuok Group also uses the red-crowned crane as its logo for operations in Hong Kong, Singapore, PR China, and overseas.

===Korea===
In Korea, the red-crowned crane is called ''durumi'' and it is considered a symbol of longevity, purity, and peace. Korean ''[[seonbi]]s ''regarded the bird as an icon of their constancy. The red-crowned crane is depicted on the in Korean 500-[[South Korean won|won]] coin and is the symbol of [[Incheon]].
{{clear}}

== See also ==
*[[Wildlife of China]], for more endangered species
*[[List of Special Places of Scenic Beauty, Special Historic Sites and Special Natural Monuments]]
*[[Izumi crane migration grounds]], for a protected place in Japan visited by many migratory crane species

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==

* Craft, Lucille. 1999. "Divided by Politics, United in Flight - Can Japan and Russia Resolve Their Differences Over the Remote Kuril Islands and Protect the Rare Red Crowned Crane?" ''International Wildlife''. 29, no. 3: 22.
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=bioscicranes&sei-redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dred-crowned%2BCrane%2Btarsus%2Bdigitalcommons%26hl%3Den%26gs_sm%3De%26gs_upl%3D3501l8658l0l8893l27l26l3l11l11l0l188l1671l1.11l12l0%26oq%3Dred-crowned%2BCrane%2Btarsus%2Bdigitalcommons%26aq%3Df%26aqi%3D%26aql%3D#search=%22red-crowned%20Crane%20tarsus%20digitalcommons%22|Red-crowned Crane- Paul A. Johnsgaard] (2011).
*{{cite magazine|title=The Japanese Crane, Bird of Happiness|magazine=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]|first=Tsuneo|last=Hayashida|pp=542–556|volume=164|issue=4|date=October 1983|issn=0027-9358|oclc=643483454}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Grus japonensis}}
{{Wikispecies|Grus japonensis}}
* [http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/red-crowned-crane-grus-japonensis BirdLife Species Factsheet]
* [https://www.savingcranes.org/species-field-guide/red-crowned-crane/ Red-crowned crane (International Crane Foundation)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081016053244/http://www.trackingcranes.org/en/index.html Three White Cranes, Two Flyways, One World] An educational website that links schools along the eastern whooping crane flyway in the United States with schools along the eastern flyways of the Siberian and red-crowned cranes in Russia and China.
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/bioscicranes/21/ Japanese Crane (''Grus japonensis'')] from ''Cranes of the World'' (1983) by Paul Johnsgard

{{Birds}}
{{Gruidae|state=all}}
{{portalbar|Birds|Animals|Biology|Japan|South Korea|China|Asia}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q232906}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Grus (genus)|Grus]]
[[Category:Birds of Japan]]
[[Category:Birds of Korea]]
[[Category:Birds of Manchuria]]
[[Category:Hokkaido]]
[[Category:Special Natural Monuments]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1776]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

Indian vulture

2020-04-22T02:48:32Z

118.46.55.151:

{{speciesbox
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>BirdLife International 2017. ''Gyps indicus''. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T22729731A117875047. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22729731A117875047.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| image = Indian vulture (Gyps indicus) Photograph by Shantanu Kuveskar.jpg
| image_caption = Indian vulture sunbathing in [[Mhasla]], [[Maharashtra]]
| genus = Gyps
| species = indicus
| authority = ([[Giovanni Antonio Scopoli|Scopoli]], 1786)
}}
The '''Indian vulture''' (''Gyps indicus'') is an [[Old World vulture]] native to India, Pakistan and Nepal. It has been listed as [[Critically Endangered]] on the [[IUCN Red List]] since 2002, as the population severely declined. Indian vultures died of [[kidney failure]] caused by [[diclofenac]] poisoning.<ref name=iucn/> It breeds mainly on hilly crags in central and peninsular [[India]].

The [[slender-billed vulture]] ''Gyps tenuirostris'' in the northern part of its range is considered a separate species.

==Description==
[[File:White-rumped_vulture_(Gyps_bengalensis)_&_Indian_vulture_(Gyps_indicus)_Photograph_by_Shantanu_Kuveskar.jpg|thumb|left|300px| Difference in between White-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis) & Indian vulture (Gyps indicus), Photographed in [[Mangaon]], Raigad, Maharashtra]]
The Indian vulture is medium-sized and bulky. Its body and [[covert feather]]s are pale, its [[Flight feather|quills]] are darker. Its wings are broad and its tail feathers short. Its head and neck are almost bald, and its bill is rather long.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ferguson-Lees |first=J. |last2=Christie |first2=D. A. |year=2001 |title=Raptors of the World |location= |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=0-618-12762-3 }}</ref>

It usually is {{convert|80|–|103|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and has a wing span of {{convert|1.96|to|2.38|m|ft|abbr=on}}. It weighs {{convert|5.5|-|6.3|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. It is smaller and less heavily built than the [[Eurasian griffon]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peregrinefund.org/vulture_factsheet.asp#Long-billed%20Vulture, |title=The Peregrine Fund |publisher=The Peregrine Fund |date=2010-11-03 |accessdate=2011-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526203258/http://www.peregrinefund.org/vulture_factsheet.asp#Long-billed%20Vulture, |archive-date=2011-05-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is distinguished from that species by its less buff body and [[wing covert]]s. It also lacks the whitish median covert bar shown by griffons.

==Behaviour==
The species breeds mainly on cliffs, but is known to use trees to nest in Rajasthan. It may also breed on high human-made structures, like the [[Chaturbhuj Temple (Orchha)|Chaturbhuj Temple]]. Like other [[vulture]]s it is a scavenger, feeding mostly from carcasses of dead [[animal]]s which it finds by soaring over savannah and around human habitation. They often move in flocks.

==Status and conservation==

===Population declines===
[[File:Long billed vulture.jpg|thumb|left|Long-billed vulture in flight]]
{{Main article|Indian vulture crisis}}
The Indian vulture and the [[white-rumped vulture]], ''G. bengalensis'' species have suffered a 99%–97% population decrease in [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]] and [[India]]. Between 2000-2007 annual decline rates of this species and the [[slender-billed vulture]] averaged over sixteen percent.<ref name = "BirdLife"/> The cause of this has been identified as poisoning caused by the veterinary drug [[diclofenac]]. Diclofenac is a [[non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug]] (NSAID) and when given to working animals it can reduce joint pain and so keep them working for longer. The drug is believed to be swallowed by vultures with the flesh of dead cattle who were given diclofenac in the last days of life.

Diclofenac causes kidney failure in several species of vultures. In March 2006 the Indian Government announced its support for a ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac. Another NSAID, [[meloxicam]], has been found to be harmless to vultures and should prove to be an acceptable substitute for diclofenac. When meloxicam production is increased it is hoped that it will be as cheap as diclofenac. As of August 2011 the ban for veterinary use for approximately a year did not prevent diclofenac use across India.<ref name = "Express"/> Small numbers of birds have bred across peninsular India, in [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name = "Hindu"/> The decline in the Indian vulture has drastically affected the conservation of the environment. By removing all carcasses, vultures had helped decrease pollution, disease spread, and suppressed undesirable mammalian scavengers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Prakash|first=Vibhu|last2=Bishwakarma|first2=Mohan Chandra|last3=Chaudhary|first3=Anand|last4=Cuthbert|first4=Richard|last5=Dave|first5=Ruchi|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Mandar|last7=Kumar|first7=Sashi|last8=Paudel|first8=Khadananda|last9=Ranade|first9=Sachin|date=2012-11-07|title=The Population Decline of Gyps Vultures in India and Nepal Has Slowed since Veterinary Use of Diclofenac was Banned|url=http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0049118|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=7|issue=11|pages=e49118|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0049118|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3492300}}</ref> In their absence, the population of feral dogs and rats, along with their zoonotic diseases, has increased greatly.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prakash |first1=V. |last2=Pain |first2=D.J. |last3=Cunningham |first3=A.A. |last4=Donald |first4=P.F. |last5=Prakash |first5=N. |last6=Verma |first6=A. |last7=Gargi |first7=R. |last8=Sivakumar |first8=S. |last9=Rahmani |first9=A.R. |title=Catastrophic collapse of Indian white-backed Gyps bengalensis and long-billed Gyps indicus vulture populations |journal=Biological Conservation |date=March 2003 |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=381–390 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00164-7}}</ref>
[[File:Vultures in the nest, Orchha, MP, India edit.jpg|thumb|At nest ([[Orchha]], India)]]

===Captive-breeding programmes===
Captive-breeding programmes for several species of Indian vulture have been started. The vultures are long lived and slow in breeding, so the programmes are expected to take decades. Vultures reach breeding age at about five years old. It is hoped that captive-bred birds will be released to the wild when the environment is clear of diclofenac.

In early 2014 the ''Saving Asia's Vultures from Extinction'' (Save) programme announced that it expects to start releasing captive-bred birds into the wild by 2016.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kinver|first=Mark|title=Project targets 2016 for Asian vultures release|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-25963100|accessdate=2 February 2014|newspaper=BBC News|date=31 Jan 2014}}</ref>

Two captive Himalayan Griffon vultures were released in June, 2016 from [[Jatayu Conservation Breeding Centre, Pinjore|Jatayu Conservation Breeding Centre]], [[Pinjore]] as part of Asia's first vulture re-introduction program.
<ref>{{cite web|title=Asia's first vulture re-introduction programme launched in Haryana|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/asias-first-vulture-re-introduction-programe-launched-in-haryana/1/683586.html}}</ref>
==Gallery==
<Gallery>
File:Gyps indicus Indian Vulture.jpg|Gyps indicus Indian Vulture at Bandhavgarh National Park, India
File:Indian Vulture at bandhavgarh.jpg|Indian Vulture at bandhavgarh
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist|2 | refs =
<ref name = "BirdLife">
{{ cite web
| url = http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=31029
| title = BirdLife Fact Sheet: Indian vulture
| accessdate = 11 August 2014
| publisher = [[BirdLife International]] }}
</ref>
<ref name = "Express">{{cite news |url = http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/banned-diclofenac-still-kills-vultures/828303/ | title = Banned diclofenac still kills vultures |first = Raakhi | last = Jagga | date = 7 August 2011 | newspaper = Express India | accessdate = 11 August 2014}}</ref>
<ref name = "Hindu">
{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/longbilled-vultures-sighted-after-40-years/article5322851.ece|title=Long-billed Vulture sighted after 40 years|newspaper=The Hindu|date=7 November 2013 |first = P. |last = Oppili | accessdate = 11 August 2014}}</ref>
}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Gyps indicus}}
{{Wikispecies|Gyps indicus}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150722223425/http://www.vulturerescue.org/ Conserving Asia's critically endangered vultures]
* [http://www.vulture-territory.com/billed.html Vulture Territory Facts and Characteristics: Long Billed Griffon]
* [http://www.save-vultures.org/ "Saving Asia's Vultures from Extinction" Consortium]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170107044924/http://www.snmcpn.org/vultures/indian-white-backed-vulture Conservation of Vultures in Konkan region]

{{Vulture}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q248086}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:vulture, Indian}}
[[Category:Gyps|Indian vulture]]
[[Category:Birds of India|Indian vulture]]
[[Category:Birds of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Birds of Nepal]]
[[Category:Critically endangered fauna of Asia|Indian vulture]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1786|Indian vulture]]
[[Category:Aviculture]]

White-rumped vulture

2020-04-22T02:47:09Z

118.46.55.151:

{{speciesbox
| image = White-rumped_vulture_(Gyps_bengalensis)_Photograph_by_Shantanu_Kuveskar.jpg
| image_caption = White-rumped vulture in [[Shrivardhan]], [[Maharashtra]]
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>BirdLife International 2017. ''Gyps bengalensis''. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T22695194A118307773. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22695194A118307773.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| genus = Gyps
| species = bengalensis
| authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788)
| synonyms = ''Pseudogyps bengalensis''
| range_map = GypsBengalensisMap.svg
| range_map_caption = Former distribution of ''Gyps bengalensis'' in red
}}

The '''white-rumped vulture''' (''Gyps bengalensis'') is an [[Old World vulture]] native to South and Southeast Asia. It has been listed as [[Critically Endangered]] on the [[IUCN Red List]] since 2000, as the population severely declined. White-rumped vultures die of [[kidney failure]] caused by [[diclofenac]] poisoning.<ref name=iucn/>
In the 1980s, the global population was estimated at several million individuals, and it was thought to be "the most abundant large [[bird of prey]] in the world".<ref>{{cite book |author=Houston, D. C. |year=1985 |chapter=Indian White-backed Vulture (''Gyps bengalensis'') |title=Conservation studies of raptors |editor1=Newton, I. |editor2=Chancellor, R. D. |publisher=International Council for Bird Preservation |location=Cambridge, U.K |pages=456–466}}</ref> As of 2016, the global population was estimated at less than 10,000 mature individuals.<ref name=iucn/>

It is closely related to the European [[griffon vulture]] (''Gyps fulvus''). At one time it was believed to be closer to the [[white-backed vulture]] of Africa and was known as the '''Oriental white-backed vulture'''.<ref name="PrakashPainCunningham2003" />

== Description ==
[[File:GypsSilhouette.svg|thumb|upright|Underwing pattern of an adult]]
[[File:White-rumped_vulture_(Gyps_bengalensis)_&_Indian_vulture_(Gyps_indicus)_Photograph_by_Shantanu_Kuveskar.jpg|thumb|Difference between White-rumped vulture and Indian vulture (Gyps indicus), photographed in [[Mangaon]]]]
The white-rumped vulture is a typical, medium-sized vulture, with an unfeathered head and neck, very broad wings, and short tail feathers. It is much smaller than the Eurasian Griffon. It has a white neck ruff. The adult's whitish back, rump, and underwing coverts contrast with the otherwise dark plumage. The body is black and the secondaries are silvery grey. The head is tinged in pink and bill is silvery with dark ceres. The nostril openings are slit-like. Juveniles are largely dark and take about four or five years to acquire the adult plumage. In flight, the adults show a dark leading edge of the wing and has a white wing-lining on the underside. The undertail coverts are black.<ref name="RasmussenAnderton2005" />

This is the smallest of the ''[[Gyps]]'' vultures, but is still a very large bird. It weighs 3.5-7.5 kg (7.7-16.5 lbs), measures {{convert|75|–|93|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length,<ref name="RasmussenAnderton2005" /> and has a wingspan of {{convert|1.92|-|2.6|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Hume1896">{{cite book |last=Hume |first=A. O. |author-link=Allan Octavian Hume |year=1896 |chapter=Gyps Bengalensis |title=My scrap book or rough notes on Indian ornithology |pages=26–31 |publisher=Baptist Mission Press |location=Calcutta |chapterurl=https://archive.org/stream/myscrapbookorrou00hume#page/26/mode/2up}}</ref><ref>Ferguson-Lees, J. and Christie, D.A. (2001). Raptors of the world. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. {{ISBN|0-618-12762-3}}</ref>

This vulture builds its nest on tall trees often near human habitations in northern and central India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and southeast Asia, laying one egg. Birds form roost colonies. The population is mostly resident.

Like other [[vulture]]s it is a [[scavenger]], feeding mostly from carcasses of dead [[animal]]s which it finds by soaring high in thermals and spotting other scavengers. A 19th century experimenter who hid a carcass of dog in a sack in a tree considered it capable of finding carrion by smell.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hutton, T. |year=1837|title=Nest of the Bengal Vulture, (''Vultur Bengalensis'') with observations on the power of scent ascribed to the vulture tribe |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofasiatic61asia/page/112|journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society Bengal |volume=6 |pages=112–118}}</ref> It often flies and sits in flocks. At one time, it was the most numerous vulture in India.<ref name="RasmussenAnderton2005">{{cite book |last=Rasmussen |first=P. C. |authorlink=Pamela C. Rasmussen |last2=Anderton |first2=J. C. |year=2005 |title=Birds of South Asia: The Ripley Guide. Volume 2 |pages=89–90 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions}}</ref>

Within the well-supported clade of the genus ''Gyps'' which includes Asian, African, and European populations, it has been determined that this species is basal with the other species being more recent in their species divergence.<ref name="SeiboldHelbig1995">{{cite journal|doi=10.1098/rstb.1995.0150 |title=Evolutionary History of New and Old World Vultures Inferred from Nucleotide Sequences of the Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Gene |year=1995 |last1=Seibold |first1=I. |last2=Helbig |first2=A. J.|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=350 |issue=1332 |pages=163–178 |pmid=8577858|bibcode=1995RSPTB.350..163S}}</ref><ref name="Johnson2006">{{cite journal |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-6-65 |year=2006 |last1=Johnson |first1=J. A. |last2=Lerner|first2=H. R.L. |last3=Rasmussen|first3=P. C.|last4=Mindell|first4=D. P. |title=Systematics within ''Gyps'' vultures: a clade at risk |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=6|pages=65|pmc=1569873}}</ref>

== Behaviour and ecology ==
White-rumped vultures usually become active when the morning sun is warming up the air so that thermals are sufficient to support their soaring. They were once visible above Calcutta in large numbers.<ref name=Cunningham1903>{{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=D. D. | year=1903 |chapter=Vultures, eagles |title=Some Indian friends and acquaintances; a study of the ways of birds and other animals frequenting Indian streets and gardens| publisher = John Murray | location=London |pages=237–251 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/someindianfriend00cunnrich#page/236/mode/2up}}</ref>

When they find a carcass, they quickly descend and feed voraciously. They perch on trees nearby and are known to sometimes descend also after dark to feed. At kill sites, they are dominated by [[red-headed vulture]]s ''Sarcogyps calvus''.<ref name=Morris1935>{{cite journal | last = Morris | first = R. C. | year = 1935
|title=Death of an Elephant (''Elephas maximus'' Linn.) while calving |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=37 |issue = 3 | page = 722|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48733216}}</ref>
In forests, their soaring often indicated a [[Bengal tiger|tiger]] kill.<ref name="Gough1936" /> They swallow pieces of old, dry bones such as ribs and of skull pieces from small mammals.<ref name="Grubh1973">{{cite journal |last=Grubh |first=R. B. |year=1973 |title=Calcium intake in vultures of the genus ''Gyps'' |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=199–200 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48290154#page/215/mode/1up}}</ref>
Where water is available they bathe regularly and also drink water. A pack of vultures was observed to have cleaned up a whole bullock in about 20 minutes. Trees on which they regularly roost are often white from their excreta, and this acidity often kills the trees. This made them less welcome in orchards and plantations.<ref name="AliRipley1978">{{cite book |last=Ali |first=Sálim |author1-link=Salim Ali |last2=Ripley |first2=S. D. |author2-link=Sidney Dillon Ripley |year=1978 |title=Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan, Volume 1 |pages=307–310 |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-562063-4}}</ref>

They sometimes feed on dead vultures.<ref name="Prakash1988">{{cite journal | last = Prakash | first = V. | year = 1988 | title = Indian Scavenger Vulture (''Neophron percnopterus ginginianus'') feeding on a dead White-backed Vulture (''Gyps bengalensis'') | journal = Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society | volume = 85 | issue = 3 | pages = 614–615}}</ref><ref name="RanaPrakash2003">{{cite journal|last = Rana|first = G.|last2 = Prakash|first2 = V. |year=2003 | title = Cannibalism in Indian White-backed Vulture ''Gyps bengalensis'' in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan | journal = Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society | volume = 100 | issue = 1 | pages = 116–117|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48602690}}</ref> One white-rumped vulture was observed when getting caught in the mouth of a dying calf.<ref name="Greenwood1938" />
[[Jungle crow]]s have been sighted to steal food brought by adults and regurgitated to young.<ref name="McCann1937"/>

[[Allan Octavian Hume]] observed "hundreds of nests" and noted that white-rumped vultures used to nest on large trees near habitations even when there were convenient cliffs in the vicinity. The preferred nesting trees were [[Ficus benghalensis|Banyan]], [[sacred fig|Peepul]], [[Terminalia arjuna|Arjun]], and [[Neem]]. The main nesting period was November to March with eggs being laid mainly in January. Several pairs nest in the vicinity of each other and isolated nests tend to be those of younger birds. Nests are nearly 3 feet in diameter and half a foot in thickness, and are lined with green leaves.<ref name="Hume1896" /> Solitary nests are not used regularly and are sometimes taken over by the red-headed vulture and large owls such as ''[[Bubo coromandus]]''. The male initially brings twigs and arranges them to form the nest. During courtship the male bills the female's head, back and neck. The female invites copulation, and the male mounts and hold the head of the female in his bill.<ref name=Sharma /> Usually, the female lays a single egg, which is white with a tinge of bluish-green. Female birds destroy the nest on loss of an egg. They are usually silent but make hissing and roaring sounds at the nest or when jostling for food.<ref name="Hume1896" /> The eggs hatch after about 30 to 35 days of incubation. The young chick is covered with grey down. The parents feed them with bits of meat from a carcass. The young birds remain for about three months in the nest.<ref name=Sharma>{{cite journal|first=I. K. |last=Sharma |year=1970| title=Breeding of the Indian white-backed vulture at Jodhpur |journal=Ostrich| volume=41| issue=2|pages=205–207 |doi=10.1080/00306525.1970.9634367}}</ref>

[[Mycoplasma]]s have been isolated from tissues of a white-rumped vulture.<ref name="Oaks-etal2004" /> [[Mallophaga]]n parasites such as ''Falcolipeurus'' and ''Colpocephalum turbinatum''have been collected from the species.<ref name="Tandan1964" /><ref name="PriceEmerson1966" />
Ticks, ''Argas (Persicargas) abdussalami'', have been collected in numbers from the roost trees of these vultures in Pakistan.<ref name="HoogstraalMcCarthy1965">{{cite journal| pmid =5834930| year =1965| last1 =Hoogstraal| first1 =H. | last2 =McCarthy| first2 =V. C. | title =The subgenus ''Persicargas'' (Ixodoidea, Argasidae, Argas). 2. A. (P.) ''abdussalami'', new species, associated with wild birds on trees and buildings near Lahore, Pakistan| volume =58| issue =5| pages =756–762| journal =Annals of the Entomological Society of America| doi =10.1093/aesa/58.5.756}}</ref>

A captive individual lived for at least 12 years.<ref name="Stott1948" />

==Status and decline==
===In the Indian subcontinent===
[[File:RAVI.WIKI.WHITERUMPEDVULTURE2.jpg|thumb|A white-rumped vulture in [[Desert National Park]]]]
{{See also|Indian vulture crisis}}
The white-rumped vulture was originally very common especially in the Gangetic plains of India, and often seen nesting on the avenue trees within large cities in the region. [[Hugh Whistler]] noted for instance in his guide to the birds of India that it “is the commonest of all the vultures of India, and must be familiar to those who have visited the Towers of Silence in Bombay.”<ref name="Whistler1949" /> [[Thomas C. Jerdon|T. C. Jerdon]] noted that “[T]his is the most common vulture of India, and is found in immense numbers all over the country, ... At Calcutta one may frequently be seen seated on the bloated corpse of some Hindoo floating up or down with the tide, its wing spread, to assist in steadying it...”<ref name=Jerdon1862>{{cite book |last=Jerdon |first=T. C. |year=1862 |title=The Birds of India |volume=Volume 1 |chapter=Gyps Bengalensis |pages=10–12 |chapterurl=https://archive.org/stream/birdsofindiabein01jerd#page/10/mode/2up |publisher=Military Orphan Press}}</ref>

Before the 1990s they were even seen as a nuisance, particularly to aircraft as they were often involved in [[bird strike]]s.<ref>{{cite book |author=Satheesan, S. M. |year=1994 |chapter=The more serious vulture hits to military aircraft in India between 1980 and 1994 |title=Bird Strikes Committee Europe, Conference proceedings |publisher=BSCE |location=Vienna |chapterurl=http://www.int-birdstrike.org/Vienna_Papers/IBSC22%20WP23.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Singh, R. B. |year=1999 |title=Ecological strategy to prevent vulture menace to aircraft in India |journal=Defence Science Journal |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=117–121 |url=http://publications.drdo.gov.in/gsdl/collect/defences/index/assoc/HASH0129/367f4611.dir/doc.pdf |doi=10.14429/dsj.49.3796 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In 1941 [[Charles McCann]] wrote about the death of ''[[Borassus]]'' palms due to the effect of excreta from vultures roosting on them.<ref>{{cite journal |author=McCann, C. |year=1941|title=Vultures and palms |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume= 42|issue=2|pages=439–440 |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47873208}}</ref> In 1990, the species had already become rare in Andhra Pradesh in the districts of [[Guntur]] and [[Prakasham]]. The hunting of the birds for meat by the Bandola ([[Banda people|Banda]]) people there was attributed as a reason. A cyclone in the region during 1990 resulted in numerous livestock deaths and no vultures were found at the carcasses.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Serious vulture-hits to aircraft over the world |author1=Satheesan, S. M. |author2=M. Satheesan |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2000 |title=International Bird Strike Committee IBSC25/WP-SA3 |publisher=IBSC |location=Amsterdam |chapterurl=http://www.int-birdstrike.org/Amsterdam_Papers/IBSC25%20WPSA3.pdf}}</ref>

This species, as well as the [[Indian vulture]] and [[slender-billed vulture]] has suffered a 99% population decrease in India<ref>{{cite journal | author = Prakash, V.| year = 2007 | title = Recent changes in populations of resident ''Gyps'' vultures in India | journal = J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. | volume = 104 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–135 | url = https://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/IndianVultureDeclines_tcm9-188415.pdf |display-authors=etal}}</ref> and nearby countries<ref>{{cite journal | year = 2005 | title = Population status and breeding ecology of White-rumped Vulture ''Gyps bengalensis'' in Rampur Valley, Nepal | journal = Forktail | volume = 21 | pages = 87–91 | url = http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/21pdf/Baral-Vulture.pdf | author1 = Baral, N. | author2 = Gautam, R. | author3 = Tamang, B. | access-date = 2009-05-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080704121157/http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/21pdf/Baral-Vulture.pdf | archive-date = 2008-07-04 | url-status = dead }}</ref> since the early 1990s. The decline has been widely attributed to poisoning by [[diclofenac]], which is used as veterinary [[non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug]] (NSAID), leaving traces in cattle carcasses which when fed on leads to kidney failure in birds.<ref name="GreenNewtonShultz-etal2004" /> Diclofenac was also found to be lethal at low dosages to other species in the genus ''Gyps''.<ref name="SwanCuthbert-etal2006" /><ref>{{cite journal | author = Meteyer, Carol Uphoff | author2 = Rideout, Bruce A. | author3 = Gilbert, Martin | author4 = Shivaprasad, H. L. | author5 = Oaks, J. Lindsay | title = Pathology and proposed pathophysiology of diclofenac poisoning in free-living and experimentally exposed oriental white-backed vultures (''Gyps bengalensis'') | journal = J. Wildl. Dis. | year = 2005 | volume = 41 | issue = 4 | pages = 707–716 | doi=10.7589/0090-3558-41.4.707| pmid = 16456159 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Other NSAIDs were also found to be toxic, to ''Gyps'' as well as other birds such as storks.<ref name="CuthbertParry-JonesGreenPain" /> It was shown between 2000-2007 annual decline rates in India averaged 43.9% and ranged from 11-61% in [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. Organochlorine pesticide residues were found from egg and tissue samples from around India varying in concentrations from 0.002 μg/g of DDE in muscles of vulture from Mudumalai to 7.30 μg/g in liver samples from vultures of Delhi. Dieldrin varied from 0.003 and 0.015 μg/g. Higher concentrations were found in Lucknow.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://archive.org/stream/pesticidesmonito15unit#page/9/mode/1up|title=Organochlorine pesticide residues in some Indian wild birds|author1=Kaphalia, B. S. |author2=M. M. Husain |author3=T. D. Seth |author4=A. Kumar |author5=C. R. K. Murti |year=1981| journal=Pesticides Monitoring Journal|volume=15| issue=1| pages=9–13|pmid=7279596}}</ref> These pesticide levels have not however been implicated in the decline.<ref name="Muralidharan-etal2008" />

An alternate hypothesis is an epidemic of [[avian malaria]], as implicated in the extinctions of birds in the Hawaiian islands. Evidence for the idea is drawn from an apparent recovery of a vulture following [[chloroquine]] treatment.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Poharkar, A. | author2 =Reddy, P. A. | author3 =Gadge, V.A. | author4 =Kolte, S. |author5=Kurkure, N. | author6 =Shivaji, S P. | last-author-amp = yes | year= 2009 | title = Is malaria the cause for decline in the wild population of the Indian White-backed vulture (''Gyps bengalensis'')? | journal = Current Science | volume = 96 | issue = 4 | page = 553 | url = http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/feb252009/553.pdf }}</ref> Yet another suggestion has been that the population changes may be linked with long term climatic cycles such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Hall, JC |author2=Chhangani, A. K. |author3=Waite, T. A. |author4=Hamilton, I. M. |year=2012 | title= The impacts of La Niña induced drought on Indian Vulture ''Gyps indicus'' populations in Western Rajasthan|journal= Bird Conservation International| volume=22|pages=247–259|
doi=10.1017/S0959270911000232|issue=3|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Affected vultures were initially reported to adopt a drooped neck posture and this was considered a symptom of [[pesticide poisoning]],<ref name="PrakashPainCunningham2003" /> but subsequent studies suggested that this may be a thermoregulatory response as the posture was seen mainly during hot weather.<ref name="GilbertWatsonVirani-etal2007" />

It has been suggested that [[rabies]] cases have increased in India due to the decline.<ref name="Markandya-etal2008" />

=== In Southeast Asia ===
In Southeast Asia, the near-total disappearance of white-rumped vultures predated the present diclofenac crisis, and probably resulted from the collapse of large wild ungulate populations and improved management of dead livestock, resulting in a lack of available carcasses for vultures.<ref name="BirdLife-factsheet" />

== Conservation ==

Currently, only the Cambodia and Burma populations are thought to be viable though those populations are still very small (low hundreds).<ref name="BirdLife-factsheet" /> It has been suggested that the use of [[meloxicam]] (another NSAID) as a veterinary substitute that is safer for vultures would help in the recovery.<ref name="SwanNaidoo-etal2006" /> Campaigns to ban the use of [[diclofenac]] in veterinary practice have been underway in several South Asian countries.<ref name="BirdLife-nepal_vultures" />

Conservation measures have included [[reintroduction]], captive-breeding programs and artificial feeding or "vulture restaurants".<ref name="GilbertWatsonAhmed-etal2007" /> Two chicks, which were apparently the first captive-bred white-rumped vultures ever, hatched in January 2007, at a facility at [[Pinjore]]. However, they died after a few weeks, apparently because their parents were an inexperienced couple breeding for the first time in their lives – a fairly common occurrence in birds of prey.<ref name="Reuters-2007-02-23" />

== References ==

{{Reflist
| colwidth = 30em
| refs =

<ref name="BirdLife-factsheet">
{{cite web
| title = White-rumped Vulture (''Gyps bengalensis'') — BirdLife species factsheet
| publisher = BirdLife International
| work = BirdLife.org
| url = http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=3374
| accessdate = 2011-06-01}}</ref>

<ref name="PrakashPainCunningham2003">
{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00164-7|title=Catastrophic collapse of Indian white-backed Gyps bengalensis and long-billed ''Gyps indicus'' vulture populations|year=2003|last1=Prakash|first1=V. |journal=Biological Conservation|volume=109|issue=3|pages=381–390|last2=Pain|first2=D.J. |last3=Cunningham|first3=A.A. |last4=Donald|first4=P.F.|last5=Prakash|first5=N.|last6=Verma|first6=A.|last7=Gargi|first7=R.|last8=Sivakumar|first8=S.|last9=Rahmani|first9=A.R.}}</ref>

<ref name="Gough1936">
{{cite journal
| last = Gough
| first = W.
| year = 1936
| title = Vultures feeding at night
| journal =Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | page = 624|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47602994}}</ref>

<ref name="Greenwood1938">
{{cite journal
| last = Greenwood
| first = J. A. C.
| year = 1938
| title = Strange accident to a Vulture
| journal = Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society | volume = 40 | issue = 2 | page = 330|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47602642}}</ref>
<ref name="Oaks-etal2004">
{{cite journal|doi=10.1128/JCM.42.12.5909-5912.2004|title=Identification of a Novel Mycoplasma Species from an Oriental White-Backed Vulture (''Gyps bengalensis'')|year=2004|last1=Oaks|first1=J. L.|last2=Donahoe|first2=S. L.|last3=Rurangirwa|first3=F. R.|last4=Rideout|first4=B. A.|last5=Gilbert|first5=M.|last6=Virani|first6=M. Z. |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=42|issue=12|pages=5909–5912|pmid=15583338|pmc=535302 }}
</ref>
<ref name="PriceEmerson1966">
{{cite journal
| last = Price
| first = R. D.
| last2 = Emerson
| first2 = K.C.
| year = 1966
| title = New synonymies within the bird lice (''Mallophaga'')
| journal = Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society
| volume = 39
| issue = 3
| pages = 430–433
| jstor = 25083538
}}
</ref>
<ref name="Tandan1964">
{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3113.1964.tb01599.x|title=Mallophaga from birds of the Indian subregion. Part VI Falcolipeurus Bedford*|year=2009|last1=Tandan|first1=B. K.|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London B|volume=33|issue=11–12|pages=173–180 }}
</ref>

<ref name="Stott1948">
{{cite journal
| last = Stott
| first = Ken, Jr.
| year = 1948
| title = Notes on the longevity of captive birds
| journal = Auk
| volume = 65
| issue = 3
| pages = 402–405
| url = http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v065n03/p0402-p0405.pdf
| doi = 10.2307/4080488
| jstor = 4080488}}</ref>
<ref name="McCann1937">
{{cite journal
| last = McCann
| first = Charles
| year = 1937
| title = Curious behaviour of the Jungle Crow (''Corvus macrorhynchus'') and the White-backed Vulture (''Gyps bengalensis'')
| journal =Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society | volume = 39 | issue = 4 | page = 864|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47591369}}</ref>

<ref name="Whistler1949">
{{cite book
| last = Whistler
| first = Hugh
| year = 1949
| title = Popular Handbook of Indian Birds
| pages = [https://archive.org/details/popularhandbooko033226mbp/page/n405 354]–356
| publisher = Gurney & Jackson
| location = London
| url = https://archive.org/details/popularhandbooko033226mbp}}</ref>

<ref name="GreenNewtonShultz-etal2004">
{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00954.x|title=Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of vulture population declines across the Indian subcontinent|year=2004|last1=Green|first1=Rhys E.|last2=Newton|first2=IAN|last3=Shultz|first3=Susanne|last4=Cunningham|first4=Andrew A.|last5=Gilbert|first5=Martin|last6=Pain|first6=Deborah J.|last7=Prakash|first7=Vibhu|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=41|issue=5|pages=793–800}}</ref>

<ref name="SwanCuthbert-etal2006">
{{cite journal|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2005.0425|title=Toxicity of diclofenac to Gyps vultures|year=2006|last1=Swan|first1=G. E|last2=Cuthbert|first2=R.|last3=Quevedo|first3=M.|last4=Green|first4=R. E|last5=Pain|first5=D. J|last6=Bartels|first6=P.|last7=Cunningham|first7=A. A|last8=Duncan|first8=N.|last9=Meharg|first9=A. A|last10=Lindsay Oaks|first10=J|last11=Parry-Jones|first11=J.|last12=Shultz|first12=S.|last13=Taggart|first13=M. A|last14=Verdoorn|first14=G.|last15=Wolter|first15=K.|journal=Biology Letters |volume=2|issue=2|pages=279–282|pmid=17148382|pmc=1618889 |display-authors=8}}</ref>

<ref name="CuthbertParry-JonesGreenPain">
{{cite journal|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0554|pmid=17443974|title=NSAIDs and scavenging birds: potential impacts beyond Asia's critically endangered vultures|year=2007|last1=Cuthbert|first1=R.|last2=Parry-Jones|first2=J.|last3=Green|first3=R. E|last4=Pain|first4=D. J|journal=Biology Letters|volume=3|issue=1|pages=91–94|pmc=2373805}}</ref>

<ref name="Muralidharan-etal2008">
{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00128-008-9529-z|title=Persistent Organochlorine Pesticide Residues in Tissues and Eggs of White-Backed Vulture, Gyps bengalensis from Different Locations in India |year=2008|last1=Muralidharan|first1=S.|last2=Dhananjayan|first2=V.|last3=Risebrough|first3=Robert|last4=Prakash|first4=V.|last5=Jayakumar|first5=R.|last6=Bloom|first6=Peter H.|journal=Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology|volume=81|issue=6|pages=561–565|pmid=18806909}}</ref>

<ref name="GilbertWatsonVirani-etal2007">
{{cite journal|doi=10.3356/0892-1016(2007)41[35:NPIOWV]2.0.CO;2|issn=0892-1016|year=2007|volume=41|pages=35–40|title=Neck-drooping Posture in Oriental White-Backed Vultures (Gyps bengalensis): An Unsuccessful Predictor of Mortality and Its Probable Role in Thermoregulation|last1=Gilbert|first1=Martin|last2=Watson|first2=Richard T.|last3=Virani|first3=Munir Z.|last4=Oaks|first4=J. Lindsay|last5=Ahmed|first5=Shakeel|last6=Chaudhry|first6=Muhammad Jamshed Iqbal|last7=Arshad|first7=Muhammad|last8=Mahmood|first8=S. |last9=Ali|first9=A. |last10=Khan|first10=A. A. |journal=Journal of Raptor Research}}</ref>
<ref name="Markandya-etal2008">
{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.04.020|title=Counting the cost of vulture decline—An appraisal of the human health and other benefits of vultures in India |year=2008 |last1=Markandya |first1=A. |last2=Taylor|first2=T. |last3=Longo|first3=A. |last4=Murty |first4=M.N.|last5=Murty |first5=S.|last6=Dhavala|first6=K.|journal=Ecological Economics|volume=67|issue=2|pages=194–204|url=https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/10036/4350/7/Vultures.pdf|hdl=10036/4350 }}</ref>
<ref name="SwanNaidoo-etal2006">
{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0040066|title=Removing the Threat of Diclofenac to Critically Endangered Asian Vultures|year=2006|last1=Swan|first1=G. |last2=Naidoo|first2=V. |last3=Cuthbert|first3=R. |last4=Green|first4=Rhys E.|last5=Pain|first5=D. J. |last6=Swarup |first6=D. |last7=Prakash|first7=V. |last8=Taggart|first8=M. |last9=Bekker|first9=L. |last10=Das|first10=D. |last11=Diekmann|first11=J. |last12=Diekmann|first12=M. |last13=Killian|first13=E. |last14=Meharg|first14=A. |last15=Patra|first15=R. C. |last16=S. |first16=Mohini|last17=Wolter|first17=K. |journal=PLoS Biology |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=e66|pmid=16435886|pmc=1351921 |display-authors=8}}</ref>
<ref name="BirdLife-nepal_vultures">
{{cite web
| title = Local increase in vultures thanks to diclofenac campaign in Nepal
| date = 2008-11-01
| publisher = BirdLife International
| url = http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2008/01/nepal_vultures.html
| accessdate = 2011-06-01
| author = Hem Sagar Baral (BCN)
| author2 = Chris Bowden (RSPB)
| author3 = Richard Cuthbert (RSPB)
| author4 = Dev Ghimire (BCN)}}</ref>
<ref name="GilbertWatsonAhmed-etal2007">
{{cite journal|doi=10.1017/S0959270906000621|title=Vulture restaurants and their role in reducing diclofenac exposure in Asian vultures|year=2007|last1=Gilbert|first1=M. |last2=Watson|first2=R. T. |last3=Ahmed|first3=S. |last4=Asim|first4=M. |last5=Johnson|first5=J. A.|journal=Bird Conservation International|volume=17|pages=63–77|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="Reuters-2007-02-23">{{cite news | agency = Reuters | year = 2007 | title = First Captive-Bred Asian Vulture Chicks Die | work = planetark.com | url = http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/40468/story.htm
| accessdate = 2011-06-01}}</ref>
}}

== Other sources ==
* Ahmad, S. 2004. Time activity budget of Oriental White-backed Vulture (''Gyps bengalensis'') in Punjab, Pakistan. M. Phil. thesis, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan.
* Grubh, R. B. 1974. The ecology and behaviour of vultures in Gir Forest. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Bombay, Bombay, India.
* Grubh, R. B. 1988. A comparative study of the ecology and distribution of the Indian White-backed Vulture (''Gyps bengalensis'') and the Long-billed Vulture (G. indicus) in the Indian region. Pages 2763–2767 in Acta 19 Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici. Volume 2. Ottawa, Canada 22–29 June 1986 (H. Ouellet, Ed.). University of Ottawa Press, Ottawa, Ontario.
* Eck, S. 1981. [Thanatose beim Bengalgeier (''Gyps bengalensis'')]. Ornithologische Jahresberichte des Museums Heineanum 5-6:71-73.
* Naidoo, Vinasan 2008. Diclofenac in ''Gyps'' vultures : a molecular mechanism of toxicity. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Pretoria. [http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-07032008-093716/ Fulltext] (Includes old photos showing their numbers)

== External links ==
{{Commons|Gyps bengalensis}}
* [http://www.vulture-territory.com/asian.html Vulture Territory Facts and Characteristics: Asian white-backed vulture]
* [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3374 BirdLife Species Factsheet]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060422091919/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Gyps_bengalensis/ media on Arkive]
* [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/indian-white-backed-vulture-gyps-bengalensis Indian white-backed vulture media on the Internet Bird Collection]

{{Vulture}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q327118}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:vulture, white-rumped}}
[[Category:Gyps|white-rumped vulture]]
[[Category:Birds of South Asia]]
[[Category:Birds of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Critically endangered fauna of Asia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1788|white-rumped vulture]]

Slender-billed vulture

2020-04-22T02:45:00Z

118.46.55.151:

{{speciesbox
| genus = Gyps
| species = tenuirostris
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>BirdLife International 2017. ''Gyps tenuirostris'' (amended version of 2016 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T22729460A117367614. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22729460A117367614.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| image = Slender-billed Vulture, Mishmi Hills, India (cropped).jpg
| image_caption = Slender-billed Vulture in [[Arunachal Pradesh]], India
| range_map = GypsBengalensisMap.svg
| range_map_caption = Distribution in blue
| authority = [[Brian Houghton Hodgson|Hodgson]], 1844<ref>Gray GR (1944) The Genera of Birds. volume 1:6</ref><ref>Hume A. O. (1878) Stray Feathers 7:326</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Deignan, H. G. |year=1946|title=The correct names of three Asiatic birds |journal=Ibis |volume=88 |pages=402–403 |url=http://darwin.biology.utah.edu/PubsHTML/LicePubPages/LicePDF%27s/1946/Clay1946mallophaganparasites.pdf|doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1946.tb03492.x}}</ref>
| synonyms =''Gyps indicus tenuirostris'' ''Gyps indicus nudiceps''<ref>Baker, ECS (1927) Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 47:151</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rand, A. L. |author2=Fleming, R. L. |last-author-amp=yes |year=1957 |title=Birds from Nepal |journal=Fieldiana: Zoology |volume=41 |issue=1 |page=55 |url=https://archive.org/details/birdsfromnepal411rand}}</ref>
}}

The '''slender-billed vulture''' (''Gyps tenuirostris'') is a recently recognized [[species]] of [[Old World vulture]]. For some time, it was categorized with its relative, the [[Indian vulture]], under the name of “long-billed vulture”. However, these two species have non-overlapping distribution ranges and can be immediately told apart by trained observers, even at considerable distances. The Indian vulture is found only to the south of the [[Ganges]] and breeds on cliffs while the slender-billed vulture is found along the [[Sub-Himalayan]] regions and into [[Southeast Asia]] and nests in trees.

== Description ==
At {{convert|80|to|95|cm|in|abbr=on}}, in length, this mid-sized vulture is about the same size as its sister species, the [[Indian vulture]].<ref>[http://www.arkive.org/slender-billed-vulture/gyps-tenuirostris/#text=Facts|Slender-billed Vulture facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811030511/http://www.arkive.org/slender-billed-vulture/gyps-tenuirostris/#text=Facts%7CSlender-billed |date=2011-08-11 }} (2011).</ref> This vulture is mostly grey with a pale rump and grey undertail coverts. The thighs have whitish down. The neck is long, bare, skinny and black. The black head is angular and narrow with the dark bill appearing narrow midway. The ear opening is prominent and exposed.<ref name="pcr">{{cite book | author = Rasmussen, PC | author2 = JC Anderton | last-author-amp = yes | year = 2005 | title = Birds of South Asia: The Ripley Guide. Volume 2 | publisher = Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions | page = 90 }}</ref>

== Distribution and habitat ==
The slender-billed vulture is found in [[India]] from the [[Gangetic plain]] north, west to [[Himachal Pradesh]], south potentially as far as northern [[Odisha]], and east through [[Assam]].<ref name="Yearbook">{{cite book | title = Rare Birds Yearbook 2008 | publisher = MagDig Media Lmtd | year = 2007 | location = England | pages = 124–125 | isbn = 978-0-9552607-3-5 }}</ref> It is also found in north and central [[Bangladesh]], southern [[Nepal]], [[Burma]] and [[Cambodia]].<ref name="Yearbook" />

== Status and conservation==
{{Main article|Indian vulture crisis}}
This species has suffered a marked decline in its numbers in recent years. The population of this species and the Indian vulture declined by 97% overall and in [[India]] annual decline rates for both species averaged over 16% between 2000–2007. Wild populations remain from northern and eastern [[India]] through southern [[Nepal]] and [[Bangladesh]], with a small population in [[Burma]]. The only breeding colony in Southeast Asia is in the Steung Treng province of [[Cambodia]]. This colony is thought to number about 50–100 birds. The survival of the vultures in Cambodia may have been partly because [[diclofenac]], which is poisonous to vultures, is not available there. The [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] (RSPB) has placed the approximate number of slender-billed vultures living beyond confines at about 1,000 in 2009 and predictions estimate total extinction within the next decade amongst the wild population.<ref name="Alleyne2009" /><ref name="VultureBirths" />

The slender-billed vulture is a protected species listed on the appendix II list of [[CITES]], because its numbers have declined rapidly. Its decline is largely due to the use of the [[non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug]] (NSAID) [[diclofenac]] in working farm animals. Diclofenac is poisonous to vultures, causing [[kidney failure]], and is being replaced by [[meloxicam]] (another NSAID), which is not [[Toxicity|toxic]] to vultures.<ref name="PressAssociation" /> The retail sale of Diclofenac is banned by law in India; however, Diclofenac is still acquired illegally and applied to livestock.<ref name="Alleyne2009" />

[[captive breeding|Captive-breeding]] programs in India are aiming to conserve the species, and it is hoped that vultures can be released back in the wild when the environment is free of diclofenac.<ref name="Alleyne2009" /> Joint efforts between the RSPB and the [[Zoological Society of London]] resulted in the first successful captive breeding in 2009.<ref name="Alleyne2009" /> Two slender-billed vultures hatched and are being independently cared for in [[Haryana]] and [[West Bengal]].<ref name="VultureBirths" /><ref name="PressAssociation" />

== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist
| refs =

<ref name="Alleyne2009">
{{cite news
| last = Alleyne
| first = Richard
| title = Endangered vulture could be saved thanks to help from RSPB
| newspaper = Telegraph.co.uk
| pages =
| date = 2009-08-06
| url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/wildlife/5977503/Endangered-vulture-could-be-saved-thanks-to-help-from-RSPB.html
| accessdate = 2009-08-06
}}
</ref>
<ref name="VultureBirths">
{{cite news
| title = Indian vulture births are hailed
| newspaper = BBC News
| pages =
| date = 2009-08-06
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8187533.stm
| accessdate = 2009-08-06
}}
</ref>
<ref name="PressAssociation">
{{cite news
| author = Press Association
| title = Boost for endangered vultures after captive breeding success
| newspaper = Guardian.co.uk
| pages =
| date = 2009-08-06
| url = https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/aug/06/endangered-vultures-breed
| accessdate = 2009-08-06
}}
</ref>

}}

== References ==
* [http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/28144.html Colony of Endangered Vultures Discovered in Cambodia]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Gyps tenuirostris}}
* [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=30234&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet.]
* [http://ibc.hbw.com/ibc/phtml/especie.phtml?idEspecie=618 Slender-billed vulture videos]
{{Vulture}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q862806}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:vulture, slender-billed}}
[[Category:Gyps|slender-billed vulture]]
[[Category:Birds of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Birds of India]]
[[Category:Birds of Nepal]]
[[Category:Birds of Eastern Himalaya]]
[[Category:Birds of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Critically endangered fauna of Asia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1844|slender-billed vulture]]
[[Category:Birds of Myanmar]]

Rüppell's vulture

2020-04-22T02:41:03Z

118.46.55.151:

{{speciesbox
| image = Ruppells Griffon Vulture (4872536563).jpg
| image_caption = At [[London Zoo]] in London
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>BirdLife International 2017. ''Gyps rueppelli'' (amended version of 2016 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T22695207A118595083. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22695207A118595083.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| genus = Gyps
| species = rueppelli
| authority = ([[Alfred Brehm]], 1852)
}}

'''Rüppell's vulture''' or '''Rüppell's griffon vulture''' (''Gyps rueppelli''), named after [[Eduard Rüppell]], is a large [[vulture]] that can be found throughout the [[Sahel region]] of central Africa. The current population of 22,000 is decreasing due to loss of habitat, incidental poisoning, and other factors.<ref name=birdlife>{{Cite web|url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/factsheet/22695207|title=Rüppell's Vulture (Gyps rueppelli) - BirdLife species factsheet|website=www.birdlife.org|access-date=2016-02-29}}</ref> Known also as Rüppell's griffon, Rueppell's griffon, Rüppell's griffin vulture, Rueppell's vulture and other variants, it is not to be confused with a different species, the [[griffon vulture]] (''Gyps fulvus''). Rüppell's vulture is named in honor of [[Eduard Rüppell]], a 19th-century German explorer, collector, and zoologist.<ref>{{cite book |last=Beolens |first=Bo |title=Whose Bird? Men and Women Commemorated in the Common Names of Birds |year=2003 |publisher=Christopher Helm |location=London|page=294|author2=Watkins, Michael }}</ref> Rüppell's vulture is considered to be the highest-flying bird, with confirmed evidence of a flight at an altitude of {{convert|37000|ft|-2|abbr=on|disp=flip}} above [[sea level]].<ref name="laybourne" />

== Distribution ==
Their range extends through the Sahel region of Africa where they can be found in grasslands, mountains, and woodlands. Once considered common in these habitats, the Rüppell's vultures are experiencing steep declines, especially in the Western portion of their range.<ref name=birdlife/> They are relatively slow birds, cruising at {{convert|35|km/h}}, but fly for 6–7 hours every day and will fly as far as {{convert|150|km|mi}} from a nest site to find food.

== Description ==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| header_align = center
| image1 = VautourCrane2.jpg
| width1 = 230
| caption1 = <center>Skull</center>
| image2 = Rüppell's vulture (Masai Mara, Kenya) - Lip Kee (2).jpg
| width2 = 180
| caption2 = <center>Head of an adult</center>
| background color=;border:none;
}}
These are large vultures, noticeably outsizing the closely related [[white-backed vulture]], with which they often occur in the wild. Adults are {{convert|85|to|103|cm|in|abbr=on}} long,<ref name=birdlife/><ref>''Field Guide to the Birds of East Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi'' by Stevenson & Fanshawe. Elsevier Science (2001), {{ISBN|978-0856610790}}</ref> with a wingspan of {{convert|2.26|to|2.6|m|ft}}, and a weight that ranges from {{convert|6.4|to|9|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=birdlife/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZTl2rn9uTYC&pg=PA86#v=onepage&q=&f=false |title=Sasol: The Larger Illustrated Guide to Birds of Southern Africa |edition=2nd |first=Ian |last=Sinclair |author2=Phil Hockey |publisher=Struik Publishers |location=Cape Town |year=2005 |accessdate=July 27, 2013 |isbn=978-1-77007-243-5 |others=Illustrated by Norman Arlott and Peter Hayman}}</ref><ref>''Raptors of the World'' by Ferguson-Lees, Christie, Franklin, Mead & Burton. Houghton Mifflin (2001), {{ISBN|0-618-12762-3}}</ref> Both sexes look alike: mottled brown or black overall with a whitish-brown underbelly and thin, dirty-white fluff covering the head and neck. The base of the neck has a white collar, the eye is yellow or amber, the crop patch deep brown. The head does not have feathers. This is an adaptation that occurred because of the Rüppell vulture's tendency to stick its head inside of its prey when eating. Without the adaptation, feeding would become extremely messy.<ref name=nationalzoo>{{Cite web|url=https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/ruppells-griffon-vulture|title=Ruppell's griffon vulture|website=Smithsonian's National Zoo|language=en|access-date=2018-02-18|date=2016-04-25}}</ref> Silent as a rule, they become vocal at their nest and when at a carcass, squealing a great deal. Rüppell's vultures commonly fly at altitudes as high as {{convert|6000|m}}.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}} The birds have a specialized variant of the [[hemoglobin]] alphaD subunit; this protein has a great affinity for oxygen, which allows the species to absorb oxygen efficiently despite the low [[partial pressure]] in the upper [[troposphere]].<ref name="hemoglobin" /> A Rüppell's vulture was confirmed to have been ingested by a jet engine of an airplane flying over [[Abidjan]], [[Ivory Coast]] on November 29, 1973 at an altitude of 11,300 m (37,000 ft).<ref name="laybourne" /> During August 2010 a Rüppell's vulture escaped a bird of prey site in [[Scotland]], prompting warnings to pilots in the area to watch carefully due to the danger of collision.<ref name="VultureMenace">{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/08/18/vulture_menace|title=Giant vulture menaces Scottish skies|last=Haines|first=Lester|date=2010-08-18|publisher=TheRegister.co.uk|accessdate=2011-05-31}}</ref>

<gallery mode = packed heights = 130px>
File:Gyps rueppellii -Nairobi National Park, Kenya-8-4c.jpg|''G. r. rueppellii'' trying to fly [[Nairobi National Park]], Kenya
File:Rüeppell's griffon vulture (Gyps rueppellii erlangeri) in flight.jpg|''G. r. erlangeri'' in flight [[Ethiopia]]
</gallery>

== Behavior ==

=== Social ===
Rüppell's vultures are very social, roosting, nesting, and gathering to feed in large flocks.

=== Feeding ===
[[File:Gyps rueppellii -Mara river crossing -Africa.jpg|230px|thumb|upright|left|At a [[blue wildebeest]] carcass in the [[Mara River]] at the [[Masai Mara National Reserve|Masai Mara]], Kenya]]
Rüppell's vultures have several [[adaptation (biology)|adaptation]]s to their diet and are specialized feeders even among the Old World vultures of Africa. They have an especially powerful build and, after the most attractive soft parts of a carcass have been consumed, they will continue with the hide, and even the bones, gorging themselves until they can barely fly. They have backward-pointing spikes on the tongue to help remove meat from bone. Despite their size, power and adaptations, they are not the most dominant vulture in their range, which is considered to be the even larger [[lappet-faced vulture]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://vultures.homestead.com/Ruppells.html | title=Website Disabled}}</ref>

=== Reproduction ===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| header_align = center
| image1 = Vautour de Rüppell MHNT.jpg
| width1 = 180
| caption1 = <center>Egg</center>
| image2 = Nestling Sperbergeier.JPG
| width2 = 180
| caption2 = <center>Nestling</center>
| background color=;border:none;
}}
This species of vulture is considered to be monogamous, forming lifelong breeding pairs. After courtship the pair will work together to build a nest using sticks, grass, and leaves that they have gathered or stolen from other nests.<ref name=nationalzoo/><ref name=Animalia>{{Cite web|url=http://animalia.bio/ruppells-vulture|title=Rüppell's Vulture - Facts, Diet, Habitat & Pictures on Animalia.bio|publisher=Animalia|access-date=2019-10-30}}</ref> Rüppell's vultures build these nests on cliffs, and in key breeding areas they are known to nest in large colonies containing hundreds of breeding pairs. Both parents share in incubation of their egg over a period of 55 days. Once the chick hatches, both parents will feed and tend to it for about 150 days when it fledges.<ref name=Animalia/><ref name=nationalzoo/><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.arkive.org/rueppells-griffon/gyps-rueppellii/|title = Rueppell's griffon videos, photos and facts - Gyps rueppellii|website = ARKive|language = en-GB|access-date = 2016-02-29|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160322105430/http://www.arkive.org/rueppells-griffon/gyps-rueppellii/|archive-date = 2016-03-22|url-status = dead}}</ref> Young remain dependent on their parents after fledging, not reaching independence until the next breeding season. During this time they learn how to find and compete for food.

== Status ==
Since first being assessed by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] during 1988, populations of Rüppell's vulture have decreased. The species has been listed with an [[IUCN Red List]] status of "near threatened" since 2007 and the IUCN predicts that populations of the species will continue to decrease.<ref name="iucn"/><ref name=Animalia/> From 2012 to 2014 the Rüppell's vulture was listed as [[Endangered species|Endangered]]; however, the species was reassessed in 2015 and was declared [[Critically endangered|Critically Endangered]].<ref name="iucn"/>

The Rüppell's vulture is currently listed as an Appendix II species under [[CITES]], which regulates the international trade of animals and plants.<ref name="iucn"/> Under this designation, the Rüppell's vulture is defined as not being immediately at risk of extinction, although the current population could become threatened without a careful regulation of trade.<ref>{{Cite web|url =https://cites.org/eng/app/index.php|title = The CITES Appendices {{!}} CITES|website = cites.org|access-date = 2016-02-29}}</ref>

The total population of Rüppell's vulture has been estimated to be somewhere around 22,000 individuals, with specific populations in the following areas: [[Tanzania]] (3,000 pairs); [[Kenya]] (2,000 pairs); [[Ethiopia]] (2,000 pairs); [[Sudan]] (2,000 pairs); and West Africa (2,000 pairs).<ref name=Animalia/>

Since 1992, Rüppell's vulture has been occurring as a [[vagrancy in birds|vagrant]] in Spain and Portugal, with annual records since 1997, mainly in the Cadiz / Straits of Gibraltar area, but also further north.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gutiérrez |first=Ricard |year=2003 |title=Occurrence of Rüppell's Griffon Vulture in Europe |journal=[[Dutch Birding]] |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=289–303 |url=https://www.dutchbirding.nl/journal/pdf/DB_2003_25_5.pdf }}</ref>

== Threats ==

Rüppell's vulture populations are experiencing declining populations throughout their entire range. These declines can be attributed to loss of habitat related to human-related land use, poisoning, human use for medicine or meat,<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Thiollay
| first = Jean-Marc
| date = 2006-04-01
| title = The decline of raptors in West Africa: long-term assessment and the role of protected areas
| journal = Ibis
| language = en
| volume = 148
| issue = 2
| pages = 240–254
| doi = 10.1111/j.1474-919X.2006.00531.x
| issn = 1474-919X
}}</ref> loss of nesting sites, and declining availability of food sources.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Virani
| first = Munir Z.
| last2 = Kendall
| first2 = Corinne
| last3 = Njoroge
| first3 = Peter
| last4 = Thomsett
| first4 = Simon
| date = 2011-02-01
| title = Major declines in the abundance of vultures and other scavenging raptors in and around the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya
| journal = Biological Conservation
| volume = 144
| issue = 2
| pages = 746–752
| doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2010.10.024
}}</ref> Poisoning is currently thought to be the most serious threat to all vulture populations in Africa, although they are not usually the intended target. In events where predators such as lions or hyenas have killed livestock, [[carbofuran]] poisons have been placed into carcasses as retaliation against the predators.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal
| last = Ogada
| first = Darcy L.
| date = 2014-08-01
| title = The power of poison: pesticide poisoning of Africa's wildlife
| journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
| language = en
| volume = 1322
| issue = 1
| pages = 1–20
| doi = 10.1111/nyas.12405
| issn = 1749-6632
| pmid=24716788
}}</ref> Unfortunately, vultures utilize carrion as their main food source and one carcass has the potential to attract hundreds of birds to feed because this species identifies food by sight. One evaluation of 10 poisoning events found that each event caused the death of 37 to 600 individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Ogada
| first = Darcy
| last2 = Shaw
| first2 = Phil
| last3 = Beyers
| first3 = Rene L.
| last4 = Buij
| first4 = Ralph
| last5 = Murn
| first5 = Campbell
| last6 = Thiollay
| first6 = Jean Marc
| last7 = Beale
| first7 = Colin M.
| last8 = Holdo
| first8 = Ricardo M.
| last9 = Pomeroy
| first9 = Derek
| date = 2015-06-01
| title = Another Continental Vulture Crisis: Africa's Vultures Collapsing toward Extinction
| journal = Conservation Letters
| language = en
| pages = 89–97
| doi = 10.1111/conl.12182
| issn = 1755-263X
| volume=9
| issue = 2
| url = https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/10023/8817/1/Ogada_Shaw_et_al_2016_African_vulture_Cons_Letters.pdf
}}</ref>

Killing of Rüppell's vultures for use in medicine has also greatly contributed to the rapid population decline. In many African cultures, vultures are used for medicine and magic related to superstitions that they are clairvoyant and can be used to increase a child's intelligence.<ref name=":1" /> Establishing protected wildlife areas is thought to be an effective route to protect the Rüppell's vulture from extinction. The Rüppell's vulture breed and nests in cliffs in northern and southern Kenya, as well as Tanzania. These breeding and nesting grounds amass huge numbers of Rüppell's vultures which will raise young and forage in the surrounding area.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Virani
| first = Munir Z.
| last2 = Monadjem
| first2 = Ara
| last3 = Thomsett
| first3 = Simon
| last4 = Kendall
| first4 = Corinne
| date = 2012-09-01
| title = Seasonal variation in breeding Rüppell's Vultures Gyps rueppellii at Kwenia, southern Kenya and implications for conservation
| url = http://journals.cambridge.org/article_S0959270911000505
| journal = Bird Conservation International
| volume = 22
| issue = 3
| pages = 260–269
| doi = 10.1017/S0959270911000505
| issn = 1474-0001
| doi-access = free
}}</ref> Considering that the detection rate of Rüppell's vultures was found to be lower in protected areas than outside of them, extending protection to these key breeding sites could help support their population.<ref name=":1" />

== See also ==
* The [[white-backed vulture]], which is slightly smaller and has a shorter neck.

== References ==
{{Reflist|2
| refs =

<ref name="laybourne">{{cite journal | title=Collision between a Vulture and an Aircraft at an Altitude of 37,000 Feet | date=December 1974 | last=Laybourne | first=Roxie C. | journal=The Wilson Bulletin | volume=86 | issue=4 | pages=461–462 | issn=0043-5643 | jstor=4160546 | url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v086n04/p0461-p0462.pdf | oclc=46381512}}</ref>



<ref name="hemoglobin">{{cite journal | title=High altitude and hemoglobin function in the vultures Gyps rueppellii and Aegypius monachus | date=April 1988 | last=Weber | first=RE | last2=Hiebl | first2=I | last3=Braunitzer | first3=G. | journal=Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler | volume=369 | issue=4 | pages=233–40 | issn=0177-3593 | doi=10.1515/bchm3.1988.369.1.233 | pmid=3401328}}</ref>

}}
* {{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22695207/0 |title=''Gyps rueppellii'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2012 |access-date=26 November 2013
| ref = {{harvid|IUCN Red List|2012}}
}}
* BirdLife International (2007a): [http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/global_species_programme/whats_new.html 2006–2007 Red List status changes]. Retrieved 26 August 2007.
* BirdLife International (2007b): [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/search/species_search.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3376&m=0 Rüppell's Vulture - BirdLife Species Factsheet]. Retrieved 26 August 2007.

== External links ==
{{commons category|Gyps rueppellii}}
{{wikispecies|Gyps rueppelli}}
*{{InternetBirdCollection|ruppells-vulture-gyps-rueppelli|Rüppell's vulture}}

{{Vulture}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q648745}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ruppell's vulture}}
[[Category:Birds of prey of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Gyps]]
[[Category:Old World vultures]]
[[Category:Critically endangered fauna of Africa]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1852]]
[[Category:Biological records]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Alfred Brehm]]

Hooded vulture

2020-04-22T02:39:01Z

118.46.55.151:

{{speciesbox
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>BirdLife International 2017. ''Necrosyrtes monachus'' (amended version of 2017 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T22695185A118599398. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22695185A118599398.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| image = Hooded vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus).jpg
| image_caption = in [[Gambia]]
| genus = Necrosyrtes
| parent_authority = [[Constantin Wilhelm Lambert Gloger|Gloger]], 1841
| species = monachus
| authority = ([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1823)
}}

The ''' hooded vulture''' (''Necrosyrtes monachus'') is an [[Old World vulture]] in the order [[Accipitriformes]], which also includes [[eagle]]s, [[kite (bird)|kite]]s, [[buzzard]]s and [[hawk]]s. It is the only member of the genus ''Necrosyrtes,'' which is sister to the larger ''[[Gyps]]'' genus, both of which are a part of the [[Aegypiinae]] subfamily of Old World vultures<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lerner|first=Heather R.L.|last2=Mindell|first2=David P.|date=2005|title=Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|language=en|volume=37|issue=2|pages=327–346|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.010|pmid=15925523}}</ref>. It is native to [[sub-Saharan Africa]], where it has a widespread distribution with populations in [[Southern Africa|southern]], [[East Africa|East]] and [[West Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Reading|first=Richard P.|last2=Bradley|first2=James|last3=Hancock|first3=Peter|last4=Garbett|first4=Rebecca|last5=Selebatso|first5=Moses|last6=Maude|first6=Glyn|date=2019-01-02|title=Home-range size and movement patterns of Hooded Vultures Necrosyrtes monachus in southern Africa|journal=Ostrich|volume=90|issue=1|pages=73–77|doi=10.2989/00306525.2018.1537314|issn=0030-6525}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> It is a scruffy-looking, small vulture with dark brown plumage, a long thin bill, bare crown, face and fore-neck, and a downy nape and hind-neck. Its face is usually a light red colour. It typically scavenges on carcasses of wildlife and domestic animals. Although it remains a common species with a stable population in the lower region of [[Casamance]], some areas of [[The Gambia]], and [[Guinea-Bissau]], other regions such as [[Dakar]], [[Senegal]], show more than 85% losses in population over the last 50 years<ref name=":1">{{citation |author=Wim C. Mullié ... |title=The decline of an urban Hooded Vulture ''Necrosyrtes monachus'' population in Dakar, Senegal, over 50 years |journal=[[Ostrich (journal)|Ostrich]] |volume=88 |issue=2 |year=2017 |pages=131–138|doi=10.2989/00306525.2017.1333538 }}</ref><ref name=":2" />. Threats include poisoning, hunting, loss of habitat and collisions with electricity infrastructure, and the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] has rated its conservation status as "[[critically endangered]]" in their latest assessment (2017)<ref name=":2">{{Cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22695185/118599398|title=The IUCN Redlist of Threatened Species: Hooded vulture|access-date=29 June 2019}}</ref>. The highest current regional density of hooded vultures is in the [[West Coast Division (Gambia)|western region]] of The Gambia<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Jallow, M., Barlow, C., Sanyang, L...|date=2016|title=High population density of the Critically Endangered Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus in Western Region, The Gambia, confirmed by road surveys in 2013 and 2015|url=|journal=Malimbus|volume=38|pages=23–28|via=ResearchGate}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The common name "hooded vulture" stems from the fact that the vulture has a small patch of downy feathers that runs along the back of its neck to the crown of its head, making it look like it is wearing a fluffy, cream-colored hood.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.peregrinefund.org/explore-raptors-species/Hooded_Vulture|title=Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) in Explore Raptors: Facts, habitat, diet {{!}} The Peregrine Fund|website=www.peregrinefund.org|access-date=2019-07-31}}</ref> The scientific name, ''Necrosyrtes monachus,'' can be broken down into 3 sections: "necro", since it feeds on carrion; "syrtes" which means "quicksand" or "bog" and "monachus" which is Latin for "monk" and relates to the hood of the vulture<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=Roberts Birds of Southern Africa: 7th Edition|last=Hockey|first=PAR|last2=Dean|first2=WRJ|last3=Ryan|first3=PG|publisher=Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund|year=2005|isbn=|location=Cape Town, South Africa|pages=486}}</ref>.

==Description==

=== Appearance ===
The hooded vulture is a typical [[vulture]], with a head that is usually pinkish-white, but flushes red when agitated,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sinclair |first1=Ian |last2=Hockley |first2=Phil |last3=Tarboton |first3=Warwick |last4=Ryan |first4=Peter |year=2011 |title=SASOL birds of Southern Africa |publisher=Struik Nature |isbn=978-1-77007-925-0 }}</ref> and a grey to black "hood". It has fairly uniform dark brown body plumage. It has broad wings for soaring and short tail feathers. This is one of the smaller Old World vultures. They are {{convert|62|–|72|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, have a [[wingspan]] of {{convert|155|-|180|cm|in|abbr=on}} and a body weight of {{convert|1.5|-|2.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Oiseaux-Birds" /> Both sexes are alike in appearance, although females often have longer eyelashes than males. Juveniles look like adults, only darker and plainer, and body feathers have a purplish sheen.<ref name=":8" />

=== Voice ===
Usually silent, but gives a shrill, sibilant whistle during copulation, and thin squealing calls both at nests and carcasses.<ref name=":8" />

=== Nesting, breeding and behaviour ===
It breeds in a stick nest in trees (often [[palm tree|palm]]s) in much of [[Africa]] south of the [[Sahara]], laying one egg. Birds may form loose colonies. The population is mostly resident and sedentary, rarely moving more than 200 km<ref name=":8" />.

== Distribution ==
Although hooded vultures have relatively small home ranges, they are widely distributed across Africa. It occurs in Senegal, Mauritania, Guinea-Bissau, The Gambia, Niger and Nigeria in West Africa; in East Africa it is found in Chad, Sudan, South Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia; in southern Africa it has been recorded in northern [[Namibia]], [[Botswana]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] and [[South Africa]].<ref name=":2" />

Within South Africa, the species is essentially restricted to the [[Kruger National Park]] and surrounding protected areas in [[Mpumalanga]] and [[Limpopo]] provinces, though vagrants have been recorded further west in [[KwaZulu-Natal|Kwa-Zulu Natal]] and [[Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Roche|first=Chris|date=2006-04-01|title=Breeding records and nest site preference of Hooded Vultures in the greater Kruger National Park|journal=Ostrich|volume=77|issue=1–2|pages=99–101|doi=10.2989/00306520609485515|issn=0030-6525}}</ref>.

==Ecology==
[[File:Vultures and dog - The Gambia. West Africa (32740095391).jpg|thumb|Vultures eating a dog in [[Gambia]], [[West Africa]]]]

Like other [[vulture]]s hooded vultures are [[Scavenger|scavengers]], feeding mostly from carcasses of dead [[animal]]s and waste which they find by soaring over savanna and around human habitation, including waste tips and abattoirs<ref name=":1" />. They do however also feed on insects, and conglomerate in large numbers during insect emergences, for example [[termite]] emergences where they associate with [[Steppe eagle|Steppe Eagles]]<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":8" />.They are non-specialised, highly versatile scavengers and are commensal with humans in West Africa<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barlow|first=Clive|last2=Filford|first2=Tony|date=2013|title=Road counts of Hooded Vultures Necrosyrtes monachus over seven months in and around Banjul, coastal Gambia, in 2005|url=|journal=Malimbus|volume=35|pages=50–55|via=}}</ref>. They often move in flocks (50-250 individuals) in West Africa, especially when foraging at abattoirs or elephant carcasses<ref name=":8" />, while in southern Africa they are solitary and secretive, making them hard to spot when nesting<ref name=":4" />. They are known to follow scavenging [[African wild dog|African wild dogs]] and [[Hyena|hyaenas]].<ref name=":8" />

This vulture is typically unafraid of humans, and frequently gathers around habitation. It is sometimes referred to as the “garbage collector” by locals.{{cn|date=June 2019}} In Ghanaian universities, a significantly higher number of hooded vultures exist in the residential parts of the campus relative to the non-residential parts, and densities are correlated with the academic calendar, with numbers of individuals increasing during school terms.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Gbogbo|first=F.|last2=Awotwe-Pratt|first2=V.P.|date=March 2008|title=Waste management and Hooded Vultures on the Legon Campus of the University of Ghana in Accra, Ghana, West Africa|url=|journal=Vulture News|volume=58|pages=16–22|via=}}</ref> 45% of students at these campuses are defecated on by hooded vultures at least once a month, according to interviews.<ref name=":5" />

Southern African hooded vulture populations have smaller home ranges than most other Old World vulture species for which data exists, though less is known about home ranges of East and West African populations<ref name=":0" />. They are most active during the day, and their ranges are smaller in the dry breeding season, when their movement is constrained by a nest site location to which they must return regularly to incubate their eggs and provision their fledglings<ref name=":0" />. In both the northern and southern hemisphere populations, breeding takes place in the dry summer season.<ref name=":2" />

They prefer to build nests in well-foliaged trees along watercourses, with the nest placed a prominent fork within the tree canopy at an average height of over 15m.<ref name=":4" /> They have however also been observed in a variety of biomes, some where tall trees are rare. They have been recorded in open grasslands, deserts, wooded savanna, forest edges and along coasts<ref name=":2" />. They tend to occur in higher densities where populations of larger ''Gyps'' vultures are low or nonexistent <ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Raptors of the World|last=Ferguson-Lees|first=J.|last2=Christie|first2=D.A.|publisher=A&C Black|year=2001|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>. It occurs up to 4,000 m, but is most numerous below 1,800 m.<ref name=":2" />

Hooded vultures lay a clutch of one egg, and the incubation period lasts 46-54 days, followed by a fledging period of 80-130 days. Young are dependent on their parents for a further 3-4 months after fledging<ref name=":6" />. Measurements of nesting success at the [[Olifants River (Limpopo)|Olifants River]] Private Nature Reserve, South Africa showed success of 0.44-0.89 offspring per pair per year in 2013 and 0.50-0.67 offspring per pair per year in 2014.<ref name=":2" />

== Population trends ==
While the populations in Gambia are relatively stable, it is declining almost everywhere else in its range at an average rate of 83% (range 64-93%) over 53 years (3 generations).<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Ogada|first=Darcy|last2=Shaw|first2=Phil|last3=Beyers|first3=Rene L.|last4=Buij|first4=Ralph|last5=Murn|first5=Campbell|last6=Thiollay|first6=Jean Marc|last7=Beale|first7=Colin M.|last8=Holdo|first8=Ricardo M.|last9=Pomeroy|first9=Derek|date=2016|title=Another Continental Vulture Crisis: Africa's Vultures Collapsing toward Extinction|journal=Conservation Letters|language=en|volume=9|issue=2|pages=89–97|doi=10.1111/conl.12182|issn=1755-263X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Its total population is estimated at a maximum of 197 000 individuals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ogada|first=D. L.|last2=Buij|first2=R.|date=2011-08-01|title=Large declines of the Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus across its African range|journal=Ostrich|volume=82|issue=2|pages=101–113|doi=10.2989/00306525.2011.603464|issn=0030-6525}}</ref>. Some declines have been reported to have occurred in only 20 years, almost approaching the speed and extent of the [[Indian vulture crisis|Asian vulture crisis]] of the 1990s.<ref name=":3" /> The highest regional density of hooded vultures is in western Gambia.<ref name=":7" />

==Status and threats==
The species has been uplisted from its previous IUCN status of endangered to critically endangered, since the species is going through a very steep decline in population, owing to various factors including poisoning, hunting, habitat loss and degradation of habitat. Hunting is the most well-known threat to the species, however, poisoning has been shown to have the highest impact on the population. Poisoning of the species has been both unintentional and intentional, with unintentional poisoning being caused through the poisoning of other animals which the species feeds on. Hunting on the other hand is caused by vultures being used by people in traditional medicine and cultural beliefs and as a food source, particularly in West and southern Africa.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Henriques|first1=Mohamed|last2=Granadeiro|first2=José Pedro|last3=Monteiro|first3=Hamilton|last4=Nuno|first4=Ana|last5=Lecoq|first5=Miguel|last6=Cardoso|first6=Paulo|last7=Regalla|first7=Aissa|last8=Catry|first8=Paulo|last9=Margalida|first9=Antoni|title=Not in wilderness: African vulture strongholds remain in areas with high human density|journal=PLOS ONE|date=31 January 2018|volume=13|issue=1|pages=e0190594|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0190594|pmid=29385172|language=en|issn=1932-6203|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1390594H|pmc=5791984}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Researchers interviewed vendors in street markets in northern Nigeria who were selling parts or entire carcasses of hooded vultures as well as other African vulture species (though hooded vultures made up 90% of vultures on sale). They found that 40% of traders were selling the vultures for spiritual healing and 25% for human consumption<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Buij|first=Ralph|last2=Saidu|first2=Yohanna|date=2013-01-01|title=Traditional medicine trade in vulture parts in northern Nigeria|journal=Vulture News|volume=65|issue=1|pages=4–14–14|doi=10.4314/vulnew.v65i1.1|issn=1606-7479|doi-access=free}}</ref>.

Many West and southern African cultures believe vulture body parts cure a range of physical and mental illnesses, improve success in gambling and business ventures, or increase intelligence in children<ref name=":3" />. Consumption of vultures as bushmeat in Nigeria and Ivory Coast may be of regional concern, but smoked vulture meat is traded and consumed internationally<ref name=":3" />. Secondary poisoning with [[carbofuran]] pesticides at livestock baits being used to poison mammalian predators is also an issue in East Africa<ref name=":2" />.

On the 20th of June 2019, the carcasses of 468 [[white-backed vulture]]s, 17 [[white-headed vulture]]s, 28 hooded vultures, 14 [[lappet-faced vulture]]s and 10 [[cape vulture]]s), altogether 537 vultures, besides 2 [[tawny eagle]]s, were found in northern [[Botswana]]. It is suspected that they died after eating the carcasses of 3 [[African bush elephant|elephant]]s that were poisoned by poachers, possibly to avoid detection by the birds, which help rangers to track poaching activity by circling above where there are dead animals.<ref name="NDTV AFP 06-2019">{{cite news |publisher=[[NDTV]] |work=[[Agence France-Press]] |title=Over 500 Rare Vultures Die After Eating Poisoned Elephants In Botswana |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/over-500-rare-vultures-die-after-eating-poisoned-elephants-in-botswana-2056740 |date=2019-06-21 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="CNN 06-2019">{{cite news |last=Hurworth |first=Ella |title=More than 500 endangered vultures die after eating poisoned elephant carcasses |publisher=[[CNN]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/06/21/africa/botswana-vultures-endangered-elephants-intl-hnk/index.html |date=2019-06-24 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="Smithsonian 06-2019">{{cite news |last=Solly |first=Meilan |title=Poachers' Poison Kills 530 Endangered Vultures in Botswana |publisher=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/poachers-poison-kills-530-endangered-vultures-botswana-180972477/ |date=2019-06-24 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="Afrik21 06-2019">{{cite news |last=Ngounou |first=Boris |title=BOTSWANA: Over 500 vultures found dead after massive poisoning |publisher=Afrik21 |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/botswana-over-500-vultures-found-dead-after-massive-poisoning/ |date=2019-06-27 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref>

The species may also be threatened by avian influenza (H5N1), from which it appears to suffer some mortality and which it probably acquires from feeding on discarded dead poultry<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ducatez|first=Mariette F.|last2=Tarnagda|first2=Zekiba|last3=Tahita|first3=Marc C.|last4=Sow|first4=Adama|last5=de Landtsheer|first5=Sebastien|last6=Londt|first6=Brandon Z.|last7=Brown|first7=Ian H.|last8=Osterhaus|first8=Albert D.M.E.|last9=Fouchier|first9=Ron A.M.|date=2007|title=Genetic Characterization of HPAI (H5N1) Viruses from Poultry and Wild Vultures, Burkina Faso|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=13|issue=4|pages=611–613|doi=10.3201/eid1304.061356|issn=1080-6040|pmc=2725980|pmid=17553279}}</ref>. Another suggested cause of decline is the decline in the number of trees preferred by hooded vultures for nesting, such as ''[[Ceiba pentandra]]'' in Senegal.<ref name=":2" />

== Conservation action ==
Raptors are protected in many West African and Northeastern countries and in South Africa under the United Nations Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), in the Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (the ‘Raptors MoU’).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cms.int/raptors/en/legalinstrument/birds-prey-raptors|title=Birds of Prey (Raptors) {{!}} Raptors|website=www.cms.int|access-date=2019-07-31}}</ref> This plan includes the Hooded vulture.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cms.int/raptors/en/news/nations-list-12-vulture-species-tackle-population-decline-africa|title=Nations List 12 Vulture Species to Tackle Population Decline in Africa {{!}} Raptors|website=www.cms.int|access-date=2019-07-31}}</ref>

Systematic monitoring and protection schemes for African raptors, including the hooded vulture, exist and some populations occur within protected areas<ref name=":2" />. It has been suggested that the best way to slow the decline of vulture populations in Africa, and avoid a massive decline on the scale of the [[Indian vulture crisis|Asian vulture crisis]] of the 1990s in which populations declined 95% because of the veterinary drug [[Diclofenac]] used in livestock whose carcasses were fed on by vultures, pesticides and poisons need to be regulated and limited by governments in countries where the hooded vulture occurs<ref name=":3" /> .

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="130px">
Neophron moine MHNT.jpg|Egg
Head of a vulture in the Gambia.jpg|Head
Hooded Vulture.JPG|In [[Moremi Game Reserve]], [[Botswana]]
Necrosyrtes monachus -Sabi Sand Reserve, Mpumalanga province, South Africa-8.jpg|Juvenile, [[Sabi Sand Game Reserve]], [[South Africa]]
Hooded vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) juvenile.jpg|Juvenile [[Gambia]]
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist
| refs =

<ref name="Oiseaux-Birds">{{cite web |title=Hooded Vulture |publisher=Oiseaux-Birds.com |url=http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-hooded-vulture.html |access-date=2011-05-31}}</ref>

}} [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=3372 4 http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=3372]
; Sources

* {{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22695185/0 |title=''Necrosyrtes monachus'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013 |ref={{harvid|IUCN Red List|2012}}
}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Necrosyrtes monachus}}
* Hooded vulture - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/121.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].

{{Vulture}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q177386}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:vulture, hooded}}
[[Category:Aegypiinae|hooded vulture]]
[[Category:Birds of prey of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Critically endangered fauna of Africa]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1823|hooded vulture]]

Palm-nut vulture

2020-04-22T02:36:02Z

118.46.55.151:

{{speciesbox
| name = Palm-nut vulture
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>BirdLife International 2016. ''Gypohierax angolensis'' (errata version published in 2019). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T22695170A157472666. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22695170A157472666.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| image = Flickr - Rainbirder - Palm-nut Vulture.jpg
| genus = Gypohierax
| parent_authority = [[Eduard Rüppell|Rüppell]], 1836
| species = angolensis
| authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788)
}}

The '''palm-nut vulture''' (''Gypohierax angolensis'') or '''vulturine fish eagle''', is a large [[bird of prey]] in the family [[Accipitridae]] (which also includes many other diurnal [[Bird of prey|raptor]]s such as [[kite (bird)|kite]]s, [[buzzard]]s and [[harrier (bird)|harrier]]s, vultures, and eagles). It is the only member of the [[genus]] ''Gypohierax''.

This bird is an [[Old World vulture]] (only distantly related to the [[New World vulture]]s, which are in a separate family, the [[Cathartidae]]).

It breeds in forest and savannah across [[sub-Saharan Africa]], usually near water, its range coinciding with that of the [[Elaeis guineensis|oil]] and [[Raffia palm]]s. It is quite approachable, like many African vultures, and can be seen near habitation, even on large hotel lawns in the tourist areas of countries such as [[the Gambia]].

== Description ==

This is a nearly unmistakable bird as an adult. At {{convert|1.3|-|1.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, {{convert|60|cm|ft|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|150|cm|ft|abbr=on}} across the wings, this is the smallest [[Old World vulture]].<ref name="arkive" /><ref name="oiseaux" /> Its plumage is all white except for black areas in its wings and tail. It has a red patch around each eye. The juvenile, which takes 3–4 years to mature, is brown with yellow eye-patches. In flight, this species resembles an eagle more than a typical vulture, and it can sustain flapping flight, so it does not depend on thermals. With its extensive white plumage, and black wing- and tail-feathers, the adult palm-nut vulture can be crudely mistaken for both the [[African fish eagle|African fish-eagle]] and the [[Egyptian vulture]], but clearly lacks the chestnut body of the former and the white tail of the latter<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pawson|first=Lara|date=October 1994|title=Stuart Mclean, South African Golf Courses: a portrait of the best. Cape Town: Struik Publishers, 1993, 144 pp., £29.99, ISBN 1 86825 338 4.|journal=Africa|volume=64|issue=4|pages=603|doi=10.2307/1161396|issn=0001-9720|jstor=1161396}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=May 2018}}

The sexes are identical in appearance, with the female being the same size as the male. Juveniles on the other hand are predominately brown with partially black wings and take a lengthy three to four years to make the transition into the adult plumage<ref name=":0" />

<gallery mode="packed" heights="130px">
Laika ac Selous (9859653096).jpg|Immature in [[Selous Game Reserve]], Tanzania
Palm nut vulture (Gypohierax angolensis) in flight.jpg|Adult in flight in [[Semliki Wildlife Reserve]], Uganda
Palm nut vulture (Gypohierax angolensis) on nest.jpg|Adult on nest at [[Kazinga Channel]], Uganda

</gallery>

== Distribution and density ==
Palm-nut vultures are found throughout most of the coastal areas of the African continent from The Gambia to Kenya and as far South as South Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=van Zyl|first=Anthony|date=November 2006|title=Raptors of the world: a field guide by James Ferguson-Lees and David Christie|journal=Ostrich|volume=77|issue=3–4|pages=235–236|doi=10.2989/00306520609485540|issn=0030-6525}}</ref> The total African population is estimated to be 80 000 pairs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=HOLT|first=P.|date=February 1994|title=MUNDY, P., BUTCHART, D., LEDGER, J. and PIPER, S.The vultures of Africa. Academic Press, London: 1992 (originally published by Acorn Books, Johannesburg: 1992). Pp 460; illustrated. Price: £55.00 |isbn=978-0-12-510585-9|journal=Archives of Natural History|volume=21|issue=1|pages=136|doi=10.3366/anh.1994.21.1.136|issn=0260-9541}}</ref> There are approximately 40 birds in [[South Africa]].

== Habitat ==
As the name suggests, the distribution of the palm-nut vulture closely tracks that of oil (''[[Elaeis guineensis]]'') or raffia (''[[Raffia palm|Raphia]]'' sp.) palms. Consequently, it is most common in coastal forests and mangrove swamps below {{cvt|1500|m|ft}}, but also occurs in wet savannas.<ref name=":0" />

== Diet and feeding habits ==
Unusually for birds of prey, the palm-nut vulture feeds mainly on the fleshy fruit-husks of the oil palm and on the palm-fruits of Raffia palm. These fruits make up over 60% of the adult bird's diet and over 90% of the juvenile bird's diet.<ref name=":0" /> It has also been recorded to feed on crabs (both freshwater and marine), [[Mollusca|molluscs]], frogs, fish, locusts, small mammals, even [[reptile]]s’ eggs and hatchlings, and it has been known to occasionally attack [[Chicken|domestic poultry]] and feed on [[carrion]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mikula|first1=P.|last2=Morelli|first2=F.|last3=Lučan|first3=R. K.|last4=Jones|first4=D. N.|last5=Tryjanowski|first5=P.|year=2016|title=Bats as prey of diurnal birds: a global perspective|journal=Mammal Review|volume=46|issue=3|pages=160–174|doi=10.1111/mam.12060}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carneiro|first=Camilo|last2=Henriques|first2=Mohamed|last3=Barbosa|first3=Castro|last4=Tchantchalam|first4=Quintino|last5=Regalla|first5=Aissa|last6=Patrício|first6=Ana R.|last7=Catry|first7=Paulo|date=2017-04-10|title=Ecology and behaviour of Palm-nut Vultures Gypohierax angolensis in the Bijagós Archipelago, Guinea-Bissau|journal=Ostrich|volume=0|issue=2|pages=113–121|doi=10.2989/00306525.2017.1291540|issn=0030-6525}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=HOLT|first=P.|date=February 1994|title=MUNDY, P., BUTCHART, D., LEDGER, J. and PIPER, S.The vultures of Africa. Academic Press, London: 1992 (originally published by Acorn Books, Johannesburg: 1992). Pp 460; illustrated. Price: £55.00 |isbn=978-0-12-510585-9|journal=Archives of Natural History|volume=21|issue=1|pages=136|doi=10.3366/anh.1994.21.1.136|issn=0260-9541}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Birds of Africa|publisher=Academic Press Limited|isbn=9780121373016|doi = 10.5040/9781472926982.part-0185|chapter = Vultures|year = 1982}}</ref>

== Nesting ==
[[File:Palmiste africain MHNT.jpg|thumb|''Gypohierax angolensis'']]
Breeding pairs construct large stick nests high up in tall trees and will often exhibit a strong attachment to the nest site. They may stay at the nesting site for an entire year. Where Raphia Palms are present, breeding pairs will build a nest at the base of the palm fronds. At the beginning of the breeding season, pairs soar together in an aerial display of rolling and diving, much more acrobatic than most vultures. During each breeding cycle, a single, white and brown egg is laid, which is incubated by both sexes, over a period of four to six weeks. Normally around 85 to 90 days after hatching, the young brown chicks will fledge.<ref name=":0" />

== In South Africa ==
The only Southern African subregions to have the breeding resident pairs of Palm-nut vulture is South Africa and Mozambique.The breeding distribution of the Palm-nut Vulture during the 1970s census period was centred on the Raffia Palm groves of the Kosi Bay system and Mtunzini. Its distribution is linked to the presence of the Raffia palm ''[[Raphia australis]]'' at all permanently occupied sites, and the existence of this species at Mtunzini is entirely due the artificial cultivation of Raffia palms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gidlow|first=R.M.|date=September 2002|title=The history of exchange controls in South Africa|journal=South African Journal of Economic History|volume=17|issue=1–2|pages=25–48|doi=10.1080/10113430209511143|issn=1011-3436}}</ref> Currently there are 7 known nesting sites in South Africa and a total of 40 individual birds.

== Current threats and conservation efforts ==
This species is widespread throughout much of Africa, overall fairly common and with a stable population.<ref name=IUCN/> It is rarer and much more localized in South Africa, although not considered to be under any form of immediate threat in that country.<ref>{{Cite book|date=2005-05-10|title=Vorwort|journal=Oden Salomos. Teil 3|pages=VII–VIII|doi=10.13109/9783666539572.vii|isbn=978-3-525-53957-6|last1=Lattke|first1=Michael}}</ref> That being said, the threats to this species in South Africa are not well understood. The low population size makes the species vulnerable to stochastic events. In Mozambique Parker (1999)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lamm|first=Donald W.|date=May 1953|journal=Ostrich|volume=24|issue=1|pages=2–8|doi=10.1080/00306525.1953.9632608|issn=0030-6525|title=Comments on Certain Records from Northern Sul do Save, Mozambique}}</ref> observed that cutting down of coastal forest was threatening breeding habitat. The main threat to this species in South Africa is habitat loss. Open cast sand dune mining and urban expansion have reduced suitable habitats.

The cultivation of Raphia palms for its ornamental value is currently increasing providing food and nesting sites. There is also a large portion of its habitat protected by the [[ISimangaliso Wetland Park|Isimangaliso Wetland Park]]. There are no current species specific conservation initiatives as this species is the only vulture species in South Africa where the population size is increasing. The importance of maintaining this is that the South African satellite population in producing dispersing birds that are contributing to maintaining the Mozambique population (and hence the larger metapopulation).

==References==
{{Reflist
| refs =
<ref name="arkive">{{cite web|title = Palm-nut vulture videos, photos and facts — Gypohierax angolensis|publisher = ARKive|url = http://www.arkive.org/palm-nut-vulture/gypohierax-angolensis/|accessdate = 2011-05-29|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110628073759/http://www.arkive.org/palm-nut-vulture/gypohierax-angolensis/|archive-date = 2011-06-28|url-status = dead}}</ref>
<ref name="oiseaux">{{cite web| title = Palm-nut Vulture — Gypohierax angolensis| publisher = oiseaux-birds.com| url = http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-palm-nut-vulture.html| accessdate = 2011-05-29}}</ref>

}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22695170/0 |title=''Gypohierax angolensis'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2013 |accessdate=26 November 2013
| ref = {{harvid|IUCN Red List|2013}}
}}
* {{cite journal| last = Thomson | first = A. L.| last2 = Moreau | first2 = R. E.| doi = 10.1111/j.1474-919X.1957.tb03053.x| title = Feeding Habits of the Palm-Nut Vulture ''Gypohierax''| journal = Ibis| volume = 99| issue = 4| pages = 608–613| year = 1957| pmid =| pmc =| ref = harv}}

== External links ==
* Palmnut Vulture - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/147.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].
{{Commons category|Gypohierax angolensis}}
{{Vulture}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q732523}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:vulture, palm-nut}}
[[Category:Accipitridae|palm-nut vulture]]
[[Category:Old World vultures|palm-nut vulture]]
[[Category:Birds of the Gulf of Guinea]]
[[Category:Birds of prey of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1788|palm-nut vulture]]

Palm-nut vulture

2020-04-22T02:35:22Z

118.46.55.151:

{{speciesbox
| name = Palm-nut vulture
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>BirdLife International 2016. ''Gypohierax angolensis'' (errata version published in 2019). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T22695170A157472666. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22695170A157472666.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| image = Flickr - Rainbirder - Palm-nut Vulture.jpg
| genus = Gypohierax
| parent_authority = [[Eduard Rüppell|Rüppell]], 1836
| species = angolensis
| authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788)
}}

The '''palm-nut vulture''' (''Gypohierax angolensis'') or '''vulturine fish eagle''', is a large [[bird of prey]] in the family [[Accipitridae]] (which also includes many other diurnal [[Bird of prey|raptor]]s such as [[kite (bird)|kite]]s, [[buzzard]]s and [[harrier (bird)|harrier]]s, vultures, and eagles). It is the only member of the [[genus]] ''Gypohierax''.

This bird is an [[Old World vulture]] (only distantly related to the [[New World vulture]]s, which are in a separate family, the [[Cathartidae]]).

It breeds in forest and savannah across [[sub-Saharan Africa]], usually near water, its range coinciding with that of the [[Elaeis guineensis|oil]] and [[Raffia palm]]s. It is quite approachable, like many African vultures, and can be seen near habitation, even on large hotel lawns in the tourist areas of countries such as [[the Gambia]].

== Description ==

This is a nearly unmistakable bird as an adult. At {{convert|1.3|-|1.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, {{convert|60|cm|ft|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|150|cm|ft|abbr=on}} across the wings, this is the smallest [[Old World vulture]].<ref name="arkive" /><ref name="oiseaux" /> Its plumage is all white except for black areas in its wings and tail. It has a red patch around each eye. The juvenile, which takes 3–4 years to mature, is brown with yellow eye-patches. In flight, this species resembles an eagle more than a typical vulture, and it can sustain flapping flight, so it does not depend on thermals. With its extensive white plumage, and black wing- and tail-feathers, the adult palm-nut vulture can be crudely mistaken for both the [[African fish eagle|African fish-eagle]] and the [[Egyptian vulture]], but clearly lacks the chestnut body of the former and the white tail of the latter<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pawson|first=Lara|date=October 1994|title=Stuart Mclean, South African Golf Courses: a portrait of the best. Cape Town: Struik Publishers, 1993, 144 pp., £29.99, ISBN 1 86825 338 4.|journal=Africa|volume=64|issue=4|pages=603|doi=10.2307/1161396|issn=0001-9720|jstor=1161396}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=May 2018}}

The sexes are identical in appearance, with the female being the same size as the male. Juveniles on the other hand are predominately brown with partially black wings and take a lengthy three to four years to make the transition into the adult plumage<ref name=":0" />

<gallery mode="packed" heights="130px">
Laika ac Selous (9859653096).jpg|Immature in [[Selous Game Reserve]], Tanzania
Palm nut vulture (Gypohierax angolensis) in flight.jpg|Adult in flight in [[Semliki Wildlife Reserve]], Uganda
Palm nut vulture (Gypohierax angolensis) on nest.jpg|Adult on nest at [[Kazinga Channel]], Uganda

</gallery>

== Distribution and density ==
Palm-nut vultures are found throughout most of the coastal areas of the African continent from The Gambia to Kenya and as far South as South Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=van Zyl|first=Anthony|date=November 2006|title=Raptors of the world: a field guide by James Ferguson-Lees and David Christie|journal=Ostrich|volume=77|issue=3–4|pages=235–236|doi=10.2989/00306520609485540|issn=0030-6525}}</ref> The total African population is estimated to be 80 000 pairs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=HOLT|first=P.|date=February 1994|title=MUNDY, P., BUTCHART, D., LEDGER, J. and PIPER, S.The vultures of Africa. Academic Press, London: 1992 (originally published by Acorn Books, Johannesburg: 1992). Pp 460; illustrated. Price: £55.00 |isbn=978-0-12-510585-9|journal=Archives of Natural History|volume=21|issue=1|pages=136|doi=10.3366/anh.1994.21.1.136|issn=0260-9541}}</ref> There are approximately 40 birds in [[South Africa]].

== Habitat ==
As the name suggests, the distribution of the palm-nut vulture closely tracks that of oil (''[[Elaeis guineensis]]'') or raffia (''[[Raffia palm|Raphia]]'' sp.) palms. Consequently, it is most common in coastal forests and mangrove swamps below {{cvt|1500|m|ft}}, but also occurs in wet savannas.<ref name=":0" />

== Diet and feeding habits ==
Unusually for birds of prey, the palm-nut vulture feeds mainly on the fleshy fruit-husks of the oil palm and on the palm-fruits of Raffia palm. These fruits make up over 60% of the adult bird's diet and over 90% of the juvenile bird's diet.<ref name=":0" /> It has also been recorded to feed on crabs (both freshwater and marine), [[Mollusca|molluscs]], frogs, fish, locusts, small mammals, even [[reptile]]s’ eggs and hatchlings, and it has been known to occasionally attack [[Chicken|domestic poultry]] and feed on [[carrion]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mikula|first1=P.|last2=Morelli|first2=F.|last3=Lučan|first3=R. K.|last4=Jones|first4=D. N.|last5=Tryjanowski|first5=P.|year=2016|title=Bats as prey of diurnal birds: a global perspective|journal=Mammal Review|volume=46|issue=3|pages=160–174|doi=10.1111/mam.12060}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carneiro|first=Camilo|last2=Henriques|first2=Mohamed|last3=Barbosa|first3=Castro|last4=Tchantchalam|first4=Quintino|last5=Regalla|first5=Aissa|last6=Patrício|first6=Ana R.|last7=Catry|first7=Paulo|date=2017-04-10|title=Ecology and behaviour of Palm-nut Vultures Gypohierax angolensis in the Bijagós Archipelago, Guinea-Bissau|journal=Ostrich|volume=0|issue=2|pages=113–121|doi=10.2989/00306525.2017.1291540|issn=0030-6525}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=HOLT|first=P.|date=February 1994|title=MUNDY, P., BUTCHART, D., LEDGER, J. and PIPER, S.The vultures of Africa. Academic Press, London: 1992 (originally published by Acorn Books, Johannesburg: 1992). Pp 460; illustrated. Price: £55.00 |isbn=978-0-12-510585-9|journal=Archives of Natural History|volume=21|issue=1|pages=136|doi=10.3366/anh.1994.21.1.136|issn=0260-9541}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Birds of Africa|publisher=Academic Press Limited|isbn=9780121373016|doi = 10.5040/9781472926982.part-0185|chapter = Vultures|year = 1982}}</ref>

== Nesting ==
[[File:Palmiste africain MHNT.jpg|thumb|''Gypohierax angolensis'']]
Breeding pairs construct large stick nests high up in tall trees and will often exhibit a strong attachment to the nest site. They may stay at the nesting site for an entire year. Where Raphia Palms are present, breeding pairs will build a nest at the base of the palm fronds. At the beginning of the breeding season, pairs soar together in an aerial display of rolling and diving, much more acrobatic than most vultures. During each breeding cycle, a single, white and brown egg is laid, which is incubated by both sexes, over a period of four to six weeks. Normally around 85 to 90 days after hatching, the young brown chicks will fledge.<ref name=":0" />

== In South Africa ==
The only Southern African subregions to have the breeding resident pairs of Palm-nut vulture is South Africa and Mozambique.The breeding distribution of the Palm-nut Vulture during the 1970s census period was centred on the Raffia Palm groves of the Kosi Bay system and Mtunzini. Its distribution is linked to the presence of the Raffia palm ''[[Raphia australis]]'' at all permanently occupied sites, and the existence of this species at Mtunzini is entirely due the artificial cultivation of Raffia palms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gidlow|first=R.M.|date=September 2002|title=The history of exchange controls in South Africa|journal=South African Journal of Economic History|volume=17|issue=1–2|pages=25–48|doi=10.1080/10113430209511143|issn=1011-3436}}</ref> Currently there are 7 known nesting sites in South Africa and a total of 40 individual birds.

== Current threats and conservation efforts ==
This species is widespread throughout much of Africa, overall fairly common and with a stable population.<ref name=IUCN> It is rarer and much more localized in South Africa, although not considered to be under any form of immediate threat in that country.<ref>{{Cite book|date=2005-05-10|title=Vorwort|journal=Oden Salomos. Teil 3|pages=VII–VIII|doi=10.13109/9783666539572.vii|isbn=978-3-525-53957-6|last1=Lattke|first1=Michael}}</ref> That being said, the threats to this species in South Africa are not well understood. The low population size makes the species vulnerable to stochastic events. In Mozambique Parker (1999)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lamm|first=Donald W.|date=May 1953|journal=Ostrich|volume=24|issue=1|pages=2–8|doi=10.1080/00306525.1953.9632608|issn=0030-6525|title=Comments on Certain Records from Northern Sul do Save, Mozambique}}</ref> observed that cutting down of coastal forest was threatening breeding habitat. The main threat to this species in South Africa is habitat loss. Open cast sand dune mining and urban expansion have reduced suitable habitats.

The cultivation of Raphia palms for its ornamental value is currently increasing providing food and nesting sites. There is also a large portion of its habitat protected by the [[ISimangaliso Wetland Park|Isimangaliso Wetland Park]]. There are no current species specific conservation initiatives as this species is the only vulture species in South Africa where the population size is increasing. The importance of maintaining this is that the South African satellite population in producing dispersing birds that are contributing to maintaining the Mozambique population (and hence the larger metapopulation).

==References==
{{Reflist
| refs =
<ref name="arkive">{{cite web|title = Palm-nut vulture videos, photos and facts — Gypohierax angolensis|publisher = ARKive|url = http://www.arkive.org/palm-nut-vulture/gypohierax-angolensis/|accessdate = 2011-05-29|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110628073759/http://www.arkive.org/palm-nut-vulture/gypohierax-angolensis/|archive-date = 2011-06-28|url-status = dead}}</ref>
<ref name="oiseaux">{{cite web| title = Palm-nut Vulture — Gypohierax angolensis| publisher = oiseaux-birds.com| url = http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-palm-nut-vulture.html| accessdate = 2011-05-29}}</ref>

}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22695170/0 |title=''Gypohierax angolensis'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2013 |accessdate=26 November 2013
| ref = {{harvid|IUCN Red List|2013}}
}}
* {{cite journal| last = Thomson | first = A. L.| last2 = Moreau | first2 = R. E.| doi = 10.1111/j.1474-919X.1957.tb03053.x| title = Feeding Habits of the Palm-Nut Vulture ''Gypohierax''| journal = Ibis| volume = 99| issue = 4| pages = 608–613| year = 1957| pmid =| pmc =| ref = harv}}

== External links ==
* Palmnut Vulture - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/147.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].
{{Commons category|Gypohierax angolensis}}
{{Vulture}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q732523}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:vulture, palm-nut}}
[[Category:Accipitridae|palm-nut vulture]]
[[Category:Old World vultures|palm-nut vulture]]
[[Category:Birds of the Gulf of Guinea]]
[[Category:Birds of prey of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1788|palm-nut vulture]]

White-backed vulture

2020-04-22T02:26:20Z

118.46.55.151:

{{speciesbox
| image = 2012-white-backed-vulture.jpg
| image_caption = Adult in [[Etosha National Park]], [[Namibia]]
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>BirdLife International 2018. ''Gyps africanus''. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T22695189A126667006. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22695189A126667006.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| genus = Gyps
| species = africanus
| authority = [[Tommaso Salvadori|Salvadori]], 1865
}}

The '''white-backed vulture''' (''Gyps africanus'') is an [[Old World vulture]] in the family [[Accipitridae]], which also includes [[eagle]]s, [[kite (bird)|kite]]s, [[buzzard]]s and [[hawk]]s. It is closely related to the European [[griffon vulture]], ''G. fulvus''. Sometimes it is called '''African white-backed vulture''' to distinguish it from the Oriental white-backed vulture — nowadays usually called [[white-rumped vulture]] — to which it was formerly believed to be closely related.

==Description==
The white-backed vulture is a typical vulture, with only down feathers on the head and neck, very broad wings and short tail feathers. It has a white neck ruff. The adult's whitish back contrasts with the otherwise dark plumage. Juveniles are largely dark. This is a medium-sized vulture; its body mass is {{convert|4.2|to(-)|7.2|kg|lb}}, it is {{convert|78|to|98|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and has a {{convert|1.96|to|2.25|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} wingspan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Gyps_africanus/more_info.html?section=factsAndStatus |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529131322/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Gyps_africanus/more_info.html?section=factsAndStatus |url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-05-29 |title=White-backed vulture videos, photos and facts - Gyps africanus |publisher=ARKive|accessdate=2011-05-31 }}</ref><ref>''Raptors of the World'' by Ferguson-Lees, Christie, Franklin, Mead & Burton. Houghton Mifflin (2001), {{ISBN|0-618-12762-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-af-white-backed-vulture.html|title=African White-backed Vulture|publisher=Oiseaux-birds|accessdate=2011-10-11}}</ref><ref name=animalia>{{cite web|url=http://animalia.bio/white-backed-vulture|title=White-backed vulture|publisher=animalia|accessdate=2019-06-03}}</ref>

Like other [[vulture]]s it is a scavenger, feeding mostly from carcasses of [[animal]]s which it finds by soaring over the savannah. It also takes scraps from human habitations. It often moves in flocks. It breeds in trees on the savannah of west and eastern and southern [[Africa]], laying one egg. The population is mostly resident.

== Status ==
As it is rarer than previously believed, its conservation status was reassessed from Least Concern to [[Near Threatened]] in the 2007 [[IUCN Red List]].<ref>See BirdLife International (2007a. b).</ref> In 2012, it was further uplisted to [[Endangered]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Recently recategorised species|url=http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/global_species_programme/whats_new.html|publisher=Birdlife International (2012)|accessdate=15 June 2012}}</ref> In October 2015, its status was changed to [[Critically Endangered]] because the ongoing decline is more severe than previously thought.<ref name=IUCN/>

The population size of the white-backed vulture has been decreasing significantly within the past few decades. In 1922, the population was estimated at 270,000. Over the past two decades, its population has noticeably decreased. While not much is known about the current population, a recent study found that white-backed vultures have a high survival rate. Individual adults have the highest survival rate, while 2 year old birds have the lowest survival rate. Across all ages, the survival rate is estimated to be 90.7%. This means that the deaths of adult vultures will lead to rapid population declines. The loss of adults will cause less reproduction and with younger birds less likely to survive, the population will drop drastically. A major cause of population decrease is the loss of habitat. Elephants have been endangering the vultures, since they destroy the trees the vultures live and nest in. Vultures tend not to nest in areas with high elephant populations. Fires have also caused the destruction of trees. Humans also have a large impact. Power lines have caused many vultures to be electrocuted. In Kenya especially, humans are using a toxic pesticide called [[Carbofuran|Furadan]], which has led to many vulture deaths. Vultures are also being poisoned by humans, although not intentionally. In order to kill hyenas, lions, and other predators, herders add poisons into their livestock. Vultures ingest the poison upon eating a deceased animal's carcass. This poisoning generally occurs outside of protected areas but is a leading factor in the population's decline. Habitats are also being disturbed by human land management and direct nesting persecution patterns.

More recent studies have indicated a new plausible factor in the current declination of the vultures. Researches have seen that there has been a rise in toxicity in the liver, kidneys, pectoral region, and internal organs. This toxicity is caused by higher levels of lead, cadmium, zinc, and copper. Although most of these metals level out as either non harmful or normal levels, the lead concentrate in the liver of the vultures (8.56 µg/g wet weight) and in the kidneys (9.31 µg/g wet weight) is higher than the average levels.

Studies have also been performed on the white-backed vulture and some species of Asian vultures within the ''Gyps'' clade to see the effect of veterinary [[diclofenac]].<ref>Bamford, et.al. Trade-offs between specificity and regional generality in habitat association models: a case study of two species of African vulture. Journal of Applied Ecology, 46: 853-859.
</ref> Regardless of whether the vultures were given an oral or intravenous dose of the substance, the effects was nearly identical and the diclofenac eventually poisoned the subjects.<ref>Naidoo V, Wolter K, Cuthbert R, Duncan N. 2009. Veterinary diclofenac threatens Africa's endangered vulture species. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 53:205–208.
</ref> This chemical is one of the greatest contaminants for the general vulture population because of its presence in livestock: easy food for the vultures.

Another study shows that there are heightened levels of [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, HPA's, which is not as likely a product in the endangerment resultant, but still concerning. HPA's, also known as polyaromatic hydrocarbons, are formations of hydrogen atoms surrounding rings of carbon. As common as these compounds are—found in foods, engines/incinerators, fires, combustion—there are many forms, and some carcinogenic. Although there is no direct correlation of the high levels of HPA's in the vultures, there is still a plausibility that it can result in a negative outcome for the species.

Another reason for the decline in the number of white-backed vultures is the decrease in the number of their nesting sites, which they construct in trees in savannah areas and which are roughly 1 meter in diameter. There is an inverse relationship between the amount of human activity (farming, ranching, etc.) and the amount of vulture nesting activity in said area, so as the amount of human activity in Africa expands, the number of nesting sites available decreases, putting the vultures at jeopardy.
<ref>BAMFORD, A. J., MONADJEM, A., & HARDY, I. C. (2008, September 16). Nesting habitat preference of the African White‐backed Vulture Gyps africanus and the effects of anthropogenic disturbance. Retrieved February 23, 2018, from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2008.00878.x/full</ref>

On the 20th of June 2019, the corpses of 468 white-backed vultures, 17 [[white-headed vulture]]s, 28 [[hooded vulture]]s, 14 [[lappet-faced vulture]]s and 10 [[cape vulture]]s, altogether 537 vultures, besides 2 [[tawny eagle]]s, were found in northern Botswana. It is suspected that they died after eating the corpses of 3 [[African bush elephant|elephant]]s that were poisoned by poachers, possibly to avoid detection by the birds, which help rangers to track poaching activity by circling above where there are dead animals. Most of them were new parents, leaving their young orphaned and "ill-equipped" for survival. Vultures are slow breeders, and losing over 400 on a week is a devastating blow for the species.<ref name="NDTV AFP 06-2019">{{cite news |publisher=[[NDTV]] |work=[[Agence France-Press]] |title=Over 500 Rare Vultures Die After Eating Poisoned Elephants In Botswana |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/over-500-rare-vultures-die-after-eating-poisoned-elephants-in-botswana-2056740 |date=2019-06-21 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="CNN 06-2019">{{cite news |last=Hurworth |first=Ella |title=More than 500 endangered vultures die after eating poisoned elephant carcasses |publisher=[[CNN]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/06/21/africa/botswana-vultures-endangered-elephants-intl-hnk/index.html |date=2019-06-24 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="Smithsonian 06-2019">{{cite news |last=Solly |first=Meilan |title=Poachers' Poison Kills 530 Endangered Vultures in Botswana |publisher=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/poachers-poison-kills-530-endangered-vultures-botswana-180972477/ |date=2019-06-24 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="Afrik21 06-2019">{{cite news |last=Ngounou |first=Boris |title=BOTSWANA: Over 500 vultures found dead after massive poisoning |publisher=Afrik21 |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/botswana-over-500-vultures-found-dead-after-massive-poisoning/ |date=2019-06-27 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref>

== Diet ==
White-backed vultures are an endangered species, living in a diminishing environment, which results in a decrease in the amount of food available. This increases competition for food, which affects them in two ways. First, the white-backed vulture is not a species that shares food with others of its own species. Second, the white-backs face competition for food with other animals in their habitat.

The main food source of the creature are the carcasses of animals in its habitat. The creature soars over the Savannah and even wooded areas in search of food. It will also follow the water streams during the wet season, an ideal place to find food, as other animals are gathered to get water. Some examples of what a white-backed vulture eat are warthogs, zebras, gazelles, or ostriches, but it will basically feast on the carcass of any animal.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

== Breeding ==
[[File:Vautour africain MHNT.jpg|thumb|Egg]]
White-backed vultures nest in trees. They typically choose tall trees along riparian habitats and show strong a preference for ''Acacia'' species. The nests are large, around 1m in diameter, and are made of large sticks and lined with leaves and grasses. White-backed vultures face threats from habitat degradation and poaching; as such they have been shown to avoid anthropogenically-disturbed areas when selecting nest sites and protection status is also a strong determinant of site selection.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bamford |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Monadjem |first2=Ara |last3=Hardy |first3=Ian C. W. |title=Nesting habitat preference of African White-backed Vulture ''Gyps africanus'' and the effect of anthropogenic disturbance |journal=Ibis |date=2009 |issue=151 |pages=51–62|doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.2008.00878.x }}</ref>
White-backed vultures have a long breeding cycle. The incubation period is around 8 weeks and the nestling period is about 4–5 months.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kemp |first1=A. C. |last2=Kemp |first2=M. I. |title=Observations on the White backed Vulture ''Gyps africanus'' in the Kruger National Park, with notes on other avian scavengers |journal=Koedoe |date=1975 |issue=18 |pages=51–68|url=https://koedoe.co.za/index.php/koedoe/article/download/914/1048 }}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="130px">
White-backed vultures eating a dead wildebeest.JPG|Eating a [[wildebeest]] carcass, [[Masai Mara National Park]], [[Kenya]]
White-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) feeding on elephant leg composite.jpg|feeding on elephant leg, [[Matetsi]] Safari Area, [[Zimbabwe]]
White-backed vultures (Gyps africanus) on zebra carcass.jpg|feeding on zebra carcass, [[Etosha National Park]], [[Namibia]]
Weißrückengeier_Gyps_africanus_HP_L2043.JPG|[[Cuando River]], [[Chobe National Park]], [[Botswana]]
African white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) flight - Flickr - Lip Kee.jpg|adult
White-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) landing composite.jpg|adult coming in to land
White-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) sub adult in flight.jpg|sub-adult
White-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) juvenile in flight.jpg|juvenile
White-backed Vulture Chobe.jpg|[[Cuando River|Chobe river]], [[Botswana]]
African white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) - Flickr - Lip Kee.jpg|adult
African white-backed vulture - juvenile - Flickr - Lip Kee.jpg|immature coming in to land<ref name=fan>{{cite book|author1=Terry Stevenson |author2=John Fanshawe |title=Birds of East Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi |year=2004 |publisher=Helm Field Guides |isbn=978-0713673470 |pages=54–55}}</ref>
</gallery>

== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22695189/0 |title=''Gyps africanus'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2017 |accessdate=5 March 2018
| ref = {{harvid|IUCN Red List|2012}}
}}
* Bamford, et al. Trade-offs between specificity and regional generality in habitat association models: a case study of two species of African vulture. Journal of Applied Ecology, 46: 853–859.
* BirdLife International (2007a): [http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/global_species_programme/whats_new.html 2006-2007 Red List status changes]. Retrieved 2007-AUG-26.
* BirdLife International (2007b): [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/search/species_search.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3373&m=0 White-backed Vulture - BirdLife Species Factsheet]. Retrieved 2007-AUG-26.
* Gill, F & D Donsker (Eds). 2013. IOC World Bird Names (v 3.3) [http://www.worldbirdnames.org/n-raptors.html www.worldbirdnames.org] Taxonomy of raptors
* Chomba, Chansa (2013) Nesting patterns of raptor; White backed vulture (Gyps africanus) and African fish eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer), in Lochinvar National Park on the kafue flats, Zambia. Open Journal of Ecology, 3.5, 35-330.
* Mebrat, Tekemariam, Ashok, Verma. Communal Roosts of African White backed Gyps africanus and Hooded Vultures Necrosyrtes monachus in Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Southern Ethiopia. Vulture News, 64, 5-20.
* Monadjem, A., Botha, A. and Murn, C. (2013), Survival of the African white-backed vulture Gyps africanus in north-eastern South Africa. African Journal of Ecology, 51: 87–93. doi: 10.1111/aje.12009
* Munir Virani, Paul Kirui, Ara Monadjem, Simon Thomsett & Mwangi Githiru (2010) Nesting status of African White-backed Vultures Gyps africanus in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya, Ostrich, 81:3, 205–209, DOI: 10.2989/00306525.2010.519894
* Corinne Kendall, Munir Z. Virani, Paul Kirui, Simon Thomsett and Mwangi Githiru. (2012) Mechanisms of Coexistence in Vultures: Understanding the Patterns of Vulture Abundance at Carcasses in Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. The Condor 114:3, 523–531. Online publication date: 1-Aug-201214-Sep-2012
* Naidoo V., Wolter K., Cuthbert R., Duncan N. 2009. Veterinary diclofenac threatens Africa's endangered vulture species. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 53:205–208.
* Aas, E., Beyeri, J., Goksoyr, A. (2000) Fixed wavelength fluorescence (FF) of bile as a monitoring tool for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure in fish: an evaluation of compound specificity, inner filter effect and signal interpretation. Biomarkers 5:9–23
* Agarwal, T., Khillare, P. S., Shridhar, V., Ray, S. (2009) Pattern, sources and toxic potential of PAHs in the agricultural soils of Delhi, India. J Hazard Mater 163:1033–1039
* Albers P. H. (2006) Birds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Avian Poult Biol Rev 17(4):125–140

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Gyps africanus}}
* [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/african-white-backed-vulture-gyps-africanus African white-backed vulture videos] on the Internet Bird Collection
* White-backed vulture - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/123.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].
* [http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/birds/accipitridae/gyps_africanus.htm Gyps Africanus on Iziko - Museums of Cape Town].

{{Vulture}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q281874}}

[[Category:Gyps]]
[[Category:Old World vultures]]
[[Category:Birds of prey of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Critically endangered fauna of Africa]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1865]]

Lappet-faced vulture

2020-04-22T02:24:07Z

118.46.55.151:

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{speciesbox
| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>BirdLife International 2019. ''Torgos tracheliotos'' (amended version of 2017 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T22695238A155542069. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22695238A155542069.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| image = 2012-lappet-faced-vulture.jpg
| image_caption = At [[Etosha National Park]], [[Namibia]]
| genus = Torgos
| parent_authority = [[Johann Jakob Kaup|Kaup]], 1828
| species = tracheliotos
| authority = ([[Johann Reinhold Forster|Forster]], 1791)
| synonyms=
''Aegypius tracheliotos''
''Torgos tracheliotus (lapsus)''
}}

The '''lappet-faced vulture''' or ''' Nubian vulture''' (''Torgos tracheliotos'') is an [[Old World vulture]] belonging to the [[bird]] order [[Accipitriformes]], which also includes [[eagle]]s, [[kite (bird)|kite]]s, [[buzzard]]s and [[hawk]]s. It is the only member of the genus ''Torgos''. It is not closely related to the superficially similar [[New World vulture]]s, and does not share the good sense of smell of some members of that group.

The lappet-faced vulture was formerly considered monotypical, but now is separated into two subspecies. The nominate race lives throughout [[Africa]]. The subspecies ''T. t. negevensis'', differing considerably in appearance from African vultures (as described below), occurs in the [[Negev desert]], and the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]] and [[Arabian peninsula]]s.

==Distribution==
This species is patchily distributed through much of Africa, though it is absent from much of the central and western parts of the continent and declining elsewhere in its range. The lappet-faced vulture nests in [[Senegal]], [[Mali]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]], [[Sudan]], southeastern [[Egypt]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Somalia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], easternmost part of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Zambia]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Swaziland]], northeastern [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[the Gambia]], [[Guinea]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Benin]], the [[Central African Republic]], southern [[Angola]] and possibly in [[Mauritania]] and [[Nigeria]]. Across the [[Red Sea]], the species nests in [[Yemen]], [[Oman]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]], and probably north-[[Hejaz|west]] [[Saudi Arabia]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

==Habitat==
This vulture prefers to live in [[Savanna|dry savannah]], thornbush, arid plains, deserts with scattered trees in [[wadi]]s, open mountain slopes. They are usually found in undisturbed open country with a scattering of trees and apparently prefer areas with minimal grass cover. While foraging, they can wander into denser habitats and even into human inhabited areas, especially if drawn to road kills. They may be found in elevation from sea-level to {{convert|4500|m|ft|abbr=on}}.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

==Description==
[[File:Lappet-faced Vulture (Torgos tracheliotos) (33317710636).jpg|thumb|In [[Kruger National Park]], South Africa]]
The lappet-faced vulture is a huge species, ranking as the longest and largest winged vulture in its range, behind the closely related [[cinereous vulture]], although some co-occurring ''[[Gyps]]'' vultures tend to be heavier on average, especially the [[Cape vulture]] and [[Eurasian griffon]].<ref name=RaptorsWorld>{{citation |last1=Ferguson-Lees |first1=James |author-link=James Ferguson-Lees |last2=Christie |first2=David A. |year=2001 |title=Raptors of the World |publisher=[[Houghton-Mifflin Company]] |isbn=978-0-618-12762-7}}</ref> This species measures around {{convert|95|–|115|cm|in|abbr=on}} in body length, with a wingspan of {{convert|2.5|–|2.9|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Among the standard measurements, the [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] is {{convert|71.5|-|82.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[tail]] is {{convert|33|-|36|cm|in|abbr=on}} and the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] is {{convert|12.2|-|15|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> The bill, at up to {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep, ranks as one of the largest of any [[Accipitridae|accipitrid]], although a reported [[Culmen (bird)|culmen]] length of {{convert|7.2|cm|in|abbr=on}} is slightly less than the culmen length of the cinereous vulture.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hardy, Eric |year=1947 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v064n03/p0471-p0472.pdf |title=The Northern Lappet-faced Vulture in Palestine—A new record for Asia |journal=[[The Auk]] |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=471–472 |doi=10.2307/4080421}}</ref> Wild vultures of the subspecies ''T. t. tracheliotus'' range from {{convert|4.4|to|9.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and in [[East Africa]], average only {{convert|6.2|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Torgos_tracheliotos/more_info.html?section=factsAndStatus |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717181043/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Torgos_tracheliotos/more_info.html?section=factsAndStatus |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-07-17 |title=Lappet-faced vulture videos, photos and facts – Torgos tracheliotos |publisher=[[ARKive]] |access-date=2012-08-21}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/3881/lappetvulture.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091024013825/http://geocities.com/RainForest/3881/lappetvulture.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-10-24 |title=Lappet-faced Vulture |publisher=Geocities.com}}</ref> On the other hand, captive vultures of the larger ''T. t. negevensis'' subspecies weighed {{convert|6.5|-|9.2|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in males and {{convert|10.5|-|13.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in females.<ref name= RaptorsWorld/>

Overall, the lappet-faced vulture is blackish above with a strongly contrasting white thigh feathers. The black feathers on the back of African vultures are lined with brown, while Arabian birds are dark brown rather than black above. The underside can range from pure white to buff-brown. Like many vultures, it has a bald head. The head coloration can range from reddish in southern Africa to dull pink in more northern Africa to pink on the back of the head and gray on the front in the Arabian Peninsula.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> The combination of the colorful head and fleshy folds on the side of it are distinctive. The bald head of the lappet-faced vulture is advantageous, because a feathered head would become spattered with [[blood]] and other fluids, and thus be difficult to keep clean. While flying, lappet-faced vultures have large, broad wings held with the front edges held parallel and slightly pointed, serrated-looking wingtips. Compared to the somewhat similarly marked [[hooded vulture]], it is considerably larger with a more massive bill and can only be confused at a great distance. The ''Gyps'' vultures are generally much paler, with less white lining the wings and more bulging secondaries. The [[cinereous vulture]] (which may overlap in range in the Arabian area) has a similar body shape but is all dark, with no contrasting plumage.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>

==Behaviour==
{{multiple image |align=right |direction=vertical
|image1=Torgos tracheliotos -Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya-8.jpg |caption1=Perching in a tree in [[Masai Mara National Reserve]], [[Kenya]]
|image2=Vultures scavenge on an elephant kill - journal.pone.0060797.g001-D.png |caption2=Scavenging on an [[African bush elephant|elephant]] carcass together with the number of [[white-backed vulture]]s
}}

===Feeding===
{{One source|section|date=April 2018}}
The lappet-faced vulture is a scavenging bird, feeding mostly from [[animal]] carcasses, which it finds by sight or by watching other [[vulture]]s. More so than many other African vultures, they often find carrion on their own and start tearing through the skin. They are the most powerful and aggressive of the [[Africa]]n [[vulture]]s, and other vultures will usually cede a carcass to the lappet-faced vulture if it decides to assert itself. This is often beneficial to the less powerful vultures because the Lappet-face can tear through the tough hides and knotty muscles of large [[mammal]]s that the others cannot penetrate, although [[hyena]]s are even more efficient in this regard (if more voracious eaters). However, lappet-faced vultures frequently hang around the edges of the throngs at large carcasses, waiting until the other vultures are done, to feed on remnant skin, tendons and other coarse tissues that the others will not eat. Big game animals, up to the size of [[elephant]]s, are preferred as [[carrion]], since they provide the most subsistence at a sitting. A full crop can contain up to {{convert|1.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of meat.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>

Perhaps more than any other true vulture, lappet-faced vultures have been recorded as regularly feeding on freshly killed smaller mammals, birds and reptiles. Some of these are probably road-kills or are pirated from [[eagle]]s or other raptors but they are also believed to occasionally attack live animals, especially young and weak animals and the nests and young of other birds. [[Flamingo]] colonies (including eggs, young and adults), young [[impala]]s and [[guineafowl]] have reportedly been predated. They are believed to still-hunt from an elevated perch and then drop on their prey, stunning them with the impact and tearing them apart with their strong bills. Most remains found at nests are from small animals possibly caught alive.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>
[[File:Torgos tracheliotus MHNT.ZOO.2010.11.78.7.jpg|thumb| ''Torgos tracheliotus'' - [[MHNT]]]]

===Life history===
Lappet-faced vultures are generally solitary birds. They do not nest in cohesive colonies as do many smaller vultures, with one tree or area usually only having 1 to 2 nests in it, though rarely up to 10 nests have been recorded in one area. The home range of a lappet-faced vulture is usually at least {{convert|8|to|15|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=IUCN/> Groups of up to 25 to 50 Lappet-faces may congregate at large carcasses or watering holes, though typically only from 1 to as many as 7 turn up per carcass.<ref>{{citation |last1=Stevenson |first1=Terry |last2=Fanshawe |first2=John |year=2001 |title=Field Guide to the Birds of East Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi |publisher=[[Elsevier]] Science |isbn=978-0856610790}}</ref>

This species nests in November through July in the north of its range, throughout the year in eastern Africa and May to January in southern Africa. The huge nest, a pile of neatly formed sticks, measures {{convert|120|-|220|cm|in|abbr=on}} across and {{convert|30|-|70|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep. The nest is often lined with green leaves, as well as animal hair and skins. Nests are almost always placed in the main fork or top of an ''[[Acacia]]'' tree, though ''[[Balanites]]'' and ''[[Terminalia (plant)|Terminalia]]'' trees are sometimes also used, at {{convert|5|to|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} off the ground.<ref name=IUCN/> The clutch contains 1 or 2 eggs, which are incubated by both parents over the course of 54 to 56 days. The young fledge at 124 to 135 days old, although can be dependent on their parents for up to an age of 1 year or more, sometimes forcing parents to only nest in alternate years. There is a single remarkable record of a lappet-faced vulture pair successfully raising a [[white-headed vulture]].<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> The lappet-faced vultures does not usually breed until it is around 6 years of age.<ref name=IUCN/>

==Status==
The lappet-faced vulture's world population is believed to have decreased perceptibly, and as of October 2015 their IUCN status was updated to Endangered. They are declining in [[Sahel]] and several parts of their southern, northern and western distribution in Africa. They are apparently currently stable in Arabia but have a small population there and have been extirpated from [[Israel]] as a breeding bird. The declines are almost entirely due to human activities, including disturbances from habitat destruction and cultivation, disturbances at the nesting site (to which the species is reportedly quite sensitive) and ingestion of pesticides, which are usually set out for [[jackal]]s and other small mammalian carnivores. Domestic [[cattle]], who have replaced natural prey over much of the range, are now often sold off, rather than abandoned, due to the proliferation of markets and abattoirs and rarely left to die and be consumed by vultures. Lappet-faced vultures are also sometimes victims of direct persecution, including shooting and the use of [[strychnine]] and other poisons. In [[Namibia]], 86 vultures died after eating poisoned cattle carcasses, because the farmers erroneously believed they were killing and eating the cattle. In some cases the poisoning is done by poachers, who fear the presence of vultures will alert authorities to their activities, the illegal killings of protected species. They are considered Vulnerable at the species level, with an estimated world population of under 9,000 individuals.<ref name=IUCN/><ref name=RaptorsWorld/>

On the 20th of June 2019, the carcasses of 468 [[white-backed vulture]]s, 17 [[white-headed vulture]]s, 28 [[hooded vulture]]s, 14 lappet-faced vultures and 10 [[cape vulture]]s, altogether 537 vultures, besides 2 [[tawny eagle]]s, were found in northern [[Botswana]]. It is suspected that they died after eating the carcasses of 3 elephants that were poisoned by poachers, possibly to avoid detection by the birds, which help rangers to track poaching activity by circling above where there are dead animals.<ref name="NDTV AFP 06-2019">{{cite news |publisher=[[NDTV]] |work=[[Agence France-Press]] |title=Over 500 Rare Vultures Die After Eating Poisoned Elephants In Botswana |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/over-500-rare-vultures-die-after-eating-poisoned-elephants-in-botswana-2056740 |date=2019-06-21 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="CNN 06-2019">{{cite news |last=Hurworth |first=Ella |title=More than 500 endangered vultures die after eating poisoned elephant carcasses |publisher=[[CNN]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/06/21/africa/botswana-vultures-endangered-elephants-intl-hnk/index.html |date=2019-06-24 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="Smithsonian 06-2019">{{cite magazine |last=Solly |first=Meilan |title=Poachers’ Poison Kills 530 Endangered Vultures in Botswana |magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/poachers-poison-kills-530-endangered-vultures-botswana-180972477/ |date=2019-06-24 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name="Afrik21 06-2019">{{cite news |last=Ngounou |first=Boris |title=BOTSWANA: Over 500 vultures found dead after massive poisoning |publisher=Afrik21 |url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/botswana-over-500-vultures-found-dead-after-massive-poisoning/ |date=2019-06-27 |access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Shirihai |first=Hadoram |author-link=Hadoram Shirihai |year=1987 |chapter=Field characters of the Negev Lappet-faced Vulture |pages=8–11 |title=International Bird Identification: Proceedings of the 4th International Identification Meeting, Eilat, 1st – 8th November 1986 |publisher=International Birdwatching Centre Eilat}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Torgos tracheliotos}}
* [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3381&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet]
* Lappet-faced vulture – [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/124.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds]
* ARKive – [https://web.archive.org/web/20060718150751/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Torgos_tracheliotos/ images and movies of the lappet-faced vulture ''(Torgos tracheliotos)'']

{{Vulture}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q838162}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:vulture, lappet-faced}}
[[Category:Aegypiinae|lappet-faced vulture]]
[[Category:Birds of prey of Africa]]
[[Category:Birds of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1791|lappet-faced vulture]]

Egyptian vulture

2020-04-22T02:22:20Z

118.46.55.151:

{{short description|species of Old World vultures of the genus Neophron}}
{{About|the Egyptian vulture species of vulture|the Ancient Egyptian hieroglyph|Vulture (hieroglyph)}}
{{good article}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2018}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Egyptian vulture
| image = Egyptian vulture.jpg
| image_caption = Adult ''N. p. ginginianus''
| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>BirdLife International 2019. ''Neophron percnopterus''. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T22695180A154895845. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22695180A154895845.en. Downloaded on 22 April 2020.</ref>
| genus = Neophron
| parent_authority = [[Marie Jules César Savigny|Savigny]], 1809
| species = percnopterus
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])
| range_map = NeophronMap.svg
| range_map_caption = Distribution of the three subspecies
| synonyms = ''Vultur percnopterus'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}
}}

The '''Egyptian vulture''' (''Neophron percnopterus''), also called the '''white scavenger vulture''' or '''pharaoh's chicken''', is a small [[Old World vulture]] and the only member of the [[genus]] ''Neophron''. It is widely distributed; the [[Wildlife of Egypt#Fauna|Egyptian]] [[vulture]] is found from the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and [[North Africa]] to [[India]]. The contrasting underwing pattern and wedge-shaped tail make it distinctive in flight as it soars in [[thermals]] during the warmer parts of the day. Egyptian vultures feed mainly on [[carrion]] but are opportunistic and will prey on small mammals, birds, and reptiles. They also feed on the eggs of other birds, breaking larger ones by tossing a large pebble onto them.

The [[Tool use by animals#In birds|use of tools is rare in birds]] and apart from the use of a pebble as a hammer, Egyptian vultures also use twigs to roll up wool for use in their nest. Egyptian vultures that breed in the [[temperate regions]] migrate south in winter while [[tropical]] populations are relatively [[sedentary]]. Populations of this species declined in the 20th century and some island populations are endangered by hunting, accidental poisoning, and collision with power lines.

== Taxonomy and systematics ==
The Egyptian vulture was first [[Species description|formally described]] by the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1758 in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' under the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Vultur percnopterus''.{{sfn|Linnaeus|1758|p=87}} The current genus ''Neophron'' contains only a single species. A few prehistoric species from the [[Neogene]] period in [[North America]] placed in the genus ''[[Neophrontops]]'' (the name meaning "looks like ''Neophron''") are believed to have been very similar to these vultures in lifestyle, but the genetic relationships are unclear.{{sfn|Feduccia|1974|p=}}{{sfn|Hertel|1995|p=}} The genus ''Neophron'' is considered to represent the oldest branch within the evolutionary tree of vultures.{{sfn|Wink|Heidrich|Fentzloff|1996}} Along with its nearest evolutionary relative, the [[lammergeier]] (''Gypaetus barbatus''), they are sometimes placed in a separate subfamily, the [[Old World vulture|Gypaetinae]].{{sfn|Wink|1995|p=}}{{sfn|Seibold|Helbig|1995|p=}}

===Subspecies===
There are three widely recognised subspecies of the Egyptian vulture, although there is considerable gradation due to movement and intermixing of the populations.{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002b|p=}} The nominate subspecies, ''N. p. percnopterus'', has the largest range, occurring in southern Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and the north-west of India. Populations breeding in the temperate zone migrate south during winter. It has a dark grey bill.

[[File:Egyptian Vulture N.p.Ginginianus Keoladeo Ghana National Park Bharatpur Rajasthan India 18.02.2013.jpg|thumb|left|''N. p. ginginianus'' in flight, [[India]]]]

The Indian subcontinent is the range of subspecies ''N. p. ginginianus'', the smallest of the three subspecies, which is identifiable by a pale yellow bill.{{sfn|Peters|1979|p=304}}{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} The subspecies name is derived from [[Gingee]] in southern India where the French explorer [[Pierre Sonnerat]] described it as Le Vautour de Gingi and it was given a Latin name by [[John Latham (ornithologist)|John Latham]] in his ''Index Ornithologicus'' (1790).{{sfn|Jardine|Selby|1826|p=}}{{sfn|Latham|1787|p=7}}

A small population that is found only in the eastern [[Canary Islands]] was found to be genetically distinct and identified as a new subspecies, ''N. p. majorensis'' in 2002. Known locally as the ''guirre'' they are genetically more distant from ''N. p. percnopterus'', significantly greater even than ''N. p. ginginianus'' is from ''N. p. percnopterus''. Unlike neighbouring populations in Africa and southern Europe, it is non-migratory and consistently larger in size. The subspecies name ''majorensis'' is derived from "Majorata", the ancient name for the island of [[Fuerteventura]]. The island was named by Spanish conquerors in the 15th century after the "Majos", the main native [[Guanches|Guanche tribe]] there.{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002b|p=}}{{sfn|Kretzmann|Capote|Gautschi|Godoy|2003|p=}} One study in 2010 suggested that the species established on the island about 2,500 years ago when the island was first colonized by humans.{{sfn|Agudo|Rico|Vilà|Hiraldo|2010|p=}}

[[Nikolai Zarudny]] and Härms described a subspecies, ''rubripersonatus'', from [[Baluchistan]] in 1902. This was described as having a deeper reddish orange skin{{sfn|Hartert|1920}} on the head and a yellow-tipped dark bill. This has rarely been considered a valid subspecies but the intermediate pattern of bill colouration suggests intermixing of subspecies.{{sfn|Zarudny|Härms|1902|p=}}{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}}

===Etymology===
The [[genus name]] is derived from [[Greek mythology]]. [[Timandra (mythology)|Timandra]] was the mother of [[Neophron (mythology)|Neophron]]. [[Aegypius (mythology)|Aegypius]] was a friend of Neophron and about the same age. It upset Neophron to know that his mother Timandra was having a love affair with Aegypius. Seeking revenge, Neophron made advances towards Aegypius' mother, Bulis. Neophron succeeded and enticed Bulis into entering the dark chamber where his mother and Aegypius were to meet soon. Neophron then distracted his mother, [[Trickster|tricking]] Aegypius into entering the chamber and sleeping with his own mother Bulis. When Bulis discovered the deception she gouged out the eyes of her son Aegypius before killing herself. Aegypius prayed for revenge and [[Zeus]], on hearing the prayer, changed Aegypius and Neophron into vultures.{{sfn|Grimal|1996|p=}} "Percnopterus" is derived from Greek for "black wings": "περκνóς" (''perknos'', meaning "blue-black") and πτερόν (''pteron'', meaning wing).{{sfn|Koenig|1907|p=}}{{sfn|Thompson|1895|p=146}}

== Description ==
[[File:Neophron percnopterus - 01.jpg|thumb|right|Adult ''N. percnopterus'' in captivity showing white plumage.]]

The adult's [[plumage]] is white, with black flight feathers in the wings. Wild birds usually appear soiled with a rusty or brown shade to the white plumage, derived from mud or iron-rich soil. Captive specimens without access to soil have clean white plumage.{{sfn|Clark|Schmitt|1998|p=}}{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002a|p=}} It has been suggested as a case of cosmetic colouration.{{sfn|van Overveld|de la Riva|Donázar|2017}} The bill is slender and long, and the tip of the upper mandible is hooked. The nostril is an elongated horizontal slit. The neck feathers are long and form a [[hackle]]. The wings are pointed, with the third primary being the longest; the tail is wedge shaped. The legs are pink in adults and grey in juveniles.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} The claws are long and straight, and the third and fourth toes are slightly webbed at the base.

The bill is black in the nominate subspecies but pale or yellowish in adults of the smaller Indian ''ginginianus''. [[Pamela C. Rasmussen|Rasmussen]] and Anderton (2005) suggest that this variation may need further study, particularly due to the intermediate black-tipped bill described in ''rubripersonatus''.{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}}{{sfn|Whistler|1922}} The facial skin is yellow and unfeathered down to the throat. The sexes are indistinguishable in plumage but breeding males have a deeper orange facial skin colour than females.{{sfn|Clark|Schmitt|1998|p=}} Females average slightly larger and are about 10–15% heavier than males.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} Young birds are blackish or chocolate brown with black and white patches.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} The adult plumage is attained only after about five years.{{sfn|Clark|Schmitt|1998|p=}}
{{Infobox bird| collapsible = yes
| state = collapsed
|pop1=Nominate{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}}{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}}
|data1={{birdbox/population
|unit=mm
|massunit=g
|wingm=470–536
|wingf=460–545
|culmen=31–34
|tailm=220–251
|tailf=240–267
|tarsus=75–87
|weight=1600–2400
}}
|pop2=''ginginianus''{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}}{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}}
|data2={{birdbox/population
|unit=mm
|wingm=393–490
|wingf=455–505
|tarsus=72–85
|tail=228–251
}}
|pop3=''majorensis''{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002a|p=}}
|data3={{birdbox/population
|unit=mm
|massunit=g
|wing=485–554
|tarsus=73.5–93
|tail=240–285
|weight=1900–2850
}}
}}
The adult Egyptian vulture measures {{convert|47|–|65|cm|in}} from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail feathers. In the smaller ''N. p. ginginianus'' males are about {{convert|47|–|52|cm|in}} long while females are {{convert|52|–|55.5|cm|in}} long.{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} The wingspan is about 2.7 times the body length.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} Birds from Spain weigh about {{convert|1.9|kg|lbs}} while birds of the Canary Island subspecies ''majorensis'', representing a case of [[island gigantism]], are heavier with an average weight of {{convert|2.4|kg|lbs}}.{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002a|p=}}

== Distribution and movements ==
[[File:Neophron percnopterus - Egyptian vulture.jpg|left|thumb|''N. p. percnopterus'' in flight ([[Israel]]).]]
Egyptian vultures are widely distributed across the [[Old World]] with their breeding range from southern [[Europe]] to northern [[Africa]] east to [[Western Asia|western]] and [[South Asia|southern Asia]]. They are rare vagrants in [[Sri Lanka]].{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} They occur mainly on the dry plains and lower hills. In the Himalayas, they go up to about {{convert|2000|m|ft}} in summer. In Armenia, breeding pairs have been found up to 2,300 meters a.s.l.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egyptian Vulture in Armenia|year=2017|website=Armenian Bird Census Council|url=http://www.abcc-am.org/egyptian-vulture.html}}</ref>

Most Egyptian vultures in the subtropical zone of Europe migrate south to Africa in winter. Vagrants may occur as far south as in South Africa although they bred in the [[Transkei]] region prior to 1923.{{sfn|Mundy|1978|p=}} They nest mainly on rocky cliffs, sometimes adopting ledges on tall buildings in cities and on large trees.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} Like many other large soaring migrants, they avoid making long crossings over water.{{sfn|Yosef|Alon|1997|p=}}{{sfn|Spaar|1997}} Italian birds cross over through Sicily and into Tunisia making short sea crossings by passing through the islands of [[Marettimo]] and [[Pantelleria]] with rare stops on the island country of [[Malta]].<ref>https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/rather-rare-egyptian-vulture-lands-in-malta.732898</ref>{{sfn|Agostini|Premuda|Mellone|Panuccio|2004|p=}} Those that migrate through the [[Iberian Peninsula]] cross into Africa over the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] while others cross further east through the [[Levant]].{{sfn|García-Ripollés|López-López|Urios|2010|p=}}{{sfn|Meyburg|Gallardo|Meyburg|Dimitrova|2004|p=}}{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} In summer, some African birds fly further north into Europe and vagrants have been recorded in England<ref>{{cite news|title=Capture of an Egyptian vulture|newspaper=Chelmsford Chronicle| date=16 October 1868|page=3| url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000225/18681016/004/0003| via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]}}</ref> and southern Sweden.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Vår Fågelvärld |volume=37| year=1978| pages=67–68| title=Smutsgam Neophron percnopterus anträffad i Sverige| author=Sandgren, B.|url=http://www.access.ottenby.se/meddelanden/reports/78.pdf}}</ref>

Migrating birds can sometimes cover {{convert|500|km|mi}} in a single day until they reach the southern edge of the [[Sahara]], {{convert|3500|to|5500|km|mi}} from their summer home. Young birds that have not reached breeding age may overwinter in the grassland and semi-desert regions of the [[Sahel]].{{sfn|Meyburg|Gallardo|Meyburg|Dimitrova|2004|p=}}

== Behaviour and ecology ==
[[File:Egyptian vulture in flight.jpg|left|thumb|''N. p. ginginianus'' in flight]]
The Egyptian vulture is usually seen singly or in pairs, soaring in thermals along with other scavengers and birds of prey, or perched on the ground or atop a building. On the ground, they walk with a waddling gait.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} They feed on a range of food, including mammal [[Feces|faeces]] (including those of humans{{sfn|Whistler|1949|p=}}), insects in [[Manure|dung]], carrion, vegetable matter, and sometimes small animals.{{sfn|Prakash|Nanjappa|1988|p=}} When it joins other vulture species at a dead animal, it tends to stay on the periphery and waits until the larger species leave.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} Wild rabbits (''[[Oryctolagus cuniculus]]'') form a significant part of the diet of Spanish vultures.{{sfn|Margalida|Benítez|Sánchez-Zapata|Ávila|2012}} In the Iberian Peninsula, landfills are an important food source, with the vultures more likely to occupy territories close to landfill sites.<ref>{{cite journal |author1= Tauler-Ametller, H. |author2= Hernández-Matías, A. | author3= Pretus, J. L.L. |author4= Real, J. | year=2017| title= Landfills determine the distribution of an expanding breeding population of the endangered Egyptian Vulture ''Neophron percnopterus'' | journal=Ibis| volume=159| pages=757–768| doi=10.1111/ibi.12495| issue=4}}</ref> Studies suggest that they feed on [[ungulate]] faeces to obtain [[carotenoid]] pigments responsible for their bright yellow and orange facial skin. The ability to assimilate carotenoid pigments may serve as a [[Signalling theory|reliable signal]] of fitness.{{sfn|Negro|Grande|Tella|Garrido|2002|p=}}

Egyptian vultures are mostly silent but make high-pitched mewing or hissing notes at the nest and screeching noises when squabbling at a [[carrion|carcass]]. Young birds have been heard making a hissing croak in flight.{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} They also hiss or growl when threatened or angry.{{sfn|Baker|1928}}

Egyptian vultures roost communally on large trees, buildings or on cliffs.{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} Roost sites are usually chosen close to a dump site or other suitable foraging area. In [[Geography of Spain#External boundaries and landform regions|Spain]] and [[List of ecoregions in Morocco|Morocco]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Amezian|first1=M.|last2=El Khamlichi|first2=K.|title=Significant population of Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus found in Morocco|journal=Ostrich|date=2016|volume=87|issue=1|pages=73–76|doi=10.2989/00306525.2015.1089334}}</ref> summer roosts are formed mainly by immature birds. The favourite roost trees tended to be large dead [[pine]]s.{{sfn|Donázar|Ceballos|Tella|1996|p=}}{{sfn|Ceballos|Donázar|1990}} The number of adults at the roost increases towards June. It is thought that breeding adults may be able to forage more efficiently by joining the roost and following others to the best feeding areas. Breeding birds that failed to raise young may also join the non-breeding birds at the roost during June.{{sfn|Margalida|Boudet|2003}}

===Breeding===
[[File:Neophron percnopterus MWNH 0726.JPG|thumb|150px|Egg from [[Museum Wiesbaden]] collection]]

The breeding season is in spring.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} During the beginning of the [[Seasonal breeder#Breeding season|breeding season]], [[Courtship#Courtship in other animals|courting]] pairs soar high together and one or both may make steep spiralling or swooping dives.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}} The birds are [[monogamous]] and [[pair bond]]s may be maintained for more than one breeding season and the same nest sites may be reused each year. The nest is an untidy platform of twigs lined with rags and placed on a cliff ledge,{{sfn|Ceballos|Donázar|1989}} building, or the fork of a large tree. Old nest platforms of eagles may also be taken over.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}}{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} Nests placed on the ground are rare but have been recorded in subspecies ''N. p. ginginianus'' and ''N. p. majorensis''.{{sfn|Biddulph|1937|p=}}{{sfn|Paynter|1924|p=}}{{sfn|Gangoso|2005|p=}}
[[File:Jielbeaumadier vautour percnoptere bebe 2 mjp paris 2014.jpeg|thumb|left|18 days old Egyptian vulture.]]
[[Extra-pair copulation]] with neighbouring birds has been recorded and may be a reason for adult males to stay close to the female before and during the egg laying period.{{sfn|Donázar|Ceballos|Tella|1994|p=}} Females may sometimes associate with two males and all three help in raising the brood.{{sfn|Tella|1993}} The typical clutch consists of two eggs which are incubated in turns by both parents. The eggs are brick red with the broad end covered more densely with blotches of red, brown, and black.{{sfn|Baker|1928}} The parents begin incubating soon after the first egg is laid leading to asynchronous hatching. The first egg hatches after about 42 days.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}} The second chick may hatch three to five days later and a longer delay increases the likelihood that it will die of starvation.{{sfn|Donázar & Ceballos 1989a|p=}} In cliffs where the nests are located close to each other, young birds have been known to clamber over to neighbouring nests to obtain food.{{sfn|Donázar|Ceballos|1990|p=}} In the Spanish population, young fledge and leave the nest after 90 to 110 days.{{sfn|Donázar & Ceballos 1989b|p=}} Fledged birds continue to remain dependent on their parents for at least a month.{{sfn|Ferguson-Lees|Christie|2001}}

Once the birds begin to forage on their own, they move away from their parents' territory; young birds have been found nearly 500 km away from their nest site.{{sfn|Elorriaga|Zuberogoitia|Castillo|Azkona|2009|p=}}{{sfn|Ceballos|Donázar|1990|p=}} One-year-old European birds migrate to Africa and stay there for at least one year. A vulture that fledged in France stayed in Africa for three years before migrating north in spring.{{sfn|Meyburg|Gallardo|Meyburg|Dimitrova|2004|p=}}{{sfn|García-Ripollés|López-López|Urios|2010|p=}} After migrating back to their breeding areas, young birds move widely in search of good feeding territories and mates. The full adult plumage is attained in the fourth or fifth year. Egyptian vultures have been known to live for up to 37 years in captivity and at least 21 years in the wild. The probability of survival in the wild varies with age, increasing till the age of 2 and then falling at the age of 5. Older birds have an annual survival probability varying from 0.75 for non-breeders to 0.83 for breeding birds.{{sfn|Grande|Serrano|Tavecchia|Carrete|2009|p=}}

===Tool use===
The [[Subspecies#Nominotypical subspecies and subspecies autonyms|nominate population]], especially in Africa, is known for its [[Tool use by animals|use of stones as tools]]. When a large egg, such as that of an [[ostrich]] or [[bustard]], is located, the bird walks up to it with a large pebble held in its bill and tosses the pebble by swinging the neck down over the egg. The operation is repeated until the egg cracks from the blows.{{sfn|van Lawick-Goodall|van Lawick|1966|p=}} They [[Pebble#Inland|prefer using rounded pebbles]] to jagged rocks. This behaviour, although it was believed that it was first reported by [[Jane Goodall]] in 1966, it was actually already known to Africans and was first reported by [[John George Wood|J. G. Wood]] in 1877.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924029284705#page/n411/mode/2up|page=343| title=Wood's Bible Animals.| author=Wood, J.G.|year=1875| publisher=William Garretson & Co.}}</ref>{{sfn|Baxter|Urban|Brown|1969}} However, this has only been reported in Africa and has not been recorded in ''N. p. ginginianus''.{{sfn|Rasmussen|Anderton|2005}} Tests with both hand-reared and wild birds suggest that the behaviour is innate, not learnt by observing other birds, and displayed once they associate eggs with food and have access to pebbles.{{sfn|Thouless|Fanshawe|Bertram|1989|p=}} Another case of tool-use described from Bulgaria involves the use of a twig as a tool to roll up and gather strands of wool to use for lining the nest.{{sfn|Stoyanova|Stefanov|Schmutz|2010|p=}}

==Threats and conservation==
[[File:Egyptian vulture at De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre (South Africa).jpg|thumb|Egyptian vulture at ''[[De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre]]'' ([[Breeding program]] in [[South Africa]])]]
Healthy adults do not have many predators, but human activities pose many threats. Collisions with power lines, hunting, intentional poisoning, lead accumulation from ingesting gunshot in carcasses, and pesticide accumulation take a toll on populations. Young birds at the nest are sometimes taken by [[golden eagle]]s, [[Eagle-owls|eagle owls]],{{sfn|Tella|Mañosa|1993}} and [[red foxes]].{{sfn|Donázar|Ceballos|1988}} Only rarely do adult birds attempt to drive away predators.{{sfn|Mateo|Olea|2007}} Young birds that fall off of cliff ledges may be preyed on by mammalian predators such as [[jackals]], foxes and [[wolves]].{{sfn|Stoyanova|Stefanov|1993}} Like all birds they serve as hosts for [[Ectoparasitic infestation|ectoparasitic]] [[Bird louse|birdlice]] including ''Aegypoecus perspicuus''{{sfn|Agarwal|Ahmad|Arya|Saxena|2012}} as well as organisms that live within them such as [[mycoplasmas]].{{sfn|Suárez-Pérez|Ramírez|Rosales|Calabuig|2012}}

[[File:NeophronGould.jpg|thumb|upright|Immature (behind) and adult (from [[John Gould]]'s ''Birds of Europe'')]]

Egyptian vulture populations have declined in most parts of its range. In Europe and most of the [[Middle East]], populations in 2001 were half of those from 1980. In India, the decline has been rapid with a 35% decrease each year since 1999.{{sfn|Cuthbert|Green|Ranade|Saravanan|2006|p=}} In 1967–70, the area around [[Delhi]] was estimated to have 12,000–15,000 of these vultures, with an average density of about 5 pairs per 10 km2.{{sfn|Galushin|2001|p=}}{{sfn|Galushin|1975|p=}} The exact cause of the decline is not known, but has been linked with the use of the [[Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug|NSAID]] [[Diclofenac]], which has been known to cause death in ''[[Gyps]]'' vultures.{{sfn|Cuthbert|Green|Ranade|Saravanan|2006|p=}}

In Italy, the number of breeding pairs declined from 30 in 1970 to 9 in the 1990s. Nearly all breeding failures were due to human activities.{{sfn|Liberatori|Penteriani|2001}} In Spain, which holds about 50% of the European population suggested causes of decline include [[Bioaccumulation|poisoning by accumulation]] [[Animal lead poisoning|of lead]],{{sfn|Cortés-Avizanda|Ceballos|Donázar|2009}} pesticides (especially due to large-scale use in the control of ''[[Schistocerca gregaria]]'' locust swarms), and electrocution.{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002a|p=}}{{sfn|Hernández|Margalida|2009|p=}}{{sfn|García-Ripollés|López-López|2006}} Windfarms may also pose a threat.{{sfn|Carrete|Sánchez-Zapata|Benítez|Lobón|2009}}{{sfn|Margalida|Benítez|Sánchez-Zapata|Ávila|2012}} Poorly designed power transmission lines in east Africa electrocute many wintering vultures.{{sfn|Angelov|Hashim|Oppel|2012}} A shortage of carrion resulting from new rules for disposal of dead animals following the outbreak of [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis]] in parts of Europe during 2000 may have also had an effect on some populations.{{sfn|Hidalgo et al. 2005}}{{sfn|Margalida|Benítez|Sánchez-Zapata|Ávila|2012}} In Armenia direct persecution for trophy and for local illegal trade of animals as pets has been recorded.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egyptian Vulture in Armenia|year=2017|website=Armenian Bird Census Council|url=http://www.abcc-am.org/egyptian-vulture.html}}</ref>

The population of Egyptian vultures in the Canary Islands has been isolated from those in Europe and Africa for a significant period of time leading to genetic differentiation. The vulture population there declined by 30% in the ten years between 1987 and 1998.{{sfn|Palacios|2000}} The Canarian Egyptian vulture was historically common, occurring on the islands of [[La Gomera]], [[Tenerife]], [[Gran Canaria]], [[Fuerteventura]], and [[Lanzarote]]. It is now restricted to Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, the two easternmost islands. The total population in 2000 was estimated at about 130 individuals, including 25–30 breeding pairs.{{sfn|Donázar et al. 2002a|p=}}{{sfn|Palacios|2004|p=}} Island birds also appear to accumulate significant amounts of lead from scavenging on hunted animal carcasses. The long-term effect of this poison at a sub-lethal level is not known, though it is known to alter the [[Mineralization (biology)|mineralization of their bones]].{{sfn|Gangoso et al. 2009a|p=}} In order to provide safe and uncontaminated food for nesting birds, attempts have been made to create "vulture restaurants" where carcasses are made available. However, these interventions may also encourage other opportunist predators and scavengers to concentrate at the site and pose a threat to vultures nesting in the vicinity.{{sfn|Cortés-Avizanda|Carrete|Serrano|Donázar|2009|p=}}

== In culture ==
{{Hiero|Egyptian Vulture|<hiero>G1</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}

The Bible makes a reference to the Egyptian vulture under the Hebrew name of ''rachamah''/''racham'' which has been translated into English as "gier-eagle".{{sfn|Koenig|1907|p=}}{{sfn|Coultas|1876|p=138}}

In [[Ancient Egypt]], the [[Vulture (hieroglyph)|vulture hieroglyph]] was the [[Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian|uniliteral sign]] used for the [[Glottalization|glottal sound]] (/ɑː/). The bird was held sacred to [[Isis]] in [[ancient Egyptian religion]]. The use of the vulture as a [[Nekhbet|symbol of royalty]] in Egyptian culture and their protection by Pharaonic law made the species common on the streets of Egypt and gave rise to the name "pharaoh's chicken".{{sfn|Ingerson|1923|p=34}}{{sfn|Thompson|1895|p=48}}{{sfn|Stratton-Porter|1909|p=182}}{{sfn|Anonymous|1854|p=80}}[[File:EgyptianVultureThurston.jpg|thumb|The "sacred pair" at [[Thirukalukundram]] in 1906|alt=|left]]British sportsmen in colonial India considered them to be among the ugliest birds, and their habit of feeding on faeces was particularly despised.{{sfn|Dewar|1906|p=}} They were known as "shawks" a contraction<ref>{{cite book| title=The Routledge Dictionary of Historical Slang| author=Partridge, Eric| year=2003| page=4709|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> of [[Shite-hawk|shit-hawk]].<ref>{{cite book| url =https://archive.org/details/birdsofindianhil00dewa/page/222|page=222| title=Birds of the Indian Hills| author=Dewar, Douglas| year=1915| place=London| publisher=John Lane, The Bodley Head}}</ref> This habit of [[coprophagy]] in Egyptian vultures gives them the Spanish names of "churretero" and "moñiguero", which mean "dung-eater".{{sfn|Negro|Grande|Tella|Garrido|2002|p=}}
A southern Indian temple at [[Thirukazhukundram|Thirukalukundram]] near [[Chengalpattu]] was famed for a pair of birds that reputedly visited the temple for "centuries". These birds were ceremonially fed by the temple priests and arrived before noon to feed on offerings made from rice, wheat, [[ghee]], and sugar. Although normally punctual, the failure of the birds to turn up was attributed to the presence of "sinners" among the onlookers.{{sfn|Ali|Ripley|1978|p=}}{{sfn|Neelakantan|1977}}{{sfn|Siromoney|1977}} Legend has it the vultures (or "eagles") represented eight sages who were punished by [[Shiva]], with two of them leaving in each of a series of epochs.{{sfn|Pope|1900|p=260}}{{sfn|Thurston|1906|p=252}}

== Footnotes ==

{{Reflist
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== External links ==
{{Commons category|Neophron percnopterus}}
{{Wikispecies|Neophron percnopterus}}
* [http://blx1.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob2470.htm BTO BirdFacts – Egyptian Vulture]
* [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/120.pdf Egyptian Vulture species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].
* [http://www.globalraptors.org/grin/SpeciesResults.asp?specID=8353 Egyptian Vulture – Global Raptor Information Network]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305010602/http://aulaenred.ibercaja.es/wp-content/uploads/108_Neophron_percnopterus.pdf Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.6 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze]
* {{InternetBirdCollection|egyptian-vulture-neophron-percnopterus}}
* {{VIREO|Egyptian+Vulture}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171004140206/http://www.abcc-am.org/ Armenian Bird Census Council]
{{Vulture}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q33504}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:vulture, Egyptian}}

[[Category:Old World vultures|Egyptian vulture]]
[[Category:Tool-using animals]]
[[Category:Coprophagous animals]]
[[Category:Birds of Southern Europe]]
[[Category:Birds of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Birds of South Asia]]
[[Category:Birds of Western Asia]]
[[Category:Birds of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Birds of Africa]]
[[Category:Birds of North Africa]]
[[Category:Birds of Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Birds of prey of Africa]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1758|Egyptian vulture]]

Species reintroduction

2020-04-21T01:43:36Z

118.46.55.151: /* Reintroduction programs */

'''Species reintroduction''' is the deliberate release of a [[species]] into the wild, from captivity or other areas where the organism is capable of survival.<ref name="Campbell-Palmer 2010">{{cite journal | last1 = Campbell-Palmer | first1 = R. | last2 = Rosell | first2 = F. | year = 2010 | title = Conservation of the Eurasian beaver Castor fiber: an olfactory perspective | url = | journal = Mammal Review | volume = 40 | issue = 4| pages = 293–312 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2907.2010.00165.x }}</ref> The goal of species reintroduction is to establish a healthy, [[Genetic diversity|genetically diverse]], self-sustaining population to an area where it has been extirpated, or to augment an existing [[population]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Conservation Genetics|last=Frankham|first=Richard|last2=Ballou|first2=Jon|last3=Briscoe|first3=David|date=2004-01-01|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521702713|location=United Kingdom|pages=419–470|oclc=965796229}}</ref> Species that may be eligible for reintroduction are typically [[Threatened species|threatened or endangered]] in the wild. However, reintroduction of a species can also be for [[pest control]]. For example, wolves being reintroduced to a wild area to curb an [[overpopulation]] of elk or deer. Because reintroduction may involve returning native species to localities where they had been extirpated, some prefer the term "'''reestablishment'''".<ref name="Campbell-Palmer 2010"/>

Humans have been reintroducing species for food and pest control for thousands of years. However, the practice of reintroducing for conservation is much younger, starting in the 20th century.<ref name="Seddon 2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Seddon | year = 2007 | title = Developing the Science of Reintroduction Biology | url = | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 21 | issue = 2| pages = 303–312 | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00627.x | pmid = 17391180 | last2 = Armstrong | first2 = DP | last3 = Maloney | first3 = RF }}</ref>

==Methods for sourcing individuals==
There are a variety of approaches to species reintroduction. The optimal strategy will depend on the biology of the organism.<ref name="IUCN 2017 Guidelines">{{cite web|title=IUCN Guidelines for Restorations and Other Conservation Translocations|url=http://www.iucn-whsg.org/sites/default/files/IUCN%20Guidelines%20to%20Reintroduction%20and%20Other%20Conservation%20Translocations.pdf|website=IUCN|accessdate=15 May 2017}}</ref> The first matter to address when beginning a species reintroduction is whether to source individuals ''in situ'', from wild populations, or ''ex situ'', from captivity in a zoo or botanic garden, for example.

===''In situ'' sourcing===
''[[In situ]]'' sourcing for restorations involves moving individuals from an existing wild population to a new site where the species was formerly extirpated. Ideally, populations should be sourced ''in situ'' when possible due to the numerous risks associated with reintroducing organisms from captive populations to the wild.<ref name="IUCN 2017 Ex Situ">{{cite journal|last1=Maunder|first1=Mike|last2=Byers|first2=Onnie|title=The IUCN Technical Guidelines on the Management of Ex Situ Populations for Conservation: reflecting major changes in the application of ex situ conservation|journal=Oryx|date=January 2005|volume=39|issue=1|pages=95–98|doi=10.1017/S0030605305000177|doi-access=free}}</ref> To ensure that reintroduced populations have the best chance of surviving and reproducing, individuals should be sourced from populations that genetically and ecologically resemble the recipient population.<ref name=":1" /> Generally, sourcing from populations with similar environmental conditions to the reintroduction site will maximize the chance that reintroduced individuals are well adapted to the habitat of the reintroduction site .<ref name="Houde et al 2017">{{cite journal|last1=Houde|first1=Aimee|last2=Garner|first2=Shawn|last3=Neff|first3=Bryan|title=Restoring species through reintroductions: strategies for source population selection|journal=Restoration Ecology|date=2015|volume=23|issue=6|pages=746–753|doi=10.1111/rec.12280|accessdate=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Montalvo|first=Arlee M.|last2=Ellstrand|first2=Norman C.|date=2000-08-15|title=Transplantation of the Subshrub Lotus scoparius: Testing the Home-Site Advantage Hypothesis|journal=Conservation Biology|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=1034–1045|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99250.x|issn=0888-8892}}</ref>

One consideration for ''in situ'' sourcing is at which life stage the organisms should be collected, transported, and reintroduced. For instance, with plants, it is often ideal to transport them as seeds as they have the best chance of surviving translocation at this stage. However, some plants are difficult to establish as seed and may need to be translocated as juveniles or adults.<ref name="IUCN 2017 Guidelines">{{cite web|title=IUCN Guidelines for Restorations and Other Conservation Translocations|url=http://www.iucn-whsg.org/sites/default/files/IUCN%20Guidelines%20to%20Reintroduction%20and%20Other%20Conservation%20Translocations.pdf|website=IUCN|accessdate=15 May 2017}}</ref>

===''Ex situ'' sourcing===
In situations where ''in situ'' collection of individuals is not feasible, such as for rare and endangered species with too few individuals existing in the wild, [[Ex situ conservation|''ex situ'']] collection possible.
''Ex situ'' collection methods allow storage of individuals that have high potential for reintroduction. Storage examples include [[germplasm]] stored in seed banks, sperm and egg banks, [[cryopreservation]], and tissue culture.<ref name="IUCN 2017 Ex Situ">{{cite journal|last1=Maunder|first1=Mike|last2=Byers|first2=Onnie|title=The IUCN Technical Guidelines on the Management of Ex Situ Populations for Conservation: reflecting major changes in the application of ex situ conservation|journal=Oryx|date=January 2005|volume=39|issue=1|pages=95–98|doi=10.1017/S0030605305000177|doi-access=free}}</ref> Methods that allow for storage of a high numbers of individuals also aim to maximize genetic diversity. Stored materials generally have long lifespans in storage, but some species do lose viability when stored as seed.<ref name="Walters 2005">{{cite journal|last1=Walters|first1=Christina|last2=Wheeler|first2=Lana|last3=Grotenhuis|first3=Judith|title=Longevity of seeds stored in a genebank: species characteristics|journal=Seed Science Research|date=2005|volume=15|issue=1|pages=1–20|accessdate=|doi=10.1079/ssr2004195}}</ref> Tissue culture and cryopreservation techniques have only been perfected for a few species.<ref name="Engelmann 2011">{{cite journal|last1=Engelmann|first1=Florent|title=Use of biotechnologies for the conservation of plant biodiversity|journal=In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology – Plant|date=2011|volume=47|issue=1|pages=5–16|accessdate=|doi=10.1007/s11627-010-9327-2}}</ref>

Organisms may also be kept in living collections in captivity. Living collections are more costly than storing [[germplasm]] and hence can support only a fraction of the individuals that ''ex situ'' sourcing can.<ref name="IUCN 2017 Ex Situ">{{cite journal|last1=Maunder|first1=Mike|last2=Byers|first2=Onnie|title=The IUCN Technical Guidelines on the Management of Ex Situ Populations for Conservation: reflecting major changes in the application of ex situ conservation|journal=Oryx|date=January 2005|volume=39|issue=1|pages=95–98|doi=10.1017/S0030605305000177|doi-access=free}}</ref> Risk increases when sourcing individuals to add to living collections. Loss of genetic diversity is a concern because fewer individuals stored.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Witzenberger|first1=Kathrin|last2=Hochkirch|first2=Axel|title=Ex situ conservation genetics: a review of molecular studies on the genetic consequences of captive breeding programmes for endangered animal species|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|date=2011|volume=20|issue=9|pages=1843–1861|doi=10.1007/s10531-011-0074-4}}</ref> Individuals may also become genetically adapted to captivity, which often adversely affects the reproductive fitness of individuals. Adaptation to captivity may make individuals less suitable for reintroduction to the wild. Thus, efforts should be made to replicate wild conditions and minimize time spent in captivity whenever possible.<ref name="Frankham 2008">{{cite journal|last1=Frankham|first1=Richard|title=Genetic adaptation to captivity in species conservation programs|journal=Molecular Ecology|date=2008|volume=17|issue=1|pages=325–333|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294x.2007.03399.x|pmid=18173504}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=FRANKHAM|first=RICHARD|date=2008|title=Genetic adaptation to captivity in species conservation programs|journal=Molecular Ecology|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=325–333|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294x.2007.03399.x|pmid=18173504|issn=0962-1083}}</ref>

==Successes and failures==
Reintroduction biology is a relatively young discipline and continues to be a work in progress. No strict and accepted definition of reintroduction success exists, but it has been proposed that the criteria widely used to assess the conservation status of endangered taxa, such as the [[IUCN Red List]] criteria, should be used to assess reintroduction success.<ref name="Robert 2015">{{cite journal | last1 = Robert | first1 = A. | last2 = Colas | first2 = B. | last3 = Guigon | first3 = I. | last4 = Kerbiriou | first4 = C. | last5 = Mihoub | first5 = J.B. | last6 = Saint-Jalme | first6 = M. | last7 = Sarrazin | first7 = F. |year = 2015 | title = Defining reintroduction success using IUCN criteria for threatened species: a demographic assessment | url = | journal = Animal Conservation | volume = 18 | issue = 5| pages = 397–406| doi = 10.1111/acv.12188}}</ref> Successful reintroduction programs should yield viable and self-sustainable populations in the long-term. The IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group & Environment Agency, in their 2011 Global Re-introduction Perspectives, compiled reintroduction case studies from around the world.<ref name="iucnsscrsg.org">Soorae, P. S. (ed.) (2011). Global Re-introduction Perspectives: 2011.More case studies from around the globe. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group and Abu Dhabi, UAE: Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi. xiv + 250 pp.SBN: 978-2-8317-1432-5 https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2011-073.pdf</ref> 184 case studies were reported on a range of species which included [[invertebrate]]s, [[fish]], [[amphibian]]s, [[reptile]]s, [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s, and [[plant]]s. Assessments from all of the studies included goals, success indicators, project summary, major difficulties faced, major lessons learned, and success of project with reasons for success or failure. A similar assessment focused solely on plants found high rates of success for rare species reintroductions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Albrecht|first=Matthew A.|last2=Guerrant Jr.|first2=Edward O.|last3=Maschinski|first3=Joyce|last4=Kennedy|first4=Kathryn L.|date=2011-11-01|title=A long-term view of rare plant reintroduction|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=144|issue=11|pages=2557–2558|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2011.07.021}}</ref> An analysis of data from the Center for Plant Conservation International Reintroduction Registry found that, for the 49 cases where data were available, 92% of the reintroduced plant populations survived two years.
The [[Siberian tiger]] population has rebounded from 40 individuals in the 1940s to around 500 in 2007. The Siberian tiger population is now the largest un-fragmented tiger population in the world.<ref>Rietbergen, Jennifer Building a Sustainable Future WWF International 2008</ref> Yet, a high proportion of translocations and reintroductions have not been successful in establishing viable populations.<ref name="Kleiman 1989">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=Reintroduction of captive mammals for conservation. Guidelines for reintroducing endangered species into the wild|url=|journal=BioScience|volume=39|issue=3|pages=152–161|doi=10.2307/1311025|last1=Kleiman|first1=D. G.|jstor=1311025}}</ref>
For instance, in China reintroduction of captive Giant Pandas have had mixed effects. The initial pandas released from captivity all died quickly after reintroduction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pandasinternational.org/program-areas-2/reintroduction-program/reintroduction-program-2006/|title=Reintroduction Program – 2006 {{!}} Pandas International|website=www.pandasinternational.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-06-03}}</ref> Even now that they have improved their ability to reintroduce pandas, concern remains over how well the captive-bred pandas will fare with their wild relatives.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/04/giant-pandas-china-video-reintroduction/|title=New Video Shows Returning Pandas to the Wild Actually Works|date=19 April 2017|accessdate=2017-06-03}}</ref>

Many factors can attribute to the success or failure of a reintroduction. Predators, food, pathogens, competitors, and weather can all affect a reintroduced population's ability to grow, survive, and reproduce. The number of animals reintroduced in an attempt should also vary with factors such as social behavior, expected rates of predation, and density in the wild.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wimberger|first=Kirsten|last2=Downs|first2=Colleen T.|last3=Perrin|first3=Mike R.|date=2009-10-01|title=Two Unsuccessful Reintroduction Attempts of Rock Hyraxes (Procavia capensis) into a Reserve in the KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa|journal=South African Journal of Wildlife Research|volume=39|issue=2|pages=192–201|doi=10.3957/056.039.0213|issn=0379-4369}}</ref> Animals raised in captivity may experience stress during captivity or translocation, which can weaken their immune systems.<ref name="Stamps 2007" />
The IUCN reintroduction guidelines emphasize the need for an assessment of the availability of suitable habitat as a key component of reintroduction planning.<ref name="SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group 1995">Prepared by the SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group (May 1995) IUCN/SSC Guidelines for Re-Introductions http://www.iucnsscrsg.org</ref> Poor assessment of the release site can increase the chances that the species will reject the site and perhaps move to a less suitable environment. This can decrease the species fitness and thus decrease chances for survival.<ref name="Stamps 2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Stamps | first1 = J.A. | last2 = Swaisgood | first2 = R.R | year = 2007 | title = Someplace like home: Experience, Habitat selection and Conservation Biology | url = | journal = Applied Animal Behaviour Science | volume = 102 | issue = 3–4| pages = 392–409 | doi = 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.05.038 }}</ref> They state that restoration of the original habitat and amelioration of causes of extinction must be explored and considered as essential conditions for these projects. Unfortunately, the monitoring period that should follow reintroductions often remains neglected.<ref>Sarrazin, F. Barbault, R. (November 1996). Reintroduction: Challenges and Lessons for Basic Ecology Elsevier Science Volume 11 No. 11</ref>

== Genetic considerations ==
When a species has been extirpated from a site where it previously existed, individuals that will comprise the reintroduced population must be sourced from wild or captive populations. When sourcing individuals for reintroduction, it is important to consider [[local adaptation]], adaptation to captivity (for [[ex situ conservation|''ex situ'' conservation]]), the possibility of [[inbreeding depression]] and [[outbreeding depression]], and [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]], [[ecology]], and [[genetic diversity]] of the source population.<ref name=":0" /> Reintroduced populations experience increased vulnerability to influences of [[Genetic drift|drift]], [[Natural selection|selection]], and [[gene flow]] evolutionary processes due to their small sizes, climatic and ecological differences between source and native habitats, and presence of other mating-compatible populations.<ref name="Frankham 2008" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Latch|first=Emily K.|last2=Rhodes|first2=Olin E.|date=2006-01-21|title=The effects of gene flow and population isolation on the genetic structure of␣reintroduced wild turkey populations: Are genetic signatures of source populations retained?|journal=Conservation Genetics|language=en|volume=6|issue=6|pages=981–997|doi=10.1007/s10592-005-9089-2|issn=1566-0621}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sork|first=Victoria L.|authorlink1=Victoria Sork |date=2015-11-03|title=Gene flow and natural selection shape spatial patterns of genes in tree populations: implications for evolutionary processes and applications |journal=Evolutionary Applications|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=291–310|doi=10.1111/eva.12316 |pmc=4780383|pmid=27087853}}</ref>

If the species slated for reintroduction is rare in the wild, it is likely to have unusually low population numbers, and care should be taken to avoid [[inbreeding]] and [[inbreeding depression]].<ref name=":0" /> Inbreeding can change the frequency of allele distribution in a population, and potentially result in a change to crucial genetic diversity.<ref name=":0" /> Additionally, [[outbreeding depression]] can occur if a reintroduced population can hybridize with existing populations in the wild, which can result in offspring with reduced fitness, and less adaptation to local conditions. To minimize both, practitioners should source for individuals in a way that captures as much genetic diversity as possible, and attempt to match source site conditions to local site conditions as much as possible.<ref name=":0" />

Capturing as much [[genetic diversity]] as possible, measured as [[heterozygosity]], is suggested in species reintroductions.<ref name=":0" /> Some protocols suggest sourcing approximately 30 individuals from a population will capture 95% of the genetic diversity.<ref name=":0" /> Maintaining genetic diversity in the recipient population is crucial to avoiding the loss of essential local adaptations, minimizing inbreeding depression, and maximizing fitness of the reintroduced population.

=== Ecological similarity ===
Plants or animals that undergo reintroduction may exhibit reduced fitness if they are not sufficiently adapted to local environmental conditions. Therefore, researchers should consider ecological and environmental similarity of source and recipient sites when selecting populations for reintroduction. Environmental factors to consider include climate and soil traits (pH, percent clay, silt and sand, percent combustion carbon, percent combustion nitrogen, concentration of Ca, Na, Mg, P, K).<ref name=":1" /> Historically, sourcing plant material for reintroductions has followed the rule "local is best," as the best way to preserve local adaptations, with individuals for reintroductions selected from the most geographically proximate population.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Havens|first=Kayri|last2=Vitt|first2=Pati|last3=Still|first3=Shannon|last4=Kramer|first4=Andrea T.|last5=Fant|first5=Jeremie B.|last6=Schatz|first6=Katherine|date=2015-01-01|title=Seed Sourcing for Restoration in an Era of Climate Change|journal=Natural Areas Journal|volume=35|issue=1|pages=122–133|doi=10.3375/043.035.0116|issn=0885-8608}}</ref> However, geographic distance was shown in a [[common garden experiment]] to be an insufficient predictor of fitness.<ref name=":1" /> Additionally, projected climatic shifts induced by [[climate change]] have led to the development of new seed sourcing protocols that aim to source seeds that are best adapted to project climate conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Breed|first=Martin F.|last2=Stead|first2=Michael G.|last3=Ottewell|first3=Kym M.|last4=Gardner|first4=Michael G.|last5=Lowe|first5=Andrew J.|date=2013-02-01|title=Which provenance and where? Seed sourcing strategies for revegetation in a changing environment|journal=Conservation Genetics|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=1–10|doi=10.1007/s10592-012-0425-z|issn=1566-0621}}</ref> Conservation agencies have developed seed transfer zones that serve as guidelines for how far plant material can be transported before it will perform poorly.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Genetically appropriate choices for plant materials to maintain biological diversity|last=Rogers|first=D. L.|last2=Montalvo|first2=A. M.|publisher=Report to the USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region, Lakewood, CO.|year=2004|location=University of California|pages=103–129}}</ref> Seed transfer zones take into account proximity, ecological conditions, and climatic conditions in order to predict how plant performance will vary from one zone to the next. A study of the reintroduction of ''[[Castilleja levisecta]]'' found that the source populations most physically near the reintroduction site performed the poorest in a field experiment, while those from the source population whose ecological conditions most closely matched the reintroduction site performed best, demonstrating the importance of matching the evolved adaptations of a population to the conditions at the reintroduction site.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lawrence|first=Beth|last2=Kaye|first2=Thomas|date=2011|title=Reintroduction of Castilleja levisecta: Effects of Ecological Similarity, Source Population Genetics, and Habitat Quality|url=|journal=Restoration Ecology|volume=19|issue=2|pages=166–176|doi=10.1111/j.1526-100x.2009.00549.x}}</ref>

=== Adaptation to captivity ===
Some reintroduction programs use plants or animals from captive populations to form a reintroduced population.<ref name=":0" /> When reintroducing individuals from a captive population to the wild, there is a risk that they have adapted to captivity due to differential selection of genotypes in captivity versus the wild.
The genetic basis of this adaptation is selection of rare, [[Dominance (genetics)|recessive]] [[allele]]s that are deleterious in the wild but preferred in captivity.<ref name="Frankham 2008" /> Consequently, animals adapted to captivity show reduced stress tolerance, increased tameness, and loss of local adaptations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Frankham|first=Richard|date=2008|title=Genetic adaptation to captivity in species conservation programs|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=17|issue=1|pages=325–333|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294x.2007.03399.x|pmid=18173504}}</ref> Plants also can show adaptations to captivity through changes in drought tolerance, nutrient requirements, and seed dormancy requirements.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ensslin|first=Andreas|last2=Tschöpe|first2=Okka|last3=Burkart|first3=Michael|last4=Joshi|first4=Jasmin|date=2015-12-01|title=Fitness decline and adaptation to novel environments in ex situ plant collections: Current knowledge and future perspectives|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=192|pages=394–401|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2015.10.012}}</ref> Extent of adaptation is directly related to intensity of selection, genetic diversity, [[effective population size]] and number of generations in captivity.
Characteristics selected for in captivity are overwhelmingly disadvantageous in the wild, so such adaptations can lead to reduced fitness following reintroduction.
Reintroduction projects that introduce wild animals generally experience higher success rates than those that use captive-bred animals.<ref name="Frankham 2008" /> Genetic adaptation to captivity can be minimized through management methods: by maximizing generation length and number of new individuals added to the captive population; minimizing effective population size, number of generations spent in captivity, and [[Natural selection|selection]] pressure; and reducing genetic diversity by [[Fragmentation (reproduction)|fragmenting]] the population.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Frankham 2008" /> For plants, minimizing adaptation to captivity is usually achieved by sourcing plant material from a [[seed bank]], where individuals are preserved as wild-collected seeds, and have not had the chance to adapt to conditions in captivity. However, this method is only plausible for plants with [[seed dormancy]].<ref name="Frankham 2008" />

=== Genetic trade-offs ===
In reintroductions from captivity, translocation of animals from captivity to the wild has implications for both captive and wild populations. Reintroduction of genetically valuable animals from captivity improves genetic diversity of reintroduced populations while depleting captive populations; conversely, genetically valuable captive-bred animals may be closely related to individuals in the wild and thus increase risk of inbreeding depression if reintroduced.
Increasing genetic diversity is favored with removal of genetically overrepresented individuals from captive populations and addition of animals with low genetic relatedness to the wild.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Earnhardt|first=Joanne M.|date=November 1999|title=Reintroduction programmes: genetic trade-offs for populations|journal=Animal Conservation|language=en|volume=2|issue=4|pages=279–286|doi=10.1111/j.1469-1795.1999.tb00074.x|issn=1367-9430}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Introduction to conservation genetics|last=1942-|first=Frankham, Richard|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|others=Ballou, J. D. (Jonathan D.), Briscoe, David A. (David Anthony), 1947-|isbn=9781139190244|edition= 2nd |location=Cambridge, UK|oclc=774393970}}</ref> However in practice, initial reintroduction of individuals with low genetic value to the captive population is recommended to allow for genetic assessment before translocation of valuable individuals.<ref name=":3" />

== Improving research techniques ==
A cooperative approach to reintroduction by ecologists and biologists could improve research techniques. For both preparation and monitoring of reintroductions, increasing contacts between academic population biologists and wildlife managers is encouraged within the Survival Species Commission and the IUCN. The IUCN states that a re-introduction requires a multidisciplinary approach involving a team of persons drawn from a variety of backgrounds.<ref name="SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group 1995"/> A survey by Wolf et al. in 1998 indicated that 64% of reintroduction projects have used subjective opinion to assess habitat quality.<ref name="Stamps 2007"/> This means that most reintroduction evaluation has been based on human anecdotal evidence and not enough has been based on statistical findings. Seddon et al. (2007) suggest that researchers contemplating future reintroductions should specify goals, overall ecological purpose, and inherent technical and biological limitations of a given reintroduction, and planning and evaluation processes should incorporate both experimental and modeling approaches.<ref name="Seddon 2007" />

Monitoring the health of individuals, as well as the survival, is important; both before and after the reintroduction. Intervention may be necessary if the situation proves unfavorable.<ref name="SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group 1995"/> Population dynamics models that integrate demographic parameters and behavioral data recorded in the field can lead to simulations and tests of a priori hypotheses. Using previous results to design further decisions and experiments is a central concept of [[adaptive management]]. In other words, learning by doing can help in future projects. Population ecologists should therefore collaborate with biologists, ecologists, and wildlife management to improve reintroduction programs.<ref name="bgci.org">BGCI: The global network. Retrieved April 30, 2012 from http://www.bgci.org/ourwork/Ecosystems/</ref>

=== Genetic monitoring ===
For reintroduced populations to successfully establish and maximize reproductive fitness, practitioners should perform genetic tests to select which individuals will be the founders of reintroduced populations and to continue monitoring populations post-reintroduction.<ref name="IUCN 2017 Guidelines" /> A number of methods are available to measure the genetic relatedness between and variation among individuals within populations. Common genetic diversity assessment tools include [[microsatellite]] markers, [[mitochondrial DNA]] analyses, [[alloenzyme]]s, and [[amplified fragment length polymorphism]] markers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=SCHWARTZ|first=M|last2=LUIKART|first2=G|last3=WAPLES|first3=R|date=2007|title=Genetic monitoring as a promising tool for conservation and management|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|volume=22|issue=1|pages=25–33|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2006.08.009|pmid=16962204|issn=0169-5347|url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1481&context=usdeptcommercepub}}</ref> Post-reintroduction, genetic monitoring tools can be used to obtain data such as population abundance, [[effective population size]], and [[Population stratification|population structure]], and can also be used to identify instances of [[inbreeding]] within reintroduced populations or [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] with existing populations that are genetically compatible. Long-term genetic monitoring is recommended post-reintroduction to track changes in genetic diversity of the reintroduced population and determine success of a reintroduction program.
Adverse genetic changes such as loss of [[heterozygosity]] may indicate management intervention, such as population supplementation, is necessary for survival of the reintroduced population.<ref name="Haye 877–892">{{Cite journal|last=Haye|first=M. J. J. La|last2=Reiners|first2=T. E.|last3=Raedts|first3=R.|last4=Verbist|first4=V.|last5=Koelewijn|first5=H. P.|date=2017-08-01|title=Genetic monitoring to evaluate reintroduction attempts of a highly endangered rodent|journal=Conservation Genetics|language=en|volume=18|issue=4|pages=877–892|doi=10.1007/s10592-017-0940-z|issn=1566-0621|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roques|first=S.|last2=Berrebi|first2=P.|last3=Rochard|first3=E.|last4=Acolas|first4=M.L.|date=2018|title=Genetic monitoring for the successful re-stocking of a critically endangered diadromous fish with low diversity|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=221|pages=91–102|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2018.02.032|issn=0006-3207}}</ref><ref name="Mowry 196–206">{{Cite journal|last=Mowry|first=R. A.|last2=Schneider|first2=T. M.|last3=Latch|first3=E. K.|last4=Gompper|first4=M. E.|last5=Beringer|first5=J.|last6=Eggert|first6=L. S.|date=2014-08-06|title=Genetics and the successful reintroduction of the Missouri river otter|journal=Animal Conservation|language=en|volume=18|issue=2|pages=196–206|doi=10.1111/acv.12159|issn=1367-9430}}</ref>

==Re-introduction Specialist Group (RSG)==
The RSG is a network of specialists whose aim is to combat the ongoing and massive [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]] by using re-introductions as a responsible tool for the management and restoration of biodiversity. It does this by actively developing and promoting sound inter-disciplinary scientific information, policy, and practice to establish viable wild populations in their natural habitats.
The role of the RSG is to promote the re-establishment of viable populations in the wild of animals and plants. The need for this role was felt due to the increased demand from re-introduction practitioners, the global conservation community and increase in re-introduction projects worldwide.

Increasing numbers of animal and plant species are becoming rare, or even extinct in the wild. In an attempt to re-establish populations, species can – in some instances – be re-introduced into an area, either through translocation from existing wild populations, or by re-introducing captive-bred animals or artificially propagated plants.

== Reintroduction programs ==

===Africa===

* [[Addax]] in [[Morocco]] and [[Tunisia]]<ref name="iucn">{{cite iucn|author=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group|year=2008|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/512/0|title=''Addax nasomaculatus''|access-date=13 November 2008|ref=harv}}</ref>
* [[African wild dog]] to [[Gorongosa National Park]], [[Mozambique]]<ref>{{Cite news|title=First Ever African Wild Dog Introduction to Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique|url=https://wildlifeact.com/blog/african-wild-dogs-reintroduced-gorongosa-national-park/|publisher=Wildlife ACT|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=The African Wild Dogs are back|url=https://www.gorongosa.org/blog/press-coverage/african-wild-dogs-are-back|publisher=Gorongosa National Park|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref>
* [[Black rhinoceros]] in [[Malawi]], [[Zambia]] and [[Botswana]] (successful)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Botswana Rhino Reintroduction Project|url=https://wilderness-safaris.com/botswana-rhino-reintroduction-project|publisher=Wildness Safaris|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Rhino Conservation Botswana|url=https://www.rhinoconservationbotswana.com/|publisher=Rhino Conservation Botswana|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref> and [[Rwanda]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/03/black-rhinos-return-to-rwanda-10-years-after-disappearance|title=Black rhinos return to Rwanda 10 years after disappearance|publisher=The Guardian|access-date=2019-05-22}}</ref>, [[Chad]]<ref>{{Cite news|title=Black rhino to be reintroduced in Chad | World news|URL=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/21/black-rhino-chad-zakouma-south-africa|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref>
* [[Lion]] to [[Akagera National Park]] of Rwanda<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.andbeyond.com/stories/leave-a-legacy/the-predators-are-back-were-not-lion/|title=andBeyond Donated Five Lionesses from Phinda to Rwanda|last=|first=|date=|website=www.andbeyond.com|language=en-us|access-date=2017-05-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/magazine/Lions-to-bring-East-Africa-experience-to-Rwanda---/434746-2781526-7x8fgf/index.html |title=Lions to bring 'East Africa experience' to Rwanda |publisher=The East African |access-date=2017-05-22}}</ref> and [[Liwonde National Park]] of Malawi<ref>{{Cite news|title=Lions Reintroduced to Liwonde National Park in Malawi|url=https://www.africanparks.org/press-release/lions-reintroduced-liwonde|publisher=African Parks|accessdate= 31 May 2019}}</ref>
* [[North African ostrich]] in Morocco, [[Nigeria]], [[Niger]] and Tunisia (ongoing)
* [[Scimitar oryx]] in [[Chad]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Scimitar-horned Oryx Reintroduction Programme|url=https://www.saharaconservation.org/node/187|publisher=Sahara Conservation Fund|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Reintroducing scimitar-horned oryx to Chad|url=https://www.zsl.org/conservation/regions/africa/reintroducing-scimitar-horned-oryx-to-chad||publisher=The Zoological Society of London|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=25 Scimitar-Horned Oryx to be Reintroduced to the Wild in Chad|url=https://insider.si.edu/2016/04/25-scimitar-horned-oryx-reintroduced-wild-chad/|publisher=Smithsonian Insider|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref>
* [[Southern white rhinoceros]] in [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]] and [[Zambia]] (successful)
* [[South African cheetah]] in [[Swaziland]] (successful) and Malawi (ongoing)<ref>{{cite news|title=Cheetahs return to Malawi after decades|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2017/05/cheetahs-return-to-malawi-after-decades/|author=Shreya Dasgupta|publisher=Mongabay|date=29 May 2017|accessdate=3 June 2017}}</ref>

===Asia===

* [[Amur leopard]] in [[Russia]] (planned or successful)<ref>{{cite web|title=Plan for Amur leopard reintroduction approved|url=https://www.zsl.org/conservation/news/plan-for-amur-leopard-reintroduction-approved|publisher=ZSL|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Amur Leopard Reintroduction|url=https://conservewildcats.org/resources/amur-leopard-facts/amur-leopard-reintroduction/|publisher=conservewildcats|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Amur Leopard Reintroduction Program launched in Primorye|url=https://wwf.ru/en/resources/news/amur/startovala-programma-reintroduktsii-dalnevostochnogo-leoparda-/|publisher=WWF|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref>
* [[Asian black bear]] in [[Jirisan National Park]], [[South Korea]] (ongoing)<ref>{{cite web|title=Reintroduction of the Asiatic Black Bear to Jirisan National Park(JNP) South Korea|url=https://sites.google.com/site/rlrreintroductionmanagement/research-articles/reintroduction-of-the-asiatic-black-bear-to-jirisan-national-park-jnp-south-korea|publisher=RLR Reintroduction Management|accessdate=26 April 2017}}</ref>
* [[Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project]] of [[Asiatic lion]] to [[Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary]] from their only home presently in the world at [[Gir Forest National Park]]. Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary is the chosen site for re-introducing and establishing the world's second completely separate population of the wild free ranging Asiatic lions in the state of [[Madhya Pradesh]]. It was decided to re-introduce the Asiatic lion in [[Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary]] in [[Rajasthan]]. Some will be reintroduced in two locations in [[Gujarat]].<ref name="Seddon 2007" />
* [[Bornean orangutan]] in [[East Kalimantan]], [[Indonesia]]<ref>See [[Borneo Orangutan Survival#Samboja Lestari|Borneo Orangutan Survival]]</ref>
* [[Cheetah reintroduction in India]] is a project to reintroduce the [[cheetah]] in [[India]]. The [[Asiatic cheetah]] became extinct in 1947 when [[Maharaja]] of [[Surguja district|Surguja]] hunted the last three in the [[Rewa (princely state)|state of Rewa]] in [[central India]]. It was officially declared extinct in 1952 by the [[Government of India|Indian government]]. Plans are going on to reintroduce the cheetah to two site in [[Madhya Pradesh]] ([[Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary]] and [[Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary]]) and in [[Rajasthan]]'s [[Shahgarh Landscape]]. However, the [[Supreme Court of India]] put a hold on this project as they recommended to protect the endangered [[Asiatic lion|lions]] first rather than import cheetah from [[Africa]] or [[Iran]]. (On hold)
* [[Indian rhinoceros]] in [[Pakistan]] (ongoing)
* [[Eurasian otter]] in [[Japan]] (ongoing)
* [[Père David's deer]] in [[China]] (successful)
* [[Persian leopard]] in Russia (ongoing)
* [[Przewalski's horse]] in [[Mongolia]] (ongoing)<ref>{{Cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7961/97205530|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|access-date=2018-10-27}}</ref>
* [[Korean fox]] (subspecies of [[red fox]]) in [[Sobaeksan National Park]], South Korea (ongoing)<ref>{{cite web|title=Foxes released into wild on Sobaeksan|url=http://m.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20121101000970#cb|publisher=The korean Herald|accessdate=26 April 2017|date=November 2012}}</ref>
* [[Sarus crane]]s in [[Thailand]] (ongoing)
* [[Short-tailed albatross]] in Japan (successful)<ref>[https://www.acap.aq/en/news/latest-news/1679-acap-breeding-site-no-65-torishima-where-short-tailed-albatrosses-have-survived-both-feather-collectors-and-an-active-volcano ACAP Breeding Site No. 65. Torishima, where Short-tailed Albatrosses have survived both feather collectors and an active volcano]</ref>
* [[Siberian Tiger Re-population Project]] was proposed in 2009 to reintroduce [[Amur tiger]]s back to their former lands and including the former ranges in [[Central Asia]] once inhabited by their closest relatives, the [[Caspian tiger]]s. In 2010, two pairs of Siberian tigers, exchanged for [[Persian leopard]]s to southwestern Russia, were set to be reintroduced in [[Iran]]'s [[Miankaleh peninsula]]. Currently, the big cats (one of them had died) are being held in captivity in [[Tehran Zoological Garden|Eram zoo]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Big Cat Swap Raises Questions |url=https://iwpr.net/global-voices/big-cat-swap-raises-questions|publisher=Institute for War and Peace Reporting|date=19 May 2010|accessdate=30 October 2015}}</ref> Siberian tigers were also proposed to be reintroduced to a suitable habitat near the international river of [[Amu Darya]] in Central Asia and near the [[Ili River#Ili delta|Ili River delta]] in [[Kazakhstan]]. A rewilding project at the [[Pleistocene Park]], part of the re-population project was proposed back in 2005.
* [[South China tiger]] - Captive tigers being [[Rewilding (conservation biology)|re-wilded]] in [[Laohu Valley Reserve]] in the [[Free State (province)|Free State province]] of [[South Africa]] under [[Save China's Tigers]] programme, will be eventually released back into the wilderness of [[China]].
* [[Water deer]] in [[Shanghai]], China (successful)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Shanghai rebuilding population of endangered deer|url=http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/756068.shtml|publisher=Globaltimes|accessdate=19 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=The efforts to re-establish the Chinese water deer population in Shanghai, China|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297661933|accessdate=19 September 2019}}</ref>
* ''[[Magnolia sinica]]'' <ref>{{cite book|last1=Maschinski|first1=Joyce|last2=Haskins|first2=Kristin|title=Plant reintroduction in a changing climate: promises and perils|date=2012|publisher=Island Press}}</ref>

===Europe===

[[File:Cricetus-cricetus-Vienna-2015.JPG|thumb|Black-bellied hamster (''Cricetus cricetus''), also known as European hamster, common hamster]]
* [[Alpine ibex]] in the [[France|French]], [[Italy|Italian]] and [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Alps]] (successful)
* [[European hamster|Black-bellied hamster]] in [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] (successful)<ref name="Haye 877–892"/>
* [[Black grouse]] to [[Derbyshire]], England – (ongoing)
* [[Chequered skipper]] butterfly to [[Northamptonshire]], England - (ongoing)<ref>http://www.smallholder.co.uk/news/16235051.Butterfly_extinct_for_42_years_to_be_reintroduced_to_England/</ref>
* [[Common crane]] to [[Somerset]], England – (ongoing)
* [[Corncrake]] to [[Cambridgeshire]], England – (ongoing)
* [[Eurasian brown bear]] in the [[Alps]] (ongoing)<ref>Groff C., Bragalanti N., Rizzoli R., Zanghellini P. (editors), [http://www1.nina.no/lcie_new/pdf/635011008584394697_rapportoORSO_2012_EN_sito.1365493931.pdf "2012 Bear Report, Forestry and Wildlife Department of the Autonomous Province of Trento"], 2013.</ref>
* [[Eurasian lynx]] in [[Switzerland]] (successful), the United Kingdom (proposed) and other parts of Europe (ongoing)
* [[European beaver]] in several countries in [[Europe]] (successful)
* [[European bison]] in [[Poland]], [[Belarus]] (successful), other parts of [[Europe]] (ongoing) and to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] (proposed)<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/georgemonbiot/2013/oct/18/uk-carnivores-rewild-wolves-bison-conservation|title=Why are Britain's conservation groups so lacking in ambition?|last=Monbiot|first=George|date=2013-10-18|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=2016-04-17|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
* [[European black vulture]] in the [[Massif Central]] in [[France]] - (successful)
* [[Heath fritillary]] butterfly to [[Essex]], England– (successful)
* [[Glanville fritillary]] butterfly to [[Somerset]], England – (successful)
* [[Goitered gazelle]] in protected areas of Vashlovani in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] - (ongoing)
* [[Golden eagle]] in [[Ireland]] (ongoing)
* [[Great bustard]] to [[Salisbury Plain]], England – (ongoing)
* [[Griffon vulture]] in the [[Massif Central]], [[France]] (successful), Central [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]], [[Italy]], and Northern and Southern [[Israel]] (ongoing)
* [[Iberian lynx]] in [[Portugal]] (ongoing)
* [[Lammergeier]] in the [[Alps]] (successful) [[Switzerland]] (successful)
* [[Eresus cinnaberinus|Ladybird spider]] to [[Arne RSPB reserve]] in Dorset, England – (ongoing).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.birdguides.com/webzine/article.asp?a=2835|title=Ladybird Spider- Eresus cinnaberinus|date=2011-08-11}}</ref>
* [[Large blue]] butterfly in the [[South West of England]] – (successful and ongoing)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andersen|first=Anne|last2=Simcox|first2=David J.|last3=Thomas|first3=Jeremy A.|last4=Nash|first4=David R.|date=2014|title=Assessing reintroduction schemes by comparing genetic diversity of reintroduced and source populations: A case study of the globally threatened large blue butterfly (Maculinea arion)|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=175|pages=34–41|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2014.04.009|issn=0006-3207|url=https://curis.ku.dk/ws/files/131248267/Andersen_2014_Biological_Conservation.pdf}}</ref>
* [[Lesser kestrel]] in [[Spain]]
* [[Lesser white-fronted goose]] in [[Sweden]] and [[Germany]] (ongoing)
* [[Filago (plant)#Species|Narrow-leaved cudweed]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rich|first1=T.C.|last2=Gibson|first2=C.|last3=Marsden|first3=M.|title=Re-establishment of the extinct native plant Filago gallica L.(Asteraceae), narrow-leaved cudweed, in Britain|journal=Biological Conservation|date=1999|volume=91|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1016/s0006-3207(99)00046-4}}</ref>
* [[Northern bald ibis]] in [[Austria]] and [[Italy]] (ongoing)
* [[Northern goshawk]] – the existing [[UK]] population is believed to be derived from a mixture of escaped [[Falconry|falconers]]' birds and deliberate introductions – (successful)
* [[Osprey]] to England and Wales – (successful)
* [[Peregrine falcon]] in [[Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]]
* [[Pine marten]] in [[Wales]] - (ongoing)<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-40188235 | title='First' Welsh born and bred pine marten| work=BBC News| date=2017-06-09}}</ref>
* [[Red kite]] in [[Ireland]]<ref>[http://www.environ.ie/en/Heritage/NationalParksandWildlife/News/MainBody,5384,en.htm News - Department of the Environment, Heritage & Local Government] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121214308/http://www.environ.ie/en/Heritage/NationalParksandWildlife/News/MainBody,5384,en.htm |date=2008-11-21 }}</ref> [[Chiltern Hills]], [[Black Isle]], [[Northamptonshire]], [[Dumfries and Galloway]], [[Yorkshire]], [[Perth and Kinross]] and [[Gateshead]] – (successful)
* [[Red squirrel]] to [[Anglesey]], Wales – (successful and ongoing)<ref>[http://www.redsquirrels.info Red squirrel conservation, squirrel ecology and grey squirrel management]</ref>
* [[Reindeer]] to the [[Cairngorms]] in Scotland – (semi-domesticated; successful)
* [[Scots pine]] to southern England – (unplanned, successful)
* [[Silver-washed fritillary]] to [[Essex]], England – (ongoing, locally successful)
* [[Western swamphen]] in the [[Mondego River]] basin, [[Portugal]] (successful)
* [[White stork]] to [[France]], [[Sweden]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Switzerland]] (all successful) and [[England]] (ongoing)<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://knepp.co.uk/white-storks/ | title=White Storks}}</ref>
* [[White-tailed eagle]] in [[Ireland]] (ongoing) [[Hebrides|and Hebrides]], Scotland – (successful), [[England]] (ongoing)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Barkham |first1=Patrick |title=Young sea eagle takes up residence among Oxfordshire's red kites |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/17/young-sea-eagle-takes-up-residence-among-oxfordshires-red-kites |accessdate= |work=The Guardian |date=17 January 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117195839/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/17/young-sea-eagle-takes-up-residence-among-oxfordshires-red-kites |archivedate=17 January 2020}}</ref> and [[Wales]] (planned – on hold while a suitable site is found)
* [[Wild boar]] to several places in [[Great Britain|Britain]] – (accidental, successful)

===Middle East===

* [[Arabian oryx]] in the Sultanate of [[Oman]] (successful), [[United Arab Emirates]] (successful), [[Israel]] (successful)<ref>Arabian Oryx.gov.sa, [Monitoring of Arabian oryx at reintroduction sites "Monitoring of Arabian oryx at reintroduction sites"].</ref><ref>''Haaretz'',[http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/jerusalem-zoo-oryx-moving-to-the-arava-1.214443 "Jerusalem Zoo Oryx Moving to the Arava"], 1 March 2007.</ref>
* [[Kurdistan spotted newt]] in Western [[Iran]] (successful)<ref>Sharifi M.. Vaissi S.. 2014. [https://www.int-res.com/articles/esr2014/23/n023p159.pdf Captive breeding and trial reintroduction of the Endangered yellow-spotted mountain newt Neurergus microspilotus in western Iran] (pdf). Endang Species Res 23. Vol. 23: pp.159–166. doi: 10.3354/esr00552. Retrieved on March 31, 2017</ref>
* [[North African ostrich]] in [[Israel]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] (ongoing)
* [[Nubian ibex]] in [[Israel]] (successful)<ref>Teva.org.il, [http://www.teva.org.il/?CategoryID=949&ArticleID=4910 "Nubian Ibex"].</ref>
* [[Persian fallow deer]] in [[Israel]] (ongoing)
* [[Persian onager]] in [[Saudi Arabia]] (successful)
* [[Red deer]] - A programme was announced in 2013 to reintroduce the red deer to [[Armenia]]. 4 males and 11 females of the species will be purchased and transported to a breeding centre at [[Dilijan National Park]]. The [[World Wide Fund for Nature|World Wildlife Fund Germany]] and [[Orange (telecommunications)|Orange Armenia]] have provided the funds for the project.
* [[Sudan cheetah]] in [[United Arab Emirates]] (ongoing)
* [[Turkmenian kulan]] in [[Kazakhstan]] (ongoing) and [[Uzbekistan]] (successful)
* [[Acanthobrama telavivensis|Yarkon bleak fish]] in [[Israel]] (successful)<ref>The [[Ynetnews]] Environment - [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4291551,00.html Near-extinct fish reintroduced to Yarkon River]</ref>

===North America===

* [[American bison]] to [[El Carmen Nature Reserve]]<ref>{{Cite news|title=REINTRODUCTION OF AMERICAN BISON|url=http://www.cemexnature.com/el-carmen-p/reintroduction-of-american-bison/|publisher=cemexnature|accessdate=26 July 2019}}</ref> and [[Janos Biosphere Reserve]]<ref> {{cite journal |title=The Janos Biosphere Reserve, Northern Mexico |authors=Rurik List, Jesus Pacheco, Eduardo Ponce, Rodrigo Sierra-Corona, Gerardo Ceballos |journal=The Journal of International Wilderness |date=August 2010 |volume=16 |number=2 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220048616 |accessdate=July 28, 2019}}</ref> in Mexico, [[Banff National Park]] in [[Alberta]]<ref>{{Cite news|title=Banff National Park Bison Reintroduction Project|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/parks-canada/news/2018/08/banff-national-park-bison-reintroduction-project.html|publisher=www.canada.ca|accessdate=26 July 2019}}</ref>
* [[American flamingo]] to [[Anegada]], [[British Virgin Islands]] (successful)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://theconservationagency.org/projects/flamingo-reintroduction-to-anegada-british-virgin-islands/|title=British Virgin Islands: Flamingo Reintroduction to Anegada - The Conservation Agency|website=The Conservation Agency|language=en-US|access-date=2016-04-12}}</ref>
* [[Black-footed ferret]] in [[Canada]], [[United States]] and [[Mexico]]<ref>''Black-Footed Ferret'', [http://blackfootedferret.org/reintroduction/ "Reintroduction"].</ref><ref name=NPCA>{{Cite news|title=9 Wildlife Success Stories|url=https://www.npca.org/articles/880-9-wildlife-success-stories|publisher=NPCA|accessdate=26 July 2019}}</ref>
* [[Blanding's turtle]] in [[Canada]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Blanding's Turtle Headstart Reintroduction|url=http://www.torontozoo.com/adoptapond/urbanturtleinitiative.asp}}</ref>
* [[California condor]] in [[California]] and [[Mexico]] (ongoing)
* [[Bighorn sheep|California bighorn sheep]] in [[Oregon]] (successful)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olson|first=Zachary H|last2=Whittaker|first2=Donald G|last3=Rhodes|first3=Olin E|date=2012|title=Evaluation of experimental genetic management in reintroduced bighorn sheep |journal=Ecology and Evolution|volume=2|issue=2|pages=429–443|doi=10.1002/ece3.97 |pmc=3298953|pmid=22423334 }}</ref><ref name=NPCA/>

[[File:Fisher Reintroduction 2015 at Cispus Learning Center, 065.jpg|thumb|A fisher leaps from its holding container and darts off into the [[Gifford Pinchot National Forest]].]]
* [[Fisher (animal)|Fisher]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington State]]<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://wdfw.wa.gov/conservation/endangered/species/fisher.pdf|title = Threatened and Endangered Species in Washington: 2012 Annual Report|last =|first =|date =|website =|access-date =}}</ref><ref name=NPCA/> (ongoing)
* [[Golden eagle]] in [[United States]]
* [[Bald eagle]] to [[Channel Islands National Park]], California<ref name=NPCA/>
* [[Grey wolf]] to [[Yellowstone National Park]] in Wyoming (successful)<ref>Yellowstone National Park, [http://www.yellowstonepark.com/2011/06/wolf-reintroduction-changes-ecosystem/ "Wolf Reintroduction Changes Ecosystem"], 21 June 2011.</ref><ref name=NPCA/>, Idaho and Montana<ref name=NPCA/>
* [[Musk ox]] in [[Alaska]] (United States) (successful)
* [[Red wolf]] in Eastern [[North Carolina]]
* [[Whooping crane]]s, including migratory population in the Eastern United States and non-migratory population in [[Louisiana]] (ongoing)
*[[Meleagris gallopavo|Wild turkey]] in [[South Carolina]]<ref name=postcourier>{{cite news|first=|last=|title=Herman 'Duff' Holbrook: Benefactor of S.C. wildlife |url=http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20150723/PC1002/150729732/1022/herman-x2018-duff-x2019-holbrook-benefactor-of-sc-wildlife |work=[[The Post and Courier]] |date=2015-07-23 |accessdate=2015-08-12}}</ref><ref name=outdoor>{{cite news|first=Andrew |last=McKean|title=A Farewell to Herman "Duff" Holbrook, the Father of Wild Turkey Rocket-Netting |url=http://www.outdoorlife.com/articles/hunting/2015/07/farewell-herman-duff-holbrook-father-wild-turkey-rocket-netting |work=[[Outdoor Life]] |date=2015-07-27 |accessdate=2015-08-12}}</ref>
*[[Pseudophoenix sargentii|Sargent's Cherry Palm]] (successful) in Florida<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Maschinski|first1=Joyce|last2=Duquesnel|first2=Janice|title=Successful reintroductions of the endangered long-lived Sargent's cherry palm, Pseudophoenix sargentii, in the Florida Keys|journal=Biological Conservation|date=2007|volume=134|issue=1|pages=122–129|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2006.07.012}}</ref>'
*[[Pediocactus knowltonii]] in New Mexico<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maunder|first=Michael|date=1992-03-01|title=Plant reintroduction: an overview|journal=Biodiversity & Conservation|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=51–61|doi=10.1007/bf00700250|issn=0960-3115}}</ref>
*[[Cordylanthus maritimus]] in Western United States<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Helenurm|first=Kaius|last2=Parsons|first2=Lorraine S.|date=1997-09-01|title=Genetic Variation and the Reproduction of Cordylanthus maritimus ssp. maritimus to Sweetwater Marsh, California|journal=Restoration Ecology|language=en|volume=5|issue=3|pages=236–244|doi=10.1046/j.1526-100x.1997.09728.x|issn=1526-100X}}</ref>
*[[Missouri River Otter|Missouri river otters]] in [[Missouri]] (successful)<ref name="Mowry 196–206"/>
* [[Desert pupfish]] to [[Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument]], Arizona<ref name=NPCA/>
* [[Elk]] to [[Great Smoky Mountains National Park]], North Carolina and Tennessee<ref name=NPCA/><ref>{{Cite news|title=Reintroducing Elk to the Great Smoky Mountains|url=https://www.americanforests.org/magazine/article/reintroducing-elk-to-the-great-smokey-mountains/|publisher=American Forests|accessdate=26 July 2019}}</ref>

=== Oceans and Oceania ===

* [[Woylie]] in [[Australia]] (ongoing)
*[[Greater bilby]] in Arid Recovery Reserve, [[South Australia]] and other parts of [[Australia]] (successful)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moseby|first1=K. E. |last2=O'Donnell|first2=E.O. |title=Reintroduction of the greater bilby, ''Macrotis lagotis'' (Reid) (Marsupialia: Thylacomyidae), to northern South Australia: survival, ecology and notes on reintroduction protocols |journal=Wildlife Research |volume=30 |pages=15–27 |year=2003 | doi = 10.1071/WR02012 }}</ref>
*[[Allocasuarina portuensis]] in Australia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cochrane|first=J. A.|last2=Crawford|first2=A. D.|last3=Monks|first3=L. T.|date=2007|title=The significance of ex situ seed conservation to reintroduction of threatened plants|journal=Australian Journal of Botany|volume=55|issue=3|pages=356–361|doi=10.1071/bt06173}}</ref>
*Tunbridge buttercup in Tasmania<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gilfedder|first=Louise|last2=Kirkpatrick|first2=J. B.|last3=Wells|first3=Susan|date=1997-09-01|title=The endangered Tunbridge buttercup (Ranunculus prasinus): Ecology, conservation status and introduction to the Township Lagoon Nature Reserve, Tasmania|journal=Australian Journal of Ecology|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=347–351|doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.1997.tb00681.x|issn=1442-9993}}</ref>
*[[Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides]] in Australia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morgan|first=John W.|date=2000-06-01|title=Reproductive Success in Reestablished versus Natural Populations of a Threatened Grassland Daisy (Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides)|journal=Conservation Biology|language=en|volume=14|issue=3|pages=780–785|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98516.x|issn=1523-1739}}</ref>
*[[Eastern quoll]] in Australia (ongoing)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rewildingaustralia.org.au/rewilding-eastern-quoll|title=Rewilding the eastern quoll {{!}} Rewilding Australia|website=rewildingaustralia.org.au|access-date=2019-03-30}}</ref>
*[[Numbat]] in other areas of Western Australia, [[Scotia Sanctuary]] (New South Wales), [[Yookamura Sanctuary]] (South Australia)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Where to see Numbats?|URL=http://www.numbat.org.au/where|publisher=numbat.org.au}}</ref>
*[[North Island robin]] to [[Tiritiri Matangi]], [[Auckland]], New Zealand<ref>{{Cite news|title=Reintroduction of North Island robins Petroica austalis longipes to Tiritiri Matangi, Auckland, New Zealand|URL=https://www.conservationevidence.com/individual-study/232|publisher=Conservation Evidence}}</ref>

===South America===

* [[Andean condor]] in [[Colombia]]<ref>{{cite news|title=The reintroduction of the Andean condor|url=https://www.conservationevidence.com/individual-study/1773|publisher=Conservation Evidence|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref>
* [[Giant anteater]] in [[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]], [[Argentina]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Iberá Project-The Giant Anteater|url=http://www.proyectoibera.org/en/english/especiesamenazadas_osohormiguero.htm|publisher=Proyecto Iberá|accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref>
* [[Guanaco]] in central Argentina
* [[Puerto Rican parrot]] in [[Arecibo]] (ongoing)
* [[Red-and-green macaw]] to [[Iberá Provincial Reserve]], Argentina
* [[Scarlet macaw]] to [[Palenque]], Mexico<ref>{{Cite news|title=Reintroduction of the Scarlet Macaw (Ara Macao Cyanoptera) in the Tropical Rainforests of Palenque, Mexico: Project Design and First Year Progress|
publisher=journals.sagepub.com|doi=10.1177/194008291400700301}}</ref>
* [[Vinaceous-breasted amazon]] to [[Parque Nacional das Araucárias]], Santa Catarina, Brazil (ongoing)
* [[Toromiro]] to [[Easter Island]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maunder|first=Mike|last2=Culham|first2=Alastair|last3=Alden|first3=Bjorn|last4=Zizka|first4=Georg|last5=Orliac|first5=Cathérine|last6=Lobin|first6=Wolfram|last7=Bordeu|first7=Alberto|last8=Ramirez|first8=Jose M.|last9=Glissmann-Gough|first9=Sabine|date=2000-10-18|title=Conservation of the Toromiro Tree: Case Study in the Management of a Plant Extinct in the Wild|journal=Conservation Biology|language=en|volume=14|issue=5|pages=1341–1350|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98520.x|issn=1523-1739}}</ref>
*

==See also==
* [[De-extinction]]
* [[:Category:Ecological experiments|Ecological experiments]]
* [[Oostvaardersplassen]]
* [[Pleistocene Park]]
* [[Pleistocene rewilding]]
* [[Reintroduction of wolves]]
* [[Rewilding Britain]]
* [[Rewilding (conservation biology)]]
* [[Rewilding Institute]]
* [[Translocation (wildlife conservation)]]
* [[Wildlife conservation]]
* [[Wildlife management]]
* [[World Conservation Union]] (IUCN)

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*Armstrong, D, Hayward, M, Moro, D, Seddon, P 2015. Advances in Reintroduction Biology of Australian and New Zealand Fauna, CSIRO Publishing, {{ISBN|9781486303014}}
*Gorbunov, Y.N., Dzybov, D.S., Kuzmin, Z.E. and Smirnov, I.A. 2008. [http://www.bgci.org/files/Worldwide/Publications/reintroduction_manual_engl.pdf Methodological recommendations for botanic gardens on the reintroduction of rare and threatened plants] Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI)
*Shmaraeva, A. and Ruzaeva, I. 2009. [http://www.bgci.org/resources/article/0621/ Reintroduction of threatened plant species in Russia] BG Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1

==External links==
* [http://www.iucnsscrsg.org/ IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070704061808/http://www.iucnsscrsg.org/downloads.html IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group's NEWSLETTER: "Re-introduction NEWS" (IUCN/SSC)]
* [http://www.goldeneagle.ie/index.html Reintroduction of Golden Eagle to Ireland]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/gloucestershire/4380276.stm BBC News release on Beaver reintroduction in England]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060216174146/http://www.scotsbeavers.org/ Scottish Beavers Network - campaigning for Beaver reintroduction in Scotland]
* [http://www.treemail.nl/takh/ Reintroduction of Przewalski's Horse to Mongolia]
* [http://www.greatbustard.com Reintroduction of Great Bustard to England]
* [http://www.aprovaca.org/en/projects/reintroduction.html Reintroduction of Endangered Native Orchids into the Wild in El Valle de Anton, Panama]
* Reintroduction of endangered plant species in China: [http://www.bgci.org/china_en/2134/ Dipteronia dyeriana, Magnolia odoratissima and M. aromatica], [http://www.bgci.org/china_en/2356/ Euryodendron excelsum Chang], [http://www.bgci.org/china_en/2133/ Bretschneidera sinensis Hemsl]

{{Zoos}}

[[Category:Animal reintroduction| ]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]

List of environmental dates

2020-04-21T01:15:32Z

118.46.55.151: /* Days */

{{short description|Wikipedia list article}}
{{Refimprove|date=July 2014}}

This is a '''list of environmental dates'''. These dates are designated for creating awareness of [[environmental issue]]s.

==Hours==
*[[Earth Hour]] - 8:30pm (local time), 28 March 2020<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.earthhour.org/|title=Homepage|date=2 February 2018|website=Earth Hour}}</ref>

==Days==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| International Zebra Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Zebra Day (January 31st)|url=https://www.asiaforanimals.com/news/post/international-zebra-day-january-31st|publisher=Asia for Animals Coalition|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wildlife Wednesday: Celebrate International Zebra Day|URL=https://disneyparks.disney.go.com/blog/2017/01/wildlife-wednesday-celebrate-international-zebra-day/|publisher=Disney Parks|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Earn Your Stripes! It’s International Zebra Day!|URL=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-zebra-day|publisher=Safari Ltd|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 01-31: January 31
|-
| [[World Wetlands Day]] || 02-02: February 2
|-
| World Pangolin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day - WORLD PANGOLIN DAY|url=https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|publisher=Pangolins.org|accessdate=16 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526113907/https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|archive-date=26 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day 2019|url=https://www.wildlifealliance.org/world-pangolin-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Alliance|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || Third Saturday of February
|-
| World Bonobo Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Valentine's Day Is also World Bonobo Day; Here's Why|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/valentines-day-is-also-world-bonobo-day-heres-why_b_58a22b17e4b0cd37efcfec0b|publisher=HuffPost|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://bonoboproject.org/save-the-bonobo/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=The Bonobo Project|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://www.peoplemagazine.co.za/life/animal-news/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=People Magazine|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 02-14: February 14
|-
| World Hippopotamus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Hippo Day: Learn about the world's 3rd largest mammal|url=https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d774d31457a4e32457a6333566d54/index.html|publisher=CGTN|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Hippo Day|url=https://happydays365.org/hippo-day/national-hippo-day-february-15/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Hippo Day (15th February)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/hippo-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 02-15: February 15
|-
| [[International Polar Bear Day]] || 02-27: February 27
|-
| [[World Wildlife Day]] || 03-03: March 3
|-
| Solar Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://www.belmontsolar.com/blog/uncategorized/national-solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Solar Appreciation Belmont Solar|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://greenstepssociety.org/solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Green Step Society|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Solar Appreciation Day|URL=http://thegreentimes.co.za/event/solar-appreciation-day/|publisher=The Green Times|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || Second Friday of March
|-
| International Day of Action for Rivers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/ |title=International Day of Action for Rivers}}</ref> || 03-14: March 14
|-
| [[World Consumer Rights Day]] || 03-15: March 15
|-
| National Panda Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL PANDA DAY - March 16|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-panda-day-march-16/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Panda Day (16th March)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/panda-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Panda Day - March 16, 2020|URL=https://happydays365.org/panda-day/national-panda-day-march-16/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref> || 03-16: March 16
|-
| Global Recycling Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalrecyclingday.com/ |title=Global Recycling Day}}</ref> || 03-18: March 18th
|-
| Taxonomist Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taxonomist Appreciation Day 19 March 2017|URL=http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/blogs/linette-umbrello/taxonomist-appreciation-day-19-march-2017|publisher=Western Australian Museum|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 03-19 : March 19
|-
| [[World Sparrow Day]] || 03-20: March 20
|-
| World Frog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day|url=https://www.nationalday.com/days/world-frog-day/|
publisher=National Day Foundation|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day 2019: Let's Save the Frogs From Extinction|url=http://greenubuntu.com/world-frog-day-2019-lets-save-the-frogs-from-extinction/|
publisher=Green Ubuntu|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day – March 20, 2019|URL=https://happydays365.org/frog-day/world-frog-day-march-20/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-20: March 20
|-
| [[International Day of Forests]] || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Planting Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day – 21 of March 2015|URL=https://blog.plantwise.org/2015/03/20/world-planting-day-21-of-march-2015/|publisher=The Plantwise Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day 2018|URL=https://www.adama.com/en/media/events/international-events/world-planting-day-2018|publisher=ADAMA|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day - 21st March|URL=https://www.clifton.co.uk/blog/celebrating-spring-and-world-planting-day|publisher=Clifton Nurseries|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Wood Day || 03-21: March 21
|-
| [[World Water Day]] || 03-22: March 22
|-
| International Seal Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Day of the Seal is Here!|url=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-seal-day|publisher=Safari ltd|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 03-22: March 22
|-
| World Bear Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bear Day|URL=http://www.zoomontana.org/event/world-bear-day/|publisher=ZooMontana|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || March 23: 03-23
|-
| [[World Meteorological Day]] || 03-23: March 23
|-
| Manatee Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=MANATEE APPRECIATION DAY - Last Wednesday in March|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/manatee-appreciation-day-last-wednesday-in-march/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day Should Be Every Day|URL=https://www.peta.org/features/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=PETA|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 03: Last Wednesday in March
|-
| International Beaver Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Beaver Day (7th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/beaver-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BEAVER DAY - April 7 |URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-beaver-day-april-7/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 04-07: April 7
|-
| Zoo Lovers Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL ZOO LOVERS DAY - April 8|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/national-zoo-lovers-day-april-8/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Zoo Lovers Day (8th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/zoo-lovers-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 04-08: April 8
|-
| [[Arbor Day]] || 04-10: April 10
|-
| Bat Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BAT APPRECIATION DAY - April 17|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/international-bat-appreciation-day-april-17/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Bat Appreciation Day (17th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/bat-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref> || 04-17: April 17
|-
| [[World Fish Migration Day]] || April 21, 2018
|-
| [[Earth Day]] || 04-22: April 22<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.earthday.org |title=Earth Day Network | Earth Day 2015 |publisher=Earthday.org |date=2015-04-22 |accessdate=2015-05-16}}</ref>
|-
| World Tapir Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-tapir-day/|publisher=Day of the Year|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day: 24 reasons tapirs are your new favourite animal|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/27/world-tapir-day-24-reasons-tapirs-are-your-new-favourite-animal/|publisher=The Telegraph|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=ELEVEN YEARS OF WORLD TAPIR DAY: 2008 - 2019|url=https://www.tapirday.org/|publisher=Tapir Day|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| International Hyena Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=international hyena day|url=http://tales-of-avalon.com/tales/?tag=international-hyena-day|publisher=Tales of Avalon|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| [[Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare]] || 04-29: April 29
|-
| [[Green Up Day]] || 05: First Saturday of May in Vermont
|-
| World Tuna Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2 May|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/tunaday/|publisher=the United Nations|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2019|url=http://ipnlf.org/news/world-tuna-day-2019|publisher=IPNLF|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate World Tuna Day on May 2nd!|url=https://chickenofthesea.com/fresh-ideas/good-living/celebrate-world-tuna-day-on-may-2nd|publisher=Chicken of the Sea|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-02: May 2
|-
| International Leopard Day<ref name=>{{Cite news|title=International Leopard Day|URL=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/international-leopard-day-2/|publisher=International Leopard Day|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| Wild Koala Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=25 Koala Facts for Wild Koala Day|url=https://blog.goway.com/globetrotting/2017/05/25-koala-facts-wild-koala-day/|publisher=blog.goway.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wild Koala Day|url=http://www.wildkoaladay.com.au/|publisher=www.wildkoaladay.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| [[Greenery Day]] || 05-04: May 4 in Japan (previously April 29)
|-
| World Donkey Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Donkey Day (Every May 8th)|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-donkey-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-08: May 8
|-
| World Cactus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Cactus Day|URL=https://whatnationaldayisit.com/day/Cactus/|publisher=WhatNationalDayIsIt|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 05-10: May 10
|-
| [[World Migratory Bird Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldmigratorybirdday.org/|title=STORIES - World Migratory Bird Day|website=www.worldmigratorybirdday.org}}</ref> || Second Saturday of May. Second Saturday of May in the U.S. and Canada; Second Saturday of October in Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean.
|-
| Endangered Species Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.endangered.org/campaigns/endangered-species-day/|title=Endangered Species Day|website=endangered.org}}</ref> ||05: Third Friday of May
|-
| [[International Day for Biological Diversity]] (World Biodiversity Day) || 05-22: May 22
|-
| [[World Turtle Day]] || 05-23: May 23
|-
| European Day of Parks - [[EUROPARC Federation|Europarc Federation]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarc.org/nature/european-day-of-parks/ |title=European Day of Parks}}</ref> || 05-24: May 24
|-
| [[Bike-to-Work Day]] || 05: Third Friday of May
|-
| World Otter Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Otter Day|url=https://muddyfaces.co.uk/event/world-otter-day-2/2020-05-27/|publisher=Muddy Faces|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 05-27: May 27
|-
| [[World No Tobacco Day]] || 05-31:May 31
|-
| World Parrot Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.northernparrots.com/mobile/world-parrot-day-blog277/|publisher=Northern Parrots|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-parrot-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.birdorable.com/blog/world-parrot-day/|
publisher=Birdorable Blog|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-31: May 31 since 2004
|-
| [[World Environment Day]] || 06-05: June 5
|-
| [[World Oceans Day]] || 06-08: June 8
|-
| [[Coral Triangle Day]] || 06-09: June 9
|-
| National Cougar Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Cougar Day|URL=https://whatnationaldayisit.com/day/Cougar/|publisher=WhatNationalDayIsIt|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref> || 06-12: June 12
|-
| [[Global Wind Day]] || 06-15: June 15
|-
| World Sea Turtle Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/world-sea-turtle-day |title=World Sea Turtle Day}}</ref> || 06-16: June 16
|-
| [[World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought]] || 06-17: June 17
|-
| World Croc Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Croc Day|URL=https://thereptilereport.com/world-croc-day/|publisher=The Reptile Report|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref> || 06-17: June 17
|-
| World Giraffe Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://giraffeconservation.org/world-giraffe-day/ |title=World Giraffe Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day 2019|URL=https://giraffeconservation.org/2019/03/19/world-giraffe-day-2019/|publisher=Giraffe Conservation Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day (21st June)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-giraffe-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-21: June 21
|-
| International Climate Change Day || 06-21: June 21
|-
| World Camel Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://zoonewsdigest.blogspot.com/2013/06/world-camel-day.html?m=1|publisher=Zoo News Digest|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=https://www.nps.gov/planyourvisit/event-details.htm?id=98A7FF8A-07F4-4FE5-1ABC749235C08DE6|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/6/22/world-camel-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| World Rainforest Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treefoundation.org/2018/06/21/world-rainforest-day-is-june-22nd/|title=World Rainforest Day is June 22nd|date=21 June 2018|website=treefoundation.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldrainforestday.com/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=World Rainforest Day}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rainforestpartnership.org/worldrainforestday/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=RAINFOREST PARTNERSHIP}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| [[World Population Day]] || 07-11: July 11
|-
| Shark Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Duuuun. Dun. It’s Shark Awareness Day!|URL=https://blog.margaritaville.com/2018/07/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Margaritaville Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day (14th July)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day|URL=https://www.sharktrust.org/blog/shark-awareness-day|publisher=The Shark Trust|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Shark Awareness Day Has Arrived! |URL=http://awesomeocean.com/news/national-shark-awareness-day-has-arrived/|publisher=Awesome Ocean|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Chimpanzee Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day 2019 – How Will You Celebrate?|URL=https://projectchimps.org/world-chimpanzee-day-2019/|publisher=Project Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day – 14 July 2019|URL=https://www.janegoodall.be/world-chimpanzee-day-2019|publisher=Jane Goodall Institute Belgium|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day!|URL=https://www.savethechimps.org/worldchimpanzeeday/|publisher=Save the Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Nature Conservation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Nature Conservation Day 2019: History and Significance|URL=https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/world-nature-conservation-day-1564220763-1|publisher=Jagran Josh|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref>
|| 07-28: July 28
|-
| [[International Tiger Day]] || 07-29: July 29
|-
| World Ranger Day - [[International Ranger Federation]] || July 31: 07-31
|-
| International Clouded Leopard Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day (4th August)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-clouded-leopard-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day|URL=https://www.aspinallfoundation.org/icld/|publisher=The Aspinall Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 08-04: August 4
|-
| World Lion Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldlionday.com/ |title=World Lion Day}}</ref> || 08-10: August 10
|-
| [[World Elephant Day]] || 08-12: August 12
|-
| World Hirola Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Hirola Day|URL=http://hirolaconservation.org/whd/index.php|publisher=Hirola Conservation Programme|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref> || 08-12: August 12
|-
| International Wolf Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate International Wolf Day - the future of our Earth depends on them|url=http://www.whitewolfpack.com/2011/08/international-wolf-day.html?m=1|publisher=White Wolf Pack|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WOLF DAY AUGUST 13TH 2019|url=http://onehealthproductions.com/internationalwolfday2019|publisher=one health productions|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref> || 08-13: August 13
|-
| World Orangutan Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Orangutan Day|url=http://www.worldorangutanevents.org/international-orangutan-day.php|publisher=World Orangutan Events|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> ||08-19: August 19
|-
| [[National Honey Bee Day]] || 08-22: August 22
|-
| World African Wild Dog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Painted Dog Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-painted-dog-day/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 08-26: August 26
|-
| International Whale Shark Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WHALE SHARK DAY – August 30|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-whale-shark-day-august-30/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Whale Shark Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-whale-shark-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 08-30: August 30
|-
| Japan Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2019|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2019/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2018|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2018/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-01: September 1
|-
| Amazon Rainforest Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=September 5: Amazon Day|URL=https://wwf.panda.org/?206103/september-5-amazonday|publisher=WWF|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-05: September 5
|-
| International Vulture Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.sustainablelearning.com/event/international-vulture-awareness-day|publisher=Sustainable Learning|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Sep 5, 2009 CE: International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/sep5/international-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=One week to go to International Vulture Awareness Day!|url=https://www.4vultures.org/one-week-to-go-for-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=www.4vultures.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: First Saturday of September
|-
| [[International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer]] || 09-16: September 16
|-
| [[World Water Monitoring Day]] || 09-18: September 18
|-
| [[:de:Parking Day|PARK(ing) Day]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seattle.gov/transportation/projects-and-programs/programs/public-space-management-programs/park(ing)-day|title=PARK(ing) Day - Transportation | seattle.gov|website=www.seattle.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strasse-zurueckerobern.de/anleitungen/parking-day/|title=PARK(ing) Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parkingday.fr/|title=Parking Day|website=Parking Day}}</ref>|| 09: September 20, 2019, Third Friday in September
|-
| [[World Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldcleanupday.org/|title=World Cleanup Day|website=www.worldcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| [[National Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalcleanupday.org/|title=National Cleanup Day|website=www.nationalcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| International Red Panda Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL RED PANDA DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-red-panda-day-third-saturday-in-september/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: Third Saturday of September
|-
| Zero Emissions Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeroemissionsday.org|title=Zero Emissions Day|date=2017-08-06}}</ref> || 09-21: September 21
|-
| [[Car Free Day]] || 09-22: September 22
|-
| World Rhino Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldrhinoday.org/|title=WORLD RHINO DAY :: World Rhino Day 2017|website=WORLD RHINO DAY}}</ref> || 09-22: September 22
|-
| [[Ecological Debt Day]] (Earth Overshoot Day) || 09-23: September 23 in 2008, but receding
|-
| World Gorilla Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=5TF: World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://gorillafund.org/world-gorilla-day-2019/|publisher=gorillafund.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=WORLD GORILLA DAY|url=https://www.wcs.org/world-gorilla-day|publisher=WCS.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://www.cms.int/en/news/world-gorilla-day-2019|publisher=CMS|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09-24: September 24
|-
| World Environmental Health Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://anydayguide.com/calendar/1252|title=World Environmental Health Day / September 26, 2019|last=AnydayGuide|website=AnydayGuide}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26 since 2011 [[International Federation of Environmental Health|(IFEH)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifeh.org/|title=International Federation of Environmental Health|website=ifeh.org}}</ref>
|-
| World Cassowary Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day 2018|url=https://www.wettropics.gov.au/world-cassowary-day-2018|publisher=Wet Tropics Management Authority|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day|url=https://www.worldcassowaryday.org/|publisher=World Cassowary Day|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26
|-
| World Rivers Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldriversday.com/|title=World Rivers Day|website=worldriversday.com}}</ref> || 09: Last Sunday of September
|-
| World Farm Animals Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Farm Animals Day (2nd October)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/farm-animals-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-02: October 2
|-
| [[World Habitat Day]] || 10: First Monday of October
|-
| [[World Animal Day]] || 10-04: October 4
|-
| Energy Efficiency Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energyefficiencyday.org/ |title=Energy Efficiency Day}}</ref> || 10: First Wednesday in October
|-
| [[International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 10-13: October 13
|-
| International E-Waste Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate the second International E-Waste Day|URL=https://inhabitat.com/celebrate-the-second-international-e-waste-day/|publisher=Inhabitat|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International E-Waste Day|URL=https://weee-forum.org/iewd-about/|publisher=WEEE Forum|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Raising awareness on International E-Waste Day|URL=https://www.orgalim.eu/news/raising-awareness-international-e-waste-day|publisher=Orgalim|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-14: October 14
|-
| Sustainability Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uvu.edu/sustainability/sustainabilityday/index.html|title=- Sustainability - Utah Valley University|website=www.uvu.edu}}</ref> || 10: Fourth Wednesday of October
|-
| World Okapi Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Okapi Day|url=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/10/18/world-okapi-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=7 Fun Facts about World Okapi Day|url=https://www.twpark.com/blog/conservation/7-fun-facts-about-world-okapi-day|publisher=Tanganyika Wildlife Park|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 10-18: October 18
|-
| International Sloth Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Fun Holiday – International Sloth Day|URL=https://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/fun/international-sloth-day|publisher=Time and Date|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL SLOTH DAY - October 20|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-sloth-day-october-20/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Sloth Day (20th October)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-sloth-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=21 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-20: October 20
|-
| National Reptile Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL REPTILE AWARENESS DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-reptile-awareness-day-october-21/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Reptile Awareness Day (Every October 21st) |url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/reptile-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 10-21: October 21
|-
| International Wombat Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Wombat Day October 22|URL=https://www.wombania.com/wombat-day.htm|publisher=Wombania|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-22: October 22
|-
| International Snow Leopard Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snowleopard.org/international-snow-leopard-day-hope-and-concern-for-the-cat/ |title=International Snow Leopard Day 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsnowleopard.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/SnowLeopard_Bishkek_Declaration_EN.pdf.pdf |title=The Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards}}</ref> || 10-23: October 23
|-
| Freshwater Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=24th October is Freshwater Dolphin Day!|URL=https://iucn-csg.org/24th-october-is-freshwater-dolphin-day-2/|publisher=IUCN – SSC Cetacean Specialist Group|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 10-24: October 24
|-
| International Gibbon Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Gibbon Day 2019|URL=https://www.wildlifealliance.org/international-gibbon-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Alliance|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=It's International Gibbon Day! Check Out These Magnificent Primates|URL=https://www.ecowatch.com/international-gibbon-day-2614836646.html|publisher=EcoWatch|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Gibbon Day|URL=https://monkeyworld.org/events/international-gibbon-day/|publisher=Monkey World|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-24: October 24
|-
| [[International Day of Climate Action]] || 10-24: October 24
|-
| World Lemur Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.lemurconservationnetwork.org/world-lemur-day/|publisher=Lemur Conservation Network|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.checkiday.com/895d28d65cd0d952b00b605f80e57a9f/world-lemur-day|publisher=Checkiday|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref> || 10: Last Friday of October
|-
| [[World Vegan Day]] || 11-01: November 1
|-
| [[International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environment in War and Armed Conflict]] || 11-06: November 6
|-
| [[National Bison Day]] || 11: First Saturday in November
|-
| [[America Recycles Day]] || 11-15: November 15
|-
| World Fisheries Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Fisheries Day|URL=https://sandrp.in/tag/world-fisheries-day/|publisher=SANDRP|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref> || 11-21: November 21
|-
| International Jaguar Day<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/news-centre/news/2018/latin-america-launches-new-roadmap-to-save-the-jaguar.html|title=Latin America Launches New Roadmap to Save the Jaguar|website=UNDP|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wcs.org/international-jaguar-day|title=International Jaguar Day|website=www.wcs.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref>
|| 11-29: November 29
|-
| International Cheetah Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Cheetah Day|url=https://internationalcheetahday.com/|publisher=International Cheetah Day|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Cheetahs Need Us: December 4 is International Cheetah Day!|url=https://dayofthejaguar.org/2018/11/28/cheetahs-need-us-december-4-is-international-cheetah-day/|publisher=Day Of The Jaguar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 12-04: December 4
|-
| [[World Soil Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/en/|title=Global Soil Partnership - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> || 12-05: December 5
|-
| [[International Mountain Day]] || 12-11: December 11
|-
| [[Monkey Day]] || 12-14: December 14
|-
| [[Ozone Action Day]] || Variable date depending weather conditions
|-
| [[eDay]] - Electronic Waste Day || Variable date, in New Zealand
|}

==Weeks==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[Great Backyard Bird Count]] 2019 date, February 15-18
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] || | 2016 date, April 18-22
|-
| Keep Australia Beautiful Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kab.org.au/keep-australia-beautiful-week/|title=Keep Australia Beautiful Week|website=Keep Australia Beautiful}}</ref> || Last full week of August
|-
| [[National Green Week]] || 02 (first week in February every year in the United States)
|-
| National Wildlife Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Error-Page|title=Error-Page|website=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref> ||
|-
| [[National Dark-Sky Week]] || 04 (week of new moon in April)
|-
| [[Bike to Work Week Victoria]] ||
|-
| National Pollinator Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pollinator.org/pollinator-week|title=Pollinator Week|website=Pollinator.org}}</ref> || third week in June
|-
| National Clean Beaches Week, Van Mohatsav Saptah(Forest Festival Week) || 07-01 to 07-07: July 1 to 7
|-
| [[Conservation Week]] ||

|-World Water Week 08-26: August 26 - 31

| European Mobility Week || 09-16 to 09-22: September 16 to 22
|-
| Bike Week || 06: second week in June
|-
| Recycle Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.recyclenow.com/|title=Recycle Now - Where and How to Recycle|website=www.recyclenow.com}}</ref> || 06: 20 to 26 June 2011
|-
| [https://www.zerowasteweek.co.uk/ Zero Waste Week] || first week of September
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] ||
|-
| [[European Week for Waste Reduction]] (EWWR) || 11: 9 days, last complete week in November
|-
| [[Science Literacy Week (Canada)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scienceliteracy.ca/|title=Science Literacy Week – September 16 – 22, 2019|website=www.scienceliteracy.ca}}</ref> || 16-22: September
|-
| [[No Car Day]] || 09: China, week of September 22
|-
| [[World Water Week in Stockholm]] || 08 or 09: each year in August or September
|-
| [[National Op Shop Week (Australia)]] || August 21st - 27th
|-
| [[World Oceans Week]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldoceansday.org/|title=World Oceans Day - Uniting Ocean Action Worldwide on 8 June 2020|first=|last=|website=worldoceansday.org}}</ref> || 01-08: June
|}

==Years==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 1882–1883
|-
| International Polar Year || 1932–1933
|-1992
|-
|[[International Year of the Child]]
|1979
|-
| [[World Population Year]] || 1974
|-
| [[International Year of the Ocean]] (IYO) || 1998
|-
| [[International Year of Mountains]] (IYM) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Ecotourism]] (IYE) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Freshwater]] (IYF) || 2003
|-
| [[International Year of Deserts and Desertification]] || 2006
|-
| International [[Year of the Dolphin]] || 2007–2008
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 2007–2009
|-
| [[International Year of Planet Earth]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Sanitation]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Natural Fibres 2009]] || 2009
|-
| Year of the Gorilla<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yog2009.org/|title=FX初心者の勉強・情報収集 - 【FXガイド】　FX初心者のための勉強サイト|website=www.yog2009.org}}</ref> || 2009
|-
| [[International Year of Biodiversity]] || 2010
|-
| [[International Year of Forests]] || 2011
|-
| [[International Year of Soils]] || 2015
|-
| [[International Year of Pulses]] || 2016
|-
| [[International Year of Sustainable tourism for all]] || 2017
|-
| [[International Year of Indigenous languages]] || 2019
|}

==Decades==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Drinking Water Decade, 1981-1990]] || 1980s
|-
| [[International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 1990s
|-
| [[United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development]] || 2005-2014
|-
| [[Water for Life Decade]] || 2005-2015
|-
| [[United Nations Decade on Biodiversity]] || 2011-2020
|-
| United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification || 2010-2020
|}

==See also==
*[[Index of environmental articles]]
**[[List of environmental issues]]
*[[Index of conservation articles]]
**[[List of conservation issues]]
*[[List of international environmental agreements]]
*[[List of awareness days]]
*[[International observance]]
*[[List of commemorative days]]
*[[List of Month-long observances|List of commemorative months]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050405210808/http://unac.org/en/news_events/un_days/index.asp News & Events - UN Days, Weeks and Years]
*[http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2013/Mar/21/the-world-plantation-day-58.asp - World Plantation Day, Great Kashmir]
*[http://www.saveourwaterwaysnow.com.au/02_cal/details.asp?ID=561 - Save your water]
*[http://edugreen.teri.res.in/misc/dates.htm - EDU Green]

[[Category:Environmental awareness days| ]]
[[Category:Lists of observances|Environmental]]

Brown-throated sloth

2020-04-20T04:56:58Z

118.46.55.151:

{{short description|Species of New World mammals related to anteaters and armadillos}}
{{Speciesbox
|name = Brown-throated sloth<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Pilosa|pages=100–101|id=11800008}}</ref>
|image = Bradypus.jpg
|image_caption = Nearby the [[Lake Gatun]], Republic of [[Panama]]
|status = LC
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{Cite iucn | author1 = Moraes-Barros, N. | author2 = Chiarello, A. | author3 = Plese, T. | title = ''Bradypus variegatus'' | journal = [[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] | volume = 2014 | page = e.T3038A47437046 | publisher = [[IUCN]] | date = 2014 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T3038A47437046.en | url= https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3038/47437046 | access-date= 6 November 2019}}</ref>
|genus = Bradypus
|species = variegatus
|authority = [[Heinrich Rudolf Schinz|Schinz]] 1825
|subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
|subdivision = 7, see [[#Subspecies|text]]
|range_map = Bolivian Three-toed Sloth area.png
|range_map_caption = Brown-throated sloth range
}}

The '''brown-throated sloth''' (''Bradypus variegatus'') is a [[species]] of [[three-toed sloth]] found in the [[neotropical]] ecozone of [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]].<ref name=msw3/><ref name=gardner>{{Cite book
| first = Alfred L.
| last = Gardner
| editor-last = Gardner
| editor-first = Alfred L.
| contribution = Suborder Folivora
| contribution-url = http://google.com/books?id=dbU3d7EUCm8C&pg=PA161
| title = Mammals of South America, Volume 1: Marsupials, Xenarthrans, Shrews, and Bats
| year = 2007
| pages = 157–168 (p. 161)
| place = Chicago
| publisher = [[University of Chicago Press]]
| url = http://www.press.uchicago.edu/presssite/metadata.epl?isbn=9780226282404
| isbn = 978-0-226-28240-4}}</ref>

It is the most common of the four species of three-toed sloth, and is found in the forests of South and Central America.<ref name="Emmons1997">{{Cite book | last = Emmons | first = Louise H. | last2 = Feer | first2 = François | author-link = Louise H. Emmons | title = Neotropical rainforest mammals. A field guide | edition = 2nd | publisher = [[University of Chicago Press]] | date = February 1997 | location = Chicago | pages = 43 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hzqQlALoybIC&printsec=frontcover | doi = | id = | isbn =978-0-226-20721-6 | oclc = 44179508}}</ref>

== Description ==

The brown-throated sloth is of similar size and build to most other species of three-toed sloths, with both males and females being {{convert|42|to|80|cm|abbr=on}} in total body length. The tail is relatively short, only {{convert|2.5|to|9|cm|1|abbr=on}} long. Adults weigh from {{convert|2.25|to|6.3|kg|abbr=on}}, with no significant size difference between males and females. Each foot has three fingers, ending in long, curved claws, which are {{convert|7|to|8|cm|abbr=on}} long on the fore feet, and {{convert|5|to|5.5|cm|abbr=on}} on the hind feet.<ref name=Hayssen2010/>

The head is rounded, with a blunt nose and inconspicuous ears. As with other sloths, the brown-throated sloth has no incisor or canine teeth, and the cheek teeth are simple and peg-like. They have no [[gall bladder]], [[cecum]], or [[vermiform appendix|appendix]].<ref name=Hayssen2010/>

The brown-throated sloth has grayish-brown to beige-color fur over the body, with darker brown fur on the throat, the sides of the face, and the forehead. The face is generally paler in color, with a stripe of very dark fur running beneath the eyes.<ref name=Hayssen2010>{{cite journal | author = Hayssen, V. | year = 2010 | title = ''Bradypus variegatus'' (Pilosa: Bradypodidae) | journal = Mammalian Species | volume = 42 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–32 | doi = 10.1644/850.1 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The [[guard hair]]s are very coarse and stiff, and overlie a much softer layer of dense under-fur. The hairs are unusual in lacking a central [[Hair#Description|medulla]], and have numerous microscopic cracks across their surfaces. These cracks are host to a number of [[commensalism|commensal]] species of [[algae]], including ''[[Rufusia pillicola]]'', ''[[Dictyococcus bradypodis]]'', and ''[[Chlorococcum choloepodis]]''. The algae are generally absent in the hair of young sloths, and may also be absent in particularly old individuals, where the outer cuticle of the hair has been lost.<ref name=Hayssen2010/> Sloth hair also harbours a rich fungal flora.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Higginbotham S, Wong WR, Linington RG, Spadafora C, Iturrado L, Arnold AE |title=Sloth hair as a novel source of fungi with potent anti-parasitic, anti-cancer and anti-bacterial bioactivity |journal=PLOS One |year=2014 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=e84549 |pmid=24454729 |pmc=3893167 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0084549|bibcode=2014PLoSO...984549H }}{{open access}}
</ref>

Over parts of its range, the brown-throated sloth overlaps the range of [[Hoffmann's two-toed sloth]]. Where this overlap occurs, the three-toed sloth tends to be smaller and more numerous than its relative, being more active in moving through the forest and maintaining more [[Diurnality|diurnal]] activity.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Mammals|editor=Macdonald, David|author=Dickman, Chris|year=1993|page=777}}</ref>

<gallery mode = packed heights = 150px>
Brown-throated three-toed sloth male.jpg|Male showing black patch between shoulders
Brown-throated sloth (Bradypus variegatus) female.jpg|female
Bradypus variegatus.jpg|feeding
</gallery>

== Distribution and habitat ==
The brown-throated sloth is the most widespread and common of the three-toed sloths. It is found from [[Honduras]] in the north, through [[Nicaragua]], [[Costa Rica]] and [[Panama]] into [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]] and eastern [[Peru]].<ref name=iucn/> It is probably not found north of the [[Amazon Rainforest]] or east of the [[Rio Negro (Amazon)|Rio Negro]], although its similarity to the [[pale-throated sloth]] found in these regions has led to some confusion in the past.<ref name=Hayssen2010/>

It is found in many different kinds of environments, including evergreen and dry forests and in highly perturbed natural areas. It is generally found from sea level to {{convert|1200|m|abbr=on}}, although some individuals have been reported from much higher elevations.

== Behaviour and diet ==
Brown-throated sloths sleep 15 to 18 hours every day and are active for only brief periods of time, which may be during either the day or night. Although they can walk along the ground, and even swim, they spend most of their lives in the high branches of trees, descending once every eight days or so to defecate in the soil. Large, curved claws and muscles specifically adapted for strength and stamina help them to keep a strong grip on tree branches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olson|first=Rachel A.|last2=Glenn|first2=Zachary D.|last3=Cliffe|first3=Rebecca N.|last4=Butcher|first4=Michael T.|date=2018-12-01|title=Architectural Properties of Sloth Forelimb Muscles (Pilosa: Bradypodidae)|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10914-017-9411-z|journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution|language=en|volume=25|issue=4|pages=573–588|doi=10.1007/s10914-017-9411-z|issn=1573-7055}}</ref> They are able to withstand hanging inverted for extended periods of time due to fibrinous adhesions which attach their organs (such as their liver and stomach) to their lower ribs.<ref name="Cliffe 20140172">{{Cite journal|last=Cliffe|first=Rebecca N.|last2=Avey-Arroyo|first2=Judy A.|last3=Arroyo|first3=Francisco J.|last4=Holton|first4=Mark D.|last5=Wilson|first5=Rory P.|date=2014-04-30|title=Mitigating the squash effect: sloths breathe easily upside down|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsbl.2014.0172|journal=Biology Letters|volume=10|issue=4|pages=20140172|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2014.0172|pmc=4013704|pmid=24759371}}</ref> Given that feces and urine can account for up to a third of their body weight, this adaptation prevents these organs from pressing on the lungs when hanging upside down, making breathing easier.<ref name="Cliffe 20140172"/> Adult animals are solitary, except when raising young, and males have been observed to fight one another using their fore claws.<ref name=Hayssen2010/>

Brown-throated sloths inhabit the high canopy of the forest, where they eat young leaves from a wide range of different trees. They do not travel far, with home ranges of only around {{convert|0.5|to|9|ha|abbr=on}}, depending on the local environment. Within a typical, {{convert|5|ha|adj=on}} range, a brown-throated sloth will visit around 40 trees, and may specialise on one particular species, even spending up to 20% of its time in a single specific tree. Thus, although the species are generalists, individual sloths may feed on a relatively narrow range of leaf types.<ref name=Hayssen2010/> Although they get most of their fluids from the leaves that they eat, brown-throated sloths have been observed drinking directly from rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cliffe|first=Rebecca N.|last2=Haupt|first2=Ryan J.|date=2018|title=Hanging out for a drink|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/fee.1955|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|language=en|volume=16|issue=8|pages=446–446|doi=10.1002/fee.1955|issn=1540-9309|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In addition to the algae in their fur, brown-throated sloths also live commensally with a species of moth, ''[[Cryptoses choloepi]]'', which lives in their fur, and lays its eggs in the dung.<ref name=Waage1972>{{cite journal | author = Waage, J.K. | author2 = Montgomery, G.G. | last-author-amp = yes | year = 1976 | title = ''Cryptoses choloepi'': a coprophagous moth that lives on a sloth | journal = Science | volume = 193 | issue = 4248| pages = 157–158 | doi = 10.1126/science.193.4248.157 | pmid = 17759254}}</ref>
[[Jaguar]]s and [[harpy eagle]]s are among the few natural predators of the brown-throated sloth. The [[yellow-headed caracara]] has been observed to forage for small invertebrates in the fur of the sloths, apparently without the sloth being disturbed by the attention.<ref name=Krakauer1999>{{cite journal | author = Krakauer, A.H. | author2 = Krakauer, T.H. | last-author-amp = yes | year = 1999 | title = Foraging of yellow-headed caracaras in the fur of a three-toed sloth | journal = Journal of Raptor Research | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v033n03/p00270-p00270.pdf | page = 270}}</ref>

The female of the species is known to emit a loud, shrill scream during the mating season to attract males. Its cry sounds like "ay ay", much like that of a woman screaming. The male can be identified by a black stripe surrounded by orange fur on its back between the shoulders.

== Reproduction ==
Brown-throated sloths have a [[Polygyny in animals|polygynous]] mating system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pauli|first=Jonathan N.|last2=Peery|first2=M. Zachariah|date=2012-12-19|title=Unexpected Strong Polygyny in the Brown-Throated Three-Toed Sloth|journal=PLOS One|volume=7|issue=12|pages=e51389|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0051389|pmid=23284687|pmc=3526605|issn=1932-6203|bibcode=2012PLoSO...751389P}}</ref> Studies of the brown-throated sloth indicate that mating is most common between January and March in at least the northern parts of its range, but this may vary elsewhere. Gestation lasts at least seven months, and the single young is born fully furred and clawed. Young sloths cling to the mother's underside for five months or more, even though they are fully weaned after just four to five weeks.<ref name=Taube2001>{{cite journal | author = Taube, E. | year = 2001 | title = Reproductive biology and postnatal development in sloths, ''Bradypus'' and ''Choloepus'': review with original data from the field (French Guiana) and from captivity | journal = Mammal Review | volume = 31 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 173–188 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2907.2001.00085.x|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

The [[mammary gland]]s of the females do not store significant quantities of milk as most other mammals do, since the infant sloth remains attached to the nipple at all times, and consumes the milk as soon as it is generated.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0509-34|title=The Bradypus Bunch|year=2009|last1=Mirsky|first1=Steve|journal=Scientific American|volume=300|issue=5|pages=34|bibcode=2009SciAm.300e..34M}}</ref> The young begin to take solid food as early as four days after birth, initially licking particles of food from their mother's mouths. This process apparently allows them to quickly identify edible leaves, and young sloths typically have the same preferences for leaf types as their mothers.<ref name=Hayssen2010/>

In the wild, the lifespan of adult brown-throated three-toed sloths is typically between 30 and 40 years.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

== Subspecies ==
The seven recognized subspecies of the brown-throated sloth, although these are not all readily distinguishable, are:<ref name=msw3/><ref name=Anderson2001>{{cite journal | author = Anderson, R.P. | author2 = Handley, C.O. Jr. | last-author-amp = yes | year = 2001 | title = A new species of three-toed sloth (Mammalia: Xenarthra) from Panamá, with a review of the genus ''Bradypus'' | url = http://biostor.org/reference/84876 | journal = Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–33 }} [http://web.sci.ccny.cuny.edu/~anderson/publications/AndersonHandley2001ProceedingsBiologicalSocietyWashington.pdf PDF copy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613045709/http://web.sci.ccny.cuny.edu/~anderson/publications/AndersonHandley2001ProceedingsBiologicalSocietyWashington.pdf |date=2010-06-13 }}</ref>
*''B. v. boliviensis'' [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1871
*''B. v. brasiliensis'' [[Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville|Blainville]], 1840
*''B. v. ephippiger'' [[Rodolfo Armando Philippi|Philippi]], 1870
*''B. v. gorgon'' [[Oldfield Thomas|Thomas]], 1926
*''B. v. infuscatus'' [[Johann Georg Wagler|Wagler]], 1831
*''B. v. trivittatus'' [[Emilio Cornalia|Cornalia]], 1849
*''B. v. variegatus'' [[Heinrich Rudolf Schinz|Schinz]], 1825

The closest living relative of the species is the [[pale-throated sloth]], which has a very similar appearance, except for the color of the fur around the throat. The two species are estimated to have diverged just 400,000 years ago, whereas their ancestors diverged from the [[maned sloth]] over seven million years ago.<ref name=Barros2003>{{cite journal | author = Barros, M.C. | year = 2003 | title = Phylogenetic analysis of 16S mitochondrial DNA data in sloths and anteaters | journal = Genetics and Molecular Biology | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | url=http://www.scielo.br/pdf/gmb/v26n1/a02v26n1.pdf | pages = 5–11 | doi=10.1590/S1415-47572003000100002|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Commons category|Bradypus variegatus}}
*{{Wikispecies-inline|Bradypus variegatus}}

{{Pilosa}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q148752}}

[[Category:Sloths]]
[[Category:Mammals of Bolivia|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Mammals of Brazil|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Mammals of Colombia|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Mammals of Costa Rica|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Mammals of Ecuador|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Mammals of Honduras|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Mammals of Nicaragua|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Mammals of Panama|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Mammals of Peru|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Mammals of Venezuela|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Amazon|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Caatinga|Sloth, brown-throated]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1825]]

Kob

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{{About|the antelope|the television station|KOB|other uses|KOB (disambiguation)}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Kob
| image = Male Ugandan kob - Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda (4).jpg
| image_caption = Male At the [[Queen Elizabeth National Park]]
| image2 = Ugandan kobs (Kobus kob thomasi) female and calf.jpg
| image2_caption = Female and calf At the [[Semliki Wildlife Reserve]] both ''K. k. thomasi'' in [[Uganda]]
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn|author=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group|year=2008|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/11036/0|title=''Kobus kob''|access-date=10 May 2008|ref=harv}}</ref>
| taxon = Kobus kob
| authority = ([[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben|Erxleben]], 1777)
| range_map = Kobus kob distribution.svg
| range_map_caption = Geographic range
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision =
*''K. k. kob''
*''K. k. thomasi''
*''K. k. leucotis''
}}

The '''kob''' (''Kobus kob'') is an [[antelope]] found across [[Central Africa]] and parts of [[West Africa]] and [[East Africa]]. Together with the closely related [[reedbuck]]s, [[waterbuck]]s, [[lechwe]], [[Nile lechwe]], and [[puku]], it forms the [[Reduncinae]] tribe.{{sfn|Estes|1991|p=91}} Found along the northern [[savanna]], it is often seen in [[Murchison Falls]] and [[Queen Elizabeth National Park]], [[Uganda]]; [[Garamba]] and [[Virunga National Park]], and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], as well as grassy floodplains of South Sudan.<ref>
{{cite web
|publisher=[[ThinkQuest]] library
|url=http://library.thinkquest.org/16645/wildlife/kob_antelope.shtml
|title=Kob Antelope: Kobus Kob
|accessdate=2007-06-16
|url-status=dead
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807141500/http://library.thinkquest.org/16645/wildlife/kob_antelope.shtml
|archivedate=2007-08-07
}}</ref>
Kob are found in wet areas (such as [[floodplain]]s), where they eat [[grass]]es. Kob are [[diurnal animal|diurnal]], but inactive during the heat of the day. They live in groups of either females and calves or just males. These groups generally range from five to 40 animals.

Among the kobs of eastern Africa, the [[Ugandan kob]] (''Kobus kob thomasi'') appears on the [[coat of arms of Uganda]],<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.ugandahighcommissionpretoria.com/Coat-of-Arms.html |title=The Coat of Arms |work=High Commission of Uganda in Pretoria |accessdate=17 December 2018}}</ref> and white-eared kobs (''Kobus kob leucotis''), found in South Africa, southwest [[Ethiopia]], and extreme northeast Uganda, participate in large-scale [[Animal migration|migrations]].

==Description==
[[File:UgandaKob.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Uganda kob at Murchison Falls NP]]
The kob resembles the [[impala]] but is more heavily built.{{sfn|Estes|1991|p=98}} However, males are more robust than females and have horns.<ref name=Kingdon1982>Kingdon, J. (1982). [https://books.google.com/books?id=9rRp2MRICdYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=kob&f=false East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, Volume 3, Part. C: Bovids]. University Chicago Press, Chicago 367-381.</ref> Males have shoulder heights of {{convert|90|-|100|cm|ft|abbr=on}} and an average weight of {{convert|94|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Females have shoulder heights of {{convert|82|-|92|cm|ft|abbr=on}} and weigh on average {{convert|63|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Estes|1991|p=98}}<ref name=Kingdon1982/> The pelage of the kob is typically golden to reddish-brown overall, but with the throat patch, eye ring, and inner ear being white, and the forelegs being black at the front.{{sfn|Estes|1991|p=98}} Males get darker as they get older. Those of the white-eared kob (''K. k. leucotis''), which is found in the [[Sudd]] region (the easternmost part of their range), are strikingly different and overall dark, rather similar to the male [[Nile lechwe]], though with a white throat and no pale patch from the nape to the shoulder. Both sexes have well-developed [[Scent gland#In even-toed ungulates|inguinal glands]] that secrete a yellow, waxy substance, as well as [[preorbital gland]]s.{{sfn|Estes|1991|p=98–99}}

==Range==
The kob is currently found in [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea Bissau]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Senegal]], [[South Sudan]], [[Togo]], and [[Uganda]]. It was formerly also found in [[Gambia]], [[Kenya]], [[Sierra Leone]], and [[Tanzania]], but is now extinct in those areas.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JgAMbNSt8ikC&pg=PA720 |p=720 |title=Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, Volume 1 |author1=Don E. Wilson |author2=DeeAnn M. Reeder |publisher=JHU Press |year=2005|isbn=9780801882210 }}</ref>

==Ecology==

The kob's distribution from western Africa to central East Africa is patchy.<ref name=iucn/> It inhabits flat areas and open country close to permanent water, with consistent climate. It drinks daily and requires fresh grazing.<ref name=Kingdon1982/> During the rains, kob frequent short grasses and keep them short.{{sfn|Estes|1991|p=99}} Since it is dependent on water, the kob does not wander far into arid areas.<ref name=Kingdon1982/> Kob gather on and move from one pasture to another, coinciding with seasonal changes.<ref name=Kingdon1982/> In flooded areas, they may travel hundreds of kilometers, and dry-season walks to water may take 10 km or more.<ref name=Kingdon1982/> Grasses preferred by kobs are ''[[Hyparrhenia]]'' species, ''[[Brachiaria]] brizantha'', ''[[Setaria]] gayanus'', ''[[Chloris (plant)|Chloris]] gayana'', and ''[[Echinochloa]]'' and ''[[Digitaria]]'' spp.<ref>Bindernagel, J. A. (1968) Game cropping in Uganda. Canadian International Development Agency, Ottawa.</ref>

==Social behavior and life history==
Female Kob can live in herds numbering in the thousands. They move more and are more social than territorial males.<ref name=Kingdon1982/> Females are at the front of the daily movements to water. Individuals learn where to go from their mothers. However, in larger herds, the females take their signals from other females.<ref name=Kingdon1982/> Males are also present in the migratory herds and follow the females. All-male herds may number in the hundreds and accompany females as they travel during dry season.<ref name=Kingdon1982/>
[[File:Ugandan Kobs.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Gathering of kobs at [[Murchison Falls National Park]]]]
The social and reproductive organization of kob can vary. When in average or low population densities, males establish conventional [[territory (animal)|territories]] and do not travel much. Adult males try to establish their territories in the best habitat available, which are inhabited by herds of females and their young. Herds are fluid and change in size and structure as individuals travel to find green vegetation. Other males, particularly young males, live in bachelor herds and are segregated from the females by the territorial males. On [[floodplain]]s, where kob are densely populated, around two-thirds of the territorial males establish traditional territories, while the rest live in clustered territories known as [[Lek (biology)|leks]].{{sfn|Estes|1991|p=99}} These clusters are sometimes smaller than a single traditional territory. Lek clusters are located on patches of short grass or bare ground within comparably tall grassland. As such, these territories have little to no value other than to the males that reside in them. About eight or 9 of every 10 females visit leks to mate, trading spacing and food for mating success.{{sfn|Estes|1991|p=100}} The kob tends to live in smaller herds consisting of 5 to 15 individual kob, but herds as many as 40+ have been observed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wild-facts.com/2012/wild-fact-292-better-than-corn-on-the-cob-kob/|title=Wild Fact #292 – Better Than Corn On The Cob – Kob|date=2012-05-24}}</ref> Females and bachelor males live in large herds of up to 2000 and move through the leks, which are surrounded by high-quality grass and are near waterholes and commonly travelled routes.

[[File:Antilope-boundiali.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Kob at Côte d'Ivoire]]

Conflicts between territorial Ugandan kob (''K. k. thomasi'') are usually settled with ritual and rarely actual fighting, whether in conventional territories or leks. A male usually needs only to walk in an erect posture towards the intruder to displace him.<ref name=Buenchner1965>Buechner, H. K., Schleoth, R. K., (1965) [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1965.tb01431.x/full Ceremonial mating behavior in Uganda kob (Adenota kob thomsi Neuman)]. Z. Tierpsychol, 22:209-25.</ref> Neighboring males in leks do the same thing when they encounter their borders. Lek-holding white-eared kobs fight more often.<ref name=Fryell1985>Fryxell, J. (1985) [https://open.library.ubc.ca/cIRcle/collections/ubctheses/831/items/1.0096671 Resource limitation and population ecology of white-eared kob]. Ph.D thesis, Univ. of British Columbia.</ref> Ugandan kob do sometimes sustain serious or fatal injuries, especially when control of a territory is at stake. Fights usually involve the combatants clashing, pressing and twisting each other with their horns head-on. However, a neighbor may attack from the rear or side.<ref name=Buenchner1965/><ref name=Fryell1985/> In lek clusters, the most [[dominance (ethology)|dominant]] males occupy the center. The number of males in the center of a lek cluster ranges from three to seven, and their leks are the most clustered and they monopolize copulations with estrous females.<ref>Floody, O. R., Arnold , A. P., (1975) Uganda kob (Adenota kob thomasi). Territoriality and the spatial distribution of sexual and agonistic behavior at a territorial ground. Z. Tierpsychol, 37:192-212.</ref> Replacement of males in leks are much more common than in traditional territories, and most males are able to stay in the centre positions for only a day or two and rarely up to a week. This is largely due to intense competition and because most males leave their territories to feed and drink. Centrally located males reduce their chances of being replaced by leaving to feed during periods of relative calmness, yet they are not able to get enough food and water and have to eventually leave their leks. However, a male can gain enough energy after a week or two, and try to take back his position. At every lek cluster, males are always waiting take or retake a central lek.<ref name=Buenchner1965/> Males in traditional territories are able to stay for at least a year or two.{{sfn|Estes|1991|p=99}}

Females have their first ovulation at 13–14 months of age and have 20- to 26-day intervals between estrous cycles until they are fertilized. Males from traditional territories and leks have different courtship strategies. Males of traditional territories will herd females and keep them in their territories.{{sfn|Estes|1991|p=101}} Lek males try to do the same, but usually fail. They have to rely on advertising themselves. Kob courtship may last as short as two minutes, and copulation may only last a few seconds.<ref name=Buenchner1965/> At leks, a female may mate up to 20 times with at least one of the central males in a day. After an eight-month gestation period and giving birth, estrus may commence 21–64 days later. For their first month, calves hide in dense vegetation. Mother and calf can identify each other by their noses. As they get older, calves gather into [[Crèche (zoology)|''crèches'']]. When they are three to four months old, the young enter the females' herds and stay with mothers until six to seven months, by which time they are weaned. When they mature, males join bachelors groups.{{sfn|Estes|1991|p=102}}

==Status==
[[File:The book of antelopes (1894) Cobus leucotis.png|thumb|upright|The white-eared kob (''K. k. leucotis'') is a dark subspecies from the [[Sudd]] and nearby regions]]

Kob populations have been reduced by hunting and human development.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Frauke |last2=Linsenmair |first2=K. Eduard |title=Changing social organization in an ungulate population subject to poaching and predation – the kob antelope (Kobus kob kob) in the Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire |date=6 December 2006 |publisher=African Journal of Ecology |pages=285–292}}</ref> The Uganda kob (''Kobus kob thomasi'') became extinct in southwestern [[Kenya]] and northwestern [[Tanzania]] due to the expansion of human settlements and agriculture. However, there are sizeable populations of this subspecies in [[Murchison Falls National Park|Murchison Falls]] and [[Queen Elizabeth National Park]] in [[Uganda]] and [[Garamba National Park|Garamba]] and [[Virunga National Park]] in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].<ref name=iucn/>

Buffon's kob (''Kobus kob kob'') is protected in several parks, including [[Niokolo-Koba National Park|Niokolo-Koba]] in [[Senegal]], [[Comoé National Park|Comoé]] in [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Arly-Singou National Park|Arly-Singou]] in [[Burkina Faso]], [[Mole National Park|Mole]] and [[Bui National Park|Bui]] in [[Ghana]], [[Pendjari National Park|Pendjari]] in [[Benin]], [[Waza National Park|Waza]], [[Bénoué National Park|Bénoué]] and [[Faro National Park|Faro]] National Parks of the North Province of [[Cameroon]], [[Zakouma National Park|Zakouma]] in [[Chad]], and [[Manovo-Gounda St. Floris National Park|Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris]] and Sangba in the [[Central African Republic]].<ref name=iucn/>

Once feared almost extinct because of the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] (1983–2005), surveys in 2007 and later confirmed that several hundred thousand white-eared kobs (''Kobus kob leucotis'') survive. Together with [[Tiang (antelope)|tiang]] and [[Mongalla gazelle]]s, they participate in one of the largest mammal migrations on Earth, numbering about 1.2 million individuals in total.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/w/white-eared-kob/ |title=White-Eared Kob | publisher=National Geographic |accessdate=27 November 2018 |date=2010-11-09 }}</ref> The white-eared kob is protected in [[Boma National Park]] and [[Bandingilo National Park]] in [[South Sudan]],<ref name=iucn/> and [[Gambella National Park]] in [[Ethiopia]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Philip|last1=Briggs|first2=Brian|last2=Blatt|date=2009|title=Ethiopia|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|page=581}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0520080858 |url-access=registration |ref=harv |title=The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates |first=Richard |last=Estes |publisher=University of California Press |year=1991|isbn=9780520080850 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Kobus kob}}
{{Wikispecies|Kobus kob}}
* [http://www.awf.org/wildlives/145 Kob: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation]

{{Artiodactyla|R.2}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q237267}}

[[Category:Marsh antelopes]]
[[Category:Mammals of West Africa]]
[[Category:Mammals of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Mammals of the Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Mammals of Sudan]]
[[Category:Mammals of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Mammals of the Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Mammals of Uganda]]
[[Category:National symbols of Uganda]]
[[Category:Mammals of South Sudan]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1777]]

Bongo (antelope)

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118.46.55.151:

{{Redirect|The Bongo|other uses|Bongo (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date = July 2012}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Western/lowland bongo
| image = Tragelaphus eurycerus -Marwell Wildlife, Hampshire, England-8a.jpg
| image_caption = At the [[Marwell Zoo]] in [[Hampshire]], England
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| trend = down
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn/>
| taxon = Tragelaphus eurycerus
| authority = ([[William Ogilby|Ogilby]], 1837)
| range_map = Lowlandbongorangemap.png
| range_map_caption = Lowland bongo range
}}
{{Subspeciesbox
| name = Eastern/mountain bongo
| image = Eastern Bongo at Jacksonville Zoo.jpg
| image_caption = A eastern bongo at the [[Jacksonville Zoo]], [[Jacksonville]], [[Duval County, Florida|Duval County]]
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| trend = down
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN2008| assessor =IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group| year =2008| id = 22057 | title = Tragelaphus eurycerus ssp. issaci | downloaded = 22 April 2010}}</ref>
| genus = Tragelaphus
| species = eurycerus
| subspecies = isaaci
| authority = (Thomas, 1902)
| range_map = Highlandbongorangemap.png
| range_map_caption = Mountain bongo range
}}

The '''bongo''' (''Tragelaphus eurycerus'') is a [[Herbivore|herbivorous]], mostly [[nocturnal]] forest [[ungulate]].

Bongos are characterised by a striking reddish-brown coat, black and white markings, white-yellow stripes and long slightly spiralled horns. Indeed, bongos are the only [[Tragelaphus|tragelaphid]] in which both sexes have horns. They have a complex social interaction and are found in African dense forest mosaics.

The '''western''' or '''lowland bongo''', ''T. e. eurycerus'', faces an ongoing population decline, and the [[IUCN]] Antelope Specialist Group considers it to be [[Near Threatened]] on the [[conservation status]] scale.

The '''eastern''' or''' mountain bongo''', ''T. e. isaaci'', of [[Kenya]], has a coat even more vibrant than that of ''T. e. eurycerus''. The mountain bongo is only found in the wild in a few mountain regions of central Kenya. This bongo is classified by the IUCN Antelope Specialist Group as [[Critically Endangered]], with fewer individuals in the wild than in captivity (where it breeds readily).

In 2000, the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] in the USA (AZA) upgraded the bongo to a Species Survival Plan participant and in 2006 added the Bongo Restoration to Mount Kenya Project to its list of the Top Ten Wildlife Conservation Success Stories of the year. However, in 2013, it seems, these successes have been compromised by reports of possibly only 100 mountain bongos left in the wild due to [[logging]] and [[poaching]].

==Taxonomy==
The [[scientific name]] of the bongo is ''Tragelaphus eurycerus'', and it belongs to the [[genus]] ''[[Tragelaphus]]'' and [[family (biology)|family]] [[Bovidae]]. It was first described by Irish naturalist [[William Ogilby]] in 1837.<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3|id=14200729|page=698}}</ref> The [[Generic name (biology)|generic name]] ''Tragelaphus'' is composed of two Greek words: ''trag-'', meaning a goat; and ''elaphos'', meaning deer.<ref>{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Tragelaphus|accessdate=7 February 2016}}</ref> The [[Specific name (zoology)|specific name]] ''eurycerus'' originated from the fusion of ''eurus'' (broad, widespread) and ''keras'' (an animal's horn).<ref name="huffman">{{cite web|last1=Huffman|first1=B.|title=Bongo|url=http://www.ultimateungulate.com/artiodactyla/tragelaphus_eurycerus.html|website=Ultimate Ungulate|accessdate=7 February 2016}}</ref> The common name "bongo" originated probably from the [[Kele language (Gabon)|Kele]] language of [[Gabon]]. The first known use of the name "bongo" in English dates to 1861.<ref>{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Bongo|accessdate=7 February 2016}}</ref>

Bongos are further classified into two [[subspecies]]: ''T. e. eurycerus'', the lowland or western bongo, and the far rarer ''T. e. isaaci'', the mountain or eastern bongo, restricted to the mountains of Kenya only. The eastern bongo is larger and heavier than the western bongo. Two other subspecies are described from West and Central Africa, but taxonomic clarification is required. They have been observed to live up to 19 years.<ref name=Spinage>Spinage, C.A. (1986) ''The Natural History of Antelopes''. New York: Facts on File Publications.</ref>

==Appearance==
[[File:Bongo skeleton at MAV-USP.jpg|thumb|A skeleton of the bongo exhibited at the [[Museum of Veterinary Anatomy FMVZ USP]], [[Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science]], [[University of São Paulo]]]]
Bongos are one of the largest of the forest antelopes. In addition to the deep [[chestnut]] colour of their coats, they have bright white stripes on their sides to help with [[camouflage]].

Adults of both sexes are similar in size. Adult height is about {{convert|1.1|to|1.3|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the shoulder and length is {{convert|2.15|to|3.15|m|ft|abbr=on}}, including a tail of {{convert|45|-|65|cm|in|abbr=on}}. Females weigh around {{convert|150|–|235|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, while males weigh about {{convert|220|–|405|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Its large size puts it as the third-largest in the Bovidae tribe of Strepsicerotini, behind both the [[common eland|common]] and [[giant eland|greater eland]]s by about {{convert|300|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, and above the [[greater kudu]] by about {{convert|40|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal|title=''Tragelaphus eurycerus''|url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-111-01-0001.pdf|journal=Mammalian Species|volume=111|pages=1–4|year=1978|author=Ralls, Katherine|doi=10.2307/3503808|access-date=20 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401104757/http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-111-01-0001.pdf|archive-date=1 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = Kingdon, Jonathan| url = https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood| title = ''Kingdon Guide to African Mammals''| year = 1993| isbn = 978-0-85112-235-9| url-access = registration}}</ref>

Both sexes have heavy spiral horns; those of the male are longer and more massive. All bongos in captivity are from the isolated [[Aberdare Mountains]] of central [[Kenya]].

===Coat and body===
[[Image:BongoNEW.jpg|thumb|left|The side facial patination of an eastern bongo]]
The bongo sports a bright [[auburn hair|auburn]] or [[chestnut (color)|chestnut]] coat, with the neck, chest, and legs generally darker than the rest of the body. Coats of male bongos become darker as they age until they reach a dark [[mahogany]]-brown colour. Coats of female bongos are usually more brightly coloured than those of males. The eastern bongo is darker in color than the western and this is especially pronounced in older males which tend to be chestnut brown, especially on the forepart of their bodies.

The pigmentation in the coat rubs off quite easily; [[anecdotal]] reports suggest rain running off a bongo may be tinted red with [[pigment]]. The smooth coat is marked with 10–15 vertical white-yellow stripes, spread along the back from the base of the neck to the rump. The number of stripes on each side is rarely the same. It also has a short, bristly, brown ridge of dorsal hair from the shoulder to the rump; the white stripes run into this ridge.

A white chevron appears between the eyes, and two large white spots grace each cheek. Another white chevron occurs where the neck meets the chest. The large ears are to sharpen hearing, and the distinctive coloration may help bongos identify one another in their dark forest habitats. Bongos have no special secretion glands, so rely less on scent to find one another than do other similar antelopes. The lips of a bongo are white, topped with a black muzzle.

===Horns===
[[Image:Bongo Burger Zoo.jpg|thumb|upright|An western bongo's horns]]
Bongos have two heavy and slightly spiralled [[horn (anatomy)|horns]] that slope over their backs, and like many other [[antelope]] species, both male and female bongos have horns. Bongos are the only tragelaphids in which both sexes have horns. The horns of bongos are in the form of a [[lyre]] and bear a resemblance to those of the related antelope species of [[nyala]]s, [[sitatunga]]s, [[bushbuck]]s, [[kudu]]s and [[Taurotragus|elands]].

Unlike [[deer]], which have branched [[antler]]s shed annually, bongos and other antelopes have pointed horns they keep throughout their lives. Males have massive backswept horns, while females have smaller, thinner, and more parallel horns. The size of the horns range between {{convert|75|and|99|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on}}. The horns twist once.

Like all other horns of antelopes, the core of a bongo's horn is hollow and the outer layer of the horn is made of [[keratin]], the same material that makes up human fingernails, toenails. and hair. The bongo runs gracefully and at full speed through even the thickest tangles of [[liana]]s, laying its heavy spiralled horns on its back so the brush cannot impede its flight. Bongos are hunted for their horns by humans.<ref>Walther, F. R. (1990) "Spiral-horned antelopes". In ''Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals''. S. P. Parker (ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Volume 5, pp. 344–359.</ref>

==Social organization and behavior==
[[Image:Mountain bongo mount kenya.jpg|thumb|left|This female eastern bongo presents her hindquarters while looking over her shoulder to check for threats at Mt. Kenya Wildlife Conservancy.]]
Like other forest [[ungulates]], bongos are seldom seen in large groups. Males, called bulls, tend to be solitary, while females with young live in groups of six to eight. Bongos have seldom been seen in herds of more than 20. [[Gestation]] is about 285 days (9.5 months), with one young per birth, and [[weaning]] occurs at six months. [[Sexual maturity]] is reached at 24–27 months. The preferred habitat of this species is so dense and difficult to operate in, that few Europeans or Americans observed this species until the 1960s.
As young males mature and leave their maternal groups, they most often remain solitary, although rarely they join an older male. Adult males of similar size/age tend to avoid one another. Occasionally, they meet and spar with their horns in a ritualised manner and it is rare for serious fights to take place. However, such fights are usually discouraged by visual displays, in which the males bulge their necks, roll their eyes, and hold their horns in a vertical position while slowly pacing back and forth in front of the other male. They seek out females only during mating time.<ref>Estes, Richard D. (1991) ''The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.</ref> When they are with a herd of females, males do not coerce them or try to restrict their movements as do some other antelopes.

Although mostly [[nocturnal]], they are occasionally active during the day. However, like deer, bongos may exhibit [[crepuscular]] behaviour.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} Bongos are both timid and easily frightened; after a scare, a bongo moves away at considerable speed, even through dense undergrowth. Once they find cover, they stay alert and face away from the disturbance, but peek every now and then to check the situation.<ref name=Spinage/> The bongo's hindquarters are less conspicuous than the forequarters, and from this position the animal can quickly flee.

When in distress, the bongo emits a [[bleat]]. It uses a limited number of vocalisations, mostly grunts and snorts; females have a weak mooing contact-call for their young. Females prefer to use traditional [[Birth|calving]] grounds restricted to certain areas, while newborn calves lie in hiding for a week or more, receiving short visits by the mother to [[Breastfeeding|suckle]].<ref>Estes, Richard (1993) ''The Safari Companion''. Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing Co..</ref>

The calves grow rapidly and can soon accompany their mothers in the nursery herds. Their horns grow rapidly and begin to show in 3.5 months. They are weaned after six months and reach sexual maturity at about 20 months.

==Ecology==
===Distribution and habitat===
Bongos are found in [[tropical]] [[jungle]]s with dense undergrowth up to an altitude of {{convert|4,000|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} in Central Africa, with isolated populations in [[Kenya]], and these West African countries: [[Cameroon]], the [[Central African Republic]], the [[Republic of the Congo]], the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], the [[Ivory Coast]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Liberia]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[South Sudan]].
[[Image:Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaciPCCA20071227-8374B.jpg|left|thumb|A bongo drinks from a [[swamp]].]]
Historically, bongos are found in three disjunct parts of Africa: East, Central and West. Today, all three populations’ ranges have shrunk in size due to habitat loss for agriculture and uncontrolled timber cutting, as well as [[hunting]] for [[meat]].

Bongos favour disturbed forest mosaics that provide fresh, low-level green vegetation. Such habitats may be promoted by heavy browsing by [[African elephant|elephants]], fires, flooding, tree-felling (natural or by logging), and [[fallowing]]. Mass [[bamboo]] die-off provides ideal habitat in East Africa. They can live in bamboo forests.

===Diet===
[[Image:BongoP2.jpg|thumb|upright|A male bongo eating grass at [[Louisville Zoo]]]]
Like many forest [[ungulate]]s, bongos are [[Herbivore|herbivorous]] browsers and feed on [[Leaf|leaves]], [[Shrub|bushes]], [[vine]]s, [[bark (botany)|bark]] and pith of rotting trees, [[grass]]es/herbs, [[root]]s, [[cereal]]s, and [[fruit]]s.

Bongos require [[salt]] in their [[diet (nutrition)|diets]], and are known to regularly visit natural salt licks. Examination of bongo feces revealed that charcoal from trees burnt by lightning is consumed. This behavior is believed to be a means of getting salts and [[mineral]]s into their diets. This behavior has also been reported in the [[okapi]]. Another similarity to the okapi, though the bongo is unrelated, is that the bongo has a long [[prehensile]] tongue which it uses to grasp grasses and leaves.

Suitable habitats for bongos must have permanent water available.<ref>Nowak, Ronald (1991) ''M. Walker's Mammals of the World'' 5th ed. Vol. II. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press</ref> As a large animal, the bongo requires an ample amount of food, and is restricted to areas with abundant year-round growth of herbs and low shrubs.

Bongos are also known to eat burnt wood after a storm, as a rich source of salt and minerals.<ref>https://seaworld.org/animals/facts/mammals/bongo-antelope/</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last=van Lill
|first=Dawid
|date=17 Feb 2015
|title=African Wildlife Trivia
|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=Jg9bDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT153&lpg=PT153&dq=bongo+antelopes+eat+burnt+wood+after+lightning+storms+salt+or+minerals&source=bl&ots=Wp6EO_pU_v&sig=ACfU3U0QfuXr4eqreYFfDwuzg0DFyn6CZA&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7oeGB5YfmAhUEz4UKHZlpDY4Q6AEwC3oECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=bongo%20antelopes%20eat%20burnt%20wood%20after%20lightning%20storms%20salt%20or%20minerals&f=false
|location=
|publisher=Penguin Random House South Africa
|page= 
|isbn=
|author-link=
}}</ref>

==Population and conservation==
Few estimates of population density are available. Assuming average population densities of 0.25 animals per km2 in regions where it is known to be common or abundant, and 0.02 per km2 elsewhere, and with a total area of occupancy of 327,000 km2, a total population estimate of around 28,000 is suggested. Only about 60% are in protected areas, suggesting the actual numbers of the lowland subspecies may only be in the low tens of thousands. In Kenya, their numbers have declined significantly and on [[Mt. Kenya]], they were [[Wiktionary:extirpate|extirpated]] within the last decade due to illegal hunting with dogs. Although information on their status in the wild is lacking, lowland bongos are not presently considered endangered.

Bongos are susceptible to diseases such as [[rinderpest]], which almost exterminated the species during the 1890s. ''Tragelaphus eurycerus'' may suffer from [[goitre]]. Over the course of the disease, the [[thyroid glands]] greatly enlarge (up to 10 x 20 cm) and may become [[:wikt:polycystic|polycystic]]. Pathogenesis of goiter in the bongo may reflect a mixture of genetic predisposition coupled with environmental factors, including a period of exposure to a [[goitrogen]].<ref name='schiller'>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1177/030098589503200305
| pmid = 7604491
| title = Clinical and Morphologic Findings of Familial Goiter in Bongo Antelope (Tragelaphus eurycerus)
| journal = Veterinary Pathology
| volume = 32
| issue = 3
| pages = 242–9
| year = 1995
| last1 = Schiller | first1 = C. A.
| last2 = Montali | first2 = R. J.
| last3 = Doi | first3 = S.
| last4 = Grollman | first4 = E. F.
}}</ref> [[Leopard]]s and [[spotted hyena]]s are the primary natural predators ([[lion]]s are seldom encountered due to differing habitat preferences); [[Pythonidae|pythons]] sometimes eat bongo calves. Humans prey on them for their [[Fur|pelt]]s, horns, and meat, with the species being a common local source for "bush meat".<ref name=MSW3/> Bongo populations have been greatly reduced by hunting, [[poaching]], and [[animal trapping]], although some bongo refuges exist.

Although bongos are quite easy for humans to catch using snares, many people native to the bongos' habitat believed that if they ate or touched bongo, they would have spasms similar to [[epileptic seizures]]. Because of this [[superstition]], bongos were less harmed in their native ranges than expected. However, these taboos are said no longer to exist, which may account for increased hunting by humans in recent times.

===Zoo programmes===
[[Image:Eastern Bongo at Edinburgh Zoo.jpg|thumb|upright|Eastern bongo at [[Edinburgh Zoo]]]]
An international studbook is maintained to help manage animals held in captivity. Because of its bright colour, it is very popular in zoos and private collections. In North America, over 400 individuals are thought to be held, a population that probably exceeds that of the mountain bongo in the wild.

In 2000, the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] (AZA) upgraded the bongo to a Species Survival Plan participant, which works to improve the [[genetic diversity]] of managed animal populations. The target population for participating zoos and private collections in North America is 250 animals. Through the efforts of zoos in North America, a reintroduction to the population in Kenya is being developed.

At least one collaborative effort for reintroduction between North American wildlife facilities has already been carried out. In 2004, 18 eastern bongos born in North American zoos gathered at [[White Oak Conservation]] in [[Yulee, Florida]] for release in Kenya. White Oak staff members traveled with the bongos to a Mt. Kenya holding facility, where they stayed until being reintroduced.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eastern Bongo|url=http://www.whiteoakwildlife.org/animal-programs/eastern-bongo/|accessdate=21 June 2013}}</ref>

===Conservation===
In the last few decades, a rapid decline in the numbers of wild mountain bongo has occurred due to poaching and human pressure on their habitat, with local extinctions reported in [[Cherangani Hills|Cherangani]] and [[Chepalungu]] hills, Kenya.

The Bongo Surveillance Programme, working alongside the [[Kenya Wildlife Service]], have recorded photos of bongos at remote salt licks in the Aberdare Forests using camera traps, and, by analyzing [[DNA]] extracted from [[Feces|dung]], have confirmed the presence of bongo in Mount Kenya, [[Ol Doinyo Eburru|Eburru]] and [[Mau forest]]s. The programme estimate as few as 140 animals left in the wild – spread across four isolated populations. Whilst captive breeding programmes can be viewed as having been successful in ensuring survival of this species in Europe and North America, the situation in the wild has been less promising. Evidence exists of bongo surviving in Kenya. However, these populations are believed to be small, fragmented, and vulnerable to extinction.

Animal populations with impoverished genetic diversity are inherently less able to adapt to changes in their environments (such as climate change, disease outbreaks, habitat change, etc.). The isolation of the four remaining small bongo populations, which themselves would appear to be in decline, means a substantial amount of genetic material is lost each generation. Whilst the population remains small, the impact of transfers will be greater, so the establishment of a "metapopulation management plan" occurs concurrently with conservation initiatives to enhance ''in situ'' population growth, and this initiative is both urgent and fundamental to the future survival of mountain bongo in the wild.

The western/lowland bongo faces an ongoing population decline as [[habitat destruction]] and hunting pressures increase with the relentless expansion of human settlement. Its long-term survival will only be assured in areas which receive active protection and management. At present, such areas comprise about 30,000 km2, and several are in countries where political stability is fragile. So, a realistic possibility exists whereby its status could decline to Threatened in the near future.

As the largest and most spectacular forest antelope, the western/lowland bongo is both an important flagship species for protected areas such as national parks, and a major trophy species which has been taken in increasing numbers in Central Africa by sport hunters during the 1990s.<ref name=j1>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1046/j.1365-3008.1999.00079.x
| title = The potential role of safari hunting as a source of revenue for protected areas in the Congo Basin
| journal = Oryx
| volume = 33
| issue = 4
| pages = 340
| year = 1999
| last1 = Wilkie | first1 = D. S.
| last2 = Carpenter | first2 = J.
}}</ref> Both of these factors are strong incentives to provide effective protection and management of populations.<ref>Institute of Applied Ecology (1998). "''Tragelaphus eurycerus''". In ''African Mammals Databank – A Databank for the Conservation and Management of the African Mammals'' Vol 1 and 2. Bruxelles: European Commission Directorate</ref>

[[Image:Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci.jpg|thumb|A young mountain bongo grazes]]


[[Trophy hunting]] has the potential to provide economic justification for the preservation of larger areas of bongo habitat than national parks, especially in remote regions of Central Africa, where possibilities for commercially successful tourism are very limited.<ref name=j1/>

The eastern/mountain bongo's survival in the wild is dependent on more effective protection of the surviving remnant populations in Kenya. If this does not occur, it will eventually become extinct in the wild. The existence of a healthy captive population of this subspecies offers the potential for its reintroduction.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources). 2002. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species</ref>

===Groups supporting bongo conservation in Kenya===

In 2004, Dr. Jake Veasey, the head of the Department of Animal Management and Conservation at [[Woburn Safari Park]] and a member of the European Association of Zoos and Aquariums Population Management Advisory Group, with the assistance of Lindsay Banks, took over responsibility for the management and coordination of the European Endangered Species Programme for the eastern bongo. This includes some 250 animals across Europe and the Middle East.

Along with the [[Rothschild giraffe]], the eastern bongo is arguably one of the most threatened large mammals in Africa, with recent estimates numbering less than 140 animals, below a minimum sustainable viable population. The situation is exacerbated because these animals are spread across four isolated populations. Whilst the bongo endangered species program can be viewed as having been successful in ensuring survival of this species in Europe, it has not yet become actively involved in the conservation of this species in the wild in a coordinated fashion. The plan is to engage in conservation activities in Kenya to assist in reversing the decline of the eastern bongo populations and genetic diversity in Africa, and in particular, applying population management expertise to help ensure the persistence of genetic diversity in the free ranging wild populations.

[[Image:Baby Bongo 002.jpg|thumb|upright|A baby eastern bongo at [[Louisville Zoo]] in [[Kentucky]]]]
To illustrate significance of genetic diversity loss, assume the average metapopulation size is 35 animals based on 140 animals spread across four populations (140/4=35). Assuming stable populations, these populations will lose 8% of their genetic diversity every decade. By managing all four populations as one, through strategic transfers, gene loss is reduced from 8% to 2% per decade, without any increase in bongo numbers in Kenya. By managing the European and African populations as one – by strategic exports from Europe combined with ''in situ'' transfers, gene loss is reduced to 0.72% every 100 years, with both populations remaining stable. If populations in Kenya are allowed to grow through the implementation of effective conservation, including strategic transfers, gene loss can be effectively halted in this species and its future secured in the wild.

The initial aims of the project are:
# Through faecal [[DNA]] analysis, estimate the genetic diversity of the remaining wild bongos and calculate the relatedness of the isolated wild populations.
# More accurately estimate the total population of wild bongos through faecal DNA analysis, camera trapping, and transect surveying.
# Through direct sampling, estimate the genetic diversity of the captive bongo population and calculate its relatedness with the remaining isolated wild populations.
# Collect DNA samples from western bongos to calculate the relatedness of the two subspecies.
# Fund rangers to collect the above data in Kenya, enhance the degree of protection afforded to and level of understanding of the eastern bongos' ecological needs.
# To realise such a metapopulation management plan, work with local communities is essential to reverse the decline and allow for the implementation of a transfer strategy. A substantial proportion of wild genetic diversity likely will have already been lost.

If effective protection were implemented immediately and bongo populations allowed to expand without transfers, then this would create a bigger population of genetically impoverished bongos. These animals would be less able to adapt to a dynamic environment. Whilst the population remains small, the impact of transfers will be greater. For this reason, the 'metapopulation management plan' must occur concurrently with conservation strategies to enhance ''in situ'' population growth. This initiative is both urgent and fundamental to the future survival of the mountain bongo in the wild.


In 2013, SafariCom telecommunications donated money to the Bongo Surveillance Programme <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100924065758/http://www.mountainbongo.org/index2.html Bongo Surveillance Programme monitoring and surveillance continues in Aberdare, Mt. kenya, Eburru and South West Mau]. mountainbongo.org</ref> to try to keep tabs on what are thought to be the last 100 eastern bongos left in the wild in the Mau Eburu Forest in central Kenya, whose numbers are still declining due to logging of their habitat and illegal poaching.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-22207922 Kenya's Mountain Bongo antelope under threat]. BBC News. 18 April 2013</ref>

Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy runs a bongo rehabilitation program in collaboration with the Kenya Wildlife Service.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.magicalkenya.com/what-to-see/conservancies/mount-kenya-wildlife-conservancy/|title=Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy - Magical Kenya|work=Magical Kenya|access-date=2017-04-12|language=en-US}}</ref> The Conservancy aims to prevent extinction of the bongo through breeding and release back into the wild.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.animalorphanagekenya.org/what-we-do/wildlife-rehabilitation/|title=Wildlife Rehabilitation {{!}} Mt. Kenya Wildlife Conservancy|website=www.animalorphanagekenya.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/lifestyle/article/2000200356/date-with-the-mountain-bongo|title=Date with the mountain bongo|last=Mulli|first=Thorn|work=The Standard|access-date=2017-04-12|language=en}}</ref>

==Status==
In 2002 the [[IUCN]] listed the western/lowland species as [[Near Threatened]]. These bongos may be endangered due to human environmental interaction, as well as hunting and illegal actions towards wildlife.<ref name=iucn>{{IUCN2008| assessor =IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group| year =2008| id = 22047 | title = Tragelaphus eurycerus | downloaded = 29 March 2009}} Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of near threatened.</ref> [[CITES]] lists bongos as an Appendix III species, only regulating their exportation from a single country, Ghana. It is not protected by the US Endangered Species Act and is not listed by the [[USFWS]].

The IUCN Antelope Specialist Group considers the western or lowland bongo, ''T. e. eurycerus'', to be Lower Risk (Near Threatened), and the eastern or mountain bongo, ''T. e. isaaci'', of Kenya, to be [[Critically Endangered]]. Other subspecific names have been used, but their validity has not been tested.

==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Tragelaphus eurycerus}}
*ARKive – [https://web.archive.org/web/20070410103136/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Tragelaphus_eurycerus/ images and movies of the bongo ''(Tragelaphus eurycerus)'']
*[http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/africa/what_we_do/central_africa/congo_basin_forests/the_area/wildlife/mammals/bongo/index.cfm WWF]
*[http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Tragelaphus_eurycerus.html Tragelaphus eurycerus]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070108012917/http://www.endangeredandrareanimals.com/East_african_bongo.htm East African Bongo]
*[http://www.awf.org/content/wildlife/detail/bongo Bongos: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation]
*[http://bongo.animalorphanagekenya.org The Bongo Repatriation to Mount Kenya Project]
*[http://www.internationalbongofoundation.org/ The International Bongo Foundation]
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Tragelaphus_eurycerus.html ''Tragelaphus eurycerus''] at [[Animal Diversity Web]]

{{Artiodactyla|R.4}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q193400}}

[[Category:Tragelaphus]]
[[Category:Fauna of Central Africa]]
[[Category:Mammals of West Africa]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1837]]
[[Category:Bovids of Africa]]

Moreno Hill Formation

2020-04-19T13:51:37Z

118.46.55.151: /* Vertebrate paleofauna */

{{Infobox rockunit
| name = Moreno Hill Formation
| image =
| caption =
| type = [[Geological formation]]
| age = {{fossilrange|Turonian}}
| period = Turonian
| prilithology = [[Sandstone]], [[Shale]]
| otherlithology = [[Siltstone]], [[Coal]]
| namedfor =
| namedby =
| region = {{Flag|New Mexico}}
| country = {{USA}}
| coordinates =
| unitof =
| subunits =
| underlies =
| overlies =
| thickness =
| extent =
| area =
| map =
| map_caption =
}}

The '''Moreno Hill Formation''' is a geological [[Formation (geology)|formation]] in New Mexico whose strata date back to the [[Late Cretaceous]]. Dinosaur remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation.<ref name="cretaceousdistribution">Weishampel, David B; et al. (2004). "Dinosaur distribution (Late Cretaceous, North America)." In: Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.): The Dinosauria, 2nd, Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 574-588. {{ISBN|0-520-24209-2}}.</ref>

==Vertebrate paleofauna==
===Dinosaurs===
{| class="wikitable" align="center" width="100%"
|-
! colspan="5" align="center" |'''[[Dinosaur]]s of the Moreno Hill Formation'''
|-
! Taxa
! Presence
! Description
! Images
|-
|
'''Genus:'''
* ''[[Jeyawati]]''
# ''J. rugoculus''
|
|
A basal [[Hadrosauromorpha|hadrosauromorph]].<ref name="morenohadro">McDonald, A.T., Wolfe, D.G., and Kirkland, J.I. (2006). "On a hadrosauromorph (Dinosauria: Onithopoda) from the Moreno Hill Formation (Cretaceous, Turonian) of New Mexico." Pp. 277-280 in Lucas, S.G. and Sullivan, R.M. (eds.), ''Late Cretaceous vertebrates from the Western Interior. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin'', '''35'''.</ref>

| rowspan="99" |
[[File:Jeyawati NT.jpg|175px|thumb|center|''[[Jeyawati]]'']]
[[Image:Nothronychus BW2.jpg|thumb|center|175px|''[[Nothronychus]]'']]
[[File:Suskityrannus mount at Dino Kingdom 2012.jpg|thumb|center|175px|''[[Suskityrannus]]'']]
[[File:Zuniceratops BW.jpg|thumb|center|175px|''[[Zuniceratops]]'']]
|-
|
'''Genus:'''
* ''[[Nothronychus]]''
# ''N. mckinleyi''
|
|
A [[therizinosaur]].<ref name="kirkland&wolfe2001">Kirkland, J.I., and Wolfe, D.G. (2001). "First definitive therizinosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from North America." ''Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology'', '''21'''(3): 410-414.</ref> "Teeth, fragmentary skull bones, cervical and other vertebrae, scapula, partial forelimb and hindlimb."<ref name="table-7-1-152">"Table 7.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 152.</ref>
|-
|
'''Genus'''
* ''[[Suskityrannus]]''
# ''S. hazelae''
|
|
A tyrannosauroid based on a partial skull and skeleton.<ref>Wolfe, Douglas G.; McDonald, Andrew T.; Kirkland, James I.; Turner, Alan H.; Smith, Nathan D.; Brusatte, Stephen L.; Loewen, Mark A.; Denton, Robert K.; Nesbitt, Sterling J. (May 6, 2019). "A mid-Cretaceous tyrannosauroid and the origin of North American end-Cretaceous dinosaur assemblages". Nature Ecology & Evolution: 1. doi:10.1038/s41559-019-0888-0 – via www.nature.com.</ref>
|-
|
'''Genus:'''
* ''[[Zuniceratops]]''
# ''Z. christopheri''
|
|
A [[ceratopsia]]n.<ref name="zuni">Wolfe, D.G. and Kirkland, J.I. (1998). "''Zuniceratops christopheri'' n. gen. & n.
sp., a ceratopsian dinosaur from the Moreno Hill Formation (Cretaceous, Turonian) of west-central New Mexico." Pp. 303-317 in Lucas, S.G., Kirkland, J.I., Estep, J.W. (eds.), ''Lower and Middle Cretaceous Terrestrial Ecosystems: New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, Bulletin'', '''14'''.</ref> "Partial cranial and postcranial materials of five individuals."<ref name="table-22-1-480">"Table 22.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 480.</ref>
|-
|
'''Clade'''
* [[Ankylosauria]] indet.
|
|
Ankylosaur teeth (specimens [[Arizona Museum of Natural History|MSM]] P15742 and MSM P15743)<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Sterling J. Nesbitt | author2=Robert K. Denton Jr | author3=Mark A. Loewen | author4=Stephen L. Brusatte |author5=Nathan D. Smith |author6=Alan H. Turner |author7=James I. Kirkland |author8=Andrew T. McDonald |author9=Douglas G. Wolfe |year=2019 |title=Supplementary information for: A mid-Cretaceous tyrannosauroid and the origin of North American end-Cretaceous dinosaur assemblages |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=3 |issue= 6|pages= 892–899| doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0888-0 | pmid=31061476 |url=https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41559-019-0888-0/MediaObjects/41559_2019_888_MOESM1_ESM.pdf }}</ref>
|-
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Earth sciences|Paleontology|Dinosaurs||}}
* [[List of dinosaur-bearing rock formations]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|New_Mexico}}

[[Category:Geologic formations of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Cretaceous geology of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Turonian Stage]]

{{paleo-site-stub}}
{{NewMexico-geo-stub}}

Jeyawati

2020-04-19T13:50:20Z

118.46.55.151:

{{Italic title}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = ''Jeyawati''
| taxon = Jeyawati
| fossil_range = [[Late Cretaceous]], {{fossilrange|93|91}}
| image = File:Jeyawati NT.jpg
| image_caption = Reconstruction
| authority = McDonald, Wolfe & Kirkland, 2010
| type_species = '''''Jeyawati rugoculus'''''
| type_species_authority = McDonald, Wolfe & Kirkland, 2010
}}

'''''Jeyawati''''' is a [[genus]] of [[hadrosauroid]] [[dinosaur]] which lived during the [[Turonian]] stage of the [[Late Cretaceous]]. The [[type species]], ''J. rugoculus'', was described in 2010, based on fossils recovered in the U.S. state of [[New Mexico]].<ref name="WolfeKirkland"/>

The [[holotype]], MSM P4166, was discovered in the [[Moreno Hill Formation]]. A [[cladistic]] analysis indicates that ''Jeyawati'' was more [[Plesiomorphy and symplesiomorphy|plesiomorphic]] (ancestral) than ''[[Shuangmiaosaurus]]'', ''[[Telmatosaurus]]'', and ''[[Bactrosaurus]]'', but more derived (less like the common ancestor) than ''[[Eolambia]]'', ''[[Probactrosaurus]]'', and ''[[Protohadros]]''.<ref name="WolfeKirkland">McDonald Andrew T.; Wolfe, Douglas G. and Kirkland, James I. (2010). "A new basal hadrosauroid (Dinosauria: Ornithopoda) from the Turonian of New Mexico". ''Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology''. 30(3): 799–812.</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Wikispecies|Jeyawati}}
{{Portal|Dinosaurs}}
{{Commons category|Jeyawati}}

{{Ornithopoda|H.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1955067}}

[[Category:Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of North America]]
[[Category:Hadrosaurs]]
[[Category:Fossil taxa described in 2010]]
[[Category:Taxa named by James Kirkland]]
[[Category:Paleontology in New Mexico]]

Suskityrannus

2020-04-19T13:48:10Z

118.46.55.151: /* References */

{{Speciesbox
| fossil_range = Late [[Turonian]], {{Fossil range|93.5|89.3}}<ref>{{cite web |title=†Suskityrannus Nesbitt et al. 2019 (coelurosaur) |url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=395956&is_real_user=1 |website=PBDB}}</ref><ref name="paleobiodb.org">{{cite web |title=Mirror Mesa (MSM) (Cretaceous of the United States) |url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicCollectionSearch?collection_no=52360 |website=PBDB}}</ref><ref name="Suskityrannus"/><ref>See Gradstein ''et al.'' (2004) for a detailed description of the ICS' timescale</ref>
| image = Suskityrannus mount at Dino Kingdom 2012.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Reconstructed skeleton at the Dinokingdom exhibition, Tokyo
| display_parents= 4
| taxon = Suskityrannus hazelae
| authority = Nesbitt ''et al.'', 2019
}}

'''''Suskityrannus''''' (meaning "[[coyote]] tyrant", ''suski'' meaning "coyote" in [[Zuni language|Zuni]]) is a genus of small [[Tyrannosauroidea|tyrannosauroid theropod]] from the [[Late Cretaceous]] in southern [[Laramidia]]. It contains a single species, '''''Suskityrannus hazelae,''''' believed to have lived roughly 92 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/tiny-mystery-dinosaur-new-mexico-officially-t-rex-cousin|title=A tiny mystery dinosaur from New Mexico is officially ''T. rex's'' cousin|last=Temming|first=M.|date=7 May 2019|website=Science News|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=14 May 2019}}</ref> The type specimen was found in the [[Turonian]]-age [[Moreno Hill Formation]] of the [[Zuni Basin]] in western [[New Mexico]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wgno.com/2019/05/06/fossils-of-3-foot-tall-tyrannosaurus-rex-relatives-are-evolutionary-stepping-stone/|title=Fossils of 3-foot-tall Tyrannosaurus rex relatives are evolutionary stepping stone|last=|first=|date=6 May 2019|website=CNN Wire|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Suskityrannus life reconstruction.png|left|thumb|Restoration and size comparison]]
The two specimens of ''Suskityrannus'' stood roughly {{Convert|1|m|ft|abbr=}} tall and {{Convert|3|m|ft|abbr=}} long and likely weighed between {{Convert|20-40|kg|lb|abbr=}}. Both are likely to have been juveniles.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/science-and-health/.premium.MAGAZINE-mini-tyrannosaur-struck-fear-into-hearts-of-jurassic-proto-rabbits-everywhere-1.7209920|title=Mini Tyrannosaur Struck Fear Into Hearts of Jurassic Proto-rabbits Everywhere|last=Schuster|first=R.|date=6 May 2019|work=|accessdate=6 May 2019|publisher=Haaretz}}</ref> One of the specimens is believed to have been 3 years old when it died, based on bone rings. The skull of ''Suskityrannus'' and its foot are more slender than other tyrannosaurs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.earth.com/news/tyrannosaurus-rex-cousin/|title=Newly named Tyrannosaurus Rex cousin was only three feet tall|last=Sexton|first=C.|date=6 May 2019|website=Earth.com|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> The species already possesses many key features of the tyrannosaurid body plan, including the phylogenetically earliest record of an [[arctometatarsalian]] foot in tyrannosauroids. Additionally, as an early tyrannosaur, ''Suskityrannus'' may have had feathers, despite no feathers being found with its fossils.

Doug Wolfe noted that the brain of ''Suskityrannus'' was relatively large compared to its body plan.

==Discovery and naming==
[[File:Zuni Coelurosaur.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Earlier reconstruction of the skeleton with more generic [[coelurosaurian]] features, [[Wyoming Dinosaur Center]]]]
First mentioned as a small [[dromaeosaurid]] by Wolfe and Kirkland in their description of ''[[Zuniceratops]]'',<ref name="Zceratops">{{cite journal|last=Wolfe|first=D.E.|last2=Kirkland|first2=J.I.|last3=Smith|first3=D.|last4=Poole|first4=K.|last5=Chinnery-Allgeier|first5=B.|last6=McDonald|first6=A.|year=1998|title=''Zuniceratops christopheri'' n. gen. & n. sp., a ceratopsian dinosaur from the Moreno Hill Formation (Cretaceous, Turonian) of west-central New Mexico|url=https://www.academia.edu/3977069|journal=Lower and Middle Cretaceous Terrestrial Ecosystems. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin|volume=14|pages=307–318|via=Academia}}</ref> ''Suskityrannus'' was informally referred to as the "Zuni coelurosaur",<ref>{{cite web |title=When Dinosaurs Roamed America |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/dinos/video/video.html |website=Discovery channel.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010801151342/http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/dinos/video/video.html |archive-date=2001-08-01 }}</ref> "Zuni tyrannosaur",<ref>{{cite web |title=Zuni Tyrannosaur Skull with base |url=https://www.gastondesign.com/product/zuni-tyrannosaur-skull-base/ |website=Gaston design, Inc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920134016/https://www.gastondesign.com/product/zuni-tyrannosaur-skull-base/ |archive-date=2018-09-20 }}</ref> and "Zunityrannus" prior to its scientific description.<ref name="Mortimer">{{cite web |last1=Mortimer |first1=M. |title=Coelurosauria |url=http://theropoddatabase.com/Coelurosauria.htm |website=theropoddatabase.com |accessdate=9 May 2019}}</ref> The original fossils were found by Robert Denton, a professional geologist from Virginia, and a native Mesa teen [[Sterling Nesbitt]], who was a museum volunteer that came to a dig with paleontologist [[Doug Wolfe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/trex-|title=Found in New Mexico: A tiny cousin of the T-Rex|last1=Berman|first=R.|date=|website=Big Think|archive-url=|archive-date=|accessdate=13 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/mesa/2019/05/08/t-rex-tiny-predecessor-suskityrannus-hazelae-has-mesa-connection-arizona-museum-natural-history/1122965001/|title=Teen's fossil find leads to discovery of new dinosaur, a tiny relative of T. rex|last=Collom|first=L.|date=8 May 2019|website=Arizona Republic|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Zuni Tyrannosaur Skeleton |url=https://www.gastondesign.com/product/zuni-tyrannosaur-skeleton/ |website=Gaston Design, Inc. |accessdate=9 May 2019}}</ref> In 2019 ''Suskityrannus'' was formally described as a genus of primitive tyrannosauroid.<ref name="Suskityrannus">{{Cite journal|last1=Wolfe|first1=D.G.|last2=McDonald|first2=A.T.|last3=Kirkland|first3=J.I.|last4=Turner|first4=A.H.|last5=Smith|first5=N.D.|last6=Brusatte|first6=S.L.|last7=Loewen|first7=M.A.|last8=Denton|first8=R.K.|last9=Nesbitt|first9=S.J.|date=6 May 2019|title=A mid-Cretaceous tyrannosauroid and the origin of North American end-Cretaceous dinosaur assemblages|journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution|volume=3|issue=6|pages=892–899|doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0888-0|pmid=31061476|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/82474043/82473554._Brusatte._AAM.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McDonald|first=A.T.|last2=Wolfe|first2=D.G.|last3=Kirkland|first3=J.I.|date=May 2010|title=A New Basal Hadrosauroid (Dinosauria: Ornithopoda) from the Turonian of New Mexico|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237958194|journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology|volume=30|issue=3|pages=799–812|doi=10.1080/02724631003763516|via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Both the [[holotype]] specimen '''MSM P4754''' (partially articulated skull and a few postcranial bones) and the [[paratype]] specimen '''MSM P6178''' (partially articulated and associated remains including a few skull bones and an incomplete postcranial skeleton) are preserved in the collections of the [[Arizona Museum of Natural History]].<ref name=Suskityrannus />

==Classification==
Below is the phylogenetic analysis on the placement of ''Suskityrannus''.<ref name=Suskityrannus/>
{{clade| style=font-size:100%; line-height:100%;
|1={{Clade
|label1=†[[Tyrannosauroidea]]
|1={{Clade
|1=†[[Proceratosauridae]]
|2={{Clade
|label1=
|1={{Clade
|1=†''[[Stokesosaurus]]''
|2=†''[[Juratyrant]]''
|3=†''[[Eotyrannus]]''}}
|label2=
|2={{Clade
|1=†'''''Suskityrannus'''''
|2={{Clade
|1=†''[[Timurlengia]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=†''[[Xiongguanlong]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=†''[[Dryptosaurus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=†''[[Appalachiosaurus]]''
|2={{Clade
|1=†''[[Bistahieversor]]''
|2=†[[Tyrannosauridae]]}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}

==Paleobiology==
[[File:Suskityrannus skull.png|thumb|Holotype snout]]
The area in [[New Mexico]] where ''Suskityrannus'' lived is an area rich in fossils. The fossil record of the [[Moreno Hill Formation]] documents a transition period between early [[Cretaceous]] fauna and the latest Cretaceous fauna. The area was a thickly forested coastal region with a humid climate. ''Zuniceratops'', ''[[Nothronychus]],'' and a few specimens of ''[[Jeyawati]]''<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lucas|first=S.G.|last2=Heckert|first2=A.B.|date=2000|title=Cretaceous Dinosaurs in New Mexico|url=https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/asu/f/Heckert_A_2000_17_Cretaceous_Dinosaurs.pdf|journal=Dinosaurs of New Mexico, New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin|publisher=New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science|volume=17|pages=83–90|via=}}</ref> are known from this region.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=66508&is_real_user=1|title=''Nothronychus mckinleyi''|last=|first=|date=|website=The Paleobiology Database|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=66590&is_real_user=1|title=''Zuniceratops''|last=|first=|date=|website=The Paleobiology Database|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://discovermagazine.com/2001/aug/featzuni|title=The Creature From the Zuni Lagoon|last=Pringle|first=H.|date=1 August 2001|work=Discover|accessdate=6 May 2019|last2=Delin|first2=G.|issue=AUGUST 2001}}</ref> The formation also contains a currently undescribed [[Ankylosauridae|ankylosaurid]] dinosaur.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Sterling J. Nesbitt | author2=Robert K. Denton Jr | author3=Mark A. Loewen | author4=Stephen L. Brusatte |author5=Nathan D. Smith |author6=Alan H. Turner |author7=James I. Kirkland |author8=Andrew T. McDonald |author9=Douglas G. Wolfe |year=2019 |title=Supplementary information for: A mid-Cretaceous tyrannosauroid and the origin of North American end-Cretaceous dinosaur assemblages |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=3 |issue= 6|pages= 892–899|url=https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41559-019-0888-0/MediaObjects/41559_2019_888_MOESM1_ESM.pdf | doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0888-0 | pmid=31061476 }}</ref> Fossils of a [[crocodilia]]n and a possible marine turtle belonging to the [[Cheloniidae]], were also found in the same locality as well.<ref name="paleobiodb.org">{{cite web |title=Mirror Mesa (MSM) (Cretaceous of the United States) |url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicCollectionSearch?collection_no=52360 |website=PBDB}}</ref>

''Suskityrannus'' filled the major phylogenetic, morphological and temporal gaps that researchers needed to piece together [[Tyrannosauroidea|tyrannosauroid]] evolution.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/palaeontology/tiny-tyrannosaur-trod-lightly-92-million-years-ago|title=Tiny Tyrannosaur trod lightly 92 million years ago|last=|first=|date=|work=Cosmos|issue=7 May 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{commons category|Suskityrannus}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Portal|Dinosaurs}}
{{Theropoda|C.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q20728010}}

[[Category:Tyrannosaurs]]
[[Category:Fossil taxa described in 2019]]
[[Category:Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of North America]]

English Setter

2020-04-16T01:53:13Z

118.46.55.151:

{{Redirect|Laverack||Laverack (surname)}}
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| akcgroup = Sporting
| akcstd = http://images.akc.org/pdf/breeds/standards/EnglishSetter.pdf
| altname = Lawerack Laverack Llewellin (or Llewellyn) Setter
| ankcgroup = Group 3 (Gundogs)
| ankcstd = http://ankc.org.au/Breed/Detail/67
| ckcgroup = Group 1 – Sporting Dogs
| ckcstd = http://www.ckc.ca/en/Portals/0/pdf/breeds/STE.pdf
| country = England
| fcigroup = 7
| fcinum = 2
| fcisection = 2.2 Setter
| fcistd = http://www.fci.be/Nomenclature/Standards/002g07-en.pdf
| image = EnglishSetter9 fx wb.jpg
| image_caption = A blue belton English Setter
| weight =
| maleweight = {{convert|65|to|80|lb|kg}}<ref name=dogtime>{{Cite news|title=English Setter|URL=https://dogtime.com/dog-breeds/english-setter|publisher=Dogtime|accessdate=2020-04-16}}</ref><ref name=hillspet>{{Cite news|title=English Setter Dog Breed - Facts and Traits|URL=https://www.hillspet.com/dog-care/dog-breeds/english-setter|publisher=Hill's Pet|accessdate=2020-04-16}}</ref>
| femaleweight = {{convert|45|to|55|lb|kg}}<ref name=dogtime/><ref name=hillspet/>
| height =
| maleheight = {{convert|25|to|27|in|cm}}<ref name=dogtime/><ref name=hillspet/>
| femaleheight = {{convert|23|to|25|in|cm}}<ref name=dogtime/><ref name=hillspet/>
| kcukgroup = Gundog
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/services/public/breed/standard.aspx?id=2033
| name = English Setter
| coat = Long, flat, silky and a little wavy<ref name=hillspet/>
| color = White with orange, liver, lemon or black flecks<ref name=hillspet/>
| nzkcgroup = Gundog
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br328.html
| ukcgroup = Gun Dog
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/Web.nsf/Breeds/GunDog/EnglishSetter
| life_span = 11 to 15 years<ref name=dogtime/>
}}

The '''English Setter''' is a medium-size [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]]. It is part of the [[setter]] group, which includes the red [[Irish Setter]]s, [[Irish Red and White Setter]]s, and black-and-tan [[Gordon Setter]]s. The mainly white body [[Coat (dog)|coat]] is of medium length with long silky fringes on the back of the legs, under the belly and on the tail. The coat features flecks of colour, and the different colour varieties are referred to as belton.

A gentle but at times strong-willed, mischievous [[gun dog]], bred for a mix of endurance and athleticism, it is used to hunt for game such as [[quail]], [[pheasant]] and [[grouse]]. When working, the dog will hunt methodically seeking the airborne scent of its prey. It is sometimes referred to as the Laverack or Llewellin Setter as these were famous strains of the breed during the major development period in the 19th century. Those from hunting stock are generally of a finer build and with less coat than those bred for [[conformation show|show]] exhibition.

Generally reasonably healthy, they have an average life span of 11 to 12 years. [[The Kennel Club]] advises UK breeders to screen for [[Hip dysplasia (canine)|hip dysplasia]].
{{TOC limit|2}}

==Description==

===Appearance===
{{multiple image|direction=horizontal|align=left|image1=Setteriinglesemack.jpg|width1=150|image2=English Setter R 01.JPG|width2=150|alt=Pair of colour photos described in adjacent text|caption1=The head of a female English Setter|caption2=The head of a male English Setter}}
The English Setter is a medium-sized dog which should have an elegant overall appearance. Its size can range from {{convert|24|in|cm}} for females up to {{convert|27|in|cm}} for males. The field or hunting type can be finer in build and construction than those from bench or [[conformation show|show]] lines.{{sfnp|Kane|2009|p=79|ps=none}}{{r|Save}} The breed was designed to hunt game such as [[quail]], [[pheasant]], and [[grouse]] so should be able to cover a lot of ground when seeking the airborne scent of the birds, carrying its head high.{{sfnp|Roberts|1978|pp=114–116|ps=none}} The head should be slightly domed with a [[snout|muzzle]] of good depth and show chiselling under the eyes, which should be dark in colour with a kind, gentle expression.{{sfnp|Kane|2009|p=80|ps=none}} The top of the ears (sometimes the ears are referred to as "leathers") are positioned in line with the eyes and lie in an elegant fold.{{sfnp|Bepler|1930|p=67|ps=none}} It has a long muscular neck, well angled shoulders and a brisket of good depth. The body is of a moderate length proportionate to its height and it has strong powerful hindquarters. It carries its tail in line with its back and the tail should be long enough to reach the [[hock (anatomy)|hock]].{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2001|p=25|ps=none}}

The main body coat is short to medium length, lies flat and has a silky texture. Long silky coat – usually called "feathering", forms fringes on the outside of the ears, neck, chest, down the back of the front legs, under the belly and on the back legs. The tail is also feathered with long coat.
The body coat and feathering should be straight and flat but not profuse and never curly although a slight wave can be seen.{{sfnp|Kane|2009|p=79|ps=none}}

The bench or show type has a long, flowing coat that requires regular grooming. The field or hunting type has a shorter coat that requires less grooming.{{r|Nutrecare}}

The base colour of the coat is white with differing coloured [[Coat (dog)|ticking]] also called flecks or speckling. The various speckled coat colours when occurring in English Setters are referred to as ''belton''; valid combinations are white with black flecks (''blue belton''), white with orange flecks (''orange belton''), white with orange flecks and lighter nose (''lemon belton''), white with liver flecks (''liver belton''), or "tricolour", which is blue or liver belton with tan markings on the face, chest, and legs. The flecking should not form large patches on the body and the flecks should be distributed all over the body.{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2001|p=23|ps=none}}{{sfnp|Bepler|1930|p=68|ps=none}} The use of the word "belton" was first coined by Laverack, who developed the breed in the 19th century, to describe his ideal for flecking and is also the name of a village in the extreme north of England.{{r|ANKCpdf}} Puppies' coats may not have all the markings that they have as adults.{{sfnp|Willis|1989|p=73|ps=none}}
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow= "5" caption= "English Setter">
File:AKC English Setter Dog Show 2011.jpg|A blue belton English Setter
File:Gucci.English setter.jpg|An English Setter's tail has long feathering.

File:Goober1.jpg| Coat white with orange flecks
File:English Setter in Tallinn 3.JPG| An orange belton
</gallery>

===Temperament===
[[File:Trouble2.jpg|thumb|200px|alt=Puppy with colours not fully developed|An English Setter puppy when the colour markings on the body are not yet fully developed]]
This breed's standard temperament is best described as a "Gentleman by Nature".{{r|Gentleman}} However, it can also be strong-willed and mischievous, especially if coming from working/field breeding lines.{{r|ACES}} English Setters are energetic, people-oriented dogs, that are well suited to families who can give them attention and activity,{{r|Mydog}} or to working with a hunter, where they have a job to do. They are active dogs that need plenty of exercise and up to two hours a day of exercise is recommended.{{r|KCbreed}} Inside they tend to be lower energy and love to be couch potatoes and lap dogs; the breed is described as "intensely friendly," "good natured," and "adores visitors and is particularly happy with children."{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2001|p=20|ps=none}}

They rank 37th in [[Stanley Coren]]'s ''[[The Intelligence of Dogs]]'', being of above average working/obedience intelligence.{{sfnp|Coren|1995|p=182|ps=none}} English Setters are very intelligent and can be trained to perform about any task another breed can do, with the exception of herding. However, they are not always easy to train, as their natural bird instinct tends to distract them in outdoor environments.{{sfnp|Coren|1995|p=80|ps=none}} Their temperament is considered to be gentle and as English Setters can be very sensitive to criticism, positive reinforcement training methods using treats and praise work best when undertaking basic training.{{r|Training}}

==Health==

Dogs, both pedigree and cross breeds, can be affected with genetic problems.{{r|KChealth}} Those known to sometimes occur in English Setters can include congenital [[Deaf animal|deafness]], which was reported as affecting 12.4 percent of the 701 English Setters tested by the [[Louisiana State University]] in 2010.{{r|Deaf}} As at 2013, there has not been any detailed research on this condition undertaken in the UK;{{r|ESAdeaf}} [[autoimmune thyroiditis]], which was shown to affect 26.2 percent of 747 English Setters examined between January 1974 until December 2012 in an [[Orthopedic Foundation for Animals]] listing;{{r|OFFA}} canine [[hypothyroidism]];{{r|ESAhypothyroid}} [[elbow dysplasia]]; and allergies, which can include some sensitivity to certain food ingredients and also skin conditions, are known to occur.{{r|ESAskin}}{{sfnp|Stead|2013|p=8|ps=none}}

In 2004, the U.K. [[The Kennel Club|Kennel Club]] established the Accredited Breeders Scheme, which was later called the Assured Breeders Scheme (ABS).{{r|KCABS}} The scheme received [[United Kingdom Accreditation Service|UKAS]] accreditation in April 2013.{{r|UKAS}} ABS members are required to adhere to additional criteria than those necessary for basic KC registration. Among the extra requirements is "Ensuring that the parents of each litter are readily identifiable by either [[Microchip implant (animal)|Microchip]], [[Tattoo]] or [[DNA profiling|DNA profile]]."{{r|KCscheme}} As at March 2013, breeders of English Setters who are members of the ABS must screen for [[Hip dysplasia (canine)|hip dysplasia]].{{r|ESAinfo}}{{r|screen}}

Some members of the breed may be affected by [[cancer]] and this was identified as the most common cause of death of English Setters in a survey undertaken by the Kennel Club; the age of death from this disease was mainly after reaching ten years of age. However, the survey had only received a small response rate.{{r|KCsurvey}} Life expectancy is between 11 and 12 years, though 13 to 15 years is not uncommon.{{r|KCsurvey}}

==Function==
[[File:English Setter running through grass.jpg|thumb|200px| An English Setter in action, pursuing a bird.]]
Setters hunt by ranging over large distances in a systematic, methodical manner, silently seeking [[Game (hunting)|game]] by scent. When prey is found by scenting the air, the dog will freeze rather than give chase. The dog will stop in a sort of crouch or "set" by freezing in a standing position upon finding their quarry and this distinctive stance is how the term “setter” evolved. Once the dog has indicated where the birds are by freezing on point, on command it would then slowly creep forward to disturb the birds into flight. Once the birds were in flight the hunter who had been following the dog would release [[hawk]]s to capture the birds in the air. When netting superseded the use of hawks, setting dogs would still be used to indicate the whereabouts of the birds, but the hunter would come up behind the dog and throw a net over the birds. In the mid-1600s, guns became more readily available and shooting game birds became a popular pastime of the [[landed gentry]]. The basic work of setters was still to find and point to the location of game birds but it also had to be steady to shot.{{sfnp|Roberts|1978|pp=114–116|ps=none}}{{sfnp|Brigden|1990|pp=12,13|ps=none}}

The scent of game birds is airborne so to pick up this scent the setter carries its head well up and should never follow foot scent.{{sfnp|Roberts|1978|pp=114–116|ps=none}} Most setters are born with a natural proclivity to hunting. Dogs that show excitement and interest in birds are described as being "birdy", and trainers look for puppies that show this particular trait. Training is usually done with quail as a first choice or domesticated [[Columbidae|pigeons]].{{sfnp|Truman|1993|pp=79, 83|ps=none}}

Writing in 1876, Arnold Burges described the "pure-blooded English Setter" as "the best animal for American upland shooting" in his book ''The American Kennel and Sporting Field''.{{sfnp|Smith|2002|p=18|ps=none}}

==Early history==
"Setting dogges" is an old term used for setters and the original purpose of the English Setter was to set or point upland [[game (food)|game birds]]. From the best available information, it appears that the English Setter was a trained [[bird dog]] in England more than 400 years ago and there are works of art created in the early 15th century showing dogs that are discernible as being of a “setter type”. There is evidence that the English Setter originated in crosses of the Spanish [[Pointing breed|Pointer]], large Water Spaniel, and [[English Springer Spaniel]], which combined to produce an excellent bird dog with a high degree of proficiency in finding and pointing game in open country.{{sfnp|Brigden|1990|pp=12,13|ps=none}}{{r|AKC}}{{r|AKCsetters}}

Writing in 1576, Dr [[Johannes Caius]] states: "There is also at this date among us a new kind of dogge brought out of Fraunce, and they bee speckled all over with white and black, which mingled colours incline to a marble blewe". Argue speculates this may be a description of the blue belton colour found in English Setters.{{sfnp|Argue|1993|p=28|ps=none}}

Caius went on to describe the dog called a setter using the Latin name index:
{{quote|Another sort of Dogges be there, serviceable for fowling, making no noise either with foote or with tongue, whiles they follow the game. They attend diligently upon their Master and frame their condition to such beckes, motions and gestures, as it shall please him to exhibite and make, either going forward, drawing backeward, inclinding to the right hand, or yealding toward the left. When he hath founde the byrde, he keepeth sure and fast silence, he stayeth his steppes and wil proceede no further, and weth a close, covert watching eye, layeth his belly to the grounde and so creepth forward like a worme. When he approaches neere to the place where the byrde is, he layes him downe, and with a marcke of his pawes, betrayeth the place of the byrdes last abode, whereby it is supposed that this kind of dogge is calles in Index, Setter, being in deede a name most consonant and agreeable to his quality.{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2001|pp=9-10|ps=none}}{{sfnp|Farrar|1910|p=5132|ps=none}}}}

By the 17th century setters, or "setting dogges", had become established and were widespread on British estates, although the evolution into the more specific individual breeds of setters occurred at a later date. The interbreeding of the different colours was still taking place during this period but it gradually changed and sportsman/breeders began to segregate matings to dogs adapted to the terrain it was required to work on.{{r|AKCsetters}}{{sfnp|Brigden|1990|p=13|ps=none}}

==Breed development==
The modern English Setter owes its appearance to Edward Laverack (1800–1877), who developed his own strain of the breed by careful breeding during the 19th century in England and to another Englishman, R. Purcell Llewellin (1840–1925), who founded his strain using Laverack's best dogs and outcrossed them with the Duke, Rhoebe and later Duke's littermate Kate bloodlines with the best results.{{r|ANKCpdf}}
[[File:English setter - Laverack bloodline.jpg|thumb|left|Ch Mallwyd Sirdar, an English Setter from the Laverack bloodline. He was said to be admired by both fanciers and shooting men.]]
Historically, many dogs descending from the same bloodline were referred to by the name of their breeder or owner and the [[nomenclature]]s "Laverack Setter" and "LLewellin Setter" describe English Setters bred by Laverack and Llewellin.{{r|Lotus}} Horace Lytle, one time gundog editor of ''[[Field & Stream]]'', author and a well-known gundog trainer,{{r|Field}} clarified this in the book "How to train your bird dog", which he wrote in 1928:
{{quote|Another tremendous uncertainty exists among the widest possible class of hunters with reference to the so-called Llewellin Setters. Llewellin Setters are nothing more – and nothing less – than English Setters. Llewellin Setters are simply English Setters that trace back to two particular English Setters. They represent a certain definite English Setter ancestry. That's all there is to it. Thus an English Setter may not always be a "Llewellin"; but a "Llewellin" is always an English Setter. Furthermore, the craze for this particular strain that came to this country with the importation of the first "Llewellins" caused ninety per cent of the owners of all Setters that are not either distinctly Irish or Gordon, to refer to their dogs as "Llewellins". Yet in ninety per cent of these cases, the dogs so referred to are not of the Llewellin strain at all. Not one person in a hundred who owns an English Setter can tell even from the pedigree whether the dog is of the Llewellin strain or not. They simply don't know. Most of those who refer to their Setters as "Llewellins" do so because the name is rather euphonious and pleasing to pronounce. Many of those who really do know, insist that their Llewellins be one hundred per cent, and they refer to those that are not as "grades". If there is even as little as 3 per cent "outcross," these few are inclined to feel that the dog is nothing but a rank plebeian. All of which is really ridiculous – at least so think a good many of us who have thought the matter out.{{sfnp|Lytle|1956|pp=38–40|ps=none}}}}
[[File:English setter - Llewellin bloodline.jpg|thumb|Rodfield's Pride, an English Setter from the Llewellin bloodline. He won several stakes in the autumn of 1902.]]
Around 1826, Reverend A Harrison of [[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]] in Cumbria sold a male dog called "Ponto" and a female named "Old Moll" to Laverack and this pair formed the foundation of his English Setters. Laverack did not know the exact pedigree of these dogs but maintained the strain had been pure-bred for the previous thirty-five years.{{sfnp|Argue|1993|p=45|ps=none}} Laverack closely inbred to these two dogs for generations and his bloodline was successful in [[Conformation show|dog shows]] and as a working dog in [[field trial]]s.{{sfnp|Foss|1977|p=10|ps=none}}

In 1874, C. H. Raymond from [[Morris Plains, New Jersey]] imported the first English Setter from the Laverack bloodline to America.{{r|journal}} The working setter [[Count Noble]] descended from these early imports and is commemorated in the [[Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh]].{{r|AKC}}
Llewellin's strain was based on Laverack's best dogs, which were then [[Outcrossing|outcrossed]] with the bloodlines of his dogs Duke, Rhoebe and later Duke's littermate, Kate. It was Kate bred with Laverack's best hunting males that produced Llewellin's ideals Fd.Ch.Ch. Armstrong's Dash II and later Fd.Ch.Ch Dashing Bondhu.{{sfnp|Graham|1904|pp=49–50|ps=none}} They were the foundation of Llewellin's personal strain known as "Dashing Bondhu". William Humphrey (1882–1963) inherited them from Llewellin in 1925 and continued them pure until his death in 1963.{{sfnp|Argue|1993|pp=52–54|ps=none}}
[[Jim the Wonder Dog]], described as a Llewellin setter, was said to have "possessed an occult power" and there is a bronze statue of him in a memorial garden on the square in [[Marshall, Missouri]], built to commemorate him.{{r|Jim}}

==In competitions==

The field type and show type English Setter look very different, even though they are the same breed. Field type setters are often smaller and are seen with less feathering and usually more distinctive spotting than show type setters. Both traits are beneficial in the field: less feathering makes getting [[bur]]s out of their coat easier and the spotting makes them easier to see in the field.{{r|Pheasant}}
[[File:English Setter, Countess.jpg|thumb|left|alt="Countess"|"Countess" the first gundog Dual Champion. She was bred by Laverack and owned/handled by Llewellin.]]
English Setters are classified within the gundog group in the UK{{r|GDGS}} and the Sporting group in America and Canada.{{r|AKCbreeds}}{{r|CKCbreeds}} The [[Fédération Cynologique Internationale|FCI]] place them in section 2, British and Irish Pointers and Setters, of Group 7.{{r|FCIgroups}}

In the English Setter breed, compared to other breeds, there are very few Dual Champions.{{r|Pheasant}} The Kennel Club have four champion titles available to be achieved by setters competing in the UK. These are Show Champion (Sh Ch) which is awarded to dogs who have won three Challenge Certificates (CCs) under three different judges with at least one CC won after 12 months of age; Champion (Ch) is the title gained by dogs who have won a Sh Ch title plus a [[field trial]] award, Diploma of Merit or a Show Gundog Working Certificate; Field Trial Champion (Ft Ch) means the dog has won a pointer or setter open stake or two first prizes at two different stakes under two different A Panel judges. There must be no less than 16 runners entered; and a Dual Champion – the highest award available to setters – is a dog who has achieved the titles of Show Champion and Field Trial Champion.{{r|KCregs}}

An English Setter called "Countess" was the first gun dog to ever attain a Dual Champion title. She was sired by Dash 2nd and her dam was Moll 3rd.{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2001|p=15|ps=none}} Her breeder was Laverack, who sold her to Sam Lang; he in turn passed her on to Llewellin in whose name she was entered in field trials.{{sfnp|Watson|1906|p=118|ps=none}}

In the U.K., the breed has been successful at [[Crufts]] and secured the award of Best in Show in 1964, 1977 and 1988.{{sfnp|Jackson|1990|pp=203, 207, 211|ps=none}} At the [[Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show|Westminster show in America]] an English Setter won the Best in Show title in 1938. He was only 11 months old and at his very first show.{{r|Time}}{{r|Radcliff}} This was before entry to the show was restricted to Champions in 1992.{{r|Fernandez}} As of 2013, he is the only setter to achieve Best in Show at Westminster since the award of Best in Show started to be made in 1907.{{r|Westminster}}

==Registrations==
[[Image:Engelse setter.JPG|thumb|alt=at rest|An English Setter resting.]]
When the American Kennel Club was established in 1878, English Setters, together with eight other sporting breeds, were accepted as the first pure-bred registrations by the Club. The very first dog registered with the AKC and the holder of registration number one was an English Setter named "Adonis".{{r|Adonis}} He was born in 1875 and is recorded as sired by "Leicester" out of a bitch named "Dart". His colours were given as black, white and tan. He was owned by his breeder George E. Delano of New Bedford, MA.{{r|AKCsetters}}

English Setters were especially popular in the UK during the 1960s, 70s and 80s and registrations of puppies reached 1344 during 1974.{{r|Save}} In 2012, the [[The Kennel Club|Kennel Club]] listed the English Setter amongst the [[Vulnerable Native Breeds]] as only 234 puppies were registered.{{r|bbcengsetter}} A decade earlier, in 2002, there were 568 English Setter puppies registered.{{r|2002regs}} However, during 2012 the number of English Setter puppies registered increased to 314, so the breed was moved to the Kennel Club's "At Watch" list, which is for breeds with registrations from 300–450.{{r|regsdown}} In 2015 registrations fell to 289 resulting in a return to the Vulnerable Native Breeds list for 2016.{{r|DW 2015 regs}}{{r|KC VNB 2015}} The breed is still fairly well represented in Italy, where it is popular as a working gun-dog. Even in Italy, however the breed is in sharp decline, going from 20,999 registrations in 2002, to 14510 registrations in 2011.{{r|ENCI}} In contrast, the [[American Kennel Club]] stated that 2011 was the "year of the setters, with all four making big jumps over the past year".{{r|AKCnews}} English Setters had previously ranked at 101 in 2010 but moved up to 87 in 2011, a position the breed maintained in 2012.{{r|AKCregs}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name=Save>
{{cite web |last=Lester |first=Paula |title=Save our English setters |url=http://www.countrylife.co.uk/countryside/article/530244/Save-our-English-setters.html |publisher=Country Life |access-date=26 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928230613/http://www.countrylife.co.uk/life-in-the-country/save-our-english-setters-10931 |archive-date=28 September 2015 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=Nutrecare>
{{cite web |title=English Setter |url=http://www.nutrecare.co.uk/dog_breeds/english-setter |publisher=Nutrecare |access-date=6 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002021218/http://www.nutrecare.co.uk/dog_breeds/english-setter |archive-date=2 October 2015 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=ANKCpdf>
{{cite web |title=English Setter |url=http://www.ankc.org.au/_uploads/docs/234133English_Setter_BSE.pdf |publisher=ANKC |access-date=27 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924163039/http://www.ankc.org.au/_uploads/docs/234133English_Setter_BSE.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2009|url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=Gentleman>
{{cite web |url=http://www.englishsetterassociation.co.uk/temperament.html |title=A gentleman by nature |access-date=21 July 2008 |publisher=The English Setter Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101009171748/http://www.englishsetterassociation.co.uk/temperament.html |archive-date=9 October 2010 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=ACES>{{cite web |url=http://www.englishsetterrescue.org/about-english-setters.html |title=ACES – About English Setters |publisher=Englishsetterrescue.org |access-date=5 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905060003/http://www.englishsetterrescue.org/about-english-setters.html |archive-date=5 September 2015 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2 }}</ref>

<ref name=Mydog>
{{cite web |url=http://www.mydogtrainingsecrets.info/english-setter.html |title=English Setter training |publisher=mydogtrainingsecrets.info |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625082731/http://www.mydogtrainingsecrets.info/english-setter.html|archive-date=25 June 2010|url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=KCbreed>
{{cite web |title=Breed information centre – the English setter |url=http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/services/public/breed/display.aspx?id=2033 |publisher=The Kennel Club |access-date=27 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906172010/http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/display.aspx?id=2033 |archive-date=6 September 2013 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=Training>
{{cite web |title=Training your English Setter |url=http://www.esaa.com/docs/english101pt2.pdf |publisher=English Setter Association of America |p=82 |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812185017/http://esaa.com/docs/english101pt2.pdf |archive-date=12 August 2015 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=KChealth>
{{cite web |title=English Setter health |url=http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/services/public/breed/health.aspx?id=2033 |publisher=[[The Kennel Club]] |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219010019/http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/health.aspx?id=2033 |archive-date=19 February 2014 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=Deaf>
{{cite web |url=http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/incidenc.htm |title=Breed-Specific Deafness Incidence In Dogs (percent) |publisher=Lsu.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128021739/http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/incidenc.htm |date=23 June 2010 |access-date=5 September 2010 |archive-date=28 January 2013 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=ESAdeaf>
{{cite web |title=Deafness |url=http://www.englishsetterassociation.co.uk/deafness.html |publisher=English Setter Association |access-date=9 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510112046/http://www.englishsetterassociation.co.uk/deafness.html |archive-date=10 May 2013 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=OFFA>
{{cite web |title=Thyroid statistics |url=http://www.offa.org/stats_thy.html |publisher=[[Orthopedic Foundation for Animals]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530163808/http://www.offa.org/stats_thy.html |archive-date=30 May 2013 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=ESAhypothyroid>
{{cite web |title=Canine Hypothyroidism |url=http://www.englishsetterassociation.co.uk/thyroidism.html |publisher=English Setter Association |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510102352/http://www.englishsetterassociation.co.uk/thyroidism.html |archive-date=10 May 2013 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=ESAskin>
{{cite web |title=Skin problems |url=http://www.englishsetterassociation.co.uk/skin.html |publisher=English Setter Association |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515070152/http://www.englishsetterassociation.co.uk/skin.html |archive-date=15 May 2013 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=KCABS>
{{cite web |title=Kennel Club Accredited Breeder Scheme changes its name to Assured Breeder Scheme |url=http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/3839/pg_dtl_art_news/pg_hdr_art/pg_ftr_art |publisher=[[The Kennel Club]] |access-date=6 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604173037/http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/3839/pg_dtl_art_news/pg_hdr_art/pg_ftr_art |archive-date=4 June 2013 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=UKAS>
{{cite web |title=UKAS accreditation for KC's Assured Breeder Scheme |url=http://www.dogworld.co.uk/product.php/90593 |publisher=[[Dog World (newspaper)|Dog World]] |access-date=6 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923224101/http://www.dogworld.co.uk/product.php/90593 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=KCscheme>
{{cite web |title=Scheme outline |url=http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/4778 |publisher=The Kennel Club |access-date=6 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928012156/http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/breeding/assured-breeder-scheme/scheme-requirements-and-recommendations/ |archive-date=28 September 2015 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=ESAinfo>
{{cite web |title=English Setter health information |url=http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/services/public/breed/health.aspx?id=2033&uDesc=2 |publisher=[[The Kennel Club]] | access-date=28 October 2012 |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=screen>
{{cite web |title=Breed-specific requirements and recommendations including health screening |url=http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/download/1100/abshealthreqs.pdf |publisher=The Kennel Club |access-date=6 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811091533/http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/download/1100/abshealthreqs.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2013 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name="KCsurvey">
{{cite web |title=Summary results of the purebred dog health survey for English Setters |url=http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/download/1546/hsenglishsetter.pdf |publisher=[[The Kennel Club]] |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720092144/http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/download/1546/hsenglishsetter.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2013|url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name="AKC">
{{cite web |title=English Setter history |url=http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/english-setter/detail/#history |publisher=[[American Kennel Club]] |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150823015058/http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/english-setter/detail/ |archive-date=23 August 2015 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=AKCsetters>
{{cite web |title=The Setters |url=http://www.akc.org/breeds/featured_breed/setters/fb_setters.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040715012558/http://www.akc.org/breeds/featured_breed/setters/fb_setters.cfm |archive-date=15 July 2004 |url-status=dead |publisher=[[American Kennel Club]] |access-date=11 May 2013 |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=Lotus>
{{cite journal |title=The sporting dog – American Llewellin and Laverack setters |newspaper=The Lotus Magazine |date=October 1916 |jstor=20543767 |volume=8}}{{subscription required}}
</ref>

<ref name=Field>
{{cite journal |journal=[[Field & Stream]] |date=May 1971 |volume=LXXVI |issue=1 |p=192 |title=Greatest dog book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=KzqL-8JnP0IC&pg=PA192&lpg=PA192&dq=Horace+Lytle,+editor+Field+and+Stream#v=onepage&q=Horace%20Lytle%2C%20editor%20Field%20and%20Stream&f=false |access-date=28 April 2013}}
</ref>

<ref name=journal>
{{cite journal |last=Turner |first=T. C. |title=The Setter |journal=Art & Life |date=November 1919 |volume=11 |issue=5 |p=278 |jstor=20643788}}{{subscription required}}
</ref>

<ref name=Jim>
{{cite web |last=Ferguson |first=Henry N. |title=Jim the wonder dog |url=http://www.ruralmissouri.org/2010Pages/10MarchJimWonderDog.html |publisher=Rural Missouri |access-date=13 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906203431/http://www.ruralmissouri.org/2010Pages/10MarchJimWonderDog.html |archive-date=6 September 2013 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name="Pheasant">
{{cite web |title=Bird dog breeds |url=http://www.pheasantsforever.org/page/1/dogbreeds.jsp |publisher=Pheasant Forever |access-date=7 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514085727/http://www.pheasantsforever.org/page/1/dogbreeds.jsp |archive-date=14 May 2013 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=GDGS>
{{cite web |title=Gundogs |url=http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/services/public/breed/Default.aspx?group=GDGS |publisher=The Kennel Club |access-date=11 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906175309/http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/Default.aspx?group=GDGS |archive-date=6 September 2013 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=AKCbreeds>
{{cite web |title=AKC Breeds by group – sporting |url=http://www.akc.org/breeds/sporting_group.cfm |publisher=American Kennel Club |access-date=20 October 2012 |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=CKCbreeds>{{cite web |title=CKC Breeds & Abbreviations, Group 1, Sporting |url=http://www.ckc.ca/en/Files/Forms/Shows-Trials/Breed-Standards/Group-1-Sporting |publisher=Canadian Kennel Club |access-date=20 October 2012 |mode=cs2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109080706/http://www.ckc.ca/en/Files/Forms/Shows-Trials/Breed-Standards/Group-1-Sporting |archive-date=9 January 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=FCIgroups>
{{cite web |title=Group 7 |url=http://fci.be/nomenclature.aspx?lang=en |publisher=[[Fédération Cynologique Internationale]] |access-date=11 May 2013 |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=KCregs>
{{cite web |title=Regulations for entries in the Stud Book, Champions and Warrants |url=http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/download/7464/A3370-Regs-K.pdf |publisher=The Kennel Club |access-date=7 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016072337/http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/download/7464/A3370-Regs-K.pdf |archive-date=16 October 2012 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=Time>
{{cite news |title=1 of 3,093 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,759129-3,00.html |publisher=Time, 21 Feb 1938 |access-date=11 April 2010 |date=21 February 1938 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407143422/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,759129-3,00.html |archive-date=7 April 2014 |url-status=live |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=Radcliff>
{{cite web |last=Radcliff |first=Cassandra |title=Looking Back: The 1938 Westminster Kennel Club Show |url=http://www.dogchannel.com/dog-shows/westminster-dog-show/1938-westminster-dog-show-history.aspx |publisher=Dog Channel |access-date=13 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407074844/http://www.dogchannel.com/dog-shows/westminster-dog-show/1938-westminster-dog-show-history.aspx |archive-date=7 April 2014 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=Fernandez>{{cite web |last=Fernandez |first=Amy |title=This Year's Top Dogs |url=http://www.dogchannel.com/show/history-in-the-making-westminster-2008.aspx |publisher=Dogchannel.com |access-date=9 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923215717/http://www.dogchannel.com/show/history-in-the-making-westminster-2008.aspx |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2 }}</ref>

<ref name=Westminster>{{cite web |title=Best in show winners |url=http://www.westminsterkennelclub.org/history/biswinners.html |publisher=Westminster Kennel Club |access-date=9 October 2012 |mode=cs2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225033923/http://westminsterkennelclub.org/history/biswinners.html |archive-date=25 December 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=Adonis>{{cite web |title=English Setter |url=http://www.westminsterkennelclub.org/breedinformation/sporting/engsett.html |publisher=Westminster Kennel Club |access-date=13 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317160354/http://www.westminsterkennelclub.org/breedinformation/sporting/engsett.html |archive-date=17 March 2013 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2 }}</ref>

<ref name=bbcengsetter>
{{cite news |last=Rincon |first=Paul |title=UK native dog breeds 'at risk of extinction' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-16665702 |access-date=28 February 2012 |newspaper=BBC News |date=25 January 2012 |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=2002regs>
{{cite web |title=Comparative tables of registrations for the years 2002 – 2011 inclusive |url=http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/download/5669/10yrstatsgundog.pdf |publisher=the Kennel Club |access-date=14 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531093858/http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/download/5669/10yrstatsgundog.pdf |archive-date=31 May 2012 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=regsdown>
{{cite web |title=Registrations go down by six per cent |url=http://www.dogworld.co.uk/product.php/86666 |publisher=Dog World newspaper |access-date=27 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313042810/http://www.dogworld.co.uk/product.php/86666 |archive-date=13 March 2016 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=ENCI>
{{cite web |url=http://www.enci.it/libroorigini/statistiche.php?&anno=2011&gruppo=7 |title=Statistiche della popolazione canina iscritta all'ENCI |publisher=ENCI |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030083425/http://enci.it/libroorigini/statistiche.php?&anno=2011&gruppo=7 |archive-date=30 October 2012 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2}}
</ref>

<ref name=AKCnews>
{{cite web |title=AKC news |url=http://www.akc.org/press_center/article.cfm?article_id=4592 |publisher=[[American Kennel Club]] |access-date=13 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526072213/http://www.akc.org/press_center/article.cfm?article_id=4592 |archive-date=26 May 2013 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name=AKCregs>{{cite web |title=Dog registration statistics |url=http://www.akc.org//reg/dogreg_stats.cfm |publisher=[[American Kennel Club]] |access-date=7 May 2013 |mode=cs2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502044346/http://www.akc.org/reg/dogreg_stats.cfm |archive-date=2 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="DW 2015 regs">
{{cite web |title=2015 registrations show slight fall – two more breeds become 'vulnerable' |publisher=Dog World |url=http://www.dogworld.co.uk/product.php/152780/1/2015_registrations_show_slight_fall_%E2%80%93_two_more_breeds_become_%E2%80%98vulnerable%E2%80%99 |access-date=22 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006153045/http://www.dogworld.co.uk/product.php/152780/1/2015_registrations_show_slight_fall_%E2%80%93_two_more_breeds_become_%E2%80%98vulnerable%E2%80%99 |archive-date=6 October 2016 |url-status=dead |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

<ref name="KC VNB 2015">
{{cite web |title=Vulnerable Native Breeds |publisher=The Kennel Club |url=http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/getting-a-dog-or-puppy/finding-the-right-dog/vulnerable-native-breeds/ |access-date=22 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181308/http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/getting-a-dog-or-puppy/finding-the-right-dog/vulnerable-native-breeds/ |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live |mode=cs2 }}
</ref>

}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation |first=Derry |last=Argue |title=Pointers and setters |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KcWtPAAACAAJ |year=1993 |publisher=Swan Hill Press |isbn=978-1-85310-239-4 }}
*{{citation |first=M. Ingle |last=Bepler |title=Setters, Irish, English, and Gordon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NOooNgAACAAJ |year=1930 |publisher="Our Dogs" Publishing Company }}
*{{citation |first=Patricia |last=Brigden |title=The Irish Red and White Setter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CdBHAAAACAAJ |year=1990 |publisher=Dickson Price |isbn=978-0-85380-127-6}}
*{{citation |first=Stanley |last=Coren |title=The intelligence of dogs: a guide to the thoughts, emotions, and inner lives or our canine companions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbL3OjnOemAC |year=1995 |publisher=Bantam Books |isbn=978-0-553-37452-0}}
*{{citation |last=Cunliffe |first=Juliette |title=English Setter |year=2001 |publisher=Interpet |location=Surrey, UK |isbn=1-903098-71-8}}
*{{citation |first=E. |last=Farrar |title=Every woman's encyclopaedia (ca. 1910-ca. 1912) |url=https://archive.org/stream/everywomansencyc07londuoft#page/5132/mode/2up/search/Farrar |year=1910}}
*{{citation |first=Valerie |last=Foss |title=English Setter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-brgz_-lI4wC |year=1977 |publisher=John Gifford Limited |isbn=978-0-7071-0579-6}}
*{{citation |first=Joseph A. |last= Graham |title=The Sporting Dog ... With Many Illustrations |url=https://archive.org/stream/sportingdog00grah#page/50/mode/2up |year=1904}}
*{{citation |last=Jackson |first=Frank |title=Crufts: The Official History |year=1990 |publisher=Pelham Books |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e2sePQAACAAJ |isbn=0-7207-1889-9}}
*{{citation |first=Frank |last=Kane |title=Judging the gundog breeds |year=2009 |publisher=Ibex |isbn=978-0-9564135-0-5}}
*{{citation |first=Horace |last=Lytle |title=How to train your bird dog |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_hUAAAAYAAJ&dq=editions%3ATW_O-yYYGyYC&q=Llewellin#search_anchor |publisher=A. F. Hochwalt Co (reprinted 1956) |year=1956}}
*{{citation |last=Roberts |first=Janice |title=The Irish Setter |year=1978 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LWg6QAAACAAJ |chapter=Setters at work, by Auriel Mason |publisher=Popular Dogs Publishing |location=London |isbn=0-09-129700-1}}
*{{citation |first=Steve |last=Smith |title=The Encyclopedia of North American Sporting Dogs: Written by Sportsmen for Sportsmen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d4FnXfnoc-IC |year=2002 |publisher=Willow Creek Press |isbn=978-1-57223-501-4}}
*{{citation |first=Vince |last= Stead |title=English Setter Dog Training and Understanding Their Behavior Book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Br1U_P26cQkC |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-300-80340-9}}
*{{citation |last=Truman |first=R.F. |title=Revision of Working Gordon setters |year=1993 |publisher=Weardale Publishing & Printing |location=County Durham, UK |isbn=1-897822-01-4}}
*{{citation |first=James |last=Watson |title=The Dog Book: A Popular History of the Dog |url=https://archive.org/stream/dogbookpopularhi01watsrich#page/118/mode/2up |year=1906 |publisher=Doubleday, Page}}
*{{citation |first=Malcolm B. |last=Willis |title=Genetics of the Dog |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoMOPQAACAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Howell Book House |isbn=978-0-87605-551-9}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
*{{citation |first=Margaret |last= Barnes |title=English Setters Ancient and Modern: Their History in the Field and on the Bench and Their General Care |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbsYAAAACAAJ |year=1982 |publisher=Muffin Books |isbn=978-0-9507887-0-8 |ref=none}}

== External links ==
{{commons category}}
*{{dmoz|/Recreation/Pets/Dogs/Breeds/Sporting-Gundog_Group/English_Setter/}}

{{Gundogs}}
{{English dogs}}
[[Category:Dog breeds originating in England]]
[[Category:FCI breeds]]
[[Category:Gundogs]]

Maremmano-Abruzzese Sheepdog

2020-04-16T01:33:00Z

118.46.55.151:

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2011}}
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| image = Cane Pastore Abruzzese Abruzzo.jpg
| image_caption = A working Maremmano on the Gran Sasso of Abruzzo, Italy
| altname = Cane da Pastore Maremmano-Abruzzese Pastore Abruzzese Pastore Maremmano Abruzzo Sheepdog Abruzzese Sheepdog
| ankcgroup = Group 5 (Working Dogs)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/maremma.html
| country = [[Italy]]
| fcigroup = 1
| fcinum = 201
| fcisection = 1 Sheepdogs
| fcistd = http://www.fci.be/Nomenclature/Standards/201g01-en.pdf
| kcukgroup = Pastoral
| kcukstd = http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/141
| name = Maremma-Abruzzese Sheepdog
| nickname = Maremma, Maremmano, Abruzzese sheepdog
| nzkcgroup = Working
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br531.html
| weight =
| maleweight = {{convert|75|to|100|lb|kg}}<ref name=wagwalking>{{Cite news|title=Maremma Sheepdog-Dog Breed Facts and Information|URL=https://wagwalking.com/breed/maremma-sheepdog|publisher=Wag! Dog Walking|accessdate=2020-04-16}}</ref>
| femaleweight = {{convert|65|to|90|lb|kg}}<ref name=wagwalking/>
| height =
| maleheight = {{convert|26|to|29|in|cm|0}}<ref name=wagwalking/>
| femaleheight = {{convert|24|to|27|in|cm|0}}<ref name=wagwalking/>
| ukcgroup = [[Guardian Dog Group|Guardian Dog]]
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/Web.nsf/Breeds/GuardianDog/MaremmaSheepdog
| coat = long and waving double coat<ref name=wagwalking/>
| color = white<ref name=wagwalking/>
|note = [http://www.cpma.it/lo-standard/ Pastore Maremmano-Abruzzese – Italian Breed Standard]
}}

The '''Maremma Sheepdog''' or '''Maremmano-Abruzzese Sheepdog''' ({{lang-it|'''{{noitalic|Cane da pastore Maremmano-Abruzzese}}'''}}), usually referred to simply as the '''Maremmano''' or '''Abruzzese Sheepdog''', is a breed of [[livestock guardian dog]] indigenous to [[central Italy]], particularly to [[Abruzzo]] and the [[Maremma]] region of [[Tuscany]] and [[Lazio]]. It has been used for centuries by Italian shepherds to guard sheep from [[Gray wolf|wolves]]. The literal English translation of the name is "The dog of the shepherds of the Maremma and Abruzzese region". The English name of the breed derives from that of the Maremma marshlands, where, until recently, shepherds, dogs and hundreds of thousands of sheep over-wintered,<ref name=etrusc>{{cite book|last=Barker|first=Graeme|title=The Etruscans|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|author2=Tom Rasmussen|page=33}}</ref> and where the breed is today abundant although sheep-farming has decreased substantially. The breed is widely employed in [[Abruzzo]], where [[Shepherd|sheep herding]] remains vital to the rural economy and the wolf remains an active and protected [[predator]]. Similar breeds include the [[Pyrenean Mountain Dog]], the [[Kuvasz]] of [[Hungary]], the [[Polish Tatra Sheepdog|Tatra]] of [[Poland]], the [[Slovak Cuvac|Cuvac]] of [[Slovakia]] and the [[Šarplaninac]] (although not white), with all of which it may share a common ancestor;{{r|ancona|origini}} and the [[Akbash Dog]] of [[Turkey]].

==History==

===Ancient history and iconography===
Descriptions of white sheep defense dogs are found in ancient Roman literature, in works such as those of [[Columella]], [[Varro]] and [[Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus Palladius|Palladius]]. Similar dogs are depicted in numerous sculptures and paintings from Roman times to the present.<ref>[http://www.pastoreabruzzese.it/medioevo.htm Dal Medioevo al 1800]</ref> Among the earliest is the series of large statues (two in Rome, one in Florence, one – the [[Duncombe Dog]] – in England) copied from a [[Hellenistic]] bronze from [[Pergamon]].<ref name=breber/>
Iconographic sources that have been identified as relevant to the history of the Maremmano include:<ref name=breber/>
* A Hellenistic [[bas-relief]], of which a drawing was published by [[Max von Stephanitz]] in 1901<ref name=steph/>
* A [[votive]] [[statuette]] in the Museo Archeologico of [[Capua]]
* A 14th-century mediaeval [[fresco]] in the church of [[San Francesco]] in [[Amatrice]], at the foot of the [[Monti della Laga]], in the [[comune]] of [[Rieti]]; the dog wears a ''roccale''
* A 14th-century fresco in [[Santa Maria Novella]], in [[Florence]]
* A 'Nativity' of [[Mariotto di Nardo]] (active 1394–1424); the dog wears a spiked collar
* ''Abraham and Lot on their way into Canaan'' by [[Bartolo di Fredi|Bartolo Battiloro]], in the [[Collegiata di San Gimignano|Collegiata]] of [[San Gimignano]]
* A detail of the ''[[Magi chapel|Journey of the Magi to Bethlehem]]'' by [[Benozzo Gozzoli]], c.1460
* Rough ink drawings on the maps of the pasture-lands of the [[Tavoliere delle Puglie|Tavoliere di Foggia]] published in 1686 by Antonio and Nunzio Michele di Rovere
* A seventeenth-century engraving of the [[Roman campagna]] by [[Joannes van den Hecke]]
* An eighteenth-century [[maiolica]] of a bear-hunt by [[Candeloro Cappelletti]] (1689–1772) of [[Castelli, Abruzzo]]
* ''Hunting the Wolf'' by [[Jean-Baptiste Oudry]], 1746, from the collection of [[Louis XV]]; the dogs to the left and right of the wolf are described in a catalogue of the museum as "large dog[s] with long hair".<ref name=villot>V[illot], F[rédéric] (1855) [https://books.google.com/books?id=NZEZAAAAYAAJ ''Guide through the galleries of paintings of the Imperial museum of the Louvre''] Paris: De Soye and Bouchet, p.620, entry 387</ref> Wolf dogs from the Abruzzo were imported into France at about this time. They were used by François Antoine, "[[Antoine de Beauterne]]", in his successful hunt for the [[Beast of Gévaudan]] in 1765;<ref name=breber/> according to Gobin, under Louis XV (r.1715–1774) the Venerie Royale or Royal Hunt was composed in large part of Abruzzese wolf-dogs and [[Cane Corso|Sicilian mastiff]]s.<ref name=gobin/>
* The ''cane da lupo'' or wolf-dog used by Vincenzo Dandolo to defend Spanish sheep on the mountains above [[Varese]]<ref name=dandolo/>
* An illustration in the [[Penny Magazine]] of 1833<ref name=penny/>
* An engraving by [[Arthur John Strutt]] of a shepherd and his dog in the Roman campagna in 1843
* Several engravings by [[Charles Coleman (English painter)|Charles Coleman]] in his collection ''A Series of Subjects peculiar to the Campagna of Rome and Pontine Marshes''<ref name=series/>

<gallery mode=packed heights=200px style="text-align:left; font-size: 90%">
File:Dog statue in Vatican Museum.jpg|The ''canis pastoralis'' of Classical antiquity, in the [[Vatican Museum]]s; the ears are a restoration. See also the [[Jennings dog|Duncombe Dog]]
File:Mariotto di nardo, natività, 1385 ca..JPG|[[Mariotto di Nardo]], ''Natività'', ca. 1385, showing a white shepherd dog with a spiked collar
File:Gozzoli Magi Chapel shepherd detail.jpg|Detail of the ''[[Magi chapel|Journey of the Magi to Bethlehem]]'' by [[Benozzo Gozzoli]]
File:Wolf dogs of the Abruzzi.jpg|"Wolf dogs of the Abruzzi", illustration from the ''[[Penny Magazine]]'' of 1833
</gallery>

===Recent history===
[[File:Sheepdog of the Abruzzes from 1915.JPG|thumb|Sheepdog of the Abruzzes circa 1915]]
The first registration of the Maremmano in the Libro delle Origini Italiano of the Kennel Club Italiano, as it was then called, was of four dogs in 1898. There were no further registrations for many years. In 1940 there were 17 dogs registered. The first standard for the breed was drawn up in 1924 by Luigi Groppi and Giuseppe Solaro.<ref name=franco/>

Until 1958 the Pastore Maremmano, or shepherd dog of the Maremma, and the Pastore Abruzzese, or shepherd dog of the Abruzzi, were regarded as separate breeds. A breeder's society for the Pastore Abruzzese was formed in 1950, and one for the Maremmano in 1953. On 1 January 1958 the breeds were unified by the [[Italian Kennel Club|ENCI]], the Ente Nazionale della Cinofilia Italiano, the national dog association of Italy. The explanation given is that a "natural fusion" of the two types had occurred as a result of movement of the dogs due to [[transhumance]] of sheep flocks from one region to another, particularly after the [[Italian unification|unification of Italy]].<ref name=enci/> Until 1860, the mountains of the Abruzzo and the plains of the Maremma lay in different countries.

As sheep farming developed into an annual trek or transhumance from mountain grasslands of Abruzzo and Molise (and other parts of central Italy) south to lower pasture land in [[Puglia]] where sheep were over-wintered{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}, the dogs came to play a central role in the centuries-old migration, an annual event vital to Abruzzese culture. Maremmano dogs continue to be widely used by Italian sheep farmers in areas where predation is common, such as the Apennines of central Italy and the open range land of national parks in Abruzzo. Besides their wide use in Italy, Maremma Sheepdogs are extensively used as [[livestock guardian dog]]s in Australia, Canada and the United States.<ref>[http://www.canids.org/occasionalpapers/livestockguardingdog.pdf Livestock guarding dogs: their current use world wide by Robin Rigg 2001] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630071430/http://www.canids.org/occasionalpapers/livestockguardingdog.pdf |date=30 June 2007 }}</ref>

== Characteristics ==
[[File:Maremma large head.jpg|thumbnail|Maremma Sheepdog]]
The Maremmano has a solid, muscular build, a thick white coat, a large head and a black nose. According to the breed standard, males should weigh {{convert|35|to|45|kg}} and stand {{convert|65|to|73|cm|in|0}} at the shoulder, while females weigh {{convert|30|to|40|kg}} and stand {{convert|60|to|68|cm|in|0}}. Some dogs may be considerably larger. The coat is long and thick; it is rough to the touch, and forms a thick collar around the neck. It should be solid white; some minor yellowing may be tolerated.<ref name=standard/>

Some divide the breed into various subtypes, largely based on small differences in physical attributes and with subtype names based on village and provincial names where the dogs may be found, e.g. the Maremmano, the Marsicano, the Aquilano, the Pescocostanzo, the Maiella, and the Peligno.<ref>[http://www.abruzzese.org/type.htm Abruzzese Shepherd Dog - Types and Subtypes by Marco Petrella]</ref> However, [[biologist]]s dispute this division, as well as over reliance on minor physical differences, as the dogs were bred over the centuries for their behavioral characteristics as flock guardians.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}

==Use==
{| style="float: right; border: 1px solid #BBB; margin: .46em 0 0 .2em;"
|- style="font-size: 86%;"
| valign="top" |[[File:Roccale 2.jpg|250px]] A ''roccale'' of a different type
|}
{| style="float: right; border: 1px solid #BBB; margin: .46em 0 0 .2em;"
|- style="font-size: 86%;"
| valign="top" |[[File:Roccale 1.jpg|250px]] The ''roccale'' or ''vreccale'', a spiked iron collar
|}
The traditional use of the Maremma sheepdog is as a guardian for the protection of sheep flocks against wolves. [[Columella]], writing in the first century AD, recommends white dogs for this purpose, as the shepherd can easily distinguish them from the wolf, while [[Varro]] suggests that white dogs have a "lion-like aspect" in the dark.<ref>cited in: Lorna Coppinger and Raymond Coppinger, ''Dogs: A New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution'' (2002), University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|0-226-11563-1}}, page 120.</ref> The dogs work in groups; three or four dogs are an adequate defense against wolves and stray dogs. Their function is mostly one of dissuasion, actual physical combat with the predator being relatively rare.<ref name=cpma/> Nevertheless, working dogs may be fitted with a ''[[roccale]]'' (or ''vreccale''), a spiked iron collar which protects the neck in combat. The ears of working dogs are normally [[Ear cropping|cropped]].

==Training==
Maremma used as livestock guardian dogs are introduced to sheep flocks as puppies so they bond to the sheep. Some ranchers place Maremma puppies as young as 3–4 weeks old with young lambs, but beginning this bonding process at 7–8 weeks is more typical.<ref name=usda/> Although it is easiest to bond Maremma to sheep and goats, cattle ranchers have found that the dogs bond with cows and Maremma are increasingly used to protect range cattle.<ref>Coppinger, R. and L. Coppinger. 1995. Interaction between livestock guarding dogs and wolves. Pages 523–526 in L.N. Carbyn, S.H. Fritts and D.R. Seip, editors. Wolves in a changing world. Canadian Circumpolar Institute, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.</ref> Some ranchers have successfully trained Maremmas to protect free-range fowl, such as chickens, from predation from ground threats such as coyotes, stray dogs and foxes as well as aerial threats such as raptors (hawks, eagles, owls, etc.).{{cn|date=August 2017}}

In [[Warrnambool]], [[Australia]], the world's first trial using a Maremma to guard a dwindling [[little penguin]] population on [[Middle Island (Warrnambool)|Middle Island]] <ref>[http://www.warrnambool.vic.gov.au/page/page.asp?page_Id=527 Warrnambool City Council: "Penguin numbers up after world-first maremma trial"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516121926/http://www.warrnambool.vic.gov.au/page/page.asp?page_Id=527 |date=16 May 2011 }}</ref> against fox attack, commenced in 2006. This project won the 2010 Australian Government Coastcare Award.<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/rural/news/content/201006/s2934574.htm</ref> While using Maremma to guard an endangered species is rare, Maremma, along with other breeds of livestock guarding dogs, are appreciated by environmentalists because they make it possible for livestock to co-exist with predators such as wolves and coyotes, reducing their predation by 70% to 80% or more.<ref name=usda/>

==See also==
* [[Abruzzese Mastiff]]

==References==
{{Commons|Cane da pastore Maremmano-Abruzzese}}
{{reflist|45em|refs=

<ref name=ancona>{{cite book|last=Ancona|first=George|title=Sheep Dog|year=1985|publisher=Lothrop, Lee & Shepard|location=New York|isbn=9780688041199|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=me8BTtu8J8fQsgaemMj7DA|edition=1st}}</ref>

<ref name=breber>Breber, Paolo (1983) ''Il Cane da Pastore Maremmano-Abruzzese'' 2nd edition. Firenze: Olimpia (in Italian) "The Maremmano-Abruzzese shepherd dog"</ref>

<ref name=series>Coleman, Charles (1850) ''A Series of Subjects peculiar to the Campagna of Rome and Pontine Marshes, designed from nature and etched by C. Coleman'' Rome: [s.n.]</ref>

<ref name=cpma>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131105174928/http://www.cpma.it/lavoro.php?a1=3 Caratteristiche del Cane da difesa del gregge] (in Italian). Circolo del Pastore Maremmano - Abruzzese. Archived 5 November 2013.</ref>

<ref name=dandolo>Dandolo, Conte Vincenzo (1804) ''Del governo delle pecore spagnuole e italiane e dei vantaggi che ne derivano'' Milano: L. Veladini (in Italian) "Of the management of Spanish sheep and of the advantages they offer"; cited by Breber (1983), pp.173–175</ref>

<ref name=enci>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170622231543/http://www.enci.it/media/2468/201.pdf Standard del cane da pastore maremmano abruzzese] (in Italian). Ente Nazionale dell Cinofilia Italiana. Archived 22 June 2016.</ref>

<ref name=franco>Franco Simoni (1987). [http://www.tipresentoilcane.com/2012/11/23/speciale-cane-da-pastore-maremmano-abruzzese-storia-ed-etimologia/ "Storia ed etimologia"] (in Italian), in: Fiorenzo Fiorone (1987). ''I pastori italiani: il maremmano-abruzzese e il bergamasco''. Milano: De Vecchi Editore. {{ISBN|978-88-412-2316-1}}.</ref>

<ref name=gobin>Gobin, Alphonse (1869) ''Traité pratique du chien; histoire, races, emploi, hygiène et maladies'' Paris: Mme Ve. Bouchard-Huzard (in French) "Practical treatise of the dog; history, races, use, health and illness"; cited by Breber (1983), p.27</ref>

<ref name=origini>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160825233508/http://www.cpma.it/lavoro.php?a1=2 Le Origini del cane Pastore - Maremmano Abruzzese (in Italian). Circolo del Pastore Maremmano - Abruzzese. Archived 25 August 2016.</ref>

<ref name=penny>Knight, Charles (1833) (ed.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=e1kFAAAAQAAJ ''Penny magazine of the Society for the diffusion of useful knowledge'' Volume 2] London: Charles Knight p.200</ref>

<ref name=standard>[https://web.archive.org/web/20171031231404/http://www.cpma.it/lo-standard/ Cane da pastore Maremmano Abruzzese - Lo Standard] (in Italian). Circolo del Pastore Maremmano - Abruzzese. Archived 31 October 2017.</ref>

<ref name=steph>Stephanitz, Max von (1901) ''Der deutsche Schäferhund in Wort und Bild: Herausgegeben im Auftrage des Vereins für deutsche Schäferhunde'' (in German) Augsburg: Lampart</ref>

<ref name=usda>[http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/companimals/guarddogs/guarddogs.htm USDA Livestock Guarding Dogs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327143041/http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/companimals/guarddogs/guarddogs.htm |date=27 March 2012 }}</ref>

}}

{{Italian dogs}}
{{Livestock guardians}}

[[Category:FCI breeds]]
[[Category:Dog breeds originating in Italy]]
[[Category:Livestock guardian dogs]]

Mata mata

2020-04-14T02:16:47Z

118.46.55.151: /* Reproduction */

{{other uses|Matamata (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|species of freshwater turtle}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Mata mata
| image = 2009 Chelus fimbriatus.JPG
| image_caption = Shanghai Aquarium
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Pliocene|Recent}}
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=ttwg>{{cite journal| url=http://images.turtleconservancy.org/documents/2017/crm-7-checklist-atlas-v8-2017.pdf |title=Turtles of the world, 2017 update: Annotated checklist and atlas of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution, and conservation status(8th Ed.)| journal=Chelonian Research Monographs| volume=7| accessdate=October 4, 2019| date=August 3, 2017| last1=Rhodin | first1=Anders G.J. |last2=Inverson |first2=John B. |last3=Roger |first3=Bour |last4=Fritz |first4=Uwe |last5=Georges |first5=Arthur |last6=Shaffer |first6=H. Bradley |last7=van Dijk |first7=Peter Paul| collaboration=[[Turtle Taxonomy Working Group]]| series=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group| edition=8| editor1=Rhodin A G.J. |editor2=Iverson J.B. |editor3=van Dijk P.P. |editor4=Saumure R.A. |editor5=Buhlmann K.A. |editor6=[[Peter Pritchard|Pritchard P.C.H.]] |editor7=[[Russell Mittermeier|Mittermeier R.A.]]| pages=1–292| ISBN=978-1-5323-5026-9| doi=10.3854/crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017}}</ref>
| display_parents = 2
| genus = Chelus
| parent_authority = Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806>Duméril, A.M.C. 1806. Zoologie Analytique, ou Méthode Naturelle de Classification des Animaux. Paris: Perronneau, 344 pp.</ref>
| species = fimbriata
| authority = ([[Johann Gottlob Schneider|Schneider]], 1783)<ref name=sch83>Schneider, J.G. 1783. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Schildkröten, nebst einem Systematischen Verseichnisse der einzelnen Arten. Müller, Leipzig. xlviii + 364 p.</ref>
| synonyms =
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Genus Synonymy}}}}
*''Chelus'' Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806 />
*''Chelys'' Oppel, 1811 (nomen novum)<ref name=oppel11>Oppel, M. 1811. Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gattungen der Reptilien als Prodrom einer Naturgeschichte derselben. München: J. Lindauer, 86 pp.</ref>
*''Chelyda'' Rafinesque, 1815 (nomen novum)
*''Matamata'' Merrem, 1820 (nomen novum)
{{hidden end}}
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Species Synonymy}}}}
* ''Testudo terrestris'' Fermin, 1765 ''Nomen rejectum''<ref name=iczn1963>ICZN. 1963. Opinion 660. Suppression under the plenary powers of seven specific names of turtles (Reptilia: Testudines). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 20:187-190.</ref>
* ''Testudo fimbriata'' Schneider, 1783<ref name=sch83 />
* ''Testudo fimbria'' Gmelin, 1789 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo matamata'' Bruguière, 1792 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo bispinosa'' Daudin, 1801 ''nomen novum''
* ''Emydes matamata'' Brongniart, 1805
* ''Chelus fimbriata'' (Schneider, 1783) recombination<ref name=dum1806 />
* ''Testudo rapara'' Gray, 1831 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raparara'' Gray, 1844 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raxarara'' Gray, 1856 ''nomen novum''
* ''Chelys boulengerii'' Baur, 1890 ''nomen novum''
{{hidden end}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="ttwg" /><ref name="Fritz 2007">{{Cite journal|journal=Vertebrate Zoology |title=Checklist of Chelonians of the World |year=2007 |author=Fritz Uwe |author2=Peter Havaš |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=327 |issn=1864-5755 |url=http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501060224/http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archivedate=1 May 2011 |accessdate=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| range_map = Chelus fimbriatus distribution map.png
| range_map_caption = Mata mata distribution
}}

The '''mata mata''', '''mata-mata''', or '''matamata''' (''Chelus fimbriata'')<ref name="ttwg"/><ref>[http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php Giant fossil matamata turtles (matamatas part V)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011173155/http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php |date=2011-10-11 }}, Tetrapod Zoology</ref> is a freshwater [[turtle]] found in [[South America]], primarily in the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins. It is the only [[extant taxon|extant]] species in the genus '''''Chelus'''''. The name '''Mata mata''' is meaning "I kill, I kill" in Spanish language.<ref name=acaquarium>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle|URL=https://www.acaquarium.com/animals/matamata-turtle/|publisher=Atlantic City Aquarium|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=allturtles>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle (Chelus fimbriata)|URL=https://www.allturtles.com/matamata-turtle/|publisher=All Turtles|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The mata mata was described for the first time by French [[naturalist]] [[Pierre Barrère]] in 1741 as a "large land turtle with spiky and ridged scales" (translation).<ref name="Espenshade">
{{citation
| last = Espenshade III
| first = William H
| title = Matamata, Chelus fimbriatus
| journal = Tortuga Gazette
| volume=26
| year= 1990
| pages=3–5
| issue =5
}}
</ref> It was first classified as ''Testudo fimbriata'' by [[Germany|German]] naturalist [[Johann Gottlob Schneider]] in 1783. It was renamed 14 different times in two centuries, finally being renamed ''Chelus fimbriata'' in 1992.<ref name="ttwg"/><ref name="Espenshade"/><ref>[http://www.tortoise.org/archives/matamata.html Matamata, ''Chelus fimbriatus''], California Turtle & Tortoise Club</ref><ref>[http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species.php?genus=Chelus&species=fimbriatus ''Chelus fimbriata''], The Reptile Database</ref>

==Anatomy and morphology==
[[File:Mata Mata 1911.jpg|thumb|left|Top view of the mata mata turtle]]
The mata mata is a large, sedentary turtle with a large, triangular, flattened head with many [[tubercle (anatomy)|tubercle]]s and flaps of skin, and a "horn" on its long and tubular snout.<ref name="Espenshade"/> Three [[barbel (anatomy)|barbel]]s occur on the chin and four additional filamentous barbels at the upper jaw, which is neither hooked nor notched.<ref name="Bartlett">
{{citation
| last = Bartlett
| first = Dick
| title = The Matamata
| journal = Reptiles Magazine
| volume=15
| year= 2007
| pages=18–20
| issue =12
}}
</ref>

The mata mata's [[brown]] or [[black]], oblong [[carapace]] can measure up to {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} at adult age.<ref name="description">{{in lang|fr}} ''Toutes les tortues du monde'' by Franck Bonin, Bernard Devaux and Alain Dupré, second edition (1998), editions Delachaux and Niestlé/WWF.</ref><ref name=ADW>{{Cite news|title=Chelus fimbriatus: INFORMATION|URL=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Chelus_fimbriatus/|publisher=ADW|accessdate=2020-04-14}}</ref> The full adult weight is {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="description" /> The mata mata's [[plastron]] is reduced, narrowed, hingeless, shortened towards the front, and deeply notched at the rear with narrow bridges.<ref name="Bartlett"/> These may be meant to allow the turtle to resemble a piece of bark, camouflaging it from possible predators.<ref>Encyclopedia of Animals: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians, Harold G. Cogger, Edwin Gould, Joseph Forshaw</ref> The plastron and bridges are cream to [[yellow]] or brown.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

The head, neck, tail, and limbs are grayish brown on adults.<ref name="Bartlett"/> The neck is longer than the vertebra under its carapace and is fringed with small skin flaps along both sides.<ref name="Bartlett"/> Hatchlings show a pink to reddish tinge in the underside edge of their carapaces and plastrons that gradually disappear as they grow.

Each fore foot has five webbed claws. Males have concave plastrons and longer, thicker tails than females.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

==Habitat==
The mata mata inhabits slow moving, blackwater streams, [[stagnant (water)|stagnant]] pools, marshes, and swamps ranging into northern [[Bolivia]], eastern [[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], eastern [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], the [[Guianas]], and northern and central [[Brazil]]. The mata mata is strictly an aquatic species but it prefers standing in shallow water where its snout can reach the surface to breathe.<ref name="Rosenfeld">
{{citation
| last = Rosenfeld
| first = Arthur
| title = Exotic Pets
| publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]]
| location= New York
| pages = 153–155
| year= 1989
| isbn = 978-0-671-47654-0
}}
</ref>

==Behavior==
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus close.jpg|thumb|left|Head, in profile]]
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus.jpg|thumb]]
The appearance of the mata mata's shell resembles a piece of bark, and its head resembles fallen leaves.<ref name="Cogger"/> As it remains motionless in the water, its [[skin]] flaps enable it to blend into the surrounding vegetation until a fish comes close.<ref name="Cogger">
{{citation
| last = Cogger
| first = Harold
| authorlink = Harold Cogger
| last2 = Zweifel
| first2 = Richard
| title = Reptiles & Amphibians
| publisher = Weldon Owen
| location = [[Sydney, Australia]]
| page = [https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112 112]
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-0-8317-2786-4
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112
}}
</ref> The mata mata thrusts out its head and opens its large mouth as wide as possible, creating a low-pressure vacuum that sucks the prey into its mouth, known as [[suction feeding]].<ref name="Cogger"/> The mata mata snaps its mouth shut, the water is slowly expelled, and the fish is swallowed whole; the mata mata cannot chew due to the way its mouth is constructed.<ref name="Cogger"/>

==Reproduction==
Males display for females by extending their limbs, lunging their heads toward the females with mouths agape, and moving the lateral flaps on their heads. Nesting occurs from October through December in the [[Upper Amazon]].<ref name=acaquarium/><ref name=ADW/> The 12 to 28 brittle, spherical, 35 mm-diameter [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s are deposited in a clutch.<ref name=allturtles/> Incubatinon period lasts for about 200 days.<ref name=acaquarium/><ref name=ADW/> The lifespan is 40~75 years in captivity.<ref name=allturtles/>

==Diet==
{{Expand section|date=March 2018}}
The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic [[invertebrates]] and [[fish]].<ref name="Espenshade"/><ref name="Cogger"/> When the stomach content of 20 wild mata mata turtles was examined it consisted exclusively of small fish.The turtles predominantly feed at night in muddy water with limited visibility. However the turtle is well adapted to hunting in these conditions. The mata mata has very fine eyesight with eyes that reflect light, similar to other nocturnal reptiles. In addition, the skin flaps on the neck are also extremely sensitive and help the mata mata detect nearby movement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and tortoise preservation Group Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

Mata mata turtles use a specific method of seizing their prey. They will move the prey into shallower areas of water, surround the prey, and wave their front legs to prevent them from escaping. Once surrounded, the mata mata turtles will open their mouths and contract their pharynx, causing a rush of water that pushes the prey into their mouth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wise1, Formanowicz, Jr.2, Brodie, Jr.3|first=Scott C.1, Daniel R.2, Edmund D.3|date=September 1989|title=Matamata Turtles Ambush but Do Not Herd Prey|journal=Journal of Herpetology|volume=23, No. 3|issue=3|pages=297–299|doi=10.2307/1564454|jstor=1564454}}</ref>

==In captivity==
[[File:Mata mata NC.jpg|thumb|right|Mata mata turtles on exhibit at the [[North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences]] in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]].]]
Mata mata turtles are readily available in the exotic pet trade and are quite expensive to obtain. Due to their unique appearance, they make interesting display animals. They also grow quite large. However, mata matas are not active hunters, so, like the [[alligator snapping turtle]], they need less space than a large, active species.

As with all aquatic turtles, water quality is one of the keys to keeping this species successfully in captivity. Warm, acidic water is the best type used with a high [[tannin-stained waters|tannin content]] that should be maintained all year round. Moderate to heavy filtration is recommended.<ref>[http://www.theturtlesource.com/caresheet_Matamata_turtle.asp?id=100200348&type=333&ph=true Mata mata Care Sheet]</ref> Fogel considers his captive mata mata turtles to be quite intelligent. For example, he has observed one turtle positioning itself near the spray bar of the aquarium at feeding time so that floating food is pushed beneath the water's surface where the turtle can catch it more easily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and Tortoise Preservation group's Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Chelus fimbriatus}}

{{Pleurodira}}
{{Testudines}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q14566138|from2=Q317386}}

[[Category:Chelus]]
[[Category:Turtles of South America]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Amazon]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Brazil]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Colombia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Reptiles of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Guyana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Peru]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Suriname]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1783]]
[[Category:Extant Pliocene first appearances]]

Mata mata

2020-04-14T02:16:13Z

118.46.55.151: /* Anatomy and morphology */

{{other uses|Matamata (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|species of freshwater turtle}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Mata mata
| image = 2009 Chelus fimbriatus.JPG
| image_caption = Shanghai Aquarium
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Pliocene|Recent}}
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=ttwg>{{cite journal| url=http://images.turtleconservancy.org/documents/2017/crm-7-checklist-atlas-v8-2017.pdf |title=Turtles of the world, 2017 update: Annotated checklist and atlas of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution, and conservation status(8th Ed.)| journal=Chelonian Research Monographs| volume=7| accessdate=October 4, 2019| date=August 3, 2017| last1=Rhodin | first1=Anders G.J. |last2=Inverson |first2=John B. |last3=Roger |first3=Bour |last4=Fritz |first4=Uwe |last5=Georges |first5=Arthur |last6=Shaffer |first6=H. Bradley |last7=van Dijk |first7=Peter Paul| collaboration=[[Turtle Taxonomy Working Group]]| series=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group| edition=8| editor1=Rhodin A G.J. |editor2=Iverson J.B. |editor3=van Dijk P.P. |editor4=Saumure R.A. |editor5=Buhlmann K.A. |editor6=[[Peter Pritchard|Pritchard P.C.H.]] |editor7=[[Russell Mittermeier|Mittermeier R.A.]]| pages=1–292| ISBN=978-1-5323-5026-9| doi=10.3854/crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017}}</ref>
| display_parents = 2
| genus = Chelus
| parent_authority = Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806>Duméril, A.M.C. 1806. Zoologie Analytique, ou Méthode Naturelle de Classification des Animaux. Paris: Perronneau, 344 pp.</ref>
| species = fimbriata
| authority = ([[Johann Gottlob Schneider|Schneider]], 1783)<ref name=sch83>Schneider, J.G. 1783. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Schildkröten, nebst einem Systematischen Verseichnisse der einzelnen Arten. Müller, Leipzig. xlviii + 364 p.</ref>
| synonyms =
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Genus Synonymy}}}}
*''Chelus'' Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806 />
*''Chelys'' Oppel, 1811 (nomen novum)<ref name=oppel11>Oppel, M. 1811. Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gattungen der Reptilien als Prodrom einer Naturgeschichte derselben. München: J. Lindauer, 86 pp.</ref>
*''Chelyda'' Rafinesque, 1815 (nomen novum)
*''Matamata'' Merrem, 1820 (nomen novum)
{{hidden end}}
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Species Synonymy}}}}
* ''Testudo terrestris'' Fermin, 1765 ''Nomen rejectum''<ref name=iczn1963>ICZN. 1963. Opinion 660. Suppression under the plenary powers of seven specific names of turtles (Reptilia: Testudines). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 20:187-190.</ref>
* ''Testudo fimbriata'' Schneider, 1783<ref name=sch83 />
* ''Testudo fimbria'' Gmelin, 1789 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo matamata'' Bruguière, 1792 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo bispinosa'' Daudin, 1801 ''nomen novum''
* ''Emydes matamata'' Brongniart, 1805
* ''Chelus fimbriata'' (Schneider, 1783) recombination<ref name=dum1806 />
* ''Testudo rapara'' Gray, 1831 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raparara'' Gray, 1844 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raxarara'' Gray, 1856 ''nomen novum''
* ''Chelys boulengerii'' Baur, 1890 ''nomen novum''
{{hidden end}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="ttwg" /><ref name="Fritz 2007">{{Cite journal|journal=Vertebrate Zoology |title=Checklist of Chelonians of the World |year=2007 |author=Fritz Uwe |author2=Peter Havaš |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=327 |issn=1864-5755 |url=http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501060224/http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archivedate=1 May 2011 |accessdate=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| range_map = Chelus fimbriatus distribution map.png
| range_map_caption = Mata mata distribution
}}

The '''mata mata''', '''mata-mata''', or '''matamata''' (''Chelus fimbriata'')<ref name="ttwg"/><ref>[http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php Giant fossil matamata turtles (matamatas part V)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011173155/http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php |date=2011-10-11 }}, Tetrapod Zoology</ref> is a freshwater [[turtle]] found in [[South America]], primarily in the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins. It is the only [[extant taxon|extant]] species in the genus '''''Chelus'''''. The name '''Mata mata''' is meaning "I kill, I kill" in Spanish language.<ref name=acaquarium>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle|URL=https://www.acaquarium.com/animals/matamata-turtle/|publisher=Atlantic City Aquarium|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=allturtles>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle (Chelus fimbriata)|URL=https://www.allturtles.com/matamata-turtle/|publisher=All Turtles|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The mata mata was described for the first time by French [[naturalist]] [[Pierre Barrère]] in 1741 as a "large land turtle with spiky and ridged scales" (translation).<ref name="Espenshade">
{{citation
| last = Espenshade III
| first = William H
| title = Matamata, Chelus fimbriatus
| journal = Tortuga Gazette
| volume=26
| year= 1990
| pages=3–5
| issue =5
}}
</ref> It was first classified as ''Testudo fimbriata'' by [[Germany|German]] naturalist [[Johann Gottlob Schneider]] in 1783. It was renamed 14 different times in two centuries, finally being renamed ''Chelus fimbriata'' in 1992.<ref name="ttwg"/><ref name="Espenshade"/><ref>[http://www.tortoise.org/archives/matamata.html Matamata, ''Chelus fimbriatus''], California Turtle & Tortoise Club</ref><ref>[http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species.php?genus=Chelus&species=fimbriatus ''Chelus fimbriata''], The Reptile Database</ref>

==Anatomy and morphology==
[[File:Mata Mata 1911.jpg|thumb|left|Top view of the mata mata turtle]]
The mata mata is a large, sedentary turtle with a large, triangular, flattened head with many [[tubercle (anatomy)|tubercle]]s and flaps of skin, and a "horn" on its long and tubular snout.<ref name="Espenshade"/> Three [[barbel (anatomy)|barbel]]s occur on the chin and four additional filamentous barbels at the upper jaw, which is neither hooked nor notched.<ref name="Bartlett">
{{citation
| last = Bartlett
| first = Dick
| title = The Matamata
| journal = Reptiles Magazine
| volume=15
| year= 2007
| pages=18–20
| issue =12
}}
</ref>

The mata mata's [[brown]] or [[black]], oblong [[carapace]] can measure up to {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} at adult age.<ref name="description">{{in lang|fr}} ''Toutes les tortues du monde'' by Franck Bonin, Bernard Devaux and Alain Dupré, second edition (1998), editions Delachaux and Niestlé/WWF.</ref><ref name=ADW>{{Cite news|title=Chelus fimbriatus: INFORMATION|URL=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Chelus_fimbriatus/|publisher=ADW|accessdate=2020-04-14}}</ref> The full adult weight is {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="description" /> The mata mata's [[plastron]] is reduced, narrowed, hingeless, shortened towards the front, and deeply notched at the rear with narrow bridges.<ref name="Bartlett"/> These may be meant to allow the turtle to resemble a piece of bark, camouflaging it from possible predators.<ref>Encyclopedia of Animals: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians, Harold G. Cogger, Edwin Gould, Joseph Forshaw</ref> The plastron and bridges are cream to [[yellow]] or brown.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

The head, neck, tail, and limbs are grayish brown on adults.<ref name="Bartlett"/> The neck is longer than the vertebra under its carapace and is fringed with small skin flaps along both sides.<ref name="Bartlett"/> Hatchlings show a pink to reddish tinge in the underside edge of their carapaces and plastrons that gradually disappear as they grow.

Each fore foot has five webbed claws. Males have concave plastrons and longer, thicker tails than females.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

==Habitat==
The mata mata inhabits slow moving, blackwater streams, [[stagnant (water)|stagnant]] pools, marshes, and swamps ranging into northern [[Bolivia]], eastern [[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], eastern [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], the [[Guianas]], and northern and central [[Brazil]]. The mata mata is strictly an aquatic species but it prefers standing in shallow water where its snout can reach the surface to breathe.<ref name="Rosenfeld">
{{citation
| last = Rosenfeld
| first = Arthur
| title = Exotic Pets
| publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]]
| location= New York
| pages = 153–155
| year= 1989
| isbn = 978-0-671-47654-0
}}
</ref>

==Behavior==
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus close.jpg|thumb|left|Head, in profile]]
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus.jpg|thumb]]
The appearance of the mata mata's shell resembles a piece of bark, and its head resembles fallen leaves.<ref name="Cogger"/> As it remains motionless in the water, its [[skin]] flaps enable it to blend into the surrounding vegetation until a fish comes close.<ref name="Cogger">
{{citation
| last = Cogger
| first = Harold
| authorlink = Harold Cogger
| last2 = Zweifel
| first2 = Richard
| title = Reptiles & Amphibians
| publisher = Weldon Owen
| location = [[Sydney, Australia]]
| page = [https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112 112]
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-0-8317-2786-4
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112
}}
</ref> The mata mata thrusts out its head and opens its large mouth as wide as possible, creating a low-pressure vacuum that sucks the prey into its mouth, known as [[suction feeding]].<ref name="Cogger"/> The mata mata snaps its mouth shut, the water is slowly expelled, and the fish is swallowed whole; the mata mata cannot chew due to the way its mouth is constructed.<ref name="Cogger"/>

==Reproduction==
Males display for females by extending their limbs, lunging their heads toward the females with mouths agape, and moving the lateral flaps on their heads. Nesting occurs from October through December in the [[Upper Amazon]].<ref name=acaquarium/><ref name=ADW>{{Cite news|title=Chelus fimbriatus: INFORMATION|URL=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Chelus_fimbriatus/|publisher=ADW|accessdate=2020-04-14}}</ref> The 12 to 28 brittle, spherical, 35 mm-diameter [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s are deposited in a clutch.<ref name=allturtles/> Incubatinon period lasts for about 200 days.<ref name=acaquarium/><ref name=ADW/> The lifespan is 40~75 years in captivity.<ref name=allturtles/>

==Diet==
{{Expand section|date=March 2018}}
The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic [[invertebrates]] and [[fish]].<ref name="Espenshade"/><ref name="Cogger"/> When the stomach content of 20 wild mata mata turtles was examined it consisted exclusively of small fish.The turtles predominantly feed at night in muddy water with limited visibility. However the turtle is well adapted to hunting in these conditions. The mata mata has very fine eyesight with eyes that reflect light, similar to other nocturnal reptiles. In addition, the skin flaps on the neck are also extremely sensitive and help the mata mata detect nearby movement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and tortoise preservation Group Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

Mata mata turtles use a specific method of seizing their prey. They will move the prey into shallower areas of water, surround the prey, and wave their front legs to prevent them from escaping. Once surrounded, the mata mata turtles will open their mouths and contract their pharynx, causing a rush of water that pushes the prey into their mouth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wise1, Formanowicz, Jr.2, Brodie, Jr.3|first=Scott C.1, Daniel R.2, Edmund D.3|date=September 1989|title=Matamata Turtles Ambush but Do Not Herd Prey|journal=Journal of Herpetology|volume=23, No. 3|issue=3|pages=297–299|doi=10.2307/1564454|jstor=1564454}}</ref>

==In captivity==
[[File:Mata mata NC.jpg|thumb|right|Mata mata turtles on exhibit at the [[North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences]] in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]].]]
Mata mata turtles are readily available in the exotic pet trade and are quite expensive to obtain. Due to their unique appearance, they make interesting display animals. They also grow quite large. However, mata matas are not active hunters, so, like the [[alligator snapping turtle]], they need less space than a large, active species.

As with all aquatic turtles, water quality is one of the keys to keeping this species successfully in captivity. Warm, acidic water is the best type used with a high [[tannin-stained waters|tannin content]] that should be maintained all year round. Moderate to heavy filtration is recommended.<ref>[http://www.theturtlesource.com/caresheet_Matamata_turtle.asp?id=100200348&type=333&ph=true Mata mata Care Sheet]</ref> Fogel considers his captive mata mata turtles to be quite intelligent. For example, he has observed one turtle positioning itself near the spray bar of the aquarium at feeding time so that floating food is pushed beneath the water's surface where the turtle can catch it more easily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and Tortoise Preservation group's Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Chelus fimbriatus}}

{{Pleurodira}}
{{Testudines}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q14566138|from2=Q317386}}

[[Category:Chelus]]
[[Category:Turtles of South America]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Amazon]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Brazil]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Colombia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Reptiles of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Guyana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Peru]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Suriname]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1783]]
[[Category:Extant Pliocene first appearances]]

Mata mata

2020-04-14T02:12:33Z

118.46.55.151: /* Reproduction */

{{other uses|Matamata (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|species of freshwater turtle}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Mata mata
| image = 2009 Chelus fimbriatus.JPG
| image_caption = Shanghai Aquarium
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Pliocene|Recent}}
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=ttwg>{{cite journal| url=http://images.turtleconservancy.org/documents/2017/crm-7-checklist-atlas-v8-2017.pdf |title=Turtles of the world, 2017 update: Annotated checklist and atlas of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution, and conservation status(8th Ed.)| journal=Chelonian Research Monographs| volume=7| accessdate=October 4, 2019| date=August 3, 2017| last1=Rhodin | first1=Anders G.J. |last2=Inverson |first2=John B. |last3=Roger |first3=Bour |last4=Fritz |first4=Uwe |last5=Georges |first5=Arthur |last6=Shaffer |first6=H. Bradley |last7=van Dijk |first7=Peter Paul| collaboration=[[Turtle Taxonomy Working Group]]| series=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group| edition=8| editor1=Rhodin A G.J. |editor2=Iverson J.B. |editor3=van Dijk P.P. |editor4=Saumure R.A. |editor5=Buhlmann K.A. |editor6=[[Peter Pritchard|Pritchard P.C.H.]] |editor7=[[Russell Mittermeier|Mittermeier R.A.]]| pages=1–292| ISBN=978-1-5323-5026-9| doi=10.3854/crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017}}</ref>
| display_parents = 2
| genus = Chelus
| parent_authority = Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806>Duméril, A.M.C. 1806. Zoologie Analytique, ou Méthode Naturelle de Classification des Animaux. Paris: Perronneau, 344 pp.</ref>
| species = fimbriata
| authority = ([[Johann Gottlob Schneider|Schneider]], 1783)<ref name=sch83>Schneider, J.G. 1783. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Schildkröten, nebst einem Systematischen Verseichnisse der einzelnen Arten. Müller, Leipzig. xlviii + 364 p.</ref>
| synonyms =
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Genus Synonymy}}}}
*''Chelus'' Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806 />
*''Chelys'' Oppel, 1811 (nomen novum)<ref name=oppel11>Oppel, M. 1811. Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gattungen der Reptilien als Prodrom einer Naturgeschichte derselben. München: J. Lindauer, 86 pp.</ref>
*''Chelyda'' Rafinesque, 1815 (nomen novum)
*''Matamata'' Merrem, 1820 (nomen novum)
{{hidden end}}
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Species Synonymy}}}}
* ''Testudo terrestris'' Fermin, 1765 ''Nomen rejectum''<ref name=iczn1963>ICZN. 1963. Opinion 660. Suppression under the plenary powers of seven specific names of turtles (Reptilia: Testudines). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 20:187-190.</ref>
* ''Testudo fimbriata'' Schneider, 1783<ref name=sch83 />
* ''Testudo fimbria'' Gmelin, 1789 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo matamata'' Bruguière, 1792 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo bispinosa'' Daudin, 1801 ''nomen novum''
* ''Emydes matamata'' Brongniart, 1805
* ''Chelus fimbriata'' (Schneider, 1783) recombination<ref name=dum1806 />
* ''Testudo rapara'' Gray, 1831 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raparara'' Gray, 1844 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raxarara'' Gray, 1856 ''nomen novum''
* ''Chelys boulengerii'' Baur, 1890 ''nomen novum''
{{hidden end}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="ttwg" /><ref name="Fritz 2007">{{Cite journal|journal=Vertebrate Zoology |title=Checklist of Chelonians of the World |year=2007 |author=Fritz Uwe |author2=Peter Havaš |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=327 |issn=1864-5755 |url=http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501060224/http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archivedate=1 May 2011 |accessdate=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| range_map = Chelus fimbriatus distribution map.png
| range_map_caption = Mata mata distribution
}}

The '''mata mata''', '''mata-mata''', or '''matamata''' (''Chelus fimbriata'')<ref name="ttwg"/><ref>[http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php Giant fossil matamata turtles (matamatas part V)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011173155/http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php |date=2011-10-11 }}, Tetrapod Zoology</ref> is a freshwater [[turtle]] found in [[South America]], primarily in the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins. It is the only [[extant taxon|extant]] species in the genus '''''Chelus'''''. The name '''Mata mata''' is meaning "I kill, I kill" in Spanish language.<ref name=acaquarium>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle|URL=https://www.acaquarium.com/animals/matamata-turtle/|publisher=Atlantic City Aquarium|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=allturtles>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle (Chelus fimbriata)|URL=https://www.allturtles.com/matamata-turtle/|publisher=All Turtles|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The mata mata was described for the first time by French [[naturalist]] [[Pierre Barrère]] in 1741 as a "large land turtle with spiky and ridged scales" (translation).<ref name="Espenshade">
{{citation
| last = Espenshade III
| first = William H
| title = Matamata, Chelus fimbriatus
| journal = Tortuga Gazette
| volume=26
| year= 1990
| pages=3–5
| issue =5
}}
</ref> It was first classified as ''Testudo fimbriata'' by [[Germany|German]] naturalist [[Johann Gottlob Schneider]] in 1783. It was renamed 14 different times in two centuries, finally being renamed ''Chelus fimbriata'' in 1992.<ref name="ttwg"/><ref name="Espenshade"/><ref>[http://www.tortoise.org/archives/matamata.html Matamata, ''Chelus fimbriatus''], California Turtle & Tortoise Club</ref><ref>[http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species.php?genus=Chelus&species=fimbriatus ''Chelus fimbriata''], The Reptile Database</ref>

==Anatomy and morphology==
[[File:Mata Mata 1911.jpg|thumb|left|Top view of the mata mata turtle]]
The mata mata is a large, sedentary turtle with a large, triangular, flattened head with many [[tubercle (anatomy)|tubercle]]s and flaps of skin, and a "horn" on its long and tubular snout.<ref name="Espenshade"/> Three [[barbel (anatomy)|barbel]]s occur on the chin and four additional filamentous barbels at the upper jaw, which is neither hooked nor notched.<ref name="Bartlett">
{{citation
| last = Bartlett
| first = Dick
| title = The Matamata
| journal = Reptiles Magazine
| volume=15
| year= 2007
| pages=18–20
| issue =12
}}
</ref>

The mata mata's [[brown]] or [[black]], oblong [[carapace]] can measure up to {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} at adult age.<ref name="description">{{in lang|fr}} ''Toutes les tortues du monde'' by Franck Bonin, Bernard Devaux and Alain Dupré, second edition (1998), editions Delachaux and Niestlé/WWF.</ref> The full adult weight is {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="description" /> The mata mata's [[plastron]] is reduced, narrowed, hingeless, shortened towards the front, and deeply notched at the rear with narrow bridges.<ref name="Bartlett"/> These may be meant to allow the turtle to resemble a piece of bark, camouflaging it from possible predators.<ref>Encyclopedia of Animals: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians, Harold G. Cogger, Edwin Gould, Joseph Forshaw</ref> The plastron and bridges are cream to [[yellow]] or brown.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

The head, neck, tail, and limbs are grayish brown on adults.<ref name="Bartlett"/> The neck is longer than the vertebra under its carapace and is fringed with small skin flaps along both sides.<ref name="Bartlett"/> Hatchlings show a pink to reddish tinge in the underside edge of their carapaces and plastrons that gradually disappear as they grow.

Each fore foot has five webbed claws. Males have concave plastrons and longer, thicker tails than females.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

==Habitat==
The mata mata inhabits slow moving, blackwater streams, [[stagnant (water)|stagnant]] pools, marshes, and swamps ranging into northern [[Bolivia]], eastern [[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], eastern [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], the [[Guianas]], and northern and central [[Brazil]]. The mata mata is strictly an aquatic species but it prefers standing in shallow water where its snout can reach the surface to breathe.<ref name="Rosenfeld">
{{citation
| last = Rosenfeld
| first = Arthur
| title = Exotic Pets
| publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]]
| location= New York
| pages = 153–155
| year= 1989
| isbn = 978-0-671-47654-0
}}
</ref>

==Behavior==
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus close.jpg|thumb|left|Head, in profile]]
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus.jpg|thumb]]
The appearance of the mata mata's shell resembles a piece of bark, and its head resembles fallen leaves.<ref name="Cogger"/> As it remains motionless in the water, its [[skin]] flaps enable it to blend into the surrounding vegetation until a fish comes close.<ref name="Cogger">
{{citation
| last = Cogger
| first = Harold
| authorlink = Harold Cogger
| last2 = Zweifel
| first2 = Richard
| title = Reptiles & Amphibians
| publisher = Weldon Owen
| location = [[Sydney, Australia]]
| page = [https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112 112]
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-0-8317-2786-4
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112
}}
</ref> The mata mata thrusts out its head and opens its large mouth as wide as possible, creating a low-pressure vacuum that sucks the prey into its mouth, known as [[suction feeding]].<ref name="Cogger"/> The mata mata snaps its mouth shut, the water is slowly expelled, and the fish is swallowed whole; the mata mata cannot chew due to the way its mouth is constructed.<ref name="Cogger"/>

==Reproduction==
Males display for females by extending their limbs, lunging their heads toward the females with mouths agape, and moving the lateral flaps on their heads. Nesting occurs from October through December in the [[Upper Amazon]].<ref name=acaquarium/><ref name=ADW>{{Cite news|title=Chelus fimbriatus: INFORMATION|URL=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Chelus_fimbriatus/|publisher=ADW|accessdate=2020-04-14}}</ref> The 12 to 28 brittle, spherical, 35 mm-diameter [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s are deposited in a clutch.<ref name=allturtles/> Incubatinon period lasts for about 200 days.<ref name=acaquarium/><ref name=ADW/> The lifespan is 40~75 years in captivity.<ref name=allturtles/>

==Diet==
{{Expand section|date=March 2018}}
The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic [[invertebrates]] and [[fish]].<ref name="Espenshade"/><ref name="Cogger"/> When the stomach content of 20 wild mata mata turtles was examined it consisted exclusively of small fish.The turtles predominantly feed at night in muddy water with limited visibility. However the turtle is well adapted to hunting in these conditions. The mata mata has very fine eyesight with eyes that reflect light, similar to other nocturnal reptiles. In addition, the skin flaps on the neck are also extremely sensitive and help the mata mata detect nearby movement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and tortoise preservation Group Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

Mata mata turtles use a specific method of seizing their prey. They will move the prey into shallower areas of water, surround the prey, and wave their front legs to prevent them from escaping. Once surrounded, the mata mata turtles will open their mouths and contract their pharynx, causing a rush of water that pushes the prey into their mouth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wise1, Formanowicz, Jr.2, Brodie, Jr.3|first=Scott C.1, Daniel R.2, Edmund D.3|date=September 1989|title=Matamata Turtles Ambush but Do Not Herd Prey|journal=Journal of Herpetology|volume=23, No. 3|issue=3|pages=297–299|doi=10.2307/1564454|jstor=1564454}}</ref>

==In captivity==
[[File:Mata mata NC.jpg|thumb|right|Mata mata turtles on exhibit at the [[North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences]] in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]].]]
Mata mata turtles are readily available in the exotic pet trade and are quite expensive to obtain. Due to their unique appearance, they make interesting display animals. They also grow quite large. However, mata matas are not active hunters, so, like the [[alligator snapping turtle]], they need less space than a large, active species.

As with all aquatic turtles, water quality is one of the keys to keeping this species successfully in captivity. Warm, acidic water is the best type used with a high [[tannin-stained waters|tannin content]] that should be maintained all year round. Moderate to heavy filtration is recommended.<ref>[http://www.theturtlesource.com/caresheet_Matamata_turtle.asp?id=100200348&type=333&ph=true Mata mata Care Sheet]</ref> Fogel considers his captive mata mata turtles to be quite intelligent. For example, he has observed one turtle positioning itself near the spray bar of the aquarium at feeding time so that floating food is pushed beneath the water's surface where the turtle can catch it more easily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and Tortoise Preservation group's Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Chelus fimbriatus}}

{{Pleurodira}}
{{Testudines}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q14566138|from2=Q317386}}

[[Category:Chelus]]
[[Category:Turtles of South America]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Amazon]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Brazil]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Colombia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Reptiles of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Guyana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Peru]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Suriname]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1783]]
[[Category:Extant Pliocene first appearances]]

Mata mata

2020-04-14T02:07:35Z

118.46.55.151: /* Reproduction */

{{other uses|Matamata (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|species of freshwater turtle}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Mata mata
| image = 2009 Chelus fimbriatus.JPG
| image_caption = Shanghai Aquarium
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Pliocene|Recent}}
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=ttwg>{{cite journal| url=http://images.turtleconservancy.org/documents/2017/crm-7-checklist-atlas-v8-2017.pdf |title=Turtles of the world, 2017 update: Annotated checklist and atlas of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution, and conservation status(8th Ed.)| journal=Chelonian Research Monographs| volume=7| accessdate=October 4, 2019| date=August 3, 2017| last1=Rhodin | first1=Anders G.J. |last2=Inverson |first2=John B. |last3=Roger |first3=Bour |last4=Fritz |first4=Uwe |last5=Georges |first5=Arthur |last6=Shaffer |first6=H. Bradley |last7=van Dijk |first7=Peter Paul| collaboration=[[Turtle Taxonomy Working Group]]| series=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group| edition=8| editor1=Rhodin A G.J. |editor2=Iverson J.B. |editor3=van Dijk P.P. |editor4=Saumure R.A. |editor5=Buhlmann K.A. |editor6=[[Peter Pritchard|Pritchard P.C.H.]] |editor7=[[Russell Mittermeier|Mittermeier R.A.]]| pages=1–292| ISBN=978-1-5323-5026-9| doi=10.3854/crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017}}</ref>
| display_parents = 2
| genus = Chelus
| parent_authority = Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806>Duméril, A.M.C. 1806. Zoologie Analytique, ou Méthode Naturelle de Classification des Animaux. Paris: Perronneau, 344 pp.</ref>
| species = fimbriata
| authority = ([[Johann Gottlob Schneider|Schneider]], 1783)<ref name=sch83>Schneider, J.G. 1783. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Schildkröten, nebst einem Systematischen Verseichnisse der einzelnen Arten. Müller, Leipzig. xlviii + 364 p.</ref>
| synonyms =
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Genus Synonymy}}}}
*''Chelus'' Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806 />
*''Chelys'' Oppel, 1811 (nomen novum)<ref name=oppel11>Oppel, M. 1811. Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gattungen der Reptilien als Prodrom einer Naturgeschichte derselben. München: J. Lindauer, 86 pp.</ref>
*''Chelyda'' Rafinesque, 1815 (nomen novum)
*''Matamata'' Merrem, 1820 (nomen novum)
{{hidden end}}
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Species Synonymy}}}}
* ''Testudo terrestris'' Fermin, 1765 ''Nomen rejectum''<ref name=iczn1963>ICZN. 1963. Opinion 660. Suppression under the plenary powers of seven specific names of turtles (Reptilia: Testudines). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 20:187-190.</ref>
* ''Testudo fimbriata'' Schneider, 1783<ref name=sch83 />
* ''Testudo fimbria'' Gmelin, 1789 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo matamata'' Bruguière, 1792 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo bispinosa'' Daudin, 1801 ''nomen novum''
* ''Emydes matamata'' Brongniart, 1805
* ''Chelus fimbriata'' (Schneider, 1783) recombination<ref name=dum1806 />
* ''Testudo rapara'' Gray, 1831 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raparara'' Gray, 1844 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raxarara'' Gray, 1856 ''nomen novum''
* ''Chelys boulengerii'' Baur, 1890 ''nomen novum''
{{hidden end}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="ttwg" /><ref name="Fritz 2007">{{Cite journal|journal=Vertebrate Zoology |title=Checklist of Chelonians of the World |year=2007 |author=Fritz Uwe |author2=Peter Havaš |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=327 |issn=1864-5755 |url=http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501060224/http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archivedate=1 May 2011 |accessdate=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| range_map = Chelus fimbriatus distribution map.png
| range_map_caption = Mata mata distribution
}}

The '''mata mata''', '''mata-mata''', or '''matamata''' (''Chelus fimbriata'')<ref name="ttwg"/><ref>[http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php Giant fossil matamata turtles (matamatas part V)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011173155/http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php |date=2011-10-11 }}, Tetrapod Zoology</ref> is a freshwater [[turtle]] found in [[South America]], primarily in the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins. It is the only [[extant taxon|extant]] species in the genus '''''Chelus'''''. The name '''Mata mata''' is meaning "I kill, I kill" in Spanish language.<ref name=acaquarium>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle|URL=https://www.acaquarium.com/animals/matamata-turtle/|publisher=Atlantic City Aquarium|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=allturtles>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle (Chelus fimbriata)|URL=https://www.allturtles.com/matamata-turtle/|publisher=All Turtles|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The mata mata was described for the first time by French [[naturalist]] [[Pierre Barrère]] in 1741 as a "large land turtle with spiky and ridged scales" (translation).<ref name="Espenshade">
{{citation
| last = Espenshade III
| first = William H
| title = Matamata, Chelus fimbriatus
| journal = Tortuga Gazette
| volume=26
| year= 1990
| pages=3–5
| issue =5
}}
</ref> It was first classified as ''Testudo fimbriata'' by [[Germany|German]] naturalist [[Johann Gottlob Schneider]] in 1783. It was renamed 14 different times in two centuries, finally being renamed ''Chelus fimbriata'' in 1992.<ref name="ttwg"/><ref name="Espenshade"/><ref>[http://www.tortoise.org/archives/matamata.html Matamata, ''Chelus fimbriatus''], California Turtle & Tortoise Club</ref><ref>[http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species.php?genus=Chelus&species=fimbriatus ''Chelus fimbriata''], The Reptile Database</ref>

==Anatomy and morphology==
[[File:Mata Mata 1911.jpg|thumb|left|Top view of the mata mata turtle]]
The mata mata is a large, sedentary turtle with a large, triangular, flattened head with many [[tubercle (anatomy)|tubercle]]s and flaps of skin, and a "horn" on its long and tubular snout.<ref name="Espenshade"/> Three [[barbel (anatomy)|barbel]]s occur on the chin and four additional filamentous barbels at the upper jaw, which is neither hooked nor notched.<ref name="Bartlett">
{{citation
| last = Bartlett
| first = Dick
| title = The Matamata
| journal = Reptiles Magazine
| volume=15
| year= 2007
| pages=18–20
| issue =12
}}
</ref>

The mata mata's [[brown]] or [[black]], oblong [[carapace]] can measure up to {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} at adult age.<ref name="description">{{in lang|fr}} ''Toutes les tortues du monde'' by Franck Bonin, Bernard Devaux and Alain Dupré, second edition (1998), editions Delachaux and Niestlé/WWF.</ref> The full adult weight is {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="description" /> The mata mata's [[plastron]] is reduced, narrowed, hingeless, shortened towards the front, and deeply notched at the rear with narrow bridges.<ref name="Bartlett"/> These may be meant to allow the turtle to resemble a piece of bark, camouflaging it from possible predators.<ref>Encyclopedia of Animals: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians, Harold G. Cogger, Edwin Gould, Joseph Forshaw</ref> The plastron and bridges are cream to [[yellow]] or brown.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

The head, neck, tail, and limbs are grayish brown on adults.<ref name="Bartlett"/> The neck is longer than the vertebra under its carapace and is fringed with small skin flaps along both sides.<ref name="Bartlett"/> Hatchlings show a pink to reddish tinge in the underside edge of their carapaces and plastrons that gradually disappear as they grow.

Each fore foot has five webbed claws. Males have concave plastrons and longer, thicker tails than females.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

==Habitat==
The mata mata inhabits slow moving, blackwater streams, [[stagnant (water)|stagnant]] pools, marshes, and swamps ranging into northern [[Bolivia]], eastern [[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], eastern [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], the [[Guianas]], and northern and central [[Brazil]]. The mata mata is strictly an aquatic species but it prefers standing in shallow water where its snout can reach the surface to breathe.<ref name="Rosenfeld">
{{citation
| last = Rosenfeld
| first = Arthur
| title = Exotic Pets
| publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]]
| location= New York
| pages = 153–155
| year= 1989
| isbn = 978-0-671-47654-0
}}
</ref>

==Behavior==
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus close.jpg|thumb|left|Head, in profile]]
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus.jpg|thumb]]
The appearance of the mata mata's shell resembles a piece of bark, and its head resembles fallen leaves.<ref name="Cogger"/> As it remains motionless in the water, its [[skin]] flaps enable it to blend into the surrounding vegetation until a fish comes close.<ref name="Cogger">
{{citation
| last = Cogger
| first = Harold
| authorlink = Harold Cogger
| last2 = Zweifel
| first2 = Richard
| title = Reptiles & Amphibians
| publisher = Weldon Owen
| location = [[Sydney, Australia]]
| page = [https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112 112]
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-0-8317-2786-4
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112
}}
</ref> The mata mata thrusts out its head and opens its large mouth as wide as possible, creating a low-pressure vacuum that sucks the prey into its mouth, known as [[suction feeding]].<ref name="Cogger"/> The mata mata snaps its mouth shut, the water is slowly expelled, and the fish is swallowed whole; the mata mata cannot chew due to the way its mouth is constructed.<ref name="Cogger"/>

==Reproduction==
Males display for females by extending their limbs, lunging their heads toward the females with mouths agape, and moving the lateral flaps on their heads. Nesting occurs from October through December in the [[Upper Amazon]].<ref name=acaquarium/> The 12 to 28 brittle, spherical, 35 mm-diameter [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s are deposited in a clutch.<ref name=allturtles/> Incubatinon period lasts for about 200 days.<ref name=acaquarium/> The lifespan is 40~75 years in captivity.<ref name=allturtles/>

==Diet==
{{Expand section|date=March 2018}}
The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic [[invertebrates]] and [[fish]].<ref name="Espenshade"/><ref name="Cogger"/> When the stomach content of 20 wild mata mata turtles was examined it consisted exclusively of small fish.The turtles predominantly feed at night in muddy water with limited visibility. However the turtle is well adapted to hunting in these conditions. The mata mata has very fine eyesight with eyes that reflect light, similar to other nocturnal reptiles. In addition, the skin flaps on the neck are also extremely sensitive and help the mata mata detect nearby movement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and tortoise preservation Group Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

Mata mata turtles use a specific method of seizing their prey. They will move the prey into shallower areas of water, surround the prey, and wave their front legs to prevent them from escaping. Once surrounded, the mata mata turtles will open their mouths and contract their pharynx, causing a rush of water that pushes the prey into their mouth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wise1, Formanowicz, Jr.2, Brodie, Jr.3|first=Scott C.1, Daniel R.2, Edmund D.3|date=September 1989|title=Matamata Turtles Ambush but Do Not Herd Prey|journal=Journal of Herpetology|volume=23, No. 3|issue=3|pages=297–299|doi=10.2307/1564454|jstor=1564454}}</ref>

==In captivity==
[[File:Mata mata NC.jpg|thumb|right|Mata mata turtles on exhibit at the [[North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences]] in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]].]]
Mata mata turtles are readily available in the exotic pet trade and are quite expensive to obtain. Due to their unique appearance, they make interesting display animals. They also grow quite large. However, mata matas are not active hunters, so, like the [[alligator snapping turtle]], they need less space than a large, active species.

As with all aquatic turtles, water quality is one of the keys to keeping this species successfully in captivity. Warm, acidic water is the best type used with a high [[tannin-stained waters|tannin content]] that should be maintained all year round. Moderate to heavy filtration is recommended.<ref>[http://www.theturtlesource.com/caresheet_Matamata_turtle.asp?id=100200348&type=333&ph=true Mata mata Care Sheet]</ref> Fogel considers his captive mata mata turtles to be quite intelligent. For example, he has observed one turtle positioning itself near the spray bar of the aquarium at feeding time so that floating food is pushed beneath the water's surface where the turtle can catch it more easily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and Tortoise Preservation group's Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Chelus fimbriatus}}

{{Pleurodira}}
{{Testudines}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q14566138|from2=Q317386}}

[[Category:Chelus]]
[[Category:Turtles of South America]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Amazon]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Brazil]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Colombia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Reptiles of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Guyana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Peru]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Suriname]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1783]]
[[Category:Extant Pliocene first appearances]]

Mata mata

2020-04-14T02:07:12Z

118.46.55.151: /* Reproduction */

{{other uses|Matamata (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|species of freshwater turtle}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Mata mata
| image = 2009 Chelus fimbriatus.JPG
| image_caption = Shanghai Aquarium
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Pliocene|Recent}}
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=ttwg>{{cite journal| url=http://images.turtleconservancy.org/documents/2017/crm-7-checklist-atlas-v8-2017.pdf |title=Turtles of the world, 2017 update: Annotated checklist and atlas of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution, and conservation status(8th Ed.)| journal=Chelonian Research Monographs| volume=7| accessdate=October 4, 2019| date=August 3, 2017| last1=Rhodin | first1=Anders G.J. |last2=Inverson |first2=John B. |last3=Roger |first3=Bour |last4=Fritz |first4=Uwe |last5=Georges |first5=Arthur |last6=Shaffer |first6=H. Bradley |last7=van Dijk |first7=Peter Paul| collaboration=[[Turtle Taxonomy Working Group]]| series=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group| edition=8| editor1=Rhodin A G.J. |editor2=Iverson J.B. |editor3=van Dijk P.P. |editor4=Saumure R.A. |editor5=Buhlmann K.A. |editor6=[[Peter Pritchard|Pritchard P.C.H.]] |editor7=[[Russell Mittermeier|Mittermeier R.A.]]| pages=1–292| ISBN=978-1-5323-5026-9| doi=10.3854/crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017}}</ref>
| display_parents = 2
| genus = Chelus
| parent_authority = Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806>Duméril, A.M.C. 1806. Zoologie Analytique, ou Méthode Naturelle de Classification des Animaux. Paris: Perronneau, 344 pp.</ref>
| species = fimbriata
| authority = ([[Johann Gottlob Schneider|Schneider]], 1783)<ref name=sch83>Schneider, J.G. 1783. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Schildkröten, nebst einem Systematischen Verseichnisse der einzelnen Arten. Müller, Leipzig. xlviii + 364 p.</ref>
| synonyms =
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Genus Synonymy}}}}
*''Chelus'' Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806 />
*''Chelys'' Oppel, 1811 (nomen novum)<ref name=oppel11>Oppel, M. 1811. Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gattungen der Reptilien als Prodrom einer Naturgeschichte derselben. München: J. Lindauer, 86 pp.</ref>
*''Chelyda'' Rafinesque, 1815 (nomen novum)
*''Matamata'' Merrem, 1820 (nomen novum)
{{hidden end}}
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Species Synonymy}}}}
* ''Testudo terrestris'' Fermin, 1765 ''Nomen rejectum''<ref name=iczn1963>ICZN. 1963. Opinion 660. Suppression under the plenary powers of seven specific names of turtles (Reptilia: Testudines). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 20:187-190.</ref>
* ''Testudo fimbriata'' Schneider, 1783<ref name=sch83 />
* ''Testudo fimbria'' Gmelin, 1789 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo matamata'' Bruguière, 1792 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo bispinosa'' Daudin, 1801 ''nomen novum''
* ''Emydes matamata'' Brongniart, 1805
* ''Chelus fimbriata'' (Schneider, 1783) recombination<ref name=dum1806 />
* ''Testudo rapara'' Gray, 1831 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raparara'' Gray, 1844 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raxarara'' Gray, 1856 ''nomen novum''
* ''Chelys boulengerii'' Baur, 1890 ''nomen novum''
{{hidden end}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="ttwg" /><ref name="Fritz 2007">{{Cite journal|journal=Vertebrate Zoology |title=Checklist of Chelonians of the World |year=2007 |author=Fritz Uwe |author2=Peter Havaš |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=327 |issn=1864-5755 |url=http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501060224/http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archivedate=1 May 2011 |accessdate=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| range_map = Chelus fimbriatus distribution map.png
| range_map_caption = Mata mata distribution
}}

The '''mata mata''', '''mata-mata''', or '''matamata''' (''Chelus fimbriata'')<ref name="ttwg"/><ref>[http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php Giant fossil matamata turtles (matamatas part V)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011173155/http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php |date=2011-10-11 }}, Tetrapod Zoology</ref> is a freshwater [[turtle]] found in [[South America]], primarily in the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins. It is the only [[extant taxon|extant]] species in the genus '''''Chelus'''''. The name '''Mata mata''' is meaning "I kill, I kill" in Spanish language.<ref name=acaquarium>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle|URL=https://www.acaquarium.com/animals/matamata-turtle/|publisher=Atlantic City Aquarium|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=allturtles>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle (Chelus fimbriata)|URL=https://www.allturtles.com/matamata-turtle/|publisher=All Turtles|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The mata mata was described for the first time by French [[naturalist]] [[Pierre Barrère]] in 1741 as a "large land turtle with spiky and ridged scales" (translation).<ref name="Espenshade">
{{citation
| last = Espenshade III
| first = William H
| title = Matamata, Chelus fimbriatus
| journal = Tortuga Gazette
| volume=26
| year= 1990
| pages=3–5
| issue =5
}}
</ref> It was first classified as ''Testudo fimbriata'' by [[Germany|German]] naturalist [[Johann Gottlob Schneider]] in 1783. It was renamed 14 different times in two centuries, finally being renamed ''Chelus fimbriata'' in 1992.<ref name="ttwg"/><ref name="Espenshade"/><ref>[http://www.tortoise.org/archives/matamata.html Matamata, ''Chelus fimbriatus''], California Turtle & Tortoise Club</ref><ref>[http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species.php?genus=Chelus&species=fimbriatus ''Chelus fimbriata''], The Reptile Database</ref>

==Anatomy and morphology==
[[File:Mata Mata 1911.jpg|thumb|left|Top view of the mata mata turtle]]
The mata mata is a large, sedentary turtle with a large, triangular, flattened head with many [[tubercle (anatomy)|tubercle]]s and flaps of skin, and a "horn" on its long and tubular snout.<ref name="Espenshade"/> Three [[barbel (anatomy)|barbel]]s occur on the chin and four additional filamentous barbels at the upper jaw, which is neither hooked nor notched.<ref name="Bartlett">
{{citation
| last = Bartlett
| first = Dick
| title = The Matamata
| journal = Reptiles Magazine
| volume=15
| year= 2007
| pages=18–20
| issue =12
}}
</ref>

The mata mata's [[brown]] or [[black]], oblong [[carapace]] can measure up to {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} at adult age.<ref name="description">{{in lang|fr}} ''Toutes les tortues du monde'' by Franck Bonin, Bernard Devaux and Alain Dupré, second edition (1998), editions Delachaux and Niestlé/WWF.</ref> The full adult weight is {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="description" /> The mata mata's [[plastron]] is reduced, narrowed, hingeless, shortened towards the front, and deeply notched at the rear with narrow bridges.<ref name="Bartlett"/> These may be meant to allow the turtle to resemble a piece of bark, camouflaging it from possible predators.<ref>Encyclopedia of Animals: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians, Harold G. Cogger, Edwin Gould, Joseph Forshaw</ref> The plastron and bridges are cream to [[yellow]] or brown.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

The head, neck, tail, and limbs are grayish brown on adults.<ref name="Bartlett"/> The neck is longer than the vertebra under its carapace and is fringed with small skin flaps along both sides.<ref name="Bartlett"/> Hatchlings show a pink to reddish tinge in the underside edge of their carapaces and plastrons that gradually disappear as they grow.

Each fore foot has five webbed claws. Males have concave plastrons and longer, thicker tails than females.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

==Habitat==
The mata mata inhabits slow moving, blackwater streams, [[stagnant (water)|stagnant]] pools, marshes, and swamps ranging into northern [[Bolivia]], eastern [[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], eastern [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], the [[Guianas]], and northern and central [[Brazil]]. The mata mata is strictly an aquatic species but it prefers standing in shallow water where its snout can reach the surface to breathe.<ref name="Rosenfeld">
{{citation
| last = Rosenfeld
| first = Arthur
| title = Exotic Pets
| publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]]
| location= New York
| pages = 153–155
| year= 1989
| isbn = 978-0-671-47654-0
}}
</ref>

==Behavior==
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus close.jpg|thumb|left|Head, in profile]]
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus.jpg|thumb]]
The appearance of the mata mata's shell resembles a piece of bark, and its head resembles fallen leaves.<ref name="Cogger"/> As it remains motionless in the water, its [[skin]] flaps enable it to blend into the surrounding vegetation until a fish comes close.<ref name="Cogger">
{{citation
| last = Cogger
| first = Harold
| authorlink = Harold Cogger
| last2 = Zweifel
| first2 = Richard
| title = Reptiles & Amphibians
| publisher = Weldon Owen
| location = [[Sydney, Australia]]
| page = [https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112 112]
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-0-8317-2786-4
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112
}}
</ref> The mata mata thrusts out its head and opens its large mouth as wide as possible, creating a low-pressure vacuum that sucks the prey into its mouth, known as [[suction feeding]].<ref name="Cogger"/> The mata mata snaps its mouth shut, the water is slowly expelled, and the fish is swallowed whole; the mata mata cannot chew due to the way its mouth is constructed.<ref name="Cogger"/>

==Reproduction==
Males display for females by extending their limbs, lunging their heads toward the females with mouths agape, and moving the lateral flaps on their heads. Nesting occurs from October through December in the [[Upper Amazon]].<ref name=acaquarium/> The 12 to 28 brittle, spherical, 35 mm-diameter [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s are deposited in a clutch.<ref name=allturtles/> Incubatinon period lasts for about 200 days.<ref name=acaquarium/> The lifespan is 40~75 years in captivity.<ref name=allturtles>

==Diet==
{{Expand section|date=March 2018}}
The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic [[invertebrates]] and [[fish]].<ref name="Espenshade"/><ref name="Cogger"/> When the stomach content of 20 wild mata mata turtles was examined it consisted exclusively of small fish.The turtles predominantly feed at night in muddy water with limited visibility. However the turtle is well adapted to hunting in these conditions. The mata mata has very fine eyesight with eyes that reflect light, similar to other nocturnal reptiles. In addition, the skin flaps on the neck are also extremely sensitive and help the mata mata detect nearby movement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and tortoise preservation Group Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

Mata mata turtles use a specific method of seizing their prey. They will move the prey into shallower areas of water, surround the prey, and wave their front legs to prevent them from escaping. Once surrounded, the mata mata turtles will open their mouths and contract their pharynx, causing a rush of water that pushes the prey into their mouth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wise1, Formanowicz, Jr.2, Brodie, Jr.3|first=Scott C.1, Daniel R.2, Edmund D.3|date=September 1989|title=Matamata Turtles Ambush but Do Not Herd Prey|journal=Journal of Herpetology|volume=23, No. 3|issue=3|pages=297–299|doi=10.2307/1564454|jstor=1564454}}</ref>

==In captivity==
[[File:Mata mata NC.jpg|thumb|right|Mata mata turtles on exhibit at the [[North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences]] in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]].]]
Mata mata turtles are readily available in the exotic pet trade and are quite expensive to obtain. Due to their unique appearance, they make interesting display animals. They also grow quite large. However, mata matas are not active hunters, so, like the [[alligator snapping turtle]], they need less space than a large, active species.

As with all aquatic turtles, water quality is one of the keys to keeping this species successfully in captivity. Warm, acidic water is the best type used with a high [[tannin-stained waters|tannin content]] that should be maintained all year round. Moderate to heavy filtration is recommended.<ref>[http://www.theturtlesource.com/caresheet_Matamata_turtle.asp?id=100200348&type=333&ph=true Mata mata Care Sheet]</ref> Fogel considers his captive mata mata turtles to be quite intelligent. For example, he has observed one turtle positioning itself near the spray bar of the aquarium at feeding time so that floating food is pushed beneath the water's surface where the turtle can catch it more easily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and Tortoise Preservation group's Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Chelus fimbriatus}}

{{Pleurodira}}
{{Testudines}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q14566138|from2=Q317386}}

[[Category:Chelus]]
[[Category:Turtles of South America]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Amazon]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Brazil]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Colombia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Reptiles of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Guyana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Peru]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Suriname]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1783]]
[[Category:Extant Pliocene first appearances]]

Mata mata

2020-04-14T01:59:08Z

118.46.55.151:

{{other uses|Matamata (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|species of freshwater turtle}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Mata mata
| image = 2009 Chelus fimbriatus.JPG
| image_caption = Shanghai Aquarium
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Pliocene|Recent}}
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=ttwg>{{cite journal| url=http://images.turtleconservancy.org/documents/2017/crm-7-checklist-atlas-v8-2017.pdf |title=Turtles of the world, 2017 update: Annotated checklist and atlas of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution, and conservation status(8th Ed.)| journal=Chelonian Research Monographs| volume=7| accessdate=October 4, 2019| date=August 3, 2017| last1=Rhodin | first1=Anders G.J. |last2=Inverson |first2=John B. |last3=Roger |first3=Bour |last4=Fritz |first4=Uwe |last5=Georges |first5=Arthur |last6=Shaffer |first6=H. Bradley |last7=van Dijk |first7=Peter Paul| collaboration=[[Turtle Taxonomy Working Group]]| series=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group| edition=8| editor1=Rhodin A G.J. |editor2=Iverson J.B. |editor3=van Dijk P.P. |editor4=Saumure R.A. |editor5=Buhlmann K.A. |editor6=[[Peter Pritchard|Pritchard P.C.H.]] |editor7=[[Russell Mittermeier|Mittermeier R.A.]]| pages=1–292| ISBN=978-1-5323-5026-9| doi=10.3854/crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017}}</ref>
| display_parents = 2
| genus = Chelus
| parent_authority = Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806>Duméril, A.M.C. 1806. Zoologie Analytique, ou Méthode Naturelle de Classification des Animaux. Paris: Perronneau, 344 pp.</ref>
| species = fimbriata
| authority = ([[Johann Gottlob Schneider|Schneider]], 1783)<ref name=sch83>Schneider, J.G. 1783. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Schildkröten, nebst einem Systematischen Verseichnisse der einzelnen Arten. Müller, Leipzig. xlviii + 364 p.</ref>
| synonyms =
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Genus Synonymy}}}}
*''Chelus'' Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806 />
*''Chelys'' Oppel, 1811 (nomen novum)<ref name=oppel11>Oppel, M. 1811. Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gattungen der Reptilien als Prodrom einer Naturgeschichte derselben. München: J. Lindauer, 86 pp.</ref>
*''Chelyda'' Rafinesque, 1815 (nomen novum)
*''Matamata'' Merrem, 1820 (nomen novum)
{{hidden end}}
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Species Synonymy}}}}
* ''Testudo terrestris'' Fermin, 1765 ''Nomen rejectum''<ref name=iczn1963>ICZN. 1963. Opinion 660. Suppression under the plenary powers of seven specific names of turtles (Reptilia: Testudines). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 20:187-190.</ref>
* ''Testudo fimbriata'' Schneider, 1783<ref name=sch83 />
* ''Testudo fimbria'' Gmelin, 1789 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo matamata'' Bruguière, 1792 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo bispinosa'' Daudin, 1801 ''nomen novum''
* ''Emydes matamata'' Brongniart, 1805
* ''Chelus fimbriata'' (Schneider, 1783) recombination<ref name=dum1806 />
* ''Testudo rapara'' Gray, 1831 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raparara'' Gray, 1844 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raxarara'' Gray, 1856 ''nomen novum''
* ''Chelys boulengerii'' Baur, 1890 ''nomen novum''
{{hidden end}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="ttwg" /><ref name="Fritz 2007">{{Cite journal|journal=Vertebrate Zoology |title=Checklist of Chelonians of the World |year=2007 |author=Fritz Uwe |author2=Peter Havaš |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=327 |issn=1864-5755 |url=http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501060224/http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archivedate=1 May 2011 |accessdate=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| range_map = Chelus fimbriatus distribution map.png
| range_map_caption = Mata mata distribution
}}

The '''mata mata''', '''mata-mata''', or '''matamata''' (''Chelus fimbriata'')<ref name="ttwg"/><ref>[http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php Giant fossil matamata turtles (matamatas part V)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011173155/http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php |date=2011-10-11 }}, Tetrapod Zoology</ref> is a freshwater [[turtle]] found in [[South America]], primarily in the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins. It is the only [[extant taxon|extant]] species in the genus '''''Chelus'''''. The name '''Mata mata''' is meaning "I kill, I kill" in Spanish language.<ref name=acaquarium>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle|URL=https://www.acaquarium.com/animals/matamata-turtle/|publisher=Atlantic City Aquarium|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=allturtles>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle (Chelus fimbriata)|URL=https://www.allturtles.com/matamata-turtle/|publisher=All Turtles|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The mata mata was described for the first time by French [[naturalist]] [[Pierre Barrère]] in 1741 as a "large land turtle with spiky and ridged scales" (translation).<ref name="Espenshade">
{{citation
| last = Espenshade III
| first = William H
| title = Matamata, Chelus fimbriatus
| journal = Tortuga Gazette
| volume=26
| year= 1990
| pages=3–5
| issue =5
}}
</ref> It was first classified as ''Testudo fimbriata'' by [[Germany|German]] naturalist [[Johann Gottlob Schneider]] in 1783. It was renamed 14 different times in two centuries, finally being renamed ''Chelus fimbriata'' in 1992.<ref name="ttwg"/><ref name="Espenshade"/><ref>[http://www.tortoise.org/archives/matamata.html Matamata, ''Chelus fimbriatus''], California Turtle & Tortoise Club</ref><ref>[http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species.php?genus=Chelus&species=fimbriatus ''Chelus fimbriata''], The Reptile Database</ref>

==Anatomy and morphology==
[[File:Mata Mata 1911.jpg|thumb|left|Top view of the mata mata turtle]]
The mata mata is a large, sedentary turtle with a large, triangular, flattened head with many [[tubercle (anatomy)|tubercle]]s and flaps of skin, and a "horn" on its long and tubular snout.<ref name="Espenshade"/> Three [[barbel (anatomy)|barbel]]s occur on the chin and four additional filamentous barbels at the upper jaw, which is neither hooked nor notched.<ref name="Bartlett">
{{citation
| last = Bartlett
| first = Dick
| title = The Matamata
| journal = Reptiles Magazine
| volume=15
| year= 2007
| pages=18–20
| issue =12
}}
</ref>

The mata mata's [[brown]] or [[black]], oblong [[carapace]] can measure up to {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} at adult age.<ref name="description">{{in lang|fr}} ''Toutes les tortues du monde'' by Franck Bonin, Bernard Devaux and Alain Dupré, second edition (1998), editions Delachaux and Niestlé/WWF.</ref> The full adult weight is {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="description" /> The mata mata's [[plastron]] is reduced, narrowed, hingeless, shortened towards the front, and deeply notched at the rear with narrow bridges.<ref name="Bartlett"/> These may be meant to allow the turtle to resemble a piece of bark, camouflaging it from possible predators.<ref>Encyclopedia of Animals: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians, Harold G. Cogger, Edwin Gould, Joseph Forshaw</ref> The plastron and bridges are cream to [[yellow]] or brown.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

The head, neck, tail, and limbs are grayish brown on adults.<ref name="Bartlett"/> The neck is longer than the vertebra under its carapace and is fringed with small skin flaps along both sides.<ref name="Bartlett"/> Hatchlings show a pink to reddish tinge in the underside edge of their carapaces and plastrons that gradually disappear as they grow.

Each fore foot has five webbed claws. Males have concave plastrons and longer, thicker tails than females.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

==Habitat==
The mata mata inhabits slow moving, blackwater streams, [[stagnant (water)|stagnant]] pools, marshes, and swamps ranging into northern [[Bolivia]], eastern [[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], eastern [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], the [[Guianas]], and northern and central [[Brazil]]. The mata mata is strictly an aquatic species but it prefers standing in shallow water where its snout can reach the surface to breathe.<ref name="Rosenfeld">
{{citation
| last = Rosenfeld
| first = Arthur
| title = Exotic Pets
| publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]]
| location= New York
| pages = 153–155
| year= 1989
| isbn = 978-0-671-47654-0
}}
</ref>

==Behavior==
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus close.jpg|thumb|left|Head, in profile]]
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus.jpg|thumb]]
The appearance of the mata mata's shell resembles a piece of bark, and its head resembles fallen leaves.<ref name="Cogger"/> As it remains motionless in the water, its [[skin]] flaps enable it to blend into the surrounding vegetation until a fish comes close.<ref name="Cogger">
{{citation
| last = Cogger
| first = Harold
| authorlink = Harold Cogger
| last2 = Zweifel
| first2 = Richard
| title = Reptiles & Amphibians
| publisher = Weldon Owen
| location = [[Sydney, Australia]]
| page = [https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112 112]
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-0-8317-2786-4
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112
}}
</ref> The mata mata thrusts out its head and opens its large mouth as wide as possible, creating a low-pressure vacuum that sucks the prey into its mouth, known as [[suction feeding]].<ref name="Cogger"/> The mata mata snaps its mouth shut, the water is slowly expelled, and the fish is swallowed whole; the mata mata cannot chew due to the way its mouth is constructed.<ref name="Cogger"/>

==Reproduction==
Males display for females by extending their limbs, lunging their heads toward the females with mouths agape, and moving the lateral flaps on their heads. Nesting occurs from October through December in the [[Upper Amazon]].<ref name=acaquarium/> The 12 to 28 brittle, spherical, 35 mm-diameter [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s are deposited in a clutch.

==Diet==
{{Expand section|date=March 2018}}
The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic [[invertebrates]] and [[fish]].<ref name="Espenshade"/><ref name="Cogger"/> When the stomach content of 20 wild mata mata turtles was examined it consisted exclusively of small fish.The turtles predominantly feed at night in muddy water with limited visibility. However the turtle is well adapted to hunting in these conditions. The mata mata has very fine eyesight with eyes that reflect light, similar to other nocturnal reptiles. In addition, the skin flaps on the neck are also extremely sensitive and help the mata mata detect nearby movement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and tortoise preservation Group Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

Mata mata turtles use a specific method of seizing their prey. They will move the prey into shallower areas of water, surround the prey, and wave their front legs to prevent them from escaping. Once surrounded, the mata mata turtles will open their mouths and contract their pharynx, causing a rush of water that pushes the prey into their mouth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wise1, Formanowicz, Jr.2, Brodie, Jr.3|first=Scott C.1, Daniel R.2, Edmund D.3|date=September 1989|title=Matamata Turtles Ambush but Do Not Herd Prey|journal=Journal of Herpetology|volume=23, No. 3|issue=3|pages=297–299|doi=10.2307/1564454|jstor=1564454}}</ref>

==In captivity==
[[File:Mata mata NC.jpg|thumb|right|Mata mata turtles on exhibit at the [[North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences]] in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]].]]
Mata mata turtles are readily available in the exotic pet trade and are quite expensive to obtain. Due to their unique appearance, they make interesting display animals. They also grow quite large. However, mata matas are not active hunters, so, like the [[alligator snapping turtle]], they need less space than a large, active species.

As with all aquatic turtles, water quality is one of the keys to keeping this species successfully in captivity. Warm, acidic water is the best type used with a high [[tannin-stained waters|tannin content]] that should be maintained all year round. Moderate to heavy filtration is recommended.<ref>[http://www.theturtlesource.com/caresheet_Matamata_turtle.asp?id=100200348&type=333&ph=true Mata mata Care Sheet]</ref> Fogel considers his captive mata mata turtles to be quite intelligent. For example, he has observed one turtle positioning itself near the spray bar of the aquarium at feeding time so that floating food is pushed beneath the water's surface where the turtle can catch it more easily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and Tortoise Preservation group's Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Chelus fimbriatus}}

{{Pleurodira}}
{{Testudines}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q14566138|from2=Q317386}}

[[Category:Chelus]]
[[Category:Turtles of South America]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Amazon]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Brazil]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Colombia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Reptiles of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Guyana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Peru]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Suriname]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1783]]
[[Category:Extant Pliocene first appearances]]

Mata mata

2020-04-14T01:55:08Z

118.46.55.151:

{{other uses|Matamata (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|species of freshwater turtle}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Mata mata
| image = 2009 Chelus fimbriatus.JPG
| image_caption = Shanghai Aquarium
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Pliocene|Recent}}
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=ttwg>{{cite journal| url=http://images.turtleconservancy.org/documents/2017/crm-7-checklist-atlas-v8-2017.pdf |title=Turtles of the world, 2017 update: Annotated checklist and atlas of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution, and conservation status(8th Ed.)| journal=Chelonian Research Monographs| volume=7| accessdate=October 4, 2019| date=August 3, 2017| last1=Rhodin | first1=Anders G.J. |last2=Inverson |first2=John B. |last3=Roger |first3=Bour |last4=Fritz |first4=Uwe |last5=Georges |first5=Arthur |last6=Shaffer |first6=H. Bradley |last7=van Dijk |first7=Peter Paul| collaboration=[[Turtle Taxonomy Working Group]]| series=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group| edition=8| editor1=Rhodin A G.J. |editor2=Iverson J.B. |editor3=van Dijk P.P. |editor4=Saumure R.A. |editor5=Buhlmann K.A. |editor6=[[Peter Pritchard|Pritchard P.C.H.]] |editor7=[[Russell Mittermeier|Mittermeier R.A.]]| pages=1–292| ISBN=978-1-5323-5026-9| doi=10.3854/crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017}}</ref>
| display_parents = 2
| genus = Chelus
| parent_authority = Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806>Duméril, A.M.C. 1806. Zoologie Analytique, ou Méthode Naturelle de Classification des Animaux. Paris: Perronneau, 344 pp.</ref>
| species = fimbriata
| authority = ([[Johann Gottlob Schneider|Schneider]], 1783)<ref name=sch83>Schneider, J.G. 1783. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Schildkröten, nebst einem Systematischen Verseichnisse der einzelnen Arten. Müller, Leipzig. xlviii + 364 p.</ref>
| synonyms =
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Genus Synonymy}}}}
*''Chelus'' Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806 />
*''Chelys'' Oppel, 1811 (nomen novum)<ref name=oppel11>Oppel, M. 1811. Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gattungen der Reptilien als Prodrom einer Naturgeschichte derselben. München: J. Lindauer, 86 pp.</ref>
*''Chelyda'' Rafinesque, 1815 (nomen novum)
*''Matamata'' Merrem, 1820 (nomen novum)
{{hidden end}}
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Species Synonymy}}}}
* ''Testudo terrestris'' Fermin, 1765 ''Nomen rejectum''<ref name=iczn1963>ICZN. 1963. Opinion 660. Suppression under the plenary powers of seven specific names of turtles (Reptilia: Testudines). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 20:187-190.</ref>
* ''Testudo fimbriata'' Schneider, 1783<ref name=sch83 />
* ''Testudo fimbria'' Gmelin, 1789 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo matamata'' Bruguière, 1792 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo bispinosa'' Daudin, 1801 ''nomen novum''
* ''Emydes matamata'' Brongniart, 1805
* ''Chelus fimbriata'' (Schneider, 1783) recombination<ref name=dum1806 />
* ''Testudo rapara'' Gray, 1831 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raparara'' Gray, 1844 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raxarara'' Gray, 1856 ''nomen novum''
* ''Chelys boulengerii'' Baur, 1890 ''nomen novum''
{{hidden end}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="ttwg" /><ref name="Fritz 2007">{{Cite journal|journal=Vertebrate Zoology |title=Checklist of Chelonians of the World |year=2007 |author=Fritz Uwe |author2=Peter Havaš |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=327 |issn=1864-5755 |url=http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501060224/http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archivedate=1 May 2011 |accessdate=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| range_map = Chelus fimbriatus distribution map.png
| range_map_caption = Mata mata distribution
}}

The '''mata mata''', '''mata-mata''', or '''matamata''' (''Chelus fimbriata'')<ref name="ttwg"/><ref>[http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php Giant fossil matamata turtles (matamatas part V)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011173155/http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php |date=2011-10-11 }}, Tetrapod Zoology</ref> is a freshwater [[turtle]] found in [[South America]], primarily in the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins. It is the only [[extant taxon|extant]] species in the genus '''''Chelus'''''. The name '''Mata mata''' is meaning "I kill, I kill" in Spanish language.<ref name=acaquarium>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle|URL=https://www.acaquarium.com/animals/matamata-turtle/|publisher=Atlantic City Aquarium|accessdate=14 April 2020}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The mata mata was described for the first time by French [[naturalist]] [[Pierre Barrère]] in 1741 as a "large land turtle with spiky and ridged scales" (translation).<ref name="Espenshade">
{{citation
| last = Espenshade III
| first = William H
| title = Matamata, Chelus fimbriatus
| journal = Tortuga Gazette
| volume=26
| year= 1990
| pages=3–5
| issue =5
}}
</ref> It was first classified as ''Testudo fimbriata'' by [[Germany|German]] naturalist [[Johann Gottlob Schneider]] in 1783. It was renamed 14 different times in two centuries, finally being renamed ''Chelus fimbriata'' in 1992.<ref name="ttwg"/><ref name="Espenshade"/><ref>[http://www.tortoise.org/archives/matamata.html Matamata, ''Chelus fimbriatus''], California Turtle & Tortoise Club</ref><ref>[http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species.php?genus=Chelus&species=fimbriatus ''Chelus fimbriata''], The Reptile Database</ref>

==Anatomy and morphology==
[[File:Mata Mata 1911.jpg|thumb|left|Top view of the mata mata turtle]]
The mata mata is a large, sedentary turtle with a large, triangular, flattened head with many [[tubercle (anatomy)|tubercle]]s and flaps of skin, and a "horn" on its long and tubular snout.<ref name="Espenshade"/> Three [[barbel (anatomy)|barbel]]s occur on the chin and four additional filamentous barbels at the upper jaw, which is neither hooked nor notched.<ref name="Bartlett">
{{citation
| last = Bartlett
| first = Dick
| title = The Matamata
| journal = Reptiles Magazine
| volume=15
| year= 2007
| pages=18–20
| issue =12
}}
</ref>

The mata mata's [[brown]] or [[black]], oblong [[carapace]] can measure up to {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} at adult age.<ref name="description">{{in lang|fr}} ''Toutes les tortues du monde'' by Franck Bonin, Bernard Devaux and Alain Dupré, second edition (1998), editions Delachaux and Niestlé/WWF.</ref> The full adult weight is {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="description" /> The mata mata's [[plastron]] is reduced, narrowed, hingeless, shortened towards the front, and deeply notched at the rear with narrow bridges.<ref name="Bartlett"/> These may be meant to allow the turtle to resemble a piece of bark, camouflaging it from possible predators.<ref>Encyclopedia of Animals: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians, Harold G. Cogger, Edwin Gould, Joseph Forshaw</ref> The plastron and bridges are cream to [[yellow]] or brown.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

The head, neck, tail, and limbs are grayish brown on adults.<ref name="Bartlett"/> The neck is longer than the vertebra under its carapace and is fringed with small skin flaps along both sides.<ref name="Bartlett"/> Hatchlings show a pink to reddish tinge in the underside edge of their carapaces and plastrons that gradually disappear as they grow.

Each fore foot has five webbed claws. Males have concave plastrons and longer, thicker tails than females.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

==Habitat==
The mata mata inhabits slow moving, blackwater streams, [[stagnant (water)|stagnant]] pools, marshes, and swamps ranging into northern [[Bolivia]], eastern [[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], eastern [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], the [[Guianas]], and northern and central [[Brazil]]. The mata mata is strictly an aquatic species but it prefers standing in shallow water where its snout can reach the surface to breathe.<ref name="Rosenfeld">
{{citation
| last = Rosenfeld
| first = Arthur
| title = Exotic Pets
| publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]]
| location= New York
| pages = 153–155
| year= 1989
| isbn = 978-0-671-47654-0
}}
</ref>

==Behavior==
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus close.jpg|thumb|left|Head, in profile]]
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus.jpg|thumb]]
The appearance of the mata mata's shell resembles a piece of bark, and its head resembles fallen leaves.<ref name="Cogger"/> As it remains motionless in the water, its [[skin]] flaps enable it to blend into the surrounding vegetation until a fish comes close.<ref name="Cogger">
{{citation
| last = Cogger
| first = Harold
| authorlink = Harold Cogger
| last2 = Zweifel
| first2 = Richard
| title = Reptiles & Amphibians
| publisher = Weldon Owen
| location = [[Sydney, Australia]]
| page = [https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112 112]
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-0-8317-2786-4
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112
}}
</ref> The mata mata thrusts out its head and opens its large mouth as wide as possible, creating a low-pressure vacuum that sucks the prey into its mouth, known as [[suction feeding]].<ref name="Cogger"/> The mata mata snaps its mouth shut, the water is slowly expelled, and the fish is swallowed whole; the mata mata cannot chew due to the way its mouth is constructed.<ref name="Cogger"/>

==Reproduction==
Males display for females by extending their limbs, lunging their heads toward the females with mouths agape, and moving the lateral flaps on their heads. Nesting occurs from October through December in the [[Upper Amazon]].<ref name=acaquarium/> The 12 to 28 brittle, spherical, 35 mm-diameter [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s are deposited in a clutch.

==Diet==
{{Expand section|date=March 2018}}
The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic [[invertebrates]] and [[fish]].<ref name="Espenshade"/><ref name="Cogger"/> When the stomach content of 20 wild mata mata turtles was examined it consisted exclusively of small fish.The turtles predominantly feed at night in muddy water with limited visibility. However the turtle is well adapted to hunting in these conditions. The mata mata has very fine eyesight with eyes that reflect light, similar to other nocturnal reptiles. In addition, the skin flaps on the neck are also extremely sensitive and help the mata mata detect nearby movement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and tortoise preservation Group Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

Mata mata turtles use a specific method of seizing their prey. They will move the prey into shallower areas of water, surround the prey, and wave their front legs to prevent them from escaping. Once surrounded, the mata mata turtles will open their mouths and contract their pharynx, causing a rush of water that pushes the prey into their mouth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wise1, Formanowicz, Jr.2, Brodie, Jr.3|first=Scott C.1, Daniel R.2, Edmund D.3|date=September 1989|title=Matamata Turtles Ambush but Do Not Herd Prey|journal=Journal of Herpetology|volume=23, No. 3|issue=3|pages=297–299|doi=10.2307/1564454|jstor=1564454}}</ref>

==In captivity==
[[File:Mata mata NC.jpg|thumb|right|Mata mata turtles on exhibit at the [[North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences]] in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]].]]
Mata mata turtles are readily available in the exotic pet trade and are quite expensive to obtain. Due to their unique appearance, they make interesting display animals. They also grow quite large. However, mata matas are not active hunters, so, like the [[alligator snapping turtle]], they need less space than a large, active species.

As with all aquatic turtles, water quality is one of the keys to keeping this species successfully in captivity. Warm, acidic water is the best type used with a high [[tannin-stained waters|tannin content]] that should be maintained all year round. Moderate to heavy filtration is recommended.<ref>[http://www.theturtlesource.com/caresheet_Matamata_turtle.asp?id=100200348&type=333&ph=true Mata mata Care Sheet]</ref> Fogel considers his captive mata mata turtles to be quite intelligent. For example, he has observed one turtle positioning itself near the spray bar of the aquarium at feeding time so that floating food is pushed beneath the water's surface where the turtle can catch it more easily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and Tortoise Preservation group's Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Chelus fimbriatus}}

{{Pleurodira}}
{{Testudines}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q14566138|from2=Q317386}}

[[Category:Chelus]]
[[Category:Turtles of South America]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Amazon]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Brazil]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Colombia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Reptiles of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Guyana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Peru]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Suriname]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1783]]
[[Category:Extant Pliocene first appearances]]

Mata mata

2020-04-14T01:53:57Z

118.46.55.151: /* Reproduction */

{{other uses|Matamata (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|species of freshwater turtle}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Mata mata
| image = 2009 Chelus fimbriatus.JPG
| image_caption = Shanghai Aquarium
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Pliocene|Recent}}
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=ttwg>{{cite journal| url=http://images.turtleconservancy.org/documents/2017/crm-7-checklist-atlas-v8-2017.pdf |title=Turtles of the world, 2017 update: Annotated checklist and atlas of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution, and conservation status(8th Ed.)| journal=Chelonian Research Monographs| volume=7| accessdate=October 4, 2019| date=August 3, 2017| last1=Rhodin | first1=Anders G.J. |last2=Inverson |first2=John B. |last3=Roger |first3=Bour |last4=Fritz |first4=Uwe |last5=Georges |first5=Arthur |last6=Shaffer |first6=H. Bradley |last7=van Dijk |first7=Peter Paul| collaboration=[[Turtle Taxonomy Working Group]]| series=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group| edition=8| editor1=Rhodin A G.J. |editor2=Iverson J.B. |editor3=van Dijk P.P. |editor4=Saumure R.A. |editor5=Buhlmann K.A. |editor6=[[Peter Pritchard|Pritchard P.C.H.]] |editor7=[[Russell Mittermeier|Mittermeier R.A.]]| pages=1–292| ISBN=978-1-5323-5026-9| doi=10.3854/crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017}}</ref>
| display_parents = 2
| genus = Chelus
| parent_authority = Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806>Duméril, A.M.C. 1806. Zoologie Analytique, ou Méthode Naturelle de Classification des Animaux. Paris: Perronneau, 344 pp.</ref>
| species = fimbriata
| authority = ([[Johann Gottlob Schneider|Schneider]], 1783)<ref name=sch83>Schneider, J.G. 1783. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Schildkröten, nebst einem Systematischen Verseichnisse der einzelnen Arten. Müller, Leipzig. xlviii + 364 p.</ref>
| synonyms =
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Genus Synonymy}}}}
*''Chelus'' Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806 />
*''Chelys'' Oppel, 1811 (nomen novum)<ref name=oppel11>Oppel, M. 1811. Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gattungen der Reptilien als Prodrom einer Naturgeschichte derselben. München: J. Lindauer, 86 pp.</ref>
*''Chelyda'' Rafinesque, 1815 (nomen novum)
*''Matamata'' Merrem, 1820 (nomen novum)
{{hidden end}}
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Species Synonymy}}}}
* ''Testudo terrestris'' Fermin, 1765 ''Nomen rejectum''<ref name=iczn1963>ICZN. 1963. Opinion 660. Suppression under the plenary powers of seven specific names of turtles (Reptilia: Testudines). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 20:187-190.</ref>
* ''Testudo fimbriata'' Schneider, 1783<ref name=sch83 />
* ''Testudo fimbria'' Gmelin, 1789 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo matamata'' Bruguière, 1792 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo bispinosa'' Daudin, 1801 ''nomen novum''
* ''Emydes matamata'' Brongniart, 1805
* ''Chelus fimbriata'' (Schneider, 1783) recombination<ref name=dum1806 />
* ''Testudo rapara'' Gray, 1831 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raparara'' Gray, 1844 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raxarara'' Gray, 1856 ''nomen novum''
* ''Chelys boulengerii'' Baur, 1890 ''nomen novum''
{{hidden end}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="ttwg" /><ref name="Fritz 2007">{{Cite journal|journal=Vertebrate Zoology |title=Checklist of Chelonians of the World |year=2007 |author=Fritz Uwe |author2=Peter Havaš |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=327 |issn=1864-5755 |url=http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501060224/http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archivedate=1 May 2011 |accessdate=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| range_map = Chelus fimbriatus distribution map.png
| range_map_caption = Mata mata distribution
}}

The '''mata mata''', '''mata-mata''', or '''matamata''' (''Chelus fimbriata'')<ref name="ttwg"/><ref>[http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php Giant fossil matamata turtles (matamatas part V)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011173155/http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php |date=2011-10-11 }}, Tetrapod Zoology</ref> is a freshwater [[turtle]] found in [[South America]], primarily in the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins. It is the only [[extant taxon|extant]] species in the genus '''''Chelus'''''. The name '''Mata mata''' is meaning "I kill, I kill" in Spanish language.<ref name=acaquarium>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle|URL=https://www.acaquarium.com/animals/matamata-turtle/|publisher=Atlantic City Aquarium|accessdate=April 14 2020}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The mata mata was described for the first time by French [[naturalist]] [[Pierre Barrère]] in 1741 as a "large land turtle with spiky and ridged scales" (translation).<ref name="Espenshade">
{{citation
| last = Espenshade III
| first = William H
| title = Matamata, Chelus fimbriatus
| journal = Tortuga Gazette
| volume=26
| year= 1990
| pages=3–5
| issue =5
}}
</ref> It was first classified as ''Testudo fimbriata'' by [[Germany|German]] naturalist [[Johann Gottlob Schneider]] in 1783. It was renamed 14 different times in two centuries, finally being renamed ''Chelus fimbriata'' in 1992.<ref name="ttwg"/><ref name="Espenshade"/><ref>[http://www.tortoise.org/archives/matamata.html Matamata, ''Chelus fimbriatus''], California Turtle & Tortoise Club</ref><ref>[http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species.php?genus=Chelus&species=fimbriatus ''Chelus fimbriata''], The Reptile Database</ref>

==Anatomy and morphology==
[[File:Mata Mata 1911.jpg|thumb|left|Top view of the mata mata turtle]]
The mata mata is a large, sedentary turtle with a large, triangular, flattened head with many [[tubercle (anatomy)|tubercle]]s and flaps of skin, and a "horn" on its long and tubular snout.<ref name="Espenshade"/> Three [[barbel (anatomy)|barbel]]s occur on the chin and four additional filamentous barbels at the upper jaw, which is neither hooked nor notched.<ref name="Bartlett">
{{citation
| last = Bartlett
| first = Dick
| title = The Matamata
| journal = Reptiles Magazine
| volume=15
| year= 2007
| pages=18–20
| issue =12
}}
</ref>

The mata mata's [[brown]] or [[black]], oblong [[carapace]] can measure up to {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} at adult age.<ref name="description">{{in lang|fr}} ''Toutes les tortues du monde'' by Franck Bonin, Bernard Devaux and Alain Dupré, second edition (1998), editions Delachaux and Niestlé/WWF.</ref> The full adult weight is {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="description" /> The mata mata's [[plastron]] is reduced, narrowed, hingeless, shortened towards the front, and deeply notched at the rear with narrow bridges.<ref name="Bartlett"/> These may be meant to allow the turtle to resemble a piece of bark, camouflaging it from possible predators.<ref>Encyclopedia of Animals: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians, Harold G. Cogger, Edwin Gould, Joseph Forshaw</ref> The plastron and bridges are cream to [[yellow]] or brown.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

The head, neck, tail, and limbs are grayish brown on adults.<ref name="Bartlett"/> The neck is longer than the vertebra under its carapace and is fringed with small skin flaps along both sides.<ref name="Bartlett"/> Hatchlings show a pink to reddish tinge in the underside edge of their carapaces and plastrons that gradually disappear as they grow.

Each fore foot has five webbed claws. Males have concave plastrons and longer, thicker tails than females.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

==Habitat==
The mata mata inhabits slow moving, blackwater streams, [[stagnant (water)|stagnant]] pools, marshes, and swamps ranging into northern [[Bolivia]], eastern [[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], eastern [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], the [[Guianas]], and northern and central [[Brazil]]. The mata mata is strictly an aquatic species but it prefers standing in shallow water where its snout can reach the surface to breathe.<ref name="Rosenfeld">
{{citation
| last = Rosenfeld
| first = Arthur
| title = Exotic Pets
| publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]]
| location= New York
| pages = 153–155
| year= 1989
| isbn = 978-0-671-47654-0
}}
</ref>

==Behavior==
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus close.jpg|thumb|left|Head, in profile]]
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus.jpg|thumb]]
The appearance of the mata mata's shell resembles a piece of bark, and its head resembles fallen leaves.<ref name="Cogger"/> As it remains motionless in the water, its [[skin]] flaps enable it to blend into the surrounding vegetation until a fish comes close.<ref name="Cogger">
{{citation
| last = Cogger
| first = Harold
| authorlink = Harold Cogger
| last2 = Zweifel
| first2 = Richard
| title = Reptiles & Amphibians
| publisher = Weldon Owen
| location = [[Sydney, Australia]]
| page = [https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112 112]
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-0-8317-2786-4
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112
}}
</ref> The mata mata thrusts out its head and opens its large mouth as wide as possible, creating a low-pressure vacuum that sucks the prey into its mouth, known as [[suction feeding]].<ref name="Cogger"/> The mata mata snaps its mouth shut, the water is slowly expelled, and the fish is swallowed whole; the mata mata cannot chew due to the way its mouth is constructed.<ref name="Cogger"/>

==Reproduction==
Males display for females by extending their limbs, lunging their heads toward the females with mouths agape, and moving the lateral flaps on their heads. Nesting occurs from October through December in the [[Upper Amazon]].<ref name=acaquarium/> The 12 to 28 brittle, spherical, 35 mm-diameter [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s are deposited in a clutch.

==Diet==
{{Expand section|date=March 2018}}
The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic [[invertebrates]] and [[fish]].<ref name="Espenshade"/><ref name="Cogger"/> When the stomach content of 20 wild mata mata turtles was examined it consisted exclusively of small fish.The turtles predominantly feed at night in muddy water with limited visibility. However the turtle is well adapted to hunting in these conditions. The mata mata has very fine eyesight with eyes that reflect light, similar to other nocturnal reptiles. In addition, the skin flaps on the neck are also extremely sensitive and help the mata mata detect nearby movement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and tortoise preservation Group Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

Mata mata turtles use a specific method of seizing their prey. They will move the prey into shallower areas of water, surround the prey, and wave their front legs to prevent them from escaping. Once surrounded, the mata mata turtles will open their mouths and contract their pharynx, causing a rush of water that pushes the prey into their mouth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wise1, Formanowicz, Jr.2, Brodie, Jr.3|first=Scott C.1, Daniel R.2, Edmund D.3|date=September 1989|title=Matamata Turtles Ambush but Do Not Herd Prey|journal=Journal of Herpetology|volume=23, No. 3|issue=3|pages=297–299|doi=10.2307/1564454|jstor=1564454}}</ref>

==In captivity==
[[File:Mata mata NC.jpg|thumb|right|Mata mata turtles on exhibit at the [[North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences]] in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]].]]
Mata mata turtles are readily available in the exotic pet trade and are quite expensive to obtain. Due to their unique appearance, they make interesting display animals. They also grow quite large. However, mata matas are not active hunters, so, like the [[alligator snapping turtle]], they need less space than a large, active species.

As with all aquatic turtles, water quality is one of the keys to keeping this species successfully in captivity. Warm, acidic water is the best type used with a high [[tannin-stained waters|tannin content]] that should be maintained all year round. Moderate to heavy filtration is recommended.<ref>[http://www.theturtlesource.com/caresheet_Matamata_turtle.asp?id=100200348&type=333&ph=true Mata mata Care Sheet]</ref> Fogel considers his captive mata mata turtles to be quite intelligent. For example, he has observed one turtle positioning itself near the spray bar of the aquarium at feeding time so that floating food is pushed beneath the water's surface where the turtle can catch it more easily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and Tortoise Preservation group's Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Chelus fimbriatus}}

{{Pleurodira}}
{{Testudines}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q14566138|from2=Q317386}}

[[Category:Chelus]]
[[Category:Turtles of South America]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Amazon]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Brazil]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Colombia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Reptiles of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Guyana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Peru]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Suriname]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1783]]
[[Category:Extant Pliocene first appearances]]

Mata mata

2020-04-14T01:51:14Z

118.46.55.151:

{{other uses|Matamata (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|species of freshwater turtle}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Mata mata
| image = 2009 Chelus fimbriatus.JPG
| image_caption = Shanghai Aquarium
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Pliocene|Recent}}
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=ttwg>{{cite journal| url=http://images.turtleconservancy.org/documents/2017/crm-7-checklist-atlas-v8-2017.pdf |title=Turtles of the world, 2017 update: Annotated checklist and atlas of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution, and conservation status(8th Ed.)| journal=Chelonian Research Monographs| volume=7| accessdate=October 4, 2019| date=August 3, 2017| last1=Rhodin | first1=Anders G.J. |last2=Inverson |first2=John B. |last3=Roger |first3=Bour |last4=Fritz |first4=Uwe |last5=Georges |first5=Arthur |last6=Shaffer |first6=H. Bradley |last7=van Dijk |first7=Peter Paul| collaboration=[[Turtle Taxonomy Working Group]]| series=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group| edition=8| editor1=Rhodin A G.J. |editor2=Iverson J.B. |editor3=van Dijk P.P. |editor4=Saumure R.A. |editor5=Buhlmann K.A. |editor6=[[Peter Pritchard|Pritchard P.C.H.]] |editor7=[[Russell Mittermeier|Mittermeier R.A.]]| pages=1–292| ISBN=978-1-5323-5026-9| doi=10.3854/crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017}}</ref>
| display_parents = 2
| genus = Chelus
| parent_authority = Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806>Duméril, A.M.C. 1806. Zoologie Analytique, ou Méthode Naturelle de Classification des Animaux. Paris: Perronneau, 344 pp.</ref>
| species = fimbriata
| authority = ([[Johann Gottlob Schneider|Schneider]], 1783)<ref name=sch83>Schneider, J.G. 1783. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Schildkröten, nebst einem Systematischen Verseichnisse der einzelnen Arten. Müller, Leipzig. xlviii + 364 p.</ref>
| synonyms =
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Genus Synonymy}}}}
*''Chelus'' Duméril, 1806<ref name=dum1806 />
*''Chelys'' Oppel, 1811 (nomen novum)<ref name=oppel11>Oppel, M. 1811. Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gattungen der Reptilien als Prodrom einer Naturgeschichte derselben. München: J. Lindauer, 86 pp.</ref>
*''Chelyda'' Rafinesque, 1815 (nomen novum)
*''Matamata'' Merrem, 1820 (nomen novum)
{{hidden end}}
{{hidden begin|toggle=left|title={{small|Species Synonymy}}}}
* ''Testudo terrestris'' Fermin, 1765 ''Nomen rejectum''<ref name=iczn1963>ICZN. 1963. Opinion 660. Suppression under the plenary powers of seven specific names of turtles (Reptilia: Testudines). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 20:187-190.</ref>
* ''Testudo fimbriata'' Schneider, 1783<ref name=sch83 />
* ''Testudo fimbria'' Gmelin, 1789 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo matamata'' Bruguière, 1792 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo bispinosa'' Daudin, 1801 ''nomen novum''
* ''Emydes matamata'' Brongniart, 1805
* ''Chelus fimbriata'' (Schneider, 1783) recombination<ref name=dum1806 />
* ''Testudo rapara'' Gray, 1831 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raparara'' Gray, 1844 ''nomen novum''
* ''Testudo raxarara'' Gray, 1856 ''nomen novum''
* ''Chelys boulengerii'' Baur, 1890 ''nomen novum''
{{hidden end}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="ttwg" /><ref name="Fritz 2007">{{Cite journal|journal=Vertebrate Zoology |title=Checklist of Chelonians of the World |year=2007 |author=Fritz Uwe |author2=Peter Havaš |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=327 |issn=1864-5755 |url=http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501060224/http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/851.pdf |archivedate=1 May 2011 |accessdate=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| range_map = Chelus fimbriatus distribution map.png
| range_map_caption = Mata mata distribution
}}

The '''mata mata''', '''mata-mata''', or '''matamata''' (''Chelus fimbriata'')<ref name="ttwg"/><ref>[http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php Giant fossil matamata turtles (matamatas part V)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011173155/http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/04/giant_fossil_matamata_turtles.php |date=2011-10-11 }}, Tetrapod Zoology</ref> is a freshwater [[turtle]] found in [[South America]], primarily in the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins. It is the only [[extant taxon|extant]] species in the genus '''''Chelus'''''. The name '''Mata mata''' is meaning "I kill, I kill" in Spanish language.<ref name=acaquarium>{{Cite news|title=Matamata Turtle|URL=https://www.acaquarium.com/animals/matamata-turtle/|publisher=Atlantic City Aquarium|accessdate=April 14 2020}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The mata mata was described for the first time by French [[naturalist]] [[Pierre Barrère]] in 1741 as a "large land turtle with spiky and ridged scales" (translation).<ref name="Espenshade">
{{citation
| last = Espenshade III
| first = William H
| title = Matamata, Chelus fimbriatus
| journal = Tortuga Gazette
| volume=26
| year= 1990
| pages=3–5
| issue =5
}}
</ref> It was first classified as ''Testudo fimbriata'' by [[Germany|German]] naturalist [[Johann Gottlob Schneider]] in 1783. It was renamed 14 different times in two centuries, finally being renamed ''Chelus fimbriata'' in 1992.<ref name="ttwg"/><ref name="Espenshade"/><ref>[http://www.tortoise.org/archives/matamata.html Matamata, ''Chelus fimbriatus''], California Turtle & Tortoise Club</ref><ref>[http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species.php?genus=Chelus&species=fimbriatus ''Chelus fimbriata''], The Reptile Database</ref>

==Anatomy and morphology==
[[File:Mata Mata 1911.jpg|thumb|left|Top view of the mata mata turtle]]
The mata mata is a large, sedentary turtle with a large, triangular, flattened head with many [[tubercle (anatomy)|tubercle]]s and flaps of skin, and a "horn" on its long and tubular snout.<ref name="Espenshade"/> Three [[barbel (anatomy)|barbel]]s occur on the chin and four additional filamentous barbels at the upper jaw, which is neither hooked nor notched.<ref name="Bartlett">
{{citation
| last = Bartlett
| first = Dick
| title = The Matamata
| journal = Reptiles Magazine
| volume=15
| year= 2007
| pages=18–20
| issue =12
}}
</ref>

The mata mata's [[brown]] or [[black]], oblong [[carapace]] can measure up to {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} at adult age.<ref name="description">{{in lang|fr}} ''Toutes les tortues du monde'' by Franck Bonin, Bernard Devaux and Alain Dupré, second edition (1998), editions Delachaux and Niestlé/WWF.</ref> The full adult weight is {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="description" /> The mata mata's [[plastron]] is reduced, narrowed, hingeless, shortened towards the front, and deeply notched at the rear with narrow bridges.<ref name="Bartlett"/> These may be meant to allow the turtle to resemble a piece of bark, camouflaging it from possible predators.<ref>Encyclopedia of Animals: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians, Harold G. Cogger, Edwin Gould, Joseph Forshaw</ref> The plastron and bridges are cream to [[yellow]] or brown.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

The head, neck, tail, and limbs are grayish brown on adults.<ref name="Bartlett"/> The neck is longer than the vertebra under its carapace and is fringed with small skin flaps along both sides.<ref name="Bartlett"/> Hatchlings show a pink to reddish tinge in the underside edge of their carapaces and plastrons that gradually disappear as they grow.

Each fore foot has five webbed claws. Males have concave plastrons and longer, thicker tails than females.<ref name="Bartlett"/>

==Habitat==
The mata mata inhabits slow moving, blackwater streams, [[stagnant (water)|stagnant]] pools, marshes, and swamps ranging into northern [[Bolivia]], eastern [[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], eastern [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], the [[Guianas]], and northern and central [[Brazil]]. The mata mata is strictly an aquatic species but it prefers standing in shallow water where its snout can reach the surface to breathe.<ref name="Rosenfeld">
{{citation
| last = Rosenfeld
| first = Arthur
| title = Exotic Pets
| publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]]
| location= New York
| pages = 153–155
| year= 1989
| isbn = 978-0-671-47654-0
}}
</ref>

==Behavior==
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus close.jpg|thumb|left|Head, in profile]]
[[File:Chelus fimbriatus.jpg|thumb]]
The appearance of the mata mata's shell resembles a piece of bark, and its head resembles fallen leaves.<ref name="Cogger"/> As it remains motionless in the water, its [[skin]] flaps enable it to blend into the surrounding vegetation until a fish comes close.<ref name="Cogger">
{{citation
| last = Cogger
| first = Harold
| authorlink = Harold Cogger
| last2 = Zweifel
| first2 = Richard
| title = Reptiles & Amphibians
| publisher = Weldon Owen
| location = [[Sydney, Australia]]
| page = [https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112 112]
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-0-8317-2786-4
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia00coggrich/page/112
}}
</ref> The mata mata thrusts out its head and opens its large mouth as wide as possible, creating a low-pressure vacuum that sucks the prey into its mouth, known as [[suction feeding]].<ref name="Cogger"/> The mata mata snaps its mouth shut, the water is slowly expelled, and the fish is swallowed whole; the mata mata cannot chew due to the way its mouth is constructed.<ref name="Cogger"/>

==Reproduction==
Males display for females by extending their limbs, lunging their heads toward the females with mouths agape, and moving the lateral flaps on their heads. Nesting occurs from October through December in the [[Upper Amazon]]. The 12 to 28 brittle, spherical, 35 mm-diameter [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s are deposited in a clutch.

==Diet==
{{Expand section|date=March 2018}}
The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic [[invertebrates]] and [[fish]].<ref name="Espenshade"/><ref name="Cogger"/> When the stomach content of 20 wild mata mata turtles was examined it consisted exclusively of small fish.The turtles predominantly feed at night in muddy water with limited visibility. However the turtle is well adapted to hunting in these conditions. The mata mata has very fine eyesight with eyes that reflect light, similar to other nocturnal reptiles. In addition, the skin flaps on the neck are also extremely sensitive and help the mata mata detect nearby movement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and tortoise preservation Group Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

Mata mata turtles use a specific method of seizing their prey. They will move the prey into shallower areas of water, surround the prey, and wave their front legs to prevent them from escaping. Once surrounded, the mata mata turtles will open their mouths and contract their pharynx, causing a rush of water that pushes the prey into their mouth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wise1, Formanowicz, Jr.2, Brodie, Jr.3|first=Scott C.1, Daniel R.2, Edmund D.3|date=September 1989|title=Matamata Turtles Ambush but Do Not Herd Prey|journal=Journal of Herpetology|volume=23, No. 3|issue=3|pages=297–299|doi=10.2307/1564454|jstor=1564454}}</ref>

==In captivity==
[[File:Mata mata NC.jpg|thumb|right|Mata mata turtles on exhibit at the [[North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences]] in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]].]]
Mata mata turtles are readily available in the exotic pet trade and are quite expensive to obtain. Due to their unique appearance, they make interesting display animals. They also grow quite large. However, mata matas are not active hunters, so, like the [[alligator snapping turtle]], they need less space than a large, active species.

As with all aquatic turtles, water quality is one of the keys to keeping this species successfully in captivity. Warm, acidic water is the best type used with a high [[tannin-stained waters|tannin content]] that should be maintained all year round. Moderate to heavy filtration is recommended.<ref>[http://www.theturtlesource.com/caresheet_Matamata_turtle.asp?id=100200348&type=333&ph=true Mata mata Care Sheet]</ref> Fogel considers his captive mata mata turtles to be quite intelligent. For example, he has observed one turtle positioning itself near the spray bar of the aquarium at feeding time so that floating food is pushed beneath the water's surface where the turtle can catch it more easily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matamatas: The Natural History, Captive Care and Breeding of Chelus fimbriatus|last=Fogel|first=David|publisher=Turtle and Tortoise Preservation group's Turtles of the world series|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Chelus fimbriatus}}

{{Pleurodira}}
{{Testudines}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q14566138|from2=Q317386}}

[[Category:Chelus]]
[[Category:Turtles of South America]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Amazon]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Brazil]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Colombia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Reptiles of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Guyana]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Peru]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Suriname]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1783]]
[[Category:Extant Pliocene first appearances]]

Shoebill

2020-04-09T02:32:45Z

118.46.55.151:

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{redirect|B. rex|the ''Tyrannosaurus'' specimen|B-rex}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Shoebill
| image = Balaeniceps rex.jpg
| image_caption = At the [[Pairi Daiza]] in [[Brugelette]], Belgium
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22697583/0 |title=''Balaeniceps rex'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013|ref=harv}}</ref>
| grandparent_authority = [[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Bonaparte]], 1853
| genus = Balaeniceps
| parent_authority = [[John Gould|Gould]], 1850
| species = rex
| authority = [[John Gould|Gould]], 1850
| range_map = Balaeniceps rex distribution.svg
| range_map_caption = Shoebill range
}}

The '''shoebill''' (''Balaeniceps rex'') also known as '''whalehead''', '''whale-headed stork''', or '''shoe-billed stork''', is a very large [[stork]]-like [[bird]]. It derives its name from its enormous [[shoe]]-shaped [[beak|bill]]. It has a somewhat stork-like overall form and has previously been classified with the storks in the order [[Ciconiiformes]] based on this morphology. However, genetic evidence places it with the [[Pelecaniformes]]. The adult is mainly grey while the juveniles are browner. It lives in tropical east [[Africa]] in large swamps from [[Sudan]] to [[Zambia]].<ref name="HBW1">del Hoyo, J. Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. (editors). (1992) ''Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks''. Lynx Edicions. {{ISBN|84-87334-10-5}}</ref>

==Taxonomy and systematics==
[[File:Hammerkopf2.jpg|thumb|left|Molecular studies have found the [[hamerkop]] to be the closest relative of the shoebill.]]
The shoebill was known to both ancient [[Egyptians]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Houlihan |first1=Patrick F. |title=The Birds of Ancient Egypt |date=1986 |publisher=Aris & Phillips |location=Wiltshire |page=26}}</ref> and [[Arabs]],{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} but was not classified until the 19th century, after skins and eventually live specimens were brought to Europe. [[John Gould]] described it in 1850, giving it the name ''Balaeniceps rex''. The genus name comes from the [[Latin]] words ''balaena'' "whale",{{cn|date=May 2019}} and ''caput'' "head", abbreviated to ''-ceps'' in compound words.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Whitmore |title=The principal roots and derivatives of the Latin language, with a display of their incorporation into English |date=1861 |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman & Roberts |location=London |page=153 |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=k9UNAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA153}}</ref>

Traditionally allied with the [[stork]]s ([[Ciconiiformes]]), it was retained there in the [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]] which lumped a massive number of unrelated taxa into their "Ciconiiformes". More recently, the shoebill has been considered to be closer to the [[pelican]]s (based on anatomical comparisons)<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/abteilung/terrzool/ornithologie/balaeniceps.pdf |author=Mayr, Gerald |year=2003 |title=The phylogenetic affinities of the Shoebill (''Balaeniceps rex'') |journal=Journal für Ornithologie |volume=144 |issue=2 |pages=157–175 |doi=10.1007/BF02465644|access-date=2012-08-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929002144/http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/abteilung/terrzool/ornithologie/balaeniceps.pdf |archive-date=2018-09-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> or the [[heron]]s (based on biochemical evidence; Hagey ''et al.'', 2002).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hagey, J. R. |author2=Schteingart, C. D. |author3=Ton-Nu, H.-T. |author4=Hofmann, A. F. |last-author-amp=yes |pmid=11971938 |year=2002 |title=A novel primary bile acid in the Shoebill stork and herons and its phylogenetic significance |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=685–90 |journal=Journal of Lipid Research}}</ref> Microscopic analysis of eggshell structure by Konstantin Mikhailov in 1995 found that the eggshells of shoebills closely resembled those of other [[Pelecaniformes]] in having a covering of thick microglobular material over the crystalline shells.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mikhailov |first=Konstantin E. |title=Eggshell structure in the shoebill and pelecaniform birds: comparison with hamerkop, herons, ibises and storks |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |year=1995 |issue=9 |volume=73 |pages=1754–70 |doi=10.1139/z95-207}}</ref> A recent DNA study reinforces their membership of the Pelecaniformes.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=18583609 |url=http://www.owlpages.info/downloads/A_Phylogenomic_Study_of_Birds_Reveals_Their_Evolutionary_History.pdf|year=2008 |last1=Hackett |first1=SJ |last2=Kimball |first2=RT |last3=Reddy |first3=S |last4=Bowie |first4=RC |last5=Braun |first5=EL |last6=Braun |first6=MJ |last7=Chojnowski |first7=JL |last8=Cox |first8=WA |last9=Han |first9=KL|title=A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history |volume=320 |issue=5884 |pages=1763–8 |doi=10.1126/science.1157704 |journal=Science|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2008Sci...320.1763H}}</ref>

So far, two fossil relatives of the shoebill have been described: ''[[Goliathia]]'' from the early [[Oligocene]] of [[Egypt]] and ''[[Paludavis]]'' from the Early [[Miocene]] of the same country. It has been suggested that the enigmatic African fossil bird ''[[Eremopezus]]'' was a relative too, but the evidence for that is unconfirmed. All that is known of ''Eremopezus'' is that it was a very large, probably flightless bird with a flexible foot, allowing it to handle either vegetation or prey.

==Description==
[[File:Balaeniceps rex -Ueno Zoo, Tokyo, Japan -upper body-8a.jpg|left|thumb|The shoebill's conspicuous bill is its most well-known feature.]]
The shoebill is a tall bird, with a typical height range of {{convert|110|to|140|cm|in|abbr=on}} and some specimens reaching as much as {{convert|152|cm|in|abbr=on}}. Length from tail to beak can range from {{convert|100|to|140|cm|in|abbr=on}} and wingspan is {{convert|230|to|260|cm|ftin|0|abbr=on}}. Weight has reportedly ranged from {{convert|4|to|7|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>[http://www.fsbio-hannover.de/oftheweek/111.htm Balaeniceps rex] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719025532/http://www.fsbio-hannover.de/oftheweek/111.htm |date=2011-07-19 }}. Fsbio-hannover.de. Retrieved on 2012-08-21.</ref><ref>Stevenson, Terry and Fanshawe, John (2001). ''Field Guide to the Birds of East Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi''. Elsevier Science, {{ISBN|978-0856610790}}</ref> A male will weigh on average around {{convert|5.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and is larger than a typical female of {{convert|4.9|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Hancock"/> The signature feature of the species is its huge, bulbous [[Beak|bill]], which is straw-coloured with erratic greyish markings. The [[Culmen (bird)|exposed culmen]] (or the measurement along the top of the upper mandible) is {{convert|18.8|to|24|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the third longest bill among extant birds after [[pelican]]s and large [[stork]]s, and can outrival the pelicans in bill circumference, especially if the bill is considered as the hard, bony keratin portion.<ref name="Hancock"/> The sharp edges in the mandibles help the shoebill to decapitate their prey and also to discard any vegetation after prey has been caught. As in the [[pelican]]s, the upper mandible is strongly keeled, ending in a sharp nail. The dark coloured legs are fairly long, with a [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] length of {{convert|21.7|to|25.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The shoebill's feet are exceptionally large, with the middle toe reaching {{convert|16.8|to|18.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length, likely assisting the species in its ability to stand on aquatic vegetation while hunting. The neck is relatively shorter and thicker than other long-legged wading birds such as [[heron]]s and [[crane (bird)|crane]]s. The wings are broad, with a [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] length of {{convert|58.8|to|78|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and well-adapted to [[Lift (soaring)|soaring]].

[[File:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - ZMA.AVES.26542 - Balaeniceps rex Gould, 1850 - Balaenicipitidae - skeleton (whole) specimen.jpeg|thumb|right|The skull]]
The plumage of adult birds is blue-grey with darker [[slaty]]-grey [[flight feather]]s. The breast presents some elongated feathers, which have dark shafts. The juvenile has a similar plumage colour, but is a darker grey with a brown tinge.<ref name="HBW1"/> When they are first born, shoebills have a more modestly-sized bill, which is initially silvery-grey. The bill becomes more noticeably large when the chicks are 23 days old and becomes well developed by 43 days.<ref name="Hancock"/>

===Flight pattern===
Its wings are held flat while soaring and, as in the pelicans and the storks of the genus ''[[Leptoptilos]]'', the shoebill flies with its neck retracted. Its flapping rate, at an estimated 150 flaps per minute, is one of the slowest of any bird, with the exception of the larger [[stork]] species. The pattern is alternating flapping and gliding cycles of approximately seven seconds each, putting its gliding distance somewhere between the larger storks and the [[Andean condor]] (''Vultur gryphus''). When flushed, shoebills usually try to fly no more than {{convert|100|to|500|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Hancock"/> Long flights of the shoebill are rare, and only a few flights beyond its minimum foraging distance of {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} have been recorded.

===Identification===
At close range, it can be easily identified by its unique features. In flight, if its unique bill cannot be seen, the shoebill's silhouette resembles that of a stork or condor, but its feathers are a distinctive medium blue-grey. Also unusual, its tail is the same colour as its wings. Under poor viewing conditions, its size and wingspan can distinguish it from other birds in its habitat. Its legs, roughly the length of storks', extend straight back far past its tail when in flight. The wing to tail size cannot be used for identification; it is similar to those of several other birds.

[[File:Shoebill-uenozoo2008.ogv|thumb|A shoebill at the [[Ueno Zoo]], [[Tokyo]], (video)]]

==Distribution and habitat==
The shoebill is distributed in freshwater swamps of central tropical Africa, from southern [[Sudan]] and [[South Sudan]] through parts of eastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Uganda]], western [[Tanzania]] and northern [[Zambia]]. The species is most numerous in the [[West Nile sub-region]] and South Sudan (especially the [[Sudd]], a main stronghold for the species); it is also significant in wetlands of Uganda and western Tanzania. More isolated records have been reported of shoebills in [[Kenya]], the [[Central African Republic]], northern [[Cameroon]], south-western [[Ethiopia]], [[Malawi]]. Vagrant strays to the [[Okavango Basin]], [[Botswana]] and the upper [[Congo River]] have also been sighted. The distribution of this species seems to largely coincide with that of [[Cyperus papyrus|papyrus]] and [[Protopterus|lungfish]]. They are often found in areas of flood plain interspersed with undisturbed papyrus and reedbeds. When shoebill storks are in an area with deep water, a bed of floating vegetation is a requirement. They are also found where there is poorly oxygenated water. This causes the fish living in the water to surface for air more often, increasing the likelihood a shoebill stork will successfully capture it. <ref> "Balaeniceps rex (shoebill)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2020-03-02.</ref>The shoebill is non-migratory with limited seasonal movements due to habitat changes, food availability and disturbance by humans.<ref name="Hancock">Hancock & Kushan, ''Storks, Ibises and Spoonbills of the World''. Princeton University Press (1992), {{ISBN|978-0-12-322730-0}}.</ref>

[[Petroglyph]]s from [[Oued Djerat]], eastern [[Algeria]], show that the shoebill occurred during the [[Holocene|Early Holocene]] much more to the north, in the wetlands that covered the present-day [[Sahara]] [[Desert]] at that time.<ref name="oeschger2004">{{cite journal |author=Oeschger, E. |year=2004 |title=Sahara - Algeria - Rock Art in Oued Derat and the Tefedest Region |language=English |journal=Adoranten |volume=2004 |pages=5–19 |url=http://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/a04oeschger.pdf}}</ref>

The shoebill occurs in extensive, dense freshwater [[marshes]]. Almost all wetlands that attract the species have undisturbed ''[[Cyperus papyrus]]'' and [[reed bed]]s of ''[[Phragmites]]'' and ''[[Typha]]''. Although their distribution largely seems to correspond with the distribution of papyrus in central Africa, the species seems to avoid pure papyrus swamps and is often attracted to areas with mixed vegetation. More rarely, the species has been seen foraging in [[Paddy field|rice fields]] and flooded [[plantation]]s.<ref name="Hancock"/>

==Behaviour and ecology==
The shoebill is noted for its slow movements and tendency to stay still for long periods, resulting in descriptions of the species as "statue-like". They are quite sensitive to human disturbance and may abandon their nests if flushed by humans. However, while foraging, if dense vegetation stands between it and humans, this wader can be fairly tame. The shoebill is attracted to poorly oxygenated waters where fish frequently surface to breathe. Exceptionally for a bird this large, the shoebill often stands and perches on floating vegetation, making them appear somewhat like a giant [[Jacana (genus)|jacana]], although the similarly sized and occasionally sympatric [[Goliath heron]] (''Ardea goliath'') is also known to stand on aquatic vegetation. Shoebills typically feed in muddy waters and, being solitary, forage at {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} or more from one another even where relatively densely populated. This species stalks its prey patiently, in a slow and lurking fashion. While hunting, the shoebill strides very slowly and is frequently motionless. Unlike some other large waders, this species hunts entirely using vision and is not known to engage in [[Somatosensory system|tactile]] hunting. When prey is spotted, it launches a quick violent strike. However, depending on the size of the prey, handling time after the strike can exceed 10 minutes. Around 60% of strikes yield prey. Frequently water and vegetation is snatched up during the strike and is spilled out from the edges of the mandibles. The activity of [[hippopotamus]] may inadvertently benefit the shoebill, as submerged hippos occasionally force fish to the surface.<ref name="Hancock"/>

[[File:Balaeniceps rex -Ueno Zoo, Tokyo, Japan-8a.jpg|thumb|right|A shoebill standing at [[Ueno Zoo]], [[Tokyo]]]]
Shoebills are largely [[piscivorous]] but are assured predators of a considerable range of wetland vertebrates. Preferred prey species have reportedly included [[marbled lungfish]] (''Protopterus aethiopicus'') and [[Polypterus senegalus|Senegal bichir]] (''Polypterus senegalus'') and various ''[[Tilapia (genus)|Tilapia]]'' species and [[catfish]], the latter mainly in the genus ''[[Clarias]]''. Other prey eaten by this species has included [[frog]]s, water [[snake]]s, [[Nile monitor]]s (''Varanus niloticus'') and baby [[crocodile]]s. More rarely, [[turtle]]s, [[snail]]s, [[rodent]]s and small [[waterfowl]] have reportedly been eaten. There is a single unconfirmed report of shoebills feeding on [[lechwe]] (''Kobus leche'') calves. Given its sharp-edged beak, huge bill and wide gape, the shoebill can hunt large prey, often targeting prey bigger than is taken by other large wading birds. Fish eaten by this species are commonly in the range of {{convert|15|to|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and weigh around {{convert|500|g|lb|abbr=on}}, though lungfish of as much as {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}} have been attacked. Snakes preyed upon are commonly from {{convert|50|to|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} long. In the [[Bangweulu Swamps]] of [[Zambia]], the main prey items fed to young by the parents were the catfish ''[[Clarias gariepinus]]'' <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tomita|first1=Julie|title=Challenges and successes in the propagation of the Shoebill Balaeniceps rex: with detailed observations from Tampa's Lowry Park Zoo, Florida|journal=International Zoo Yearbook|volume=48|issue=1|pages=69–82|doi=10.1111/izy.12038|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1748-1090|year=2014}}</ref> ([[syn.]] ''C. mossambicus'') and water snakes. In [[Uganda]], lungfish and catfish were mainly fed to the young.<ref name="Hancock"/> The big beak is sometimes used to dig into pond-bottom mud to extract [[lungfish]] from their [[aestivation]] burrows.

===Breeding===
[[File:Balaeniceps rex in Prague Zoo 03.JPG|thumb|left|A sitting shoebill in [[Prague Zoo]], Czech Republic]]

The solitary nature of shoebills extends to their breeding habits. Nests typically occur at less than three nests per square kilometre, unlike [[heron]]s, [[cormorant]]s, [[pelican]]s and [[stork]]s which predominantly nest in colonies. The breeding pair of shoebills vigorously defends a territory of {{convert|2|to|4|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} from [[Conspecificity|conspecifics]]. In the extreme north and south of the species' range, nesting starts right after the rains end. In more central regions of the range, it may nest near end of wet season in order to hatch around the beginning of the following wet season. Both parents engage in building the nest on floating platform, after clearing out an area of approximately {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} across. The large, flattish nesting platform is often partially submerged in water and can be as much as {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} deep. The nest itself is about {{convert|1|to|1.7|m|ft|abbr=on}} wide. Both the nest and platform are made of aquatic vegetation. In Sudan, the nests apparently were able to support the weight of an adult man, although this was not the case in Zambia.{{Citation needed|date=August 2016}} From one to three white eggs are laid. These eggs measure {{convert|80|to|90|mm|in|abbr=on}} high by {{convert|56|to|61|mm|in|abbr=on}} and weigh around {{convert|164|g|oz|abbr=on}}. Incubation lasts for approximately 30 days. Both parents actively brood, shade, guard and feed the nestling, though the females are perhaps slightly more attentive. Food items are regurgitated whole from the gullet straight into the bill of the young. Shoebills rarely raise more than one chick, but will hatch more. The younger chicks eventually die and are intended as "back-ups" in case the eldest chick dies or is weak. Fledging is reached at around 105 days and the young birds can fly well by 112 days. However, they are still fed for possibly a month or more after this. It will take the young shoebills three years before they become fully sexually mature.<ref name="Hancock"/>

===Voice===
The shoebill is normally silent, but they perform bill-clattering displays at the nest.<ref name="HBW1"/> When engaging in these displays, adult birds have also been noted to utter a [[Cattle|cow]]-like ''moo'' as well as high-pitched whines. Both nestlings and adults engage in bill-clattering during the nesting season as a means of communication. When young are begging for food, they call out with a sound uncannily like human hiccups. In one case, a flying adult bird was heard uttering hoarse croaks, apparently as a sign of aggression at a nearby [[marabou stork]] (''Leptoptilos crumeniferus'').<ref name="Hancock"/>

==Status and conservation==
The population is estimated at between 5,000 and 8,000 individuals, the majority of which live in swamps in South Sudan, Uganda, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Zambia.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Gield Guide to the Birds of East Africa |first1=J.G |last1=Williams |first2=N |last2=Arlott |publisher=Collins |isbn=978-0-00-219179-1 |year=1980 |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetobird00will }}</ref> There is also a viable population in the Malagarasi wetlands in Tanzania.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=John|first1=Jasson|last2=Nahonyo|first2=Cuthbert|last3=Lee|first3=Woo|last4=Msuya|first4=Charles|title=Observations on nesting of shoebill Balaeniceps rex and wattled crane Bugeranus carunculatus in Malagarasi wetlands, western Tanzania|journal=African Journal of Ecology|date=March 2013|volume=51|issue=1|pages=184–187|doi=10.1111/aje.12023}}</ref> [[BirdLife International]] has classified it as [[vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] with the main threats being [[habitat destruction]], disturbance and hunting. The bird is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ([[CITES]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml |title=Appendices I, II and III |publisher=Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna |date=2010-10-14 |accessdate=2019-12-20}}</ref>

==Relationship to humans==
This species is considered to be one of the five most desirable birds in Africa by [[birdwatcher]]s.<ref name="Matthiessen">{{cite book | last = Matthiessen | first = Peter | authorlink = Peter Matthiessen | title = African Silences | publisher = Random House | year = 1991 | location = New York | page = [https://archive.org/details/africansilences00pete/page/56 56] | isbn = 978-0-679-40021-9 | url = https://archive.org/details/africansilences00pete/page/56 }}</ref> They are docile with humans and shows no threatening behavior. Researchers were able to observe a bird on its nest in a close distance (within 6 feet).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Balaeniceps_rex/ |title=Balaeniceps rex (shoebill)|publisher=Animal Diversity Web|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{cite journal|last1=Muir|first1=Allan|last2=King|first2=C.E.|title=Management and husbandry guidelines for Shoebills Balaeniceps rex in captivity|journal=International Zoo Yearbook|date=January 2013|volume=47|issue=1|pages=181–189|doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.2012.00186.x}}

{{cite journal|last1=Guillet|first1=A|title=Distribution and Conservation of the Shoebill (Balaeniceps Rex) in the Southern Sudan|journal=Biological Conservation|date=1978|volume=13|issue=1|pages=39–50|doi=10.1016/0006-3207(78)90017-4}}

{{cite journal|last1=Tomita|first1=Julie|title=Challenges and successes in the propagation of the Shoebill Balaeniceps rex: with detailed observations from Tampa's Lowry Park Zoo, Florida|journal=International Zoo Yearbook|volume=132|issue=1|pages=69–82|doi=10.1111/izy.12038|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1748-1090|year=2014}}

{{cite journal|last1=John|first1=Jasson|last2=Nahonyo|first2=Cuthbert|last3=Lee|first3=Woo|last4=Msuya|first4=Charles|title=Observations on nesting of shoebill Balaeniceps rex and wattled crane Bugeranus carunculatus in Malagarasi wetlands, western Tanzania|journal=African Journal of Ecology|date=March 2013|volume=51|issue=1|pages=184–187|doi=10.1111/aje.12023}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Balaeniceps rex}}
{{Wikispecies|Balaeniceps rex}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Shoe-bill}}
* [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1225223/Dont-forget-duck-Giant-Shoebill-picks-feathered-friend-blocks-path.html Shoebill San Diego Wild Animal Park in the U.S.]
* ARKive – [https://web.archive.org/web/20060503085712/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/birds/Balaeniceps_rex/ images and movies of the shoebill ''(Balaeniceps rex)'']
* [http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/shoebill-balaeniceps-rex BirdLife species factsheet]
* The Internet Bird Collection - [https://www.hbw.com/ibc/video/shoebill-balaeniceps-rex/flying-bird Video capture of a shoebill in flight]

{{Pelecaniformes}}
{{Birds}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q18700}}

[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Fauna of East Africa]]
[[Category:Pelecaniformes]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1850]]
[[Category:Taxa named by John Gould]]

List of environmental dates

2020-04-07T07:10:51Z

118.46.55.151: /* Days */

{{short description|Wikipedia list article}}
{{Refimprove|date=July 2014}}

This is a '''list of environmental dates'''. These dates are designated for creating awareness of [[environmental issue]]s.

==Hours==
*[[Earth Hour]] - 8:30pm (local time), 28 March 2020<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.earthhour.org/|title=Homepage|date=2 February 2018|website=Earth Hour}}</ref>

==Days==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| International Zebra Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Zebra Day (January 31st)|url=https://www.asiaforanimals.com/news/post/international-zebra-day-january-31st|publisher=Asia for Animals Coalition|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wildlife Wednesday: Celebrate International Zebra Day|URL=https://disneyparks.disney.go.com/blog/2017/01/wildlife-wednesday-celebrate-international-zebra-day/|publisher=Disney Parks|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Earn Your Stripes! It’s International Zebra Day!|URL=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-zebra-day|publisher=Safari Ltd|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 01-31: January 31
|-
| [[World Wetlands Day]] || 02-02: February 2
|-
| World Pangolin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day - WORLD PANGOLIN DAY|url=https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|publisher=Pangolins.org|accessdate=16 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526113907/https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|archive-date=26 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day 2019|url=https://www.wildlifealliance.org/world-pangolin-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Alliance|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || Third Saturday of February
|-
| World Bonobo Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Valentine's Day Is also World Bonobo Day; Here's Why|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/valentines-day-is-also-world-bonobo-day-heres-why_b_58a22b17e4b0cd37efcfec0b|publisher=HuffPost|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://bonoboproject.org/save-the-bonobo/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=The Bonobo Project|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://www.peoplemagazine.co.za/life/animal-news/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=People Magazine|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 02-14: February 14
|-
| World Hippopotamus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Hippo Day: Learn about the world's 3rd largest mammal|url=https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d774d31457a4e32457a6333566d54/index.html|publisher=CGTN|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Hippo Day|url=https://happydays365.org/hippo-day/national-hippo-day-february-15/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Hippo Day (15th February)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/hippo-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 02-15: February 15
|-
| [[International Polar Bear Day]] || 02-27: February 27
|-
| [[World Wildlife Day]] || 03-03: March 3
|-
| Solar Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://www.belmontsolar.com/blog/uncategorized/national-solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Solar Appreciation Belmont Solar|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://greenstepssociety.org/solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Green Step Society|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Solar Appreciation Day|URL=http://thegreentimes.co.za/event/solar-appreciation-day/|publisher=The Green Times|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || Second Friday of March
|-
| International Day of Action for Rivers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/ |title=International Day of Action for Rivers}}</ref> || 03-14: March 14
|-
| [[World Consumer Rights Day]] || 03-15 : March 15
|-
| Global Recycling Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalrecyclingday.com/ |title=Global Recycling Day}}</ref> || 03-18: March 18th
|-
| Taxonomist Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taxonomist Appreciation Day 19 March 2017|URL=http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/blogs/linette-umbrello/taxonomist-appreciation-day-19-march-2017|publisher=Western Australian Museum|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 03-19 : March 19
|-
| [[World Sparrow Day]] || 03-20: March 20
|-
| World Frog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day|url=https://www.nationalday.com/days/world-frog-day/|
publisher=National Day Foundation|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day 2019: Let's Save the Frogs From Extinction|url=http://greenubuntu.com/world-frog-day-2019-lets-save-the-frogs-from-extinction/|
publisher=Green Ubuntu|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day – March 20, 2019|URL=https://happydays365.org/frog-day/world-frog-day-march-20/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-20: March 20
|-
| [[International Day of Forests]] || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Planting Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day – 21 of March 2015|URL=https://blog.plantwise.org/2015/03/20/world-planting-day-21-of-march-2015/|publisher=The Plantwise Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day 2018|URL=https://www.adama.com/en/media/events/international-events/world-planting-day-2018|publisher=ADAMA|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day - 21st March|URL=https://www.clifton.co.uk/blog/celebrating-spring-and-world-planting-day|publisher=Clifton Nurseries|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Wood Day || 03-21: March 21
|-
| [[World Water Day]] || 03-22: March 22
|-
| International Seal Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Day of the Seal is Here!|url=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-seal-day|publisher=Safari ltd|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 03-22: March 22
|-
| World Bear Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bear Day|URL=http://www.zoomontana.org/event/world-bear-day/|publisher=ZooMontana|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || March 23: 03-23
|-
| [[World Meteorological Day]] || 03-23: March 23
|-
| Manatee Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=MANATEE APPRECIATION DAY - Last Wednesday in March|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/manatee-appreciation-day-last-wednesday-in-march/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day Should Be Every Day|URL=https://www.peta.org/features/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=PETA|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 03: Last Wednesday in March
|-
| International Beaver Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Beaver Day (7th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/beaver-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BEAVER DAY - April 7 |URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-beaver-day-april-7/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 04-07: April 7
|-
| Zoo Lovers Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL ZOO LOVERS DAY - April 8|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/national-zoo-lovers-day-april-8/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Zoo Lovers Day (8th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/zoo-lovers-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 04-08: April 8
|-
| [[Arbor Day]] || 04-10: April 10
|-
| Bat Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BAT APPRECIATION DAY - April 17|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/international-bat-appreciation-day-april-17/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Bat Appreciation Day (17th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/bat-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref> || 04-17: April 17
|-
| [[World Fish Migration Day]] || April 21, 2018
|-
| [[Earth Day]] || 04-22: April 22<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.earthday.org |title=Earth Day Network | Earth Day 2015 |publisher=Earthday.org |date=2015-04-22 |accessdate=2015-05-16}}</ref>
|-
| World Tapir Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-tapir-day/|publisher=Day of the Year|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day: 24 reasons tapirs are your new favourite animal|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/27/world-tapir-day-24-reasons-tapirs-are-your-new-favourite-animal/|publisher=The Telegraph|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=ELEVEN YEARS OF WORLD TAPIR DAY: 2008 - 2019|url=https://www.tapirday.org/|publisher=Tapir Day|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| International Hyena Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=international hyena day|url=http://tales-of-avalon.com/tales/?tag=international-hyena-day|publisher=Tales of Avalon|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| [[Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare]] || 04-29: April 29
|-
| [[Green Up Day]] || 05: First Saturday of May in Vermont
|-
| World Tuna Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2 May|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/tunaday/|publisher=the United Nations|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2019|url=http://ipnlf.org/news/world-tuna-day-2019|publisher=IPNLF|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate World Tuna Day on May 2nd!|url=https://chickenofthesea.com/fresh-ideas/good-living/celebrate-world-tuna-day-on-may-2nd|publisher=Chicken of the Sea|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-02: May 2
|-
| International Leopard Day<ref name=>{{Cite news|title=International Leopard Day|URL=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/international-leopard-day-2/|publisher=International Leopard Day|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| Wild Koala Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=25 Koala Facts for Wild Koala Day|url=https://blog.goway.com/globetrotting/2017/05/25-koala-facts-wild-koala-day/|publisher=blog.goway.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wild Koala Day|url=http://www.wildkoaladay.com.au/|publisher=www.wildkoaladay.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| [[Greenery Day]] || 05-04: May 4 in Japan (previously April 29)
|-
| World Donkey Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Donkey Day (Every May 8th)|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-donkey-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-08: May 8
|-
| World Cactus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Cactus Day|URL=https://whatnationaldayisit.com/day/Cactus/|publisher=WhatNationalDayIsIt|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 05-10: May 10
|-
| [[World Migratory Bird Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldmigratorybirdday.org/|title=STORIES - World Migratory Bird Day|website=www.worldmigratorybirdday.org}}</ref> || Second Saturday of May. Second Saturday of May in the U.S. and Canada; Second Saturday of October in Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean.
|-
| Endangered Species Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.endangered.org/campaigns/endangered-species-day/|title=Endangered Species Day|website=endangered.org}}</ref> ||05: Third Friday of May
|-
| [[International Day for Biological Diversity]] (World Biodiversity Day) || 05-22: May 22
|-
| [[World Turtle Day]] || 05-23: May 23
|-
| European Day of Parks - [[EUROPARC Federation|Europarc Federation]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarc.org/nature/european-day-of-parks/ |title=European Day of Parks}}</ref> || 05-24: May 24
|-
| [[Bike-to-Work Day]] || 05: Third Friday of May
|-
| World Otter Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Otter Day|url=https://muddyfaces.co.uk/event/world-otter-day-2/2020-05-27/|publisher=Muddy Faces|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 05-27: May 27
|-
| [[World No Tobacco Day]] || 05-31:May 31
|-
| World Parrot Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.northernparrots.com/mobile/world-parrot-day-blog277/|publisher=Northern Parrots|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-parrot-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.birdorable.com/blog/world-parrot-day/|
publisher=Birdorable Blog|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-31: May 31 since 2004
|-
| [[World Environment Day]] || 06-05: June 5
|-
| [[World Oceans Day]] || 06-08: June 8
|-
| [[Coral Triangle Day]] || 06-09: June 9
|-
| [[Global Wind Day]] || 06-15: June 15
|-
| World Sea Turtle Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/world-sea-turtle-day |title=World Sea Turtle Day}}</ref> || 06-16: June 16
|-
| [[World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought]] || 06-17: June 17
|-
| World Giraffe Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://giraffeconservation.org/world-giraffe-day/ |title=World Giraffe Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day 2019|URL=https://giraffeconservation.org/2019/03/19/world-giraffe-day-2019/|publisher=Giraffe Conservation Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day (21st June)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-giraffe-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-21: June 21
|-
| International Climate Change Day || 06-21: June 21
|-
| World Camel Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://zoonewsdigest.blogspot.com/2013/06/world-camel-day.html?m=1|publisher=Zoo News Digest|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=https://www.nps.gov/planyourvisit/event-details.htm?id=98A7FF8A-07F4-4FE5-1ABC749235C08DE6|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/6/22/world-camel-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| World Rainforest Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treefoundation.org/2018/06/21/world-rainforest-day-is-june-22nd/|title=World Rainforest Day is June 22nd|date=21 June 2018|website=treefoundation.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldrainforestday.com/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=World Rainforest Day}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rainforestpartnership.org/worldrainforestday/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=RAINFOREST PARTNERSHIP}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| [[World Population Day]] || 07-11: July 11
|-
| Shark Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Duuuun. Dun. It’s Shark Awareness Day!|URL=https://blog.margaritaville.com/2018/07/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Margaritaville Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day (14th July)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day|URL=https://www.sharktrust.org/blog/shark-awareness-day|publisher=The Shark Trust|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Shark Awareness Day Has Arrived! |URL=http://awesomeocean.com/news/national-shark-awareness-day-has-arrived/|publisher=Awesome Ocean|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Chimpanzee Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day 2019 – How Will You Celebrate?|URL=https://projectchimps.org/world-chimpanzee-day-2019/|publisher=Project Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day – 14 July 2019|URL=https://www.janegoodall.be/world-chimpanzee-day-2019|publisher=Jane Goodall Institute Belgium|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day!|URL=https://www.savethechimps.org/worldchimpanzeeday/|publisher=Save the Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Nature Conservation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Nature Conservation Day 2019: History and Significance|URL=https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/world-nature-conservation-day-1564220763-1|publisher=Jagran Josh|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref>
|| 07-28: July 28
|-
| [[International Tiger Day]] || 07-29: July 29
|-
| World Ranger Day - [[International Ranger Federation]] || July 31: 07-31
|-
| International Clouded Leopard Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day (4th August)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-clouded-leopard-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day|URL=https://www.aspinallfoundation.org/icld/|publisher=The Aspinall Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 08-04: August 4
|-
| World Lion Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldlionday.com/ |title=World Lion Day}}</ref> || 08-10: August 10
|-
| [[World Elephant Day]] || 08-12: August 12
|-
| International Wolf Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate International Wolf Day - the future of our Earth depends on them|url=http://www.whitewolfpack.com/2011/08/international-wolf-day.html?m=1|publisher=White Wolf Pack|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WOLF DAY AUGUST 13TH 2019|url=http://onehealthproductions.com/internationalwolfday2019|publisher=one health productions|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref> || 08-13: August 13
|-
| World Orangutan Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Orangutan Day|url=http://www.worldorangutanevents.org/international-orangutan-day.php|publisher=World Orangutan Events|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> ||08-19: August 19
|-
| [[National Honey Bee Day]] || 08-22: August 22
|-
| World African Wild Dog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Painted Dog Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-painted-dog-day/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 08-26: August 26
|-
| International Whale Shark Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WHALE SHARK DAY – August 30|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-whale-shark-day-august-30/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Whale Shark Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-whale-shark-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 08-30: August 30
|-
| Japan Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2019|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2019/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2018|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2018/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-01: September 1
|-
| Amazon Rainforest Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=September 5: Amazon Day|URL=https://wwf.panda.org/?206103/september-5-amazonday|publisher=WWF|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-05: September 5
|-
| International Vulture Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.sustainablelearning.com/event/international-vulture-awareness-day|publisher=Sustainable Learning|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Sep 5, 2009 CE: International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/sep5/international-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=One week to go to International Vulture Awareness Day!|url=https://www.4vultures.org/one-week-to-go-for-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=www.4vultures.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: First Saturday of September
|-
| [[International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer]] || 09-16: September 16
|-
| [[World Water Monitoring Day]] || 09-18: September 18
|-
| [[:de:Parking Day|PARK(ing) Day]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seattle.gov/transportation/projects-and-programs/programs/public-space-management-programs/park(ing)-day|title=PARK(ing) Day - Transportation | seattle.gov|website=www.seattle.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strasse-zurueckerobern.de/anleitungen/parking-day/|title=PARK(ing) Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parkingday.fr/|title=Parking Day|website=Parking Day}}</ref>|| 09: September 20, 2019, Third Friday in September
|-
| [[World Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldcleanupday.org/|title=World Cleanup Day|website=www.worldcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| [[National Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalcleanupday.org/|title=National Cleanup Day|website=www.nationalcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| International Red Panda Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL RED PANDA DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-red-panda-day-third-saturday-in-september/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: Third Saturday of September
|-
| Zero Emissions Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeroemissionsday.org|title=Zero Emissions Day|date=2017-08-06}}</ref> || 09-21: September 21
|-
| [[Car Free Day]] || 09-22: September 22
|-
| World Rhino Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldrhinoday.org/|title=WORLD RHINO DAY :: World Rhino Day 2017|website=WORLD RHINO DAY}}</ref> || 09-22: September 22
|-
| [[Ecological Debt Day]] (Earth Overshoot Day) || 09-23: September 23 in 2008, but receding
|-
| World Gorilla Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=5TF: World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://gorillafund.org/world-gorilla-day-2019/|publisher=gorillafund.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=WORLD GORILLA DAY|url=https://www.wcs.org/world-gorilla-day|publisher=WCS.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://www.cms.int/en/news/world-gorilla-day-2019|publisher=CMS|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09-24: September 24
|-
| World Environmental Health Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://anydayguide.com/calendar/1252|title=World Environmental Health Day / September 26, 2019|last=AnydayGuide|website=AnydayGuide}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26 since 2011 [[International Federation of Environmental Health|(IFEH)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifeh.org/|title=International Federation of Environmental Health|website=ifeh.org}}</ref>
|-
| World Cassowary Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day 2018|url=https://www.wettropics.gov.au/world-cassowary-day-2018|publisher=Wet Tropics Management Authority|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day|url=https://www.worldcassowaryday.org/|publisher=World Cassowary Day|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26
|-
| World Rivers Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldriversday.com/|title=World Rivers Day|website=worldriversday.com}}</ref> || 09: Last Sunday of September
|-
| World Farm Animals Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Farm Animals Day (2nd October)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/farm-animals-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-02: October 2
|-
| [[World Habitat Day]] || 10: First Monday of October
|-
| [[World Animal Day]] || 10-04: October 4
|-
| Energy Efficiency Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energyefficiencyday.org/ |title=Energy Efficiency Day}}</ref> || 10: First Wednesday in October
|-
| [[International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 10-13: October 13
|-
| International E-Waste Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate the second International E-Waste Day|URL=https://inhabitat.com/celebrate-the-second-international-e-waste-day/|publisher=Inhabitat|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International E-Waste Day|URL=https://weee-forum.org/iewd-about/|publisher=WEEE Forum|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Raising awareness on International E-Waste Day|URL=https://www.orgalim.eu/news/raising-awareness-international-e-waste-day|publisher=Orgalim|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-14: October 14
|-
| Sustainability Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uvu.edu/sustainability/sustainabilityday/index.html|title=- Sustainability - Utah Valley University|website=www.uvu.edu}}</ref> || 10: Fourth Wednesday of October
|-
| World Okapi Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Okapi Day|url=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/10/18/world-okapi-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=7 Fun Facts about World Okapi Day|url=https://www.twpark.com/blog/conservation/7-fun-facts-about-world-okapi-day|publisher=Tanganyika Wildlife Park|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 10-18: October 18
|-
| National Reptile Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL REPTILE AWARENESS DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-reptile-awareness-day-october-21/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Reptile Awareness Day (Every October 21st) |url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/reptile-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 10-21: October 21
|-
| International Wombat Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Wombat Day October 22|URL=https://www.wombania.com/wombat-day.htm|publisher=Wombania|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-22: October 22
|-
| International Snow Leopard Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snowleopard.org/international-snow-leopard-day-hope-and-concern-for-the-cat/ |title=International Snow Leopard Day 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsnowleopard.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/SnowLeopard_Bishkek_Declaration_EN.pdf.pdf |title=The Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards}}</ref> || 10-23: October 23
|-
| Freshwater Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=24th October is Freshwater Dolphin Day!|URL=https://iucn-csg.org/24th-october-is-freshwater-dolphin-day-2/|publisher=IUCN – SSC Cetacean Specialist Group|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 10-24: October 24
|-
| International Gibbon Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Gibbon Day 2019|URL=https://www.wildlifealliance.org/international-gibbon-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Alliance|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=It's International Gibbon Day! Check Out These Magnificent Primates|URL=https://www.ecowatch.com/international-gibbon-day-2614836646.html|publisher=EcoWatch|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Gibbon Day|URL=https://monkeyworld.org/events/international-gibbon-day/|publisher=Monkey World|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-24: October 24
|-
| [[International Day of Climate Action]] || 10-24: October 24
|-
| World Lemur Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.lemurconservationnetwork.org/world-lemur-day/|publisher=Lemur Conservation Network|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.checkiday.com/895d28d65cd0d952b00b605f80e57a9f/world-lemur-day|publisher=Checkiday|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref> || 10: Last Friday of October
|-
| [[World Vegan Day]] || 11-01: November 1
|-
| [[International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environment in War and Armed Conflict]] || 11-06: November 6
|-
| [[National Bison Day]] || 11: First Saturday in November
|-
| [[America Recycles Day]] || 11-15: November 15
|-
| World Fisheries Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Fisheries Day|URL=https://sandrp.in/tag/world-fisheries-day/|publisher=SANDRP|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref> || 11-21: November 21
|-
| International Jaguar Day<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/news-centre/news/2018/latin-america-launches-new-roadmap-to-save-the-jaguar.html|title=Latin America Launches New Roadmap to Save the Jaguar|website=UNDP|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wcs.org/international-jaguar-day|title=International Jaguar Day|website=www.wcs.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref>
|| 11-29: November 29
|-
| International Cheetah Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Cheetah Day|url=https://internationalcheetahday.com/|publisher=International Cheetah Day|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Cheetahs Need Us: December 4 is International Cheetah Day!|url=https://dayofthejaguar.org/2018/11/28/cheetahs-need-us-december-4-is-international-cheetah-day/|publisher=Day Of The Jaguar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 12-04: December 4
|-
| [[World Soil Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/en/|title=Global Soil Partnership - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> || 12-05: December 5
|-
| [[International Mountain Day]] || 12-11: December 11
|-
| [[Monkey Day]] || 12-14: December 14
|-
| [[Ozone Action Day]] || Variable date depending weather conditions
|-
| [[eDay]] - Electronic Waste Day || Variable date, in New Zealand
|}

==Weeks==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[Great Backyard Bird Count]] 2019 date, February 15-18
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] || | 2016 date, April 18-22
|-
| Keep Australia Beautiful Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kab.org.au/keep-australia-beautiful-week/|title=Keep Australia Beautiful Week|website=Keep Australia Beautiful}}</ref> || Last full week of August
|-
| [[National Green Week]] || 02 (first week in February every year in the United States)
|-
| National Wildlife Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Error-Page|title=Error-Page|website=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref> ||
|-
| [[National Dark-Sky Week]] || 04 (week of new moon in April)
|-
| [[Bike to Work Week Victoria]] ||
|-
| National Pollinator Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pollinator.org/pollinator-week|title=Pollinator Week|website=Pollinator.org}}</ref> || third week in June
|-
| National Clean Beaches Week, Van Mohatsav Saptah(Forest Festival Week) || 07-01 to 07-07: July 1 to 7
|-
| [[Conservation Week]] ||

|-World Water Week 08-26: August 26 - 31

| European Mobility Week || 09-16 to 09-22: September 16 to 22
|-
| Bike Week || 06: second week in June
|-
| Recycle Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.recyclenow.com/|title=Recycle Now - Where and How to Recycle|website=www.recyclenow.com}}</ref> || 06: 20 to 26 June 2011
|-
| [https://www.zerowasteweek.co.uk/ Zero Waste Week] || first week of September
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] ||
|-
| [[European Week for Waste Reduction]] (EWWR) || 11: 9 days, last complete week in November
|-
| [[Science Literacy Week (Canada)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scienceliteracy.ca/|title=Science Literacy Week – September 16 – 22, 2019|website=www.scienceliteracy.ca}}</ref> || 16-22: September
|-
| [[No Car Day]] || 09: China, week of September 22
|-
| [[World Water Week in Stockholm]] || 08 or 09: each year in August or September
|-
| [[National Op Shop Week (Australia)]] || August 21st - 27th
|-
| [[World Oceans Week]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldoceansday.org/|title=World Oceans Day - Uniting Ocean Action Worldwide on 8 June 2020|first=|last=|website=worldoceansday.org}}</ref> || 01-08: June
|}

==Years==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 1882–1883
|-
| International Polar Year || 1932–1933
|-1992
|-
|[[International Year of the Child]]
|1979
|-
| [[World Population Year]] || 1974
|-
| [[International Year of the Ocean]] (IYO) || 1998
|-
| [[International Year of Mountains]] (IYM) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Ecotourism]] (IYE) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Freshwater]] (IYF) || 2003
|-
| [[International Year of Deserts and Desertification]] || 2006
|-
| International [[Year of the Dolphin]] || 2007–2008
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 2007–2009
|-
| [[International Year of Planet Earth]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Sanitation]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Natural Fibres 2009]] || 2009
|-
| Year of the Gorilla<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yog2009.org/|title=FX初心者の勉強・情報収集 - 【FXガイド】　FX初心者のための勉強サイト|website=www.yog2009.org}}</ref> || 2009
|-
| [[International Year of Biodiversity]] || 2010
|-
| [[International Year of Forests]] || 2011
|-
| [[International Year of Soils]] || 2015
|-
| [[International Year of Pulses]] || 2016
|-
| [[International Year of Sustainable tourism for all]] || 2017
|-
| [[International Year of Indigenous languages]] || 2019
|}

==Decades==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Drinking Water Decade, 1981-1990]] || 1980s
|-
| [[International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 1990s
|-
| [[United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development]] || 2005-2014
|-
| [[Water for Life Decade]] || 2005-2015
|-
| [[United Nations Decade on Biodiversity]] || 2011-2020
|-
| United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification || 2010-2020
|}

==See also==
*[[Index of environmental articles]]
**[[List of environmental issues]]
*[[Index of conservation articles]]
**[[List of conservation issues]]
*[[List of international environmental agreements]]
*[[List of awareness days]]
*[[International observance]]
*[[List of commemorative days]]
*[[List of Month-long observances|List of commemorative months]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050405210808/http://unac.org/en/news_events/un_days/index.asp News & Events - UN Days, Weeks and Years]
*[http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2013/Mar/21/the-world-plantation-day-58.asp - World Plantation Day, Great Kashmir]
*[http://www.saveourwaterwaysnow.com.au/02_cal/details.asp?ID=561 - Save your water]
*[http://edugreen.teri.res.in/misc/dates.htm - EDU Green]

[[Category:Environmental awareness days| ]]
[[Category:Lists of observances|Environmental]]

List of environmental dates

2020-04-07T07:04:11Z

118.46.55.151: /* Days */

{{short description|Wikipedia list article}}
{{Refimprove|date=July 2014}}

This is a '''list of environmental dates'''. These dates are designated for creating awareness of [[environmental issue]]s.

==Hours==
*[[Earth Hour]] - 8:30pm (local time), 28 March 2020<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.earthhour.org/|title=Homepage|date=2 February 2018|website=Earth Hour}}</ref>

==Days==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| International Zebra Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Zebra Day (January 31st)|url=https://www.asiaforanimals.com/news/post/international-zebra-day-january-31st|publisher=Asia for Animals Coalition|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wildlife Wednesday: Celebrate International Zebra Day|URL=https://disneyparks.disney.go.com/blog/2017/01/wildlife-wednesday-celebrate-international-zebra-day/|publisher=Disney Parks|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Earn Your Stripes! It’s International Zebra Day!|URL=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-zebra-day|publisher=Safari Ltd|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 01-31: January 31
|-
| [[World Wetlands Day]] || 02-02: February 2
|-
| World Pangolin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day - WORLD PANGOLIN DAY|url=https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|publisher=Pangolins.org|accessdate=16 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526113907/https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|archive-date=26 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day 2019|url=https://www.wildlifealliance.org/world-pangolin-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Alliance|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || Third Saturday of February
|-
| World Bonobo Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Valentine's Day Is also World Bonobo Day; Here's Why|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/valentines-day-is-also-world-bonobo-day-heres-why_b_58a22b17e4b0cd37efcfec0b|publisher=HuffPost|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://bonoboproject.org/save-the-bonobo/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=The Bonobo Project|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://www.peoplemagazine.co.za/life/animal-news/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=People Magazine|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 02-14: February 14
|-
| World Hippopotamus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Hippo Day: Learn about the world's 3rd largest mammal|url=https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d774d31457a4e32457a6333566d54/index.html|publisher=CGTN|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Hippo Day|url=https://happydays365.org/hippo-day/national-hippo-day-february-15/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Hippo Day (15th February)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/hippo-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 02-15: February 15
|-
| [[International Polar Bear Day]] || 02-27: February 27
|-
| [[World Wildlife Day]] || 03-03: March 3
|-
| Solar Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://www.belmontsolar.com/blog/uncategorized/national-solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Solar Appreciation Belmont Solar|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://greenstepssociety.org/solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Green Step Society|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Solar Appreciation Day|URL=http://thegreentimes.co.za/event/solar-appreciation-day/|publisher=The Green Times|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || Second Friday of March
|-
| International Day of Action for Rivers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/ |title=International Day of Action for Rivers}}</ref> || 03-14: March 14
|-
| [[World Consumer Rights Day]] || 03-15 : March 15
|-
| Global Recycling Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalrecyclingday.com/ |title=Global Recycling Day}}</ref> || 03-18: March 18th
|-
| Taxonomist Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taxonomist Appreciation Day 19 March 2017|URL=http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/blogs/linette-umbrello/taxonomist-appreciation-day-19-march-2017|publisher=Western Australian Museum|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 03-19 : March 19
|-
| [[World Sparrow Day]] || 03-20: March 20
|-
| World Frog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day|url=https://www.nationalday.com/days/world-frog-day/|
publisher=National Day Foundation|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day 2019: Let's Save the Frogs From Extinction|url=http://greenubuntu.com/world-frog-day-2019-lets-save-the-frogs-from-extinction/|
publisher=Green Ubuntu|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day – March 20, 2019|URL=https://happydays365.org/frog-day/world-frog-day-march-20/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-20: March 20
|-
| [[International Day of Forests]] || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Planting Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day – 21 of March 2015|URL=https://blog.plantwise.org/2015/03/20/world-planting-day-21-of-march-2015/|publisher=The Plantwise Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day 2018|URL=https://www.adama.com/en/media/events/international-events/world-planting-day-2018|publisher=ADAMA|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day - 21st March|URL=https://www.clifton.co.uk/blog/celebrating-spring-and-world-planting-day|publisher=Clifton Nurseries|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Wood Day || 03-21: March 21
|-
| [[World Water Day]] || 03-22: March 22
|-
| International Seal Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Day of the Seal is Here!|url=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-seal-day|publisher=Safari ltd|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 03-22: March 22
|-
| World Bear Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bear Day|URL=http://www.zoomontana.org/event/world-bear-day/|publisher=ZooMontana|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || March 23: 03-23
|-
| [[World Meteorological Day]] || 03-23: March 23
|-
| Manatee Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=MANATEE APPRECIATION DAY - Last Wednesday in March|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/manatee-appreciation-day-last-wednesday-in-march/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day Should Be Every Day|URL=https://www.peta.org/features/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=PETA|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 03: Last Wednesday in March
|-
| International Beaver Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Beaver Day (7th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/beaver-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BEAVER DAY - April 7 |URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-beaver-day-april-7/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 04-07: April 7
|-
| Zoo Lovers Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL ZOO LOVERS DAY - April 8|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/national-zoo-lovers-day-april-8/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Zoo Lovers Day (8th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/zoo-lovers-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 04-08: April 8
|-
| [[Arbor Day]] || 04-10: April 10
|-
| Bat Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BAT APPRECIATION DAY - April 17|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/international-bat-appreciation-day-april-17/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Bat Appreciation Day (17th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/bat-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref> || 04-17: April 17
|-
| [[World Fish Migration Day]] || April 21, 2018
|-
| [[Earth Day]] || 04-22: April 22<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.earthday.org |title=Earth Day Network | Earth Day 2015 |publisher=Earthday.org |date=2015-04-22 |accessdate=2015-05-16}}</ref>
|-
| World Tapir Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-tapir-day/|publisher=Day of the Year|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day: 24 reasons tapirs are your new favourite animal|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/27/world-tapir-day-24-reasons-tapirs-are-your-new-favourite-animal/|publisher=The Telegraph|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=ELEVEN YEARS OF WORLD TAPIR DAY: 2008 - 2019|url=https://www.tapirday.org/|publisher=Tapir Day|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| International Hyena Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=international hyena day|url=http://tales-of-avalon.com/tales/?tag=international-hyena-day|publisher=Tales of Avalon|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| [[Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare]] || 04-29: April 29
|-
| [[Green Up Day]] || 05: First Saturday of May in Vermont
|-
| World Tuna Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2 May|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/tunaday/|publisher=the United Nations|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2019|url=http://ipnlf.org/news/world-tuna-day-2019|publisher=IPNLF|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate World Tuna Day on May 2nd!|url=https://chickenofthesea.com/fresh-ideas/good-living/celebrate-world-tuna-day-on-may-2nd|publisher=Chicken of the Sea|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-02: May 2
|-
| International Leopard Day<ref name=>{{Cite news|title=International Leopard Day|URL=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/international-leopard-day-2/|publisher=International Leopard Day|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| Wild Koala Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=25 Koala Facts for Wild Koala Day|url=https://blog.goway.com/globetrotting/2017/05/25-koala-facts-wild-koala-day/|publisher=blog.goway.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wild Koala Day|url=http://www.wildkoaladay.com.au/|publisher=www.wildkoaladay.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| [[Greenery Day]] || 05-04: May 4 in Japan (previously April 29)
|-
| World Donkey Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Donkey Day (Every May 8th)|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-donkey-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-08: May 8
|-
| World Cactus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Cactus Day|URL=https://whatnationaldayisit.com/day/Cactus/|publisher=WhatNationalDayIsIt|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 05-10: May 10
|-
| [[World Migratory Bird Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldmigratorybirdday.org/|title=STORIES - World Migratory Bird Day|website=www.worldmigratorybirdday.org}}</ref> || Second Saturday of May. Second Saturday of May in the U.S. and Canada; Second Saturday of October in Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean.
|-
| Endangered Species Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.endangered.org/campaigns/endangered-species-day/|title=Endangered Species Day|website=endangered.org}}</ref> ||05: Third Friday of May
|-
| [[International Day for Biological Diversity]] (World Biodiversity Day) || 05-22: May 22
|-
| [[World Turtle Day]] || 05-23: May 23
|-
| European Day of Parks - [[EUROPARC Federation|Europarc Federation]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarc.org/nature/european-day-of-parks/ |title=European Day of Parks}}</ref> || 05-24: May 24
|-
| [[Bike-to-Work Day]] || 05: Third Friday of May
|-
| World Otter Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Otter Day|url=https://muddyfaces.co.uk/event/world-otter-day-2/2020-05-27/|publisher=Muddy Faces|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 05-27: May 27
|-
| [[World No Tobacco Day]] || 05-31:May 31
|-
| World Parrot Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.northernparrots.com/mobile/world-parrot-day-blog277/|publisher=Northern Parrots|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-parrot-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.birdorable.com/blog/world-parrot-day/|
publisher=Birdorable Blog|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-31: May 31 since 2004
|-
| [[World Environment Day]] || 06-05: June 5
|-
| [[World Oceans Day]] || 06-08: June 8
|-
| [[Coral Triangle Day]] || 06-09: June 9
|-
| [[Global Wind Day]] || 06-15: June 15
|-
| World Sea Turtle Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/world-sea-turtle-day |title=World Sea Turtle Day}}</ref> || 06-16: June 16
|-
| [[World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought]] || 06-17: June 17
|-
| World Giraffe Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://giraffeconservation.org/world-giraffe-day/ |title=World Giraffe Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day 2019|URL=https://giraffeconservation.org/2019/03/19/world-giraffe-day-2019/|publisher=Giraffe Conservation Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day (21st June)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-giraffe-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-21: June 21
|-
| International Climate Change Day || 06-21: June 21
|-
| World Camel Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://zoonewsdigest.blogspot.com/2013/06/world-camel-day.html?m=1|publisher=Zoo News Digest|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=https://www.nps.gov/planyourvisit/event-details.htm?id=98A7FF8A-07F4-4FE5-1ABC749235C08DE6|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/6/22/world-camel-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| World Rainforest Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treefoundation.org/2018/06/21/world-rainforest-day-is-june-22nd/|title=World Rainforest Day is June 22nd|date=21 June 2018|website=treefoundation.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldrainforestday.com/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=World Rainforest Day}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rainforestpartnership.org/worldrainforestday/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=RAINFOREST PARTNERSHIP}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| [[World Population Day]] || 07-11: July 11
|-
| Shark Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Duuuun. Dun. It’s Shark Awareness Day!|URL=https://blog.margaritaville.com/2018/07/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Margaritaville Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day (14th July)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day|URL=https://www.sharktrust.org/blog/shark-awareness-day|publisher=The Shark Trust|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Shark Awareness Day Has Arrived! |URL=http://awesomeocean.com/news/national-shark-awareness-day-has-arrived/|publisher=Awesome Ocean|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Chimpanzee Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day 2019 – How Will You Celebrate?|URL=https://projectchimps.org/world-chimpanzee-day-2019/|publisher=Project Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day – 14 July 2019|URL=https://www.janegoodall.be/world-chimpanzee-day-2019|publisher=Jane Goodall Institute Belgium|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day!|URL=https://www.savethechimps.org/worldchimpanzeeday/|publisher=Save the Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Nature Conservation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Nature Conservation Day 2019: History and Significance|URL=https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/world-nature-conservation-day-1564220763-1|publisher=Jagran Josh|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref>
|| 07-28: July 28
|-
| [[International Tiger Day]] || 07-29: July 29
|-
| World Ranger Day - [[International Ranger Federation]] || July 31: 07-31
|-
| International Clouded Leopard Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day (4th August)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-clouded-leopard-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day|URL=https://www.aspinallfoundation.org/icld/|publisher=The Aspinall Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 08-04: August 4
|-
| World Lion Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldlionday.com/ |title=World Lion Day}}</ref> || 08-10: August 10
|-
| [[World Elephant Day]] || 08-12: August 12
|-
| International Wolf Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate International Wolf Day - the future of our Earth depends on them|url=http://www.whitewolfpack.com/2011/08/international-wolf-day.html?m=1|publisher=White Wolf Pack|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WOLF DAY AUGUST 13TH 2019|url=http://onehealthproductions.com/internationalwolfday2019|publisher=one health productions|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref> || 08-13: August 13
|-
| World Orangutan Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Orangutan Day|url=http://www.worldorangutanevents.org/international-orangutan-day.php|publisher=World Orangutan Events|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> ||08-19: August 19
|-
| [[National Honey Bee Day]] || 08-22: August 22
|-
| World African Wild Dog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Painted Dog Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-painted-dog-day/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 08-26: August 26
|-
| International Whale Shark Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WHALE SHARK DAY – August 30|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-whale-shark-day-august-30/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Whale Shark Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-whale-shark-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 08-30: August 30
|-
| Japan Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2019|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2019/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2018|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2018/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-01: September 1
|-
| Amazon Rainforest Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=September 5: Amazon Day|URL=https://wwf.panda.org/?206103/september-5-amazonday|publisher=WWF|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-05: September 5
|-
| International Vulture Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.sustainablelearning.com/event/international-vulture-awareness-day|publisher=Sustainable Learning|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Sep 5, 2009 CE: International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/sep5/international-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=One week to go to International Vulture Awareness Day!|url=https://www.4vultures.org/one-week-to-go-for-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=www.4vultures.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: First Saturday of September
|-
| [[International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer]] || 09-16: September 16
|-
| [[World Water Monitoring Day]] || 09-18: September 18
|-
| [[:de:Parking Day|PARK(ing) Day]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seattle.gov/transportation/projects-and-programs/programs/public-space-management-programs/park(ing)-day|title=PARK(ing) Day - Transportation | seattle.gov|website=www.seattle.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strasse-zurueckerobern.de/anleitungen/parking-day/|title=PARK(ing) Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parkingday.fr/|title=Parking Day|website=Parking Day}}</ref>|| 09: September 20, 2019, Third Friday in September
|-
| [[World Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldcleanupday.org/|title=World Cleanup Day|website=www.worldcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| [[National Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalcleanupday.org/|title=National Cleanup Day|website=www.nationalcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| International Red Panda Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL RED PANDA DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-red-panda-day-third-saturday-in-september/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: Third Saturday of September
|-
| Zero Emissions Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeroemissionsday.org|title=Zero Emissions Day|date=2017-08-06}}</ref> || 09-21: September 21
|-
| [[Car Free Day]] || 09-22: September 22
|-
| World Rhino Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldrhinoday.org/|title=WORLD RHINO DAY :: World Rhino Day 2017|website=WORLD RHINO DAY}}</ref> || 09-22: September 22
|-
| [[Ecological Debt Day]] (Earth Overshoot Day) || 09-23: September 23 in 2008, but receding
|-
| World Gorilla Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=5TF: World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://gorillafund.org/world-gorilla-day-2019/|publisher=gorillafund.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=WORLD GORILLA DAY|url=https://www.wcs.org/world-gorilla-day|publisher=WCS.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://www.cms.int/en/news/world-gorilla-day-2019|publisher=CMS|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09-24: September 24
|-
| World Environmental Health Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://anydayguide.com/calendar/1252|title=World Environmental Health Day / September 26, 2019|last=AnydayGuide|website=AnydayGuide}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26 since 2011 [[International Federation of Environmental Health|(IFEH)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifeh.org/|title=International Federation of Environmental Health|website=ifeh.org}}</ref>
|-
| World Cassowary Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day 2018|url=https://www.wettropics.gov.au/world-cassowary-day-2018|publisher=Wet Tropics Management Authority|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day|url=https://www.worldcassowaryday.org/|publisher=World Cassowary Day|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26
|-
| World Rivers Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldriversday.com/|title=World Rivers Day|website=worldriversday.com}}</ref> || 09: Last Sunday of September
|-
| World Farm Animals Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Farm Animals Day (2nd October)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/farm-animals-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-02: October 2
|-
| [[World Habitat Day]] || 10: First Monday of October
|-
| [[World Animal Day]] || 10-04: October 4
|-
| Energy Efficiency Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energyefficiencyday.org/ |title=Energy Efficiency Day}}</ref> || 10: First Wednesday in October
|-
| [[International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 10-13: October 13
|-
| International E-Waste Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate the second International E-Waste Day|URL=https://inhabitat.com/celebrate-the-second-international-e-waste-day/|publisher=Inhabitat|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International E-Waste Day|URL=https://weee-forum.org/iewd-about/|publisher=WEEE Forum|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Raising awareness on International E-Waste Day|URL=https://www.orgalim.eu/news/raising-awareness-international-e-waste-day|publisher=Orgalim|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-14: October 14
|-
| Sustainability Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uvu.edu/sustainability/sustainabilityday/index.html|title=- Sustainability - Utah Valley University|website=www.uvu.edu}}</ref> || 10: Fourth Wednesday of October
|-
| World Okapi Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Okapi Day|url=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/10/18/world-okapi-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=7 Fun Facts about World Okapi Day|url=https://www.twpark.com/blog/conservation/7-fun-facts-about-world-okapi-day|publisher=Tanganyika Wildlife Park|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 10-18: October 18
|-
| National Reptile Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL REPTILE AWARENESS DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-reptile-awareness-day-october-21/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Reptile Awareness Day (Every October 21st) |url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/reptile-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 10-21: October 21
|-
| International Wombat Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Wombat Day October 22|URL=https://www.wombania.com/wombat-day.htm|publisher=Wombania|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-22: October 22
|-
| International Snow Leopard Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snowleopard.org/international-snow-leopard-day-hope-and-concern-for-the-cat/ |title=International Snow Leopard Day 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsnowleopard.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/SnowLeopard_Bishkek_Declaration_EN.pdf.pdf |title=The Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards}}</ref> || 10-23: October 23
|-
| Freshwater Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=24th October is Freshwater Dolphin Day!|URL=https://iucn-csg.org/24th-october-is-freshwater-dolphin-day-2/|publisher=IUCN – SSC Cetacean Specialist Group|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 10-24: October 24
|-
| [[International Day of Climate Action]] || 10-24: October 24
|-
| World Lemur Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.lemurconservationnetwork.org/world-lemur-day/|publisher=Lemur Conservation Network|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.checkiday.com/895d28d65cd0d952b00b605f80e57a9f/world-lemur-day|publisher=Checkiday|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref> || 10: Last Friday of October
|-
| [[World Vegan Day]] || 11-01: November 1
|-
| [[International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environment in War and Armed Conflict]] || 11-06: November 6
|-
| [[National Bison Day]] || 11: First Saturday in November
|-
| [[America Recycles Day]] || 11-15: November 15
|-
| World Fisheries Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Fisheries Day|URL=https://sandrp.in/tag/world-fisheries-day/|publisher=SANDRP|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref> || 11-21: November 21
|-
| International Jaguar Day<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/news-centre/news/2018/latin-america-launches-new-roadmap-to-save-the-jaguar.html|title=Latin America Launches New Roadmap to Save the Jaguar|website=UNDP|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wcs.org/international-jaguar-day|title=International Jaguar Day|website=www.wcs.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref>
|| 11-29: November 29
|-
| International Cheetah Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Cheetah Day|url=https://internationalcheetahday.com/|publisher=International Cheetah Day|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Cheetahs Need Us: December 4 is International Cheetah Day!|url=https://dayofthejaguar.org/2018/11/28/cheetahs-need-us-december-4-is-international-cheetah-day/|publisher=Day Of The Jaguar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 12-04: December 4
|-
| [[World Soil Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/en/|title=Global Soil Partnership - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> || 12-05: December 5
|-
| [[International Mountain Day]] || 12-11: December 11
|-
| [[Monkey Day]] || 12-14: December 14
|-
| [[Ozone Action Day]] || Variable date depending weather conditions
|-
| [[eDay]] - Electronic Waste Day || Variable date, in New Zealand
|}

==Weeks==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[Great Backyard Bird Count]] 2019 date, February 15-18
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] || | 2016 date, April 18-22
|-
| Keep Australia Beautiful Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kab.org.au/keep-australia-beautiful-week/|title=Keep Australia Beautiful Week|website=Keep Australia Beautiful}}</ref> || Last full week of August
|-
| [[National Green Week]] || 02 (first week in February every year in the United States)
|-
| National Wildlife Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Error-Page|title=Error-Page|website=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref> ||
|-
| [[National Dark-Sky Week]] || 04 (week of new moon in April)
|-
| [[Bike to Work Week Victoria]] ||
|-
| National Pollinator Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pollinator.org/pollinator-week|title=Pollinator Week|website=Pollinator.org}}</ref> || third week in June
|-
| National Clean Beaches Week, Van Mohatsav Saptah(Forest Festival Week) || 07-01 to 07-07: July 1 to 7
|-
| [[Conservation Week]] ||

|-World Water Week 08-26: August 26 - 31

| European Mobility Week || 09-16 to 09-22: September 16 to 22
|-
| Bike Week || 06: second week in June
|-
| Recycle Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.recyclenow.com/|title=Recycle Now - Where and How to Recycle|website=www.recyclenow.com}}</ref> || 06: 20 to 26 June 2011
|-
| [https://www.zerowasteweek.co.uk/ Zero Waste Week] || first week of September
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] ||
|-
| [[European Week for Waste Reduction]] (EWWR) || 11: 9 days, last complete week in November
|-
| [[Science Literacy Week (Canada)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scienceliteracy.ca/|title=Science Literacy Week – September 16 – 22, 2019|website=www.scienceliteracy.ca}}</ref> || 16-22: September
|-
| [[No Car Day]] || 09: China, week of September 22
|-
| [[World Water Week in Stockholm]] || 08 or 09: each year in August or September
|-
| [[National Op Shop Week (Australia)]] || August 21st - 27th
|-
| [[World Oceans Week]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldoceansday.org/|title=World Oceans Day - Uniting Ocean Action Worldwide on 8 June 2020|first=|last=|website=worldoceansday.org}}</ref> || 01-08: June
|}

==Years==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 1882–1883
|-
| International Polar Year || 1932–1933
|-1992
|-
|[[International Year of the Child]]
|1979
|-
| [[World Population Year]] || 1974
|-
| [[International Year of the Ocean]] (IYO) || 1998
|-
| [[International Year of Mountains]] (IYM) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Ecotourism]] (IYE) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Freshwater]] (IYF) || 2003
|-
| [[International Year of Deserts and Desertification]] || 2006
|-
| International [[Year of the Dolphin]] || 2007–2008
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 2007–2009
|-
| [[International Year of Planet Earth]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Sanitation]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Natural Fibres 2009]] || 2009
|-
| Year of the Gorilla<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yog2009.org/|title=FX初心者の勉強・情報収集 - 【FXガイド】　FX初心者のための勉強サイト|website=www.yog2009.org}}</ref> || 2009
|-
| [[International Year of Biodiversity]] || 2010
|-
| [[International Year of Forests]] || 2011
|-
| [[International Year of Soils]] || 2015
|-
| [[International Year of Pulses]] || 2016
|-
| [[International Year of Sustainable tourism for all]] || 2017
|-
| [[International Year of Indigenous languages]] || 2019
|}

==Decades==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Drinking Water Decade, 1981-1990]] || 1980s
|-
| [[International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 1990s
|-
| [[United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development]] || 2005-2014
|-
| [[Water for Life Decade]] || 2005-2015
|-
| [[United Nations Decade on Biodiversity]] || 2011-2020
|-
| United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification || 2010-2020
|}

==See also==
*[[Index of environmental articles]]
**[[List of environmental issues]]
*[[Index of conservation articles]]
**[[List of conservation issues]]
*[[List of international environmental agreements]]
*[[List of awareness days]]
*[[International observance]]
*[[List of commemorative days]]
*[[List of Month-long observances|List of commemorative months]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050405210808/http://unac.org/en/news_events/un_days/index.asp News & Events - UN Days, Weeks and Years]
*[http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2013/Mar/21/the-world-plantation-day-58.asp - World Plantation Day, Great Kashmir]
*[http://www.saveourwaterwaysnow.com.au/02_cal/details.asp?ID=561 - Save your water]
*[http://edugreen.teri.res.in/misc/dates.htm - EDU Green]

[[Category:Environmental awareness days| ]]
[[Category:Lists of observances|Environmental]]

List of environmental dates

2020-04-07T07:01:00Z

118.46.55.151: /* Days */

{{short description|Wikipedia list article}}
{{Refimprove|date=July 2014}}

This is a '''list of environmental dates'''. These dates are designated for creating awareness of [[environmental issue]]s.

==Hours==
*[[Earth Hour]] - 8:30pm (local time), 28 March 2020<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.earthhour.org/|title=Homepage|date=2 February 2018|website=Earth Hour}}</ref>

==Days==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| International Zebra Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Zebra Day (January 31st)|url=https://www.asiaforanimals.com/news/post/international-zebra-day-january-31st|publisher=Asia for Animals Coalition|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wildlife Wednesday: Celebrate International Zebra Day|URL=https://disneyparks.disney.go.com/blog/2017/01/wildlife-wednesday-celebrate-international-zebra-day/|publisher=Disney Parks|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Earn Your Stripes! It’s International Zebra Day!|URL=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-zebra-day|publisher=Safari Ltd|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 01-31: January 31
|-
| [[World Wetlands Day]] || 02-02: February 2
|-
| World Pangolin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day - WORLD PANGOLIN DAY|url=https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|publisher=Pangolins.org|accessdate=16 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526113907/https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|archive-date=26 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day 2019|url=https://www.wildlifealliance.org/world-pangolin-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Alliance|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || Third Saturday of February
|-
| World Bonobo Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Valentine's Day Is also World Bonobo Day; Here's Why|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/valentines-day-is-also-world-bonobo-day-heres-why_b_58a22b17e4b0cd37efcfec0b|publisher=HuffPost|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://bonoboproject.org/save-the-bonobo/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=The Bonobo Project|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://www.peoplemagazine.co.za/life/animal-news/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=People Magazine|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 02-14: February 14
|-
| World Hippopotamus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Hippo Day: Learn about the world's 3rd largest mammal|url=https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d774d31457a4e32457a6333566d54/index.html|publisher=CGTN|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Hippo Day|url=https://happydays365.org/hippo-day/national-hippo-day-february-15/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Hippo Day (15th February)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/hippo-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 02-15: February 15
|-
| [[International Polar Bear Day]] || 02-27: February 27
|-
| [[World Wildlife Day]] || 03-03: March 3
|-
| Solar Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://www.belmontsolar.com/blog/uncategorized/national-solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Solar Appreciation Belmont Solar|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://greenstepssociety.org/solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Green Step Society|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Solar Appreciation Day|URL=http://thegreentimes.co.za/event/solar-appreciation-day/|publisher=The Green Times|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || Second Friday of March
|-
| International Day of Action for Rivers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/ |title=International Day of Action for Rivers}}</ref> || 03-14: March 14
|-
| [[World Consumer Rights Day]] || 03-15 : March 15
|-
| Global Recycling Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalrecyclingday.com/ |title=Global Recycling Day}}</ref> || 03-18: March 18th
|-
| Taxonomist Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taxonomist Appreciation Day 19 March 2017|URL=http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/blogs/linette-umbrello/taxonomist-appreciation-day-19-march-2017|publisher=Western Australian Museum|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 03-19 : March 19
|-
| [[World Sparrow Day]] || 03-20: March 20
|-
| World Frog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day|url=https://www.nationalday.com/days/world-frog-day/|
publisher=National Day Foundation|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day 2019: Let's Save the Frogs From Extinction|url=http://greenubuntu.com/world-frog-day-2019-lets-save-the-frogs-from-extinction/|
publisher=Green Ubuntu|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day – March 20, 2019|URL=https://happydays365.org/frog-day/world-frog-day-march-20/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-20: March 20
|-
| [[International Day of Forests]] || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Planting Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day – 21 of March 2015|URL=https://blog.plantwise.org/2015/03/20/world-planting-day-21-of-march-2015/|publisher=The Plantwise Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day 2018|URL=https://www.adama.com/en/media/events/international-events/world-planting-day-2018|publisher=ADAMA|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day - 21st March|URL=https://www.clifton.co.uk/blog/celebrating-spring-and-world-planting-day|publisher=Clifton Nurseries|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Wood Day || 03-21: March 21
|-
| [[World Water Day]] || 03-22: March 22
|-
| International Seal Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Day of the Seal is Here!|url=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-seal-day|publisher=Safari ltd|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 03-22: March 22
|-
| World Bear Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bear Day|URL=http://www.zoomontana.org/event/world-bear-day/|publisher=ZooMontana|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || March 23: 03-23
|-
| [[World Meteorological Day]] || 03-23: March 23
|-
| Manatee Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=MANATEE APPRECIATION DAY - Last Wednesday in March|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/manatee-appreciation-day-last-wednesday-in-march/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day Should Be Every Day|URL=https://www.peta.org/features/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=PETA|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 03: Last Wednesday in March
|-
| International Beaver Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Beaver Day (7th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/beaver-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BEAVER DAY - April 7 |URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-beaver-day-april-7/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 04-07: April 7
|-
| Zoo Lovers Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL ZOO LOVERS DAY - April 8|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/national-zoo-lovers-day-april-8/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Zoo Lovers Day (8th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/zoo-lovers-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 04-08: April 8
|-
| [[Arbor Day]] || 04-10: April 10
|-
| Bat Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BAT APPRECIATION DAY - April 17|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/international-bat-appreciation-day-april-17/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Bat Appreciation Day (17th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/bat-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref> || 04-17: April 17
|-
| [[World Fish Migration Day]] || April 21, 2018
|-
| [[Earth Day]] || 04-22: April 22<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.earthday.org |title=Earth Day Network | Earth Day 2015 |publisher=Earthday.org |date=2015-04-22 |accessdate=2015-05-16}}</ref>
|-
| World Tapir Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-tapir-day/|publisher=Day of the Year|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day: 24 reasons tapirs are your new favourite animal|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/27/world-tapir-day-24-reasons-tapirs-are-your-new-favourite-animal/|publisher=The Telegraph|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=ELEVEN YEARS OF WORLD TAPIR DAY: 2008 - 2019|url=https://www.tapirday.org/|publisher=Tapir Day|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| International Hyena Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=international hyena day|url=http://tales-of-avalon.com/tales/?tag=international-hyena-day|publisher=Tales of Avalon|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| [[Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare]] || 04-29: April 29
|-
| [[Green Up Day]] || 05: First Saturday of May in Vermont
|-
|World Tuna Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2 May|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/tunaday/|publisher=the United Nations|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2019|url=http://ipnlf.org/news/world-tuna-day-2019|publisher=IPNLF|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate World Tuna Day on May 2nd!|url=https://chickenofthesea.com/fresh-ideas/good-living/celebrate-world-tuna-day-on-may-2nd|publisher=Chicken of the Sea|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-02: May 2
|-
| International Leopard Day<ref name=>{{Cite news|title=International Leopard Day|URL=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/international-leopard-day-2/|publisher=International Leopard Day|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| Wild Koala Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=25 Koala Facts for Wild Koala Day|url=https://blog.goway.com/globetrotting/2017/05/25-koala-facts-wild-koala-day/|publisher=blog.goway.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wild Koala Day|url=http://www.wildkoaladay.com.au/|publisher=www.wildkoaladay.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| [[Greenery Day]] || 05-04: May 4 in Japan (previously April 29)
|-
| World Donkey Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Donkey Day (Every May 8th)|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-donkey-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-08: May 8
|-
| World Cactus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Cactus Day|URL=https://whatnationaldayisit.com/day/Cactus/|publisher=WhatNationalDayIsIt|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 05-10: May 10
|-
| [[World Migratory Bird Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldmigratorybirdday.org/|title=STORIES - World Migratory Bird Day|website=www.worldmigratorybirdday.org}}</ref> || Second Saturday of May. Second Saturday of May in the U.S. and Canada; Second Saturday of October in Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean.
|-
| Endangered Species Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.endangered.org/campaigns/endangered-species-day/|title=Endangered Species Day|website=endangered.org}}</ref> ||05: Third Friday of May
|-
| [[International Day for Biological Diversity]] (World Biodiversity Day) || 05-22: May 22
|-
| [[World Turtle Day]] || 05-23: May 23
|-
| European Day of Parks - [[EUROPARC Federation|Europarc Federation]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarc.org/nature/european-day-of-parks/ |title=European Day of Parks}}</ref> || 05-24: May 24
|-
| [[Bike-to-Work Day]] || 05: Third Friday of May
|-
| World Otter Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Otter Day|url=https://muddyfaces.co.uk/event/world-otter-day-2/2020-05-27/|publisher=Muddy Faces|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 05-27: May 27
|-
| [[World No Tobacco Day]] || 05-31:May 31
|-
| World Parrot Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.northernparrots.com/mobile/world-parrot-day-blog277/|publisher=Northern Parrots|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-parrot-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.birdorable.com/blog/world-parrot-day/|
publisher=Birdorable Blog|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-31: May 31 since 2004
|-
| [[World Environment Day]] || 06-05: June 5
|-
| [[World Oceans Day]] || 06-08: June 8
|-
| [[Coral Triangle Day]] || 06-09: June 9
|-
| [[Global Wind Day]] || 06-15: June 15
|-
| World Sea Turtle Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/world-sea-turtle-day |title=World Sea Turtle Day}}</ref> || 06-16: June 16
|-
| [[World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought]] || 06-17: June 17
|-
| World Giraffe Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://giraffeconservation.org/world-giraffe-day/ |title=World Giraffe Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day 2019|URL=https://giraffeconservation.org/2019/03/19/world-giraffe-day-2019/|publisher=Giraffe Conservation Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day (21st June)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-giraffe-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-21: June 21
|-
| International Climate Change Day || 06-21: June 21
|-
| World Camel Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://zoonewsdigest.blogspot.com/2013/06/world-camel-day.html?m=1|publisher=Zoo News Digest|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=https://www.nps.gov/planyourvisit/event-details.htm?id=98A7FF8A-07F4-4FE5-1ABC749235C08DE6|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/6/22/world-camel-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| World Rainforest Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treefoundation.org/2018/06/21/world-rainforest-day-is-june-22nd/|title=World Rainforest Day is June 22nd|date=21 June 2018|website=treefoundation.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldrainforestday.com/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=World Rainforest Day}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rainforestpartnership.org/worldrainforestday/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=RAINFOREST PARTNERSHIP}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| [[World Population Day]] || 07-11: July 11
|-
| Shark Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Duuuun. Dun. It’s Shark Awareness Day!|URL=https://blog.margaritaville.com/2018/07/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Margaritaville Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day (14th July)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day|URL=https://www.sharktrust.org/blog/shark-awareness-day|publisher=The Shark Trust|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Shark Awareness Day Has Arrived! |URL=http://awesomeocean.com/news/national-shark-awareness-day-has-arrived/|publisher=Awesome Ocean|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Chimpanzee Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day 2019 – How Will You Celebrate?|URL=https://projectchimps.org/world-chimpanzee-day-2019/|publisher=Project Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day – 14 July 2019|URL=https://www.janegoodall.be/world-chimpanzee-day-2019|publisher=Jane Goodall Institute Belgium|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day!|URL=https://www.savethechimps.org/worldchimpanzeeday/|publisher=Save the Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Nature Conservation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Nature Conservation Day 2019: History and Significance|URL=https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/world-nature-conservation-day-1564220763-1|publisher=Jagran Josh|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref>
|| 07-28: July 28
|-
| [[International Tiger Day]] || 07-29: July 29
|-
| World Ranger Day - [[International Ranger Federation]] || July 31: 07-31
|-
| International Clouded Leopard Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day (4th August)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-clouded-leopard-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day|URL=https://www.aspinallfoundation.org/icld/|publisher=The Aspinall Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 08-04: August 4
|-
| World Lion Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldlionday.com/ |title=World Lion Day}}</ref> || 08-10: August 10
|-
| [[World Elephant Day]] || 08-12: August 12
|-
| International Wolf Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate International Wolf Day - the future of our Earth depends on them|url=http://www.whitewolfpack.com/2011/08/international-wolf-day.html?m=1|publisher=White Wolf Pack|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WOLF DAY AUGUST 13TH 2019|url=http://onehealthproductions.com/internationalwolfday2019|publisher=one health productions|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref> || 08-13: August 13
|-
| World Orangutan Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Orangutan Day|url=http://www.worldorangutanevents.org/international-orangutan-day.php|publisher=World Orangutan Events|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> ||08-19: August 19
|-
| [[National Honey Bee Day]] || 08-22: August 22
|-
| World African Wild Dog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Painted Dog Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-painted-dog-day/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 08-26: August 26
|-
| International Whale Shark Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WHALE SHARK DAY – August 30|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-whale-shark-day-august-30/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Whale Shark Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-whale-shark-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 08-30: August 30
|-
| Japan Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2019|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2019/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2018|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2018/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-01: September 1
|-
| Amazon Rainforest Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=September 5: Amazon Day|URL=https://wwf.panda.org/?206103/september-5-amazonday|publisher=WWF|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-05: September 5
|-
| International Vulture Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.sustainablelearning.com/event/international-vulture-awareness-day|publisher=Sustainable Learning|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Sep 5, 2009 CE: International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/sep5/international-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=One week to go to International Vulture Awareness Day!|url=https://www.4vultures.org/one-week-to-go-for-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=www.4vultures.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: First Saturday of September
|-
| [[International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer]] || 09-16: September 16
|-
| [[World Water Monitoring Day]] || 09-18: September 18
|-
| [[:de:Parking Day|PARK(ing) Day]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seattle.gov/transportation/projects-and-programs/programs/public-space-management-programs/park(ing)-day|title=PARK(ing) Day - Transportation | seattle.gov|website=www.seattle.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strasse-zurueckerobern.de/anleitungen/parking-day/|title=PARK(ing) Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parkingday.fr/|title=Parking Day|website=Parking Day}}</ref>|| 09: September 20, 2019, Third Friday in September
|-
| [[World Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldcleanupday.org/|title=World Cleanup Day|website=www.worldcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| [[National Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalcleanupday.org/|title=National Cleanup Day|website=www.nationalcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| International Red Panda Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL RED PANDA DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-red-panda-day-third-saturday-in-september/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: Third Saturday of September
|-
| Zero Emissions Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeroemissionsday.org|title=Zero Emissions Day|date=2017-08-06}}</ref> || 09-21: September 21
|-
| [[Car Free Day]] || 09-22: September 22
|-
| World Rhino Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldrhinoday.org/|title=WORLD RHINO DAY :: World Rhino Day 2017|website=WORLD RHINO DAY}}</ref> || 09-22: September 22
|-
| [[Ecological Debt Day]] (Earth Overshoot Day) || 09-23: September 23 in 2008, but receding
|-
| World Gorilla Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=5TF: World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://gorillafund.org/world-gorilla-day-2019/|publisher=gorillafund.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=WORLD GORILLA DAY|url=https://www.wcs.org/world-gorilla-day|publisher=WCS.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://www.cms.int/en/news/world-gorilla-day-2019|publisher=CMS|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09-24: September 24
|-
| World Environmental Health Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://anydayguide.com/calendar/1252|title=World Environmental Health Day / September 26, 2019|last=AnydayGuide|website=AnydayGuide}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26 since 2011 [[International Federation of Environmental Health|(IFEH)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifeh.org/|title=International Federation of Environmental Health|website=ifeh.org}}</ref>
|-
| World Cassowary Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day 2018|url=https://www.wettropics.gov.au/world-cassowary-day-2018|publisher=Wet Tropics Management Authority|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day|url=https://www.worldcassowaryday.org/|publisher=World Cassowary Day|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26
|-
| World Rivers Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldriversday.com/|title=World Rivers Day|website=worldriversday.com}}</ref> || 09: Last Sunday of September
|-
| World Farm Animals Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Farm Animals Day (2nd October)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/farm-animals-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-02: October 2
|-
| [[World Habitat Day]] || 10: First Monday of October
|-
| [[World Animal Day]] || 10-04: October 4
|-
| Energy Efficiency Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energyefficiencyday.org/ |title=Energy Efficiency Day}}</ref> || 10: First Wednesday in October
|-
| [[International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 10-13: October 13
|-
| International E-Waste Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate the second International E-Waste Day|URL=https://inhabitat.com/celebrate-the-second-international-e-waste-day/|publisher=Inhabitat|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International E-Waste Day|URL=https://weee-forum.org/iewd-about/|publisher=WEEE Forum|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Raising awareness on International E-Waste Day|URL=https://www.orgalim.eu/news/raising-awareness-international-e-waste-day|publisher=Orgalim|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-14: October 14
|-
| Sustainability Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uvu.edu/sustainability/sustainabilityday/index.html|title=- Sustainability - Utah Valley University|website=www.uvu.edu}}</ref> || 10: Fourth Wednesday of October
|-
| World Okapi Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Okapi Day|url=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/10/18/world-okapi-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=7 Fun Facts about World Okapi Day|url=https://www.twpark.com/blog/conservation/7-fun-facts-about-world-okapi-day|publisher=Tanganyika Wildlife Park|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 10-18: October 18
|-
| National Reptile Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL REPTILE AWARENESS DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-reptile-awareness-day-october-21/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Reptile Awareness Day (Every October 21st) |url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/reptile-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 10-21: October 21
|-
| International Wombat Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Wombat Day October 22|URL=https://www.wombania.com/wombat-day.htm|publisher=Wombania|accessdate=7 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-22: October 22
|-
| International Snow Leopard Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snowleopard.org/international-snow-leopard-day-hope-and-concern-for-the-cat/ |title=International Snow Leopard Day 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsnowleopard.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/SnowLeopard_Bishkek_Declaration_EN.pdf.pdf |title=The Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards}}</ref> || 10-23: October 23
|-
| Freshwater Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=24th October is Freshwater Dolphin Day!|URL=https://iucn-csg.org/24th-october-is-freshwater-dolphin-day-2/|publisher=IUCN – SSC Cetacean Specialist Group|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 10-24: October 24
|-
| [[International Day of Climate Action]] || 10-24: October 24
|-
| World Lemur Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.lemurconservationnetwork.org/world-lemur-day/|publisher=Lemur Conservation Network|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.checkiday.com/895d28d65cd0d952b00b605f80e57a9f/world-lemur-day|publisher=Checkiday|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref> || 10: Last Friday of October
|-
| [[World Vegan Day]] || 11-01: November 1
|-
| [[International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environment in War and Armed Conflict]] || 11-06: November 6
|-
| [[National Bison Day]] || 11: First Saturday in November
|-
| [[America Recycles Day]] || 11-15: November 15
|-
| World Fisheries Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Fisheries Day|URL=https://sandrp.in/tag/world-fisheries-day/|publisher=SANDRP|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref> || 11-21: November 21
|-
| International Jaguar Day<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/news-centre/news/2018/latin-america-launches-new-roadmap-to-save-the-jaguar.html|title=Latin America Launches New Roadmap to Save the Jaguar|website=UNDP|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wcs.org/international-jaguar-day|title=International Jaguar Day|website=www.wcs.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref>
|| 11-29: November 29
|-
| International Cheetah Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Cheetah Day|url=https://internationalcheetahday.com/|publisher=International Cheetah Day|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Cheetahs Need Us: December 4 is International Cheetah Day!|url=https://dayofthejaguar.org/2018/11/28/cheetahs-need-us-december-4-is-international-cheetah-day/|publisher=Day Of The Jaguar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 12-04: December 4
|-
| [[World Soil Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/en/|title=Global Soil Partnership - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> || 12-05: December 5
|-
| [[International Mountain Day]] || 12-11: December 11
|-
| [[Monkey Day]] || 12-14: December 14
|-
| [[Ozone Action Day]] || Variable date depending weather conditions
|-
| [[eDay]] - Electronic Waste Day || Variable date, in New Zealand
|}

==Weeks==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[Great Backyard Bird Count]] 2019 date, February 15-18
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] || | 2016 date, April 18-22
|-
| Keep Australia Beautiful Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kab.org.au/keep-australia-beautiful-week/|title=Keep Australia Beautiful Week|website=Keep Australia Beautiful}}</ref> || Last full week of August
|-
| [[National Green Week]] || 02 (first week in February every year in the United States)
|-
| National Wildlife Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Error-Page|title=Error-Page|website=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref> ||
|-
| [[National Dark-Sky Week]] || 04 (week of new moon in April)
|-
| [[Bike to Work Week Victoria]] ||
|-
| National Pollinator Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pollinator.org/pollinator-week|title=Pollinator Week|website=Pollinator.org}}</ref> || third week in June
|-
| National Clean Beaches Week, Van Mohatsav Saptah(Forest Festival Week) || 07-01 to 07-07: July 1 to 7
|-
| [[Conservation Week]] ||

|-World Water Week 08-26: August 26 - 31

| European Mobility Week || 09-16 to 09-22: September 16 to 22
|-
| Bike Week || 06: second week in June
|-
| Recycle Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.recyclenow.com/|title=Recycle Now - Where and How to Recycle|website=www.recyclenow.com}}</ref> || 06: 20 to 26 June 2011
|-
| [https://www.zerowasteweek.co.uk/ Zero Waste Week] || first week of September
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] ||
|-
| [[European Week for Waste Reduction]] (EWWR) || 11: 9 days, last complete week in November
|-
| [[Science Literacy Week (Canada)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scienceliteracy.ca/|title=Science Literacy Week – September 16 – 22, 2019|website=www.scienceliteracy.ca}}</ref> || 16-22: September
|-
| [[No Car Day]] || 09: China, week of September 22
|-
| [[World Water Week in Stockholm]] || 08 or 09: each year in August or September
|-
| [[National Op Shop Week (Australia)]] || August 21st - 27th
|-
| [[World Oceans Week]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldoceansday.org/|title=World Oceans Day - Uniting Ocean Action Worldwide on 8 June 2020|first=|last=|website=worldoceansday.org}}</ref> || 01-08: June
|}

==Years==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 1882–1883
|-
| International Polar Year || 1932–1933
|-1992
|-
|[[International Year of the Child]]
|1979
|-
| [[World Population Year]] || 1974
|-
| [[International Year of the Ocean]] (IYO) || 1998
|-
| [[International Year of Mountains]] (IYM) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Ecotourism]] (IYE) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Freshwater]] (IYF) || 2003
|-
| [[International Year of Deserts and Desertification]] || 2006
|-
| International [[Year of the Dolphin]] || 2007–2008
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 2007–2009
|-
| [[International Year of Planet Earth]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Sanitation]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Natural Fibres 2009]] || 2009
|-
| Year of the Gorilla<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yog2009.org/|title=FX初心者の勉強・情報収集 - 【FXガイド】　FX初心者のための勉強サイト|website=www.yog2009.org}}</ref> || 2009
|-
| [[International Year of Biodiversity]] || 2010
|-
| [[International Year of Forests]] || 2011
|-
| [[International Year of Soils]] || 2015
|-
| [[International Year of Pulses]] || 2016
|-
| [[International Year of Sustainable tourism for all]] || 2017
|-
| [[International Year of Indigenous languages]] || 2019
|}

==Decades==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Drinking Water Decade, 1981-1990]] || 1980s
|-
| [[International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 1990s
|-
| [[United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development]] || 2005-2014
|-
| [[Water for Life Decade]] || 2005-2015
|-
| [[United Nations Decade on Biodiversity]] || 2011-2020
|-
| United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification || 2010-2020
|}

==See also==
*[[Index of environmental articles]]
**[[List of environmental issues]]
*[[Index of conservation articles]]
**[[List of conservation issues]]
*[[List of international environmental agreements]]
*[[List of awareness days]]
*[[International observance]]
*[[List of commemorative days]]
*[[List of Month-long observances|List of commemorative months]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050405210808/http://unac.org/en/news_events/un_days/index.asp News & Events - UN Days, Weeks and Years]
*[http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2013/Mar/21/the-world-plantation-day-58.asp - World Plantation Day, Great Kashmir]
*[http://www.saveourwaterwaysnow.com.au/02_cal/details.asp?ID=561 - Save your water]
*[http://edugreen.teri.res.in/misc/dates.htm - EDU Green]

[[Category:Environmental awareness days| ]]
[[Category:Lists of observances|Environmental]]

List of environmental dates

2020-04-07T06:55:12Z

118.46.55.151: /* Days */

{{short description|Wikipedia list article}}
{{Refimprove|date=July 2014}}

This is a '''list of environmental dates'''. These dates are designated for creating awareness of [[environmental issue]]s.

==Hours==
*[[Earth Hour]] - 8:30pm (local time), 28 March 2020<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.earthhour.org/|title=Homepage|date=2 February 2018|website=Earth Hour}}</ref>

==Days==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| International Zebra Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Zebra Day (January 31st)|url=https://www.asiaforanimals.com/news/post/international-zebra-day-january-31st|publisher=Asia for Animals Coalition|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wildlife Wednesday: Celebrate International Zebra Day|URL=https://disneyparks.disney.go.com/blog/2017/01/wildlife-wednesday-celebrate-international-zebra-day/|publisher=Disney Parks|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Earn Your Stripes! It’s International Zebra Day!|URL=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-zebra-day|publisher=Safari Ltd|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 01-31: January 31
|-
| [[World Wetlands Day]] || 02-02: February 2
|-
| World Pangolin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day - WORLD PANGOLIN DAY|url=https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|publisher=Pangolins.org|accessdate=16 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526113907/https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|archive-date=26 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day 2019|url=https://www.wildlifealliance.org/world-pangolin-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Alliance|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || Third Saturday of February
|-
| World Bonobo Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Valentine's Day Is also World Bonobo Day; Here's Why|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/valentines-day-is-also-world-bonobo-day-heres-why_b_58a22b17e4b0cd37efcfec0b|publisher=HuffPost|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://bonoboproject.org/save-the-bonobo/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=The Bonobo Project|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://www.peoplemagazine.co.za/life/animal-news/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=People Magazine|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 02-14: February 14
|-
| World Hippopotamus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Hippo Day: Learn about the world's 3rd largest mammal|url=https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d774d31457a4e32457a6333566d54/index.html|publisher=CGTN|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Hippo Day|url=https://happydays365.org/hippo-day/national-hippo-day-february-15/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Hippo Day (15th February)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/hippo-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 02-15: February 15
|-
| [[International Polar Bear Day]] || 02-27: February 27
|-
| [[World Wildlife Day]] || 03-03: March 3
|-
| Solar Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://www.belmontsolar.com/blog/uncategorized/national-solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Solar Appreciation Belmont Solar|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://greenstepssociety.org/solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Green Step Society|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Solar Appreciation Day|URL=http://thegreentimes.co.za/event/solar-appreciation-day/|publisher=The Green Times|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || Second Friday of March
|-
| International Day of Action for Rivers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/ |title=International Day of Action for Rivers}}</ref> || 03-14: March 14
|-
| [[World Consumer Rights Day]] || 03-15 : March 15
|-
| Global Recycling Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalrecyclingday.com/ |title=Global Recycling Day}}</ref> || 03-18: March 18th
|-
| Taxonomist Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taxonomist Appreciation Day 19 March 2017|URL=http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/blogs/linette-umbrello/taxonomist-appreciation-day-19-march-2017|publisher=Western Australian Museum|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 03-19 : March 19
|-
| [[World Sparrow Day]] || 03-20: March 20
|-
| World Frog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day|url=https://www.nationalday.com/days/world-frog-day/|
publisher=National Day Foundation|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day 2019: Let's Save the Frogs From Extinction|url=http://greenubuntu.com/world-frog-day-2019-lets-save-the-frogs-from-extinction/|
publisher=Green Ubuntu|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day – March 20, 2019|URL=https://happydays365.org/frog-day/world-frog-day-march-20/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-20: March 20
|-
| [[International Day of Forests]] || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Planting Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day – 21 of March 2015|URL=https://blog.plantwise.org/2015/03/20/world-planting-day-21-of-march-2015/|publisher=The Plantwise Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day 2018|URL=https://www.adama.com/en/media/events/international-events/world-planting-day-2018|publisher=ADAMA|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day - 21st March|URL=https://www.clifton.co.uk/blog/celebrating-spring-and-world-planting-day|publisher=Clifton Nurseries|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Wood Day || 03-21: March 21
|-
| [[World Water Day]] || 03-22: March 22
|-
| International Seal Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Day of the Seal is Here!|url=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-seal-day|publisher=Safari ltd|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 03-22: March 22
|-
| World Bear Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bear Day|URL=http://www.zoomontana.org/event/world-bear-day/|publisher=ZooMontana|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || March 23: 03-23
|-
| [[World Meteorological Day]] || 03-23: March 23
|-
| Manatee Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=MANATEE APPRECIATION DAY - Last Wednesday in March|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/manatee-appreciation-day-last-wednesday-in-march/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day Should Be Every Day|URL=https://www.peta.org/features/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=PETA|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 03: Last Wednesday in March
|-
| International Beaver Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Beaver Day (7th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/beaver-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BEAVER DAY - April 7 |URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-beaver-day-april-7/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=April 7 2020}}</ref> || 04-07: April 7
|-
| Zoo Lovers Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL ZOO LOVERS DAY - April 8|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/national-zoo-lovers-day-april-8/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=April 7 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Zoo Lovers Day (8th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/zoo-lovers-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=April 7 2020}}</ref> || 04-08: April 8
|-
| [[Arbor Day]] || 04-10: April 10
|-
| Bat Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BAT APPRECIATION DAY - April 17|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/international-bat-appreciation-day-april-17/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Bat Appreciation Day (17th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/bat-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref> || 04-17: April 17
|-
| [[World Fish Migration Day]] || April 21, 2018
|-
| [[Earth Day]] || 04-22: April 22<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.earthday.org |title=Earth Day Network | Earth Day 2015 |publisher=Earthday.org |date=2015-04-22 |accessdate=2015-05-16}}</ref>
|-
| World Tapir Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-tapir-day/|publisher=Day of the Year|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day: 24 reasons tapirs are your new favourite animal|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/27/world-tapir-day-24-reasons-tapirs-are-your-new-favourite-animal/|publisher=The Telegraph|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=ELEVEN YEARS OF WORLD TAPIR DAY: 2008 - 2019|url=https://www.tapirday.org/|publisher=Tapir Day|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| International Hyena Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=international hyena day|url=http://tales-of-avalon.com/tales/?tag=international-hyena-day|publisher=Tales of Avalon|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| [[Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare]] || 04-29: April 29
|-
| [[Green Up Day]] || 05: First Saturday of May in Vermont
|-
|World Tuna Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2 May|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/tunaday/|publisher=the United Nations|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2019|url=http://ipnlf.org/news/world-tuna-day-2019|publisher=IPNLF|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate World Tuna Day on May 2nd!|url=https://chickenofthesea.com/fresh-ideas/good-living/celebrate-world-tuna-day-on-may-2nd|publisher=Chicken of the Sea|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-02: May 2
|-
| International Leopard Day<ref name=>{{Cite news|title=International Leopard Day|URL=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/international-leopard-day-2/|publisher=International Leopard Day|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| Wild Koala Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=25 Koala Facts for Wild Koala Day|url=https://blog.goway.com/globetrotting/2017/05/25-koala-facts-wild-koala-day/|publisher=blog.goway.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wild Koala Day|url=http://www.wildkoaladay.com.au/|publisher=www.wildkoaladay.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| [[Greenery Day]] || 05-04: May 4 in Japan (previously April 29)
|-
| World Donkey Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Donkey Day (Every May 8th)|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-donkey-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-08: May 8
|-
| World Cactus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Cactus Day|URL=https://whatnationaldayisit.com/day/Cactus/|publisher=WhatNationalDayIsIt|accessdate=April 7 2020}}</ref> || 05-10: May 10
|-
| [[World Migratory Bird Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldmigratorybirdday.org/|title=STORIES - World Migratory Bird Day|website=www.worldmigratorybirdday.org}}</ref> || Second Saturday of May. Second Saturday of May in the U.S. and Canada; Second Saturday of October in Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean.
|-
| Endangered Species Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.endangered.org/campaigns/endangered-species-day/|title=Endangered Species Day|website=endangered.org}}</ref> ||05: Third Friday of May
|-
| [[International Day for Biological Diversity]] (World Biodiversity Day) || 05-22: May 22
|-
| [[World Turtle Day]] || 05-23: May 23
|-
| European Day of Parks - [[EUROPARC Federation|Europarc Federation]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarc.org/nature/european-day-of-parks/ |title=European Day of Parks}}</ref> || 05-24: May 24
|-
| [[Bike-to-Work Day]] || 05: Third Friday of May
|-
| World Otter Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Otter Day|url=https://muddyfaces.co.uk/event/world-otter-day-2/2020-05-27/|publisher=Muddy Faces|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 05-27: May 27
|-
| [[World No Tobacco Day]] || 05-31:May 31
|-
| World Parrot Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.northernparrots.com/mobile/world-parrot-day-blog277/|publisher=Northern Parrots|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-parrot-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.birdorable.com/blog/world-parrot-day/|
publisher=Birdorable Blog|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-31: May 31 since 2004
|-
| [[World Environment Day]] || 06-05: June 5
|-
| [[World Oceans Day]] || 06-08: June 8
|-
| [[Coral Triangle Day]] || 06-09: June 9
|-
| [[Global Wind Day]] || 06-15: June 15
|-
| World Sea Turtle Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/world-sea-turtle-day |title=World Sea Turtle Day}}</ref> || 06-16: June 16
|-
| [[World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought]] || 06-17: June 17
|-
| World Giraffe Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://giraffeconservation.org/world-giraffe-day/ |title=World Giraffe Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day 2019|URL=https://giraffeconservation.org/2019/03/19/world-giraffe-day-2019/|publisher=Giraffe Conservation Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day (21st June)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-giraffe-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-21: June 21
|-
| International Climate Change Day || 06-21: June 21
|-
| World Camel Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://zoonewsdigest.blogspot.com/2013/06/world-camel-day.html?m=1|publisher=Zoo News Digest|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=https://www.nps.gov/planyourvisit/event-details.htm?id=98A7FF8A-07F4-4FE5-1ABC749235C08DE6|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/6/22/world-camel-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| World Rainforest Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treefoundation.org/2018/06/21/world-rainforest-day-is-june-22nd/|title=World Rainforest Day is June 22nd|date=21 June 2018|website=treefoundation.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldrainforestday.com/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=World Rainforest Day}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rainforestpartnership.org/worldrainforestday/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=RAINFOREST PARTNERSHIP}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| [[World Population Day]] || 07-11: July 11
|-
| Shark Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Duuuun. Dun. It’s Shark Awareness Day!|URL=https://blog.margaritaville.com/2018/07/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Margaritaville Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day (14th July)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day|URL=https://www.sharktrust.org/blog/shark-awareness-day|publisher=The Shark Trust|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Shark Awareness Day Has Arrived! |URL=http://awesomeocean.com/news/national-shark-awareness-day-has-arrived/|publisher=Awesome Ocean|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Chimpanzee Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day 2019 – How Will You Celebrate?|URL=https://projectchimps.org/world-chimpanzee-day-2019/|publisher=Project Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day – 14 July 2019|URL=https://www.janegoodall.be/world-chimpanzee-day-2019|publisher=Jane Goodall Institute Belgium|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day!|URL=https://www.savethechimps.org/worldchimpanzeeday/|publisher=Save the Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Nature Conservation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Nature Conservation Day 2019: History and Significance|URL=https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/world-nature-conservation-day-1564220763-1|publisher=Jagran Josh|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref>
|| 07-28: July 28
|-
| [[International Tiger Day]] || 07-29: July 29
|-
| World Ranger Day - [[International Ranger Federation]] || July 31: 07-31
|-
| International Clouded Leopard Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day (4th August)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-clouded-leopard-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day|URL=https://www.aspinallfoundation.org/icld/|publisher=The Aspinall Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 08-04: August 4
|-
| World Lion Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldlionday.com/ |title=World Lion Day}}</ref> || 08-10: August 10
|-
| [[World Elephant Day]] || 08-12: August 12
|-
| International Wolf Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate International Wolf Day - the future of our Earth depends on them|url=http://www.whitewolfpack.com/2011/08/international-wolf-day.html?m=1|publisher=White Wolf Pack|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WOLF DAY AUGUST 13TH 2019|url=http://onehealthproductions.com/internationalwolfday2019|publisher=one health productions|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref> || 08-13: August 13
|-
| World Orangutan Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Orangutan Day|url=http://www.worldorangutanevents.org/international-orangutan-day.php|publisher=World Orangutan Events|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> ||08-19: August 19
|-
| [[National Honey Bee Day]] || 08-22: August 22
|-
| World African Wild Dog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Painted Dog Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-painted-dog-day/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 08-26: August 26
|-
| International Whale Shark Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WHALE SHARK DAY – August 30|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-whale-shark-day-august-30/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Whale Shark Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-whale-shark-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 08-30: August 30
|-
| Japan Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2019|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2019/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2018|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2018/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-01: September 1
|-
| Amazon Rainforest Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=September 5: Amazon Day|URL=https://wwf.panda.org/?206103/september-5-amazonday|publisher=WWF|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-05: September 5
|-
| International Vulture Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.sustainablelearning.com/event/international-vulture-awareness-day|publisher=Sustainable Learning|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Sep 5, 2009 CE: International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/sep5/international-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=One week to go to International Vulture Awareness Day!|url=https://www.4vultures.org/one-week-to-go-for-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=www.4vultures.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: First Saturday of September
|-
| [[International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer]] || 09-16: September 16
|-
| [[World Water Monitoring Day]] || 09-18: September 18
|-
| [[:de:Parking Day|PARK(ing) Day]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seattle.gov/transportation/projects-and-programs/programs/public-space-management-programs/park(ing)-day|title=PARK(ing) Day - Transportation | seattle.gov|website=www.seattle.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strasse-zurueckerobern.de/anleitungen/parking-day/|title=PARK(ing) Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parkingday.fr/|title=Parking Day|website=Parking Day}}</ref>|| 09: September 20, 2019, Third Friday in September
|-
| [[World Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldcleanupday.org/|title=World Cleanup Day|website=www.worldcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| [[National Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalcleanupday.org/|title=National Cleanup Day|website=www.nationalcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| International Red Panda Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL RED PANDA DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-red-panda-day-third-saturday-in-september/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: Third Saturday of September
|-
| Zero Emissions Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeroemissionsday.org|title=Zero Emissions Day|date=2017-08-06}}</ref> || 09-21: September 21
|-
| [[Car Free Day]] || 09-22: September 22
|-
| World Rhino Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldrhinoday.org/|title=WORLD RHINO DAY :: World Rhino Day 2017|website=WORLD RHINO DAY}}</ref> || 09-22: September 22
|-
| [[Ecological Debt Day]] (Earth Overshoot Day) || 09-23: September 23 in 2008, but receding
|-
| World Gorilla Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=5TF: World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://gorillafund.org/world-gorilla-day-2019/|publisher=gorillafund.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=WORLD GORILLA DAY|url=https://www.wcs.org/world-gorilla-day|publisher=WCS.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://www.cms.int/en/news/world-gorilla-day-2019|publisher=CMS|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09-24: September 24
|-
| World Environmental Health Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://anydayguide.com/calendar/1252|title=World Environmental Health Day / September 26, 2019|last=AnydayGuide|website=AnydayGuide}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26 since 2011 [[International Federation of Environmental Health|(IFEH)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifeh.org/|title=International Federation of Environmental Health|website=ifeh.org}}</ref>
|-
| World Cassowary Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day 2018|url=https://www.wettropics.gov.au/world-cassowary-day-2018|publisher=Wet Tropics Management Authority|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day|url=https://www.worldcassowaryday.org/|publisher=World Cassowary Day|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26
|-
| World Rivers Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldriversday.com/|title=World Rivers Day|website=worldriversday.com}}</ref> || 09: Last Sunday of September
|-
| World Farm Animals Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Farm Animals Day (2nd October)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/farm-animals-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=April 7 2020}}</ref> || 10-02: October 2
|-
| [[World Habitat Day]] || 10: First Monday of October
|-
| [[World Animal Day]] || 10-04: October 4
|-
| Energy Efficiency Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energyefficiencyday.org/ |title=Energy Efficiency Day}}</ref> || 10: First Wednesday in October
|-
| [[International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 10-13: October 13
|-
| International E-Waste Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate the second International E-Waste Day|URL=https://inhabitat.com/celebrate-the-second-international-e-waste-day/|publisher=Inhabitat|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International E-Waste Day|URL=https://weee-forum.org/iewd-about/|publisher=WEEE Forum|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Raising awareness on International E-Waste Day|URL=https://www.orgalim.eu/news/raising-awareness-international-e-waste-day|publisher=Orgalim|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-14: October 14
|-
| Sustainability Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uvu.edu/sustainability/sustainabilityday/index.html|title=- Sustainability - Utah Valley University|website=www.uvu.edu}}</ref> || 10: Fourth Wednesday of October
|-
| World Okapi Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Okapi Day|url=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/10/18/world-okapi-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=7 Fun Facts about World Okapi Day|url=https://www.twpark.com/blog/conservation/7-fun-facts-about-world-okapi-day|publisher=Tanganyika Wildlife Park|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 10-18: October 18
|-
| National Reptile Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL REPTILE AWARENESS DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-reptile-awareness-day-october-21/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Reptile Awareness Day (Every October 21st) |url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/reptile-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 10-21: October 21
|-
| International Wombat Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Wombat Day October 22|URL=https://www.wombania.com/wombat-day.htm|publisher=Wombania|accessdate=April 7 2020}}</ref> || 10-22: October 22
|-
| International Snow Leopard Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snowleopard.org/international-snow-leopard-day-hope-and-concern-for-the-cat/ |title=International Snow Leopard Day 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsnowleopard.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/SnowLeopard_Bishkek_Declaration_EN.pdf.pdf |title=The Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards}}</ref> || 10-23: October 23
|-
| Freshwater Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=24th October is Freshwater Dolphin Day!|URL=https://iucn-csg.org/24th-october-is-freshwater-dolphin-day-2/|publisher=IUCN – SSC Cetacean Specialist Group|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 10-24: October 24
|-
| [[International Day of Climate Action]] || 10-24: October 24
|-
| World Lemur Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.lemurconservationnetwork.org/world-lemur-day/|publisher=Lemur Conservation Network|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.checkiday.com/895d28d65cd0d952b00b605f80e57a9f/world-lemur-day|publisher=Checkiday|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref> || 10: Last Friday of October
|-
| [[World Vegan Day]] || 11-01: November 1
|-
| [[International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environment in War and Armed Conflict]] || 11-06: November 6
|-
| [[National Bison Day]] || 11: First Saturday in November
|-
| [[America Recycles Day]] || 11-15: November 15
|-
| World Fisheries Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Fisheries Day|URL=https://sandrp.in/tag/world-fisheries-day/|publisher=SANDRP|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref> || 11-21: November 21
|-
| International Jaguar Day<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/news-centre/news/2018/latin-america-launches-new-roadmap-to-save-the-jaguar.html|title=Latin America Launches New Roadmap to Save the Jaguar|website=UNDP|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wcs.org/international-jaguar-day|title=International Jaguar Day|website=www.wcs.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref>
|| 11-29: November 29
|-
| International Cheetah Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Cheetah Day|url=https://internationalcheetahday.com/|publisher=International Cheetah Day|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Cheetahs Need Us: December 4 is International Cheetah Day!|url=https://dayofthejaguar.org/2018/11/28/cheetahs-need-us-december-4-is-international-cheetah-day/|publisher=Day Of The Jaguar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 12-04: December 4
|-
| [[World Soil Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/en/|title=Global Soil Partnership - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> || 12-05: December 5
|-
| [[International Mountain Day]] || 12-11: December 11
|-
| [[Monkey Day]] || 12-14: December 14
|-
| [[Ozone Action Day]] || Variable date depending weather conditions
|-
| [[eDay]] - Electronic Waste Day || Variable date, in New Zealand
|}

==Weeks==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[Great Backyard Bird Count]] 2019 date, February 15-18
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] || | 2016 date, April 18-22
|-
| Keep Australia Beautiful Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kab.org.au/keep-australia-beautiful-week/|title=Keep Australia Beautiful Week|website=Keep Australia Beautiful}}</ref> || Last full week of August
|-
| [[National Green Week]] || 02 (first week in February every year in the United States)
|-
| National Wildlife Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Error-Page|title=Error-Page|website=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref> ||
|-
| [[National Dark-Sky Week]] || 04 (week of new moon in April)
|-
| [[Bike to Work Week Victoria]] ||
|-
| National Pollinator Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pollinator.org/pollinator-week|title=Pollinator Week|website=Pollinator.org}}</ref> || third week in June
|-
| National Clean Beaches Week, Van Mohatsav Saptah(Forest Festival Week) || 07-01 to 07-07: July 1 to 7
|-
| [[Conservation Week]] ||

|-World Water Week 08-26: August 26 - 31

| European Mobility Week || 09-16 to 09-22: September 16 to 22
|-
| Bike Week || 06: second week in June
|-
| Recycle Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.recyclenow.com/|title=Recycle Now - Where and How to Recycle|website=www.recyclenow.com}}</ref> || 06: 20 to 26 June 2011
|-
| [https://www.zerowasteweek.co.uk/ Zero Waste Week] || first week of September
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] ||
|-
| [[European Week for Waste Reduction]] (EWWR) || 11: 9 days, last complete week in November
|-
| [[Science Literacy Week (Canada)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scienceliteracy.ca/|title=Science Literacy Week – September 16 – 22, 2019|website=www.scienceliteracy.ca}}</ref> || 16-22: September
|-
| [[No Car Day]] || 09: China, week of September 22
|-
| [[World Water Week in Stockholm]] || 08 or 09: each year in August or September
|-
| [[National Op Shop Week (Australia)]] || August 21st - 27th
|-
| [[World Oceans Week]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldoceansday.org/|title=World Oceans Day - Uniting Ocean Action Worldwide on 8 June 2020|first=|last=|website=worldoceansday.org}}</ref> || 01-08: June
|}

==Years==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 1882–1883
|-
| International Polar Year || 1932–1933
|-1992
|-
|[[International Year of the Child]]
|1979
|-
| [[World Population Year]] || 1974
|-
| [[International Year of the Ocean]] (IYO) || 1998
|-
| [[International Year of Mountains]] (IYM) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Ecotourism]] (IYE) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Freshwater]] (IYF) || 2003
|-
| [[International Year of Deserts and Desertification]] || 2006
|-
| International [[Year of the Dolphin]] || 2007–2008
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 2007–2009
|-
| [[International Year of Planet Earth]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Sanitation]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Natural Fibres 2009]] || 2009
|-
| Year of the Gorilla<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yog2009.org/|title=FX初心者の勉強・情報収集 - 【FXガイド】　FX初心者のための勉強サイト|website=www.yog2009.org}}</ref> || 2009
|-
| [[International Year of Biodiversity]] || 2010
|-
| [[International Year of Forests]] || 2011
|-
| [[International Year of Soils]] || 2015
|-
| [[International Year of Pulses]] || 2016
|-
| [[International Year of Sustainable tourism for all]] || 2017
|-
| [[International Year of Indigenous languages]] || 2019
|}

==Decades==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Drinking Water Decade, 1981-1990]] || 1980s
|-
| [[International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 1990s
|-
| [[United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development]] || 2005-2014
|-
| [[Water for Life Decade]] || 2005-2015
|-
| [[United Nations Decade on Biodiversity]] || 2011-2020
|-
| United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification || 2010-2020
|}

==See also==
*[[Index of environmental articles]]
**[[List of environmental issues]]
*[[Index of conservation articles]]
**[[List of conservation issues]]
*[[List of international environmental agreements]]
*[[List of awareness days]]
*[[International observance]]
*[[List of commemorative days]]
*[[List of Month-long observances|List of commemorative months]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050405210808/http://unac.org/en/news_events/un_days/index.asp News & Events - UN Days, Weeks and Years]
*[http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2013/Mar/21/the-world-plantation-day-58.asp - World Plantation Day, Great Kashmir]
*[http://www.saveourwaterwaysnow.com.au/02_cal/details.asp?ID=561 - Save your water]
*[http://edugreen.teri.res.in/misc/dates.htm - EDU Green]

[[Category:Environmental awareness days| ]]
[[Category:Lists of observances|Environmental]]

List of environmental dates

2020-04-07T05:25:34Z

118.46.55.151: /* Days */

{{short description|Wikipedia list article}}
{{Refimprove|date=July 2014}}

This is a '''list of environmental dates'''. These dates are designated for creating awareness of [[environmental issue]]s.

==Hours==
*[[Earth Hour]] - 8:30pm (local time), 28 March 2020<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.earthhour.org/|title=Homepage|date=2 February 2018|website=Earth Hour}}</ref>

==Days==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| International Zebra Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Zebra Day (January 31st)|url=https://www.asiaforanimals.com/news/post/international-zebra-day-january-31st|publisher=Asia for Animals Coalition|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wildlife Wednesday: Celebrate International Zebra Day|URL=https://disneyparks.disney.go.com/blog/2017/01/wildlife-wednesday-celebrate-international-zebra-day/|publisher=Disney Parks|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Earn Your Stripes! It’s International Zebra Day!|URL=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-zebra-day|publisher=Safari Ltd|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 01-31: January 31
|-
| [[World Wetlands Day]] || 02-02: February 2
|-
| World Pangolin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day - WORLD PANGOLIN DAY|url=https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|publisher=Pangolins.org|accessdate=16 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526113907/https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|archive-date=26 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day 2019|url=https://www.wildlifealliance.org/world-pangolin-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Alliance|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || Third Saturday of February
|-
| World Bonobo Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Valentine's Day Is also World Bonobo Day; Here's Why|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/valentines-day-is-also-world-bonobo-day-heres-why_b_58a22b17e4b0cd37efcfec0b|publisher=HuffPost|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://bonoboproject.org/save-the-bonobo/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=The Bonobo Project|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://www.peoplemagazine.co.za/life/animal-news/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=People Magazine|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 02-14: February 14
|-
| World Hippopotamus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Hippo Day: Learn about the world's 3rd largest mammal|url=https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d774d31457a4e32457a6333566d54/index.html|publisher=CGTN|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Hippo Day|url=https://happydays365.org/hippo-day/national-hippo-day-february-15/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Hippo Day (15th February)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/hippo-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 02-15: February 15
|-
| [[International Polar Bear Day]] || 02-27: February 27
|-
| [[World Wildlife Day]] || 03-03: March 3
|-
| Solar Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://www.belmontsolar.com/blog/uncategorized/national-solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Solar Appreciation Belmont Solar|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://greenstepssociety.org/solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Green Step Society|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Solar Appreciation Day|URL=http://thegreentimes.co.za/event/solar-appreciation-day/|publisher=The Green Times|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || Second Friday of March
|-
| International Day of Action for Rivers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/ |title=International Day of Action for Rivers}}</ref> || 03-14: March 14
|-
| [[World Consumer Rights Day]] || 03-15 : March 15
|-
| Global Recycling Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalrecyclingday.com/ |title=Global Recycling Day}}</ref> || 03-18: March 18th
|-
| Taxonomist Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taxonomist Appreciation Day 19 March 2017|URL=http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/blogs/linette-umbrello/taxonomist-appreciation-day-19-march-2017|publisher=Western Australian Museum|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 03-19 : March 19
|-
| [[World Sparrow Day]] || 03-20: March 20
|-
| World Frog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day|url=https://www.nationalday.com/days/world-frog-day/|
publisher=National Day Foundation|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day 2019: Let's Save the Frogs From Extinction|url=http://greenubuntu.com/world-frog-day-2019-lets-save-the-frogs-from-extinction/|
publisher=Green Ubuntu|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day – March 20, 2019|URL=https://happydays365.org/frog-day/world-frog-day-march-20/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-20: March 20
|-
| [[International Day of Forests]] || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Planting Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day – 21 of March 2015|URL=https://blog.plantwise.org/2015/03/20/world-planting-day-21-of-march-2015/|publisher=The Plantwise Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day 2018|URL=https://www.adama.com/en/media/events/international-events/world-planting-day-2018|publisher=ADAMA|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day - 21st March|URL=https://www.clifton.co.uk/blog/celebrating-spring-and-world-planting-day|publisher=Clifton Nurseries|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Wood Day || 03-21: March 21
|-
| [[World Water Day]] || 03-22: March 22
|-
| International Seal Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Day of the Seal is Here!|url=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-seal-day|publisher=Safari ltd|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 03-22: March 22
|-
| World Bear Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bear Day|URL=http://www.zoomontana.org/event/world-bear-day/|publisher=ZooMontana|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || March 23: 03-23
|-
| [[World Meteorological Day]] || 03-23: March 23
|-
| Manatee Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=MANATEE APPRECIATION DAY - Last Wednesday in March|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/manatee-appreciation-day-last-wednesday-in-march/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day Should Be Every Day|URL=https://www.peta.org/features/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=PETA|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 03: Last Wednesday in March
|-
| International Beaver Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Beaver Day (7th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/beaver-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BEAVER DAY - April 7 |URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-beaver-day-april-7/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref> || 04-07: April 7
|-
| [[Arbor Day]] || 04-10: April 10
|-
| Bat Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BAT APPRECIATION DAY - April 17|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/international-bat-appreciation-day-april-17/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Bat Appreciation Day (17th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/bat-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref> || 04-17: April 17
|-
| [[World Fish Migration Day]] || April 21, 2018
|-
| [[Earth Day]] || 04-22: April 22<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.earthday.org |title=Earth Day Network | Earth Day 2015 |publisher=Earthday.org |date=2015-04-22 |accessdate=2015-05-16}}</ref>
|-
| World Tapir Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-tapir-day/|publisher=Day of the Year|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day: 24 reasons tapirs are your new favourite animal|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/27/world-tapir-day-24-reasons-tapirs-are-your-new-favourite-animal/|publisher=The Telegraph|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=ELEVEN YEARS OF WORLD TAPIR DAY: 2008 - 2019|url=https://www.tapirday.org/|publisher=Tapir Day|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| International Hyena Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=international hyena day|url=http://tales-of-avalon.com/tales/?tag=international-hyena-day|publisher=Tales of Avalon|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| [[Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare]] || 04-29: April 29
|-
| [[Green Up Day]] || 05: First Saturday of May in Vermont
|-
|World Tuna Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2 May|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/tunaday/|publisher=the United Nations|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2019|url=http://ipnlf.org/news/world-tuna-day-2019|publisher=IPNLF|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate World Tuna Day on May 2nd!|url=https://chickenofthesea.com/fresh-ideas/good-living/celebrate-world-tuna-day-on-may-2nd|publisher=Chicken of the Sea|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-02: May 2
|-
| International Leopard Day<ref name=>{{Cite news|title=International Leopard Day|URL=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/international-leopard-day-2/|publisher=International Leopard Day|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| Wild Koala Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=25 Koala Facts for Wild Koala Day|url=https://blog.goway.com/globetrotting/2017/05/25-koala-facts-wild-koala-day/|publisher=blog.goway.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wild Koala Day|url=http://www.wildkoaladay.com.au/|publisher=www.wildkoaladay.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| [[Greenery Day]] || 05-04: May 4 in Japan (previously April 29)
|-
| World Donkey Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Donkey Day (Every May 8th)|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-donkey-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-08: May 8
|-
| [[World Migratory Bird Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldmigratorybirdday.org/|title=STORIES - World Migratory Bird Day|website=www.worldmigratorybirdday.org}}</ref> || Second Saturday of May. Second Saturday of May in the U.S. and Canada; Second Saturday of October in Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean.
|-
| Endangered Species Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.endangered.org/campaigns/endangered-species-day/|title=Endangered Species Day|website=endangered.org}}</ref> ||05: Third Friday of May
|-
| [[International Day for Biological Diversity]] (World Biodiversity Day) || 05-22: May 22
|-
| [[World Turtle Day]] || 05-23: May 23
|-
| European Day of Parks - [[EUROPARC Federation|Europarc Federation]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarc.org/nature/european-day-of-parks/ |title=European Day of Parks}}</ref> || 05-24: May 24
|-
| [[Bike-to-Work Day]] || 05: Third Friday of May
|-
| World Otter Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Otter Day|url=https://muddyfaces.co.uk/event/world-otter-day-2/2020-05-27/|publisher=Muddy Faces|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 05-27: May 27
|-
| [[World No Tobacco Day]] || 05-31:May 31
|-
| World Parrot Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.northernparrots.com/mobile/world-parrot-day-blog277/|publisher=Northern Parrots|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-parrot-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.birdorable.com/blog/world-parrot-day/|
publisher=Birdorable Blog|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-31: May 31 since 2004
|-
| [[World Environment Day]] || 06-05: June 5
|-
| [[World Oceans Day]] || 06-08: June 8
|-
| [[Coral Triangle Day]] || 06-09: June 9
|-
| [[Global Wind Day]] || 06-15: June 15
|-
| World Sea Turtle Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/world-sea-turtle-day |title=World Sea Turtle Day}}</ref> || 06-16: June 16
|-
| [[World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought]] || 06-17: June 17
|-
| World Giraffe Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://giraffeconservation.org/world-giraffe-day/ |title=World Giraffe Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day 2019|URL=https://giraffeconservation.org/2019/03/19/world-giraffe-day-2019/|publisher=Giraffe Conservation Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day (21st June)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-giraffe-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-21: June 21
|-
| International Climate Change Day || 06-21: June 21
|-
| World Camel Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://zoonewsdigest.blogspot.com/2013/06/world-camel-day.html?m=1|publisher=Zoo News Digest|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=https://www.nps.gov/planyourvisit/event-details.htm?id=98A7FF8A-07F4-4FE5-1ABC749235C08DE6|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/6/22/world-camel-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| World Rainforest Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treefoundation.org/2018/06/21/world-rainforest-day-is-june-22nd/|title=World Rainforest Day is June 22nd|date=21 June 2018|website=treefoundation.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldrainforestday.com/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=World Rainforest Day}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rainforestpartnership.org/worldrainforestday/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=RAINFOREST PARTNERSHIP}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| [[World Population Day]] || 07-11: July 11
|-
| Shark Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Duuuun. Dun. It’s Shark Awareness Day!|URL=https://blog.margaritaville.com/2018/07/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Margaritaville Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day (14th July)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day|URL=https://www.sharktrust.org/blog/shark-awareness-day|publisher=The Shark Trust|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Shark Awareness Day Has Arrived! |URL=http://awesomeocean.com/news/national-shark-awareness-day-has-arrived/|publisher=Awesome Ocean|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Chimpanzee Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day 2019 – How Will You Celebrate?|URL=https://projectchimps.org/world-chimpanzee-day-2019/|publisher=Project Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day – 14 July 2019|URL=https://www.janegoodall.be/world-chimpanzee-day-2019|publisher=Jane Goodall Institute Belgium|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day!|URL=https://www.savethechimps.org/worldchimpanzeeday/|publisher=Save the Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Nature Conservation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Nature Conservation Day 2019: History and Significance|URL=https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/world-nature-conservation-day-1564220763-1|publisher=Jagran Josh|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref>
|| 07-28: July 28
|-
| [[International Tiger Day]] || 07-29: July 29
|-
| World Ranger Day - [[International Ranger Federation]] || July 31: 07-31
|-
| International Clouded Leopard Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day (4th August)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-clouded-leopard-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day|URL=https://www.aspinallfoundation.org/icld/|publisher=The Aspinall Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 08-04: August 4
|-
| World Lion Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldlionday.com/ |title=World Lion Day}}</ref> || 08-10: August 10
|-
| [[World Elephant Day]] || 08-12: August 12
|-
| International Wolf Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate International Wolf Day - the future of our Earth depends on them|url=http://www.whitewolfpack.com/2011/08/international-wolf-day.html?m=1|publisher=White Wolf Pack|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WOLF DAY AUGUST 13TH 2019|url=http://onehealthproductions.com/internationalwolfday2019|publisher=one health productions|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref> || 08-13: August 13
|-
| World Orangutan Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Orangutan Day|url=http://www.worldorangutanevents.org/international-orangutan-day.php|publisher=World Orangutan Events|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> ||08-19: August 19
|-
| [[National Honey Bee Day]] || 08-22: August 22
|-
| World African Wild Dog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Painted Dog Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-painted-dog-day/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 08-26: August 26
|-
| International Whale Shark Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WHALE SHARK DAY – August 30|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-whale-shark-day-august-30/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Whale Shark Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-whale-shark-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 08-30: August 30
|-
| Japan Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2019|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2019/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2018|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2018/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-01: September 1
|-
| Amazon Rainforest Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=September 5: Amazon Day|URL=https://wwf.panda.org/?206103/september-5-amazonday|publisher=WWF|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-05: September 5
|-
| International Vulture Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.sustainablelearning.com/event/international-vulture-awareness-day|publisher=Sustainable Learning|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Sep 5, 2009 CE: International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/sep5/international-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=One week to go to International Vulture Awareness Day!|url=https://www.4vultures.org/one-week-to-go-for-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=www.4vultures.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: First Saturday of September
|-
| [[International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer]] || 09-16: September 16
|-
| [[World Water Monitoring Day]] || 09-18: September 18
|-
| [[:de:Parking Day|PARK(ing) Day]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seattle.gov/transportation/projects-and-programs/programs/public-space-management-programs/park(ing)-day|title=PARK(ing) Day - Transportation | seattle.gov|website=www.seattle.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strasse-zurueckerobern.de/anleitungen/parking-day/|title=PARK(ing) Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parkingday.fr/|title=Parking Day|website=Parking Day}}</ref>|| 09: September 20, 2019, Third Friday in September
|-
| [[World Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldcleanupday.org/|title=World Cleanup Day|website=www.worldcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| [[National Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalcleanupday.org/|title=National Cleanup Day|website=www.nationalcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| International Red Panda Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL RED PANDA DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-red-panda-day-third-saturday-in-september/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: Third Saturday of September
|-
| Zero Emissions Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeroemissionsday.org|title=Zero Emissions Day|date=2017-08-06}}</ref> || 09-21: September 21
|-
| [[Car Free Day]] || 09-22: September 22
|-
| World Rhino Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldrhinoday.org/|title=WORLD RHINO DAY :: World Rhino Day 2017|website=WORLD RHINO DAY}}</ref> || 09-22: September 22
|-
| [[Ecological Debt Day]] (Earth Overshoot Day) || 09-23: September 23 in 2008, but receding
|-
| World Gorilla Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=5TF: World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://gorillafund.org/world-gorilla-day-2019/|publisher=gorillafund.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=WORLD GORILLA DAY|url=https://www.wcs.org/world-gorilla-day|publisher=WCS.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://www.cms.int/en/news/world-gorilla-day-2019|publisher=CMS|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09-24: September 24
|-
| World Environmental Health Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://anydayguide.com/calendar/1252|title=World Environmental Health Day / September 26, 2019|last=AnydayGuide|website=AnydayGuide}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26 since 2011 [[International Federation of Environmental Health|(IFEH)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifeh.org/|title=International Federation of Environmental Health|website=ifeh.org}}</ref>
|-
| World Cassowary Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day 2018|url=https://www.wettropics.gov.au/world-cassowary-day-2018|publisher=Wet Tropics Management Authority|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day|url=https://www.worldcassowaryday.org/|publisher=World Cassowary Day|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26
|-
| World Rivers Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldriversday.com/|title=World Rivers Day|website=worldriversday.com}}</ref> || 09: Last Sunday of September
|-
| [[World Habitat Day]] || 10: First Monday of October
|-
| [[World Animal Day]] || 10-04: October 4
|-
| Energy Efficiency Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energyefficiencyday.org/ |title=Energy Efficiency Day}}</ref> || 10: First Wednesday in October
|-
| [[International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 10-13: October 13
|-
| International E-Waste Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate the second International E-Waste Day|URL=https://inhabitat.com/celebrate-the-second-international-e-waste-day/|publisher=Inhabitat|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International E-Waste Day|URL=https://weee-forum.org/iewd-about/|publisher=WEEE Forum|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Raising awareness on International E-Waste Day|URL=https://www.orgalim.eu/news/raising-awareness-international-e-waste-day|publisher=Orgalim|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref> || 10-14: October 14
|-
| Sustainability Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uvu.edu/sustainability/sustainabilityday/index.html|title=- Sustainability - Utah Valley University|website=www.uvu.edu}}</ref> || 10: Fourth Wednesday of October
|-
| World Okapi Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Okapi Day|url=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/10/18/world-okapi-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=7 Fun Facts about World Okapi Day|url=https://www.twpark.com/blog/conservation/7-fun-facts-about-world-okapi-day|publisher=Tanganyika Wildlife Park|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 10-18: October 18
|-
| National Reptile Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL REPTILE AWARENESS DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-reptile-awareness-day-october-21/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Reptile Awareness Day (Every October 21st) |url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/reptile-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 10-21: October 21
|-
| International Snow Leopard Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snowleopard.org/international-snow-leopard-day-hope-and-concern-for-the-cat/ |title=International Snow Leopard Day 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsnowleopard.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/SnowLeopard_Bishkek_Declaration_EN.pdf.pdf |title=The Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards}}</ref> || 10-23: October 23
|-
| Freshwater Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=24th October is Freshwater Dolphin Day!|URL=https://iucn-csg.org/24th-october-is-freshwater-dolphin-day-2/|publisher=IUCN – SSC Cetacean Specialist Group|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 10-24: October 24
|-
| [[International Day of Climate Action]] || 10-24: October 24
|-
| World Lemur Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.lemurconservationnetwork.org/world-lemur-day/|publisher=Lemur Conservation Network|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.checkiday.com/895d28d65cd0d952b00b605f80e57a9f/world-lemur-day|publisher=Checkiday|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref> || 10: Last Friday of October
|-
| [[World Vegan Day]] || 11-01: November 1
|-
| [[International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environment in War and Armed Conflict]] || 11-06: November 6
|-
| [[National Bison Day]] || 11: First Saturday in November
|-
| [[America Recycles Day]] || 11-15: November 15
|-
| World Fisheries Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Fisheries Day|URL=https://sandrp.in/tag/world-fisheries-day/|publisher=SANDRP|accessdate=4 April 2020}}</ref> || 11-21: November 21
|-
| International Jaguar Day<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/news-centre/news/2018/latin-america-launches-new-roadmap-to-save-the-jaguar.html|title=Latin America Launches New Roadmap to Save the Jaguar|website=UNDP|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wcs.org/international-jaguar-day|title=International Jaguar Day|website=www.wcs.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref>
|| 11-29: November 29
|-
| International Cheetah Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Cheetah Day|url=https://internationalcheetahday.com/|publisher=International Cheetah Day|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Cheetahs Need Us: December 4 is International Cheetah Day!|url=https://dayofthejaguar.org/2018/11/28/cheetahs-need-us-december-4-is-international-cheetah-day/|publisher=Day Of The Jaguar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 12-04: December 4
|-
| [[World Soil Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/en/|title=Global Soil Partnership - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> || 12-05: December 5
|-
| [[International Mountain Day]] || 12-11: December 11
|-
| [[Monkey Day]] || 12-14: December 14
|-
| [[Ozone Action Day]] || Variable date depending weather conditions
|-
| [[eDay]] - Electronic Waste Day || Variable date, in New Zealand
|}

==Weeks==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[Great Backyard Bird Count]] 2019 date, February 15-18
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] || | 2016 date, April 18-22
|-
| Keep Australia Beautiful Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kab.org.au/keep-australia-beautiful-week/|title=Keep Australia Beautiful Week|website=Keep Australia Beautiful}}</ref> || Last full week of August
|-
| [[National Green Week]] || 02 (first week in February every year in the United States)
|-
| National Wildlife Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Error-Page|title=Error-Page|website=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref> ||
|-
| [[National Dark-Sky Week]] || 04 (week of new moon in April)
|-
| [[Bike to Work Week Victoria]] ||
|-
| National Pollinator Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pollinator.org/pollinator-week|title=Pollinator Week|website=Pollinator.org}}</ref> || third week in June
|-
| National Clean Beaches Week, Van Mohatsav Saptah(Forest Festival Week) || 07-01 to 07-07: July 1 to 7
|-
| [[Conservation Week]] ||

|-World Water Week 08-26: August 26 - 31

| European Mobility Week || 09-16 to 09-22: September 16 to 22
|-
| Bike Week || 06: second week in June
|-
| Recycle Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.recyclenow.com/|title=Recycle Now - Where and How to Recycle|website=www.recyclenow.com}}</ref> || 06: 20 to 26 June 2011
|-
| [https://www.zerowasteweek.co.uk/ Zero Waste Week] || first week of September
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] ||
|-
| [[European Week for Waste Reduction]] (EWWR) || 11: 9 days, last complete week in November
|-
| [[Science Literacy Week (Canada)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scienceliteracy.ca/|title=Science Literacy Week – September 16 – 22, 2019|website=www.scienceliteracy.ca}}</ref> || 16-22: September
|-
| [[No Car Day]] || 09: China, week of September 22
|-
| [[World Water Week in Stockholm]] || 08 or 09: each year in August or September
|-
| [[National Op Shop Week (Australia)]] || August 21st - 27th
|-
| [[World Oceans Week]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldoceansday.org/|title=World Oceans Day - Uniting Ocean Action Worldwide on 8 June 2020|first=|last=|website=worldoceansday.org}}</ref> || 01-08: June
|}

==Years==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 1882–1883
|-
| International Polar Year || 1932–1933
|-1992
|-
|[[International Year of the Child]]
|1979
|-
| [[World Population Year]] || 1974
|-
| [[International Year of the Ocean]] (IYO) || 1998
|-
| [[International Year of Mountains]] (IYM) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Ecotourism]] (IYE) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Freshwater]] (IYF) || 2003
|-
| [[International Year of Deserts and Desertification]] || 2006
|-
| International [[Year of the Dolphin]] || 2007–2008
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 2007–2009
|-
| [[International Year of Planet Earth]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Sanitation]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Natural Fibres 2009]] || 2009
|-
| Year of the Gorilla<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yog2009.org/|title=FX初心者の勉強・情報収集 - 【FXガイド】　FX初心者のための勉強サイト|website=www.yog2009.org}}</ref> || 2009
|-
| [[International Year of Biodiversity]] || 2010
|-
| [[International Year of Forests]] || 2011
|-
| [[International Year of Soils]] || 2015
|-
| [[International Year of Pulses]] || 2016
|-
| [[International Year of Sustainable tourism for all]] || 2017
|-
| [[International Year of Indigenous languages]] || 2019
|}

==Decades==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Drinking Water Decade, 1981-1990]] || 1980s
|-
| [[International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 1990s
|-
| [[United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development]] || 2005-2014
|-
| [[Water for Life Decade]] || 2005-2015
|-
| [[United Nations Decade on Biodiversity]] || 2011-2020
|-
| United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification || 2010-2020
|}

==See also==
*[[Index of environmental articles]]
**[[List of environmental issues]]
*[[Index of conservation articles]]
**[[List of conservation issues]]
*[[List of international environmental agreements]]
*[[List of awareness days]]
*[[International observance]]
*[[List of commemorative days]]
*[[List of Month-long observances|List of commemorative months]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050405210808/http://unac.org/en/news_events/un_days/index.asp News & Events - UN Days, Weeks and Years]
*[http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2013/Mar/21/the-world-plantation-day-58.asp - World Plantation Day, Great Kashmir]
*[http://www.saveourwaterwaysnow.com.au/02_cal/details.asp?ID=561 - Save your water]
*[http://edugreen.teri.res.in/misc/dates.htm - EDU Green]

[[Category:Environmental awareness days| ]]
[[Category:Lists of observances|Environmental]]

List of environmental dates

2020-04-07T00:17:00Z

118.46.55.151: /* Days */

{{short description|Wikipedia list article}}
{{Refimprove|date=July 2014}}

This is a '''list of environmental dates'''. These dates are designated for creating awareness of [[environmental issue]]s.

==Hours==
*[[Earth Hour]] - 8:30pm (local time), 28 March 2020<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.earthhour.org/|title=Homepage|date=2 February 2018|website=Earth Hour}}</ref>

==Days==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| International Zebra Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Zebra Day (January 31st)|url=https://www.asiaforanimals.com/news/post/international-zebra-day-january-31st|publisher=Asia for Animals Coalition|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wildlife Wednesday: Celebrate International Zebra Day|URL=https://disneyparks.disney.go.com/blog/2017/01/wildlife-wednesday-celebrate-international-zebra-day/|publisher=Disney Parks|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Earn Your Stripes! It’s International Zebra Day!|URL=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-zebra-day|publisher=Safari Ltd|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 01-31: January 31
|-
| [[World Wetlands Day]] || 02-02: February 2
|-
| World Pangolin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day - WORLD PANGOLIN DAY|url=https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|publisher=Pangolins.org|accessdate=16 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526113907/https://www.pangolins.org/world-pangolin-day/|archive-date=26 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Pangolin Day 2019|url=https://www.wildlifealliance.org/world-pangolin-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Alliance|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || Third Saturday of February
|-
| World Bonobo Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Valentine's Day Is also World Bonobo Day; Here's Why|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/valentines-day-is-also-world-bonobo-day-heres-why_b_58a22b17e4b0cd37efcfec0b|publisher=HuffPost|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://bonoboproject.org/save-the-bonobo/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=The Bonobo Project|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bonobo Day|url=https://www.peoplemagazine.co.za/life/animal-news/world-bonobo-day/|publisher=People Magazine|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 02-14: February 14
|-
| World Hippopotamus Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Hippo Day: Learn about the world's 3rd largest mammal|url=https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d774d31457a4e32457a6333566d54/index.html|publisher=CGTN|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Hippo Day|url=https://happydays365.org/hippo-day/national-hippo-day-february-15/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Hippo Day (15th February)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/hippo-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 02-15: February 15
|-
| [[International Polar Bear Day]] || 02-27: February 27
|-
| [[World Wildlife Day]] || 03-03: March 3
|-
| Solar Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://www.belmontsolar.com/blog/uncategorized/national-solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Solar Appreciation Belmont Solar|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Solar Appriciation day|URL=https://greenstepssociety.org/solar-appreciation-day|publisher=Green Step Society|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Solar Appreciation Day|URL=http://thegreentimes.co.za/event/solar-appreciation-day/|publisher=The Green Times|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || Second Friday of March
|-
| International Day of Action for Rivers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/ |title=International Day of Action for Rivers}}</ref> || 03-14: March 14
|-
| [[World Consumer Rights Day]] || 03-15 : March 15
|-
| Global Recycling Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalrecyclingday.com/ |title=Global Recycling Day}}</ref> || 03-18: March 18th
|-
| Taxonomist Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taxonomist Appreciation Day 19 March 2017|URL=http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/blogs/linette-umbrello/taxonomist-appreciation-day-19-march-2017|publisher=Western Australian Museum|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 03-19 : March 19
|-
| [[World Sparrow Day]] || 03-20: March 20
|-
| World Frog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day|url=https://www.nationalday.com/days/world-frog-day/|
publisher=National Day Foundation|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day 2019: Let's Save the Frogs From Extinction|url=http://greenubuntu.com/world-frog-day-2019-lets-save-the-frogs-from-extinction/|
publisher=Green Ubuntu|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Frog Day – March 20, 2019|URL=https://happydays365.org/frog-day/world-frog-day-march-20/|publisher=Happy Days 365|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-20: March 20
|-
| [[International Day of Forests]] || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Planting Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day – 21 of March 2015|URL=https://blog.plantwise.org/2015/03/20/world-planting-day-21-of-march-2015/|publisher=The Plantwise Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day 2018|URL=https://www.adama.com/en/media/events/international-events/world-planting-day-2018|publisher=ADAMA|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Planting Day - 21st March|URL=https://www.clifton.co.uk/blog/celebrating-spring-and-world-planting-day|publisher=Clifton Nurseries|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 03-21: March 21
|-
| World Wood Day || 03-21: March 21
|-
| [[World Water Day]] || 03-22: March 22
|-
| International Seal Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Day of the Seal is Here!|url=https://www.safariltd.com/blog/international-seal-day|publisher=Safari ltd|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 03-22: March 22
|-
| World Bear Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Bear Day|URL=http://www.zoomontana.org/event/world-bear-day/|publisher=ZooMontana|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || March 23: 03-23
|-
| [[World Meteorological Day]] || 03-23: March 23
|-
| Manatee Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=MANATEE APPRECIATION DAY - Last Wednesday in March|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/manatee-appreciation-day-last-wednesday-in-march/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manatee Appreciation Day Should Be Every Day|URL=https://www.peta.org/features/manatee-appreciation-day/|publisher=PETA|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 03: Last Wednesday in March
|-
| International Beaver Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Beaver Day (7th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/beaver-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=April 4 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BEAVER DAY - April 7 |URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-beaver-day-april-7/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=April 4 2020}}</ref> || 04-07: April 7
|-
| [[Arbor Day]] || 04-10: April 10
|-
| Bat Appreciation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL BAT APPRECIATION DAY - April 17|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/days-2/international-bat-appreciation-day-april-17/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Bat Appreciation Day (17th April)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/bat-appreciation-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-08}}</ref> || 04-17: April 17
|-
| [[Earth Day]] || 04-22: April 22<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.earthday.org |title=Earth Day Network | Earth Day 2015 |publisher=Earthday.org |date=2015-04-22 |accessdate=2015-05-16}}</ref>
|-
| [[World Fish Migration Day]] || April 21, 2018
|-
| World Tapir Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-tapir-day/|publisher=Day of the Year|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tapir Day: 24 reasons tapirs are your new favourite animal|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/27/world-tapir-day-24-reasons-tapirs-are-your-new-favourite-animal/|publisher=The Telegraph|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=ELEVEN YEARS OF WORLD TAPIR DAY: 2008 - 2019|url=https://www.tapirday.org/|publisher=Tapir Day|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| International Hyena Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=international hyena day|url=http://tales-of-avalon.com/tales/?tag=international-hyena-day|publisher=Tales of Avalon|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 04-27: April 27
|-
| [[Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare]] || 04-29: April 29
|-
| [[Green Up Day]] || 05: First Saturday of May in Vermont
|-
|World Tuna Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2 May|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/tunaday/|publisher=the United Nations|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Tuna Day 2019|url=http://ipnlf.org/news/world-tuna-day-2019|publisher=IPNLF|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate World Tuna Day on May 2nd!|url=https://chickenofthesea.com/fresh-ideas/good-living/celebrate-world-tuna-day-on-may-2nd|publisher=Chicken of the Sea|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-02: May 2
|-
| International Leopard Day<ref name=>{{Cite news|title=International Leopard Day|URL=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/international-leopard-day-2/|publisher=International Leopard Day|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| Wild Koala Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=25 Koala Facts for Wild Koala Day|url=https://blog.goway.com/globetrotting/2017/05/25-koala-facts-wild-koala-day/|publisher=blog.goway.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Wild Koala Day|url=http://www.wildkoaladay.com.au/|publisher=www.wildkoaladay.com|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-03: May 3
|-
| [[Greenery Day]] || 05-04: May 4 in Japan (previously April 29)
|-
| World Donkey Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Donkey Day (Every May 8th)|url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-donkey-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-08: May 8
|-
| [[World Migratory Bird Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldmigratorybirdday.org/|title=STORIES - World Migratory Bird Day|website=www.worldmigratorybirdday.org}}</ref> || Second Saturday of May. Second Saturday of May in the U.S. and Canada; Second Saturday of October in Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean.
|-
| Endangered Species Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.endangered.org/campaigns/endangered-species-day/|title=Endangered Species Day|website=endangered.org}}</ref> ||05: Third Friday of May
|-
| [[International Day for Biological Diversity]] (World Biodiversity Day) || 05-22: May 22
|-
| [[World Turtle Day]] || 05-23: May 23
|-
| European Day of Parks - [[EUROPARC Federation|Europarc Federation]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarc.org/nature/european-day-of-parks/ |title=European Day of Parks}}</ref> || 05-24: May 24
|-
| [[Bike-to-Work Day]] || 05: Third Friday of May
|-
| World Otter Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Otter Day|url=https://muddyfaces.co.uk/event/world-otter-day-2/2020-05-27/|publisher=Muddy Faces|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> || 05-27: May 27
|-
| [[World No Tobacco Day]] || 05-31:May 31
|-
| World Parrot Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.northernparrots.com/mobile/world-parrot-day-blog277/|publisher=Northern Parrots|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-parrot-day-2019/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Parrot Day|url=https://www.birdorable.com/blog/world-parrot-day/|
publisher=Birdorable Blog|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 05-31: May 31 since 2004
|-
| [[World Environment Day]] || 06-05: June 5
|-
| [[World Oceans Day]] || 06-08: June 8
|-
| [[Coral Triangle Day]] || 06-09: June 9
|-
| [[Global Wind Day]] || 06-15: June 15
|-
| World Sea Turtle Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/world-sea-turtle-day |title=World Sea Turtle Day}}</ref> || 06-16: June 16
|-
| [[World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought]] || 06-17: June 17
|-
| World Giraffe Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://giraffeconservation.org/world-giraffe-day/ |title=World Giraffe Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day 2019|URL=https://giraffeconservation.org/2019/03/19/world-giraffe-day-2019/|publisher=Giraffe Conservation Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Giraffe Day (21st June)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/world-giraffe-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-21: June 21
|-
| International Climate Change Day || 06-21: June 21
|-
| World Camel Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://zoonewsdigest.blogspot.com/2013/06/world-camel-day.html?m=1|publisher=Zoo News Digest|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=https://www.nps.gov/planyourvisit/event-details.htm?id=98A7FF8A-07F4-4FE5-1ABC749235C08DE6|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Camel Day|URL=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/6/22/world-camel-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| World Rainforest Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treefoundation.org/2018/06/21/world-rainforest-day-is-june-22nd/|title=World Rainforest Day is June 22nd|date=21 June 2018|website=treefoundation.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldrainforestday.com/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=World Rainforest Day}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rainforestpartnership.org/worldrainforestday/|title=World Rainforest Day|website=RAINFOREST PARTNERSHIP}}</ref> || 06-22: June 22
|-
| [[World Population Day]] || 07-11: July 11
|-
| Shark Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Duuuun. Dun. It’s Shark Awareness Day!|URL=https://blog.margaritaville.com/2018/07/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Margaritaville Blog|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day (14th July)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/shark-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shark Awareness Day|URL=https://www.sharktrust.org/blog/shark-awareness-day|publisher=The Shark Trust|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Shark Awareness Day Has Arrived! |URL=http://awesomeocean.com/news/national-shark-awareness-day-has-arrived/|publisher=Awesome Ocean|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Chimpanzee Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day 2019 – How Will You Celebrate?|URL=https://projectchimps.org/world-chimpanzee-day-2019/|publisher=Project Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day – 14 July 2019|URL=https://www.janegoodall.be/world-chimpanzee-day-2019|publisher=Jane Goodall Institute Belgium|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Chimpanzee Day!|URL=https://www.savethechimps.org/worldchimpanzeeday/|publisher=Save the Chimps|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 07-14: July 14
|-
| World Nature Conservation Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Nature Conservation Day 2019: History and Significance|URL=https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/world-nature-conservation-day-1564220763-1|publisher=Jagran Josh|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref>
|| 07-28: July 28
|-
| [[International Tiger Day]] || 07-29: July 29
|-
| World Ranger Day - [[International Ranger Federation]] || July 31: 07-31
|-
| International Clouded Leopard Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day (4th August)|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-clouded-leopard-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Clouded Leopard Day|URL=https://www.aspinallfoundation.org/icld/|publisher=The Aspinall Foundation|accessdate=2020-03-03}}</ref> || 08-04: August 4
|-
| World Lion Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldlionday.com/ |title=World Lion Day}}</ref> || 08-10: August 10
|-
| [[World Elephant Day]] || 08-12: August 12
|-
| International Wolf Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate International Wolf Day - the future of our Earth depends on them|url=http://www.whitewolfpack.com/2011/08/international-wolf-day.html?m=1|publisher=White Wolf Pack|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WOLF DAY AUGUST 13TH 2019|url=http://onehealthproductions.com/internationalwolfday2019|publisher=one health productions|accessdate=29 December 2019}}</ref> || 08-13: August 13
|-
| World Orangutan Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Orangutan Day|url=http://www.worldorangutanevents.org/international-orangutan-day.php|publisher=World Orangutan Events|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> ||08-19: August 19
|-
| [[National Honey Bee Day]] || 08-22: August 22
|-
| World African Wild Dog Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Painted Dog Day|url=https://www.wildlifearoundtheworld.com/world-painted-dog-day/|publisher=Wildlife Around the World|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 08-26: August 26
|-
| International Whale Shark Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL WHALE SHARK DAY – August 30|URL=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-whale-shark-day-august-30/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International Whale Shark Day|URL=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/international-whale-shark-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 08-30: August 30
|-
| Japan Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2019|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2019/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Japan Dolphins Day 2018|URL=https://www.dolphinproject.com/japan-dolphins-day-2018/|publisher=Dolphin Project|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-01: September 1
|-
| Amazon Rainforest Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=September 5: Amazon Day|URL=https://wwf.panda.org/?206103/september-5-amazonday|publisher=WWF|accessdate=2020-03-02}}</ref> || 09-05: September 5
|-
| International Vulture Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.sustainablelearning.com/event/international-vulture-awareness-day|publisher=Sustainable Learning|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Sep 5, 2009 CE: International Vulture Awareness Day|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/sep5/international-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=National Geographic Society|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=One week to go to International Vulture Awareness Day!|url=https://www.4vultures.org/one-week-to-go-for-vulture-awareness-day/|publisher=www.4vultures.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: First Saturday of September
|-
| [[International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer]] || 09-16: September 16
|-
| [[World Water Monitoring Day]] || 09-18: September 18
|-
| [[:de:Parking Day|PARK(ing) Day]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seattle.gov/transportation/projects-and-programs/programs/public-space-management-programs/park(ing)-day|title=PARK(ing) Day - Transportation | seattle.gov|website=www.seattle.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strasse-zurueckerobern.de/anleitungen/parking-day/|title=PARK(ing) Day}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parkingday.fr/|title=Parking Day|website=Parking Day}}</ref>|| 09: September 20, 2019, Third Friday in September
|-
| [[World Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldcleanupday.org/|title=World Cleanup Day|website=www.worldcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| [[National Cleanup Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalcleanupday.org/|title=National Cleanup Day|website=www.nationalcleanupday.org}}</ref> || 09: September 21, 2019, Third Saturday in September
|-
| International Red Panda Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=INTERNATIONAL RED PANDA DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/international-red-panda-day-third-saturday-in-september/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=20 December 2019}}</ref> || 09: Third Saturday of September
|-
| Zero Emissions Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeroemissionsday.org|title=Zero Emissions Day|date=2017-08-06}}</ref> || 09-21: September 21
|-
| [[Car Free Day]] || 09-22: September 22
|-
| World Rhino Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldrhinoday.org/|title=WORLD RHINO DAY :: World Rhino Day 2017|website=WORLD RHINO DAY}}</ref> || 09-22: September 22
|-
| [[Ecological Debt Day]] (Earth Overshoot Day) || 09-23: September 23 in 2008, but receding
|-
| World Gorilla Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=5TF: World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://gorillafund.org/world-gorilla-day-2019/|publisher=gorillafund.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=WORLD GORILLA DAY|url=https://www.wcs.org/world-gorilla-day|publisher=WCS.org|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Gorilla Day 2019|url=https://www.cms.int/en/news/world-gorilla-day-2019|publisher=CMS|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 09-24: September 24
|-
| World Environmental Health Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://anydayguide.com/calendar/1252|title=World Environmental Health Day / September 26, 2019|last=AnydayGuide|website=AnydayGuide}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26 since 2011 [[International Federation of Environmental Health|(IFEH)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifeh.org/|title=International Federation of Environmental Health|website=ifeh.org}}</ref>
|-
| World Cassowary Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day 2018|url=https://www.wettropics.gov.au/world-cassowary-day-2018|publisher=Wet Tropics Management Authority|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Cassowary Day|url=https://www.worldcassowaryday.org/|publisher=World Cassowary Day|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 09-26: September 26
|-
| World Rivers Day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldriversday.com/|title=World Rivers Day|website=worldriversday.com}}</ref> || 09: Last Sunday of September
|-
| [[World Habitat Day]] || 10: First Monday of October
|-
| [[World Animal Day]] || 10-04: October 4
|-
| Energy Efficiency Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energyefficiencyday.org/ |title=Energy Efficiency Day}}</ref> || 10: First Wednesday in October
|-
| [[International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 10-13: October 13
|-
| International E-Waste Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=Celebrate the second International E-Waste Day|URL=https://inhabitat.com/celebrate-the-second-international-e-waste-day/|publisher=Inhabitat|accessdate=April 4 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=|URL=|publisher=|accessdate=April 4 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=International E-Waste Day|URL=https://weee-forum.org/iewd-about/|publisher=WEEE Forum|accessdate=April 4 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Raising awareness on International E-Waste Day|URL=https://www.orgalim.eu/news/raising-awareness-international-e-waste-day|publisher=Orgalim|accessdate=April 4 2020}}</ref> || 10-14: October 14
|-
| Sustainability Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uvu.edu/sustainability/sustainabilityday/index.html|title=- Sustainability - Utah Valley University|website=www.uvu.edu}}</ref> || 10: Fourth Wednesday of October
|-
| World Okapi Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Okapi Day|url=http://www.azaungulates.org/calendar/2019/10/18/world-okapi-day|publisher=AZA Ungulates|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=7 Fun Facts about World Okapi Day|url=https://www.twpark.com/blog/conservation/7-fun-facts-about-world-okapi-day|publisher=Tanganyika Wildlife Park|accessdate=21 March 2019}}</ref> || 10-18: October 18
|-
| National Reptile Awareness Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=NATIONAL REPTILE AWARENESS DAY|url=https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-reptile-awareness-day-october-21/|publisher=National Day Calendar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Reptile Awareness Day (Every October 21st) |url=https://www.daysoftheyear.com/days/reptile-awareness-day/|publisher=Days Of The Year|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 10-21: October 21
|-
| International Snow Leopard Day<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snowleopard.org/international-snow-leopard-day-hope-and-concern-for-the-cat/ |title=International Snow Leopard Day 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsnowleopard.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/SnowLeopard_Bishkek_Declaration_EN.pdf.pdf |title=The Bishkek Declaration on the Conservation of Snow Leopards}}</ref> || 10-23: October 23
|-
| Freshwater Dolphin Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=24th October is Freshwater Dolphin Day!|URL=https://iucn-csg.org/24th-october-is-freshwater-dolphin-day-2/|publisher=IUCN – SSC Cetacean Specialist Group|accessdate=6 March 2020}}</ref> || 10-24: October 24
|-
| [[International Day of Climate Action]] || 10-24: October 24
|-
| World Lemur Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.lemurconservationnetwork.org/world-lemur-day/|publisher=Lemur Conservation Network|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Lemur Day|url=https://www.checkiday.com/895d28d65cd0d952b00b605f80e57a9f/world-lemur-day|publisher=Checkiday|accessdate=15 February 2020}}</ref> || 10: Last Friday of October
|-
| [[World Vegan Day]] || 11-01: November 1
|-
| [[International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environment in War and Armed Conflict]] || 11-06: November 6
|-
| [[National Bison Day]] || 11: First Saturday in November
|-
| [[America Recycles Day]] || 11-15: November 15
|-
| World Fisheries Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=World Fisheries Day|URL=https://sandrp.in/tag/world-fisheries-day/|publisher=SANDRP|accessdate=April 4 2020}}</ref> || 11-21: November 21
|-
| International Jaguar Day<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/news-centre/news/2018/latin-america-launches-new-roadmap-to-save-the-jaguar.html|title=Latin America Launches New Roadmap to Save the Jaguar|website=UNDP|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wcs.org/international-jaguar-day|title=International Jaguar Day|website=www.wcs.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-05}}</ref>
|| 11-29: November 29
|-
| International Cheetah Day<ref>{{Cite news|title=International Cheetah Day|url=https://internationalcheetahday.com/|publisher=International Cheetah Day|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Cheetahs Need Us: December 4 is International Cheetah Day!|url=https://dayofthejaguar.org/2018/11/28/cheetahs-need-us-december-4-is-international-cheetah-day/|publisher=Day Of The Jaguar|accessdate=16 December 2019}}</ref> || 12-04: December 4
|-
| [[World Soil Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/en/|title=Global Soil Partnership - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> || 12-05: December 5
|-
| [[International Mountain Day]] || 12-11: December 11
|-
| [[Monkey Day]] || 12-14: December 14
|-
| [[Ozone Action Day]] || Variable date depending weather conditions
|-
| [[eDay]] - Electronic Waste Day || Variable date, in New Zealand
|}

==Weeks==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[Great Backyard Bird Count]] 2019 date, February 15-18
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] || | 2016 date, April 18-22
|-
| Keep Australia Beautiful Week<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kab.org.au/keep-australia-beautiful-week/|title=Keep Australia Beautiful Week|website=Keep Australia Beautiful}}</ref> || Last full week of August
|-
| [[National Green Week]] || 02 (first week in February every year in the United States)
|-
| National Wildlife Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Error-Page|title=Error-Page|website=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref> ||
|-
| [[National Dark-Sky Week]] || 04 (week of new moon in April)
|-
| [[Bike to Work Week Victoria]] ||
|-
| National Pollinator Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pollinator.org/pollinator-week|title=Pollinator Week|website=Pollinator.org}}</ref> || third week in June
|-
| National Clean Beaches Week, Van Mohatsav Saptah(Forest Festival Week) || 07-01 to 07-07: July 1 to 7
|-
| [[Conservation Week]] ||

|-World Water Week 08-26: August 26 - 31

| European Mobility Week || 09-16 to 09-22: September 16 to 22
|-
| Bike Week || 06: second week in June
|-
| Recycle Week<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.recyclenow.com/|title=Recycle Now - Where and How to Recycle|website=www.recyclenow.com}}</ref> || 06: 20 to 26 June 2011
|-
| [https://www.zerowasteweek.co.uk/ Zero Waste Week] || first week of September
|-
| [[Green Office Week]] ||
|-
| [[European Week for Waste Reduction]] (EWWR) || 11: 9 days, last complete week in November
|-
| [[Science Literacy Week (Canada)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scienceliteracy.ca/|title=Science Literacy Week – September 16 – 22, 2019|website=www.scienceliteracy.ca}}</ref> || 16-22: September
|-
| [[No Car Day]] || 09: China, week of September 22
|-
| [[World Water Week in Stockholm]] || 08 or 09: each year in August or September
|-
| [[National Op Shop Week (Australia)]] || August 21st - 27th
|-
| [[World Oceans Week]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldoceansday.org/|title=World Oceans Day - Uniting Ocean Action Worldwide on 8 June 2020|first=|last=|website=worldoceansday.org}}</ref> || 01-08: June
|}

==Years==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 1882–1883
|-
| International Polar Year || 1932–1933
|-1992
|-
|[[International Year of the Child]]
|1979
|-
| [[World Population Year]] || 1974
|-
| [[International Year of the Ocean]] (IYO) || 1998
|-
| [[International Year of Mountains]] (IYM) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Ecotourism]] (IYE) || 2002
|-
| [[International Year of Freshwater]] (IYF) || 2003
|-
| [[International Year of Deserts and Desertification]] || 2006
|-
| International [[Year of the Dolphin]] || 2007–2008
|-
| [[International Polar Year]] || 2007–2009
|-
| [[International Year of Planet Earth]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Sanitation]] || 2008
|-
| [[International Year of Natural Fibres 2009]] || 2009
|-
| Year of the Gorilla<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yog2009.org/|title=FX初心者の勉強・情報収集 - 【FXガイド】　FX初心者のための勉強サイト|website=www.yog2009.org}}</ref> || 2009
|-
| [[International Year of Biodiversity]] || 2010
|-
| [[International Year of Forests]] || 2011
|-
| [[International Year of Soils]] || 2015
|-
| [[International Year of Pulses]] || 2016
|-
| [[International Year of Sustainable tourism for all]] || 2017
|-
| [[International Year of Indigenous languages]] || 2019
|}

==Decades==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date
|-
| [[International Drinking Water Decade, 1981-1990]] || 1980s
|-
| [[International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction]] || 1990s
|-
| [[United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development]] || 2005-2014
|-
| [[Water for Life Decade]] || 2005-2015
|-
| [[United Nations Decade on Biodiversity]] || 2011-2020
|-
| United Nations Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification || 2010-2020
|}

==See also==
*[[Index of environmental articles]]
**[[List of environmental issues]]
*[[Index of conservation articles]]
**[[List of conservation issues]]
*[[List of international environmental agreements]]
*[[List of awareness days]]
*[[International observance]]
*[[List of commemorative days]]
*[[List of Month-long observances|List of commemorative months]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050405210808/http://unac.org/en/news_events/un_days/index.asp News & Events - UN Days, Weeks and Years]
*[http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2013/Mar/21/the-world-plantation-day-58.asp - World Plantation Day, Great Kashmir]
*[http://www.saveourwaterwaysnow.com.au/02_cal/details.asp?ID=561 - Save your water]
*[http://edugreen.teri.res.in/misc/dates.htm - EDU Green]

[[Category:Environmental awareness days| ]]
[[Category:Lists of observances|Environmental]]

Spotted hyena

2020-04-05T14:34:47Z

118.46.55.151: /* Prey */

{{Contains Ethiopic text}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Good article}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Spotted hyena
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|3.5|0}} Late [[Pliocene]]{{snd}} [[Holocene]]
| image = Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta).jpg
| image_caption = At [[Etosha National Park]], [[Namibia]]
| image2 = Spotted Hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) (W1CDR0000381 BD12).ogg
| image2_caption = Whooping recorded in [[Umfolozi Game Reserve]], South Africa
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn|author= Bohm, T.|author2= Honer, O.R.|year= 2015 |page= e.T5674A45194782 |title= ''Crocuta crocuta'' |access-date= 27 January 2020|ref=harv}}</ref>
| genus = Crocuta
| parent_authority = [[Johann Jakob Kaup|Kaup]], 1828
| species = crocuta
| authority = ([[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben|Erxleben]], 1777)
| range_map = Spotted Hyaena area.png
| range_map_caption = Range of the spotted hyena
| synonyms =
{{collapsible list|bullets = true
| title = Species synonymy<ref>{{MSW3 Wozencraft|id =14000684 | page = 572}}</ref>
|''capensis'' Heller, 1914
|''cuvieri'' Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
|''fisi'' Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
|''fortis'' J. A. Allen, 1924
|''gariepensis'' Matschie, 1900
|''germinans'' Matschie, 1900
|''habessynica'' de Blainville, 1844
|''kibonotensis'' Lönnberg, 1908
|''leontiewi'' Satunin, 1905
|''maculata'' Thunberg, 1811
|''noltei'' Matschie, 1900
|''nzoyae'' Cabrera, 1911
|''panganensis'' Lönnberg, 1908
|''rufa'' Desmarest, 1817
|''rufopicta'' Cabrera, 1911
|''sivalensis'' Falconer and Cautley in Falconer, 1868
|''thierryi'' Matschie, 1900
|''thomasi'' Cabrera, 1911
|''togoensis'' Matschie, 1900
|''wissmanni'' Matschie, 1900
}}
}}

The '''spotted hyena''' (''Crocuta crocuta''), also known as the '''laughing hyena''',<ref name="f55" /> is a [[hyena]] [[species]], currently classed as the sole extant member of the genus ''Crocuta'', native to [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. It is listed as being of [[least concern]] by the [[IUCN]] on account of its widespread range and large numbers estimated between 27,000 and 47,000 individuals.<ref name=iucn /> The species is, however, experiencing declines outside of protected areas due to habitat loss and poaching.<ref name=iucn /> The species may have originated in [[Asia]],<ref name="k69" /> and once ranged throughout [[Europe]] for at least one million years until the end of the [[Late Pleistocene]].<ref name="varela" /> The spotted hyena is the largest known member of the Hyaenidae, and is further physically distinguished from other species by its vaguely [[bear]]-like build,<ref name="e290">{{Harvnb|Estes|1998|p=290}}</ref> its rounded ears,<ref name="r355" /> its less prominent mane, its spotted pelt,<ref name="r353" /> its more dual purposed dentition,<ref name="mac134" /> its fewer [[nipple]]s<ref name="drea"/> and the presence of a [[#Female genitalia|pseudo-penis]] in the female. It is the only mammalian species to lack an external vaginal opening.<ref name="differentiation" />

The spotted hyena is the most social of the [[Carnivora]] in that it has the largest group sizes and most complex social behaviours.<ref name="m34">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=34}}</ref> Its social organisation is unlike that of any other carnivore, bearing closer resemblance to that of [[cercopithecine]] [[primate]]s ([[baboon]]s and [[macaque]]s) with respect to group-size, hierarchical structure, and frequency of social interaction among both kin and unrelated group-mates.<ref name="Journal"/> However, the social system of the spotted hyena is openly competitive rather than cooperative, with access to kills, mating opportunities and the time of dispersal for males depending on the ability to [[dominance (ethology)|dominate]] other clan-members. Females provide only for their own cubs rather than assist each other, and males display no paternal care. Spotted hyena society is [[matriarchy|matriarchal]]; females are larger than males, and dominate them.<ref name="e337">{{Harvnb|Estes|1992|pp=337–338}}</ref>

The spotted hyena is a highly successful animal, being the most common large [[carnivore]] in Africa. Its success is due in part to its adaptability and [[Biological opportunism|opportunism]]; it is primarily a [[Predation|hunter]] but may also [[scavenge]], with the capacity to eat and digest skin, bone and other animal waste. In functional terms, the spotted hyena makes the most efficient use of animal matter of all African carnivores.<ref name="king262">{{Harvnb|Kingdon|1988|p=262}}</ref> The spotted hyena displays greater plasticity in its hunting and foraging behaviour than other African carnivores;<ref name="king264">{{Harvnb|Kingdon|1988|p=264}}</ref> it hunts alone, in small parties of 2–5 individuals or in large groups. During a hunt, spotted hyenas often run through ungulate herds in order to select an individual to attack. Once selected, their prey is chased over a long distance, often several kilometres, at speeds of up to 60 km/h.<ref name="m33"/>

The spotted hyena has a long history of interaction with [[human]]ity; depictions of the species exist from the [[Upper Paleolithic]] period, with carvings and paintings from the [[Lascaux]] and [[Chauvet Cave]]s.<ref name="spassov"/> The species has a largely negative reputation in both [[Western culture]] and [[Traditional African religion|African folklore]]. In the former, the species is mostly regarded as ugly and cowardly, while in the latter, it is viewed as greedy, gluttonous, stupid, and foolish, yet powerful and potentially dangerous. The majority of Western perceptions on the species can be found in the writings of [[Aristotle]] and [[Pliny the Elder]], though in relatively unjudgemental form. Explicit, negative judgements occur in the ''[[Physiologus]]'', where the animal is depicted as a [[hermaphrodite]] and [[Grave robbery|grave-robber]].<ref name="glickman"/> The IUCN's hyena specialist group identifies the spotted hyena's negative reputation as detrimental to the species' continued survival, both in captivity and the wild.<ref name="glickman"/><ref name="m92">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=92 & 101}}</ref>

==Etymology, discovery and naming==
The spotted hyena's scientific name ''Crocuta'', was once widely thought to be derived from the [[Latin]] [[loanword]] ''crocutus'', which translates as "saffron-coloured one", in reference to the animal's fur colour. This was proven to be incorrect, as the correct spelling of the loanword would have been ''Crocāta'', and the word was never used in that sense by Graeco-Roman sources. ''Crocuta'' actually comes from the [[Ancient Greek]] word Κροκόττας (''Krokottas''), which is derived from the [[Sanskrit]] ''koṭṭhâraka'', which in turn originates from ''kroshṭuka'' (both of which were originally meant to signify the [[golden jackal]]). The earliest recorded mention of [[Crocotta|Κροκόττας]] is from [[Strabo]]'s ''[[Geographica]]'', where the animal is described as a mix of wolf and dog native to Ethiopia.<ref name="f52">{{Harvnb|Funk|2010|pp=52–54}}</ref>
[[File:Synopsis Quadrupeds crocuta.png|thumb|Engraving of a spotted hyena from [[Thomas Pennant]]'s ''History of Quadrupeds'', one of the first authentic depictions of the species<ref name="f134">{{Harvnb|Funk|2010|p=134}}</ref>]]
From [[Classical antiquity]] until the [[Renaissance]], the spotted and [[striped hyena]] were either assumed to be the same species, or distinguished purely on geographical, rather than physical grounds. [[Hiob Ludolf]], in his ''Historia aethiopica'', was the first to clearly distinguish the ''Crocuta'' from ''[[Hyaena]]'' on account of physical, as well as geographical grounds, though he never had any first hand experience of the species, having gotten his accounts from an Ethiopian intermediary.<ref name="f55">{{Harvnb|Funk|2010|pp=55–56}}</ref> Confusion still persisted over the exact taxonomic nature of the hyena family in general, with most European travelers in Ethiopia referring to hyenas as "wolves". This partly stems from the [[Amharic]] word for hyena, {{linktext|ጅብ}} (''jɨbb''), which is linked to the [[Arabic]] word {{linktext|ذئب}} (''dhiʾb'') "wolf".<ref name="wade">{{cite journal | last1 = Wade | first1 = D. W. | year = 2006 | title = Hyenas and Humans in the Horn of Africa | url = http://www.everythingharar.com/publication/Hyenas%20and%20Humans%20in%20the%20Horn%20of%20Africa%20-%20Gade.pdf | journal = The Geographical Review | volume = 96 | issue = 4| pages = 609–632 | doi = 10.1111/j.1931-0846.2006.tb00519.x }}</ref>

The first detailed first-hand descriptions of the spotted hyena by Europeans come from Willem Bosman and [[Peter Kolbe]]. Bosman, a [[Dutch people|Dutch]] tradesman who worked for the [[Dutch West India Company]] at the [[Dutch Gold Coast|Gold Coast]] (modern day [[Ghana]]) from 1688–1701, wrote of "''Jakhals, of Boshond''" (jackals or woodland dogs) whose physical descriptions match the spotted hyena. Kolben, a [[Germans|German]] mathematician and astronomer who worked for the [[Dutch East India Company]] in the [[Cape of Good Hope]] from 1705–1713, described the spotted hyena in great detail, but referred to it as a "tigerwolf", because the settlers in southern Africa did not know of hyenas, and thus labelled them as "wolves".<ref name=autogenerated4>{{Harvnb|Funk|2010|pp=57–58}}</ref>

Bosman and Kolben's descriptions went largely unnoticed until 1771, when the [[Welsh people|Welsh]] naturalist [[Thomas Pennant]], in his ''Synopsis of Quadrupeds'', used the descriptions, as well as his personal experience with a captive specimen, as a basis for consistently differentiating the spotted hyena from the striped. The description given by Pennant was precise enough to be included by [[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben|Johann Erxleben]] in his ''Systema regni animalis'' by simply translating Pennant's text into Latin. ''Crocuta'' was finally recognised as a separate genus from ''Hyaena'' in 1828.<ref name="f58">{{Harvnb|Funk|2010|pp=58–59}}</ref>

===Local and indigenous names===
Several [[languages of Africa]] lack species specific names for hyenas: for example, the spotted and striped species have identical names in [[Dyula language|Dyula]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Mandinka language|Mandinka]], [[Mossi language|Mossi]], [[Ngambay language|Ngambaye]], [[Wolof language|Wolof]] and [[Fula language|Fulani]]. In other languages, other species may simply be termed "small spotted hyena", such as in Swahili, where the spotted hyena is termed ''fisi'' and the [[aardwolf]] ''fisi ndogo''.<ref name="m99">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=99}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|+Indigenous names for ''Crocuta crocuta''<ref name="king260">{{Harvnb|Kingdon|1988|p=260}}</ref><ref name="m16">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=16}}</ref>
|-
! Linguistic group or area !! Indigenous name
|-
| Afrendille || ''Walaba''
|-
| [[Afrikaans]] || ''Gevlekte hiëna''
|-
| [[Amharic language|Amharic]] || ጅብ (''Djibb'')
|-
| [[Arabic language|Arabic]] || ''Marfaïn'' ([[Chadian Arabic|Chad]]) ''D'ba'' ([[Maghrebi Arabic|North Africa]]) ''Dibb'' (Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia) ''Guervave'' ([[Hassānīya Arabic|Hassānīya]])
|-
| [[Ateso language|Ateso]] || ''Ibuin''
|-
| [[Avokaya language|Avukaia]] || ''Labagu''
|-
| Babouté || ''Mangou''
|-
| Baguirmien || ''Niougo''
|-
| [[Bongo-Baka languages|Baka]] || ''Libagu''
|-
| [[Bakola]] || ''Massobé''
|-
| [[Bambara language|Bambara]] || ''Namakoro'' ''Suruku''
|-
| [[Banda languages|Banda]] || ''Bongo''
|-
| [[Bechuana]] || ''Piri'' ''Phiri''
|-
| [[Bemba language|Bemba (Zambia)]] || ''Chimbwi''
|-
| [[Borno State|Bornouan]] || ''Boultou''
|-
| [[Guinea-Bissau Creole|Creole]] || ''Lobo''
|-
| [[Afar language|Danakil]] || ''Jangóula''
|-
| [[Dioula language|Dioula]] || ''Suruku'' ''Namakoro''
|-
| Elkoni || ''Makatiet nyenegea''
|-
| [[English language|English]] || Spotted hyena
|-
| [[French language|French]] || ''Hyène tachetée''
|-
| [[Fula language|Fula]] ([[Fulfulde]]/[[Pulaar]]/[[Pular language|Pular]]) || ''Bonooru'' ''Fowru'' ''Deppuru''
|-
| Galaorabéjsa || ''Wårabéssa'' ''Orabéjsa''
|-
| Gambe || ''Mangili''
|-
| [[Luganda|Ganda]] and [[Runyoro]] || ''Empisi''
|-
| [[German language|German]] || ''Tüpfelhyäne'' ''Fleckenhyäne''
|-
| [[Gurage people|Gourage]] || ''Woraba''
|-
| [[Gurma|Gourmatche]] || ''Namlino''
|-
| [[Harari language|Harari]] || ዎራባ (''Worábba'')
|-
| [[Hausa language|Hausa]] || ''Kura''
|-
| [[Herero language|Herero]] || ''Mbúngu-mbidíwa''
|-
| Ila (Zambia) || ''Kabwenga''
|-
| [[Jita]] || ''Imembe''
|-
| [[Kalenjin language|Kalenjin]] || ''Kimatet''
|-
| [[Kaonde language|Kaonde]] || ''Mungolwe''
|-
| [[Karamojong language|Karamojong]] || ''Ebu'' ''Etutui''
|-
| [[Chaga language|Kichagga]] || ''Ingurunju'' ''Ifulu''
|-
| [[Gogo language|Kigogo]] and [[kikongo]] || ''Misi''
|-
| Kikondo || ''Mbulu''
|-
| Kiliangulu || ''Warabes''
|-
| [[Luba-Katanga language|Kiluba]] || ''Kimburi''
|-
| [[Meru language|Kimeru]] || ''Mbitingaau''
|-
| [[Kinyarwanda]] || ''Impysi''
|-
| [[Turu language|Kinyaturo]] || ''Mpiti''
|-
| [[Isanzu language|Kinyiha]] || ''Ipatama''
|-
| [[Kipare]] and [[Zigula language|Kizigua]] || ''Ibau''
|-
| Kirangi || ''Mbichi''
|-
| [[Sukuma language|Kisukuma]], [[Kikamba]] and Kimaragoli || ''Mbiti''
|-
| Kisungwa || ''Fifi''
|-
| [[Kota language (Gabon)|Kota]] || ''Massoba''
|-
| [[Kotoko-Yedina languages|Kotoko]] || ''Machi''
|-
| [[Kunda people|Kunda]] || ''Tika''
|-
| Kitaita || ''Mbisi''
|-
| [[Lugbara language|Lugbara]] || ''Rara''
|-
| [[Luhya language|Luhya]] || ''Namuyu''
|-
| [[Luo languages|Luo]] || ''Otoyo''
|-
| [[Dholuo language|Lwo]] || ''Lagwara''
|-
| [[Madi language (Sudan and Uganda)|Madi]] || ''Ebowu''
|-
| [[Malinke language|Malinke]] || ''Namakoro'' ''Souroukou''
|-
| Mambakushu || ''Dimbugurumba''
|-
| [[Manding languages|Manding]] || ''Tourouma''
|-
| [[Mangbetu language|Mangbetu]] || ''Neunga''
|-
| [[Masai language|Masai]] || ''Ondilili'' ''Oln'gojine''
|-
| Maure || ''Chertat'' ''Gaboune'' ''Gougouh''
|-
| [[Mboko language|Mboko]] || ''Assoba''
|-
| [[Mbum language|M'boum]] || ''Baglak''
|-
| [[Mündü language|Mondo]] || ''Lepagu''
|-
| Mongom || ''Massobe''
|-
| [[Mossi language|Moore]] || ''Katre'' ''Swasa''
|-
| [[Ngambay language|Ngambaye]] || ''Riguen ndah''
|-
| [[Nkoya language|Nkoya]] (Zambia) || ''Muntambwi''
|-
| [[Nsenga language|Nsenga]] (Zambia) || ''Chimbwe''
|-
| [[Chewa language|Njanja]] (Zambia) || ''Fisi''
|-
| [[Ovambo language|Ovambo]] || ''kafukambungu'' ''Mbungu-omanini''
|-
| Ovacuangari and Ovadirico || ''Divúndu''
|-
| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] || ''Hiena-malhada''
|-
| [[Nyoro language|Runyoro]] || ''Empisi''
|-
| [[Sara languages|Sara]] || ''Nyéyi''
|-
| [[Elgon languages|Sebei]] || ''Mangatiet''
|-
| [[Serer language|Serer]] || ''Omone''
|-
| [[Tswana language|seTswana]] || ''Phiri'' ''LeHolo''
|-
| [[Shona language|Shona]] || ''Bere''
|-
| [[Somali language|Somali]] || ''Warabe ''
|-
| [[Songhay languages|Songhai]] || ''Koro''
|-
| [[Soninke language|Soninke]] || ''Tourouguė''
|-
| [[Sotho language|Sotho]] (northern and southern) || ''Phiri''
|-
| [[Swahili language|Swahili]] || ''Fisi'' ''Nyangao''
|-
| [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] || ዝብእ (''Zib-i'')<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aerts |first1=Raf |title=Forest and woodland vegetation in the highlands of Dogu'a Tembien. In: Nyssen J., Jacob, M., Frankl, A. (Eds.). Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 |accessdate=18 June 2019}}</ref>
|-
| [[Tonga language (Zambia)|Tonga]] (Zambia) || ''Suntwe''
|-
| [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]] || ''Mhisi''
|-
| [[Tumbuka language|Tumbuka]] (Zambia) || ''Chimbwi''
|-
| [[Akan language|Twi]] || ''Pataku''
|-
| [[Wolof language|Wolof]] || ''Bouki''
|-
| [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] || ''Impisi'' ''Mpisi'' ''IsAndawane''
|-
| [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] || ''Kòriko'' ''Ikookò''
|-
| [[Zande language|Zande]] || ''Ngini'' ''Nzege''
|}

==Taxonomy, origins and evolution==
[[File:Spotted Hyena at White River.jpg|left|thumb|Pair of spotted hyenas at [[White River, Mpumalanga]]. Note the great degree of individual variation in fur colour, which was once used as a basis for separating the species into various subspecies.]]
Unlike the striped hyena, for which a number of subspecies were proposed in light of its extensive modern range, the spotted hyena is a genuinely variable species, both temporally and spatially. Its range once encompassed almost all of Africa and [[Eurasia]], and displayed a large degree of morphological geographic variation, which led to an equally extensive set of specific and subspecific epithets. It was gradually realised that all of this variation could be applied to individual differences in a single subspecies. In 1939, biologist [[L. Harrison Matthews]] demonstrated through comparisons between a large selection of spotted hyena skulls from Tanzania that all the variation seen in the then recognised subspecies could also be found in a single population, with the only set of characters standing out being pelage (which is subject to a high degree of individual variation) and size (which is subject to [[Bergmann's Rule]]). When fossils are taken into consideration, the species displayed even greater variation than it does in modern times, and a number of these named fossil species have since been classed as [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonymous]] with ''Crocuta crocuta'', with firm evidence of there being more than one species within the genus ''Crocuta'' still lacking.<ref name="m16"/>
[[File:Crocuta silvanensis skull.png|thumb|Skull of ''Crocuta sivalensis'', an extinct [[India]]n hyena proposed by [[Björn Kurtén]] as being the ancestor of the modern spotted hyena]]
Both [[Björn Kurtén]] and [[Camille Arambourg]] promoted an Asiatic origin for the species; Kurtén focussed his arguments on the [[Plio-Pleistocene]] [[taxon]] ''Crocuta sivalensis'' from the [[Siwaliks]],<ref name="k69">{{Harvnb|Kurtén|1968|pp=69–72}}</ref> a view defended by Arambourg, who nonetheless allowed the possibility of an Indo-Ethiopian origin.<ref>Gilbert, W. Henry; Asfaw, Berhane (2008), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=KRUw9-Cx5hoC&pg=PA99 Homo erectus: pleistocene evidence from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia]'', Volume 1 of Middle Awash series, University of California Press, {{ISBN|0-520-25120-2}}. p. 99.</ref> This stance was contested by Ficarelli and Torre, who referred to evidence of the spotted hyena's presence from African deposists dating from the early Pleistocene, a similar age to the Asian ''C. sivalensis''.<ref>Ficarelli, G.,; D. Torre. (1970), ''Remarks on the taxonomy of hyaenids. Palaeontographia Italica 66:13–33.</ref> Studies on the [[phylogeography|phylogeographic]] distribution of [[mtDNA]] [[haplotype]]s indicates three migration events from Africa to Eurasia, though neither the topology of the [[phylogenetic tree]] or the [[fossil record]] exclude the possibility of an Asian origin. The earliest migration of spotted hyenas from Africa to Eurasia began less than 3.5 million years ago, most probably from the area where the first spotted hyena fossils were discovered, reaching [[East Asia]] and most likely also [[Pakistan]]. The second migration of spotted hyenas occurred less than 1.3–1.5 million years ago and resulted in the first arrival of hyenas in Europe and a separation of African spotted hyenas into a southern and a northern population. The third spotted hyena migration took place 0.36 million years ago, starting from the northern African population and reaching both Europe and Asia. Unlike other African carnivores, with the exception of the [[leopard]], there is no evidence to suggest that spotted hyenas underwent a [[genetic bottleneck]] during the Pleistocene.<ref name="rohland">{{cite journal | last1 = Rohland | first1 = N | last2 = Pollack | first2 = JL | last3 = Nagel | first3 = D | last4 = Beauval | first4 = C | last5 = Airvaux | first5 = J | last6 = Paabo | first6 = S | last7 = Hofreiter | first7 = M | year = 2005 | title = The population history of extant and extinct hyenas | journal = Mol. Biol. Evol. | volume = 22 | issue = 12 | pages = 2435–2443 | doi=10.1093/molbev/msi244| pmid = 16120805 }}</ref>

The ancestors of the genus ''Crocuta'' diverged from ''[[Hyaena]]'' (the genus of [[striped hyena|striped]] and [[brown hyena]]s) 10 million years ago.<ref name="rohland"/><ref name="m1">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=1}}</ref> The ancestors of the spotted hyena probably developed social behaviours in response to increased pressure from other predators on carcasses, which forced them to operate in teams. At one point in their [[evolution]], spotted hyenas developed sharp carnassials behind their crushing premolars; this rendered waiting for their prey to die no longer a necessity, as is the case for brown and striped hyenas, and thus became pack hunters as well as scavengers. They began forming increasingly larger territories, necessitated by the fact that their prey was often migratory, and long chases in a small territory would have caused them to encroach into another clan's land.<ref name="mac134">{{Harvnb|Macdonald|1992|pp=134–135}}</ref> It has been theorised that female dominance in spotted hyena clans could be an adaptation in order to successfully compete with males on kills, and thus ensure that enough milk is produced for their cubs.<ref name="e337"/> Another theory is that it is an adaptation to the length of time it takes for cubs to develop their massive skulls and jaws, thus necessitating greater attention and dominating behaviours from females.<ref name="watts">{{cite journal | last1 = Watts | first1 = Heather E. | last2 = Tanner | first2 = Jamie B. | last3 = Lundrigan | first3 = Barbara L. | last4 = Holekamp | first4 = Kay E. | year = 2009 | title = Post-weaning maternal effects and the evolution of female dominance in the spotted hyena | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 276| issue = 1665| pages = 2291–2298| doi = 10.1098/rspb.2009.0268 | pmid = 19324728 | pmc = 2677617 }}</ref> Its appearance in Europe and China during the [[Cromerian]] period coincided with the decline and eventual extinction of ''[[Pachycrocuta|Pachycrocuta brevirostris]]'', the giant short-faced hyena. As there is no evidence of environmental change being responsible, it is likely that the giant short-faced hyena became extinct due to competition with the spotted hyena.<ref>Kurtén, Björn (1988) On evolution and fossil mammals, Columbia University Press, pp. 238–242, {{ISBN|0-231-05868-3}}</ref>

==Description==
===Anatomy===
[[File:Spotted Hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) female close-up ... (31339658775).jpg|thumb|Close-up of head of a female, [[Kruger National Park]]]]
[[File:Crocuta crocuta Amboseli NP (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Spotted hyena walking in profile, photographed at the [[Amboseli National Park]] in Kenya]]
The spotted hyena has a strong and well developed neck and forequarters, but relatively underdeveloped hindquarters. The [[Rump (animal)|rump]] is rounded rather than angular, which prevents attackers coming from behind from getting a firm grip on it.<ref name="k209">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=209}}</ref> The head is wide and flat with a blunt muzzle and broad [[rhinarium]]. In contrast to the striped hyena, the ears of the spotted hyena are rounded rather than pointed. Each foot has four digits, which are webbed and armed with short, stout and blunt claws. The paw-pads are broad and very flat, with the whole undersurface of the foot around them being naked. The tail is relatively short, being {{convert|300|–|350|mm|in|abbr=on}} long,<ref name="r355">{{Harvnb|Rosevear|1974|pp=355–357}}</ref> and resembles a [[pompom]] in appearance.<ref name="e290" /> Unusually among hyaenids, and mammals in general, the female spotted hyena is considerably larger than the male.<ref name="k211" /> Both sexes have a pair of [[anal gland]]s which open into the [[rectum]] just inside the anal opening. These glands produce [[hyena butter|a white, creamy secretion]] which is pasted onto grass stalks by everting the rectum. The odour of this secretion is very strong, smelling of boiling cheap [[soap]] or burning, and can be detected by humans several metres downwind.<ref name="k222">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=222}}</ref> The spotted hyena has a proportionately large [[heart]], constituting close to 1% of its body weight, thus giving it great endurance in long chases. In contrast, a lion's heart makes up only 0.45–0.57 percent of its body weight.<ref name="s248">{{Harvnb|Schaller|1972|p=248}}</ref> The now extinct Eurasian populations were distinguished from the modern African populations by their shorter distal extremities and longer [[humerus]] and [[femur]].<ref>Dockner, M. (2006). [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.519.1292&rep=rep1&type=pdf Comparison of ''Crocuta crocuta crocuta'' and ''Crocuta crocuta spelaea'' through computer tomography]. (Masters Thesis).</ref>

[[File:Crocuta crocuta 02 MWNH 249.jpg|thumb|Skull of a spotted hyena]]
[[File:SpotHyaenaSkelLyd1.png|thumb|Skeleton of a spotted hyena, illustration from [[Richard Lydekker]]'s "The Royal Natural History"]]
The skull of the spotted hyena differs from that of the striped hyena by its much greater size and narrower [[sagittal crest]]. For its size, the spotted hyena has one of the most powerfully built skulls among the Carnivora.<ref name="r357">{{Harvnb|Rosevear|1974|pp=357–358}}</ref> The dentition is more dual purposed than that of other modern hyena species, which are mostly scavengers; the upper and lower third [[premolar]]s are conical bone-crushers, with a third bone-holding cone jutting from the lower fourth premolar. The spotted hyena also has its [[carnassial]]s situated behind its bone-crushing premolars, the position of which allows it to crush bone with its premolars without blunting the carnassials.<ref name="mac134" /> Combined with large jaw muscles and a special vaulting to protect the skull against large forces, these characteristics give the spotted hyena a powerful bite which can exert a pressure of 80 [[kgf/cm2]] (1140 [[lbf/in²]]),<ref name="mac118">{{Harvnb|Macdonald|1992|p=118}}</ref> which is 40% more force than a leopard can generate.<ref>Hunter, Luke & Hinde, Gerald (2005) ''Cats of Africa'', Struik, {{ISBN|1-77007-063-X}}</ref> The jaws of the spotted hyena outmatch those of the [[brown bear]] in bonecrushing ability,<ref>Savage, R. J. G. (1955) ''Giant deer from Lough Beg''. The Irish Naturalists’ Journal 11d: 1–6.</ref> and free ranging hyenas have been observed to crack open the long bones of [[giraffe]]s measuring 7 cm in diameter.<ref>Tanner, Jaime B, Dumont, Elizabeth, R., Sakai, Sharleen T., Lundrigan, Barbara L & Holekamp, Kay E. (2008), [https://web.archive.org/web/20100615201256/http://www.people.umass.edu/jtanner/Tanner_et_al2008.pdf ''Of arcs and vaults: the biomechanics of bone-cracking in spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta)''], Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 95, 246–255.</ref> A {{convert|63.1|kg|lb|abbr=on}} spotted hyena is estimated to have a bite force of 565.7 newtons at the canine tip and 985.5 newtons at the carnassial eocone.<ref>Christiansen and Stephen Wroe, ''Bite Forces and Evolutionary Adaptations to Feeding Ecology in Carnivores'', Ecology, Vol. 88, No. 2</ref> One individual in a study was found to exert a bite force of 4,500 newtons on the measuring instruments.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Binder|first1=Wendy J.|last2=Van Valkenburgh|first2=Blaire|title=Development of Bite Strength and Feeding Behaviour in Juvenile Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta)|journal=Journal of Zoology|year=2000|volume=252|issue=3|pages=273–83|doi=10.1017/s0952836900000017}}</ref>

===Dimensions===
The spotted hyena is the largest extant member of the Hyaenidae.<ref name="m2">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=2}}</ref> Adults measure {{convert|95|-|165.8|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in body length, and have a shoulder height of {{convert|70|-|91.5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="king260"/> Adult male spotted hyenas in the [[Serengeti]] weigh {{convert|40.5|-|55.0|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}, while females weigh {{convert|44.5|-|63.9|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}. Spotted hyenas in [[Zambia]] tend to be heavier, with males weighing on average {{convert|67.6|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}, and females {{convert|69.2|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="k211">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=211}}</ref> Exceptionally large weights of {{convert|81.7|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="mac134" /> and {{convert|90|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="king260" /> are known. It has been estimated that adult members of the now extinct Eurasian populations weighed {{convert|102|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>Meloro, Carlo (2007), [http://www.fedoa.unina.it/1935/1/Meloro_Scienze_Terra.pdf ''Plio-Pleistocene large carnivores from the Italian peninsula: functional morphology and macroecology''] Università degli Studi di Napoli "Federico II" Dottorato di Ricerca in Scienze della Terra Geologia del Sedimentario "XX Ciclo"</ref>

===Fur===
Fur colour varies greatly and changes with age.<ref name="k209" /> Unlike the fur of the striped and brown hyena, that of the spotted hyena consists of spots rather than stripes and is much shorter, lacking the well defined spinal mane of the former two species.<ref name="r353">{{Harvnb|Rosevear|1974|p=353}}</ref> The base colour generally is a pale greyish-brown or yellowish-grey on which an irregular pattern of roundish spots is superimposed on the back and hind quarters. The spots, which are of variable distinction, may be reddish, deep brown or almost blackish. The spots vary in size, even on single individuals, but are commonly {{convert|20|mm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter. A less distinct spot pattern is present on the legs and belly but not on the throat and chest. A set of five, pale and barely distinct bands replace the spots on the back and sides of the neck. A broad, medial band is present on the back of the neck, and is lengthened into a forward facing crest. The crest is mostly reddish-brown in colour. The crown and upper part of the face is brownish, save for a white band above both eyes, though the front of the eyes, the area around the rhinarium, the lips and the back portion of the chin are all blackish. The limbs are spotted, though the feet vary in colour, from light brown to blackish. The fur is relatively sparse and consists of two hair types; moderately fine underfur (measuring {{convert|15|–|20|mm|in|abbr=on}}) and long, stout bristle hairs ({{convert|30|–|40|mm|in|abbr=on}}).<ref name="r355" /> European Paleolithic rock art depicting the species indicates that the Eurasian populations retained the spots of their modern-day African counterparts.<ref name="spassov"/>

===Female genitalia===
{{further|Clitoris#Spotted hyenas}}
[[File:Anatomischer_Anzeiger_(1922)_(18006271698).jpg|thumb|400 px|'''Male and female reproductive systems of the spotted hyena, from Schmotzer & Zimmerman, ''Anatomischer Anzeiger'' (1922)'''. Abb. 1 (Fig. 1.) ''Male reproductive anatomy.'' Abb. 2 (Fig. 2.) ''Female reproductive anatomy.''<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Schmotzer, B. |author2=Zimmerman, A. |lastauthoramp=yes | date = 15 April 1922 | title = Über die weiblichen Begattungsorgane der gefleckten Hyäne | trans-title = About the female sexual organs of the spotted hyena | editor = von Eggeling, H. | journal = Anatomischer Anzeiger [Anatomical Gazette] | location = Jena, DEU | publisher = Gustav Fischer | volume = 55 | issue = 12/13 | language = German | pages = 257–264, esp. 260 | url = https://archive.org/stream/anatomischeranze55anat/#page/n4/mode/1up | access-date = 11 April 2016 | quote = Anatomischer Anzeiger: Centralblatt für die gesamte wissenschaftliche Anatomie [Anatomical Gazette: Central Journal for the whole of Scientific Anatomy]. }}</ref> Principal abbreviations (from von Eggeling) are: '''T''', testis; '''Vd''', vas deferens; '''BU''', urethral bulb; '''Ur''', urethra; '''R''', rectum; '''P''', penis; '''S''', scrotum; '''O''', ovary; '''FT''', Fallopian tubes; '''RL''', ligament uteri; '''Ut''', uterus; '''CC''', Corpus clitoris. Remaining abbreviations, in alphabetical order, are: ''AG'', anal glands; ''B'', vesica urinaria; ''CG'', Cowper's glands; ''CP'', Corpus penis; ''CS'', corpus spongiosum; ''GC'', glans; ''GP'', glans penis; ''LA'', levator ani muscle; ''Pr'', prepuce; ''RC'', musculus retractor clitoris; ''RP'', Musculus retractor penis; ''UCG'', Canalis urogenital.]]
The genitalia of the female closely resembles that of the male; the [[clitoris]] is shaped and positioned like a penis, a [[pseudo-penis]], and is capable of [[erection]]. The female also possesses no external [[vagina]] (vaginal opening), as the [[labia]] are fused to form a pseudo-[[scrotum]]. The pseudo-penis is traversed to its tip by a central urogenital canal, through which the female urinates, copulates and gives birth.<ref name="k210">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=210}}</ref><ref name="courtship">{{cite journal | last1 = Szykman | first1 = M. | last2 = Van Horn | first2 = R. C. | last3 = Engh | first3 = A.L. | last4 = Boydston | first4 = E. E. | last5 = Holekamp | first5 = K. E. | year = 2007 | title = Courtship and mating in free-living spotted hyenas | url = http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~bowles/Dominance/Papers/SzykmanetalHyenaMatingBehaviour2007.pdf| journal = Behaviour | volume = 144 | issue = 7| pages = 815–846 | doi=10.1163/156853907781476418| citeseerx = 10.1.1.630.5755 }}</ref> The pseudo-penis can be distinguished from the [[Mammalian male genitalia|males' genitalia]] by its somewhat shorter length, greater thickness, and more rounded [[glans]].<ref name="differentiation">Glickman SE, Cunha GR, Drea CM, Conley AJ and Place NJ. (2006). ''[http://courses.washington.edu/pbio509/Glickman_etal.pdf Mammalian sexual differentiation: lessons from the spotted hyena]''. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222022824/http://courses.washington.edu/pbio509/Glickman_etal.pdf |date=22 February 2013 }} Trends Endocrinol Metab 17:349–356.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cunha | first1 = Gerald R. |display-authors=etal | year = 2003 | title = Urogenital system of the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta Erxleben): a functional histological study | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7987309 | format = PDF | journal = Journal of Morphology | volume = 256 | issue = 2| pages = 205–218 | doi=10.1002/jmor.10085| pmid = 12635111 }}</ref><ref>Cunha, Gerald R., et al. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mary_Weldele/publication/7825103_The_ontogeny_of_the_urogenital_system_of_the_spotted_hyena_(Crocuta_crocuta_Erxleben)/links/00463524c4bb5b0c6b000000.pdf The ontogeny of the urogenital system of the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta Erxleben).]" Biology of reproduction 73.3 (2005): 554–564.</ref> In both males and females, the base of the glans is covered with [[penile spines]].<ref>Drea, C. M., et al. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mary_Weldele/publication/13572702_Androgens_and_masculinization_of_genitalia_in_the_spotted_hyaena_(Crocuta_crocuta)._3._Effects_of_juvenile_gonadectomy/links/00463524c4bb4a865f000000.pdf Androgens and masculinization of genitalia in the spotted hyaena.]" J. Reprod. Fertil 113 (1998): 117–127.</ref><ref name="Estes1991">{{cite book|author=Richard Estes|title=The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates| url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_0520080858|url-access=registration|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-08085-0}}</ref> The formation of the pseudo-penis appears largely [[androgen]] independent, as the pseudo-penis appears in the female fetus before differentiation of the fetal ovary and adrenal gland.<ref name="differentiation" /> When flaccid, the pseudo-penis is retracted into the abdomen, and only the prepuce is visible. After giving [[birth]], the pseudo-penis is stretched, and loses many of its original aspects; it becomes a slack-walled and reduced [[Foreskin|prepuce]] with an enlarged orifice with split lips.<ref name="r357" />

==Behaviour==

===Social behaviour===
Spotted hyenas are social animals that live in large communities (referred to as "[[clan]]s") which can consist of at most 80 individuals.<ref name="k7">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=7}}</ref> Group-size varies geographically; in the Serengeti, where prey is migratory, clans are smaller than those in the Ngorongoro Crater, where prey is sedentary.<ref name="k240">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=240–241}}</ref> Spotted hyena clans are more compact and unified than [[wolf]] packs, but are not as closely knit as those of [[African wild dog]]s.<ref name="k276">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=276–278}}</ref> Females dominate males, with even the lowest ranking females being dominant over the highest ranking males. It is typical for females to remain with their natal clan, thus large clans usually contain several [[matriline]]s, whereas males typically disperse from their natal clan at the age of 2½ years. The clan is a [[fission-fusion society]], in which clan-members do not often remain together, but may forage alone or in small groups.<ref name="m36">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=36}}</ref> High-ranking hyenas maintain their position through aggression directed against lower-ranking clan-members.<ref name="drea"/> Spotted hyena [[hierarchy]] is [[nepotistic]]; the offspring of dominant females automatically outrank adult females subordinate to their mother.<ref name="mac138">{{Harvnb|Macdonald|1992|p=138}}</ref> However, rank in spotted hyena cubs is greatly dependent on the presence of the mother; low-ranking adults may act aggressively toward higher-ranking cubs when the mother is absent. Although individual spotted hyenas only care for their own young, and males take no part in raising their young, cubs are able to identify relatives as distantly related as great-aunts. Also, males associate more closely with their own daughters rather than unrelated cubs, and the latter favour their fathers by acting less aggressively toward them.<ref name="Journal"/>

Spotted hyena societies are more complex than those of other carnivorous mammals, and are remarkably similar to those of [[cercopithecine]] [[primate]]s in respect to group size, structure, competition and cooperation. Like cercopithecine primates, spotted hyenas use multiple sensory modalities, recognise individual conspecifics, are conscious that some clan-mates may be more reliable than others, recognise third-party kin and rank relationships among clan-mates, and adaptively use this knowledge during social decision making. Also, like cercopithecine primates, dominance ranks in hyena societies are not correlated with size or aggression, but with ally networks.<ref name="drea">Drea CM, Frank LG (2003) The social complexity of spotted hyenas. In: ''Animal Social Complexity: Intelligence, Culture, and Individualized Societies'' (eds de Waal FBM, Tyack PL). pp. 121–148, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.</ref><ref name="Journal">{{cite journal | last1 = Holekamp | first1 = KE | last2 = Sakai | first2 = ST | last3 = Lundrigan | first3 = BL | year = 2007 | title = Social intelligence in the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B | volume = 362 | issue = 1480| pages = 523–538 | pmc=2346515 | pmid=17289649 | doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1993}}</ref> In this latter trait, the spotted hyena further show parallels with primates by acquiring rank through [[coalition]]. However, rank reversals and overthrows in spotted hyena clans are very rare.<ref name="drea"/> The [[social network]] dynamics of spotted hyenas are determined by multiple factors.<ref name="ilany">{{cite journal | last1 = Ilany | first1 = A | last2 = Booms | first2 = AS | last3 = Holekamp | first3 = KE | year = 2015 | title = Topological effects of network structure on long-term social network dynamics in a wild mammal | journal = Ecology Letters | volume = 18| issue = 7| pages = 687–695| doi = 10.1111/ele.12447 | pmid = 25975663 | pmc = 4486283 }}</ref> Environmental factors include rainfall and prey abundance; individual factors include preference to bond with females and with kin; and topological effects include the tendency to [[Triadic closure|close triads]] in the network. Female hyenas are more flexible than males in their social bonding preferences.<ref name="ilany"/> Higher ranking adult spotted hyenas tend to have higher [[telomere]] length, and therefore are healthier, naturally live longer, and reproduce more.<ref>{{cite journal |date= 25 February 2015|title= Socioecological variables predict telomere length in wild spotted hyenas|journal= Biology Letters|volume= 11|issue= 2|page= 20140991|doi= 10.1098/rsbl.2014.0991|pmid= 25716089| last1 = Lewin | first1 = N.|pmc= 4360110}}</ref>

Territory size is highly variable, ranging from less than 40 km2 in the Ngorongoro Crater to over 1,000 km2 in the Kalahari. Home ranges are defended through vocal displays, scent marking and boundary patrols.<ref name="m36"/> Clans [[territorial marking|mark their territories]] by either pasting or pawing in special latrines located on clan range boundaries. Clan boundaries are usually respected; hyenas chasing prey have been observed to stop dead in their tracks once their prey crosses into another clan's range. Hyenas will however ignore clan boundaries in times of food shortage. Males are more likely to enter another clan's territory than females are, as they are less attached to their natal group and will leave it when in search of a mate. Hyenas travelling in another clan's home range typically exhibit bodily postures associated with fear, particularly when meeting other hyenas. An intruder can be accepted into another clan after a long period of time if it persists in wandering into the clan's territory, dens or kills.<ref name="k251">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=251–265}}</ref>

{{Anchor|Reproduction and development}}

===Mating, reproduction, and development===
[[File:Crocuta crocuta nursing.jpg|thumb|left|Female nursing cub, [[Amboseli National Park]], [[Kenya]] ]]
The spotted hyena is a non-seasonal breeder, though a birth peak does occur during the [[wet season]]. Females are polyestrous, with an [[estrus]] period lasting two weeks.<ref name="k27">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=27–31}}</ref> Like many [[feliformia|feliform]] species, the spotted hyena is [[promiscuity|promiscuous]], and no enduring [[pair bond]]s are formed. Members of both sexes may copulate with several mates over the course of several years.<ref name="courtship"/> Males will show submissive behaviour when approaching females in heat, even if the male outweighs his partner.<ref name="k230">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=230–233}}</ref> Females usually favour younger males born or joined into the clan after they were born. Older females show a similar preference, with the addition of preferring males with whom they have had long and friendly prior relationships.<ref>LiveScience Staff (15 August 2007) [http://www.livescience.com/animals/070815_hyenas_incest.html "How Hyenas Avoid Incest"].</ref> Passive males tend to have greater success in courting females than aggressive ones.<ref>[http://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/life_sciences/report-18381.html "It’s a dog’s life{{snd}} aggressive male hyenas fail to impress the girls"]. innovations-report.com. 14 May 2003.</ref> Copulation in spotted hyenas is a relatively short affair,<ref name="k230"/> lasting 4–12 minutes,<ref name="Estes1991"/> and typically only occurs at night with no other hyenas present.<ref name="k230"/> The mating process is complicated, as the male's penis enters and exits the female's reproductive tract through [[#Female genitalia|her pseudo-penis]] rather than directly through the [[vagina]], which is blocked by the false scrotum and testes. These unusual traits make mating more laborious for the male than in other mammals, while also ensuring that [[rape]] is physically impossible.<ref name="k210"/><ref name="courtship"/> Once the female retracts her clitoris, the male enters the female by sliding beneath her, an operation facilitated by the penis's upward angle. Once this is accomplished, a [[lordosis behavior|typical mammalian mating posture]] is adopted.<ref name="courtship"/><ref name="e293">{{Harvnb|Estes|1998|p=293}}</ref> Copulation may be repeated multiple times during a period of several hours.<ref name="courtship"/> Both partners usually lick their genitals for several minutes after mating.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = East | first1 = Marion L. |display-authors=etal | year = 2003 | title = Sexual conflicts in spotted hyenas: male and female mating tactics and their reproductive outcome with respect to age, social status and tenure | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences | volume = 270 | issue = 1521| pages = 1247–1254 | pmc=1691369 | pmid=12816637 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2003.2363}}</ref>
[[File:Spotted Hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) cubs (32380071374).jpg|thumb|Three cubs at the [[Kruger National Park]] in South Africa]]
[[File:Young spotted hyena, Serengeti, Tanzania.jpg|thumb|A spotted hyena cub in the [[Serengeti]], [[Tanzania]]. Note the well defined spots, which will fade with age.]]
The length of the gestation period tends to vary greatly, though 110 days is the average length of time.<ref name="k27"/> In the final stages of pregnancy, dominant females provide their developing offspring with higher [[androgen]] levels than lower-ranking mothers do. The higher androgen levels{{snd}} the result of high concentrations of ovarian androstenedione{{snd}} are thought to be responsible for the extreme [[masculinization]] of female behavior and morphology.<ref>Nelson RJ. 2005. ''Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology''. Sinauer Associates: Massachusetts. p. 115.</ref> This has the effect of rendering the cubs of dominant females more aggressive and sexually active than those of lower ranking hyenas; high ranking male cubs will attempt to mount females earlier than lower ranking males.<ref>[http://www.livescience.com/animals/060426_hyena_cubs.html ''The Painful Realities of Hyena Sex'', by Bjorn Carey, LiveScience Staff Writer, posted: 26 April 2006 01:00 pm ET].</ref> The average litter consists of two cubs, with three occasionally being reported.<ref name="k27"/> Males take no part in the raising of young.<ref name="k273">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=273}}</ref> Giving birth is difficult for female hyenas, as the females give birth through their narrow clitoris, and spotted hyena cubs are the largest carnivoran young relative to their mothers' weight.<ref name="mac140">{{Harvnb|Macdonald|1992|p=140}}</ref> During parturition, the clitoris ruptures in order to facilitate the passage of the young, and may take weeks to heal.<ref name="m36"/>

Cubs are born with soft, brownish black hair, and weigh 1.5 kg on average.<ref name="k247">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=247}}</ref> Unique among carnivorous mammals, spotted hyenas are also born with their eyes open and with 6–7 mm long canine teeth and 4 mm long incisors. Also, cubs will attack each other shortly after birth. This is particularly apparent in same sexed litters, and can result in the death of the weaker cub.<ref name="mac140"/> This neonatal [[siblicide]] kills an estimated 25% of all hyenas in their first month. Male cubs which survive grow faster and are likelier to achieve reproductive dominance, while female survivors eliminate rivals for dominance in their natal clan.<ref name="e293"/> Lactating females can carry {{convert|3|–|4|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of milk in their [[udders]].<ref name="mac138"/> Spotted hyena milk has the highest [[protein]] and fat content of any terrestrial carnivore.<ref name="m36"/><ref name="mm127">{{Harvnb|Mills|Mills|2011|p=127}}</ref> Cubs will nurse from their mother for 12–16 months, though they can process solid food as early as three months.<ref name="k248"/> Mothers do not regurgitate food for their young.<ref name="k242">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=242}}</ref> Females are very protective of their cubs, and will not tolerate other adults, particularly males, approaching them. Spotted hyenas exhibit adult behaviours very early in life; cubs have been observed to ritually sniff each other and mark their living space before the age of one month. Within ten days of birth, they are able to move at considerable speed. Cubs begin to lose the black coat and develop the spotted, lighter coloured pelage of the adults at 2–3 months. They begin to exhibit hunting behaviours at the age of eight months, and will begin fully participating in group hunts after their first year.<ref name="k248">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=248–249}}</ref> Spotted hyenas reach sexual maturity at the age of three years. The average lifespan in zoos is 12 years, with a maximum of 25 years.<ref name="Kruuk34">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=34}}</ref>

===Denning behaviour===
[[File:Spotted Hyena and young in Ngorogoro crater.jpg|thumb|upright|Spotted hyena and two cubs in their den, [[Ngorongoro Crater]], [[Tanzania]] ]]
The clan's social life revolves around a communal den. While some clans may use particular den sites for years, others may use several different dens within a year or several den sites simultaneously.<ref name="m36"/> Spotted hyena dens can have more than a dozen entrances, and are mostly located on flat ground. The tunnels are usually oval in section, being wider than they are high, and narrow down from an entrance width of ½–1 metre (1.6–7.7 ft) to as small as {{convert|25|cm|in|abbr=on}}. In the rocky areas of East Africa and Congo, spotted hyenas use caves as dens, while those in the Serengeti use [[Tor (rock formation)|kopjes]] as resting areas in daylight hours. Dens have large bare patches around their entrances, where hyenas move or lie down on. Because of their size, adult hyenas are incapable of using the full extent of their burrows, as most tunnels are dug by cubs or smaller animals. The structure of the den, consisting of small underground channels, is likely an effective anti-predator device which protects cubs from predation during the absence of the mother. Spotted hyenas rarely dig their own dens, having been observed for the most part to use the abandoned burrows of warthogs, springhares and jackals. Faeces are usually deposited {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=off}} away from the den, though they urinate wherever they happen to be. Dens are used mostly by several females at once, and it is not uncommon to see up to 20 cubs at a single site.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=242–247}}</ref> The general form of a spotted hyena den is tunnel-shaped, with a spacious end chamber used for sleeping or breeding. This chamber measures up to {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=off}} in width, the height being rather less.<ref name="r362">{{Harvnb|Rosevear|1974|p=362}}</ref> Females generally give birth at the communal den or a private birth den. The latter is primarily used by low status females in order to maintain continual access to their cubs, as well as ensure that they become acquainted with their cubs before transferral to the communal den.<ref name="m36"/>

===Intelligence===
Compared to other hyenas, the spotted hyena shows a greater relative amount of [[frontal cortex]] which is involved in the mediation of social behavior. Studies strongly suggest [[convergent evolution]] in spotted hyena and [[primate intelligence]].<ref name="Journal"/> A study done by evolutionary anthropologists demonstrated that spotted hyenas outperform [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]s on cooperative problem-solving tests; captive pairs of spotted hyenas were challenged to tug two ropes in unison to earn a food reward, successfully cooperating and learning the maneuvers quickly without prior training. Experienced hyenas even helped inexperienced clan-mates to solve the problem. In contrast, chimps and other primates often require extensive training, and cooperation between individuals is not always as easy for them.<ref name="duke">LiveScience Staff (28 September 2009) [http://www.livescience.com/animals/090928-hyenas-social-tasks.html "Hyenas Surprisingly Good at Cooperative Tasks"]</ref> The intelligence of the spotted hyena was attested to by Dutch colonists in 19th-century South Africa, who noted that hyenas were exceedingly cunning and suspicious, particularly after successfully escaping from traps.<ref name="moodie"/> Spotted hyenas seem to plan on hunting specific species in advance; hyenas have been observed to engage in activities such as scent marking before setting off to hunt zebras, a behaviour which does not occur when they target other prey species.<ref name="k176"/> Also, spotted hyenas have been recorded to utilise [[deception|deceptive]] behaviour, including giving alarm calls during feeding when no enemies are present, thus frightening off other hyenas and allowing them to temporarily eat in peace. Similarly, mothers will emit alarm calls when attempting to interrupt attacks on their cubs by other hyenas.<ref name="Journal"/>

===Hunting behaviour===
Unlike other large African carnivores, spotted hyenas do not preferentially prey on any species, and only [[African buffalo]] and [[giraffe]] are significantly avoided. Spotted hyenas prefer prey with a body mass range of {{convert|56|–|182|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, with a mode of {{convert|102|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="hayward">{{cite journal | last1 = Hayward | first1 = M. W. | year = 2006 | title = Prey preferences of the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) | url = http://www.zbs.bialowieza.pl/g2/pdf/1598.pdf | journal = Journal of Zoology | volume = 270 | issue = 4| pages = 606–614 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00183.x}}</ref> When hunting medium to large sized prey, spotted hyenas tend to select certain categories of animal; young animals are frequently targeted, as are old ones, though the latter category is not so significant when hunting zebras, due to their aggressive anti-predator behaviours.<ref name="k101">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=101}}</ref> The spotted hyena tracks live prey by [[Visual perception|sight]], [[hearing (sense)|hearing]] and [[Olfaction|smell]]. Carrion is detected by smell and the sound of other predators feeding. During daylight hours, they watch vultures descending upon carcasses. Their auditory perception is powerful enough to detect sounds of predators killing prey or feeding on carcasses over distances of up to {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="m33">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=33}}</ref> Unlike the grey wolf, the spotted hyena relies more on sight than smell when hunting, and does not follow its prey's prints or travel in single file.<ref name="k276" /> Small prey is killed by being shaken in the mouth, while large prey is eaten alive.<ref name="r366">{{Harvnb|Rosevear|1974|pp=365–366}}</ref>

Spotted hyenas usually hunt wildebeest either singly, or in groups of two or three. They catch adult wildebeest usually after {{convert|5|km|mi|abbr=on}} chases at speeds of up to 60 km/h (37 mi/h). Chases are usually initiated by one hyena and, with the exception of cows with calves, there is little active defence from the wildebeest herd. Wildebeest will sometimes attempt to escape hyenas by taking to water although, in such cases, the hyenas almost invariably catch them.<ref name="k148">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=148–176}}</ref> Zebras require different hunting methods to those used for wildebeest, due to their habit of running in tight groups and aggressive defence from [[stallion]]s. Typical zebra hunting groups consist of 10–25 hyenas,<ref name="k176" /> though there is one record of a hyena killing an adult zebra unaided.<ref>Brockmann, H. Jane; Snowdon, Charles T.; Macedo, Regina (2010) ''Behavioral Ecology of Tropical Animals: Volume 42 of Advances in the Study of Behavior'', Academic Press, p. 206, {{ISBN|0-12-380894-4}}</ref> During a chase, zebras typically move in tight bunches, with the hyenas pursuing behind in a [[crescent]] formation. Chases are usually relatively slow, with an average speed of 15–30 km/h. A stallion will attempt to place himself between the hyenas and the herd, though once a zebra falls behind the protective formation it is immediately set upon, usually after a chase of {{convert|3|km|mi|abbr=on}}. Though hyenas may harass the stallion, they usually only concentrate on the herd and attempt to dodge the stallion's assaults. Unlike stallions, mares typically only react aggressively to hyenas when their foals are threatened. Unlike wildebeest, zebras rarely take to water when escaping hyenas.<ref name="k176">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=176–185}}</ref> When hunting [[Thomson's gazelle]]s, spotted hyenas usually operate alone, and prey primarily on young fawns. Chases against both adult and young gazelles can cover distances of {{convert|5|km|mi|abbr=on}} with speeds of 60 km/h (37 mi/h). Female gazelles do not defend their fawns, though they may attempt to distract hyenas by feigning weakness.<ref name="k187">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=196–197}}</ref>

==Ecology==

===Diet===
[[File:Spotted hyena with skeleton.jpg|thumb|Spotted hyena with a wildebeest skeleton in [[Karatu]], [[Arusha]], Tanzania]]
The spotted hyena is the most carnivorous member of the Hyaenidae.<ref name="e337"/> Unlike its [[brown hyena|brown]] and [[striped hyena|striped]] cousins, the spotted hyena is a predator, not a scavenger; this has been shown since the 1960s.<ref name="kruuk">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=}}</ref> One of the earliest studies to demonstrate their hunting abilities was done by Hans Kruuk, an African wildlife ecologist, and he showed through a 7-year study of hyena populations in Africa that spotted hyenas hunt as much as lions, and with later studies this has been shown to be the average in all areas of Africa.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Aircylf1xo#t=378s Tyrants of the Cenozoic: Evolution of Bone-Crushing Hyenas and Dogs – YouTube]</ref> However spotted hyenas remain being mislabeled as scavengers, often even by ecologists and wildlife documentary channels.

====Efficiency====
The spotted hyena is very efficient at eating its prey; not only is it able to splinter and eat the largest ungulate bones, it is also able to digest them completely. Spotted hyenas can digest all organic components in bones, not just the [[Bone marrow|marrow]]. Any inorganic material is excreted with the faeces, which consist almost entirely of a white powder with few hairs. They react to alighting [[Old World vultures|vultures]] more readily than other African carnivores, and are more likely to stay in the vicinity of lion kills or human settlements.<ref name="k107">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=107–108}}</ref>

====Prey====
[[Wildebeest]] are the most commonly taken medium-sized ungulate prey item in both Ngorongoro and the Serengeti, with [[zebra]] and [[Thomson's gazelle]]s coming close behind.<ref name="k63">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=63–64}}</ref> [[Cape buffalo]] are rarely attacked due to differences in habitat preference, though adult bulls have been recorded to be taken on occasion.<ref name="k199">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=199}}</ref> In [[Kruger National Park]], [[blue wildebeest]], cape buffalo, [[Burchell's zebra]], [[greater kudu]] and [[impala]] are the spotted hyena's most important prey, while [[giraffe]], impala, wildebeest and zebra are its major food sources in the nearby [[Timbavati]] area. [[Springbok]] and [[kudu]] are the main prey in [[Namibia]]'s [[Etosha National Park]], and springbok in the [[Namib]]. In the southern [[Kalahari]], [[gemsbok]], wildebeest and springbok are the principal prey. In [[Chobe National Park|Chobe]], the spotted hyena's primary prey consists of migratory zebra and resident impala. In [[Kenya]]'s [[Masai Mara]], 80% of the spotted hyena's prey consists of [[topi]] and Thomson's gazelle, save for during the four-month period when zebra and wildebeest herds migrate to the area. [[Bushbuck]], [[suni]] and buffalo are the dominant prey items in the [[Aberdare Mountains]], while [[Grant's gazelle]], [[gerenuk]], [[sheep]], [[goat]]s and [[cattle]] are likely preyed upon in northern Kenya.

In west Africa, the spotted hyena is primarily a scavenger who will occasionally attack domestic stock and medium-size antelopes in some areas. In [[Cameroon]], it is common for spotted hyenas to feed on small antelopes like [[kob]], but may also scavenge on [[reedbuck]], [[kongoni]], buffalo, giraffe, [[African elephant]], topi and [[roan antelope]] carcasses. Records indicate that spotted hyenas in [[Malawi]] feed on medium to large-sized ungulates such as [[waterbuck]] and impala. In Tanzania's [[Selous Game Reserve]], spotted hyenas primarily prey on wildebeest, followed by buffalo, zebra, impala, giraffe, reedbuck and kongoni. In [[Uganda]], it is thought that the species primarily preys on birds and reptiles, while in [[Zambia]] it is considered a scavenger.<ref name="m32">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=32}}</ref>

Spotted hyenas have also been found to catch [[fish]], [[tortoise]]s, [[human]]s, [[black rhino]], [[hippo]] calves, young African elephants, [[pangolin]]s and [[Pythonidae|python]]s.<ref name="k65">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=65}}</ref> There is at least one record of four hyenas killing an adult or subadult hippopotamus in Kruger National Park.<ref name="mm104">{{Harvnb|Mills|Mills|2010|p=104}}</ref> Spotted hyenas may consume [[leather]] articles such as [[boot]]s and [[Belt (clothing)|belt]]s around campsites. [[Jane Goodall]] recorded spotted hyenas attacking or savagely playing with the exterior and interior fittings of [[car]]s, and the species is thought to be responsible for eating car [[Tire|tyre]]s.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{Harvnb|Rosevear|1974|pp=363–364}}</ref>

The fossil record indicates that the now extinct [[cave hyena|European spotted hyena]]s primarily fed on [[Przewalski's horse]]s, [[Irish elk]], [[reindeer]], [[red deer]], [[roe deer]], [[fallow deer]], [[wild boar]], [[ibex]], [[steppe wisent]], [[aurochs]], and [[woolly rhinoceros]]. Spotted hyenas are thought to be responsible for the dis-articulation and destruction of some [[cave bear]] skeletons. Such large carcasses were an optimal food resource for hyenas, especially at the end of winter, when food was scarce.<ref name="spelaea">{{cite web|url = http://www.geology.cz/bulletin/contents/art2006.04.237| title = Prey deposits and den sites of the Upper Pleistocene hyena Crocuta crocuta spelaea (Goldfuss, 1823)in horizontal and vertical caves of the Bohemian Karst| work = Cajusg. Diedrich & Karelzak|accessdate = 20 January 2008}}</ref>

====Feeding habits====
A single spotted hyena can eat at least 14.5 kg of meat per meal,<ref name="k124">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=124}}</ref> and although they act aggressively toward each other when feeding, they compete with each other mostly through speed of eating, rather than by fighting as lions do.<ref name="k128">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=128}}</ref> Spotted hyenas can take less than two minutes to eat a gazelle fawn,<ref name="k119"/> while a group of 35 hyenas can completely consume an adult zebra in 36 minutes.<ref name="k126">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=126}}</ref> Spotted hyenas do not require much water, and typically only spend 30 seconds drinking.<ref name="k127">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=127}}</ref>

When feeding on an intact carcass, spotted hyenas will first consume the meat around the loins and anal region, then open the abdominal cavity and pull out the soft organs. Once the stomach, its wall and contents are consumed, the hyenas will eat the lungs and abdominal and leg muscles. Once the muscles have been eaten, the carcass is disassembled and the hyenas carry off pieces to eat in peace.<ref name="k125">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=125–126}}</ref> Spotted hyenas are adept at eating their prey in water: they have been observed to dive under floating carcasses to take bites, then resurface to swallow.<ref name="k119">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=119}}</ref>

===Enemies and competitors===
====Lions====
[[File:Hyenas Fight Against Lions Over a Kill HD 13.png|thumb|Spotted hyenas mobbing a [[lion]], [[Sabi Sand Game Reserve]]]]
Where spotted hyenas and [[lion]]s occupy the same geographic area, the two species occupy the same ecological niche, and are thus in direct competition with one another. In some cases, the extent of dietary overlap can be as high as 68.8%.<ref name="hayward" /> Lions typically ignore spotted hyenas, unless they are on a kill or are being harassed by them. There exists a common misconception that hyenas steal kills from lions, but most often it is the other way around,<ref>Carroll, Chris (June 2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080209165826/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0506/feature3/index.html Behind the snarl lies a cagey opportunist, proficient hunter, and dutiful parent]. ''National Geographic''. Vol. 207 No. 6.</ref> and lions will readily steal the kills of spotted hyenas. In the [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area#Ngorongoro Crater|Ngorongoro Crater]], it is common for lions to subsist largely on kills stolen from hyenas. Lions are quick to follow the calls of hyenas feeding, a fact demonstrated by field experiments, during which lions repeatedly approached whenever the tape-recorded calls of hyenas feeding were played.<ref name=autogenerated5>{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=128–137}}</ref>

When confronted on a kill by lions, spotted hyenas will either leave or wait patiently at a distance of 30–100 metres until the lions have finished eating.<ref name="s272">{{Harvnb|Schaller|1976|p=272}}</ref> In some cases, spotted hyenas are bold enough to feed alongside lions, and may occasionally force lions off a kill.<ref name="k128"/> This mostly occurs during the nighttime, when hyenas are bolder.<ref name="s273">{{Harvnb|Schaller|1976|p=273}}</ref> Spotted hyenas usually prevail against groups of lionesses unaccompanied by males if they outnumber them 4:1.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1991.tb00993.x|author=Cooper, S.|title= Optimal hunting group size: the need for lions to defend their kills against loss to spotted hyaenas|year=1991|journal=African Journal of Ecology|volume=29|issue=2|pages=130–136}}</ref> In some instances they were seen to have taken on and routed two pride males while outnumbering them 5:1.<ref>Pope, Steve (2 November 2009) [http://www.africahunting.com/content/2-hyena-scavenger-predator-human-influence-hyena-lion-364/ Hyena: Scavenger or Predator? The Human Influence on Hyena & Lion]. AfricaHunting.com</ref>

The two species may act aggressively toward one another even when there is no food at stake.<ref name="s273"/> Lions may charge at hyenas and maul them for no apparent reason; one male lion was filmed killing two hyenas on separate occasions without eating them,<ref name="enemies">{{cite video|people=Dereck and Beverley Joubert |title= Eternal Enemies: Lions and Hyenas |medium=[[DVD]]|publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]|date=1992}}</ref> and lion predation can account for up to 71% of hyena deaths in [[Etosha]]. Spotted hyenas have adapted to this pressure by frequently [[Mobbing (animal behavior)|mobbing]] lions which enter their territories.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00574.x|author1=Trinkel, Martina |author2=Katsberger, Gerald |lastauthoramp=yes |title= Competitive interactions between spotted hyenas and lions in the Etosha National Park, Namibia|year=2005|journal=African Journal of Ecology|volume=43|issue=3|pages=220–224}}</ref> Experiments on captive spotted hyenas revealed that specimens with no prior experience with lions act indifferently to the sight of them, but will react fearfully to the scent.<ref name=autogenerated7>{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=248}}</ref>

====Cheetahs and leopards====
Although [[cheetah]]s and [[leopard]]s preferentially prey on smaller animals than those hunted by spotted hyenas, hyenas will steal their kills when the opportunity presents itself. Cheetahs are usually easily intimidated by hyenas, and put up little resistance,<ref name=autogenerated2>{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=138–139}}</ref> while leopards, particularly males, may stand up to hyenas. There are records of some male leopards preying on hyenas.<ref name="Leopard">{{cite book | author = Jonathan Scott | author2 = Angela Scott | last-author-amp = yes | title = Big Cat Diary: Leopard | year = 2006 | page = 108 | isbn = 978-0-00-721181-4}}</ref> Hyenas are nonetheless dangerous opponents for leopards; there is at least one record of a young adult male leopard dying from a [[sepsis]] infection caused by wounds inflicted by a spotted hyena.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Mortality in a protected Leopard population, Phinda Private Game Reserve, South Africa: A population in decline? |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=6 |year=2004 |last=Balme |first=Guy |last2=Hunter |first2=Luke |url=https://www.panthera.org/sites/default/files/Balme_Hunter_2004_Mortality_in_a_protected_leopard_population_in_South_Africa_0.pdf |accessdate=31 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903021736/http://www.panthera.org/sites/default/files/Balme_Hunter_2004_Mortality_in_a_protected_leopard_population_in_South_Africa_0.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> There is also a case of two spotted hyenas killing and eating a young leopard in [[Timbavati Game Reserve]], apparently in revenge after a young hyena was killed by the leopard.<ref>Walker,Steve (19 August 2014) [http://africageographic.com/blog/hyenas-kill-a-leopard/ Hyenas kill a leopard]. ''African Geographic''</ref>

====African wild dogs====
[[File:Sabi Sand Wild Safari Live Feb 29 2016 sunrise - Spotted hyena vs wild dogs.png|thumb|Spotted hyena confronting [[African wild dog]]s, [[Sabi Sand Game Reserve]]]]
Spotted hyenas will follow packs of [[African wild dog]]s in order to appropriate their kills. They will typically inspect areas where wild dogs have rested and eat any food remains they find. When approaching wild dogs at a kill, solitary hyenas will approach cautiously and attempt to take off with a piece of meat unnoticed, though they may be mobbed by the dogs in the attempt. When operating in groups, spotted hyenas are more successful in pirating dog kills, though the dog's greater tendency to assist each other puts them at an advantage against spotted hyenas, who rarely work in unison. Cases of dogs scavenging from spotted hyenas are rare. Although wild dog packs can easily repel solitary hyenas, on the whole, the relationship between the two species is a one sided benefit for the hyenas,<ref name="k139">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=139–141}}</ref> with wild dog densities being negatively correlated with high hyena populations.<ref>Creel, Scott; Creel, Nancy Marusha (2002), ''The African wild dog: behavior, ecology, and conservation'', Princeton University Press, pp. 253–254, {{ISBN|0-691-01654-2}}</ref>

====Jackals and wolves====
[[black-backed jackal|Black-backed]] and [[side-striped jackal]]s, and [[African golden wolf|African golden wolves]] will feed alongside hyenas, though they will be chased if they approach too closely. Spotted hyenas will sometimes follow jackals and wolves during the gazelle fawning season, as jackals and wolves are effective at tracking and catching young animals. Hyenas do not take to eating wolf flesh readily; four hyenas were reported to take half an hour in eating a [[African golden wolf|golden wolf]]. Overall, the two animals typically ignore each other when there is no food or young at stake.<ref name="k141">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=141–143}}</ref>

====Other competitors====
Though they readily take to water to catch and store prey, spotted hyenas will avoid crocodile-infested waters,<ref name="k146">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=146}}</ref> and usually keep a safe distance from [[Nile crocodile]]s. Recent observations shows that [[African rock python]]s can hunt adult spotted hyenas.<ref>Greshko, Michael (15 March 2017) [https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/03/snakes-pythons-africa-hyena-kill/ Python eats hyena]. ''National Geographic''</ref>

====Other hyena species====
Spotted hyenas dominate other hyena species wherever their ranges overlap. [[Brown hyena]]s encounter spotted hyenas in the [[Kalahari]], where the brown outnumber the spotted. The two species typically encounter each other on carcasses, which the larger spotted species usually appropriate. Sometimes, brown hyenas will stand their ground and raise their manes while emitting growls. This usually has the effect of seemingly confusing spotted hyenas, which will act bewildered, though they will occasionally attack and maul their smaller cousins. Similar interactions have been recorded between spotted and [[striped hyena]]s in the Serengeti.<ref>Harvey, Martin and Mills, M. G. L. (October 2001) "Spotted Hyaena versus Brown Hyaena, Skirmishes in the Desert". ''African Predators'', Smithsonian Books. {{ISBN|1560980966}}</ref>

==Communication==

===Body language===
[[File:Hyena Standoff.jpg|thumb|left|Spotted hyenas interacting aggressively in the Masai Mara]]
[[File:Hyena greeting ceremony.jpg|thumb|Spotted hyenas greeting one another in [[Kruger National Park]] ]]
Spotted hyenas have a complex set of postures in communication. When afraid, the ears are folded flat, and are often combined with baring of the teeth and a flattening of the mane. When attacked by other hyenas or by wild dogs, the hyena lowers its hindquarters. Before and during an assertive attack, the head is held high with the ears cocked, mouth closed, mane erect and the hindquarters high. The tail usually hangs down when neutral, though it will change position according to the situation. When a high tendency to flee an attacker is apparent, the tail is curled below the belly. During an attack, or when excited, the tail is carried forward on the back. An erect tail does not always accompany a hostile encounter, as it has also been observed to occur when a harmless social interaction occurs. Although they do not wag their tails, spotted hyenas will flick their tails when approaching dominant animals or when there is a slight tendency to flee. When approaching a dominant animal, subordinate spotted hyenas will walk on the knees of their forelegs in submission.<ref name="k216">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=216–220}}</ref> Greeting ceremonies among clan-members consist of two individuals standing parallel to each other and facing opposite directions. Both individuals raise their hind legs and [[social grooming|lick each other's anogenital area]].<ref name="m36"/> During these greeting ceremonies, the penis or pseudo-penis often becomes erect, in both males and females. Erection is usually a sign of submission, rather than dominance, and is more common in males than in females.<ref name="Francis2004">{{cite book|author=Richard C. Francis|title=Why Men Won't Ask for Directions: The Seductions of Sociobiology|url=https://archive.org/details/whymenwontaskfor00fran|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-05757-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/whymenwontaskfor00fran/page/178 178]}}</ref>

===Vocalisations===
{{quote|It is said that feasting Hyaenas engage in violent fights, and there is such a croaking, shrieking and laughing at such times that a superstitious person might really think all the inhabitants of the infernal regions had been let loose.|Alfred Brehm (1895)<ref name="b184">{{Harvnb|Brehm|1895|p=184}}</ref>}}

The spotted hyena has an extensive vocal range, with sounds ranging from whoops, fast whoops, grunts, groans, lows, giggles, yells, growls, soft grunt-laughs, loud grunt-laughs, whines and soft squeals. The loud "who-oop" call, along with the maniacal laughter, are among the most recognisable sounds of Africa. Typically, very high-pitched calls indicate fear or submission, while loud, lower-pitched calls express aggression.<ref name="k220">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=220}}</ref> The pitch of the laugh indicates the hyena's age, while variations in the frequency of notes used when hyenas make noises convey information about the animal's social rank.<ref>Walker, Matt (30 March 2010) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8593000/8593789.stm Hyena laughs and giggles decoded], ''Earth News''</ref>

Dr. Hans Kruuk compiled the following table on spotted hyena calls in 1972;<ref name="k310">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=310–311}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name
! Vocalization
! Sound description
! Posture
! Context
|-
|'''Whoop'''
|[[File:Spotted Hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) (W1CDR0000381 BD12).ogg|Spotted Hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) (W1CDR0000381 BD12)]]
|A series of 6–9 (sometimes 15) calls lasting 2–3 seconds each and spaced 2–10 seconds apart. The general tone is an "oo" tone which begins in a low pitch and ends with a high note. This sound can be heard more than 5 km away.
|Usually done standing, with the mouth opened slightly and the head bent down
|Used by both sexes when alone or in a group, and appears to be done spontaneously without external cause
|-
|'''Fast whoop'''
|
|Similar to the whoop, but higher pitched and with shorter intervals
|Tail is either horizontal or high with the ears cocked. Often done while running, with the mouth bent down
|Used with other hyenas present just before the onset of an attack, often during a dispute over a kill with lions or other hyenas
|-
|'''Grunt'''
|[[File:Spotted Hyena Grunting (Crocuta crocuta).ogg]]
|A soft, very low pitched growling sound which lasts several seconds.
|The mouth is closed, and the posture aggressive.
|Emitted on the approach of another, unwelcome hyena, and may be followed by chasing
|-
|'''Groan'''
|
|Similar to above, but more "ooo" sounding and higher in pitch
|
|Before and during meeting ceremonies
|-
|'''Low'''
|
|"Ooo" sound with a usually low pitch and lasts several seconds
|The mouth is slightly open with the head horizontal.
|Like the fast whoop, but with less tendency to attack
|-
|'''Giggle'''
|[[File:Giggling call of a spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) - 1472-6785-10-9-S4.oga]]
|A series of loud, very high pitched "hee-hee-hee" sounds usually lasting less than 5 seconds.
|Running in a fleeing posture with the mouth slightly open
|When attacked or chased, usually over a kill
|-
|'''Yell'''
|
|A loud, high pitched call lasting several seconds
|As with the giggle
|As with the giggle, but when actually being bitten
|-
|'''Growl'''
|
|A loud, rattling, low pitched sound lasting several seconds, with an "aa" and "oh" quality
|Defensive posture
|When under attack, preceding a retaliatory bite
|-
|'''Soft grunt-laugh'''
|
|A rapid succession of low pitched, soft sounding staccato grunts lasting several seconds
|The mouth is closed or slightly open with a fleeing posture and the tail horizontal or high and the ears cocked
|When fleeing in surprise from a lion, man or when attacking large prey
|-
|'''Loud grunt-laugh'''
|
|Louder than the soft grunt-laugh, though still not very loud, and often lasts more than 5 minutes
|The mouth is the same as in the soft grunt-laugh, but with the tail high and ears cocked
|In encounters with lions or other hyena clans
|-
|'''Whine'''
|
|Loud, high pitched, rapid, drawn out "eeee" sounding squeals
|The mouth is slightly open with the head and tail hanging low
|Mostly used by cubs when following a female before suckling, or when thwarted from getting food
|-
|'''Soft squeal'''
|
|Same as above, but softer and without the staccato quality
|The mouth is slightly open with the ears flattened and the head tilted to one side with the teeth bared
|Used by both cubs and adults encountering a clan-mate after a long separation
|-
|}

==Diseases and parasites==
Spotted hyenas may contract [[brucellosis]], [[rinderpest]]{{citation needed|date=November 2013|reason=This is a disease of even-toed ungulates: can it really infect carnivores too? No mention of any carnivores in rinderpest article, and I can find no refs, even in comprehensive studies such as Williams and Barker, Infectious Diseases of Wild Mammals (2008).}} and [[anaplasmosis]]. They are vulnerable to ''[[Trypanosoma congolense]]'', which is contracted by consuming already infected herbivores, rather than through direct infection from [[tsetse fly|tsetse flies]].<ref name="k38">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|p=38}}</ref> It is known that adult spotted hyenas in the Serengeti have [[antibodies]] against [[rabies]], [[canine herpes]], [[Brucella canis|canine brucellosis]], [[canine parvovirus]], [[feline calicivirus]], [[leptospirosis]], [[Brucella abortus|bovine brucellosis]], rinderpest and anaplasmosis. During the [[canine distemper]] outbreak of 1993–94, molecular studies indicated that the viruses isolated from hyenas and lions were more closely related to each other than to the closest canine distemper virus in dogs. Evidence of canine distemper in spotted hyenas has also been recorded in the Masai Mara. Exposure to rabies does not cause clinical symptoms or affect individual survival or longevity. Analyses of several hyena saliva samples showed that the species is unlikely to be a rabies vector, thus indicating that the species catches the disease from other animals rather than from intraspecifics. The [[microfilaria]] of ''[[Dipetalonema dracuneuloides]]'' have been recorded in spotted hyenas in northern Kenya. The species is known to carry at least three [[cestode]] species of the genus ''[[Taenia (genus)|Taenia]]'', none of which are harmful to humans. It also carries [[protozoa]]n parasites of the genus ''[[Hepatozoon]]'' in the Serengeti, Kenya and South Africa.<ref name="m38">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=38}}</ref> Spotted hyenas may act as hosts in the life-cycles of various parasites which start life in herbivores; ''[[Taenia (tapeworm)|Taenia hyaenae]]'' and ''T. olnogojinae'' occur in hyenas in their adult phase. ''[[Trichinella spiralis]]'' are found as [[cyst]]s in hyena muscles.<ref name="k38"/>

==Range, habitat and population==
The spotted hyena's distribution once ranged in [[Europe]] from the [[Iberian Peninsula]] to the [[Urals]], where it remained for at least one million years.<ref name="varela"/> Remains have also been found in the [[Russian Far East]], and it has been theorised that the presence of hyenas there may have delayed the [[Prehistoric migration and settlement of the Americas from Asia|colonisation of North America]].<ref>Summerill, Lynette; [http://www.asu.edu/research/researchmagazine/2003Summer/sum03p34-37.pdf Gnawed Bones tell Tales], Summer 2003, ASU Research</ref> The causes of the species' extinction in Eurasia are still largely unknown.<ref name="varela">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.04.017 | volume=29 | issue=17–18 | title=Were the Late Pleistocene climatic changes responsible for the disappearance of the European spotted hyena populations? Hindcasting a species geographic distribution across time | year=2010 | journal=Quaternary Science Reviews | pages=2027–2035 | last1 = Varela | first1 = Sara | url = http://paleobiogeography.org/uploads/assets/1_Varela_et_al_QSR_2010.pdf | bibcode=2010QSRv...29.2027V }}</ref> In [[Western Europe]] at least, the spotted hyena's extinction coincided with a decline in [[grassland]]s 12,500 years ago. Europe experienced a massive loss of lowland habitats favoured by spotted hyenas, and a corresponding increase in [[mixed woodland]]s. Spotted hyenas, under these circumstances, would have been outcompeted by [[grey wolf|wolves]] and [[human]]s which were as much at home in forests as in open lands, and in highlands as in lowlands. Spotted hyena populations began to shrink roughly 20,000 years ago, completely disappearing from Western Europe between 14–11,000 years ago, and earlier in some areas.<ref name="stiner">C. Stiner, Mary (2004) [http://www.u.arizona.edu/~mstiner/pdf/Stiner2004a.pdf Comparative ecology and taphonomy of spotted hyenas, humans, and wolves in Pleistocene Italy], ''Revue de Paléobiologie, Genève''</ref>

Historically, the spotted hyena was widespread throughout [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. It is present in all habitats save for the most extreme desert conditions, tropical rainforests and the top of alpine mountains. Its current distribution is patchy in many places, especially in West Africa. Populations are concentrated in protected areas and surrounding land. There is a continuous distribution over large areas of [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]] and the [[Transvaal Province|Transvaal]] Lowveld areas of [[South Africa]].<ref name="m54">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|pp=54–56}}</ref> During the 1770s and 1780s the species was still widespread in southern and western South Africa, being recorded i.a. on the [[Cape Peninsula]] and [[Cape Flats]], and near present-day [[Somerset West]], [[Riviersonderend]], [[Mossel Bay]], [[George, Western Cape|George]], [[Joubertina]], [[Gamtoos River]], [[Jansenville]], [[Cannon Rocks]], [[Alice, Eastern Cape|Alice]], [[Onseepkans]] and [[Augrabies Falls]].<ref name="rook">{{cite book|last1=Rookmaaker |first1=L. C. |title=The zoological exploration of southern Africa, 1650–1790 |date=1989 |publisher=A. Balkema|location=Rotterdam |isbn=9789061918677 |pages=112, 114, 132, 173, 252, 254}}</ref>

The species dwells in semi-[[desert]]s, [[savannah]], open [[woodland]], dense dry woodland, and mountainous forests up to 4,000 m in altitude. It is scarce or absent in [[tropical rainforest]]s and [[coast]]al areas. Its preferred habitats in west Africa include the Guinea and Sudan savannahs, and is absent in the belt of dense coastal forest. In the [[Namib Desert]], it occurs in riverine growth along seasonal rivers, the sub-desertic pro-Namib and the adjoining inland plateau. In ideal habitats, the spotted hyena outnumbers other large carnivores, including other hyena species. However, the striped and brown hyena occur at greater densities than the spotted species in desert and semi-desert regions.<ref name="m31">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=31}}</ref> [[Population density|Population densities]] based on systematic censuses vary substantially, from 0.006 to 1.7 individuals per km2.<ref name="iucn" />

{| class="wikitable collapsed"
|-
! Country
! Population
! Status
! Threats/protection
|-
|{{flag|Angola}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=74}}</ref>
|[[Data deficient]]<ref name="m75">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|pp=75–78}}</ref>
|Although present, its numbers are unknown due to the [[Angolan Civil War]]<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Benin}}
|50–100<ref name="m74"/>
|[[Threatened]]<ref name="m75"/>
|Although generally tolerated, spotted hyenas in Benin are declining due to persecution and prey depletion.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Botswana}}
|1,000–2,000<ref name="m74"/>
|[[Lower risk]]<ref name="m75"/>
|Botswana's spotted hyena population is stable and legally protected by the Fauna Conservation Acts of 1982 and 1987, where it is listed as a game animal. A single game licence is required to hunt one, and control measures have largely removed the species from settled areas.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
|100-1,000<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|Burkina Faso's hyenas are depleted in number because of hunting, poaching and declining prey populations. Though still poisoned and trapped in retaliation against livestock depredations, the species is otherwise tolerated.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Burundi}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m75"/>
|Probably on the verge of extinction<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Cameroon}}
|100-1,000<ref name="m74"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m75"/>
|Although protected within national parks, Cameroon hyenas suffer from habitat desertification and human expansion, and are sometimes killed by tourist hunters and herdsmen.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Central African Republic}}
|100-1,000<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|Although spotted hyena populations in CAR are probably stable and are generally tolerated, their level of legal protection is unknown.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Chad}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of Congo}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Djibouti}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Eritrea}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=68}}</ref>
|
|-
|{{flag|Ethiopia}}
|1,000–2,000<ref name="m74"/>
|Lower risk<ref name="m75"/>
|Ethiopia has a stable population of hyenas which are considered valuable in clearing urban and rural populated areas, and are occasionally provisioned by the [[Spotted hyenas in Harar|hyena men of Harar]]. There is no active bounty on them, even though they are considered vermin. They may be hunted without licence outside of national parks for five Ethiopian Birr (US$2.50).<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Gabon}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|No Record<ref name="m75"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Ghana}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Lower risk<ref name="m75"/>
|Although still relatively common in some protected areas, spotted hyenas are likely declining due to persecution.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Kenya}}
|2,000–4,000<ref name="m74"/>
|Lower risk<ref name="m75"/>
|Kenya's spotted hyena population differs in status for protected and unprotected areas, being lower risk in protected areas and threatened elsewhere. They are thought to be declining due to persecution through poisoning, shooting, snaring and trapping.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Liberia}}
|0<ref name="m74"/>
|No Record<ref name="m75"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Malawi}}
|100-1,000<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|Malawi hyena populations occur at reasonable densities, though a growth in human population, habitat destruction and reduction in prey have caused the species to disappear from the central highlands. They are protected inside national parks, but are not tolerated elsewhere.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Mali}}
|10–50<ref name="m74"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m75"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Mauritania}}
|100–500<ref name="m74"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m75"/>
|Spotted hyenas are still present in the [[Adrar Region|Adrar]].<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Mozambique}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|Although protected by law, spotted hyenas are still hunted for their body parts.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Namibia}}
|2,000–3,000<ref name="m74"/>
|Lower risk<ref name="m75"/>
|Namibian hyena populations are classed as lower risk in protected areas and threatened elsewhere. They are occasionally killed in communal and commercial farming areas.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Niger}}
|20–50<ref name="m74"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m75"/>
|Niger's hyena populations are declining due to drought, desertification, eradication and poisoning.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|100<ref name="m74"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m75"/>
|Nigerian spotted hyenas are on the verge of extinction, due to lack of legal protection, declines in prey populations and persecution in retaliation to livestock predation.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Rwanda}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m75"/>
|Although present in Rwanda, it is unlikely that many individuals have survived the destruction of conservation areas during the [[Rwandan Civil War]].<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Senegal}}
|100-1,000<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|Although considered useful scavengers and are afforded legal protection in national parks, spotted hyenas are not tolerated elsewhere.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Sierra Leone}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m75"/>
|Although no longer regarded as pests, the population size and dynamics of spotted hyenas in Sierra Leone are unknown.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Somalia}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|[[Cape Province|Cape]]: 80–100<ref name="m74"/> [[Transvaal Province|Transvaal]]: 50–100<ref name="m74"/> [[Kruger National Park|Kruger]]: 1,300–3,900<ref name="m74"/> [[Natal (region)|Natal]]: 250–1,000<ref name="m74"/>
|Cape: threatened<ref name="m75"/> Transvaal: threatened<ref name="m75"/> Kruger: data deficient<ref name="m75"/> Natal: threatened<ref name="m75"/>
|Cape spotted hyena populations are even smaller than those of local brown hyenas, due to past persecution. Transvaal's spotted hyenas are not protected, though they are not bountied. Natal's spotted hyenas have been increasing in number within all game preserves and nature reserves, where they are protected.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Sudan}}
|Unknown<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Tanzania}}
|[[Serengeti]]: 7,200–7,700<ref name="m74"/> Elsewhere: 3,000–4,500<ref name="m74"/>
|Lower risk<ref name="m75"/> Threatened<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Uganda}}
|100-1,000<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|Although protected and tolerated, Ugandan hyenas rarely occur outside protected areas<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Zambia}}
|1,000–2,000<ref name="m74"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m75"/>
|Zambia's hyenas are increasing in the [[Luangwa Valley]], but declining elsewhere.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}
|5,600<ref name="m74"/>
|Lower risk<ref name="m75"/>
|Although possibly declining in number in some areas,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=Samual|last2=Williams|first2=Kathryn|last3=Joubert|first3=Christoffel|last4=Hill|first4=Russell|title=The impact of land reform on the status of large carnivores in Zimbabwe|journal=PeerJ|date=14 January 2016|volume=4|page=e1537|doi=10.7717/peerj.1537|pmid=26819838|pmc=4728035}}</ref> spotted hyenas are not protected and are considered problem animals in the 8th Schedule of the Parks and Wildlife.<ref name="m75"/>
|-
|}

==Relationships with humans==

===Cultural depictions and perceptions===

====In prehistory====
[[File:Crocuta crocuta cave art - Chauvet cave.png|left|thumb|Trace of a 20,000-year-old spotted hyena painting from the [[Chauvet Cave]], [[France]] ]]
[[File:Speerschleuder LaMadeleine.jpg|thumb|[[Atlatl]] [[Elephant and mammoth ivory|mammoth ivory]] "creeping hyena", found in [[Abri de la Madeleine|La Madeleine]] rock shelter, dated back to circa 12,000 to 17,000 years ago]]
The spotted hyena ([[cave hyena]] subspecies) is depicted in a few examples of [[Upper Palaeolithic]] rock art in [[France]]. A painting from the [[Chauvet Cave]] depicts a hyena outlined and represented in profile, with two legs, with its head and front part with well distinguishable spotted coloration pattern. Because of the specimen's steeped profile, it is thought that the painting was originally meant to represent a [[cave bear]], but was modified as a hyena. In [[Lascaux]], a red and black rock painting of a hyena is present in the part of the cave known as the Diverticule axial, and is depicted in profile, with four limbs, showing an animal with a steep back. The body and the long neck have spots, including the flanks. An image on a cave in [[Ariège (department)|Ariège]] shows an incompletely outlined and deeply engraved figure, representing a part of an elongated neck, smoothly passing into part of the animal's forelimb on the proximal side. Its head is in profile, with a possibly re-engraved muzzle. The ear is typical of the spotted hyena, as it is rounded. An image in the Le Gabillou Cave in [[Dordogne]] shows a deeply engraved zoomorphic figure with a head in frontal view and an elongated neck with part of the forelimb in profile. It has large round eyes and short, rounded ears which are set far from each other. It has a broad, line-like mouth that evokes a [[smile]]. Though originally thought to represent a composite or zoomorphic hybrid, it is probable it is a spotted hyena based on its broad muzzle and long neck.<ref name="spassov"/>
[[File:Wezmeh.jpg|thumb|left|Late Pleistocene molar tooth of spotted hyena from Wezmeh Cave, Zagros, Iran]]
The relative scarcity of hyena depictions in Paleolithic rock art has been theorised to be due to the animal's lower rank in the [[animal worship]] hierarchy; the spotted hyena's appearance was likely unappealing to Ice Age hunters, and it was not sought after as prey. Also, it was not a serious rival like the [[Panthera leo spelaea|cave lion]] or [[cave bear]], and it lacked the impressiveness of the [[mammoth]] or [[woolly rhino]].<ref name="spassov">{{cite journal | last1 = Spassov | first1 = N. | last2 = Stoytchev | first2 = T. | year = 2004 | title = The presence of cave hyaena (Crocuta crocuta spelaea) in the Upper Palaeolithic rock art of Europe | url = http://www.nmnhs.com/downloads/pdfs/historia-naturalis-bulgarica/2004/016-159-166.pdf | journal = Historia Naturalis Bulgarica | volume = 16 | pages = 159–166 | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120415101508/http://www.nmnhs.com/downloads/pdfs/historia-naturalis-bulgarica/2004/016-159-166.pdf | archivedate = 15 April 2012 }}</ref>

====In Africa====
[[File:Masque hyène Bwa-Musée barrois (3).jpg|thumb|upright|Spotted hyena mask from [[Burkina Faso]], Musée barrois]]
[[File:The Hyena Man of Harar.jpg|thumb|Spotted hyena being fed in [[Harar]], [[Ethiopia]] ]]
In Africa, the spotted hyena is usually portrayed as an abnormal and ambivalent animal, considered to be sly, brutish, [[necrophagy|necrophagous]] and dangerous. It further embodies physical power, excessivity, ugliness, stupidity, as well as [[sacredness]]. Spotted hyenas vary in their folkloric and mythological depictions, depending on the ethnic group from which the tales originate. It is often difficult to know whether or not spotted hyenas are the specific hyena species featured in such stories, particularly in West Africa, as both spotted and striped hyenas are often given the same names.<ref name="jurgen"/> In west African tales, spotted hyenas symbolise immorality, dirty habits, the reversal of normal activities, and other negative traits, and are sometimes depicted as bad [[Muslim]]s who challenge the local [[animism]] that exists among the Beng in [[Côte d’Ivoire]]. In East Africa, [[Tabwa]] mythology portrays the spotted hyena as a solar animal that first brought the sun to warm the cold earth.<ref name="jurgen">{{cite journal | last1 = Frembgen | first1 = Jürgen W. | year = 1998 | title = The Magicality of the Hyena: Beliefs and Practices in West and South Asia | url = http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/364| journal = Asian Folklore Studies | volume = 57 | issue = 2| pages = 331–344 | doi=10.2307/1178757| jstor = 1178757}}</ref>

In the culture of the [[Mbugwe people|Mbugwe]] in Tanzania, the spotted hyena is linked to [[witchcraft]]. According to Mbugwe folklore, every witch possesses one or more hyenas, which are referred to as "night cattle" and are branded with an invisible mark. It is said that all hyenas are owned by witches, and that truly wild hyenas are non-existent. Lactating female spotted hyenas are said to be [[milking|milk]]ed by their owners every night to make [[hyena butter]], and are further used as mounts. When a witch acquires a hyena mount, he rides it to distant lands in order to bewitch victims and return safely home before morning. The Mbugwe consider killing hyenas to be dangerous, as the bond between the hyena and its owner is very strong, and will likely result in the witch seeking retribution. In order to obviate this danger, a killed hyena usually has its ears, tail and front legs cut off and buried, as these are the parts which are supposed to be marked by the witches' brand.<ref>Middleton, John; Winter, E. H. (2004). ''Witchcraft and Sorcery in East Africa'', Routledge, pp. 165–167, {{ISBN|0-415-33073-4}}</ref> In the [[Mtwara Region]] of Tanzania, it is believed that a child born at night while a hyena is crying will likely grow up to be a thief. In the same area, hyena faeces are believed to enable a child to walk at an early age, thus it is not uncommon in that area to see children with hyena dung wrapped in their clothes.<ref name="m97">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=97}}</ref>

The [[Kaguru]] of Tanzania and the Kujamaat of Southern Senegal view hyenas as [[inedible]] and greedy hermaphrodites. A mythical African tribe called the ''[[Buda (folk religion)|Bouda]]'' is reputed to house members able to transform into hyenas.<ref name="glickman">Glickman, Stephen (1995). ''[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-17909878.html "The Spotted Hyena from Aristotle to the Lion King: Reputation is Everything{{snd}} In the Company of Animals"], Social Research, Volume 62</ref> A similar myth occurs in [[Mansôa]], Guinea-Bissau. These "[[werehyena]]s" are executed when discovered, but do not revert to their human form when killed.<ref name="m97"/> In [[Khoikhoi mythology]], the spotted hyena is often the butt of the jackal's tricks. [[Gogo people|Gogo]] folklore links the spotted hyena to the origin of death; in one tale, the hyena prevents humanity from achieving [[immortality]], thus ensuring it can continue to eat corpses. A similar tale is present among the [[Meru people|Meru]]. In their narrative, the supreme god Murungu sent a [[Golden mole|mole]] to inform humanity that they would be reborn after death. Fearing this would deprive it of corpses to eat, the hyena prevents the mole from ever delivering the message. [[Madi people|Madi]] and [[Nuer people|Nuer]] mythology links the spotted hyena to the separation between [[heaven]] and [[earth]]; at one time, humanity kept in contact with the Creator in the sky via a cowhide rope, which was subsequently severed by a hungry hyena.<ref>Lynch, Patricia Ann (2004) ''African mythology A to Z'', Infobase Publishing, pp. 47–48, {{ISBN|0-8160-4892-4}}</ref> The spotted hyena is a sacred [[totem]] animal for some [[Pedi people|Pedi]] tribes, with the skin often being used as robes by chieftains and their bones as divining instruments.<ref>Quin, P.J. 1959. ''Food and feeding habits of the Pedi''. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, p. 125.</ref> According to the doctrine of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], hyenas are unclean animals which represent sexual deviancy and lawlessness. The Egyptian Saint ''abba'' (Father) Matewos of Asfoni was associated with hyenas; one fable tells of how he rescued a cub trapped in a pit, and had his feet licked in gratitude by its mother. In Ethiopian folklore, an [[albino]] hyena called the "King of Hyenas" is ascribed great power. Some ethnic groups in Ethiopia associate themselves with hyenas; the [[Gurage people|Gurage]] traditionally believe that their ancestors migrated from [[Arabia]] to Ethiopia using hyenas as mounts. In [[Dorze people|Dorze]] tradition, the highest Demuṣa-priests have the ability to control hyenas, and will send them to punish defaulting debtors.<ref name="ethiopia">Uhlig, Siegbert (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=l4WUdKWGcYsC&pg=PA97 ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He-N''], Volume 3 of Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|3-447-05607-X}}. p. 97.</ref>

Spotted hyenas feature prominently in the rituals of certain African cultures. In the Gelede cult of the [[Yoruba people]] of Benin and Southwest Nigeria, a spotted hyena mask is used at dawn to signal the end of the ''èfè'' ceremony. As the spotted hyena usually finishes the meals of other carnivores, the animal is associated with the conclusion of all things. Among the Korè cult of the [[Bambara people]] in Mali, the belief that spotted hyenas are hermaphrodites appears as an ideal in-between in the ritual domain. The role of the spotted hyena mask in their rituals is often to turn the neophyte into a complete moral being by integrating his male principles with femininity. The Beng people believe that upon finding a freshly killed hyena with its anus inverted, one must plug it back in, for fear of being struck down with perpetual laughter. They also view spotted hyena faeces as contaminating, and will evacuate a village if a hyena relieves itself within village boundaries.<ref name="jurgen"/> In [[Harar]], Ethiopia, spotted hyenas are regularly fed by the city's inhabitants, who believe the hyenas' presence keeps devils at bay, and associate mystical properties such as fortune telling to them.<ref>Bierbaum, Bernd (2011) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8C4moz003YC&pg=PA45 In Ethiopia]'', BoD{{snd}} Books on Demand, {{ISBN|3844858849}}. p. 45.</ref>

====In Western culture====
{{quote box|align=right|quote=As several distinguished authors of the present age have undertaken to reconcile the world to the Great Man-Killer of Modern times; as [[Aaron Burr]] has found an apologist, and almost a eulogist; and as learned commentators have recently discovered that even [[Judas Iscariot]] was a true [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciple]], we are rather surprised to find that someone has not undertaken to render the family of Hyenas popular and amiable in the eyes of mankind. Certain it is, that few marked characters in history have suffered more from the malign inventions of prejudice<ref name="goodrich">Goodrich, S.G. and Winchell, A., ''Johnson's Natural History'' (New York: A.J. Johnson & Company, 1885), p. 248.</ref>|width=240px}}

Traditional Western beliefs about the spotted hyena can be traced back to [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Historia Animalium]]'', which described the species as a [[necrophagy|necrophagous]], cowardly and potentially dangerous animal. He further described how the hyena uses retching noises to attract dogs. In ''[[On the Generation of Animals]]'', Aristotle criticised the erroneous belief that the spotted hyena is a [[hermaphrodite]] (which likely originated from the confusion caused by the [[masculinised]] genitalia of the female), though his physical descriptions are more consistent with the striped hyena. [[Pliny the Elder]] supported Aristotle's depiction, though he further elaborated that the hyena can imitate human voices. Additionally, he wrote how the hyena was held in high regard among the [[Magi]], and that hyena body parts could cure different diseases, give protection and stimulate [[sexual desire]] in people.<ref name="glickman"/>

The author of the ''[[Physiologus]]'', who infused pagan tales with the spirit of [[Christianity|Christian]] moral and mystical teaching, reactivated the myth that the hyena is a hermaphrodite. The author compared the species to "double-minded men" who are neither "man nor woman, that is, neither faithful nor unfaithful". He further states that "The [[Jewish people|sons of Israel]] are like this animal since in the beginning they served the living God but later, given over to pleasure and lust, they adored idols." The [[bestiary|bestiaries]] of the [[Middle Ages]] embraced the ''Physiologus'''s descriptions, but further elaborated on the animal's necrophagous habits. These bestiaries almost invariably depict hyenas feeding on human corpses. These illustrations were largely based on the descriptions given by Aristotle and Pliny, though the animals have no spots or other bodily markings, thus making it unlikely that the authors had ever seen hyenas first-hand.<ref name="glickman"/>

During the 15th and 16th centuries, travellers to Africa provided further descriptions of the species. [[Leo Africanus]] repeated some of the old concepts on the hyena, with the addition of describing its legs and feet as similar to those of men. In 1551, [[Swiss people|Swiss]] naturalist [[Conrad Gesner]] rejected the belief of the hyena's hermaphroditism, and theorised that it originated from confusion over an androgynous fish bearing the same name. He adds three other animals within the category of hyenas, including an Ethiopian quadruped named "[[Crocotta]]", which was thought to be a hybrid between a hyena and a lioness. [[Sir Thomas Browne]] also argued against the hyena's supposed hermaphroditism, stating that all animals follow their own "Law of Coition", and that a hermaphrodite would transgress this. [[Sir Walter Raleigh]], in an attempt to rationalise how [[Noah's Ark]] could have fitted all extant species of animal, wrote that hyenas were hybrids between foxes and wolves which originated after the [[Great Flood]]. References to the spotted hyena's vocalisations are referenced in numerous contemporary examples of [[English literature]], including [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[As You Like It]]'' and [[George Chapman]]'s ''[[Eastward Ho]]''. [[John Milton]], in his ''[[Samson Agonistes]]'', compares the species to [[Delilah|Delila]].<ref name="glickman"/>

Natural historians of the 18th and 19th centuries rejected stories of hermaphroditism in hyenas, and recognised the differences between the spotted and striped hyena. However, they continued to focus on the species' scavenging habits, their potential to rob graves and their perceived cowardice. During the 20th century, Western and African stereotypes of the spotted hyena converged; in both [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s ''[[Green Hills of Africa]]'' and [[Disney]]'s ''[[The Lion King]]'', the traits of gluttony and comical stupidity, common in African depictions of hyenas, are added to the Western perception of hyenas being cowardly and ugly.<ref name="glickman"/> After the release of ''The Lion King'', hyena biologists protested against the animal's portrayal: one hyena researcher sued Disney studios for [[defamation of character]],<ref>Mcpherson, James (2008). [http://www.suzieszterhas.com/a/pdf/BBC_WL_SUM08_HYENA_final.pdf ''The good, the bad and the hyena''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027025919/http://www.suzieszterhas.com/a/pdf/BBC_WL_SUM08_HYENA_final.pdf |date=27 October 2014 }}. ''BBC Wildlife'', pp. 49-51.</ref> and another{{snd}} who had organized the animators' visit to the [[University of California, Berkeley|University of California]]'s Field Station for Behavioural Research, where they would observe and sketch captive hyenas<ref name="glickman"/>{{snd}} suggested [[boycott]]ing the film.<ref>Frank, Laurence D. (May 2006). [http://www.lionconservation.org/PopularArticles/Girl-power,Africa-Geographic,2006.pdf Girl Power], ''African Geographic''</ref>

===Livestock predation===
When targeting livestock, the spotted hyena primarily preys upon [[cattle]], [[sheep]] and [[goat]]s,<ref name="m34"/> though hyenas in the southern parts of Ethiopia's [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] region preferentially target [[donkey]]s.<ref name="yirga">{{cite journal
|author1=Yirga, Giday |author2=Bauer, Hans | url = http://www.nieindia.org/ijees/PDF/36-67.pdf
| title = Livestock Depredation of the Spotted Hyena (''Crocuta crocuta'') in Southern Tigray, Northern Ethiopia
| journal = International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences
| volume = 36
| issue = 1
| pages = 67–73
| year = 2010
| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20121216135409/http://www.nieindia.org/ijees/PDF/36-67.pdf
| archivedate = 16 December 2012
}}</ref> Reports of livestock damage are often not substantiated, and hyenas observed scavenging on a carcass may be mistaken for having killed the animal. The rate at which the species targets livestock may depend on a number of factors, including stock keeping practices, the availability of wild prey and human-associated sources of organic material, such as [[Waste|rubbish]]. [[Surplus killing]] has been recorded in South Africa's eastern Cape Province. Attacks on stock tend to be fewer in areas where livestock is corralled by thorn fences and where domestic dogs are present. One study in northern Kenya revealed that 90% of all cases of livestock predation by hyenas occurred in areas outside the protection of thorn fences.<ref name="m34"/>

===Attacks on humans and grave desecration===
Like most mammalian predators, the spotted hyena is typically shy in the presence of humans, and has the highest [[flight distance]] (up to 300 metres) among African carnivores. However, this distance is reduced during the night, when hyenas are known to follow people closely.<ref name="k144"/> Although spotted hyenas do prey on humans in modern times, such incidents are rare. However, attacks on humans by spotted hyenas are likely to be underreported.<ref name="SGDRN">Begg, Colleen; Begg, Keith; Muemedi, Oscar (2007) [http://www.selous-niassa-corridor.org/fileadmin/publications/2007-Human-Carnivore_Crocodile_Conflict_-NNR.pdf Preliminary data on human{{snd}} carnivore conflict in Niassa National Reserve, Mozambique, particularly fatalities due to lion, spotted hyaena and crocodile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226170051/http://www.selous-niassa-corridor.org/fileadmin/publications/2007-Human-Carnivore_Crocodile_Conflict_-NNR.pdf |date=26 December 2011 }}, ''SGDRN (Sociedade para a Gestão e Desenvolvimento da Reserva do Niassa Moçambique)''</ref> Man-eating spotted hyenas tend to be very large specimens; a pair of man-eating hyenas, responsible for killing 27 people in Mlanje, [[Malawi]], in 1962, were weighed at {{convert|72|and|77|kg|lb|abbr=on}} after being shot.<ref name="maneat">Kruuk, Hans (2002) ''Hunter and hunted: relationships between carnivores and people'' Cambridge University Press, pp. 64–65, {{ISBN|0-521-89109-4}}</ref> Victims of spotted hyenas tend to be women, children and sick or infirm men,<ref name="roosevelt"/> and there are numerous cases of biologists in Africa being forced up trees in order to escape them.<ref name="maneat"/> Attacks occur most commonly in September, when many people sleep outdoors, and [[bush fire]]s make the hunting of wild game difficult for hyenas.<ref name="SGDRN"/><ref name="maneat"/>

In 1903, Hector Duff wrote of how spotted hyenas in the Mzimba district of [[Angónia District|Angoniland]] would wait at dawn outside people's huts and attack them when they opened their doors.<ref name="NE"/> In 1908–09 in Uganda, spotted hyenas regularly killed sufferers of [[African sleeping sickness]] as they slept outside in camps.<ref name="roosevelt">Roosevelt, Theodore (1910) ''African Game Trails: An Account of the African Wanderings of an American Hunter, Naturalist'', New York, C. Scribner's sons</ref> Spotted hyenas are widely feared in Malawi, where they have been known to occasionally attack people at night, particularly during the hot season when people sleep outside. Hyena attacks were widely reported in Malawi's [[Phalombe]] plain, to the north of Michesi Mountain. Five deaths were recorded in 1956, five in 1957 and six in 1958. This pattern continued until 1961 when eight people were killed.<ref name="NE">{{cite book | author= Knight, John| title= Natural Enemies: People-Wildlife conflicts in Anthropological Perspective| year=2000 | isbn=978-0-415-22441-3 }}</ref> During the 1960s, [[Flying Doctors of America|Flying Doctors]] received over two dozen cases of hyena attacks on humans in Kenya.<ref name="m97"/> An anecdotal 2004 news report from the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] indicates that 35 people were killed by spotted hyenas during a 12-month period in Mozambique along a 20 km stretch of road near the Tanzanian border.<ref name="SGDRN"/>

Although attacks against living humans are rare, the spotted hyena readily feeds on human [[corpse]]s. In the tradition of the [[Maasai people|Maasai]]<ref name="m97"/> and the [[Hadza people|Hadza]],<ref>Marlowe, Frank (2010), ''The Hadza: hunter-gatherers of Tanzania'', University of California Press, {{ISBN|0-520-25342-6}}</ref> corpses are left in the open for spotted hyenas to eat. A corpse rejected by hyenas is seen as having something wrong with it, and liable to cause social disgrace, therefore it is not uncommon for bodies to be covered in fat and blood from a slaughtered [[ox]].<ref name="m97"/> In Ethiopia, hyenas were reported to feed extensively on the corpses of victims of the [[1960 Ethiopian coup attempt|1960 attempted coup]]<ref>[[Ryszard Kapuściński|Kapuściński, Ryszard]], ''[[The Emperor (book)|The Emperor: Downfall of an Autocrat]]''. 1978. {{ISBN|0-679-72203-3}}</ref> and the [[Red Terror (Ethiopia)|Red Terror]].<ref>Donham, Donald Lewis (1999) ''Marxist modern: an ethnographic history of the Ethiopian revolution'', University of California Press, p. 135, {{ISBN|0-520-21329-7}}</ref> Hyenas habituated to scavenging on human corpses may develop bold behaviours towards living people; hyena attacks on people in southern Sudan increased during the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]], when human corpses were readily available to them.<ref>Copson, Raymond W. (1994) ''Africa's wars and prospects for peace'', M.E. Sharpe, p. 6, {{ISBN|1-56324-300-8}}</ref>

===Urban hyenas===
In some parts of Africa, spotted hyenas have begun to frequent metropolitan areas, where groups or "clans" of the animals have become a menace. The Ethiopian capital [[Addis Ababa]] is estimated to have up to a thousand resident hyenas which survive by scavenging rubbish tips and preying on feral dogs and cats. There have also been attacks on humans who are homeless. In 2013, a baby boy was killed by hyenas after being snatched from his mother as she camped near the Hilton Hotel. Some 40 of the animals were reportedly seen alongside a fence bordering the British Embassy compound. In December 2013, a cull was organised and marksmen killed ten hyenas which had occupied wasteland near the city centre.<ref>{{cite news |title=The urban hyenas that attack rough sleepers |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-26294631|newspaper=BBC website|first=Martin |last=Fletcher|date=23 February 2014 |accessdate=23 February 2014}}</ref>

===Hunting and use in traditional medicine===
[[File:Crocuta vs masai.png|thumb|left|Spotted hyena attacked by [[Maasai people|Maasai]] warriors]]
[[File:Crocuta crocuta Lukenia Heights 1906.png|thumb|upright|Spotted hyena shot by [[Abel Chapman]] at the Lukenia Heights, 23 January 1906]]
The spotted hyena has been hunted for its body parts for use in [[traditional medicine]],<ref name="m74"/> for amusement,<ref name="glickman"/> and for sport, though this is rare, as the species is generally not considered attractive.<ref name="m74"/><ref name="yirga"/> There is fossil evidence of humans in Middle Pleistocene Europe butchering and presumably consuming spotted hyenas.<ref>[http://www.journaltaphonomy.com/JT-articles/2010/issue%201/taph-corner-2010-1tris.pdf "The scavenger or the scavenged?"] A. Rodríguez-Hidalgo. ''Journal of Taphonomy'', 1(2010): 75–76</ref> Such incidences are rare in modern Africa, where most tribes, even those known to eat unusual kinds of meat, generally despise hyena flesh.<ref name="k144">{{Harvnb|Kruuk|1972|pp=144–145}}</ref>

Several authors during the [[Scramble for Africa]] attested that, despite its physical strength, the spotted hyena poses no danger to hunters when captured or cornered. It was often the case that native [[skinner (profession)|skinner]]s refused to even touch hyena carcasses, though this was not usually a problem, as hyena skins were not considered attractive.<ref name="roosevelt"/><ref>Tjader, Richard (1910) ''The big game of Africa: with many illustrations from photographs by the author'', D. Appleton and company in New York and, London</ref>

In Burkina Faso, the hyena's tail is used for medicinal and magical purposes. In Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal, the animals' whole body is harvested for [[bushmeat]] and medicine. In Malawi and Tanzania, the genitalia, nose tips and tails are used for traditional medicine. In Mozambique, traditional healers use various spotted hyena body parts, particularly the paws.<ref name="m74"/> [[Oromo people|Oromo]] hunters typically go through ritual purification after killing hyenas.<ref name="ethiopia"/> Kujamaat hunters traditionally treat the spotted hyenas they kill with the same respect due to deceased tribal elders, in order to avoid retribution from hyena spirits acting on behalf of the dead animal.<ref name="jurgen"/>

During the early years of Dutch colonisation in southern Africa, hyenas (referred to as "wolves" by the colonists) were especially susceptible to [[Animal trapping|trapping]], as their predilection for eating carrion, and lack of caution about enclosed spaces, worked against them. A feature of many frontier farms was the ''wolwehok'' (hyena trap), which was roughly constructed from stone or wood and baited with meat. The trap featured a trap-door, which was designed to shut once the bait was disturbed.<ref>Beinart, William (2008) ''The Rise of Conservation in South Africa: Settlers, Livestock, and the Environment 1770–1950'', Oxford University Press US, {{ISBN|0-19-954122-1}}</ref> In the [[Cape Colony]], spotted hyenas were often hunted by tracking them to their dens and shooting them as they escaped. Another hunting method was to trap them in their dens and dazzle them with torchlight, before stabbing them in the heart with a long knife.<ref name="moodie">Moodie, John Wedderburn Dunbar (1835) ''Ten Years in South Africa'', Vol. 1, Richard Bentley</ref>

When chased by [[hunting dog]]s, spotted hyenas often attack back, unless the dogs are of exceptionally large, powerful breeds. [[James Stevenson-Hamilton]] wrote that wounded spotted hyenas could be dangerous adversaries for hunting dogs, recording an incident in which a hyena managed to kill a dog with a single bite to the neck without breaking the skin.<ref name="h95">{{Harvnb|Stevenson-Hamilton|1917|p=95}}</ref> Further difficulties in killing spotted hyenas with dogs include the species' thick skin, which prevents dogs from inflicting serious damage to the animal's muscles.<ref>Daniell, Samuele; Barrow, Sir John; Somerville, William (1820), ''Sketches representing the native tribes, animals, and scenery of southern Africa: from drawings made by the late Mr. Samuel Daniell'', W. Daniell, p. 22</ref>

===Spotted hyenas in captivity and as pets===
[[File:Kevin Richardson with hyenas.jpg|thumb|South African zoologist [[Kevin Richardson (zoologist)|Kevin Richardson]] with captive spotted hyenas]]
From a [[husbandry]] point of view, hyenas are easily kept, as they have few disease problems and it is not uncommon for captive hyenas to reach 15–20 years of age. Nevertheless, the spotted hyena was historically scantily represented in [[zoo]]s, and was typically obtained in order to fill empty cages until a more prestigious species could be obtained. In subsequent years, animals considered to be more charismatic were allocated larger and better quality facilities, while hyenas were often relegated to inferior exhibits.

In modern times, the species faces spatial competition from more popular animals, especially large [[canid]]s. Also, many captive individuals have not been closely examined to confirm their sexes, thus resulting in non-breeding pairs often turning out to be same-sexed individuals. As a result, many captive hyena populations are facing extinction.<ref name=autogenerated6>{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=92}}</ref>

During the 19th century, the species was frequently displayed in travelling [[circus]]es as oddities. [[Alfred Brehm]] wrote that the spotted hyena is harder to tame than the striped hyena, and that performing specimens in circuses were not up to standard.<ref name="b185">{{Harvnb|Brehm|1895|p=185}}</ref> [[Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet|Sir John Barrow]] described how spotted hyenas in [[Sneeuberge]] were trained to hunt game, writing that they were "as faithful and diligent as any of the common domestic dogs".<ref>Barrow, Sir John (1801) [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_TswTAAAAYAAJ  Account of Travels Into the Interior of Southern Af ''An Account of Travels Into the Interior of Southern Africa''], T. Cadell, jun and W. Davies. p. 266.</ref>

In Tanzania, spotted hyena cubs may be taken from a communal den by [[Sangoma|witchdoctor]]s, in order to increase their social status.<ref name="m97"/> An April 2004 [[BBC]] article described how a shepherd living in the small town of Qabri Bayah about 50 kilometres from [[Jigjiga]], Ethiopia managed to use a male spotted hyena as a [[livestock guardian dog]], suppressing its urge to leave and find a mate by feeding it special herbs.<ref>Adow, Mohammed. (12 April 2004) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3619791.stm "Africa | Taming Ethiopia's hyenas"]. ''BBC News''. Retrieved on 15 February 2011.</ref> If not raised with adult members of their kind, captive spotted hyenas will exhibit scent marking behaviours much later in life than wild specimens.<ref name="k247"/>

Although easily tamed, spotted hyenas are exceedingly difficult to [[house training|house train]],<ref name="r363">{{Harvnb|Rosevear|1974|p=363}}</ref> and can be very destructive; a captive, otherwise perfectly tame, specimen in the [[Tower of London]] managed to tear an {{convert|8|ft|m|sigfig=2|adj=on}} long plank nailed to its recently repaired enclosure floor with no apparent effort.<ref>[[William Bingley|Bingley, William]] (1829), ''Animal biography, or, Popular zoology''</ref> During the research leading to the composition of his monograph ''The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behavior,'' Hans Kruuk kept a tame hyena he named Solomon.<ref name="kruuk"/> Kruuk found Solomon's company so congenial, he would have kept him, but Solomon had an insatiable taste for "cheese in the bar of the tourist lounge and bacon off the Chief Park Warden's breakfast table", and no door could hold him back, so Solomon was obliged to live out his days in the [[Edinburgh Zoo]].<ref>Kruuk, Hans (1975) ''Hyaena.'' Oxford University Press, London</ref>

==See also==
* [[Spotted hyenas in Harar]]
* ''[[Pachycrocuta]]''

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
* {{Cite journal|last=Brehm|first=Alfred Edmund|url=https://archive.org/details/brehmslifeofanim00breh|title=Brehm's Life of Animals|publisher=Chicago: A. N. Marquis & Company|year=1895|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Estes|first=Richard|title=The behavior guide to African mammals: including hoofed mammals, carnivores, primates|publisher=University of California Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-520-08085-0|ref=harv|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0520080858}}
* {{Cite book|last=Estes|first=Richard|title=The safari companion: a guide to watching African mammals, including hoofed mammals, carnivores, and primates|publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing|year=1998|isbn=978-1-890132-44-6|ref=harv|url=https://archive.org/details/safaricompaniong00este_0}}
* {{Cite book|last=Funk|first=Holger|title=Hyaena: On the Naming and Localisation of an Enigmatic Animal|publisher=GRIN Verlag|year=2010|isbn=978-3-640-69784-7|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kingdon|first=Jonathan|title=East African mammals: an atlas of evolution in Africa, Volume 3, Part 1|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1988|isbn=978-0-226-43721-7|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kruuk|first=Hans|title=The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behaviour|publisher=University of California Press|year=1972|isbn=978-0226455082|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Kurtén|first=Björn|title=Pleistocene mammals of Europe|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|year=1968|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Lydekker|first=Richard|url=https://archive.org/details/gameanimalsofafr00lydeiala|title=The Game Animals of Africa|publisher=London, R. Ward, limited|year=1908|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Macdonald|first=David|title=The Velvet Claw: A Natural History of the Carnivores|publisher=New York: Parkwest|year=1992|isbn=978-0-563-20844-0|ref=harv|url=https://archive.org/details/velvetclawnatura00macd}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Mills|first1=Gus|last2=Hofer|first2=Heribert|title=Hyaenas: status survey and conservation action plan|publisher=IUCN/SSC Hyena Specialist Group|url=http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/1998-013.pdf|year=1998|isbn=978-2-8317-0442-5|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Mills|first1=Gus|last2=Mills|first2=Margie|title=Hyena Nights & Kalahari Days|publisher=Jacana Media|year=2011|isbn=978-1-77009-811-4|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Roosevelt|first=Theodore|url=https://archive.org/details/africangametrail01roos|title=African Game Trails: An Account of the African Wanderings of an American Hunter, Naturalist|publisher=New York, C. Scribner's sons|year=1910|isbn=978-1-4510-0191-4|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Rosevear|first=Donovan Reginald|url=https://archive.org/details/carnivoresofwest00rose|title=The carnivores of West Africa |publisher=London : Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History)|year=1974|isbn=978-0-565-00723-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Schaller|first=George B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ann2dYn9iYC&pg=PA377 |publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-226-73640-2|ref=harv|title=The Serengeti Lion: A Study of Predator-Prey Relations}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Stevenson-Hamilton|first=James|url=https://archive.org/details/animallifeinafri01steviala|title=Animal life in Africa, Vol. 1|publisher=London : William Heinemann|year=1917|ref=harv}}

==Further reading==
*Hugo Van Lawick and Jane Goodall. ''Innocent Killers''. Houghton Mifflin Company Boston, 1971
*Mills, M.G.L. ''Kalahari Hyenas: Comparative Behavioral Ecology of Two Species''. The Blackburn Press, 2003

==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Crocuta crocuta}}
{{Commons|Crocuta crocuta}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080611035052/http://www.hyaenidae.org/the-hyaenidae/spotted-hyena-crocuta-crocuta.html The IUCN Hyaenidae Specialist Group page on spotted hyena]
* Davis, Delbert Dwight & Story, Harriette Elizabeth (1949), ''[https://archive.org/stream/femaleexternalge3133davi#page/n5/mode/2up The Female External Genitalia of the Spotted Hyena]'', Fieldiana: Zoology, vol. 31, no. 33, Chicago Natural History Museum
* McPherson, Jamie [https://web.archive.org/web/20141027025919/http://www.suzieszterhas.com/a/pdf/BBC_WL_SUM08_HYENA_final.pdf The Good, the Bad and the Hyena], ''BBC Wildlife'', Summer 2008.
* [https://www.check123.com/videos/900-spotted-hyena-female-genitalia Spotted Hyena – Female Genitalia | Video], Check123 Video Encyclopedia

{{Carnivora|F.}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q178089}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:hyena, spotted}}
[[Category:Hyenas|spotted hyena]]
[[Category:Carnivorans of Africa]]
[[Category:Mammals of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Matriarchism among animals]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1777|spotted hyena]]
[[Category:Extant Piacenzian first appearances]]
[[Category:Man-eating species]]

Pteranodon

2020-03-31T13:05:16Z

118.46.55.151:

{{short description|Genus of Cretaceous pterosaur}}
{{Good article}}{{Italic title}}{{Automatic taxobox
| fossil_range = [[Late Cretaceous]], {{Fossil range|88|75}}<ref>{{Cite news|title=Pteranodon - Facts and Pictures|URL=https://www.newdinosaurs.com/pteranodon/|publisher=New Dinosaurs|accessdate=2020-03-31}}</ref>
| image =Pteranodon amnh martyniuk.jpg
| image_caption = Mounted replica of an adult male ''P. longiceps'' skeleton, [[AMNH]]
| taxon = Pteranodon
| authority = [[Othniel Charles Marsh|Marsh]], 1876
| type_species = {{extinct}}'''''Pteranodon longiceps'''''
| type_species_authority = Marsh, 1876
| subdivision_ranks = Other [[species]]
| subdivision =
* {{extinct}}''[[Pteranodon sternbergi|P. sternbergi]]''? Harksen, 1966
| synonyms =
* ''Occidentalia'' Miller, 1972
* ''[[Geosternbergia]]''? Miller, 1978
* ''Longicepia'' Miller, 1978
* ''[[Dawndraco]]''? [[Alexander Kellner|Kellner]], 2010
}}
'''''Pteranodon''''' ({{IPAc-en|t|ᵻ|ˈ|r|æ|n|ə|d|ɒ|n}}; from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] πτερόν (pteron, "wing") and ἀνόδων (anodon, "toothless")) is a [[genus]] of [[pterosaur]] that included some of the largest known flying [[reptile]]s, with wingspans over 7 meters (23 feet). They lived during the late [[Cretaceous]] geological period of [[North America]] in present-day [[Kansas]], [[Alabama]], [[Nebraska]], [[Wyoming]], and [[South Dakota]]. More [[fossil]] specimens of ''Pteranodon'' have been found than any other pterosaur, with about 1,200 specimens known to science, many of them well preserved with nearly complete skulls and articulated skeletons. It was an important part of the animal community in the [[Western Interior Seaway]].<ref name=bennett2000/>

''Pteranodon'' were pterosaurs, not [[dinosaur]]s. By definition, all dinosaurs belong to one of the two groups within [[Dinosauria]], i.e. [[Saurischia]] or [[Ornithischia]]. As such, this excludes pterosaurs. Nonetheless, ''Pteranodon'' are frequently featured in dinosaur media and are strongly associated with dinosaurs by the general public.<ref name=bennett1994niobrara/> While not dinosaurs, pterosaurs such as ''Pteranodon'' form a sister [[clade]] to dinosaurs within the clade [[Avemetatarsalia]].

==Description==
[[image:Pteranodon longiceps mmartyniuk wiki.png|left|thumb|Life restoration of an adult male ''P. longiceps'' in flight]]
''Pteranodon'' species are extremely well represented in the fossil record, allowing for detailed descriptions of their anatomy and analysis of their life history. Over 1,000 specimens have been identified, though less than half are complete enough to give researchers good anatomical information. Still, this is more fossils material than is known for any other pterosaur, and it includes both male and female specimens of various age groups and possibly species.<ref name=bennett1994niobrara/>

Adult ''Pteranodon'' specimens from the two major species can be divided into two distinct size classes. The smaller class of specimens have small, rounded head crests and very wide pelvic canals, even wider than those of the much larger size class. The size of the pelvic canal probably allowed the laying of eggs, indicating that these smaller adults are females. The larger size class, representing male individuals, have narrow hips and very large crests, which were probably for display.

Adult male ''Pteranodon'' were among the largest pterosaurs, and were the largest flying animals known until the late 20th century, when the giant [[azhdarchid]] pterosaurs were discovered.<ref name=bennett1994niobrara/> The wingspan of an average adult male ''Pteranodon'' was {{convert|5.6|m|ft}}. Adult females were much smaller, averaging {{convert|3.8|m|ft}} in wingspan. The largest specimen of ''Pteranodon longiceps'' from the [[Niobrara Formation]] measured {{convert|6.25|m|ft}} from wingtip to wingtip. An even larger specimen is known from the [[Pierre Shale Formation]], with a wingspan of {{convert|7.25|m|ft}}, though this specimen may belong to the distinct genus and species ''[[Geosternbergia maysei]]''.<ref name=bennett1994niobrara>{{cite journal | last1 = Bennett | first1 = S.C. | year = 1994 | title = The Pterosaurs of the Niobrara Chalk | url = | journal = The Earth Scientist | volume = 11 | issue = 1| pages = 22–25}}</ref> While most specimens are found crushed, enough fossils exist to put together a detailed description of the animal.
[[Image:Pteranodon scale.png|thumb|Size of ''P. longiceps'' male (green) and female (orange) compared with a human]]
Methods used to estimate the mass of large male ''Pteranodon'' specimens (those with wingspans of about 7 meters) have been notoriously unreliable, producing a wide range of estimates from as low as {{convert|20|kg|lbs}} to as high as {{convert|93|kg|lbs}}. In a review of pterosaur size estimates published in 2010, researchers Mark Witton and Mike Habib demonstrated that the latter, largest estimates are almost certainly incorrect given the total volume of a ''Pteranodon'' body, and could only be correct if the animal "was principally {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} [[aluminium]]".<ref name=flight_size/> Witton and Habib considered the methods used by researchers who obtained smaller mass estimates equally flawed. Most have been produced by scaling modern animals such as bats and birds up to ''Pteranodon'' size, despite the fact that pterosaurs have vastly different body proportions and soft tissue anatomy from any living animal.<ref name=flight_size/>

Other distinguishing characteristics that set ''Pteranodon'' apart from other pterosaurs include narrow [[neural spine]]s on the vertebrae, plate-like bony ligaments strengthening the vertebrae above the hip, and a relatively short tail in which the last few vertebrae are fused into a long rod.<ref name=bennett1987>Bennett, S. C. (1987). "New evidence on the tail of the pterosaur ''Pteranodon'' (Archosauria: Pterosauria)." Pp. 18–23 in Currie, P. J. and E. H. Koster (eds.), Fourth Symposium on Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems, Short Papers. Occasional Papers of the Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology, #3.</ref> The entire length of the tail was about 3.5% as long as the wingspan, or up to {{convert|25|cm|in}} in the largest males.<ref name=bennett1987/>

===Skull and beak===
[[File:Pteranodon sp AMNH 7515.jpg|thumb|left|Skull and beak of specimen AMNH 7515]]
Unlike earlier pterosaurs, such as ''[[Rhamphorhynchus (pterosaur)|Rhamphorhynchus]]'' and ''[[Pterodactylus]]'', ''Pteranodon'' had toothless [[beak]]s, similar to those of [[bird]]s. ''Pteranodon'' beaks were made of solid, bony margins that projected from the base of the jaws. The beaks were long, slender, and ended in thin, sharp points. The upper jaw, which was longer than the lower jaw, was curved upward; while this normally has been attributed only to the upward-curving beak, one specimen (UALVP 24238) has a curvature corresponding with the beak widening towards the tip. While the tip of the beak is not known in this specimen, the level of curvature suggests it would have been extremely long. The unique form of the beak in this specimen led [[Alexander Kellner]] to assign it to a distinct genus, ''[[Dawndraco]]'', in 2010.<ref name=kellner2010>{{Cite journal|author=Kellner, A.W.A. |year=2010 |title=Comments on the Pteranodontidae (Pterosauria, Pterodactyloidea) with the description of two new species |url=http://www.scielo.br/pdf/aabc/v82n4/25.pdf |journal=Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=1063–1084 |doi=10.1590/S0001-37652010000400025|pmid=21152777 }}</ref>

The most distinctive characteristic of ''Pteranodon'' is its cranial crest. These crests consisted of skull bones (frontals) projecting upward and backward from the skull. The size and shape of these crests varied due to a number of factors, including age, sex, and species. Male ''Pteranodon sternbergi'', the older species of the two described to date (and sometimes placed in the distinct genus ''[[Geosternbergia]]''), had a more vertical crest with a broad forward projection, while their descendants, ''Pteranodon longiceps'', evolved a narrower, more backward-projecting crest.<ref name=bennett2000/> Females of both species were smaller and bore small, rounded crests.<ref name=bennett1994/> The crests were probably mainly display structures, though they may have had other functions as well.<ref name=bennett1992/>

==Paleobiology==

===Flight===
[[File:Quad launch.jpg|thumb|Skeletal reconstruction of a quadrupedally launching male ''P. longiceps'']]
The wing shape of ''Pteranodon'' suggests that it would have flown rather like a modern-day [[albatross]]. This is based on the fact that ''Pteranodon'' had a high [[aspect ratio]] (wingspan to [[chord (aircraft)|chord]] length) similar to that of the albatross — 9:1 for ''Pteranodon'', compared to 8:1 for an albatross. Albatrosses spend long stretches of time at sea fishing, and use a flight pattern called "[[dynamic soaring]]" which exploits the vertical gradient of wind speed near the ocean surface to travel long distances without flapping, and without the aid of [[thermal]]s (which do not occur over the open ocean the same way they do over land).<ref name=padian1983>{{Cite journal | author = Padian, K. | year = 1983 | title = A functional analysis of flying and walking in pterosaurs | url = | journal = Paleobiology | volume = 9 | issue = 3| pages = 218–239| doi = 10.1017/S009483730000765X}}</ref> While most of a ''Pteranodon'' flight would have depended on soaring, like long-winged seabirds, it probably required an occasional active, rapid burst of flapping, and studies of ''Pteranodon'' wing loading (the strength of the wings vs. the weight of the body) indicate that they were capable of substantial flapping flight, contrary to some earlier suggestions that they were so big they could only glide.<ref name=flight_size>{{cite journal | last1 = Witton | first1 = M.P. | last2 = Habib | first2 = M.B. | year = 2010 | title = On the Size and Flight Diversity of Giant Pterosaurs, the Use of Birds as Pterosaur Analogues and Comments on Pterosaur Flightlessness | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 5 | issue = 11| page = e13982 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0013982 | pmid=21085624 | pmc=2981443| bibcode = 2010PLoSO...513982W}}</ref>

Like other pterosaurs, ''Pteranodon'' probably took off from a standing, quadrupedal position. Using their long forelimbs for leverage, they would have vaulted themselves into the air in a rapid leap. Almost all of the energy would have been generated by the forelimbs. The upstroke of the wings would have occurred when the animal cleared the ground followed by a rapid down-stroke to generate additional lift and complete the launch into the air.<ref name=flight_size/>

===Terrestrial locomotion===
[[image:Pteranodon model in Vienna.jpg|thumb|upright|Reconstructed ''P. longiceps'' skeleton in a quadrupedal posture]]
{{main|Pterosaur#Ground movement}}
Historically, the terrestrial locomotion of ''Pteranodon'', especially whether it was [[biped]]al or [[quadruped]]al, has been the subject of debate. Today, most pterosaur researchers agree that pterosaurs were quadrupedal, thanks largely to the discovery of pterosaur [[fossil trackway|trackway]]s.<ref name=DMU06>{{cite book |last=Unwin |first=David M. |authorlink=David M. Unwin |title=The Pterosaurs: From Deep Time |year=2006 |publisher=Pi Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-13-146308-0 |pages=210–222}}</ref>

The possibility of aquatic locomotion via swimming has been discussed briefly in several papers (Bennett 2001, 1994, and Bramwell & Whitfield 1974).

===Diet===
[[File:Pteranodon choking on fish - Pterosaurs Flight in the Age of Dinosaurs.jpg|thumb|left|Fish remains between the jaws of specimen AMNH 5098]]
The diet of ''Pteranodon'' is known to have included [[fish]]; fossilized fish bones have been found in the [[stomach]] area of one ''Pteranodon'', and a fossilized fish [[Bolus (digestion)|bolus]] has been found between the jaws of another ''Pteranodon'', specimen AMNH 5098. Numerous other specimens also preserve fragments of fish scales and vertebrae near the torso, indicating that [[Piscivore|fish made up a majority of the diet]] of ''Pteranodon'' (though they may also have taken invertebrates).<ref name=bennett1994niobrara/>

Traditionally, most researchers have suggested that ''Pteranodon'' would have taken fish by dipping their beaks into the water while in low, soaring flight. However, this was probably based on the assumption that the animals could not take off from the water surface.<ref name=bennett1994niobrara/> It is more likely that ''Pteranodon'' could take off from the water, and would have dipped for fish while swimming rather than while flying. Even a small, female ''Pteranodon'' could have reached a depth of at least {{convert|80|cm|in}} with its long bill and neck while floating on the surface, and they may have reached even greater depths by plunge-diving into the water from the air like some modern long-winged seabirds.<ref name=bennett1994niobrara/> In 1994, Bennett noted that the head, neck, and shoulders of ''Pteranodon'' were as heavily built as diving birds, and suggested that they could dive by folding back their wings like the modern [[gannet]].<ref name=bennett1994niobrara/>

===Crest function===
[[Image:Pteranodon longiceps skulls.jpg|thumb|left|Putative male ''Pteranodon longiceps'' specimens YPM 2594 and 2493]]
''Pteranodon'' was notable for its skull crest, though the function of this crest has been a subject of debate. Most explanations have focused on the blade-like, backward pointed crest of male ''P. longiceps'', however, and ignored the wide range of variation across age and sex. The fact that the crests vary so much rules out most practical functions other than for use in mating displays.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Tomkins | first1 = J. L. | last2 = Lebas | first2 = N. R. | last3 = Witton | first3 = M. P. | last4 = Martill | first4 = D. M. | last5 = Humphries | first5 = S. | title = Positive Allometry and the Prehistory of Sexual Selection | journal = The American Naturalist | volume = 176 | issue = 2 | pages = 141–148 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20565262 | doi = 10.1086/653001| url = http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/15259/1/__ddat02_staffhome_jpartridge_653001.pdf}}</ref> Therefore, display was probably the main function of the crest, and any other functions were secondary.<ref name=bennett1992/>

Scientific interpretations of the crest's function began in 1910, when George Francis Eaton proposed two possibilities: an aerodynamic counterbalance and a muscle attachment point. He suggested that the crest might have anchored large, long jaw muscles, but admitted that this function alone could not explain the large size of some crests.<ref name=eaton1910>Eaton, G.F. (1910). "Osteology of ''Pteranodon''." ''Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences'', '''2''':1–38, pls. i–xxxi.</ref> Bennett (1992) agreed with Eaton's own assessment that the crest was too large and variable to have been a muscle attachment site.<ref name=bennett1992/> Eaton had suggested that a secondary function of the crest might have been as a counterbalance against the long beak, reducing the need for heavy neck muscles to control the orientation of the head.<ref name=eaton1910/> Wind tunnel tests showed that the crest did function as an effective counterbalance to a degree, but Bennett noted that, again, the hypothesis focuses only on the long crests of male ''P. longiceps'', not on the larger crests of ''P. sternbergi'' and very small crests that existed among the females. Bennett found that the crests of females had no counterbalancing effect, and that the crests of male ''P. sternbergi'' would, by themselves, have a negative effect on the balance of the head. In fact, side to side movement of the crests would have required more, not less, neck musculature to control balance.<ref name=bennett1992/>

In 1943, Dominik von Kripp suggested that the crest may have served as a [[rudder]], an idea embraced by several later researchers.<ref name=bennett1992/><ref name=kripp1943>von Kripp, D. (1943). "Ein Lebensbild von ''Pteranodon ingens'' auf flugtechnischer Grundlage." ''Nova Acta Leopoldina, N.F.'', '''12'''(83): 16–32 [in German].</ref> One researcher, Ross S. Stein, even suggested that the crest may have supported a membrane of skin connecting the backward-pointing crest to the neck and back, increasing its surface area and effectiveness as a rudder.<ref name=stein1975>{{Cite journal | author = Stein, R.S. | year = 1975 | title = Dynamic analysis of ''Pteranodon ingens'': a reptilian adaptation to flight | url = | journal = Journal of Paleontology | volume = 49 | issue = | pages = 534–548}}</ref> The rudder hypothesis, again, does not take into account females nor ''P. sternbergi'', which had an upward-pointing, not backward-pointing crest. Bennett also found that, even in its capacity as a rudder, the crest would not provide nearly so much directional force as simply maneuvering the wings. The suggestion that the crest was an air brake, and that the animals would turn their heads to the side in order to slow down, suffers from a similar problem.<ref name=bramwell>Bramwell, C.D. and Whitfield, G.R. (1974). "Biomechanics of Pteranodon." ''Philosophical Transactions Royal Society B'', '''267'''.</ref> Additionally, the rudder and air brake hypotheses do not explain why such large variation exists in crest size even among adults.<ref name=bennett1992/>

[[Alexander Kellner]] suggested that the large crests of the pterosaur ''[[Tapejara (pterosaur)|Tapejara]]'', as well as other species, might be used for heat exchange, allowing these pterosaurs to absorb or shed heat and regulate body temperature, which also would account for the correlation between crest size and body size. There is no evidence of extra blood vessels in the crest for this purpose, however, and the large, membranous wings filled with blood vessels would have served that purpose much more effectively.<ref name=bennett1992/>

With these hypotheses ruled out, the best-supported hypothesis for crest function seems to be as a sexual display. This is consistent with the size variation seen in fossil specimens, where females and juveniles have small crests and males large, elaborate, variable crests.<ref name=bennett1992/>

===Sexual variation===
[[File:Pteranodon skeletal.jpg|thumb|upright|Skeletal reconstruction of a female ''P. longiceps'']]
Adult ''Pteranodon'' specimens may be divided into two distinct size classes, small and large, with the large size class being about one and a half times larger than the small class, and the small class being twice as common as the large class. Both size classes lived alongside each other, and while researchers had previously suggested that they represent different species, Christopher Bennett showed that the differences between them are consistent with the concept that they represent females and males, and that ''Pteranodon'' species were [[Sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]]. Skulls from the larger size class preserve large, upward and backward pointing crests, while the crests of the smaller size class are small and triangular. Some larger skulls also show evidence of a second crest that extended long and low, toward the tip of the beak, which is not seen in smaller specimens.<ref name=bennett1992>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/02724634.1992.10011472 | author = Bennett, S.C. | year = 1992 | title = Sexual dimorphism of ''Pteranodon'' and other pterosaurs, with comments on cranial crests | url = | journal = Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology | volume = 12 | issue = 4| pages = 422–434}}</ref>

The sex of the different size classes was determined, not from the skulls, but from the pelvic bones. Contrary to what may be expected, the smaller size class had disproportionately large and wide-set pelvic bones. Bennett interpreted this as indicating a more spacious birth canal, through which eggs would pass. He concluded that the small size class with small, triangular crests represent females, and the larger, large-crested specimens represent males.<ref name=bennett1992/>

Note that the overall size and crest size also corresponds to age. Immature specimens are known from both females and males, and immature males often have small crests similar to adult females. Therefore, it seems that the large crests only developed in males when they reached their large, adult size, making the sex of immature specimens difficult to establish from partial remains.<ref name=bennett2001>{{Cite journal | author = Bennett, S.C. | year = 2001 | title = The osteology and functional morphology of the Late Cretaceous pterosaur ''Pteranodon''. General description of osteology | url = | journal = Palaeontographica, Abteilung A | volume = 260 | issue = | pages = 1–112}}</ref>

The fact that females appear to have outnumbered males two to one suggests that, as with modern animals with size-related sexual dimorphism, such as [[sea lion]]s and other [[pinniped]]s, ''Pteranodon'' might have been [[Polygyny|polygynous]], with a few males competing for association with groups consisting of large numbers of females. Similar to modern pinnipeds, ''Pteranodon'' may have competed to establish territory on rocky, offshore rookeries, with the largest, and largest-crested, males gaining the most territory and having more success mating with females. The crests of male ''Pteranodon'' would not have been used in competition, but rather as "visual dominance-rank symbols", with display rituals taking the place of physical competition with other males. If this [[hypothesis]] is correct, it also is likely that male ''Pteranodon'' played little to no part in rearing the young; such a behavior is not found in the males of modern polygynous animals who father many offspring at the same time.<ref name=bennett1992/>

==Paleoecology==
{{main|Niobrara Formation|Western Interior Seaway}}
[[Image:Cretaceous seaway.png|thumb|Map of [[North America]] during the mid-[[Cretaceous]] period, illustrating the [[Western Interior Seaway]]]]
Specimens assigned to ''Pteranodon'' have been found in both the [[Smoky Hill Chalk]] deposits of the [[Niobrara Formation]], and the slightly younger Sharon Springs deposits of the [[Pierre Shale Formation]]. When ''Pteranodon'' was alive, this area was covered by a large inland sea, known as the [[Western Interior Seaway]]. Famous for fossils collected since 1870, these formations extend from as far south as [[Kansas]] in the United States to [[Manitoba]] in Canada. However, ''Pteranodon'' specimens (or any pterosaur specimens) have only been found in the southern half of the formation, in Kansas, [[Wyoming]], and [[South Dakota]]. Despite the fact that numerous fossils have been found in the contemporary parts of the formation in Canada, no pterosaur specimens have ever been found there. This strongly suggests that the natural geographic range of ''Pteranodon'' covered only the southern part of the Niobrara, and that its habitat did not extend farther north than South Dakota.<ref name=bennett1994/>

Some very fragmentary fossils belonging to pteranodontian pterosaurs, and possibly ''Pteranodon'' itself, have also been found on the [[Gulf Coast of the United States|Gulf Coast]] and [[East Coast of the United States]]. For example, some bone fragments from the [[Mooreville Formation]] of [[Alabama]] and the [[Merchantville Formation]] of [[Delaware]] may have come from ''Pteranodon'', though they are too incomplete to make a definite identification.<ref name=bennett1994/> Some remains from Japan have also been tentatively attributed to ''Pteranodon'', but their distance from its known Western Interior Seaway habitat makes this identification unlikely.<ref name=bennett1994/>
[[File:Pteranodon with Cretoxyrhina tooth.png|thumb|left|''Pteranodon'' specimen with a ''[[Cretoxyrhina]]'' tooth embedded in a neck vertebra]]
''Pteranodon longiceps'' would have shared the sky with the giant-crested pterosaur ''[[Nyctosaurus]]''. Compared to ''P. longiceps'', which was a very common species, ''Nyctosaurus'' was rare, making up only 3% of pterosaur fossils from the formation. Also less common was the early toothed [[bird]], ''[[Ichthyornis]]''.<ref name=carpenter2003/>

It is likely that, as in other polygynous animals (in which males compete for association with harems of females), ''Pteranodon'' lived primarily on offshore rookeries, where they could nest away from land-based predators and feed far from shore; most ''Pteranodon'' fossils are found in locations which at the time, were hundreds of kilometres from the coastline.<ref name=bennett1992/>

Below the surface, the sea was populated primarily by invertebrates such as [[ammonite]]s and [[squid]]. Vertebrate life, apart from basal fish, included [[sea turtle]]s, such as ''[[Toxochelys]]'', the [[plesiosaur]] ''[[Styxosaurus]]'', and the flightless diving bird ''[[Parahesperornis]]''. [[Mosasaur]]s were the most common marine reptiles, with genera including ''[[Clidastes]]'' and ''[[Tylosaurus]]''.<ref name=bennett2000/> At least some of these marine reptiles are known to have fed on ''Pteranodon''. [[Barnum Brown]], in 1904, reported plesiosaur stomach contents containing "pterodactyl" bones, most likely from ''Pteranodon''.<ref name=brown1904>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.20.501.184 | author = Brown, B. | year = 1904 | title = Stomach stones and the food of plesiosaurs | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1447922| journal = Science | volume = 20 | issue = 501| pages = 184–185 | pmid = 17737868 | bibcode = 1904Sci....20..184B}}</ref>

Fossils from terrestrial [[dinosaur]]s also have been found in the Niobrara Chalk, suggesting that animals who died on shore must have been washed out to sea (one specimen of a [[hadrosaur]] appears to have been scavenged by a [[shark]]).<ref name=sharkbite>{{cite journal | last1 = Everhart | first1 = M.J. | last2 = Ewell | first2 = K. | year = 2006 | title = Shark-bitten dinosaur (Hadrosauridae) vertebrae from the Niobrara Chalk (Upper Coniacian) of western Kansas | url = | journal = Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science | volume = 109 | issue = 1–2| pages = 27–35 | doi=10.1660/0022-8443(2006)109[27:sdhcvf]2.0.co;2}}</ref>

==Discovery and history==
[[Image:Ornithochirus umbrosus.jpg|thumb|Early illustration of ''Ornithochirus umbrosus'' (now ''Pteranodon''), when teeth erroneously were attributed to the species and the crest was unknown, 1872]]

===First fossils===
''Pteranodon'' was the first pterosaur found outside of [[Europe]]. Its fossils first were found by [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] in 1870, in the Late Cretaceous [[Smoky Hill Chalk]] deposits of western Kansas. These [[chalk]] beds were deposited at the bottom of what was once the [[Western Interior Seaway]], a large shallow sea over what now is the midsection of the North American continent. These first specimens, YPM 1160 and YPM 1161, consisted of partial wing bones, as well as a tooth from the prehistoric fish ''[[Xiphactinus]]'', which Marsh mistakenly believed to belong to this new pterosaur (all known pterosaurs up to that point had teeth). In 1871, Marsh named the find "''Pterodactylus oweni''", assigning it to the well-known (but much smaller) European [[genus]] ''[[Pterodactylus]]''. Marsh also collected more wing bones of the large pterosaur in 1871. Realizing that the name he had chosen had already been used for Harry Seeley's European pterosaur species ''[[Pterodactylus oweni]]'' in 1864, Marsh re-named his giant North American pterosaur '''''Pterodactylus occidentalis''''', meaning "Western wing finger," in his 1872 description of the new specimen. He also named two additional species, based on size differences: '''''Pterodactylus ingens''''' (the largest specimen so far), and '''''Pterodactylus velox''''' (the smallest).<ref name=bennett1994/>

Meanwhile, Marsh's rival [[Edward Drinker Cope]] also had unearthed several specimens of the large North American pterosaur. Based on these specimens, Cope named two new species, '''''Ornithochirus umbrosus''''' and '''''Ornithochirus harpyia''''', in an attempt to assign them to the large European genus ''[[Ornithocheirus]]'', though he misspelled the name (forgetting the 'e').<ref name=bennett1994/> Cope's paper naming his species was published in 1872, just five days after Marsh's paper. This resulted in a dispute, fought in the published literature, over whose names had priority in what obviously were the same species.<ref name=bennett1994/> Cope conceded in 1875 that Marsh's names did have priority over his, but maintained that ''Pterodactylus umbrosus'' was a distinct species (but not genus) from any that Marsh had named previously.<ref name=cope1875>Cope, E.D. (1875). "The Vertebrata of the Cretaceous formations of the West." ''Report, U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories (Hayden)'', '''2''': 302 pp., 57 pls.</ref> Re-evaluation by later scientists has supported Marsh's case, and found that Cope's assertion that ''P. umbrosus'' was a larger, distinct species were incorrect.<ref name=bennett1994/>

===A toothless pterosaur===
[[Image:Pteranodon longiceps YPM1177.jpg|thumb|Short-crested ''P. longiceps'' holotype specimen YPM1177, now interpreted as a female individual]]
While the first ''Pteranodon'' wing bones were collected by Marsh and Cope in the early 1870s, the first ''Pteranodon'' skull was found on May 2, 1876, along the [[Smoky Hill River]] in [[Wallace County, Kansas|Wallace County]] (now Logan County), Kansas, USA, by [[Samuel Wendell Williston]], a fossil collector working for Marsh.<ref name="bennett2000">Bennett, S.C. (2000). "Inferring stratigraphic position of fossil vertebrates from the Niobrara Chalk of western Kansas." ''Current Research in Earth Sciences: Kansas Geological Survey Bulletin'', '''244'''(Part 1): 26 pp.</ref> A second, smaller skull soon was discovered as well. These skulls showed that the North American pterosaurs were different from any European species, in that they lacked teeth and had bony crests on their skulls. Marsh recognized this major difference, describing the specimens as "distinguished from all previously known genera of the order Pterosauria by the entire absence of teeth." Marsh recognized that this characteristic warranted a new genus, and he coined the name ''Pteranodon'' ("wing without tooth") in 1876. Marsh reclassified all the previously named North American species from ''Pterodactylus'' to ''Pteranodon''. He considered the smaller skull to belong to ''Pteranodon occidentalis'', based on its size. Marsh classified the larger skull, YPM 1117, in the new species ''Pteranodon longiceps'', which he thought to be a medium-sized species in between the small ''P. occidentalis'' and the large ''P. ingens''.<ref name=marsh1876a>{{Cite journal | author = Marsh, O.C. | year = 1876a | title = Notice of a new sub-order of Pterosauria | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1450032| journal = American Journal of Science |series=Series 3 | volume = 11 | issue = 65| pages = 507–509 | doi=10.2475/ajs.s3-11.66.507}}</ref><ref name=bennett1994/> Marsh also named several additional species: '''''Pteranodon comptus''''' and ''[[Pteranodon nanus]]'' were named for fragmentary skeletons of small individuals, while ''Pteranodon gracilis'' was based on a wing bone that he mistook for a pelvic bone. He soon realized his mistake, and re-classified that specimen again into a separate genus, which he named ''[[Nyctosaurus]]''. ''P, nanus'' was also later recognized as a ''Nyctosaurus'' specimen.<ref name=marsh1976b>{{Cite journal | author = Marsh, O.C. | year = 1876b | title = Principal characters of American pterodactyls | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1450034| journal = American Journal of Science |series=Series 3 | volume = 12 | issue = 72| pages = 479–480 | doi=10.2475/ajs.s3-12.72.479}}</ref><ref name=bennett1994/>

In 1892, Samuel Williston examined the question of ''Pteranodon'' classification. He noticed that, in 1871, Seeley had mention the existence of a partial set of toothless pterosaur jaws from the [[Cambridge Greensand]] of [[England]], which he named "Ornithostoma". Because the primary characteristic Marsh had used to separate ''Pteranodon'' from other pterosaurs was its lack of teeth, Williston concluded that "[[Ornithostoma]]" must be considered the senior synonym of ''Pteranodon''. However, in 1901, Pleininger pointed out that "Ornithostoma" had never been scientifically described or even assigned a species name until Williston's work, and therefore had been a ''[[nomen nudum]]'' and could not beat out ''Pteranodon'' for naming priority. Williston accepted this conclusion and went back to calling the genus ''Pteranodon''.<ref name=bennett1994/> However, both Williston and Pleininger were incorrect, because unnoticed by both of them was the fact that, in 1891, Seeley himself had finally described and properly named ''Ornithostoma'', assigning it to the species ''O. sedgwicki''. In the 2010s, more research on the identity of ''Ornithostoma'' showed that it was probably not ''Pteranodon'' or even a close relative, but may in fact have been an [[Azhdarchoidea|azhdarchoid]], a different type of toothless pterosaur.<ref name=Averianov2012>{{cite journal | last1 = Averianov | first1 = A.O. | year = 2012 | title = ''Ornithostoma sedgwicki'' – valid taxon of azhdarchoid pterosaurs | url = | journal = Proceedings of the Zoological Institute RAS | volume = 316 | issue = 1 | pages = 40–49}}</ref>

===Revising species===
Williston was also the first scientist to critically evaluate all of the pteranodont species classified by Cope and Marsh. He agreed with most of Marsh's classification, with a few exceptions. First, he did not believe that ''P. ingens'' and ''P. umbrosus'' could be considered synonyms, which even Cope had come to believe. He considered both ''P. velox'' and ''P. longiceps'' to be dubious; the first was based on non-diagnostic fragments, and the second, though known from a complete skull, probably belonged to one of the other, previously-named species. In 1903, Williston revisited the question of ''Pteranodon'' classification, and revised his earlier conclusion that there were seven species down to just three. He considered both ''P. comptus'' and ''P. nanus'' to be specimens of ''Nyctosaurus'', and divided the others into small (''P. velox''), medium (''P. occidentalis''), and large species (''P. ingens''), based primarily on the shape of their upper arm bones. He thought ''P. longiceps'', the only one known from a skull, could be a synonym of either ''P. velox'' or ''P. occidentalis'', based on its size.<ref name=bennett1994/>

In 1910, Eaton became the first scientist to publish a more detailed description of the entire ''Pteranodon'' skeleton, as it was known at the time. He used his findings to revise the classification of the genus once again based on a better understanding of the differences in pteranodont anatomy. Eaton conducted experiments using clay models of bones to help determine the effects of crushing and flattening on the shapes of the arm bones Williston had used in his own classification. Eaton found that most of the differences in bone shapes could be easily explained by the pressures of fossilization, and concluded that no ''Pteranodon'' skeletons had any significant differences from each other besides their size. Therefore, Eaton was left to decide his classification scheme based on differences in the skulls alone, which he assigned to species just as Marsh did, by their size. In the end, Eaton recognized only three valid species: ''P. occidentalis'', ''P. ingens'', and ''P. longiceps''.<ref name=bennett1994/>

The discovery of specimens with upright crests, classified by Harksen in 1966 as the new species ''[[Pteranodon sternbergi]]'', complicated the situation even further, prompting another revision of the genus by Miller in 1972. Because it was impossible to determine crest shape for all of the species based on headless skeletons, Miller concluded that all ''Pteranodon'' species except the two based on skulls (''P. longiceps'' and ''P. sternbergi'') must be considered ''[[nomen dubium|nomena dubia]]'' and abandoned. The skull Eaton thought belonged to ''P. ingens'' was placed in the new species '''''Pteranodon marshi''''', and the skull Eaton assigned to ''P. occidentalis'' was re-named '''''Pteranodon eatoni'''''. Miller also recognized another species based on a skull with a crest similar to that of ''P. sternbergi''; Miller named this '''''Pteranodon walkeri'''''. To help bring order to this tangle of names, Miller created three categories or "subgenera" for them. ''P. marshi'' and ''P. longiceps'' were placed in the subgenus ''Longicepia'', though this was later changed to simply ''Pteranodon'' due to the rules of priority. ''P. sternbergi'' and ''P. walkeri'', the upright-crested species, were given the subgenus ''Sternbergia'', which was later changed to ''[[Geosternbergia]]'' because ''Sternbergia'' was already in use ("preoccupied"). Finally, Miller named the subgenus ''Occidentalia'' for ''P. eatoni'', the skull formerly associated with ''P. occidentalis''. Miller further expanded the concept of ''Pteranodon'' to include ''[[Nyctosaurus]]'' as a fourth subgenus. Miller considered these to be an evolutionary progression, with the primitive ''Nyctosaurus'', at the time thought to be crestless, giving rise to ''Occidentalia'' (with a small crest), which in turn gave rise to ''Pteranodon'' with its long backwards crest, finally leading to ''Geosternbergia'' with its large, upright crest. However, Miller made several mistakes in his study concerning which specimens Marsh had assigned to which species, and most scientists disregarded his work on the subject in their later research, though Wellnhofer (1978) followed Miller's species list. and Schoch (1984) somewhat oddly published another revision that essentially returned to Marsh's original classification scheme, most notably sinking ''P. longiceps'' as a synonym of ''P. ingens''.<ref name=bennett1994/>

===Recognizing variation===
During the early 1990s, S. Christopher Bennett also published several major papers reviewing the anatomy, taxonomy and life history of ''Pteranodon''.<ref name=kellner2010/>

Fragmentary fossils assigned to ''Pteranodon'' have also been discovered in [[Skåne]], [[Sweden]].<ref>Allt om Vetenskap, 10-2012, p.72</ref>

==Classification==

===Timespan and evolution===
[[File:Pteranodon longiceps launch.jpg|thumb|Skeleton of ''P. longiceps'', in launch pose, [[Telus World of Science, Vancouver]]]]
''Pteranodon'' fossils are known primarily from the [[Niobrara Formation]] of the central United States. Broadly defined, ''Pteranodon'' existed for more than four million years, during the late [[Coniacian]] to early [[Campanian]] stages of the [[Cretaceous]] period.<ref name=bennett1994>{{Cite journal | author = Bennett, S.C. | year = 1994 | title = Taxonomy and systematics of the Late Cretaceous pterosaur ''Pteranodon'' (Pterosauria, Pterodactyloida) | url = | journal = Occasional Papers of the Natural History Museum, University of Kansas | volume = 169 | issue = | pages = 1–70}}</ref> The genus is present in most layers of the Niobrara Formation except for the upper two; in 2003, [[Kenneth Carpenter]] surveyed the distribution and dating of fossils in this formation, demonstrating that ''Pteranodon sternbergi'' existed there from 88 to 85 million years ago, while ''P. longiceps'' existed between 86 and 84.5 million years ago. A possible third species, which Kellner named ''[[Geosternbergia|Geosternbergia maysei]]'' in 2010, is known from the Sharon Springs member of the [[Pierre Shale Formation]] in Kansas, [[Wyoming]], and [[South Dakota]], dating to between 81.5 and 80.5 million years ago.<ref name=carpenter2003>{{cite journal | last1 = Carpenter | first1 = K | year = 2003 | title = Vertebrate Biostratigraphy of the Smoky Hill Chalk (Niobrara Formation) and the Sharon Springs Member (Pierre Shale) | url = | journal = High-Resolution Approaches in Stratigraphic Paleontology | volume = 21 | issue = | pages = 421–437 | doi = 10.1007/978-1-4020-9053-0 | series = Topics in Geobiology | isbn = 978-1-4020-1443-7}}</ref>

In the early 1990s, Bennett noted that the two major [[Polymorphism (biology)|morphs]] of pteranodont present in the Niobrara Formation were precisely separated in time with little, if any, overlap. Due to this, and to their gross overall similarity, he suggested that they probably represent ''[[chronospecies]]'' within a single evolutionary lineage lasting about 4 million years. In other words, only one species of ''Pteranodon'' would have been present at any one time, and ''P. sternbergi'' (or ''Geosternbergia'') in all likelihood was the direct ancestor species of ''P. longiceps''.<ref name=bennett1994niobrara/>

===Valid species===
Many researchers consider there to be at least two species of ''Pteranodon''. However, aside from the differences between males and females described above, the post-cranial skeletons of ''Pteranodon'' show little to no variation between species or specimens, and the bodies and wings of all pteranodonts were essentially identical.<ref name=bennett1994/>

Two species of ''Pteranodon'' are traditionally recognized as valid: ''Pteranodon longiceps'', the [[type species]], and ''Pteranodon sternbergi''. The species differ only in the shape of the crest in adult males (described above), and possibly in the angle of certain skull bones.<ref name=bennett1994/> Because well-preserved ''Pteranodon'' skull fossils are extremely rare, researchers use stratigraphy (i.e. which rock layer of the geologic formation a fossil is found in) to determine species identity in most cases.

''Pteranodon sternbergi'' is the only known species of ''Pteranodon'' with an upright crest. The lower jaw of ''P. sternbergi'' was {{convert|1.25|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} long.<ref name="BTD">Zimmerman, H., Preiss, B., and Sovak, J. (2001). ''Beyond the Dinosaurs!: sky dragons, sea monsters, mega-mammals, and other prehistoric beasts'', Simon and Schuster. {{ISBN|0-689-84113-2}}.</ref> It was collected by [[George F. Sternberg]] in 1952 and described by John Christian Harksen in 1966, from the lower portion of the Niobrara Formation. It was older than ''P. longiceps'' and is considered by Bennett to be the direct ancestor of the later species.<ref name=bennett1994/>

Because fossils identifiable as ''P. sternbergi'' are found exclusively in the lower layers of the Niobrara Formation, and ''P. longiceps'' fossils exclusively in the upper layers, a fossil lacking the skull can be identified based on its position in the geologic column (though for many early fossil finds, precise data about its location was not recorded, rendering many fossils unidentifiable).<ref name=kellner2010/>
[[Image:Pteranodonts.png|thumb|350px|Variation in cranial anatomy and classification of specimens assigned to ''Pteranodon'' (drawn to scale, unpreserved portions shown in gray)]]
Below is a [[cladogram]] showing the phylogenetic placement of this genus within Pteranodontia from Andres and Myers (2013).<ref name=LoneStarPterosaurs>{{Cite journal | last1 = Andres | first1 = B. | last2 = Myers | first2 = T. S. | doi = 10.1017/S1755691013000303 | title = Lone Star Pterosaurs | journal = Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh | pages = 383–398 | year = 2013 | pmid = | pmc = | volume=103 | issue = 3–4}}</ref>
{{clade| style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
|label1= [[Pteranodontia]] 
|1={{clade
|label1= [[Nyctosauridae]] 
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Muzquizopteryx coahuilensis]]''
|2=''[[Nyctosaurus lamegoi|"Nyctosaurus" lamegoi]]''
|3=''[[Nyctosaurus gracilis]]''}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Alamodactylus byrdi]]''
|label2= [[Pteranodontoidea]] 
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1='''''Pteranodon longiceps'''''
|2=''[[Pteranodon sternbergi]]''}}
|2={{clade
|label1= [[Istiodactylidae]] 
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Longchengpterus zhaoi]]''
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Nurhachius ignaciobritoi]]''
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Liaoxipterus brachyognathus]]''
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Istiodactylus latidens]]''
|2=''[[Istiodactylus sinensis]]''}} }} }} }}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Lonchodectes compressirostris]]''
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Aetodactylus halli]]''
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Cearadactylus atrox]]''
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Brasileodactylus araripensis]]''
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Ludodactylus sibbicki]]''
|2=[[Ornithocheirae]]
}} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}

===Alternate classifications===
[[File:Old Pteranodon mount.jpg|thumb|left|''P. occidentalis'' mount wherein arms, shoulder girdle, and fingers are actual bones, and the rest has been drawn from other specimens.]]
Due to the subtle variations between specimens of pteranodontid from the Niobrara Formation, most researchers have assigned all of them to the single genus ''Pteranodon'', in at least two species (''P. longiceps'' and ''P. sternbergi'') distinguished mainly by the shape of the crest. However, the classification of these two forms has varied from researcher to researcher. In 1972, Halsey Wilkinson Miller published a paper arguing that the various forms of ''Pteranodon'' were different enough to be placed in distinct subgenera. He named these ''Pteranodon (Occidentalia) occidentalis'' (for the now-disused species ''P. occidentalis'') and ''Pteranodon (Sternbergia) sternbergi''. However, the name ''Sternbergia'' was preoccupied, and in 1978 Miller re-named the species ''Pteranodon (Geosternbergia) sternbergi'', and named a third subgenus/species combination for ''P. longiceps'', as ''Pteranodon (Longicepia) longiceps''. Most prominent pterosaur researchers of the late 20th century however, including S. Christopher Bennett and [[Peter Wellnhofer]], did not adopt these subgeneric names, and continued to place all pteranodont species into the single genus ''Pteranodon''.

In 2010, pterosaur researcher [[Alexander Kellner]] revisited H.W. Miller's classification. Kellner followed Miller's opinion that the differences between the ''Pteranodon'' species were great enough to place them into different genera. He placed ''P. sternbergi'' into the genus named by Miller, ''Geosternbergia'', along with the Pierre Shale skull specimen which Bennett had previously considered to be a large male ''P. longiceps''. Kellner argued that this specimen's crest, though incompletely preserved, was most similar to ''Geosternbergia''. Because the specimen was millions of years younger than any known ''Geosternbergia'', he assigned it to the new species ''Geosternbergia maysei''. Numerous other pteranodont specimens are known from the same formation and time period, and Kellner suggested they may belong to the same species as ''G. maysei'', but because they lack skulls, he could not confidently identify them.<ref name=kellner2010/>

===Disused species===
[[Image:Williston Pteranodon.jpg|thumb|S.W. Williston's reconstruction of ''Ornithostoma ingens'', a synonym of ''P. longiceps'']]
A number of additional species of ''Pteranodon'' have been named since the 1870s, although most now are considered to be junior synonyms of two or three valid species. The best-supported is the [[type species]], ''P. longiceps'', based on the well-preserved specimen including the first-known skull found by S. W. Williston. This individual had a wingspan of {{convert|7|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=PW96>{{cite book |last=Wellnhofer |first=Peter |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Pterosaurs |origyear=1991 |year=1996 |publisher=Barnes and Noble Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7607-0154-6 |pages=139}}</ref> Other valid species include the possibly larger ''P. sternbergi'', with a wingspan originally estimated at {{convert|9|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=PW96/> ''P. oweni'' (''P. occidentalis''), ''P. velox'', ''P. umbrosus'', ''P. harpyia'', and ''P. comptus'' are considered to be ''nomina dubia'' by Bennett (1994) and others who question their validity. All probably are synonymous with the more well-known species.

Because the key distinguishing characteristic Marsh noted for ''Pteranodon'' was its lack of teeth, any toothless pterosaur jaw fragment, wherever it was found in the world, tended to be attributed to ''Pteranodon'' during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This resulted in a plethora of species and a great deal of confusion. The name became a [[wastebasket taxon]], rather like the dinosaur ''[[Megalosaurus]]'', to label any pterosaur remains that could not be distinguished other than by the absence of teeth. Species (often dubious ones now known to be based on sexual variation or juvenile characters) have been reclassified a number of times, and several [[Genus|subgenera]] have in the 1970s been erected by Halsey Wilkinson Miller to hold them in various combinations, further confusing the taxonomy (subgenera include ''Longicepia'', ''Occidentalia'', and ''Geosternbergia''). Notable authors who have discussed the various aspects of ''Pteranodon'' include Bennett, Padian, Unwin, Kellner, and Wellnhofer. Two species, ''P. orogensis'' and ''P. orientalis'', are not pteranodontids and have been renamed ''[[Bennettazhia]] oregonensis'' and ''[[Bogolubovia]] orientalis'' respectively.

===List of species and synonyms===
Status of names listed below follow a survey by Bennett, 1994 unless otherwise noted.<ref name=bennett1994/>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Author
! Year
! Status
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| ''[[Pterodactylus]] oweni''
| Marsh
|[[1871 in paleontology|1871]]
|''[[Nomen dubium]]''
|Renamed ''Pterodactylus occidentalis'' Marsh 1872 on grounds of ''oweni'' being preoccupied by "Pterodactylus oweni" Seeley 1864 (''nomen nudum'' for ''Ornithocheirus oweni'' Seeley 1870)
|-
| ''[[Pterodactylus]] ingens''
| Marsh
|[[1872 in paleontology|1872]]
|Reclassified as ''Pteranodon ingens''
|
|-
| ''[[Pterodactylus]] occidentalis''
| Marsh
|[[1872 in paleontology|1872]]
|Junior objective synonym of ''Pterodactylus oweni''
|Reclassified from ''Pterodactylus oweni'' Marsh 1871 on grounds of ''P. oweni'' being preoccupied by "Pterodactylus oweni" Seeley 1864 (''nomen nudum'' for ''Ornithocheirus oweni'' Seeley 1870)
|-
| ''[[Pterodactylus]] velox''
| Marsh
|[[1872 in paleontology|1872]]
|''[[Nomen dubium]]''
|Reclassified as ''Pteranodon velox''
|-
| ''Ornithochirus umbrosus''
| Cope
|[[1872 in paleontology|1872]]
|''Nomen dubium''
|
|-
| ''Ornithochirus harpyia''
| Cope
|[[1872 in paleontology|1872]]
|''Nomen dubium''
|
|-
| ''Pterodactylus umbrosus''
| (Cope) Cope
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1874 in paleontology|1874]]
|Reclassification of ''Ornithochirus umbrosus''
|
|-
| ''Pteranodon longiceps''
| Marsh
|[[1876 in paleontology|1876]]
|Valid
|Type species
|-
| ''Pteranodon ingens''
| (Marsh) Williston
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1876 in paleontology|1876]]
|''Nomen dubium''
|Reclassified from ''Pterodactylus ingens''
|-
| ''Pteranodon occidentalis''
| Marsh
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1876 in paleontology|1876]]
|Junior objective synonym of ''Pterodactylus oweni''
|Reclassified from ''Pterodactylus occidentalis''
|-
| ''Pteranodon velox''
| Marsh
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1876 in paleontology|1876]]
|''Nomen dubium''
|Reclassified from ''Pterodactylus velox'', based on a juvenile specimen
|-
| ''Pteranodon gracilis''
| Marsh
|[[1876 in paleontology|1876]]
|Reclassified as ''[[Nyctosaurus|Nyctosaurus gracilis]]''
|
|-
| ''Pteranodon comptus''
| Marsh
|[[1876 in paleontology|1876]]
|''Nomen dubium''
|
|-
| ''Pteranodon nanus''
| Marsh
|[[1876 in paleontology|1876]]
|Reclassified as ''[[Nyctosaurus|Nyctosaurus nanus]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Ornithocheirus]] umbrosus''
| (Cope) Newton
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1888 in paleontology|1888]]
|Reclassified as ''Pteranodon umbrosus''
|Spelling correction of ''Ornithochirus umbrosus''
|-
| ''[[Ornithocheirus]] harpyia''
| (Cope) Newton
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1888 in paleontology|1888]]
|Reclassified as ''Pteranodon harpyia''
|Spelling correction of ''Ornithochirus harpyia''
|-
| ''Pteranodon umbrosus''
| (Cope) Williston
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1892 in paleontology|1892]]
|''Nomen dubium''
|Reclassification of ''Ornithochirus umbrosus''
|-
| ''[[Ornithostoma]] ingens''
| (Marsh) Williston
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1893 in paleontology|1893]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon ingens''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon ingens''
|-
| ''[[Ornithostoma]] umbrosum''
| (Cope) Williston
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1897 in paleontology|1897]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon umbrosus''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon umbrosus''
|-
| ''Pteranodon oregonensis''
| [[Charles W. Gilmore|Gilmore]]
|[[1928 in paleontology|1928]]
|Reclassified as ''[[Bennettazhia|Bennettazhia oregonensis]]''
|
|-
| ''Pteranodon sternbergi''
| Harksen
|[[1966 in paleontology|1966]]
|Valid
|
|-
| ''Pteranodon marshi''
| Miller
|[[1972 in paleontology|1972]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon longiceps''
|
|-
| ''Pteranodon bonneri''
| Miller
|[[1972 in paleontology|1972]]
|Reclassified as ''[[Nyctosaurus|Nyctosaurus bonneri]]''
|
|-
| ''Pteranodon walkeri''
| Miller
|[[1972 in paleontology|1972]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon longiceps''
|
|-
| ''Pteranodon (Occidentalia) eatoni''
| (Miller) Miller
|([[1972 in paleontology|1972]]) [[1972 in paleontology|1972]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon sternbergi''
|
|-
| ''Pteranodon eatoni''
| (Miller) Miller
|([[1972 in paleontology|1972]]) [[1972 in paleontology|1972]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon sternbergi''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon (Occidentalia) eatoni''
|-
| ''Pteranodon (Longicepia) longicps'' {{sic}}
| (Marsh) Miller
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1972 in paleontology|1972]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon longiceps''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon longiceps''
|-
| ''Pteranodon (Longicepia) marshi''
| (Miller) Miller
|([[1972 in paleontology|1972]]) [[1972 in paleontology|1972]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon longiceps''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon marshi''
|-
| ''Pteranodon (Sternbergia) sternbergi''
| (Harksen) Miller
|([[1966 in paleontology|1966]]) [[1972 in paleontology|1972]]
|Reclassified as ''Pteranodon (Geosternbergia) sternbergi''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon sternbergi''
|-
| ''Pteranodon (Sternbergia) walkeri''
| (Miller) Miller
|([[1972 in paleontology|1972]]) [[1972 in paleontology|1972]]
|Reclassified as ''Pteranodon (Geosternbergia) walkeri''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon walkeri''
|-
| ''Pteranodon (Pteranodon) marshi''
| (Miller) Miller
|([[1972 in paleontology|1972]]) [[1973 in paleontology|1973]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon longiceps''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon marshi''
|-
| ''Pteranodon (Occidentalia) occidentalis''
| (Marsh) Olshevsky
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1978 in paleontology|1978]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon occidentalis''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon occidentalis''
|-
| ''Pteranodon (Longicepia) ingens''
| (Marsh) Olshevsky
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1978 in paleontology|1978]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon ingens''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon ingens''
|-
| ''Pteranodon (Pteranodon) ingens''
| (Marsh) Olshevsky
|([[1872 in paleontology|1872]]) [[1978 in paleontology|1978]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon ingens''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon ingens''
|-
| ''Pteranodon (Geosternbergia) walkeri''
| (Miller) Miller
|([[1972 in paleontology|1972]]) [[1978 in paleontology|1978]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon longiceps''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon walkeri''
|-
| ''Pteranodon (Geosternbergia) sternbergi''
| (Harksen) Miller
|([[1966 in paleontology|1966]]) [[1978 in paleontology|1978]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon sternbergi''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon (Sternbergia) sternbergi''
|-
| ''Pteranodon orientalis''
| (Bogolubov) Nesov & Yarkov
|([[1914 in paleontology|1914]]) [[1989 in paleontology|1989]]
|Reclassified as ''[[Bogolubovia|Bogolubovia orientalis]]''
|Reclassified from ''[[Ornithostoma|Ornithostoma orientalis]]''
|-
| ''Geosternbergia walkeri''
| (Miller) Olshevsky
|([[1972 in paleontology|1972]]) [[1991 in paleontology|1991]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon sternbergi''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon (Sternbergia) walkeri''
|-
| ''Geosternbergia sternbergi''
| (Harksen) Olshevsky
|([[1966 in paleontology|1966]]) [[1991 in paleontology|1991]]
|Synonym of ''Pteranodon sternbergi''
|Reclassified from ''Pteranodon (Geosternbergia) sternbergi''
|-
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Paleontology}}
* [[Pterosaur size]]

==References==
{{Reflist|40em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* Anonymous. 1872. On two new Ornithosaurians from Kansas. ''American Journal of Science'', Series 3, 3(17):374–375. (Probably by O. C. Marsh)
* Bennett, S. C. 2000. New information on the skeletons of ''Nyctosaurus''. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 20(Supplement to Number 3): 29A. (Abstract)
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bennett | first1 = S. C. | year = 2001 | title = The osteology and functional morphology of the Late Cretaceous pterosaur ''Pteranodon''. Part II. Functional morphology | url = | journal = Palaeontographica, Abteilung A | volume = 260 | issue = | pages = 113–153}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bennett | first1 = S. C. | year = 2003 | title = New crested specimens of the Late Cretaceous pterosaur ''Nyctosaurus'' | doi = 10.1007/bf03004560 | journal = Paläontologische Zeitschrift | volume = 77 | issue = | pages = 61–75}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bennett | first1 = S. C. | year = 2007 | title = Articulation and function of the pteroid bone of pterosaurs | url = | journal = Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology | volume = 27 | issue = 4| pages = 881–891 | doi=10.1671/0272-4634(2007)27[881:aafotp]2.0.co;2}}
* Betts, C. W. 1871. The Yale College Expedition of 1870. Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, 43(257):663–671. (Issue of October, 1871)
* Bonner, O. W. 1964. An osteological study of ''Nyctosaurus'' and ''Trinacromerum'' with a description of a new species of ''Nyctosaurus''. Unpub. Masters Thesis, Fort Hays State University, 63 pages.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Brower | first1 = J. C. | year = 1983 | title = The aerodynamics of ''Pteranodon'' and ''Nyctosaurus'', two large pterosaurs from the Upper Cretaceous of Kansas | doi = 10.1080/02724634.1983.10011963 | journal = Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology | volume = 3 | issue = 2| pages = 84–124}}
* Cope, E. D. 1872. On the geology and paleontology of the Cretaceous strata of Kansas. ''Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories'' 5:318–349 (Report for 1871).
* {{cite journal | last1 = Cope | first1 = E. D. | year = 1872 | title = On two new Ornithosaurians from Kansas | url = | journal = Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society | volume = 12 | issue = 88 | pages = 420–422}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Cope | first1 = E. D. | year = 1874 | title = Review of the Vertebrata of the Cretaceous period found west of the Mississippi River | url = | journal = U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories Bulletin | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 3–48}}
* Eaton, G. F. 1903. The characters of ''Pteranodon''. ''American Journal of Science'', ser. 4, 16(91):82–86, pl. 6-7.
* Eaton, G. F. 1904. The characters of ''Pteranodon'' (second paper). ''American Journal of Science'', ser. 4, 17(100):318–320, pl. 19-20.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Eaton | first1 = G. F. | year = 1908 | title = The skull of ''Pteranodon'' | url = | journal = Science | volume = XXVII | issue = | pages = 254–255}}
* Everhart, M. J. 1999. An early occurrence of ''Pteranodon sternbergi'' from the Smoky Hill Member (Late Cretaceous) of the Niobrara Chalk in western Kansas. ''Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science'' 18(Abstracts):27.
* Everhart, M. J. 2005. Oceans of Kansas – A Natural History of the Western Interior Sea. Indiana University Press, 320 pp.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harksen | first1 = J. C. | year = 1966 | title = ''Pteranodon sternbergi'', a new fossil pterodactyl from the Niobrara Cretaceous of Kansas | url = | journal = Proceedings South Dakota Academy of Science | volume = 45 | issue = | pages = 74–77}}
* {{Cite journal | author = Kripp, D. von. | year = 1943 | title = Ein Lebensbild von ''Pteranodon ingens'' auf flugtechnischer Grundlage | url = | journal = Nova Acta Leopoldina|series= N.F. | volume = 12 | issue = 83 | pages = 16–32}}
* Lane, H. H. 1946. A survey of the fossil vertebrates of Kansas, Part III, The Reptiles, ''Kansas Academy Science, Transactions'' 49(3):289–332, figs. 1–7.
* Marsh, O. C. 1871. Scientific expedition to the Rocky Mountains. ''American Journal of Science'' ser. 3, 1(6):142–143.
* Marsh, O. C. 1871. Notice of some new fossil reptiles from the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations. ''American Journal of Science'', Series 3, 1(6):447–459.
* Marsh, O. C. 1871. Note on a new and gigantic species of Pterodactyle. ''American Journal of Science'', Series 3, 1(6):472.
* Marsh, O. C. 1872. Discovery of additional remains of Pterosauria, with descriptions of two new species. ''American Journal of Science'', Series 3, 3(16):241–248.
* Marsh, O. C. 1881. Note on American pterodactyls. ''American Journal of Science'', Series 3, 21(124):342–343.
* Marsh, O. C. 1882. The wings of Pterodactyles. ''American Journal of Science'', Series 3, 23(136):251–256, pl. III.
* Marsh, O. C. 1884. Principal characters of American Cretaceous pterodactyls. Part I. The skull of Pteranodon. ''American Journal of Science'', Series 3, 27(161):422–426, pl. 15.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = H. W. | year = 1971 | title = The taxonomy of the ''Pteranodon'' species from Kansas | url = | journal = Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science | volume = 74 | issue = 1| pages = 1–19 | doi=10.2307/3627663 | jstor = 3627663}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = H. W. | year = 1971 | title = A skull of ''Pteranodon'' (''Longicepia'') ''longiceps'' Marsh associated with wing and body parts | url = | journal = Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science | volume = 74 | issue = 10| pages = 20–33 | doi=10.2307/3627664 | jstor = 3627664}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Padian | first1 = K | year = 1983 | title = A functional analysis of flying and walking in pterosaurs | url = | journal = Paleobiology | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 218–239| doi = 10.1017/S009483730000765X}}
* Russell, D. A. 1988. A check list of North American marine cretaceous vertebrates Including fresh water fishes, Occasional Paper of the Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology, (4):57.
* Schultze, H.-P., L. Hunt, J. Chorn and A. M. Neuner, 1985. Type and figured specimens of fossil vertebrates in the collection of the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, Part II. Fossil Amphibians and Reptiles. ''Miscellaneous Publications of the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History'' 77:66 pp.
* Seeley, Harry G. 1871. Additional evidence of the structure of the head in ornithosaurs from the Cambridge Upper Greensand; being a supplement to "The Ornithosauria." ''The Annals and Magazine of Natural History'', Series 4, 7:20–36, pls. 2–3. (Discovery of toothless pterosaurs in England)
* Shor, E. N. 1971. Fossils and flies; The life of a compleat scientist – Samuel Wendell Williston, 1851–1918, University of Oklahoma Press, 285 pp.
* Sternberg, C. H. 1990. The life of a fossil hunter, Indiana University Press, 286 pp. (Originally published in 1909 by Henry Holt and Company)
* {{cite journal | last1 = Sternberg | first1 = G. F. | last2 = Walker | first2 = M. V. | year = 1958 | title = Observation of articulated limb bones of a recently discovered ''Pteranodon'' in the Niobrara Cretaceous of Kansas | url = | journal = Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science | volume = 61 | issue = 1| pages = 81–85 | doi=10.2307/3626742 | jstor = 3626742}}
* Stewart, J. D. 1990. Niobrara Formation vertebrate stratigraphy. pp. 19–30 in Bennett, S. C. (ed.), Niobrara Chalk Excursion Guidebook, The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History and the Kansas Geological Survey.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Wang | first1 = X. | last2 = Zhou | first2 = Z. | year = 2004 | title = Pterosaur embryo from the Early Cretaceous | url = | journal = Nature | volume = 429 | issue = 6992| page = 621 | doi=10.1038/429621a | pmid=15190343 | bibcode = 2004Natur.429..621W}}
* Wellnhofer, P. 1991. The illustrated encyclopedia of pterosaurs. Crescent Books, New York, 192 pp.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Williston | first1 = S. W. | year = 1891 | title = The skull and hind extremity of ''Pteranodon'' | doi = 10.1086/275456 | journal = American Naturalist | volume = 25 | issue = 300 | pages = 1124–1126}}
* Williston, S. W. 1892. Kansas pterodactyls. Part I. ''Kansas University Quarterly'' 1:1–13, pl. i.
* Williston, S. W. 1893. Kansas pterodactyls. Part II. ''Kansas University Quarterly'' 2:79–81, with 1 fig.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Williston | first1 = S. W. | year = 1895 | title = Note on the mandible of ''Ornithostoma'' | url = | journal = Kansas University Quarterly | volume = 4 | issue = | page = 61}}
* Williston, S. W. 1896. On the skull of ''Ornithostoma''. ''Kansas University Quarterly'' 4(4):195–197, with pl. i.
* Williston, S. W. 1897. Restoration of ''Ornithostoma'' (''Pteranodon'')" ''Kansas University Quarterly'' 6:35–51, with pl. ii.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Williston | first1 = S. W. | year = 1902 | title = On the skeleton of ''Nyctodactylus'', with restoration | url =https://zenodo.org/record/1423429 | journal = American Journal of Anatomy | volume = 1 | issue = 3| pages = 297–305 | doi=10.1002/aja.1000010306}}
* Williston, S. W. 1902. On the skull of ''Nyctodactylus'', an Upper Cretaceous pterodactyl. ''Journal of Geology'' 10:520–531, 2 pls.
* Williston, S. W. 1902. Winged reptiles. ''Pop. Science Monthly'' 60:314–322, 2 figs.
* Williston, S. W. 1903. On the osteology of ''Nyctosaurus'' (''Nyctodactylus''), with notes on American pterosaurs. Field Mus. Publ. (Geological Ser.) 2(3):125–163, 2 figs., pls. XL-XLIV.
* Williston, S. W. 1904. The fingers of pterodactyls. ''Geological Magazine'', Series 5, 1: 59–60.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Williston | first1 = S. W. | year = 1911 | title = The wing-finger of pterodactyls, with restoration of ''Nyctosaurus'' | url = | journal = Journal of Geology | volume = 19 | issue = 8| pages = 696–705 | doi=10.1086/621914 | bibcode=1911JG.....19..696W}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Williston | first1 = S. W. | year = 1912 | title = A review of G. B. Eaton's "Osteology of ''Pteranodon''" | url = | journal = Journal of Geology | volume = 20 | issue = 3| page = 288 | doi=10.1086/621967 | bibcode = 1912JG.....20..288E}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Pteranodon|Pteranodon}}
* [http://www.oceansofkansas.com/Pteranodon.html ''Pteranodon'' – A Photographic Atlas – at Oceans of Kansas Paleontology]
* [http://www.oceansofkansas.com/Ptero-dig.html Documented finding of a young male ''Pteranodon sternbergi'' (Oceans of Kansas Paleontology)]
{{Pterosauria|P.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q245060}}

[[Category:Late Cretaceous pterosaurs of North America]]
[[Category:Ornithocheiroids]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Othniel Charles Marsh]]
[[Category:Fossil taxa described in 1876]]

Macaroni penguin

2020-03-30T12:17:25Z

118.46.55.151: /* Description */Layout Relocation

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Macaroni penguin
| image = {{Css Image Crop|Image = SGI-2016-South Georgia (Cooper Bay)–Macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) 01.jpg|bSize = 550|cWidth = 250|cHeight = 330|oTop = 30|oLeft = 130|Location = center}}
| image_caption = In [[Cooper Bay]], [[South Georgia Island|South Georgia]]
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22697793/0 |title=''Eudyptes chrysolophus'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2013 |access-date=26 November 2013|ref=harv}}</ref>
| genus = Eudyptes
| species = chrysolophus
| authority = ([[Johann Friedrich von Brandt|Brandt]], 1837)
| range_map = Macaroni peguin dist.jpg
| range_map_caption = Macaroni penguin range Breeding colonies in red
| synonyms =
''Catarractes chrysolophus'' Brandt, 1837<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/fauna/afd/taxa/11fa9786-aff3-42f6-a891-41dbb13947ef|title=Species ''Eudyptes chrysolophus'' (Brandt, 1837)|date=9 October 2008|work=Australian Biological Resources Study: Australian Faunal Directory|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia|accessdate=25 March 2010|location=Canberra, ACT|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106162808/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/fauna/afd/taxa/11fa9786-aff3-42f6-a891-41dbb13947ef|archivedate=6 November 2012}}</ref> 
''Eudyptes saltator'' (Stephens, 1826)
}}

The '''macaroni penguin''' (''Eudyptes chrysolophus'') is a [[species]] of [[penguin]] found from the [[Subantarctic]] to the [[Antarctic Peninsula]]. One of six species of [[crested penguin]], it is very closely related to the [[royal penguin]], and some authorities consider the two to be a single species. It bears a distinctive yellow crest, and the face and upperparts are black and sharply delineated from the white underparts. Adults weigh on average {{convert|5.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and are {{convert|70|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length. The male and female are similar in appearance; the male is slightly larger and stronger with a relatively larger [[beak|bill]]. Like all penguins, it is flightless, with a streamlined body and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine lifestyle.

Its diet consists of a variety of [[crustacean]]s, mainly [[krill]], as well as small fish and [[cephalopod]]s; the species consumes more marine life annually than any other species of seabird. These birds [[moult]] once a year, spending about three to four weeks ashore, before returning to the sea. Numbering up to 100,000 individuals, the breeding colonies of the macaroni penguin are among the largest and densest of all penguin species. After spending the summer breeding, penguins disperse into the oceans for six months; a 2009 study found that macaroni penguins from [[Kerguelen Islands|Kerguelen]] travelled over {{convert|10000|km|mi|abbr=on}} in the central [[Indian Ocean]]. With about 18 million individuals, the macaroni penguin is the most numerous penguin species. Widespread declines in populations have been recorded since the mid-1970s and their [[conservation status]] is classified as [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]].

==Taxonomy==
The macaroni penguin was described from the Falkland Islands in 1837 by German naturalist [[Johann Friedrich von Brandt]].<ref name=Williams211>Williams (1995) p. 211</ref> It is one of six or so species in the genus ''[[Crested penguin|Eudyptes]]'', collectively known as crested penguins. The genus name is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] words ''eu'' "good", and ''dyptes'' "diver". The [[specific name (zoology)|specific epithet]] ''chrysolophus'' is derived from the Greek words ''chryse'' "golden", and ''lophos'' "crest".<ref name=Liddell1980>{{cite book | author = Liddell, Henry George | author-link = Henry George Liddell | author2 = Scott, Robert | author2-link = Robert Scott (philologist) | last-author-amp = yes | year = 1980 | title = A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition) | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = United Kingdom | isbn = 0-19-910207-4 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/lexicon00lidd }}</ref>

The common name was recorded from the early 19th century in the Falkland Islands. English sailors apparently named the species for its conspicuous yellow [[Crest (feathers)|crest]];<ref name=OED>{{Cite encyclopedia| title=Macaroni|encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary|editor1=J. Simpson |editor2=E. Weiner | year=1989 |edition= 2nd | location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn= 0-19-861186-2}}</ref> [[Maccaroni (fashion)|Maccaronism]] was a term for a particular [[fashion|style]] in 18th-century England marked by flamboyant or excessive ornamentation. A person who adopted this fashion was labelled a "maccaroni" or "macaroni", as in the song "[[Yankee Doodle]]".<ref>{{cite book | last = Steele | first = Valerie | title = Paris Fashion: A Cultural History | publisher = Berg Publishers | year = 1998 | pages = 21–32 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=Vwhieeo_nfMC | isbn = 978-1-85973-973-0 }}</ref>

[[Molecular clock]] evidence using DNA suggests the macaroni penguin split from its closest relative, the [[royal penguin]] (''Eudyptes schlegeli''), around 1.5 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Baker AJ, Pereira SL, Haddrath OP, Edge KA |year=2006 |title=Multiple gene evidence for expansion of extant penguins out of Antarctica due to global cooling |journal=Proc Biol Sci |volume=273 |issue=1582 |pages=11–7 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3260 |pmc=1560011 |pmid=16519228}}</ref> The two have generally been considered separate species, but the close similarities of their DNA sequences has led some, such as the Australian ornithologists [[Les Christidis]] and Walter Boles, to treat the royal as a [[subspecies (biology)|subspecies]] of the macaroni.<ref>{{cite book |title=Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian Birds|vauthors=Christidis L, Boles WE |year=2008 |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |location=Canberra |isbn=978-0-643-06511-6 |page=98}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | first=Peter | last=Juliff | title=From the Pole to the Equator: A panoply of Penguins | journal=The Bird Observer | date=December 2008 | issue=857 | publisher=Bird Observation & Conservation Australia | url=http://www.birdobservers.org.au/birdobserver/pdf/200812/dec08_12_from_the_pole.pdf | accessdate=2009-01-27 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706124244/http://www.birdobservers.org.au/birdobserver/pdf/200812/dec08_12_from_the_pole.pdf | archivedate=2011-07-06 }}</ref> The two species are very similar in appearance; the royal penguin has a white face instead of the usually black face of the macaroni.<ref name=Williams214>Williams (1995) p. 214</ref> Interbreeding with the [[Indo-Pacific]] subspecies of the [[southern rockhopper penguin]] (''E. chrysocome filholi'') has been reported at [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard]] and [[Prince Edward Islands|Marion]] Islands, with three [[hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]s recorded there by a 1987–88 Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1071/MU9900198|vauthors=Woehler EJ, Gilbert CA|year=1990|title=Hybrid Rockhopper-Macaroni Penguins, interbreeding and mixed-species pairs at Heard and Marion Islands|journal=Emu|volume=90|pages=198–210|issue=3}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Macaroni penguin.jpg|thumb|150px|A skeleton on display in [[Manchester Museum]]]]
The macaroni penguin is a large, crested penguin, similar in appearance to other members of the genus ''Eudyptes''. An adult bird has an average length of around {{convert|70|cm|in|abbr=on}};<ref name=Williams211/> the weight varies markedly depending on time of year and sex. Males average from {{convert|3.3|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} after incubating, or {{convert|3.7|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} after moult to {{convert|6.4|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} before moult, while females average {{convert|3.2|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} after to {{convert|5.7|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} before moult.<ref name=Williams213>Williams (1995) p. 213</ref> Among standard measurements, the thick bill (from the [[gape]]) measures {{convert|7|to|8|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[Culmen (bird)|culmen]] being around a centimetre less. The wing, from the shoulder to the tip, is around {{convert|20.4|cm|in|abbr=on}} and the tail is {{convert|9|-|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=xjoPAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=Macaroni+Penguin+culmen&source=bl&ots=M21Kw3Lt7F&sig=g4pcH1oam95XWy3x7ydrtsrT_Zg&hl=en#v=onepage&q=Macaroni%20Penguin%20culmen&f=false|Princeton Records]</ref> The head, chin, throat, and upper parts are black and sharply demarcated against the white under parts. The black [[plumage]] has a bluish sheen when new and brownish when old. The most striking feature is the yellow crest that arises from a patch on the centre of the forehead, and extends horizontally backwards to the [[nape]]. The flippers are blue-black on the upper surface with a white trailing edge, and mainly white underneath with a black tip and leading edge. The large, bulbous [[beak|bill]] is orange-brown. The [[iris (anatomy)|iris]] is red and a patch of pinkish bare skin is found from the base of the bill to the eye. The legs and feet are pink. The male and female are similar in appearance; males tend to be slightly larger.<ref name=Williams211/> Males also bear relatively larger bills, which average around {{convert|6.1|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} compared to {{convert|5.4|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} in females; this feature has been used to tell the sexes apart.<ref name=Williams213/>

[[File:Macaroni (js)1.jpg|upright|thumb|233px|left|Showing the conspicuous orange and yellow crests]]
Immature birds are distinguished by their smaller size, smaller, duller-brown bill, dark grey chin and throat, and absent or underdeveloped head plumes, often just a scattering of yellow feathers. The crest is fully developed in birds aged three to four years, a year or two before breeding age.<ref name=Williams211/>

Macaroni penguins [[moult]] once a year, a process in which they replace all of their old [[feather]]s. They spend around two weeks accumulating fat before moulting because they do not feed during the moult, as they cannot enter the water to forage for food without feathers. The process typically takes three to four weeks, which they spend sitting ashore. Once finished, they go back to sea and return to their colonies to mate in the spring.<ref>{{cite book|last=Riffenburgh|first=Beau|title=Encyclopedia of the Antarctic|publisher=CRC Press|year=2007|page=605|url=https://books.google.com/?id=fRJtB2MNdJMC&pg=PA605&lpg=PA605&dq=macaroni+penguin+moult|isbn=978-0-415-97024-2}}</ref> Overall survival rates are poorly known; the successful return of breeding adults at [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia Island]] varied between 49% and 78% over three years, and around 10% of those that did return did not breed the following year.<ref name = Williams219>Williams (1995) p. 219</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:SGI-2016-South Georgia (Cooper Bay)–Macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) 07 (climbing).jpg|thumb|200px|A colony climbing in [[Cooper Island|Cooper Bay]], South Georgia]]
A 1993 review estimated that the macaroni was the most abundant species of penguin, with a minimum of 11,841,600 pairs worldwide.<ref>{{cite book|last=Woehler|first=EJ|title=The distribution and abundance of Antarctic and subantarctic penguins|publisher=SCAR/ Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom|year=1993|isbn=0-948277-14-9}}</ref> Macaroni penguins range from the [[Subantarctic]] to the [[Antarctic Peninsula]]; at least 216 breeding colonies at 50 sites have been recorded.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Oehler DA, Pelikan S, Fry WR, Weakley Jr L, Kusch A, Marin M|year=2008 |title=Status of Crested Penguin (''Eudyptes'') populations on three islands in Southern Chile |journal=The Wilson Journal of Ornithology |volume=120 |issue=3 |pages=575–81 |doi=10.1676/07-108.1 }}</ref> In South America, macaroni penguins are found in southern [[Chile]], the Falkland Islands, [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], and [[South Orkney Islands]]. They also occupy much of Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula, including the northern [[South Shetland Islands]], [[Bouvet Island]], the [[Prince Edward Islands|Prince Edward and Marion island]]s, the [[Crozet Islands]], the [[Kerguelen Islands]], and the [[McDonald Islands|Heard and McDonald Islands]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Short Communications: New Southerly Record for the Macaroni Penguin (''Eudyptes chrysolophus'') on the Antarctic Peninsula|journal=Auk|author=Bernstein, Neil|author2=Tirrell, Paul |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v098n02/p0398-p0399.pdf|accessdate=2008-12-07}}</ref> While foraging for food, groups will range north to the islands off [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], southern [[Brazil]], [[Tristan da Cunha]], and [[South Africa]].<ref name=Curry>{{cite web |author=Curry, Tiera | title=Macaroni Penguin| publisher= Center for Biological Diversity | url =http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/birds/penguins/macaroni_penguin.html | work =[[Center for Biological Diversity]] website | accessdate = 2008-11-17}}</ref>

==Ecology==
=== Feeding ===
The diet of the macaroni penguin consists of a variety of [[crustacean]]s, [[squid]] and [[fish]]; the proportions that each makes up vary with locality and season. Krill, particularly [[Antarctic krill]] (''Euphausia superba''), account for over 90% of food during breeding season.<ref name="Williams215">Williams (1995) p. 215</ref> Cephalopods and small fish such as the [[marbled rockcod]] (''Notothenia rossii''), [[painted notie]] (''Lepidonotothen larseni''), ''[[Champsocephalus gunneri]]'', the [[lanternfish]] species ''[[Krefftichthys anderssoni]]'', ''[[Protomyctophum tenisoni]]'' and ''[[Protomyctophum normai|P. normani]]'' become more important during chick-rearing.<ref name=Williams2156>Williams (1995) pp. 215–16</ref> Like several other penguin species, the macaroni penguin sometimes deliberately swallows small (10– to 30-mm-diameter) stones; this behaviour has been speculated to aid in providing ballast for deep-sea diving,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Splettstoesser J, Todd FS |year=1999 |title=Stomach stones from Emperor Penguin ''Aptenodytes forsteri'' colonies in the Weddell Sea |journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=27 |pages=97–100 |url=http://marineornithology.org/PDF/27/27_12.pdf}}</ref> or to help grind food, especially the [[exoskeletons]] of crustaceans which are a significant part of its diet.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Brown CR, Klages NT |year=1987 |title=Seasonal and annual variation in diets of Macaroni (''Eudyptes chrysolophus chrysolophus'') and Southern Rockhopper (''E. chrysocome chrysocome'') penguins at sub-Antarctic Marion Island |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=212 |pages=7–28 |doi= 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1987.tb05111.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=De Villiers MS, Bruyn PJ |year=2004 |title=Stone-swallowing by three species of penguins at sub-antarctic Marion Island |journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=185–86|url=http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/32_2/32_2_185-186.pdf |accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref>

Foraging for food is generally conducted on a daily basis, from dawn to dusk when they have chicks to feed. Overnight trips are sometimes made, especially as the chicks grow older;<ref name=Williams215/> a 2008 study that used surgically implanted data loggers to track the movement of the birds showed the foraging trips become longer once the chick-rearing period is over.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Green JA, Wilson RP, Boyd IL, Woakes AJ, Green CJ, Butler PJ |year=2008 |title=Tracking macaroni penguins during long foraging trips using 'behavioural geolocation' |journal=Polar Biology |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=645–53 |doi=10.1007/s00300-008-0568-z }}</ref> Birds venture out for 10–20 days during incubation and before the moult.<ref name=Williams215/> Macaroni penguins are known to be the largest single consumer of marine resources among all of the [[seabird]]s, with an estimated take of 9.2 million [[tonne]]s of krill a year.<ref name="pmid15252997">{{cite journal |author=Brooke MDL |title=The food consumption of the world's seabirds |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=271 |issue=Suppl 4 |pages=S246–48 |year=2004 |pmid=15252997 |pmc=1810044 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2003.0153}}</ref> Outside the breeding season, macaroni penguins tend to dive deeper, longer, and more efficiently during their winter migration than during the summer breeding season. Year round, foraging dives usually occur during daylight hours, but winter dives are more constrained by daylight due to the shorter days.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Green JA, Boyd IL, Woakes AJ, Warren NL, Butler PJ|year=2005 |title=Behavioural flexibility during year-round foraging in macaroni penguins |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=296|pages=183–96 |doi=10.3354/meps296183 |bibcode=2005MEPS..296..183G }}</ref>

Foraging distance from colonies has been measured at around {{convert|50|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at South Georgia,<ref name="crox80">{{cite journal|vauthors=Croxall JP, Prince PA|year=1980|title=Food, feeding and ecological segregation of seabirds at South Georgia|journal= Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=14|pages=103–31|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1980.tb00101.x|url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/33763/1/227.pdf}}</ref> offshore over the continental shelf, and anywhere from {{convert|59|to|303|km|mi}} at Marion Island.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Brown CR|year=1987|title=Travelling speed and foraging range of macaroni and rockhopper penguins at Marion Island|journal=Journal of Field Ornithology|volume=58|pages=118–25|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v058n02/p0118-p0125.pdf|accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref> Macaroni penguins normally forage at depths of {{convert|15|to|70|m|ft|abbr=on}}, but have been recorded diving down to {{convert|100|m|ft|abbr=on}} on occasions. Some night foraging does occur, but these dives are much shallower, ranging from only {{convert|3|to|6|m|ft|abbr=on}} in depth. Dives rarely exceed two minutes in duration.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Foraging ecology and diving behavior of Macaroni Penguins ''Eudyptes chrysolophus'' at Heard Island|journal=Marine Ornithology|year=1998|vauthors=Green K, Williams R, Green MG |volume=26|pages=27–34|url=http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/26/26_5.pdf}}</ref> All dives are V-shaped, and no time is spent at the sea bottom; about half the time on a foraging trip is spent diving. Birds have been calculated as catching from 4 to 16 krill or 40 to 50 [[amphipod]]s per dive.<ref name=Williams215/>

===Predators===
The macaroni penguin's [[predator]]s consist of birds and aquatic mammals. The [[leopard seal]] (''Hydrurga leptonyx''), [[Antarctic fur seal]] (''Arctocephalus gazella''), [[Subantarctic fur seal]] (''A. tropicalis''), and [[killer whale]] (''Orcinus orca'') hunt adult macaroni penguins in the water. Macaroni colonies suffer comparatively low rates of predation if undisturbed; predators generally only take [[bird egg|eggs]] and chicks that have been left unattended or abandoned. [[Skua]] species, the [[snowy sheathbill]] ''(Chionis alba''), and [[kelp gull]] (''Larus dominicanus'') prey on eggs, and skuas and [[giant petrel]]s also take chicks and sick or injured adult birds.<ref name=Williams219/>

==Life history==
[[File:Macaroni Penguins (js).jpg|thumb|200px|left|A nesting pair at the [[Hannah Point]], [[Livingston Island]]]]
Like most other penguin species, the macaroni penguin is a [[social animal]] in its nesting and its foraging behaviour; its breeding colonies are among the largest and most densely populated. Scientist Charles Andre Bost found that macaroni penguins nesting at Kerguelen dispersed eastwards over an area exceeding 3×106 km2. Fitted with [[geolocation]] sensors, the 12 penguins studied travelled over {{convert|10000|km|mi|abbr=on}} during the six- to seven-month study period and spent their time largely within a zone 47–49°S and 70–110°E in the central Indian Ocean, not coming ashore once. This area, known as the [[Antarctic Convergence|Polar Frontal Zone]], was notable for the absence of krill.<ref name="bost09">{{cite journal|vauthors=Bost CA, Thiebot JB, Pinaud D, Cherel Y, Trathan PN|date=May 15, 2009|title=Where do penguins go during the inter-breeding period? Using geolocation to track the winter dispersion of the macaroni penguin|journal=Biology Letters|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.0265|volume=5|pages=473–6|pmid=19447814|issue=4|pmc=2781933}}</ref>
[[File:SGI-2016-South Georgia (Cooper Bay)–Macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) 04.jpg|thumb|An individual porpoising in Cooper Bay]]
Living in colonies results in a high level of social interaction between birds, which has led to a large repertoire of visual, as well as vocal, displays.<ref name=Williams57>Williams (1995) p. 57</ref> These behaviours peak early in the breeding period, and colonies particularly quieten when the male macaroni penguins are at sea.<ref name=Williams61>Williams (1995) p. 61</ref> [[Agonistic behaviour|Agonistic]] displays are those which are intended to confront or drive off or, alternatively, appease and avoid conflict with other individuals.<ref name=Williams57/> Macaroni penguins, particularly those on adjacent nests, may engage in 'bill-jousting'; birds lock bills and wrestle, each trying to unseat the other, as well as batter with flippers and peck or strike its opponent's nape.<ref name=Williams216>Williams (1995) p. 216</ref> Submissive displays include the 'slender walk', where birds move through the colony with feathers flattened, flippers moved to the front of the body, and head and neck hunched, and general hunching of head and neck when incubating or standing at the nest.<ref name=Williams190>Williams (1995) p. 190</ref>

===Courtship and breeding===
[[File:Gorfou doré MHNT.jpg|thumb|left|An egg from the [[Kerguelen Islands]] exhibited at [[Muséum de Toulouse]]]]
[[File:Macaroni penguin chick (Eudyptes chrysolophus) LB8528.jpg|thumb|A preserved chick at the [[Auckland War Memorial Museum|Auckland Museum]]]]
Female macaroni penguins can begin breeding at around five years of age, while the males do not normally breed until at least six years old. Females breed at a younger age because the male population is larger. The surplus of male penguins allows the female penguins to select more experienced male partners as soon as the females are physically able to breed.<ref name="bingham">{{cite news | first=Mike | last=Bingham | title=Macaroni Penguin | year=2006 | url =http://www.penguins.cl/macaroni-penguins.htm | work =International Penguin Conservation Work Group | accessdate = 2009-02-13}}</ref> Commencing a few days after females arrive at the colony, sexual displays are used by males to attract partners and advertise their territory, and by pairs once together at the nest site and at changeover of incubation shifts.<ref name=Williams216/> In the 'ecstatic display', a penguin bows forward, making loud throbbing sounds, and then extends its head and neck up until its neck and beak are vertical. The bird then waves its head from side to side, braying loudly.<ref name=Williams191>Williams (1995) p. 191</ref> Birds also engage in mutual bowing, trumpeting, and preening.<ref name=Williams216/> Monitoring of pair fidelity at South Georgia has shown around three-quarters of pairs will breed together again the following year.<ref name=Williams219/>

Adult macaroni penguins typically begin to breed late in October, and lay their [[Bird egg|eggs]] in early November.<ref name=Curry/> The nest itself is a shallow [[Bird nest#Scrape|scrape]] in the ground which may be lined with some pebbles, stones, or grass, or nestled in a clump of [[tussock (grass)|tussock grass]] (on South Georgia Island).<ref name=Williams217/> Nests are densely packed, ranging from around 66 cm apart in the middle of a colony to 86 cm at the edges.<ref name=Williams217>Williams (1995) p. 217</ref> A fertile macaroni penguin will lay two eggs each breeding season. The first egg to be laid weighs {{convert|90|–|94|g|abbr=on}}, 61–64% the size of the {{convert|145|–|155|g|adj=on|abbr=on}} second, and is extremely unlikely to survive.<ref name=Williams217/> The two eggs together weigh 4.8% of the mother's body weight; the composition of an egg is 20% yolk, 66% albumen, and 14% shell.<ref name=Williams218>Williams (1995) p. 218</ref> Like those of other penguin species, the shell is relatively thick to minimise risk of breakage, and the yolk is large, which is associated with chicks born in an advanced stage of development.<ref name=Williams24>Williams (1995) p. 24</ref> Some of the yolk remains at hatching and is consumed by the chick in its first few days.<ref name=Williams24/>

The fate of the first egg is mostly unknown, but studies on the related [[royal penguin]] and [[erect-crested penguin]] show the female tips the egg out when the larger second egg is laid. The task of [[Avian incubation|incubating]] the egg is divided into three roughly equal sessions of around 12 days each over a five-week period.<ref name=Williams217/> The first session is shared by both parents, followed by the male returning to sea, leaving the female alone to tend the egg. Upon the male's return, the female goes off to sea and does not return until the chick has hatched.<ref name="bingham" /> Both sexes fast for a considerable period during breeding; the male fasts for 37 days after arrival until he returns to sea for around 10 days before fasting while incubating eggs and young for another 36 days, and the female fasts for 42 days from her arrival after the male until late in the incubation period.<ref name=Williams112>Williams (1995) p. 112</ref> Both adults lose 36–40% of their body weight during this period.<ref name=Williams113>Williams (1995) p. 113</ref> The second egg hatches around 34 days after it is laid. Macaroni penguins typically leave their breeding colony by April or May to disperse into the ocean.<ref name=Curry/><ref>{{cite news|author=Commonwealth of Australia |title=Macaroni Penguins |year=2005 |publisher=Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts |url=http://www.heardisland.aq/nature/animals-of-himi/penguins/macaroni-penguins |work=Heard Island and McDonald Islands |accessdate=2008-11-04 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018074919/http://www.heardisland.aq/nature/animals-of-himi/penguins/macaroni-penguins |archivedate=October 18, 2010 }}</ref>

From the moment the egg is hatched, the male macaroni penguin cares for the newly hatched chick. For about 23 to 25 days, the male protects its offspring and helps to keep it warm, since only a few of its feathers have grown in by this time. The female brings food to the chick every one to two days. When they are not being protected by the adult male penguins, the chicks form ''[[Crèche (zoology)|crèches]]'' to keep warm and stay protected. Once their adult feathers have grown in at about 60 to 70 days, they are ready to go out to sea on their own.<ref>{{cite news|first=Katie|last=Reynolds|title=Eudypteschrysolophus|year=2001|url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eudyptes_chrysolophus.html#c07fd73c5afc6b69f0715ba57123169f | work =Animal Diversity Web |accessdate = 2008-11-11}}</ref>

==Conservation==
The population of macaroni penguins is estimated at around 18 million mature individuals; a substantial decline has been recorded in several locations.<ref name=birdlife08>{{cite news | first=Phil | last=Benstead |author2=David Capper |author3=Jonathan Ekstrom |author4=Rachel McClellan |author5=Alison Stattersfield |author6=Andy Symes | title=Species Factsheet | year=2008 | publisher= BirdLife International | url =http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/search/species_search.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3857&m=0 | work =BirdLife International| accessdate = 2009-01-16}}</ref> This includes a 50% reduction in the South Georgia population between the mid-1970s to mid-1990s,<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Trathan PN, Croxall JP, Murphy EJ, Everson I|year=1998|title=Use of at-sea distribution data to derive potential foraging ranges of Macaroni Penguins during the breeding season|journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series|volume=169|pages=263–75|doi=10.3354/meps169263|bibcode=1998MEPS..169..263T}}</ref> and the disappearance of the species from [[Isla Recalada]] in Southern Chile.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Oehler DA, Fry WR, Weakley LA Jr, Marin M|year=2007 |title=Rockhopper and Macaroni Penguin Colonies Absent from Isla Recalada, Chile |journal=The Wilson Journal of Ornithology |volume=119 |issue=3 |pages=502–506 |doi=10.1676/06-096.1 }}</ref> This decline of the overall population in the last 30 years has resulted in the classification of the species as globally [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] by the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]].<ref name=birdlife08/> Long-term monitoring programs are underway at a number of breeding colonies, and many of the islands that support breeding populations of this penguin are protected reserves. The Heard Islands and McDonald Islands are [[World Heritage Sites]] for the macaroni penguin.<ref name=birdlife08/> The macaroni penguin may be being impacted by commercial fishing and [[marine pollution]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Ellis S, Croxall JP, Cooper J |title=Penguin Conservation Assessment and Management Plan|publisher= IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group|location=Apple Valley, Minnesota|year=1998}}</ref> A 2008 study suggests the abilities of female penguins to reproduce may be negatively affected by climate- and fishing-induced reductions in krill density.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cresswell KA, Wiedenmann J, Mangel M |year=2008 |title=Can macaroni penguins keep up with climate and fishing induced changes in krill? |journal=Polar Biology |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=641–49 |doi=10.1007/s00300-007-0401-0 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Cited text===
* {{cite book | last=Williams | first=Tony D. | year=1995 |title=The penguins: Spheniscidae | location=Oxford, England | publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-854667-X}}

==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Eudyptes chrysolophus}}
{{Commons category|Eudyptes chrysolophus}}
* [http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/birds/penguins/macaroni_penguin.html Macaroni penguins – Center for Biological Diversity]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090908035402/http://mesh.biology.washington.edu/penguinProject/Macaroni The Penguin Project at Washington University]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060824031145/http://www.tuxxie.org/species/macaroni.html The Penguin Page]

{{featured article}}
{{Penguins}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q217494}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:penguin, macaroni}}
[[Category:Eudyptes|macaroni penguin]]
[[Category:Birds of Patagonia]]
[[Category:Birds of Antarctica]]
[[Category:Birds of subantarctic islands]]
[[Category:Birds of islands of the Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Fauna of Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Crozet Islands]]
[[Category:Birds of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Prince Edward Islands]]
[[Category:Vulnerable fauna of Australia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1837|macaroni penguin]]

Macaroni penguin

2020-03-30T12:16:15Z

118.46.55.151: /* Life history */

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Macaroni penguin
| image = {{Css Image Crop|Image = SGI-2016-South Georgia (Cooper Bay)–Macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) 01.jpg|bSize = 550|cWidth = 250|cHeight = 330|oTop = 30|oLeft = 130|Location = center}}
| image_caption = In [[Cooper Bay]], [[South Georgia Island|South Georgia]]
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22697793/0 |title=''Eudyptes chrysolophus'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2013 |access-date=26 November 2013|ref=harv}}</ref>
| genus = Eudyptes
| species = chrysolophus
| authority = ([[Johann Friedrich von Brandt|Brandt]], 1837)
| range_map = Macaroni peguin dist.jpg
| range_map_caption = Macaroni penguin range Breeding colonies in red
| synonyms =
''Catarractes chrysolophus'' Brandt, 1837<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/fauna/afd/taxa/11fa9786-aff3-42f6-a891-41dbb13947ef|title=Species ''Eudyptes chrysolophus'' (Brandt, 1837)|date=9 October 2008|work=Australian Biological Resources Study: Australian Faunal Directory|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia|accessdate=25 March 2010|location=Canberra, ACT|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106162808/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/fauna/afd/taxa/11fa9786-aff3-42f6-a891-41dbb13947ef|archivedate=6 November 2012}}</ref> 
''Eudyptes saltator'' (Stephens, 1826)
}}

The '''macaroni penguin''' (''Eudyptes chrysolophus'') is a [[species]] of [[penguin]] found from the [[Subantarctic]] to the [[Antarctic Peninsula]]. One of six species of [[crested penguin]], it is very closely related to the [[royal penguin]], and some authorities consider the two to be a single species. It bears a distinctive yellow crest, and the face and upperparts are black and sharply delineated from the white underparts. Adults weigh on average {{convert|5.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and are {{convert|70|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length. The male and female are similar in appearance; the male is slightly larger and stronger with a relatively larger [[beak|bill]]. Like all penguins, it is flightless, with a streamlined body and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine lifestyle.

Its diet consists of a variety of [[crustacean]]s, mainly [[krill]], as well as small fish and [[cephalopod]]s; the species consumes more marine life annually than any other species of seabird. These birds [[moult]] once a year, spending about three to four weeks ashore, before returning to the sea. Numbering up to 100,000 individuals, the breeding colonies of the macaroni penguin are among the largest and densest of all penguin species. After spending the summer breeding, penguins disperse into the oceans for six months; a 2009 study found that macaroni penguins from [[Kerguelen Islands|Kerguelen]] travelled over {{convert|10000|km|mi|abbr=on}} in the central [[Indian Ocean]]. With about 18 million individuals, the macaroni penguin is the most numerous penguin species. Widespread declines in populations have been recorded since the mid-1970s and their [[conservation status]] is classified as [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]].

==Taxonomy==
The macaroni penguin was described from the Falkland Islands in 1837 by German naturalist [[Johann Friedrich von Brandt]].<ref name=Williams211>Williams (1995) p. 211</ref> It is one of six or so species in the genus ''[[Crested penguin|Eudyptes]]'', collectively known as crested penguins. The genus name is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] words ''eu'' "good", and ''dyptes'' "diver". The [[specific name (zoology)|specific epithet]] ''chrysolophus'' is derived from the Greek words ''chryse'' "golden", and ''lophos'' "crest".<ref name=Liddell1980>{{cite book | author = Liddell, Henry George | author-link = Henry George Liddell | author2 = Scott, Robert | author2-link = Robert Scott (philologist) | last-author-amp = yes | year = 1980 | title = A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition) | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = United Kingdom | isbn = 0-19-910207-4 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/lexicon00lidd }}</ref>

The common name was recorded from the early 19th century in the Falkland Islands. English sailors apparently named the species for its conspicuous yellow [[Crest (feathers)|crest]];<ref name=OED>{{Cite encyclopedia| title=Macaroni|encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary|editor1=J. Simpson |editor2=E. Weiner | year=1989 |edition= 2nd | location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn= 0-19-861186-2}}</ref> [[Maccaroni (fashion)|Maccaronism]] was a term for a particular [[fashion|style]] in 18th-century England marked by flamboyant or excessive ornamentation. A person who adopted this fashion was labelled a "maccaroni" or "macaroni", as in the song "[[Yankee Doodle]]".<ref>{{cite book | last = Steele | first = Valerie | title = Paris Fashion: A Cultural History | publisher = Berg Publishers | year = 1998 | pages = 21–32 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=Vwhieeo_nfMC | isbn = 978-1-85973-973-0 }}</ref>

[[Molecular clock]] evidence using DNA suggests the macaroni penguin split from its closest relative, the [[royal penguin]] (''Eudyptes schlegeli''), around 1.5 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Baker AJ, Pereira SL, Haddrath OP, Edge KA |year=2006 |title=Multiple gene evidence for expansion of extant penguins out of Antarctica due to global cooling |journal=Proc Biol Sci |volume=273 |issue=1582 |pages=11–7 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3260 |pmc=1560011 |pmid=16519228}}</ref> The two have generally been considered separate species, but the close similarities of their DNA sequences has led some, such as the Australian ornithologists [[Les Christidis]] and Walter Boles, to treat the royal as a [[subspecies (biology)|subspecies]] of the macaroni.<ref>{{cite book |title=Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian Birds|vauthors=Christidis L, Boles WE |year=2008 |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |location=Canberra |isbn=978-0-643-06511-6 |page=98}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | first=Peter | last=Juliff | title=From the Pole to the Equator: A panoply of Penguins | journal=The Bird Observer | date=December 2008 | issue=857 | publisher=Bird Observation & Conservation Australia | url=http://www.birdobservers.org.au/birdobserver/pdf/200812/dec08_12_from_the_pole.pdf | accessdate=2009-01-27 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706124244/http://www.birdobservers.org.au/birdobserver/pdf/200812/dec08_12_from_the_pole.pdf | archivedate=2011-07-06 }}</ref> The two species are very similar in appearance; the royal penguin has a white face instead of the usually black face of the macaroni.<ref name=Williams214>Williams (1995) p. 214</ref> Interbreeding with the [[Indo-Pacific]] subspecies of the [[southern rockhopper penguin]] (''E. chrysocome filholi'') has been reported at [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard]] and [[Prince Edward Islands|Marion]] Islands, with three [[hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]s recorded there by a 1987–88 Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1071/MU9900198|vauthors=Woehler EJ, Gilbert CA|year=1990|title=Hybrid Rockhopper-Macaroni Penguins, interbreeding and mixed-species pairs at Heard and Marion Islands|journal=Emu|volume=90|pages=198–210|issue=3}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Macaroni (js)1.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Showing the conspicuous orange and yellow crests]]
[[File:Macaroni penguin.jpg|thumb|150px|A skeleton on display in [[Manchester Museum]]]]
The macaroni penguin is a large, crested penguin, similar in appearance to other members of the genus ''Eudyptes''. An adult bird has an average length of around {{convert|70|cm|in|abbr=on}};<ref name=Williams211/> the weight varies markedly depending on time of year and sex. Males average from {{convert|3.3|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} after incubating, or {{convert|3.7|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} after moult to {{convert|6.4|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} before moult, while females average {{convert|3.2|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} after to {{convert|5.7|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} before moult.<ref name=Williams213>Williams (1995) p. 213</ref> Among standard measurements, the thick bill (from the [[gape]]) measures {{convert|7|to|8|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[Culmen (bird)|culmen]] being around a centimetre less. The wing, from the shoulder to the tip, is around {{convert|20.4|cm|in|abbr=on}} and the tail is {{convert|9|-|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=xjoPAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=Macaroni+Penguin+culmen&source=bl&ots=M21Kw3Lt7F&sig=g4pcH1oam95XWy3x7ydrtsrT_Zg&hl=en#v=onepage&q=Macaroni%20Penguin%20culmen&f=false|Princeton Records]</ref> The head, chin, throat, and upper parts are black and sharply demarcated against the white under parts. The black [[plumage]] has a bluish sheen when new and brownish when old. The most striking feature is the yellow crest that arises from a patch on the centre of the forehead, and extends horizontally backwards to the [[nape]]. The flippers are blue-black on the upper surface with a white trailing edge, and mainly white underneath with a black tip and leading edge. The large, bulbous [[beak|bill]] is orange-brown. The [[iris (anatomy)|iris]] is red and a patch of pinkish bare skin is found from the base of the bill to the eye. The legs and feet are pink. The male and female are similar in appearance; males tend to be slightly larger.<ref name=Williams211/> Males also bear relatively larger bills, which average around {{convert|6.1|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} compared to {{convert|5.4|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} in females; this feature has been used to tell the sexes apart.<ref name=Williams213/>

Immature birds are distinguished by their smaller size, smaller, duller-brown bill, dark grey chin and throat, and absent or underdeveloped head plumes, often just a scattering of yellow feathers. The crest is fully developed in birds aged three to four years, a year or two before breeding age.<ref name=Williams211/>

Macaroni penguins [[moult]] once a year, a process in which they replace all of their old [[feather]]s. They spend around two weeks accumulating fat before moulting because they do not feed during the moult, as they cannot enter the water to forage for food without feathers. The process typically takes three to four weeks, which they spend sitting ashore. Once finished, they go back to sea and return to their colonies to mate in the spring.<ref>{{cite book|last=Riffenburgh|first=Beau|title=Encyclopedia of the Antarctic|publisher=CRC Press|year=2007|page=605|url=https://books.google.com/?id=fRJtB2MNdJMC&pg=PA605&lpg=PA605&dq=macaroni+penguin+moult|isbn=978-0-415-97024-2}}</ref> Overall survival rates are poorly known; the successful return of breeding adults at [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia Island]] varied between 49% and 78% over three years, and around 10% of those that did return did not breed the following year.<ref name = Williams219>Williams (1995) p. 219</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:SGI-2016-South Georgia (Cooper Bay)–Macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) 07 (climbing).jpg|thumb|200px|A colony climbing in [[Cooper Island|Cooper Bay]], South Georgia]]
A 1993 review estimated that the macaroni was the most abundant species of penguin, with a minimum of 11,841,600 pairs worldwide.<ref>{{cite book|last=Woehler|first=EJ|title=The distribution and abundance of Antarctic and subantarctic penguins|publisher=SCAR/ Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom|year=1993|isbn=0-948277-14-9}}</ref> Macaroni penguins range from the [[Subantarctic]] to the [[Antarctic Peninsula]]; at least 216 breeding colonies at 50 sites have been recorded.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Oehler DA, Pelikan S, Fry WR, Weakley Jr L, Kusch A, Marin M|year=2008 |title=Status of Crested Penguin (''Eudyptes'') populations on three islands in Southern Chile |journal=The Wilson Journal of Ornithology |volume=120 |issue=3 |pages=575–81 |doi=10.1676/07-108.1 }}</ref> In South America, macaroni penguins are found in southern [[Chile]], the Falkland Islands, [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], and [[South Orkney Islands]]. They also occupy much of Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula, including the northern [[South Shetland Islands]], [[Bouvet Island]], the [[Prince Edward Islands|Prince Edward and Marion island]]s, the [[Crozet Islands]], the [[Kerguelen Islands]], and the [[McDonald Islands|Heard and McDonald Islands]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Short Communications: New Southerly Record for the Macaroni Penguin (''Eudyptes chrysolophus'') on the Antarctic Peninsula|journal=Auk|author=Bernstein, Neil|author2=Tirrell, Paul |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v098n02/p0398-p0399.pdf|accessdate=2008-12-07}}</ref> While foraging for food, groups will range north to the islands off [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], southern [[Brazil]], [[Tristan da Cunha]], and [[South Africa]].<ref name=Curry>{{cite web |author=Curry, Tiera | title=Macaroni Penguin| publisher= Center for Biological Diversity | url =http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/birds/penguins/macaroni_penguin.html | work =[[Center for Biological Diversity]] website | accessdate = 2008-11-17}}</ref>

==Ecology==
=== Feeding ===
The diet of the macaroni penguin consists of a variety of [[crustacean]]s, [[squid]] and [[fish]]; the proportions that each makes up vary with locality and season. Krill, particularly [[Antarctic krill]] (''Euphausia superba''), account for over 90% of food during breeding season.<ref name="Williams215">Williams (1995) p. 215</ref> Cephalopods and small fish such as the [[marbled rockcod]] (''Notothenia rossii''), [[painted notie]] (''Lepidonotothen larseni''), ''[[Champsocephalus gunneri]]'', the [[lanternfish]] species ''[[Krefftichthys anderssoni]]'', ''[[Protomyctophum tenisoni]]'' and ''[[Protomyctophum normai|P. normani]]'' become more important during chick-rearing.<ref name=Williams2156>Williams (1995) pp. 215–16</ref> Like several other penguin species, the macaroni penguin sometimes deliberately swallows small (10– to 30-mm-diameter) stones; this behaviour has been speculated to aid in providing ballast for deep-sea diving,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Splettstoesser J, Todd FS |year=1999 |title=Stomach stones from Emperor Penguin ''Aptenodytes forsteri'' colonies in the Weddell Sea |journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=27 |pages=97–100 |url=http://marineornithology.org/PDF/27/27_12.pdf}}</ref> or to help grind food, especially the [[exoskeletons]] of crustaceans which are a significant part of its diet.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Brown CR, Klages NT |year=1987 |title=Seasonal and annual variation in diets of Macaroni (''Eudyptes chrysolophus chrysolophus'') and Southern Rockhopper (''E. chrysocome chrysocome'') penguins at sub-Antarctic Marion Island |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=212 |pages=7–28 |doi= 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1987.tb05111.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=De Villiers MS, Bruyn PJ |year=2004 |title=Stone-swallowing by three species of penguins at sub-antarctic Marion Island |journal=Marine Ornithology |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=185–86|url=http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/32_2/32_2_185-186.pdf |accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref>

Foraging for food is generally conducted on a daily basis, from dawn to dusk when they have chicks to feed. Overnight trips are sometimes made, especially as the chicks grow older;<ref name=Williams215/> a 2008 study that used surgically implanted data loggers to track the movement of the birds showed the foraging trips become longer once the chick-rearing period is over.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Green JA, Wilson RP, Boyd IL, Woakes AJ, Green CJ, Butler PJ |year=2008 |title=Tracking macaroni penguins during long foraging trips using 'behavioural geolocation' |journal=Polar Biology |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=645–53 |doi=10.1007/s00300-008-0568-z }}</ref> Birds venture out for 10–20 days during incubation and before the moult.<ref name=Williams215/> Macaroni penguins are known to be the largest single consumer of marine resources among all of the [[seabird]]s, with an estimated take of 9.2 million [[tonne]]s of krill a year.<ref name="pmid15252997">{{cite journal |author=Brooke MDL |title=The food consumption of the world's seabirds |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=271 |issue=Suppl 4 |pages=S246–48 |year=2004 |pmid=15252997 |pmc=1810044 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2003.0153}}</ref> Outside the breeding season, macaroni penguins tend to dive deeper, longer, and more efficiently during their winter migration than during the summer breeding season. Year round, foraging dives usually occur during daylight hours, but winter dives are more constrained by daylight due to the shorter days.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Green JA, Boyd IL, Woakes AJ, Warren NL, Butler PJ|year=2005 |title=Behavioural flexibility during year-round foraging in macaroni penguins |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=296|pages=183–96 |doi=10.3354/meps296183 |bibcode=2005MEPS..296..183G }}</ref>

Foraging distance from colonies has been measured at around {{convert|50|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at South Georgia,<ref name="crox80">{{cite journal|vauthors=Croxall JP, Prince PA|year=1980|title=Food, feeding and ecological segregation of seabirds at South Georgia|journal= Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=14|pages=103–31|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1980.tb00101.x|url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/33763/1/227.pdf}}</ref> offshore over the continental shelf, and anywhere from {{convert|59|to|303|km|mi}} at Marion Island.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Brown CR|year=1987|title=Travelling speed and foraging range of macaroni and rockhopper penguins at Marion Island|journal=Journal of Field Ornithology|volume=58|pages=118–25|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v058n02/p0118-p0125.pdf|accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref> Macaroni penguins normally forage at depths of {{convert|15|to|70|m|ft|abbr=on}}, but have been recorded diving down to {{convert|100|m|ft|abbr=on}} on occasions. Some night foraging does occur, but these dives are much shallower, ranging from only {{convert|3|to|6|m|ft|abbr=on}} in depth. Dives rarely exceed two minutes in duration.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Foraging ecology and diving behavior of Macaroni Penguins ''Eudyptes chrysolophus'' at Heard Island|journal=Marine Ornithology|year=1998|vauthors=Green K, Williams R, Green MG |volume=26|pages=27–34|url=http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/26/26_5.pdf}}</ref> All dives are V-shaped, and no time is spent at the sea bottom; about half the time on a foraging trip is spent diving. Birds have been calculated as catching from 4 to 16 krill or 40 to 50 [[amphipod]]s per dive.<ref name=Williams215/>

===Predators===
The macaroni penguin's [[predator]]s consist of birds and aquatic mammals. The [[leopard seal]] (''Hydrurga leptonyx''), [[Antarctic fur seal]] (''Arctocephalus gazella''), [[Subantarctic fur seal]] (''A. tropicalis''), and [[killer whale]] (''Orcinus orca'') hunt adult macaroni penguins in the water. Macaroni colonies suffer comparatively low rates of predation if undisturbed; predators generally only take [[bird egg|eggs]] and chicks that have been left unattended or abandoned. [[Skua]] species, the [[snowy sheathbill]] ''(Chionis alba''), and [[kelp gull]] (''Larus dominicanus'') prey on eggs, and skuas and [[giant petrel]]s also take chicks and sick or injured adult birds.<ref name=Williams219/>

==Life history==
[[File:Macaroni Penguins (js).jpg|thumb|200px|left|A nesting pair at the [[Hannah Point]], [[Livingston Island]]]]
Like most other penguin species, the macaroni penguin is a [[social animal]] in its nesting and its foraging behaviour; its breeding colonies are among the largest and most densely populated. Scientist Charles Andre Bost found that macaroni penguins nesting at Kerguelen dispersed eastwards over an area exceeding 3×106 km2. Fitted with [[geolocation]] sensors, the 12 penguins studied travelled over {{convert|10000|km|mi|abbr=on}} during the six- to seven-month study period and spent their time largely within a zone 47–49°S and 70–110°E in the central Indian Ocean, not coming ashore once. This area, known as the [[Antarctic Convergence|Polar Frontal Zone]], was notable for the absence of krill.<ref name="bost09">{{cite journal|vauthors=Bost CA, Thiebot JB, Pinaud D, Cherel Y, Trathan PN|date=May 15, 2009|title=Where do penguins go during the inter-breeding period? Using geolocation to track the winter dispersion of the macaroni penguin|journal=Biology Letters|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.0265|volume=5|pages=473–6|pmid=19447814|issue=4|pmc=2781933}}</ref>
[[File:SGI-2016-South Georgia (Cooper Bay)–Macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) 04.jpg|thumb|An individual porpoising in Cooper Bay]]
Living in colonies results in a high level of social interaction between birds, which has led to a large repertoire of visual, as well as vocal, displays.<ref name=Williams57>Williams (1995) p. 57</ref> These behaviours peak early in the breeding period, and colonies particularly quieten when the male macaroni penguins are at sea.<ref name=Williams61>Williams (1995) p. 61</ref> [[Agonistic behaviour|Agonistic]] displays are those which are intended to confront or drive off or, alternatively, appease and avoid conflict with other individuals.<ref name=Williams57/> Macaroni penguins, particularly those on adjacent nests, may engage in 'bill-jousting'; birds lock bills and wrestle, each trying to unseat the other, as well as batter with flippers and peck or strike its opponent's nape.<ref name=Williams216>Williams (1995) p. 216</ref> Submissive displays include the 'slender walk', where birds move through the colony with feathers flattened, flippers moved to the front of the body, and head and neck hunched, and general hunching of head and neck when incubating or standing at the nest.<ref name=Williams190>Williams (1995) p. 190</ref>

===Courtship and breeding===
[[File:Gorfou doré MHNT.jpg|thumb|left|An egg from the [[Kerguelen Islands]] exhibited at [[Muséum de Toulouse]]]]
[[File:Macaroni penguin chick (Eudyptes chrysolophus) LB8528.jpg|thumb|A preserved chick at the [[Auckland War Memorial Museum|Auckland Museum]]]]
Female macaroni penguins can begin breeding at around five years of age, while the males do not normally breed until at least six years old. Females breed at a younger age because the male population is larger. The surplus of male penguins allows the female penguins to select more experienced male partners as soon as the females are physically able to breed.<ref name="bingham">{{cite news | first=Mike | last=Bingham | title=Macaroni Penguin | year=2006 | url =http://www.penguins.cl/macaroni-penguins.htm | work =International Penguin Conservation Work Group | accessdate = 2009-02-13}}</ref> Commencing a few days after females arrive at the colony, sexual displays are used by males to attract partners and advertise their territory, and by pairs once together at the nest site and at changeover of incubation shifts.<ref name=Williams216/> In the 'ecstatic display', a penguin bows forward, making loud throbbing sounds, and then extends its head and neck up until its neck and beak are vertical. The bird then waves its head from side to side, braying loudly.<ref name=Williams191>Williams (1995) p. 191</ref> Birds also engage in mutual bowing, trumpeting, and preening.<ref name=Williams216/> Monitoring of pair fidelity at South Georgia has shown around three-quarters of pairs will breed together again the following year.<ref name=Williams219/>

Adult macaroni penguins typically begin to breed late in October, and lay their [[Bird egg|eggs]] in early November.<ref name=Curry/> The nest itself is a shallow [[Bird nest#Scrape|scrape]] in the ground which may be lined with some pebbles, stones, or grass, or nestled in a clump of [[tussock (grass)|tussock grass]] (on South Georgia Island).<ref name=Williams217/> Nests are densely packed, ranging from around 66 cm apart in the middle of a colony to 86 cm at the edges.<ref name=Williams217>Williams (1995) p. 217</ref> A fertile macaroni penguin will lay two eggs each breeding season. The first egg to be laid weighs {{convert|90|–|94|g|abbr=on}}, 61–64% the size of the {{convert|145|–|155|g|adj=on|abbr=on}} second, and is extremely unlikely to survive.<ref name=Williams217/> The two eggs together weigh 4.8% of the mother's body weight; the composition of an egg is 20% yolk, 66% albumen, and 14% shell.<ref name=Williams218>Williams (1995) p. 218</ref> Like those of other penguin species, the shell is relatively thick to minimise risk of breakage, and the yolk is large, which is associated with chicks born in an advanced stage of development.<ref name=Williams24>Williams (1995) p. 24</ref> Some of the yolk remains at hatching and is consumed by the chick in its first few days.<ref name=Williams24/>

The fate of the first egg is mostly unknown, but studies on the related [[royal penguin]] and [[erect-crested penguin]] show the female tips the egg out when the larger second egg is laid. The task of [[Avian incubation|incubating]] the egg is divided into three roughly equal sessions of around 12 days each over a five-week period.<ref name=Williams217/> The first session is shared by both parents, followed by the male returning to sea, leaving the female alone to tend the egg. Upon the male's return, the female goes off to sea and does not return until the chick has hatched.<ref name="bingham" /> Both sexes fast for a considerable period during breeding; the male fasts for 37 days after arrival until he returns to sea for around 10 days before fasting while incubating eggs and young for another 36 days, and the female fasts for 42 days from her arrival after the male until late in the incubation period.<ref name=Williams112>Williams (1995) p. 112</ref> Both adults lose 36–40% of their body weight during this period.<ref name=Williams113>Williams (1995) p. 113</ref> The second egg hatches around 34 days after it is laid. Macaroni penguins typically leave their breeding colony by April or May to disperse into the ocean.<ref name=Curry/><ref>{{cite news|author=Commonwealth of Australia |title=Macaroni Penguins |year=2005 |publisher=Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts |url=http://www.heardisland.aq/nature/animals-of-himi/penguins/macaroni-penguins |work=Heard Island and McDonald Islands |accessdate=2008-11-04 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018074919/http://www.heardisland.aq/nature/animals-of-himi/penguins/macaroni-penguins |archivedate=October 18, 2010 }}</ref>

From the moment the egg is hatched, the male macaroni penguin cares for the newly hatched chick. For about 23 to 25 days, the male protects its offspring and helps to keep it warm, since only a few of its feathers have grown in by this time. The female brings food to the chick every one to two days. When they are not being protected by the adult male penguins, the chicks form ''[[Crèche (zoology)|crèches]]'' to keep warm and stay protected. Once their adult feathers have grown in at about 60 to 70 days, they are ready to go out to sea on their own.<ref>{{cite news|first=Katie|last=Reynolds|title=Eudypteschrysolophus|year=2001|url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eudyptes_chrysolophus.html#c07fd73c5afc6b69f0715ba57123169f | work =Animal Diversity Web |accessdate = 2008-11-11}}</ref>

==Conservation==
The population of macaroni penguins is estimated at around 18 million mature individuals; a substantial decline has been recorded in several locations.<ref name=birdlife08>{{cite news | first=Phil | last=Benstead |author2=David Capper |author3=Jonathan Ekstrom |author4=Rachel McClellan |author5=Alison Stattersfield |author6=Andy Symes | title=Species Factsheet | year=2008 | publisher= BirdLife International | url =http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/search/species_search.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3857&m=0 | work =BirdLife International| accessdate = 2009-01-16}}</ref> This includes a 50% reduction in the South Georgia population between the mid-1970s to mid-1990s,<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Trathan PN, Croxall JP, Murphy EJ, Everson I|year=1998|title=Use of at-sea distribution data to derive potential foraging ranges of Macaroni Penguins during the breeding season|journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series|volume=169|pages=263–75|doi=10.3354/meps169263|bibcode=1998MEPS..169..263T}}</ref> and the disappearance of the species from [[Isla Recalada]] in Southern Chile.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Oehler DA, Fry WR, Weakley LA Jr, Marin M|year=2007 |title=Rockhopper and Macaroni Penguin Colonies Absent from Isla Recalada, Chile |journal=The Wilson Journal of Ornithology |volume=119 |issue=3 |pages=502–506 |doi=10.1676/06-096.1 }}</ref> This decline of the overall population in the last 30 years has resulted in the classification of the species as globally [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] by the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]].<ref name=birdlife08/> Long-term monitoring programs are underway at a number of breeding colonies, and many of the islands that support breeding populations of this penguin are protected reserves. The Heard Islands and McDonald Islands are [[World Heritage Sites]] for the macaroni penguin.<ref name=birdlife08/> The macaroni penguin may be being impacted by commercial fishing and [[marine pollution]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Ellis S, Croxall JP, Cooper J |title=Penguin Conservation Assessment and Management Plan|publisher= IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group|location=Apple Valley, Minnesota|year=1998}}</ref> A 2008 study suggests the abilities of female penguins to reproduce may be negatively affected by climate- and fishing-induced reductions in krill density.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cresswell KA, Wiedenmann J, Mangel M |year=2008 |title=Can macaroni penguins keep up with climate and fishing induced changes in krill? |journal=Polar Biology |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=641–49 |doi=10.1007/s00300-007-0401-0 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Cited text===
* {{cite book | last=Williams | first=Tony D. | year=1995 |title=The penguins: Spheniscidae | location=Oxford, England | publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-854667-X}}

==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Eudyptes chrysolophus}}
{{Commons category|Eudyptes chrysolophus}}
* [http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/birds/penguins/macaroni_penguin.html Macaroni penguins – Center for Biological Diversity]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090908035402/http://mesh.biology.washington.edu/penguinProject/Macaroni The Penguin Project at Washington University]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060824031145/http://www.tuxxie.org/species/macaroni.html The Penguin Page]

{{featured article}}
{{Penguins}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q217494}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:penguin, macaroni}}
[[Category:Eudyptes|macaroni penguin]]
[[Category:Birds of Patagonia]]
[[Category:Birds of Antarctica]]
[[Category:Birds of subantarctic islands]]
[[Category:Birds of islands of the Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Fauna of Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Crozet Islands]]
[[Category:Birds of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Prince Edward Islands]]
[[Category:Vulnerable fauna of Australia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1837|macaroni penguin]]