Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Gender pay gap

2011-02-12T21:47:52Z

122.57.184.195:

{{stub}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center; margin-left:15px;" align="right"
! Country
! Female wage as % of male wage in mfg.<ref name="unstats"/>
|-
| Botswana
| 53
|-
| Colombia
| 65
|-
| Paraguay
| 53
|-
| Japan
| 60
|-
| Singapore
| 61
|-
| Sri Lanka
| 81
|-
| Denmark
| 87
|-
| France
| 78
|-
| Germany
| 74
|-
| Hungary
| 74
|-
| Ireland
| 69
|-
| Latvia
| 82
|-
| Lithuania
| 77
|-
| United States
| 77
|-
| Malta
| 92
|-
| Sweden
| 91
|-
| Ukraine
| 69
|-
| United Kingdom
| 79
|-
| New Zealand
| 80
|-
| Kenya
| 123
|-
| Panama
| 93
|-
| Myanmar
| 112
|-
| Qatar
| 194
|-
| Turkey
| 97
|-
| Switzerland
| 133
|}

In the context of economic inequality, '''gender gap''' generally refers to the differences in the wages of [[men]] and [[women]]. There is a debate to what extent this is the result of [[gender differences]], lifestyle choices (e.g., number of hours worked), or because of [[discrimination]].

==Statistics==
A United Nations report found that women working in manufacturing earned the following percentages in relation to men in 2004. The statistics are based on wages for all male and female workers, regardless of age, experience, or other factors.<ref name="unstats">[http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/indwm/ww2005/tab5g.htm Statistics and indicators on women and men: Table 5g Women's wages relative to men's] United Nations Statistics Division, 22 April 2005</ref> The report states: "International comparisons of wage ratios presented here must be made with great caution. The coverage, definitions and methods of compiling wage statistics differ significantly from country to country. [...] Furthermore, earnings are very much dependent on the number of hours worked, and where female workers generally work a much smaller number of hours than male workers, this factor must be kept in mind when interpreting the wage ratio."

===United States===
{{main|Male–female income disparity in the United States}}
In 2004, women's wages in the USA were 76.5% of men's wages.<ref>This number compares the income off all men and women who work 35 hours or more each week. See Institute for Women's Policy Research, [http://www.iwpr.org/pdf/WageRatioPress_release8-27-04.pdf 'Women's earnings fall: U.S. Census Bureau finds rising gender wage gap'], media release, 27 August 2004, retrieved Dec 2007</ref> [[David R. Hekman]] and colleagues (2009) found that customers prefer white men over equally-well performing women and ethnic minority employees, which may help explain why white men continue to earn more than other types of employees.<ref>Hekman, David R.; Aquino, Karl; Owens, Brad P.; Mitchell, Terence R.; Schilpzand, Pauline; Leavitt, Keith. (2009) An Examination of Whether and How Racial and Gender Biases Influence Customer Satisfaction. Academy of Management Journal. http://journals.aomonline.org/inpress/main.asp?action=preview&art_id=610&p_id=1&p_short=AMJ</ref>

Hekman et al. (2009) found that customers who viewed videos featuring a black male, a white female, or a white male actor playing the role of an employee helping a customer were 19% more satisfied with the white male employee's performance and also were more satisfied with the store's cleanliness and appearance. This despite that all three actors performed identically, read the same script, and were in exactly the same location with identical camera angles and lighting. Moreover, 45 percent of the customers were women and 41 percent were non-white, indicating that even women and minority customers prefer white men. In a second study, they found that white male doctors were rated as more approachable and competent than equally-well performing women or minority doctors. They interpret their findings to suggest that employers are willing to pay more for white male employees because employers are customer driven and customers are happier with white male employees. They also suggest that what is required to solve the problem of wage inequality isn't necessarily paying women more but changing customer biases. This paper has been featured in many media outlets including [[The New York Times]],<ref>Bakalar, Nicholas (2009) “A Customer Bias in Favor of White Men.” New York Times. June 23, 2009, page D6. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/23/health/research/23perc.html?ref=science</ref> [[The Washington Post]],<ref>Vedantam, Shankar (2009) “Caveat for Employers.” Washington Post, June 1, 2009, page A8 http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/31/AR2009053102081.html</ref> [[The Boston Globe]],<ref>Jackson, Derrick (2009) “Subtle, and stubborn, race bias.” Boston Globe, July 6, 2009, page A10 http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/editorial_opinion/editorials/articles/2009/07/06/subtle_and_stubborn_race_bias/</ref> and [[National Public Radio]].<ref>National Public Radio, Lake Effect, http://www.wuwm.com/programs/lake_effect/view_le.php?articleid=754</ref>

===Australia===
{{main|Male–female income disparity in Australia}}

==Debate==
Some groups, such as the [[Independent Women's Forum]], argue that the wage gap does not exist. For further information, see [[Male-female income disparity in the USA]]. Similarly, Thomas Sowell argued in the book, ''Civil Rights'', marriage is the main variable driving the wage gap—that married women make less than other types of workers.<ref>"Civil Rights: Rhetoric or Reality", Thomas Sowell, 1984. "Markets and Minorities, Thomas Sowell, 1981</ref>

According to the Centre for Economic Performance (CEP) at the [[London School of Economics]], it would take 150 years for the income gap between the two genders to close up due to discrimination and ineffective government policies. However this study did not compare equal jobs or conditions, rather the total earnings only and is generally considered to be an unrealistic comparison.<ref name="150 years">{{cite web |url=http://www.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=71698|title=Women have to wait 150 yrs for equal pay: Study|publisher=[[The Indian Express]]|accessdate=2006-07-29}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Economic inequality]]
*[[Income inequality metrics]]
*[[International inequality]]
*[[Income disparity in Malaysia]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last=Wilkinson|first=Richard|coauthors=Kate Pickett|title=The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better|publisher=Penguin Books|date=5 March 2009|isbn=9781846140396|url=http://www.penguin.co.uk/nf/Book/BookDisplay/0,,9781846140396,00.html}}

==External links==
*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=wage+gap&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Gender Wage Gaps]
*[http://www.ebi.ac.uk/~nils/gender_pay_gap Visualization of the gender pay gap in the UK across different occupations.]

[[Category:Labor]]
[[Category:Income distribution]]
[[Category:Employment compensation]]
[[Category:Economic inequality]]

[[fr:Inégalités de revenus entre hommes et femmes]]
[[sv:Löneskillnader mellan män och kvinnor]]

Talk:Structural functionalism

2011-02-11T05:20:44Z

122.57.184.195:

{{WikiProjectBannerShell|
1={{WikiProject Sociology|class=c|importance=High}}
{{Sys rating |class=c|importance=high |field=Social systems theory }}
{{Philosophy|class=c}}
}}

== References and see also section ==
Can someone put the references and 'see also's' back, as someone got rid of them, and I'm not sure how to - Thanks [[User:Anthropax|Anthropax]] 18:24, 10 November 2005 (UTC)

I was taught that Malinowski and Evans-Pritchard were functionalists, and Radcliffe-Brown the structural-functionalist (more Durkheimian). Elsewhere (the structuralism article?) the point is made that R-B takes a top-down approach to functionalism (i.e. the function is to satisfy collective needs), whereas Malinowski and E-P view function in terms of individual needs. This needs to be included, but I dislike this school of anthropology and haven't attended to my studies enough to change the article myself! (anon)

Indeed, it seems to me that both Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown should be added to this page. Radcliffe-Brown's Wikipedia page notes him as the originator of structural functionalism. [[User:Phifty|Phifty]] ([[User talk:Phifty|talk]]) 16:03, 15 November 2010 (UTC)

== Parsons ==
Does his theory need a new page to itself? From my Anthropology lecturers, I got the impression that this was the British form of Structural-Functionalism, not the American school, which is different. [[User:Anthropax|Anthropax]] 02:22, 28 November 2005 (UTC)

As it is said in the article, Malinowski was the head of brittish functionalism, and Radcliffe-Brown and Evans-Pritchard (the former being a disciple of RB) were structural-functionalists, that is to say, they aimed at the study of the social as a whole, rather than to individuals; and that whole is different than the sum of its parts.

From what I understand Parson is the chief peson associated with s-f. This article is certainly incomplete without mentioning him, and if there are two schools of s-f it should be mentioned as well.--[[User:Piotrus| Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus ]]|[[User_talk:Piotrus| talk ]] 21:18, 23 February 2007 (UTC)

----

it would be useful to make a seperate article, or at least make a section in this one, that talks about the relation and differences between structural functionalism and 'structuralism', since both use the same buzzword and were in vogue at around the same time (50's-60's ?), though in different disciplines/geographical-institutional locations. they also seem to be motivated by a rising concern for 'structure', and may therefore have an interesting historical relationship/loosely common origin. (if nothing else, this would be useful to aleviate confusion .. i have in mind something like the 'cybernetics and systems theory' article, which explicitely analyses the relationship between these oft-confused subjects, although in that case the two are much more related than here.)

== General criticisms ==

I have completely rewritten the opening paragraph as it was rather confused. Let's keep it short to prevent such confusion.
Some points-

: (1) Structural functionalism began, if not by name then always implicitly, in the work of Comte, and was then later developed in full by Durkheim. The article previously stated that Weber and some 20th century theorists were responsible for it. That's way off. You might wish to articulate that Weber was a functionalist in some sense, but it should be done with a little more nous than that.
: (2) Structural functionalism shares an affinity with sociological positivism, but the two are not synonymous. Furthermore, a functionalist does not necessarily have to be a positivist, and vice versa. Due to the nature of Action Theory, for example, Parsons rejected the functionalist label often attributed to him, but nevertheless I think he is, broadly-speaking, a good example of a non-positivist functionalist.
: (3) Similarly, functionalism shouldn't be equated directly with conservativism. Okay, so Marxism came along and ''left'' (no pun intended) Durkheim looking a lot more conservative, but Durkheim was nevertheless a very liberal thinker by 19th century standards. The aim of functionalism, and of course sociology in general, was to solve the social ills brought about by industrialisation and the horrors of modernity. ;) Peace out! --[[User:Tomsega|Tomsega]] ([[User talk:Tomsega|talk]]) 22:48, 16 October 2009 (UTC)

== Rename ==
Many commentators would draw a distinction between 'functionalism' and 'structural functionalism', and the word 'structural' may become easily confused with 'structuralism', which is a similar but separate school of thought. The page should really be renamed simply to 'Functionalism'. --[[User:Tomsega|Tomsega]] ([[User talk:Tomsega|talk]]) 11:17, 15 May 2010 (UTC)

:I agree, but there is a problem. [[Functionalism]] is currently a disambiguation page which lists the varieties of functionalism in various disciplines. I don't find that inappropriate, despite the fact that the term originated in sociology. But I found myself scratching my head when I read the opening sentence of this article: "Functionalism, or in some contexts structural functionalism..." (I had to double-check the article title). What to do about it? One option would be to re-title the article "Functionalism (sociology)" or "Functionalism (sociology and anthropology). Comments? [[User:Sunray|Sunray]] ([[User talk:Sunray|talk]]) 21:51, 9 July 2010 (UTC)

::I think the present title is the most appropriate and descriptive. There are similarly other "functionalisms" that could easily claim to be ''the'' functionalism. That is why we have a disambiguation page. Parenthetical titles are not preferred.[[User:Gregbard|Greg Bard]] ([[User_talk:Gregbard|talk]]) 21:55, 9 July 2010 (UTC)
:::What does "structural functionalism imply to you? [[User:Sunray|Sunray]] ([[User talk:Sunray|talk]]) 23:48, 9 July 2010 (UTC)
::::It implies a difference between it an other functionalisms such as the [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalist theory of mind]]. I always prefer a descriptive title rather than one with parentheses. I think another problem is that several academic fields claim this as a topic of study. I wouldn't favor "Functionalism (sociology and anthropology)" at all. Especially since it is also of interest to political scientists and economic theorists. In fact I would even favor merging [[Consensus theory]] into this article under the name "Structural functionalism".[[User:Gregbard|Greg Bard]] ([[User_talk:Gregbard|talk]]) 00:48, 10 July 2010 (UTC)
:::::We are in agreement that several academic disciplines claim functionalism as a topic of study. And I do agree that there should be an article called "structural functionalism." However, the way this article is written right now, at least in many places, conflates the terms "functionalism" and "structural functionalism." I think that there should be a general article on functionalism in sociology and another on structural functionalism, which would treat the variations on functionalism by Radcliffe-Brown and Parsons. [[User:Sunray|Sunray]] ([[User talk:Sunray|talk]]) 05:43, 10 July 2010 (UTC)
::::::If there is material to be had, I support that. Not knowing about sociology I will defer. However, consistent with what I was saying... I would prefer the new one be [[Sociological functionalism]].[[User:Gregbard|Greg Bard]] ([[User_talk:Gregbard|talk]]) 05:58, 10 July 2010 (UTC)
:::::::It seems to me that "Functionalism (sociology) would be more consistent with article naming conventions. [[User:Sunray|Sunray]] ([[User talk:Sunray|talk]]) 07:13, 22 July 2010 (UTC)

== Essay ==

I, the mysterious IP address from beyond the moon, have added an essay tag to this article, as it reads far more like an essay than an objective, informative article - heck, the critism section even features 'I' and other personal pronouns related to the author. [[Special:Contributions/122.57.184.195|122.57.184.195]] ([[User talk:122.57.184.195|talk]]) 05:20, 11 February 2011 (UTC)

Structural functionalism

2011-02-11T05:19:07Z

122.57.184.195:

{{essay}}

{{Sociology}}
'''Structural functionalism''' is a broad perspective in [[sociology]] and [[anthropology]] which sets out to interpret society as a [[social structure|structure]] with interrelated parts. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements; namely [[norms]], [[Convention (norm)|customs]], [[traditions]] and [[institutions]]. A common analogy, popularized by [[Herbert Spencer]], presents these parts of society as "organs" that work toward the proper functioning of the "body" as a whole.<ref>{{cite book |last=Urry |first=John |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ogyDBobOHVEC&pg=PA23 |title=Sociology beyond societies: mobilities for the twenty-first century |chapter=Metaphors |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |page=23 |isbn=978-0-415-19089-3 }}</ref> In the most basic terms, it simply emphasises "the effort to impute, as rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom, or practice, its effect on the functioning of a supposedly stable, cohesive system." For [[Talcott Parsons]], "functionalism" came to describe a particular stage in the methodological development of [[social science]], rather than a specific school of thought.<ref>Talcott Parsons, "The Present Status of "Structural-Functional" Theory in Sociology." In Talcott Parsons, ''Social Systems and The Evolution of Action Theory'' New York: The Free Press, 1975.</ref><ref name="Bourricaud">Bourricaud, F. 'The Sociology of Talcott Parsons' Chicago University Press. ISBN 0-226-067564. p. 94</ref> (It is absurd to place Parsons in this rubric of Wikipedia, Parsons was not a structural functionist (or for that matter a functionalist) and to place him under this rubric is highly misleading).

==Theory==
Classical functionalist theories are defined by a tendency towards biological analogy and notions of [[social evolutionism]]:

{{Quotation|Functionalist thought, from Comte onwards, has looked particularly towards biology as the science providing the closest and most compatible model for social science. Biology has been taken to provide a guide to conceptualizing the structure and the function of social systems and to analysing processes of evolution via mechanisms of adaptation ... functionalism strongly emphasises the pre-eminence of the social world over its individual parts (i.e. its constituent actors, human subjects).|[[Anthony Giddens]] ''The Constitution of Society'' 1984|<ref>Giddens, Anthony "The Constitution of Society" in '''The Giddens Reader''' Philip Cassell (eds.) MacMillan Press pp.88</ref>}}

Whilst one may regard functionalism as a logical extension of the organic analogies for society presented by [[political philosopher]]s such as [[Rousseau]], sociology draws firmer attention to those institutions unique to industrialised capitalist society (or ''[[modernity]]''). Functionalism also has an anthropological basis in the work of theorists such as [[Marcel Mauss]], [[Bronisław Malinowski]] and [[Radcliffe-Brown]]. It is in Radcliffe-Brown's specific usage that the prefix 'structural' emerged.<ref>http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/function.htm Department of Anthropology College of Arts and Sciences The University of Alabama: Anthropological theories</ref>
[[Image:Emile Durkheim.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Émile Durkheim]]]]
Durkheim proposed that most stateless, "primitive" societies, lacking strong centralised institutions, are based on an association of corporate-descent groups. Structural functionalism also took on Malinowski's argument that the basic building block of society is the [[nuclear family]], and that the [[clan]] is an outgrowth, not ''vice versa''. Durkheim was concerned with the question of how certain societies maintain internal stability and survive over time. He proposed that such societies tend to be segmented, with equivalent parts held together by shared values, common symbols or, as his nephew Marcel Mauss held, systems of exchanges. In modern, complicated societies, members perform very different tasks, resulting in a strong interdependence. Based on the [[metaphor]] above of an organism in which many parts function together to sustain the whole, Durkheim argued that complicated societies are held together by organic [[social solidarity|solidarity]].

These views were upheld by Radcliffe-Brown, who, following Comte, believed that society constitutes a separate "level" of reality, distinct from both biological and inorganic matter. Explanations of social phenomena had therefore to be constructed within this level, individuals being merely transient occupants of comparatively stable social roles. The central concern of structural functionalism is a continuation of the Durkheimian task of explaining the apparent stability and internal cohesion needed by societies to endure over time. Societies are seen as coherent, bounded and fundamentally relational constructs that function like organisms, with their various parts (or social institutions) working together in an unconscious, quasi-automatic fashion toward achieving an overall social equilibrium. All social and cultural phenomena are therefore seen as functional in the sense of working together, and are effectively deemed to have "lives" of their own. They are primarily analyzed in terms of this function. The individual is significant not in and of himself but rather in terms of his status, his position in patterns of social relations, and the behaviours associated with his status. The social structure, then, is the network of statuses connected by associated roles.

It is simplistic to equate the perspective directly with political [[conservativism]].<ref>Fish, Jonathan S. 2005. ''Defending the Durkheimian Tradition. Religion, Emotion and Morality'' Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing.</ref> The tendency to emphasise "cohesive systems", however, leads functionalist theories to be contrasted with "[[conflict theory|conflict theories]]" which instead emphasise social problems and inequalities.

==Prominent Theorists==
===Herbert Spencer===
[[Image:Herbert Spencer.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Herbert Spencer]]]]
Herbert Spencer, a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[philosopher]] famous for applying the theory of [[natural selection]] to society, was in many ways the first true sociological functionalist;<ref>Turner, 1985</ref> in fact, while Durkheim is widely considered the most important functionalist among positivist theorists, it is well known that much of his analysis was culled from reading Spencer's work, especially his ''Principles of Sociology'' ([[1874 in literature|1874]]-[[1896 in literature|96]]).

While most avoid the tedious tasks of reading Spencer's massive volumes (filled as they are with long passages explicating the organic analogy, with reference to [[Cell (biology)|cells]], simple organisms, [[animal]]s, [[human]]s and society), there are some important insights that have quietly influenced many contemporary theorists, including Talcott Parsons, in his early work "The Structure of Social Action" ([[1937 in literature|1937]]), [[Cultural anthropology]], too, uses functionalism consistently.

This [[sociocultural evolution|evolutionary model]], unlike most 19th century evolutionary theories, is cyclical, beginning with the differentiation and increasing complication of an organic or "super-organic" (Spencer's term for a [[social system]]) body, followed by a fluctuating state of equilibrium and [[disequilibrium]] (or a state of adjustment and [[adaptation]]), and, finally, a stage of disintegration or dissolution. Following [[Thomas Malthus]]' population principles, Spencer concluded that society is constantly facing selection pressures (internal and external) that force it to adapt its internal structure through differentiation.

Every solution, however, causes a new set of selection pressures that threaten society's viability. It should be noted that Spencer was not a determinist in the sense that he never said that

# selection pressures will be felt in time to change them;
# they will be felt and reacted to; or
# the solutions will always work.

In fact, he was in many ways a political sociologist,<ref>See Turner 1985</ref> and recognised that the degree of centralised and consolidated authority in a given polity could make or break its ability to adapt. In other words, he saw a general trend towards the centralisation of power as leading to stagnation and, ultimately, pressure to decentralise.

More specifically, Spencer recognised three functional needs or prerequisites that produce selection pressures: they are regulatory, operative (production) and distributive. He argued that all societies need to solve problems of control and [[coordination]], production of goods, [[Service (economics)|services]] and [[idea]]s, and, finally, to find ways of distributing these resources.

Initially, in tribal societies, these three needs are inseparable, and the [[kinship]] system is the dominant structure that satisfies them. As many scholars have noted, all institutions are subsumed under kinship organisation,<ref>Nolan and Lenski, 2004; Maryanski and Turner 1992</ref> but, with increasing population (both in terms of sheer numbers and density), problems emerge with regards to feeding individuals, creating new forms of organisation — consider the emergent division of labour —, coordinating and controlling various differentiated social units, and developing systems of resource distribution.

The solution, as Spencer sees it, is to differentiate structures to fulfill more specialised functions; thus a chief or "big man" emerges, soon followed by a group of lieutenants, and later kings and administrators.

Perhaps Spencer's greatest obstacle to being widely discussed in modern sociology is the fact that much of his [[social philosophy]] is rooted in the social and historical context of [[Ancient Eqyptian times]]. He coined the term "[[survival of the fittest]]" in discussing the simple fact that small tribes or societies tend to be defeated or conquered by larger ones. Of course, many sociologists still use him (knowingly or otherwise) in their analyses, as is especially the case in the recent re-emergence of evolutionary theory.

===Talcott Parsons===
Talcott Parsons was heavily influenced by Durkheim and [[Max Weber]], synthesising much of their work into his action theory, which he based on the system-theoretical concept and the methodological principle of voluntary action. He held that "the social system is made up of the actions of individuals."<ref name="Parsons & Shills, 1976:190">Parsons & Shills, 1976:190</ref> His starting point, accordingly, is the interaction between two individuals faced with a variety of choices about how they might act,<ref name="Parsons, 1961:41">Parsons, 1961:41</ref> choices that are influenced and constrained by a number of physical and social factors.<ref>Craib, 1992:40</ref>

Parsons determined that each individual has expectations of the other's action and reaction to his own behavior, and that these expectations would (if successful) be "derived" from the accepted [[norm (sociology)|norms]] and values of the society they inhabit.<ref name="Parsons, 1961:41"/> As Parsons himself emphasised, however, in a general context there would never exist any perfect "fit" between behaviours and norms, so such a relation is never complete or "perfect."

Social norms were always problematic for Parsons, who never claimed (as has often been alleged) that social norms were generally accepted and agreed upon, should this prevent some kind of universal law. Whether social norms were accepted or not was for Parsons simply a historical question.

As behaviors are repeated in more interactions, and these expectations are entrenched or institutionalised, a [[role]] is created. Parsons defines a "role" as the normatively-regulated participation "of a person in a concrete process of social interaction with specific, concrete role-partners."<ref>1961:43-44</ref> Although any individual, theoretically, can fulfill any role, the individual is expected to conform to the norms governing the nature of the role they fulfill.<ref>Cuff & Payne, 1984:44</ref>

Furthermore, one person can and does fulfill many different roles at the same time. In one sense, an individual can be seen to be a "composition"<ref name="Parsons & Shills, 1976:190"/> of the roles he inhabits. Certainly, today, when asked to describe themselves, most people would answer with reference to their societal roles.

Parsons later developed the idea of roles into collectivities of roles that complement each other in fulfilling functions for society.<ref name="Parsons, 1961:41"/> Some roles are bound up in [[institutions]] and social structures (economic, educational, legal and even gender-based). These are functional in the sense that they assist society in operating<ref>Gingrich, 1999</ref> and fulfill its functional needs so that society runs smoothly.

A society where there is no conflict, where everyone knows what is expected of him, and where these expectations are consistently met, is in a perfect state of equilibrium. The key processes for Parsons in attaining this equilibrium are socialisation and [[social control]]. Socialisation is important because it is the [[wikt:mechanism|mechanism]] for transferring the accepted norms and values of society to the individuals within the system. Perfect socialisation occurs when these norms and values are completely internalised, when they become part of the individual's personality.<ref>Ritzer, 1983:196</ref>

Parson states that "this point [...] is independent of the sense in which [the] individual is concretely autonomous or creative rather than 'passive' or 'conforming', for individuality and creativity, are to a considerable extent, phenomena of the institutionalization of expectations";<ref>1961:38</ref> they are culturally constructed.

Socialisation is supported by the positive and negative sanctioning of role behaviours that do or do not meet these expectations.<ref>Cuff & Payne, 1984:46.</ref> A punishment could be informal, like a snigger or gossip, or more formalised, through institutions such as prisons and mental homes. If these two processes were perfect, society would become static and unchanging, and in reality this is unlikely to occur for long.

Parsons recognises this, stating that he treats "the structure of the system as problematic and subject to change,"<ref>1961:37.</ref> and that his concept of the tendency towards equilibrium "does not imply the empirical dominance of stability over change."<ref>1961:39.</ref> He does, however, believe that these changes occur in a relatively smooth way.

Individuals in interaction with changing situations adapt through a process of "role bargaining."<ref>Gingrich, 1991</ref> Once the roles are established, they create norms that guide further action and are thus institutionalised, creating stability across social interactions. Where the adaptation process cannot adjust, due to sharp shocks or immediate radical change, structural dissolution occurs and either new structures (and therefore a new system) are formed, or society dies. This model of social change has been described as a "moving equilibrium,"<ref>Gingrich, 1991.</ref> and emphasises a desire for social order.

===Davis and Moore===
[[Kingsley Davis]] and [[Wilbert E. Moore]] (1945) gave an argument for social stratification based on the idea of "functional necessity" (also known as [[the Davis-Moore hypothesis]]). They argue that the most difficult jobs in any society have the highest incomes in order to motivate individuals to fill the roles needed by the division of labour. Thus inequality serves social stability.<ref>Davis, Kingsley and Wilbert E. Moore. (1970 [1945]) "Some Principles of Stratification." ''American Sociological Review,'' 10 (2), 242-9.</ref>

This argument has been criticized as fallacious from a number of different angles:<ref>de Maio, F. (2010) ''Health & Social Theory.'' New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 29-30.</ref> the argument is both that the individuals who are the most deserving are the highest rewarded, and that ''a system of unequal rewards'' is necessary, otherwise no individuals would perform as needed for the society to function. The problem is that these rewards are supposed to be based upon objective merit, rather than subjective "motivations." The argument also does not clearly establish why some positions are worth more than others, which they may benefit more people in society, e.g., teachers compared to athletes and movie stars. Critics have suggested that structural inequality (inherited wealth, family power, etc.) is itself a cause of individual success or failure, not a consequence of it.<ref>Tumin, M. M. (1953). "Some principles of stratification: a critical analysis." ''American Sociological Review,'' 18, 387-97.</ref>

===Robert Merton===
[[Robert K. Merton]] was a functionalist and he fundamentally agreed with Parsons’ theory. However, he acknowledged that it was problematic, believing that it was too generalized [Holmwood, 2005:100]. Merton tended to emphasise [[middle range theory]] rather than a grand theory, meaning that he was able to deal specifically with some of the limitations in Parsons’ theory. He identified 3 main limitations: functional unity, universal functionalism and indispensability [Ritzer in Gingrich, 1999]. He also developed the concept of deviance and made the distinction between manifest and latent functions.

Merton criticised functional unity, saying that not all parts of a modern, complex society work for the functional unity of society. Some institutions and structures may have other functions, and some may even be generally dysfunctional, or be functional for some while being dysfunctional for others. This is because not all structures are functional for society as a whole. Some practices are only functional for a dominant individual or a group [Holmwood, 2005:91]. Here Merton introduces the concepts of power and coercion into functionalism and identifies the sites of tension which may lead to struggle or conflict. Merton states that by recognizing and examining the dysfunctional aspects of society we can explain the development and persistence of alternatives. Thus, as Holmwood states, “Merton explicitly made power and conflict central issues for research within a functionalist paradigm” [2005:91].

Merton also noted that there may be functional alternatives to the institutions and structures currently fulfilling the functions of society. This means that the institutions that currently exist are not indispensable to society. Merton states that “just as the same item may have multiple functions, so may the same function be diversely fulfilled by alternative items” [cited in Holmwood, 2005:91]. This notion of functional alternatives is important because it reduces the tendency of functionalism to imply approval of the status quo.

Merton’s theory of deviance is derived from Durkheim’s idea of [[anomie]]. It is central in explaining how internal changes can occur in a system. For Merton, anomie means a discontinuity between cultural goals and the accepted methods available for reaching them.

Merton believes that there are 5 situations facing an actor.
* '''Conformity''' occurs when an individual has the means and desire to achieve the cultural goals socialised into him.
* '''Innovation''' occurs when an individual strives to attain the accepted cultural goals but chooses to do so in novel or unaccepted method.
* '''Ritualism''' occurs when an individual continues to do things as proscribed by society but forfeits the achievement of the goals.
* '''Retreatism''' is the rejection of both the means and the goals of society.
* '''Rebellion''' is a combination of the rejection of societal goals and means and a substitution of other goals and means.
Thus it can be seen that change can occur internally in society through either innovation or rebellion. It is true that society will attempt to control these individuals and negate the changes, but as the innovation or rebellion builds momentum, society will eventually adapt or face dissolution.

The last of Merton’s important contributions to functionalism was his distinction between manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions refer to the conscious intentions of actors; latent functions are the objective consequences of their actions, which are often unintended [Holmwood, 2005:90]. Merton used the example of the Hopi rain dance to show that sometimes an individual’s understanding of their motive for an action may not fully explain why that action continues to be performed. Sometimes actions fulfill a function of which the actor is unaware, and this is the latent function of an action.
2.14.08

===Almond and Powell===
In the [[1970s]], [[political scientists]] [[Gabriel Almond]] and [[Bingham Powell]] introduced a structural-functionalist approach to comparing [[political systems]]. They argued that, in order to understand a political system, it is necessary to understand not only its institutions (or structures) but also their respective functions. They also insisted that these institutions, to be properly understood, must be placed in a meaningful and dynamic historical context.

This idea stood in marked contrast to prevalent approaches in the field of comparative politics — the state-society theory and the [[dependency theory]]. These were the descendants of [[David Easton]]'s system theory in [[international relations]], a mechanistic view that saw all political systems as essentially the same, subject to the same laws of "stimulus and response" — or inputs and outputs — while paying little attention to unique characteristics. The structural-functional approach is based on the view that a political system is made up of several key components, including [[interest group]]s, [[political parties]] and branches of government.

In addition to structures, Almond and Powell showed that a political system consists of various functions, chief among them political socialisation, [[recruitment]] and [[communication]]: socialisation refers to the way in which societies pass along their values and beliefs to succeeding [[generation]]s, and in political terms describes the process by which a society inculcates civic virtues, or the habits of effective citizenship; recruitment denotes the process by which a political system generates interest, engagement and participation from citizens; and communication refers to the way that a system promulgates its values and information.

==Structural functionalism and unilineal descent==
In their attempt to explain the social stability of African "primitive" stateless societies where they undertook their fieldwork, [[Evans-Pritchard]] (1940) and [[Meyer Fortes]] (1945) argued that the Tallensi and the Nuer were primarily organised around [[unilineal descent]] groups. Such groups are characterised by common purposes, such as administering property or defending against attacks; they form a permanent social structure that persists well beyond the lifespan of their members. In the case of the [[Tallensi]] and the [[Nuer people|Nuer]], these corporate groups were based on kinship which in turn fitted into the larger structures of unilineal descent; consequently Evans-Pritchard's and Fortes' model is called "descent theory". Moreover, in this African context territorial divisions were aligned with lineages; descent theory therefore synthesised both blood and soil as two sides of one coin (cf. Kuper, 1988:195). Affinal ties with the parent through whom descent is not reckoned, however, are considered to be merely complementary or secondary (Fortes created the concept of "complementary filiation"), with the reckoning of kinship through descent being considered the primary organising force of social systems. Because of its strong emphasis on unilineal descent, this new kinship theory came to be called "descent theory".

Before long, descent theory had found its critics. Many African tribal societies seemed to fit this neat model rather well, although Africanists, such as Richards, also argued that Fortes and Evans-Pritchard had deliberately downplayed internal contradictions and overemphasised the stability of the local lineage systems and their significance for the organisation of society.<ref>cf. Kuper, 1988:196, 205-6</ref> However, in many Asian settings the problems were even more obvious. In [[Papua New Guinea]], the local patrilineal descent groups were fragmented and contained large amounts of non-agnates. Status distinctions did not depend on descent, and genealogies were too short to account for social solidarity through identification with a common ancestor. In particular, the phenomenon of cognatic (or bilateral) kinship posed a serious problem to the proposition that descent groups are the primary element behind the social structures of "primitive" societies.

Leach's (1966) critique came in the form of the classical Malinowskian argument, pointing out that "in Evans-Pritchard's studies of the Nuer and also in Fortes's studies of the Tallensi unilineal descent turns out to be largely an ideal concept to which the empirical facts are only adapted by means of fictions." (1966:8). People's self-interest, manoeuvring, manipulation and competition had been ignored. Moreover, descent theory neglected the significance of marriage and affinal ties, which were emphasised by Levi-Strauss' [[structural anthropology]], at the expense of overemphasising the role of descent. To quote Leach: "The evident importance attached to matrilateral and affinal kinship connections is not so much explained as explained away."<ref>ibid</ref>

==Decline of functionalism==
Structural functionalism reached its crescendo in the 1940s and 1950s, and by the 1960s was in rapid decline.<ref name="Coakley">Jay J. Coakley, Eric Dunning, ''Handbook of sports studies''</ref> By the 1980s, its place was taken in Europe by more [[conflict theory|conflict]]-oriented approaches,<ref name="Slattery">Slattery, Martin. 1993. ''Key Ideas in Sociology''. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes, Ltd.</ref> and more recently by '[[structuralism]]'.<ref>Giddens, Anthony "The Constitution of Society" in '''The Giddens Reader''' Philip Cassell (eds.) MacMillan Press pp.89</ref> While some of the critical approaches also gained popularity in the United States, the mainstream of the discipline has instead shifted to a myriad of empirically-oriented [[Middle range theory (sociology)|middle-range theories]] with no overarching theoretical orientation. To most sociologists, functionalism is now "as dead as a dodo".<ref name="Barnes">BARNES, B. 1995. ''The Elements of Social Theory.'' London: UCL Press. Quoted in Jay J. Coakley, Eric Dunning, ''Handbook of sports studies''</ref>

As the influence of both functionalism and Marxism in the 1960s began to wane, the [[linguistic turn|linguistic]] and [[cultural turn]]s led to myriad new movements in the social sciences: "According to Giddens, the orthodox consensus terminated in the late 1960s and 1970s as the middle ground shared by otherwise competing perspectives gave way and was replaced by a baffling variety of competing perspectives. This third 'generation' of social theory includes phenomenologically inspired approaches, critical theory, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism, structuralism, post-structuralism, and theories written in the tradition of hermeneutics and ordinary language philosophy."<ref>Cassell, Philip ''The Giddens Reader'' (1993) The Macmillan Press Ltd, pp. 6</ref>.,

While absent from empirical sociology, functionalist themes remained detectable in sociological theory, most notably in the works of Luhmann and Giddens. There are, however, signs of an incipient revival, as functionalist claims have recently been bolstered by developments in [[Group selection#Multilevel selection theory|multilevel selection theory]] and in empirical research on how groups solve [[social dilemma]]s. Recent developments in [[evolutionary theory]]—especially by [[biologist]] [[David Sloan Wilson]] and [[anthropologists]] [[Robert Boyd]] and Peter Richerson—have provided strong support for structural functionalism in the form of [[Group selection#Multilevel selection theory|multilevel selection theory]]. In this theory, culture and social structure are seen as a Darwinian (biological or cultural) [[adaptation]] at the group level.

==Criticisms==

{{Main|Conflict theory|Critical theory}}
In the 1960s, functionalism was criticized for being unable to account for social change, or for structural contradictions and conflict (and thus was often called "[[consensus theory]]"). The refutation of the second criticism of functionalism, that it is static and has no concept of change, has already been articulated above, concluding that while Parsons’ theory allows for change, it is an orderly process of change [Parsons, 1961:38], a moving equilibrium. Therefore referring to Parsons’ theory of society as static is inaccurate. It is true that it does place emphasis on equilibrium and the maintenance or quick return to social order, but this is a product of the time in which Parsons was writing (post-World War II, and the start of the cold war). Society was in upheaval and fear abounded. At the time social order was crucial, and this is reflected in Parsons' tendency to promote equilibrium and social order rather than social change.

Furthermore, Durkheim favored a radical form of [[guild socialism]] along with functionalist explanations. Also, [[Marxism]], while acknowledging social contradictions, still uses functionalist explanations. Parsons' evolutionary theory describes the differentiation and reintegration systems and subsystems and thus at least temporary conflict before reintegration (ibid). "The fact that functional analysis can be seen by some as inherently conservative and by others as inherently radical suggests that it may be ''inherently'' neither one nor the other." (Merton 1957: 39)

Stronger criticisms include the [[epistemology|epistemological]] argument that functionalism is [[tautology|tautologous]], that is it attempts to account for the development of social institutions solely through recourse to the effects that are attributed to them and thereby explains the two circularly. However, Parsons drew directly on many of Durkheim’s concepts in creating his theory. Certainly Durkheim was one of the first theorists to explain a phenomenon with reference to the function it served for society. He said, “the determination of function is…necessary for the complete explanation of the phenomena” [cited in Coser, 1977:140]. However Durkheim made a clear distinction between historical and functional analysis, saying, “when…the explanation of a social phenomenon is undertaken, we must seek separately the efficient cause which produces it and the function it fulfills” [cited in Coser, 1977:140]. If Durkheim made this distinction, then it is unlikely that Parsons did not. However Merton does explicitly state that functional analysis does not seek to explain why the action happened in the first instance, but why it continues or is reproduced. He says that “latent functions …go far towards explaining the continuance of the pattern” [cited in Elster, 1990:130, emphasis added]. Therefore it can be argued that functionalism does not explain the original cause of a phenomenon with reference to its effect, and is therefore, not teleological.

Another criticism describes the [[ontological]] argument that society can not have "needs" as a human being does, and even if society does have needs they need not be met. [[Anthony Giddens]] argues that functionalist explanations may all be rewritten as historical accounts of individual human actions and consequences (see [[Structuration theory]]).

A further criticism directed at functionalism is that it contains no sense of [[Agency (philosophy)|agency]], that individuals are seen as puppets, acting as their role requires. Yet Holmwood states that the most sophisticated forms of functionalism are based on “a highly developed concept of action” [2005:107], and as was explained above, Parsons took as his starting point the individual and their actions. His theory did not however articulate how these actors exercise their agency in opposition to the socialisation and inculcation of accepted norms. As has been shown above, Merton addressed this limitation through his concept of deviance, and so it can be seen that functionalism allows for agency. It cannot, however, explain why individuals choose to accept or reject the accepted norms, why and in what circumstances they choose to exercise their agency, and this does remain a considerable limitation of the theory.

Further criticisms have been levelled at functionalism by proponents of other social theories, particularly [[conflict theory|conflict theorists]], [[Marxists]], [[feminists]] and [[postmodernists]]. Conflict theorists criticised functionalism’s concept of systems as giving far too much weight to integration and consensus, and neglecting independence and conflict [Holmwood, 2005:100]. Lockwood [in Holmwood, 2005:101], in line with conflict theory, suggested that Parsons’ theory missed the concept of system contradiction. He did not account for those parts of the system that might have tendencies to mal-integration. According to Lockwood, it was these tendencies that come to the surface as opposition and conflict among actors. However Parsons’ thought that the issues of conflict and cooperation were very much intertwined and sought to account for both in his model [Holmwood, 2005:103]. In this however he was limited by his analysis of an ‘ideal type’ of society which was characterised by consensus. Merton, through his critique of functional unity, introduced into functionalism an explicit analysis of tension and conflict.

Marxism which was revived soon after the emergence of conflict theory, criticised professional sociology (functionalism and conflict theory alike) for being partisan to advanced welfare capitalism [Holmwood, 2005:103]. Gouldner [in Holmwood, 2005:103] thought that Parsons’ theory specifically was an expression of the dominant interests of welfare capitalism, that it justified institutions with reference to the function they fulfill for society. It may be that Parsons’ work implied or articulated that certain institutions were necessary to fulfill the functional prerequisites of society, but whether or not this is the case, Merton explicitly states that institutions are not indispensable and that there are functional alternatives. That he does not identify any alternatives to the current institutions does reflect a conservative bias, which as has been stated before is a product of the specific time that he was writing in.

As functionalism’s prominence was ending, feminism was on the rise, and it attempted a radical criticism of functionalism. It believed that functionalism neglected the suppression of women within the family structure. Holmwood [2005:103] shows, however, that Parsons did in fact describe the situations where tensions and conflict existed or were about to take place, even if he didn’t articulate those conflicts. Some feminists agree, suggesting that Parsons’ provided accurate descriptions of these situations. [Johnson in Holmwood, 2005:103]. On the other hand, Parsons recognised that he had oversimplified his functional analysis of women in relation to work and the family, and focused on the positive functions of the family for society and not on its dysfunctions for women. Merton, too, although addressing situations where function and dysfunction occurred simultaneously, lacked a “feminist sensibility” [Holmwood, 2005:103], although I repeat this was likely a product of the desire for social order.

Postmodernism, as theory, is critical of claims of objectivity. Therefore the idea of grand theory that can explain society in all its forms is treated with skepticism at the very least. This critique is important because it exposes the danger that grand theory can pose, when not seen as a limited perspective, as one way of understanding society.

Jeffrey Alexander (1985) sees functionalism as a broad school rather than a specific method or system, such as Parson's, which is capable of taking equilibrium (stability) as a reference-point rather than assumption and treats structural differentiation as a major form of social change. "The name 'functionalism' implies a difference of method or interpretation that does not exist." (Davis 1967: 401) This removes the determinism criticized above. Cohen argues that rather than needs a society has dispositional facts: features of the social environment that support the existence of particular social institutions but do not cause them. (ibid)

==Influential theorists==
* [[Herbert Spencer]]
* [[Émile Durkheim]]
* [[Talcott Parsons]]
* [[Kingsley Davis]]
* [[Michael Denton]]
* [[Wilbert E. Moore]]
* [[Robert K. Merton]]
* [[Bronisław Malinowski]]
* [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]]
* [[Niklas Luhmann]]
* [[George Murdock]]
* [[Fei Xiaotong]]
* [[David Keen]]

==See also==
* [[Cultural anthropology]]
* [[Functional structuralism]]
* [[Neofunctionalism (sociology)]]
* [[New institutional economics]]
* [[Poststructuralism]]
* [[Sociotechnical systems theory]]
* [[Structural anthropology]]
* [[Structuralism]]
* [[Symbolic interactionism]]
* [[Systems theory]]
* [[Vacancy chain]]

==Bibliography==
* Barnard, A. 2000. ''History and Theory in Anthropology.'' Cambridge: CUP.
* Barnard, A., and Good, A. 1984. ''Research Practices in the Study of Kinship.'' London: Academic Press.
* Barnes, J. 1971. ''Three Styles in the Study of Kinship.'' London: Butler & Tanner.
* Holy, L. 1996. ''Anthropological Perspectives on Kinship.'' London: Pluto Press.
* Kuper, A. 1988. ''The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion.'' London: Routledge.
* Kuper, A. 1996. ''Anthropology and Anthropologists.'' London: Routledge.
* Layton, R. 1997. ''An Introduction to Theory in Anthropology.'' Cambridge: CUP.
* Leach, E. 1954. ''Political Systems of Highland Burma.'' London: Bell.
* Leach, E. 1966. ''Rethinking Anthropology.'' Northampton: Dickens.
* Levi-Strauss, C. 1969. ''The Elementary Structures of Kinship.'' London: Eyre and Spottis-woode.
* [[Lewis A. Coser|Coser, L.]], (1977) Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context, 2nd Ed., Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., pp. 140–143.
* Craib, I., (1992) Modern Social Theory: From Parsons to Habermas, Harvester Wheatsheaf, London
* Cuff, E. & Payne, G.,(eds) (1984) Perspectives in Sociology, Allen & Unwin, London
* Davis, K (1959). "The Myth of Functional Analysis as a Special Method in Sociology and Anthropology", American Sociological Review, 24(6), 757-772.
* Elster, J., (1990), “Merton's Functionalism and the Unintended Consequences of Action”, in Clark, J., Modgil, C. & Modgil, S., (eds) Robert Merton: Consensus and Controversy, Falmer Press, London, pp. 129–35
* Gingrich , P., (1999) “Functionalism and Parsons” in Sociology 250 Subject Notes, University of Regina, accessed, 24/5/06, url: http://uregina.ca/~gingrich/n2f99.htm
* Holmwood, J., (2005) “Functionalism and its Critics” in Harrington, A., (ed) Modern Social Theory: an introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 87–109
* [[George C. Homans|Homans, George Casper]] (1962). ''Sentiments and Activities''. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe.
* Hoult, Thomas Ford (1969). ''Dictionary of Modern Sociology''.
* Lenski, Gerhard (1966). "Power and Privilege: A Theory of Social Stratification." New York: McGraw-Hill.
* Lenski, Gerhard (2005). "Evolutionary-Ecological Theory." Boulder, CO: Paradigm.
* Maryanski, Alexandra (1998). "Evolutionary Sociology." Advances in Human Ecology. 7:1-56.
* Maryanski, Alexandra and Jonathan Turner (1992). "The Social Cage: Human Nature and the Evolution of Society." Stanford: Stanford University Press.
* Marshall, Gordon (1994). ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Sociology''. ISBN 019285237X
* [[Robert K. Merton|Merton, Robert]] (1957). ''Social Theory and Social Structure'', revised and enlarged. London: The Free Press of Glencoe.
* Nolan, Patrick and Gerhard Lenski (2004). Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology." Boulder, CO: Paradigm.
* Parsons, Talcott (1951) The Social System, Routledge, London
* Parsons, T., & Shils, A., (eds) (1976) Toward a General Theory of Action, Harvard University Press, Cambridge
* Parsons, T., (1961) Theories of Society: foundations of modern sociological theory, Free Press, New York
* Perey, Arnold (2005) [http://www.perey-anthropology.net/Aesthetic-Realism-Malinowski.html "Malinowski, His Diary, and Men Today] (with a note on the nature of Malinowskian functionalism)
* Ritzer, G., (1983) Sociological Theory, Knopf Inc, New York
* Sanderson, Stephen K. (1999). "Social Transformations: A General Theory of Historical Development." Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
* Turner, Jonathan (1985). "Herbert Spencer: A Renewed Appreciation." Beverly Hills: Sage.
* Turner, Jonathan (1995). "Macrodynamics: Toward a Theory on the Organization of Human Populations." New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
* Turner, Jonathan and Jan Stets (2005). "The Sociology of Emotions." Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.

==Notes==
{{Ibid|date=March 2010}}
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Structural Functionalism}}
[[Category:Functionalism]]
[[Category:Sociological theories]]

[[az:Struktur funksionalizm]]
[[ca:Funcionalisme estructural]]
[[cs:Strukturální funkcionalismus]]
[[da:Strukturfunktionalisme]]
[[de:Strukturfunktionalismus]]
[[es:Funcionalismo estructuralista]]
[[fr:Structuro-fonctionnalisme]]
[[id:Teori struktural fungsional]]
[[is:Virknihyggja]]
[[he:פונקציונליזם סטרוקטורלי]]
[[nl:Structureel functionalisme]]
[[ja:構造機能主義]]
[[no:Strukturfunksjonalisme]]
[[pl:Funkcjonalizm (antropologia)]]
[[ru:Структурный функционализм]]
[[sv:Strukturfunktionalism]]
[[tr:Yapısal işlevselcilik]]
[[zh:结构功能主义]]

Ordination of women

2011-02-06T05:04:35Z

122.57.184.195: /* Other ancient priestesses and temple prostitutes */

[[Ordination]] in general religious use is the process by which a person is [[Consecration|consecrated]] (set apart for the administration of various religious rites). The '''ordination of women''' is a controversial issue in those religions or denominations where either the rite of ordination, or the role that an ordained person fulfills, has traditionally been restricted to men because of cultural prohibitions, theological doctrines, or both.

=== Ancient Egypt ===
In [[Ancient Egyptian religion]], [[God's Wife of Amun]] was the highest ranking [[priest]]ess; this title was held by a daughter of the [[High Priest]] of [[Amun]], during the reign of [[Hatshepsut]], while the capital of [[Egypt]] was in [[Thebes (Egypt)|Thebes]] during the second millennium BCE (circa 2160 BCE).

Later, [[Divine Adoratrice of Amun]] was a title created for the chief priestess of [[Amun]]. During the first millennium BCE, when the holder of this office exercised her largest measure of influence, her position was an important appointment facilitating the transfer of power from one [[pharaoh]] to the next, when his daughter was ''adopted'' to fill it by the incumbent office holder. The Divine Adoratrice ruled over the extensive temple duties and domains, controlling a significant part of the ancient Egyptian economy.

'''Ancient Egyptian priestesses:'''
:* [[Gautseshen]]
:* [[Henutmehyt]]
:* [[Henuttawy (priestess)|Henuttawy]]
:* [[Hui (priestess)|Hui]]
:* [[Iset (priestess)|Iset]]
:* [[Karomama Meritmut]]
:* [[Maatkare Mutemhat]]
:* [[Meritamen (daughter of Thutmose III)|Meritamen]]
:* [[Neferhetepes]] is the earliest attested priestess of [[Hathor]].<ref>Robyn A. Gillam, Priestesses of Hathor: Their Function, Decline and Disappearance, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 32 (1995), pp. 211-237</ref>
:* [[Neferure]]
:* [[Tabekenamun]] a priestess of [[Hathor]] as well as a priestess of [[Neith]].

=== Ancient Greece ===
* The [[Pythia]] was a priestess at the temple of [[Apollo]] at [[Delphi]], widely credited for her [[prophecy|prophecies]], and giving her a prominence unusual for a woman in male-dominated [[ancient Greece]].
* The [[Phrygian Sibyl]] was a priestess presiding over an [[Apollo]]nian [[oracle]] at [[Phrygia]], a historical kingdom in the [[Anatolia]]n highlands.

=== Ancient Rome ===
[[File:Antonia Minor Louvre Ma 1228.JPG|thumb|left|150px|[[Antonia Minor]] as a priestess of [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]] (36 BCE – 37 CE)]]
In [[Ancient Rome]] and throughout ancient [[Italy]], the sanctuaries of [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]] and [[Proserpina]] were invariably led by female ''sacerdotes'', drawn from women of local and Roman elites. It was the only public priesthood attainable by Roman matrons and was held in great honor.<ref>A Roman matron was any mature woman of the upper class, married or unmarried. Females could serve a public cult as [[Vestal Virgins]] but few were chosen, and then only from young maidens of the upper class.</ref><ref>Barbette Stanley Spaeth, The Roman goddess Ceres, University of Texas Press, 1996, pp. 4-5, 9, 20 (historical overview and Aventine priesthoods), 84 - 89 (functions of plebeian aediles), 104 - 106 (women as priestesses): citing among others Cicero, ''In Verres'', 2.4.108; Valerius Maximus, 1.1.1; Plutarch, ''De Mulierum Virtutibus'', 26.</ref>

Furthermore, in [[Religion in ancient Rome|ancient Roman religion]], the '''Vestals''' or "'''Vestal Virgins'''" (''Vestales'', singular ''Vestalis''), were [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#sacerdos|priestesses]] of [[Vesta (god)|Vesta]], [[goddess]] of the [[sacred fire of Vesta|hearth]]. The [[Collegium (ancient Rome)|College]] of the Vestals and its well-being was regarded as fundamental to the continuance and security of [[ancient Rome|Rome]], as embodied by their cultivation of the sacred fire that could not be allowed to go out. The Vestals were freed of the usual social obligations to marry and rear children, and took a vow of [[chastity]] in order to devote themselves to the study and correct observance of state rituals that were off-limits to the male colleges of priests.<ref>For an extensive modern consideration of the Vestals, see Ariadne Staples, ''From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion'' (Routledge, 1998).</ref>

==Other ancient priestesses and temple prostitutes==
* [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] and [[Akkadian]] '''Entu''' or [[EN (cuneiform)|EN]] were top-ranking priestesses who were distinguished with special ceremonial attire and held equal status to high priests. They owned property, transacted business, and initiated the [[hieros gamos]] [[ceremony]] with priests and kings.<ref>Sarah Dening (1996), ''[http://www.ishtartemple.org/myth.htm The Mythology of Sex]'', Macmillan, ISBN 978-0028612072. Ch.3.</ref>
* [[En-hedu-ana]] (2,285 BC - 2250 BC), an [[Akkadian]] woman, was the first known holder of the title, "[[EN (cuneiform)|En]] Priestess."
* '''Ishtaritu''' were temple prostitutes who specialized in the arts of dancing, music, and singing and served in the temples of [[Ishtar]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=MJUMhEYGOKsC&pg=PA376&lpg=PA376&dq=Ishtaritu+history&source=bl&ots=NnvVXxLgAX&sig=2myBoCB53iMJOeaksn6xZEWcZ5o&hl=en&ei=JplATPeEHYH-8Abmj43eDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CCMQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false A History of Medicine, Volumes 1-2] By Plinio Prioreschi (pg. 376)</ref>
* [[Puabi]] was a [[NIN (cuneiform)|NIN]], a [[Semitic]] [[Akkadian]] priestess in the 26th century BCE.
* [[Nadītu]] served as priestesses in the temples of [[Inanna]] in the ancient city of [[Erech]]. They were recruited from the highest families in the land and were supposed to remain childless; they owned property and transacted business.
* In Sumerian epic texts such as [[Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta]], '''Nu-Gig''' were priestesses in temples dedicated to [[Inanna]], or may be a reference to the [[goddess]] herself.<ref>Jeremy Black (1998), ''Reading Sumerian Poetry'', [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0-485-93003-X. pp 142. [http://books.google.com/books?id=Jj3bi8QAm1AC&pg=PA142&lpg=PA142&dq=nu-gig&source=bl&ots=C2DNteXFNr&sig=-rAywUCNGugVuM_YqpYsamkvtow&hl=en&ei=vk0RTKLDCsKblgfrpMzdBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=nu-gig&f=false]</ref>
* In the [[Hebrew Bible]], (קדשה) [[Qedesha]] or ''[http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H06948&t=kjv Kedeshah]'', derived from the root [[Q-D-Š]]<ref name="kedeshah">[[Blue Letter Bible]], [http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H06948&t=kjv Lexicon results for ''qĕdeshah'' (Strong's H2181)], incorporating [[Strong's Concordance]] (1890) and [[Gesenius]]'s Lexicon (1857).</ref><ref name=note2>Also transliterated ''qĕdeshah'', ''qedeshah'', ''qědēšā'' ,''qedashah'', ''kadeshah'', ''kadesha'', ''qedesha'', ''kdesha''. A modern liturgical pronunciation would be ''k'deysha''</ref> were [[temple prostitutes]] usually associated with the goddess [[Asherah]].
* '''Quadishtu''' were temple prostitutes who served in the temples of the Sumerian goddess [[Qetesh]].
* In the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]], priestess [[Shamhat]] tamed wild [[Enkidu]] after "six days and seven nights."

== Buddhism ==

[[Image:Pema chodron 2007.jpg|thumb|right|Ani [[Pema Chodron]], an American woman who was ordained as a [[bhikkhuni]] (a fully ordained Buddhist nun) in a lineage of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] in 1981. Pema Chödrön was the first American woman to be ordained as a Buddhist nun in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition.<ref>[http://dharma-haven.org/tibetan/teachings-ctr-students.html#Pema Chodron Pema Chödrön]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gampoabbey.org/ane_pema/ |title=Ani Pema Chödrön |publisher=Gampoabbey.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>]]

{{Main|Ordination of women in Buddhism}}

The tradition of the ordained monastic community in Buddhism (the [[sangha]]) began with the Buddha, who established an order of [[Bhikkhu]]s (monks).<ref>Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume One), page 352</ref> According to the scriptures,<ref>''Book of the Discipline'', [[Pali Text Society]], volume V, Chapter X</ref> later, after an initial reluctance, he also established an order of Bhikkhunis (nuns or women monks). [[Mahapajapati Gotami]], the aunt and foster mother of Buddha, was the first woman ordained.<ref name="buddhanet">{{cite web|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/lifebuddha/2_23lbud.htm |title=The Life of the Buddha: (Part Two) The Order of Nuns |publisher=Buddhanet.net |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

The first female Zen master, as well as the first Zen abbess, was the Japanese abbess [[Mugai Nyodai]] (1223–1298).<ref name="bella">[http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art46823.asp Mugai Nyodai, First Woman to Head a Zen Order]</ref><ref name="masterhonor">[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/22/nyregion/japanese-zen-master-honored-by-her-followers.html Japanese Zen Master Honored by Her Followers]</ref>

The full ordination of Buddhist nuns (fully ordained Buddhist nuns are called [[Bhikkhuni]]s<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EvDUSt-msIEC&pg=PA67&lpg=PA67&dq=bhikkhuni+%22full+ordination+of+buddhist+nuns%22&source=bl&ots=cMzlUJUbdc&sig=divAfozJTncLoZReSyTdwnh_Eww&hl=en&ei=l4hATMbiEYTGlQfr68CeDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=bhikkhuni%20%22full%20ordination%20of%20buddhist%20nuns%22&f=false |title=Encyclopedia of feminist theories |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>)
has always been practiced in East Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://groups.google.com/group/dhammadharini/web/bhikkhuni-and-siladhara-points-of-comparison-faqb |title=Bhikkhuni & Siladhara: Points of Comparison |publisher=Groups.google.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
Also, full ordination of Buddhist nuns began again in Sri Lanka in 1998 after a lapse of 900 years.<ref name="sasana01">{{cite web|author=Bhikkhuni Sobhana |url=http://www.lakehouse.lk/mihintalava/sasana01.htm |title=Contemporary bhikkuni ordination in Sri Lanka |publisher=Lakehouse.lk |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
Furthermore, on February 28, 2003, [[Dhammananda Bhikkhuni]], formerly known as Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, became the first Thai woman to receive full ordination as a Theravada nun.<ref name="thebuddhadharma">{{cite web|url=http://www.thebuddhadharma.com/issues/2003/summer/dhammananda.html |title=Ordained At Last |publisher=Thebuddhadharma.com |date=2003-02-28 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
She was ordained in Sri Lanka.<ref name="bhikkhunis">{{cite web|author=Rita C. Larivee, SSA |url=http://www.nationalcatholicreporter.org/globalpers/gp051403.htm |title=Bhikkhunis: Ordaining Buddhist Women |publisher=Nationalcatholicreporter.org |date=2003-05-14 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> Also, in Australia in 2009 four women received full ordination as Theravada nuns, the first time such ordination has occurred in Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wa.buddhistcouncil.org.au/home/therevadan-bhikkhunni-ordination-in-western-australia/ |title=Thai monks oppose West Australian ordination of Buddhist nuns |publisher=Wa.buddhistcouncil.org.au |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

However, the [[bhikkhuni]] ordination once existing in the countries where [[Theravada]] (the school of Buddhism more prevalent in Southeast Asia) is more prevalent died out around the 10th century. The lower novice ordination has also disappeared in these countries. Women who wish to live as nuns in those countries must do so by taking eight or ten precepts. Neither laywomen nor formally ordained, these women do not receive the recognition, education, financial support or status enjoyed by their male brethren. These "precept-holders" live in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. Japan is a special case as, although it has neither the bhikkhuni nor novice ordinations, the precept-holding nuns who live there do enjoy a higher status and better education than their precept-holder sisters elsewhere, and can even become Zen priests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lhamo.tripod.com/4ordin.htm |title=Resources on Women's Ordination |publisher=Lhamo.tripod.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

In 1988 Ahkon Norbu Lhamo, an American woman formerly called Catharine Burroughs, became the first Western woman to be named a reincarnate lama.<ref name="nytimes1988">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1988/10/26/us/us-woman-is-named-reborn-buddhist-saint.html |title=U.S. Woman Is Named Reborn Buddhist Saint |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=1988-10-26 |accessdate=2010-11-19 |first=William K. |last=Stevens}}</ref> In 2003 Ayya Sudhamma became the first American-born woman to receive bhikkhuni ordination in Sri Lanka.<ref name="owbaw">{{cite web|url=http://www.owbaw.org/2006.asp |title=The Outstanding Women in Buddhism Awards |publisher=Owbaw.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2010 the first Buddhist nunnery in America (Vajra Dakini Nunnery in Vermont), offering novice ordination, was officially consecrated.<ref name="vajradakini">{{cite web|url=http://www.vajradakininunnery.org/ |title=Vajra Dakini Nunnery |publisher=Vajra Dakini Nunnery |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
It is a Tibetan Buddhist nunnery that follows the [[Drikung Kagyu]] lineage of Buddhism. The abbot of this nunnery is Khenmo Drolma, an American woman, who is the first [[bhikkhuni]] in the [[Drikung Kagyu]] lineage of Buddhism, having been ordained in Taiwan in 2002.<ref name="vajradakininunnery.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.vajradakininunnery.org/firstsforwomen.html |title=Women Making History |publisher=Vajradakininunnery.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref name="drolma">{{cite web|url=http://www.vajradakininunnery.org/nyima.html |title=Khenmo Drolma |publisher=Vajradakininunnery.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
She is also the first westerner, male or female, to be installed as an abbot in the [[Drikung Kagyu]] lineage of Buddhism, having been installed as the abbot of the Vajra Dakini Nunnery in 2004; this nunnery does not follow [[The Eight Garudhammas]].<ref name="vajradakininunnery.org"/>

== Christianity in general ==

Within Christianity, women historically have been in ministry roles since the time of the Apostle Paul, John and even Christ: Romans 16:1-2,Matthew 28:1-10,2 John 1:1-2.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lightingtruth.wordpress.com|title=Ordaining Women: as God intended|location=United States|publisher=wordpress.com|date=2011-1-26|accessdate=2011-1-30}}</ref> Later denominations have been preventing women from being ordained on the basis of certain New Testament scriptures often interpreted as prohibitions of female ordination.<ref name="tolerance">{{cite web|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/ord_bibl1.htm |title=Female leadership in the Christian Scriptures |publisher=Religioustolerance.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> An especially important consideration here is the way [[1 Timothy 2:12 ("I suffer not a woman")|1 Timothy 2:12]] is translated and interpreted in the New Testament.<ref name="tolerance"/>

In the liturgical traditions of Christianity including the [[Roman Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], [[Lutheranism]], and [[Anglicanism]], ordination—distinguished from [[Consecrated life (Catholic Church)|religious or consecrated life]]—is the means by which a person is included in one of the orders of [[bishop]]s, [[priest]]s, or [[deacon]]s.

Many Protestant denominations understand ordination more generally as the acceptance of a person for pastoral work.

=== Anglicanism ===

[[Image:JeffertsSchori.JPG|thumb|175px| Bishop [[Katharine Jefferts Schori]] was elected in 2006 as the first female Presiding Bishop in the history of the [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]] and also the first female primate in the Anglican Communion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.journeyonline.com.au/showArticle.php?categoryId=2&articleId=733 |title=US Episcopal Church installs first female presiding bishop |location=Australia |publisher=Journeyonline.com.au |date=2006-11-07 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>]]

{{Main|Ordination of women in the Anglican Communion}}
Within Anglicanism, the majority of Anglican provinces ordain women as deacons and priests.<ref name="religioustolerance.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/femclrg14.htm |title=Female ordination in the Episcopal Church, USA (ECUSA) |publisher=Religioustolerance.org |date=1976-09-16 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

The first three women priests ordained in the Anglican Communion were in the [[Anglican Diocese of Hong Kong and Macao]]: [[Li Tim-Oi]] in 1944 and Jane Hwang and Joyce Bennett in 1971.

Several Anglican provinces also permit the ordination of women as bishops,<ref name="religioustolerance.org"/><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=cKv6WQVMnh8C&pg=PA279&lpg=PA279&dq=women+bishops+canonically+possible&source=bl&ots=fkAlzL-Foj&sig=wrKtLJGqcfoku72jxtfCfqwSwQw&hl=en&ei=rXVLTP7VGIGC8gaa49gy&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CCAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=women%20bishops%20canonically%20possible&f=false Women bishops in the Church of England?] By Church of England. House of Bishops (pg. 279)</ref> though, as of 2010, only four of the provinces have done so: the Episcopal Church in the United States and the Anglican churches of Australia, Canada and New Zealand.<ref name="andromeda.rutgers.edu">{{cite web|url=http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~lcrew/bishops/0388.html |title=Most Rev. Katharine Jefferts Schori Presiding Bishop and Bishop of the Convocation of American Churches in Europe |publisher=Andromeda.rutgers.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> Cuba, one of the [[extra-provincial Anglican churches]], has done so as well.

*In 1989, [[Barbara Harris (bishop)|Barbara Harris]] was the first woman ordained as a bishop in the Anglican Communion, for the [[Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts]].
*In 1990, Penelope Ann Bansall Jaimeson was ordained a bishop for the New Zealand [[Anglican Diocese of Dunedin]].
*In 1993, Victoria Matthews was elected a suffragan bishop in the Diocese of Toronto, Canada on 19 November, consecrated February 1994.<ref name="faq039">{{cite web|url=http://www.anglican.ca/search/faq/039.htm |title=Ordination of Women in the Anglican Church of Canada (Deacons, Priests and Bishops) |publisher=Anglican.ca |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
*In 2007, Nerva Cot Aguilera was ordained a bishop in the Episcopal Church of Cuba.
*In 2008, [[Kay Goldsworthy]] was ordained as an assistant bishop for the [[Anglican Diocese of Perth]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Davies |first=Matthew |url=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/79901_96404_ENG_HTM.htm |title=Australia appoints first woman bishop |publisher=Episcopalchurch.org |date=2008-04-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

The Anglican church in Ireland has permitted the ordination of women as bishops since 1990 but none has yet occurred.<ref>[http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2010/0716/1224274821543.html Women bishops] at ''[[The Irish Times]]''</ref> The Anglican church in Scotland also permits the ordination of women as bishops since 2003, but none have yet been appointed.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/7004129/Scottish-priest-fails-in-bid-to-become-first-woman-bishop.html Scottish priest fails in bid to become first woman bishop] at ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''</ref>

In England the issue of women being ordained as bishops is contentious and under discussion as of summer 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/news/headlines/index.cfm?storyid=6268 |title=Church of England inches closer to women bishops |publisher=Catholicculture.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> The issue was voted down in 2008 by the Anglican Church in Wales.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article3670754.ece No to women bishops says Church in Wales] at ''[[The Sunday Times]]''</ref>

On June 18, 2006, the Episcopal Church in the United States was the first Anglican province to appoint a woman, [[Katharine Jefferts Schori]], as their Primate (the highest position possible in an Anglican province), called the "Presiding Bishop" in the United States.<ref name="andromeda.rutgers.edu"/>

With the October 16, 2010, ordination of Margaret Lee, in the Peoria-based Diocese of Quincy, Illinois, women have been ordained as priests in all 110 dioceses of the Episcopal Church in the United States.<ref name="lastepiscopol">[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/10/20/last-holdout-episcopal-di_n_770510.html Last Episcopal Holdout Ordains Female Priest]</ref>

=== Jehovah's Witnesses ===

[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] consider [[Baptism#Jehovah's Witnesses|qualified public baptism]] to represent the baptizand's [[Ordination#Jehovah's Witnesses|ordination]], following which he or she is immediately considered an [[Minister (Christianity)#JW|ordained minister]]. In 1941, the [[Supreme Court of Vermont]] recognized the validity of this ordination for a female Jehovah's Witness minister.<ref>"Women—May They Be “Ministers”?", ''The Watchtower'', March 15, 1981, page 19, "Several courts in the United States have recognized female Jehovah’s Witnesses, in carrying on the door-to-door evangelistic work, as ministers. For example, the Supreme Court of Vermont, in Vermont v. Greaves (1941), stated that Elva Greaves “is an ordained minister of a sect or class known and designated as ‘Jehovah’s Witnesses’.”"</ref> The majority of Witnesses actively preaching from door to door are female.<ref>"Letting All Men See Jehovah’s Victory Processions", ''The Watchtower'', July 1, 1968, page 413</ref> Women are commonly appointed as full-time ministers, either to evangelize as "[[Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Pioneer|pioneers]]" or missionaries, or to serve at [[Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Branch offices|their branch offices]].<ref>"Happy Full-Time Servants", ''Our Kingdom Ministry'', May 1980, page 6</ref>

Nevertheless, Witness [[Ministerial servant|deacons]] ("[[Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Ministerial servants|ministerial servants]]") and [[Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Elders|elders]] must be male, and only a baptized adult male may perform a Jehovah's Witness baptism, [[funeral]], or [[wedding]].<ref>"Applying the General Priesthood Principle", ''The Watchtower'', February 1, 1964, page 86, "Among the witnesses of Jehovah any adult, dedicated and baptized male Christian who is qualified may serve in such ministerial capacities as giving public Bible discourses and funeral talks, performing marriages and presiding at the Lord’s evening meal or supper. There is no clergy class."</ref> Within the congregation, a female Witness minister may only lead prayer and teaching when there is a special need, and must do so wearing a [[Christian headcovering#Jehovah's Witnesses|head covering]].<ref>"Head Coverings—When and Why?", ''Keep Yourselves in God's Love'', ©2008 Watch Tower, page 210-211, "Occasionally, though, circumstances may require that a Christian woman be called on to handle a duty normally performed by a qualified baptized male. For instance, she may need to conduct a meeting for field service because a qualified baptized male is not available or present. ..she would wear a head covering to acknowledge that she is handling the duty normally assigned to a male. On the other hand, many aspects of worship do not call for a sister to wear a head covering. For example, she does not need to do so when commenting at Christian meetings, engaging in the door-to-door ministry with her husband or another baptized male, or studying or praying with her unbaptized children."</ref><ref>"Questions From Readers", ''The Watchtower'', July 15, 2002, page 27, "There may be other occasions when no baptized males are present at a congregation meeting. If a sister has to handle duties usually performed by a brother at a congregationally arranged meeting or meeting for field service, she should wear a head covering."</ref><ref>"Woman’s Regard for Headship—How Demonstrated?", ''The Watchtower'', July 15, 1972, page 447, "At times no baptized male Witnesses may be present at a congregational meeting (usually in small congregations or groups). This would make it necessary for a baptized female Witness to pray or preside at the meeting. Recognizing that she is doing something that would usually be handled by a man, she would wear a head covering."</ref>

=== Latter Day Saints ===

[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] does not ordain women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/response/qa/women_priesthood.htm |title=Why can't women be ordained to the LDS Priesthood? |publisher=Lightplanet.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> However, some (most notably D. Michael Quinn and Margaret Toscano) argue that the church ordained women in the past and that therefore the church currently has the power to ordain women and should do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/women/chapter17.htm#Woman |title=Mormon Women Have Had the Priesthood Since 1843 |publisher=Signaturebookslibrary.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/women/chapter18.htm#Zion |title=Put on Your Strength O Daughters of Zion: Claiming Priesthood and Knowing the Mother |publisher=Signaturebookslibrary.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

=== Liberal Catholic Church ===
Of all the churches in the Liberal Catholic movement, only the original church, the [[Liberal Catholic Church]] under Bishop Graham Wale, does not ordain women. The position held by the Liberal Catholic Church is the same as the Roman Catholic Church, that the church, even if it wanted to ordain women, does not have the authority to do so that and it is not possible for a woman to be ordained even if she went through the ceremony.

=== Orthodox Churches ===

The [[Orthodox Church]]es follow a similar line of reasoning as the Roman Catholic Church with respect to ordination of priests, and does not allow women's ordination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/femclrg19.htm |title=Ordination of women In Eastern Orthodoxy, mainline & liberal Protestant denominations, & other religions |publisher=Religioustolerance.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

Professor Evangelos Theodorou argued that female deacons were actually ordained in antiquity.<ref>[http://www.stnina.org/journal/art/3.2.2 Orthodox Women and Pastoral Praxis | The St. Nina Quarterly]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> K. K. Fitzgerald has followed and amplified Professor Theodorou's research. Bishop [[Kallistos Ware]] wrote:<ref>"Man, Woman and the Priesthood of Christ," in ''Women and the Priesthood,'' ed. T. Hopko (New York, 1982, reprinted 1999), 16, as quoted in ''Women Deacons in the Early Church,'' by John Wijngaards, ISBN 0–8245–2393–8.</ref>

<blockquote>The order of deaconesses seems definitely to have been considered an "ordained" ministry during early centuries in at any rate the Christian East. ... Some Orthodox writers regard deaconesses as having been a "lay" ministry. There are strong reasons for rejecting this view. In the Byzantine rite the liturgical office for the laying-on of hands for the deaconess is exactly parallel to that for the deacon; and so on the principle ''[[lex orandi, lex credendi]]''—the Church's worshipping practice is a sure indication of its faith—it follows that the deaconesses receives, as does the deacon, a genuine sacramental ordination: not just a {{Polytonic|''χειροθεσια''}} (chirothesia) but a {{Polytonic|''χειροτονια''}} (chirotonia). However, the ordination of women in the Catholic Church does exist. Although it is not widespread, it is official by the Roman Catholic Church. </blockquote>

Even though Bishop Kallistos says this, the Roman Catholic Church has made it clear it will not ordain women to any canonical position such as priest, deacon, or bishop.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0001.html |title=Women Priests — No Chance |publisher=Catholiceducation.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> On October 8, 2004, the Holy Synod of the Orthodox Church of Greece voted to permit the ordination of monastic women deacons, that is, women deacons to minister and assist at the liturgy within their own monasteries.<ref>{{cite web|author=Phyllis Zagano |url=http://www.americamagazine.org/gettext.cfm?articleTypeID=1&textID=3997&issueID=517 |title=America | The National Catholic Weekly-‘Grant Her Your Spirit’ |publisher=Americamagazine.org |date=2004-10-08 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orthodoxwomen.org/files/SCOBA_Women_Deacons.pdf |title=Toward a Complete Expression of the Diaconate: Discerning the Ministry Women Deacons |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> There is a strong monastic tradition, pursued by both men and women in the Orthodox churches, where monks and nuns lead identical spiritual lives. Unlike Western-rite Catholic religious life, which has myriad traditions, both contemplative and active (see [[Benedictine monks]], [[Franciscan|Franciscan friars]], [[Jesuits]]), that of Orthodoxy has remained exclusively [[ascetic]] and [[monasticism|monastic]].

=== Protestantism ===

[[Image:AssemblyOfQuakers.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A female [[Quaker]] preacher and her congregation.]]
{{Main|Ordination of women in Protestant churches}}
A key [[theology|theological]] doctrine for Reformed and most other Protestants is the [[priesthood of all believers]]—a doctrine considered by them so important that it has been dubbed by some as "a clarion truth of Scripture."

{{quote|"This doctrine restores true dignity and true integrity to all believers since it teaches that all believers are priests and that as priests, they are to serve God—no matter what legitimate vocation they pursue. Thus, there is no vocation that is more 'sacred' than any other. Because Christ is Lord over all areas of life, and because His word applies to all areas of life, nowhere does His Word even remotely suggest that the ministry is 'sacred' while all other vocations are 'secular.' Scripture knows no sacred-secular distinction. All of life belongs to God. All of life is sacred. All believers are priests." Hagopian, David. "''Trading Places: The Priesthood of All Believers''."<ref>Hagopian, David. "Trading Places: The Priesthood of All Believers." Web: 10 Jul 2010.</ref>}}

However, most (although not all) Protestant denominations still ordain church leaders who have the task of equipping all believers in their Christian service.{{bibleref2c|Eph.|4:11–13}} These leaders (variously styled ''elders, pastors'' or ''ministers'') are seen to have a distinct role in teaching, pastoral leadership and the administration of [[sacrament]]s. Traditionally these roles were male preserves, but over the last century an increasing number of denominations have begun ordaining women. The [[Church of England]] appointed female lay readers during the First World War. Later the [[United Church of Canada]] in 1936 and the American [[United Methodist]] Church in 1956 also began to ordain women.<ref name="united-church.ca">{{cite web|url=http://www.united-church.ca/history/overview/frenchministries/timeline#1900 |title=Historical Timeline: The United Church of Canada |publisher=United-church.ca |date=2008-01-17 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1904">{{cite web|url=http://www.gcah.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?c=ghKJI0PHIoE&b=3637671&ct=4506093 |title=Maud Jensen, 1904-1998 |publisher=Gcah.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

Meanwhile, women's ministry has been part of Methodist tradition in Britain for over 200 years. In the late 18th century in England, John Wesley allowed for female office-bearers and preachers.<ref name="findarticles.com">[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3818/is_200207/ai_n9101319 "The question of the ordination of women in the community of churches."] ''Anglican Theological Review'', Viser, Jan. Summer 2002 Accessed: 09-18-2007</ref>

The [[Salvation Army]] has allowed the ordination of women since its beginning, although it was a hotly-disputed topic between William and Catherine Booth.<ref>William Collier, ''The General Next to God'' (Fount, 1975)</ref> The fourth, thirteenth, and nineteenth [[Generals of the Salvation Army]] were women. <ref>http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/jan/31/linda-bond-elected-third-ever-salvation-army-gener/</ref>

Today, over half of all American Protestant denominations ordain women,<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=FL6x77emSwYC&q=%22american+protestant+denominations%22+%22ordain+women%22&dq=%22american+protestant+denominations%22+%22ordain+women%22&hl=en&ei=VhBcTLWoEIP68AalwtC9Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=7&ved=0CFgQ6wEwBg Sociology] by Beth B. Hess, Elizabeth Warren Markson, Peter J. Stein</ref> but some restrict the official positions a woman can hold. For instance, some ordain women for the military or hospital chaplaincy but prohibit them from serving in congregational roles. Over one-third of all seminary students (and in some seminaries nearly half) are female <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=lwaAtqMDkuIC&pg=PA272&lpg=PA272&dq=half+%22american+protestant+denominations%22+ordain+women&source=bl&ots=2HjADHdZVC&sig=JN4eBsTeAkNyoCGfgYyI720Gx1M&hl=en&ei=XaY_TJOFDsL98AaqyKntCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CCYQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=half%20%22american%20protestant%20denominations%22%20ordain%20women&f=false The Bible in history: how the texts have shaped the times] By David William Kling (pg. 272)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wheaton.edu/isae/Women/womensreview98.htm |title=Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals |publisher=Wheaton.edu |date=2010-06-29 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

=== Roman Catholic Church ===

{{Main|Catholic Church doctrine on the ordination of women}}

The teaching of the [[Catholic Church]], as emphasised by Pope John Paul II in the apostolic letter "''Ordinatio sacerdotalis''", is "that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful." <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_22051994_ordinatio-sacerdotalis_en.html |title=Apostolic Letter ORDINATIO SACERDOTALIS |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
This teaching is embodied in the current [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|canon law]] (specifically canon law 1024<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P3P.HTM |title=Code of Canon Law |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>) and the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], by the canonical statement: "Only a baptized man (in Latin, ''vir'') validly receives sacred ordination."<ref>''Codex Iruis Canonici'' canon 1024, c.f. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' 1577</ref>
Insofar as priestly and episcopal ordination are concerned, the Roman Catholic Church teaches that this requirement is a matter of divine law, and thus doctrinal and unchangeable.<ref>"The Catholic Church has never felt that priestly or episcopal ordination can be validly conferred on women", ''Inter Insigniores'', October 15, 1976, section 1</ref> In 1970 Ludmila Javorova attempted ordination as a Catholic priest in Czechoslovakia
by a friend of her family, Bishop Felix Davidek (1921–88), himself clandestinely consecrated, due to the communist regime ruling Czechoslovakia being against the Catholic Church, and priests therefore being in short supply; however, an official Vatican statement in February 2000 declared the ordinations invalid while recognizing the severe circumstances under which they occurred.<ref name="depths">{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/Out-Depths-Javorova-Ordained-Catholic/dp/0824518896 |title=Out of the Depths: The Story of Ludmila Javorova, Ordained Roman Catholic Priest |publisher=Amazon.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In response to a "dubium" in October 1998, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith stated that the requirement that only men can receive ordination to the permanent diaconate has been promulgated as doctrinal by the Church's magisterium.<ref>[Cf. Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, "Response to a Dubium concerning the teaching contained in the Apostolic Letter 'Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'": AAS 87 (1995), 1114.]</ref> In 1976, the international biblical experts of the Pontifical Biblical Commission concluded, with a majority of 12 to 5, that there were no scriptural objections to the priestly ordination of women; however, the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith rejected this opinion and wrote its own statement (''Inter Insigniores'', 15 October 1976).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.we-are-church.org/announcements/wijngaards.htm |title=John Wijngaards, eminent Catholic scholar and theologian, resigns from the priestly ministry |publisher=We-are-church.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
In 2007, the Vatican issued a decree saying that the attempted ordination of women would result in automatic excommunication for the women and priests trying to ordain them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20071219_attentata-ord-donna_en.html |title=GENERAL DECREE regarding the delict of attempted sacred ordination of a woman |publisher=Vatican.va |date=2007-12-19 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
In 2010, the Vatican stated that the priest could also be laicized and that the ordination of women is a "grave delict".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/resources/resources_norme_en.html |title=Substantive Norms |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

In opposition to their church's teaching, a number of Catholic scholars (for example Father Robert W. Hovda, Professor Robert J. Karris, and Damien Casey) have written in favor of ordaining women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womenpriests.org/scholars.asp |title=Women Can Be Priests |publisher=Womenpriests.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> Furthermore, 12 groups have been founded throughout the world advocating for women's ordination in the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womensordinationworldwide.org/ |title=Women's Ordination Worldwide |publisher=Womensordinationworldwide.org |date=2009-05-17 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> Women's Ordination Worldwide, founded in 1996 in Austria, is a network of national and international groups whose primary mission is the admission of Roman Catholic women to all ordained ministries, including but not limited to Catholic Women's Ordination (founded in March 1993 in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholic-womens-ordination.org.uk/ |title=Catholic Women's Ordination |publisher=Catholic-womens-ordination.org.uk |date=1998-04-28 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>), [[Roman Catholic Womenpriests]] (founded in 2002 in America<ref>[http://www.thenewsherald.com/articles/2010/03/01/life/doc4b86842dacd77829880545.txt Woman says she was called to become a Catholic priest]</ref>), [[Women's Ordination Conference]] (founded in 1975 in America<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womensordination.org/content/view/291/42/ |title=Women Religious Break the Silence on Women's Ordination with Roy Bourgeois |publisher=Womensordination.org |date=2008-12-12 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>), and others.

[[Roman Catholic Womenpriests]] has attempted to ordain women as Catholic deacons, priests, and bishops,<ref name="salon.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.salon.com/life/feature/2006/07/31/women_priests |title=I will disobey this unjust law |publisher=Salon.com |date=2006-07-31 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> claiming that these ordinations are valid because the first ordinations were done by a validly ordained Catholic male bishop (Romulo Antonio Braschi, who left the Roman Catholic Church in 1975<ref name="salon.com"/>) and therefore they are in the line of apostolic succession.<ref name="salon.com"/> However, these ordinations have been rejected by the Catholic Church and considered invalid and all those involved have been excommunicated.<ref>{{cite news|last=Yates |first=Jennifer C. |url=http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2006/07/31/excommunication_looms_over_female_ordination/ |title=Excommunication looms over female ordination |publisher=Boston.com |date=2006-07-31 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

== Hinduism ==

There are two types of Hindu priests, purohits and pujaris. Both women and men are ordained as purohits and pujaris.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pallavi |first=Aparna |url=http://www.womensenews.org/story/080226/indian-city-opens-doorway-female-hindu-priests |title=Indian City Opens Doorway to Female Hindu Priests |publisher=Womensenews.org |date=2008-02-26 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_8012/is_20081018/ai_n39508201/ |title=Masti, mehendi mark Karva Chauth in city |publisher=Findarticles.com |date=2008-10-18 |accessdate=2010-11-19 |first=Kamini |last=Mathai}}</ref>

Furthermore, both men and women are gurus (gurus are teachers of Hinduism but are not always ordained; when they are, it is by their own guru).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/Graceful-Guru-Female-United-States/dp/0195145380 |title=The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States |publisher=Amazon.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

Some of the chapters of the Vedas were written by women, and there is a famous debate between a man and a woman in the Upanishads in which she bests him.

==Indigenous and ethnic religions==

{{See|shaman|medicine woman}}
[[File:Osunshrine.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Yeye Siju Osunyemi being initiated as a priestess of the deity [[Oshun]] in the Osun Shrine in Osogbo, Nigeria.]]

===Africa===

The Yoruba people of western Nigeria practice an indigenous religion with a religious hierarchy of priests and priestesses that dates to 800-1000 CE. {{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} Ifá priests and priestesses bear the titles Babalowo for men and Iyanifa for females.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=B667ATiedQkC&pg=PT365&dq=babalawo+iyanifa&hl=en&ei=y2g_TJTWBISdlgewzdnBBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=9&ved=0CE0Q6wEwCA#v=onepage&q=babalawo%20iyanifa&f=false Encyclopedia of African religion, Volume 1] By Molefi Kete Asante, Ama Mazama (pg. 335)</ref> Priests and priestess of the varied [[Orisa|Orisha]] are titled Babalorisa for men and Iyalorisa for women.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=X8waCmzjiD4C&pg=PA451&lpg=PA451&dq=babalorisha+iyalorisha+orisha&source=bl&ots=hF6sfW1-I6&sig=rYBDMA7-BHnUEzoMxohhoPMg3qA&hl=en&ei=A2o_TJ-sOYaglAen_7z9Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCYQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=babalorisha%20iyalorisha%20orisha&f=false Shamanism: an encyclopedia of world beliefs, practices, and culture, Volume 2] edited by Mariko Namba Walter, Eva Jane Neumann Fridman (pg. 451)</ref> Initiates are also given an Orisa or Ifá name that signifies under which deity they are initiated; for example a Priestess of [[Osun|Oshun]] may be named Osunyemi and a Priest of [[Ifá]] may be named Ifáyemi. This ancient culture continues to this day as initiates from all around the world return to Nigeria for initiation into the traditional priesthood.

===Okinawa===

The indigenous religion of Okinawa, Japan is led by female priests; this makes it the only known official mainstream religion of a society led by women.<ref>{{cite book |author=Susan Sered |coauthors= |title=Women of the Sacred Groves: Divine Priestesses of Okinawa |year=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |quote= | url= |isbn=0195124863 }}</ref>

== Islam ==
[[Image:Amina Wadud.JPG|thumb|200px|right|American [[imam]] [[Amina Wadud]] ]]
{{Main|Women as imams|Women in Islam}}
Although Muslims do not formally ordain religious leaders, the [[imam]] serves as a spiritual leader and religious authority. There is a current controversy among Muslims on the circumstances in which [[women]] may act as imams—that is, lead a congregation in [[salah|salat]] (prayer). Three of the four [[Sunni]] schools, as well as many [[Shia]], agree that a woman may lead a congregation consisting of women alone in prayer, although the [[Maliki]] school does not allow this. According to all currently existing traditional schools of [[Islam]], a woman cannot lead a mixed gender congregation in salat (prayer). Some schools make exceptions for [[Tarawih]] (optional [[Ramadan]] prayers) or for a congregation consisting only of close relatives. Certain medieval scholars—including [[Al-Tabari]] (838–932), [[Abu Thawr]] (764–854), [[Al-Muzani]] (791–878), and [[Ibn Arabi]] (1165–1240)—considered the practice permissible at least for optional ([[nafila]]) prayers; however, their views are not accepted by any major surviving group. [[Islamic feminist]]s have begun to protest this.

Women's mosques, called nusi, and female imams have existed since the 19th century in China and continue today.<ref name="chinaimams">[http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2005/aug/26/guardianweekly.guardianweekly1 Women imams of China] at [[guardian.co.uk]]</ref>

In 1994, [[Amina Wadud]], (an Islamic studies professor at Virginia Commonwealth University, born in the United States), became the first woman in South Africa to deliver the jum'ah khutbah (Friday sermon), which she did at the Claremont Main Road Mosque in Cape Town, South Africa.<ref name="independent.co.uk">{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/first-woman-to-lead-muslim-prayers-angers-traditionalists-964308.html |title=First woman to lead Muslim prayers angers traditionalists |publisher=Independent.co.uk |date=2008-10-17 |accessdate=2010-11-19 |location=London |first=Amol |last=Rajan}}</ref>

In 2004 20-year-old Maryam Mirza delivered the second half of the ''[[Eid al-Fitr]]'' khutbah at the Etobicoke mosque in [[Toronto]], [[Canada]], run by the [[United Muslim Association]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20041116/world.htm |title=First Muslim woman delivers sermon |publisher=Tribuneindia.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

In 2004, in Canada, Yasmin Shadeer led the night 'Isha prayer for a mixed-gender (men as well as women praying and hearing the sermon) congregation.<ref name="enc.slider.com">{{cite web|url=http://enc.slider.com/Enc/Women_as_imams |title=Women as imams |publisher=Enc.slider.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> This is the first recorded occasion in modern times where a woman led a congregation in prayer in a mosque.<ref name="enc.slider.com"/>

On March 18, 2005, [[Amina Wadud]] gave a sermon and led Friday prayers for a Muslim congregation consisting of men as well as women, with no curtain dividing the men and women.<ref name="nytimes.com">[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/19/nyregion/19muslim.html Woman Leads Muslim Prayer Service in New York]</ref> Another woman, Suheyla El-Attar, sounded the call to prayer while not wearing a headscarf at that same event.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> This was done in the Synod House of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York after mosques refused to host the event.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> This was the first known time that a woman had led a mixed-gender Muslim congregation in prayer in American history.<ref name="nytimes.com"/>

In April 2005, [[Raheel Raza]], born in Pakistan, led Toronto's first woman-led mixed-gender Friday prayer service, delivering the sermon and leading the prayers of the mixed-gender congregation organized by the Muslim Canadian Congress to celebrate Earth Day in the backyard of the downtown Toronto home of activist Tarek Fatah.<ref name="muslimcanadiancongress.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.muslimcanadiancongress.org/20050423.pdf |title=Woman leads mixed-gender prayers for city Muslims |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

On July 1, 2005, Pamela Taylor, a Muslim convert since 1986, became the first woman to lead Friday prayers in a Canadian mosque, and did so for a congregation of both men and women.<ref name="pluralism.org">{{cite web|url=http://pluralism.org/reports/view/111 |title=The Woman-Led Prayer that Catalyzed Controversy |publisher=Pluralism.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> Pamela Taylor is an American convert to Islam and co-chair of the New York-based Progressive Muslim Union.<ref name="pluralism.org"/> In addition to leading the prayers, Taylor also gave a sermon on the importance of equality among people regardless of gender, race, sexual orientation and disability.<ref name="pluralism.org"/>

In October 2005, Amina Wadud led a mixed gender congregational prayer in Barcelona.<ref>[http://www.muslimwakeup.com/main/archives/2005/10/amina-wadud-lea.php Amina Wadud Leads Mixed Gender Friday Prayer in Barcelona]</ref>

In 2008, Pamela Taylor gave the Friday ''khutbah'' and led the mixed-gender prayers in Toronto at the UMA mosque at the invitation of the Muslim Canadian Congress on [[Canada Day]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Source: 12/02/2008 4:30 pm |url=http://www.awid.org/eng/Issues-and-Analysis/Library/Woman-led-prayer-honours-IWD |title=Woman-led prayer honours IWD |publisher=Awid.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

On 17 October 2008, Amina Wadud became the first woman to lead a mixed-gender congregation in prayer in the [[United Kingdom]] when she performed the Friday prayers at Oxford's Wolfson College.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/oct/17/religion-islam-women-prayers It's Muslim men we must modernise] at [[guardian.co.uk]]</ref>

In 2010, Raheel Raza became the first Muslim-born woman to lead a mixed-gender British congregation through Friday prayers.<ref name="independent1">{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/first-woman-to-lead-friday-prayers-in-uk-1996228.html |title=First woman to lead Friday prayers in UK |publisher=Independent.co.uk |date= 2010-06-10|accessdate=2010-11-19 |location=London |first=Jerome |last=Taylor}}</ref>

[[File:ReginaJonas1.jpg|thumb|right|Rabbi [[Regina Jonas]], the world's first female [[rabbi]], ordained in 1935.<ref name="reginajonas">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/jonas-regina |title=Regina Jonas 1902–1944 |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>]]

== Judaism ==

{{Main|Female rabbis}}
{{See also|rebbetzin}}

Only men can become [[rabbi]]s in Orthodox Judaism (although there has been one female Hasidic [[rebbe]], Hannah Rachel Verbermacher, also known as the [[Maiden of Ludmir]], active in the 19th century <ref name="yivoencyclopedia.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Maiden_of_Ludmir |title=Maiden of Ludmir |publisher=Yivoencyclopedia.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>);
however all other types of Judaism allow and have female rabbis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forward.com/articles/106320/ |title=Orthodox Women To Be Trained As Clergy, If Not Yet as Rabbis |publisher=Forward.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
In 1935 [[Regina Jonas]] was ordained privately by a German rabbi and became the world's first female rabbi.<ref name="reginajonas"/>
[[Sally Priesand]] became the first female rabbi in [[Reform Judaism]] in 1972,<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/priesand-sally-jane |title=Sally Jane Priesand b. 1946 |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
[[Sandy Eisenberg Sasso]] became the first female rabbi in [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] in 1974,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/19/1974/sandy-sasso/ |title=Sandy Sasso ordained as first female Reconstructionist rabbi |publisher=Jwa.org |date=1974-05-19 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
[[Lynn Gottlieb]] became the first female rabbi in [[Jewish Renewal]] in 1981,<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA030.htm |title=Lynn Gottlieb |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2003-09-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
[[Amy Eilberg]] became the first female rabbi in [[Conservative Judaism]] in 1985,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/eilberg-amy |title=Amy Eilberg b. 1955 |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
and [[Tamara Kolton]] became the very first rabbi of either sex (and therefore, since she was female, the first female rabbi) in [[Humanistic Judaism]] in 1999.<ref name="shj.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.shj.org/shjbios.htm |title=Socity for Humanistic Judaism Leaders and Staff |publisher=Shj.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
Women in these types of Judaism are routinely granted [[semicha]] (meaning ordination) on an equal basis with men.

Only men can become [[cantors]] in Orthodox Judaism, but all other types of Judaism allow and have female cantors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myjewishlearning.com/practices/Ritual/Prayer/Synagogue_and_Religious_Leaders/What_is_a_Cantor.shtml |title=The Cantor |publisher=Myjewishlearning.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 1955 Betty Robbins, born in Greece, became the world's first female cantor when she was appointed cantor of the Reform Congregation of Temple Avodah in Oceanside, New York, in July.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/robbins-betty |title=Betty Robbins 1924–2004 |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
Barbara Ostfeld-Horowitz became the first female cantor to be ordained in Reform Judaism in 1975.<ref name="jwa.org">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/cantors-american-jewish-women |title=Cantors: American Jewish Women |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2009-03-01 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
Erica Lippitz and Marla Rosenfeld Barugel became the first female cantors in Conservative Judaism in 1987.<ref name="jwa.org"/>
The Cantors Assembly, a professional organization of cantors associated with Conservative Judaism, did not allow women to join until 1990.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1990/09/19/nyregion/a-bar-to-women-as-cantors-is-lifted.html |title=A Bar to Women as Cantors Is Lifted |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=1990-09-19 |accessdate=2010-11-19 |first=Ari L. |last=Goldman}}</ref>
Sharon Hordes became the first cantor of either gender (and therefore, since she was female, the first female cantor) in Reconstructionist Judaism in 2002.<ref name="kenesethisrael.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.kenesethisrael.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=29&Itemid=43 |title=Cantor Sharon Hordes |publisher=Kenesethisrael.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
Avitall Gerstetter, who lives in Germany, became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002.
Susan Wehle became the first American female cantor in Jewish Renewal in 2006; however, she died in 2009.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/15/nyregion/15grief.html ‘It’s Not Even Six Degrees of Separation. It’s One.’ ]</ref> Four female Jewish Renewal cantors have been ordained since Susan Wehle's ordination — a German woman (born in Holland), Yalda Rebling, was ordained in 2007,<ref>{{cite web|last=Axelrod |first=Toby |url=http://jta.org/news/article/0000/00/00/14879/Newfemalecantorin |title=New Renewal cantor looks ahead |publisher=Jta.org |date=1999-11-30 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> an American woman, Michal Rubin, was ordained in 2010, another American woman, Abbe Lyons, was ordained in 2010, and another American woman, Shoshana Brown, was ordained in 2011. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tikkunvor.org/Events/index.cfm?id=1392 |title=Celebration in honor of Cantor Abbe Lyons |publisher=Tikkunvor.org |date=2010-02-07 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
In 2001 Deborah Davis became the first cantor of either gender (and therefore, since she was female, the first female cantor) in Humanistic Judaism; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped graduating cantors.<ref name="jmwc.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.jmwc.org/Women/womend.html |title=Contributions of Jewish Women to Music and Women to Jewish Music |publisher=Jmwc.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

== Shinto ==

[[File:Yasaka-jinja 01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Shinto]] priest and priestess.]]

Saiin (斎院, saiin?) were female relatives of the Japanese emperor (termed saiō) who served as High Priestesses in Kamo Shrine and Ise Shrine, both Shinto shrines. Saiin priestesses were usually elected from royalty (内親王, naishinnō) such as princesses (女王, joō). In principle, Saiin remained unmarried, but there were exceptions. Some Saiin became consorts of the Emperor, called Nyōgo in Japanese. The Saiin order of priestesses existed throughout the Heian and Kamakura periods (794 - 1333 A.D.) Saiin is also the name given to the palace where the Saiin Priestesses lived and served the Shinto deities.

The ordination of women as Shinto priests arose again after the abolition of [[State Shinto]] in the aftermath of World War II.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=750 |title=Encyclopedia of Shinto—Home : Shrine Rituals : Gyōji sahō |publisher=Eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> See also [[Miko]].

== Taoism ==

Taoists ordain both men and women as priests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rmhb.com.cn/chpic/htdocs/english/200810/8-1.htm |title=China Pictorial |publisher=Rmhb.com.cn |date=1980-01-06 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2009 Wu Chengzhen became the first female Fangzhang (meaning principal abbot) in Taoism's 1,800-year history after being enthroned at Changchun Temple in Wuhan, capital of Hubei province, in China.<ref name="chinadaily.com.cn">{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-11/16/content_8978973.htm |title=First female Taoist Fangzhang enthroned |publisher=Chinadaily.com.cn |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> Fangzhang is the highest position in a Taoist temple.<ref name="chinadaily.com.cn"/>

[[File:Curott palermo.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Wicca]]n priest [[Phyllis Curott]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.templeofara.org/phyllis.htm |title=Phyllis Curott |publisher=Templeofara.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>]]

== Wicca ==

There are many different [[Wicca]]n traditions. All ordain women as priests (most also ordain men), and some were created by women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dianic-wicca.com/dianic-wicca-clergy.html |title=Dianic Wiccan Clergy Priestess |publisher=Dianic-wicca.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.templeofara.org/about.htm |title=About the Temple of Ara |publisher=Templeofara.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=usny&c=trads&id=4637 |title=The Avalonian Tradition |publisher=Witchvox.com |date=2002-08-23 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

== Zoroastrianism ==
Zoroastrian priests are required to be male.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=Uspf6eDDvjAC&pg=PA104&lpg=PA104&dq=zoroastrian+priest+male&source=bl&ots=OLFhiw4l29&sig=0M7zwAYzaSKQ9vI5wwyUd8R4044&hl=en&ei=oBpSTP-NOISdlgfewqGlBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CDAQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=zoroastrian%20priest%20male&f=false The Zoroastrian faith: tradition and modern research] By Solomon Alexander Nigosian (pg. 104)</ref>
{{GenderChristianity}}

==Some significant dates and events==
{{Expand section|decisions against women's ordination to balance the list|date=June 2008}}

A list with dates of important events in the history of women's ordination appears below:<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/femclrg13.htm |title=When churches started to ordain women |publisher=Religioustolerance.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>

*'''6th century BC''' [[Mahapajapati Gotami]], the aunt and foster mother of Buddha, was the first woman to receive Buddhist ordination. She lived in Nepal.<ref name="buddhanet"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.congress-on-buddhist-women.org/index.php?id=30 |title=A New Possibility |publisher=Congress-on-buddhist-women.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''13th century''' The first female Zen master, as well as the first Zen abbess, was the Japanese abbess Mugai Nyodai (born 1223 - died 1298).<ref name="bella"/><ref name="masterhonor"/>
* '''17th century:''' [[Asenath Barzani]] led and taught at a yeshiva in Iraq.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/barazani-asnat-bat-samuel |title=Asnat Barazani |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2009-03-01 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''Circa 1770:''' Mary Evans Thorne was appointed class leader by [[Joseph Pilmore]] in Philadelphia, probably the first woman in America to be so appointed.<ref name="archives.umc.org">{{cite web|url=http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=1&mid=2619 |title=Timeline of Women in American Methodism |publisher=Archives.umc.org |date=2006-11-06 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''Late 18th century:''' [[John Wesley]] allowed women to preach within his Methodist wing of the Church of England.<ref name="findarticles.com"/>
* '''Early 19th century:''' A fundamental belief<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/quaker.htm |title=Religious Tolerance.org on Quakers |publisher=Religioustolerance.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> of the Society of Friends (Quakers) has always been the existence of an element of God's spirit in every human soul.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Thus all persons are considered to have inherent and equal worth, independent of their gender, and this led to an acceptance of female ministers.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> In 1660, [[Margaret Fell]] (1614–1702) published a famous pamphlet to justify equal roles for men and women in the denomination, titled: "Women's Speaking Justified, Proved and Allowed of by the Scriptures, All Such as Speak by the Spirit and Power of the Lord Jesus And How Women Were the First That Preached the Tidings of the Resurrection of Jesus, and Were Sent by Christ's Own Command Before He Ascended to the Father (John 20:17)."<ref name="ReferenceC"/> In the United States, in contrast with almost every other organized denomination, the Society of Friends (Quakers) has allowed women to serve as ministers since the early 19th century.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Furthermore, in England in the 17th century [[Elizabeth Hooton]] became the first female Quaker minister.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=Shp53fHkIfUC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=%22elizabeth+hooton%22+%22first+woman%22+%22quaker+minister%22+1650&source=bl&ots=gyvx_fRd5V&sig=r2u9EwDmbLrRgI6drWLB-ALc2g0&hl=en&ei=z1Y6TYm4EsSRgQfc67G2CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22elizabeth%20hooton%22%20%22first%20woman%22%20%22quaker%20minister%22%201650&f=false Autobiographical writings by early Quaker women]</ref>
* '''19th century:''' Women's mosques, called nusi, and female imams have existed since the 19th century in China and continue today.<ref name="chinaimams"/>
* '''19th century:''' [[Hannah Rachel Verbermacher]], also known as the Maiden of Ludmir (Ludmirer Moyd), became the only female ''[[Rebbe]]'' in the history of the [[Hasidism|Hasidic]] movement; she lived in Ukraine and Israel.<ref name="yivoencyclopedia.org"/>
* '''1807:''' The [[Primitive Methodist Church]] in Britain first allowed female ministers.
* '''1815:''' [[Clarissa Danforth]] was ordained in New England. She was the first woman ordained by the [[Free Will Baptist]] denomination.
* '''1853:''' [[Antoinette Brown Blackwell]] was the first woman ordained by a church belonging to the Congregationalist Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www25.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articles/antoinettebrownblackwell.html |title=Antoinette Brown Blackwell |publisher=5.uua.org |date=1921-11-05 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> However, her ordination was not recognized by the denomination.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> She later quit the church and became a Unitarian.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> The Congregationalists later merged with others to create the United Church of Christ, which ordains women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womensordination.org/content/view/8/59/ |title=A Movement Begins |publisher=Womensordination.org |date=1977-06-30 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1861:''' Mary A. Will was the first woman ordained in the Wesleyan Methodist Connection by the Illinois Conference in the United States. The Wesleyan Methodist Connection eventually became the Wesleyan Church.
* '''1863:''' [[Olympia Brown]] was ordained by the Universalist denomination in 1863, the first woman ordained by that denomination, in spite of a last-moment case of cold feet by her seminary which feared adverse publicity.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=djpfT5rHb5MC&pg=PA460&lpg=PA460&dq=%22olympia+brown%22+universalist&source=bl&ots=uvqVYoJLVZ&sig=wwWV22sgB9SfITzM2FtM7sr16N0&hl=en&ei=o8g3TPznOMP78AaZ_4GoBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CDoQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&q=%22olympia%20brown%22%20universalist&f=false Standing before us: Unitarian Universalist women and social reform, 1776-1936] By Dorothy May Emerson, June Edwards, Helene Knox (pg. 460)</ref> After a decade and a half of service as a full-time minister, she became a part-time minister in order to devote more time to the fight for women's rights and universal suffrage.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> In 1961, the Universalists and Unitarians joined to form the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/u-u.htm |title=Unitarian Universalism |publisher=Religioustolerance.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> The UUA became the first large denomination to have a majority of female ministers.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1865:''' The Salvation Army was founded, which in the English Methodist tradition always ordained both men and women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> However, there were initially rules that prohibited a woman from marrying a man who had a lower rank.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1866:''' Helenor M. Davison was ordained as a deacon by the North Indiana Conference of the Methodist Protestant Church, probably making her the first ordained woman in the Methodist tradition.<ref name="archives.umc.org"/>
* '''1869:''' Margaret Newton Van Cott became the first woman in the Methodist Episcopal Church to receive a local preacher's license.<ref name="archives.umc.org"/>
* '''1869:''' Lydia Sexton (of the United Brethren Church) was appointed chaplain of the Kansas State Prison at the age of 70, the first woman in the United States to hold such a position.<ref name="archives.umc.org"/>
* '''1871:''' Celia Burleigh became the first female Unitarian minister.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1876:''' Anna Oliver was the first woman to receive a Bachelor of Divinity degree from an American seminary (Boston University School of Theology).<ref name="archives.umc.org"/>
* '''1879''' The Church of Christ, Scientist was founded by a woman, [[Mary Baker Eddy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://christianscience.com/questions/about-mary-baker-eddy/ |title=Who is Mary Baker Eddy? |publisher=Christianscience.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1880:''' Anna Howard Shaw was the first woman ordained in the Methodist Protestant Church, an American church which later merged with other denominations to form the United Methodist Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biography.com/articles/Anna-Howard-Shaw-9480841 |title=Anna Howard Shaw Biography |publisher=Biography.com |date=1919-07-02 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1888:''' Fidelia Gillette may have been the first ordained woman in Canada.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> She served the Universalist congregation in Bloomfield, Ontario, during 1888 and 1889.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> She was presumably ordained in 1888 or earlier.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>{{Or|date=February 2010}}
* '''1889:''' The Nolin Presbytery of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church ordained Louisa Woosley as the first female minister of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, USA.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cumberland.org/hfcpc/minister/woosleyL.htm |title=Louisa Mariah Layman Woosley |publisher=Cumberland.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1889:''' Ella Niswonger was the first woman ordained in the American United Brethren Church, which later merged with other denominations to form the American United Methodist Church, which has ordained women with full clergy rights and conference membership since 1956.<ref name="archives.umc.org"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_umc4.htm |title=The United Methodist Church And Homosexuality |publisher=Religioustolerance.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1890:''' On September 14, 1890, Ray Frank gave the Rosh Hashana sermon for a community in Spokane, Washington, thus becoming the first woman to preach from a synagogue pulpit, although she was not a rabbi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwablog.jwa.org/rayfrank |title=Ray Frank: "Lady Preacher" of the West |publisher=Jwablog.jwa.org |date=2009-09-14 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1892:''' Anna Hanscombe is believed to be the first woman ordained by the parent bodies which formed the Church of the Nazarene in 1919.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1894:''' Julia A. J. Foote was the first woman to be ordained as a deacon by the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church.<ref name="archives.umc.org"/>
* '''1909:''' The Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) began ordaining women in 1909.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1911:''' Ann Allebach was the first Mennonite woman to be ordained.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> This occurred at the First Mennonite Church of Philadelphia.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1914:''' The Assemblies of God was founded and ordained its first woman pastors in 1914.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1917:''' The Church of England appointed female "bishop's messengers" to preach, teach, and take missions in the absence of men.
* '''1917:''' The Congregationalist Church (England and Wales) ordained their first woman, Constance Coltman (née Todd), at the King's Weigh House, London.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urc.org.uk/what_we_do/communications/reform/09/july/jumping_the_barriers |title=Jumping the barriers |publisher=Urc.org.uk |date=2009-07-01 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> Its successor is the United Reformed Church <ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urc.org.uk |title=The United Reformed Church |publisher=Urc.org.uk |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> (a union of the Congregational Church in England and Wales and the Presbyterian Church of England in 1972). Since then two more denominations have joined the union: The Reformed Churches of Christ (1982) and the Congregational Church of Scotland (2000). All of these denominations ordained women at the time of Union and continue to do so. The first woman to be appointed General Secretary of the United Reformed Church was Roberta Rominger in 2008.
* '''1920:''' The Methodist Episcopal Church granted women the right to become licensed as local preachers.<ref name="archives.umc.org"/>
* '''1920s:''' Some Baptist [[denomination]]s started ordaining women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1922:''' The Jewish Reform movement's Central Conference of American Rabbis stated that "...woman cannot justly be denied the privilege of ordination."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=wIXtZB831NsC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=%22justly+be+denied+the+privilege+of+ordination%22&source=bl&ots=8wGq7Xzm6_&sig=r_jWQ1eDndw3jW5_MEJ262L75B0&hl=en&ei=O903TKLXEoT78AanzummBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CCcQ6AEwCDgU#v=onepage&q=%22justly%20be%20denied%20the%20privilege%20of%20ordination%22&f=false American Reform responsa] By Central Conference of American Rabbis, Walter Jacob (pg. 25)</ref> However, the first woman in Reform Judaism to be ordained (Sally Priesand) was not ordained until 1972.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* '''1922:''' The Annual Conference of the Church of the Brethren granted women the right to be licensed into the ministry, but not to be ordained with the same status as men.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1924:''' The Methodist Episcopal Church granted women limited clergy rights as local elders or deacons, without conference membership.<ref name="archives.umc.org"/>
* '''1929:''' Izabela Wiłucka-Kowalska was the first woman to be ordained by the [[Old Catholic Mariavite Church]] in Poland.
* '''1930:''' A predecessor church of the Presbyterian Church (USA) ordained its first female as an elder.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1935:''' Regina Jonas was ordained privately by a German rabbi and became the world's first female rabbi.<ref name="reginajonas"/>
* '''1936:''' Lydia Gruchy became the first female minister in the United Church of Canada.<ref name="united-church.ca"/>
* '''1944:''' Florence [[Li Tim Oi]] became the first woman to be ordained as an Anglican priest. She was born in Hong Kong, and was ordained in Guandong province in unoccupied China on January 25, 1944, on account of a severe shortage of priests due to World War II. When the war ended, she was forced to relinquish her priesthood, yet she was reinstated as a priest later in 1971 in Hong Kong. "When Hong Kong ordained two further women priests in 1971 (Joyce Bennett and Jane Hwang), Florence Li Tim-Oi was officially recognised as a priest by the diocese."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anorderlyaccount.com/index.php/static2/the_ac_tec_and_acna |title=The Anglican Communion, The Episcopal Church, and ACNA |publisher=Anorderlyaccount.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> She later moved to Toronto, Canada, and assisted as a priest there from 1983 onwards.
* '''1947:''' The Czechoslovak Hussite Church started to ordain women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1948:''' The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Denmark started to ordain women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1949:''' The ''Old Catholic Church'' (in the U.S.) started to ordain women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1951:''' From January 1951 until 1953, Paula Ackerman served as Temple Beth Israel’s spiritual leader, conducting services, preaching, teaching, and performing marriages, funerals, and conversions. In so doing, she achieved the distinction of becoming the first woman to assume religious leadership of a mainstream American Jewish congregation, although she was never ordained.
* '''1952:''' Queen Elizabeth II becomes Supreme Governor of the Church of England.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/elizabeth_ii_queen.shtml |title=Elizabeth II (1926-) |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/10/world/princess-margaret-dies-at-71-sister-of-queen-elizabeth-had-a-troubled-life.html?pagewanted=all |title=Princess Margaret Dies at 71; Sister of Queen Elizabeth Had a Troubled Life |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2002-02-10 |accessdate=2010-11-19 |first=Joseph R. |last=Gregory}}</ref>
* '''1956:''' Maud K. Jensen was the first woman to receive full clergy rights and conference membership (in her case, in the Central Pennsylvania Conference) in the ''Methodist Church''.<ref name="autogenerated1904"/>
* '''1956:''' The ''Presbyterian Church (USA)'' ordained its first female minister, Margaret Towner.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vkEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=%22margaret+towner%22+%22presbyterian+church%22&source=bl&ots=LcNLJ_VSzN&sig=1FLF_iu6mgBeJP4MytCJNvlpOQk&hl=en&ei=nhQ4TLb5IIT78AbszeWmBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBEQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=%22margaret%20towner%22%20%22presbyterian%20church%22&f=false |title=LIFE Nov 12, 1956 |publisher=Books.google.com |date=1956-11-12 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1957:''' In 1957 the Unity Synod of the Moravian Church declared of women's ordination "in principle such ordination is permissible" and that each province is at liberty to "take such steps as seem essential for the maintenance of the ministry of the Word and Sacraments;” however, while this was approved by the Unity Synod in 1957, the Northern Province of the Moravian Church did not approve women for ordination until 1970 at the Provincial Synod, and it was not until 1975 that the Rev. Mary Matz became the first female minister within the Moravian Church.<ref name="moravian">{{cite web|url=http://www.moravian.org/publications/moravian/back_issues/2006/2006_08_women.phtml |title=Women in Ministry: Then & Now |publisher=Moravian.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1958: ''' Women ministers in the ''Church of the Brethren'' were given full ordination with the same status as men.<ref name="womenguardians">{{cite web|url=http://www.facebook.com/#!/pages/Women-Dont-Need-Guardians/138248439539086?v=wall&ref=ts |title=Women Don't Need Guardians |publisher=Facebook.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1959:''' The Reverend Gusta A. Robinette, a missionary, was ordained in the Sumatra (Indonesia) Conference soon after The Methodist Church granted full clergy rights to women in 1956. She was appointed District Superintendent of the Medan Chinese District in Indonesia becoming the first female district superintendent in the Methodist Church.<ref name="archives.umc.org"/>
* '''1960:''' The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden started ordaining women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1964:''' Addie Davis became the first Southern Baptist woman to be ordained.<ref name="encyclopediawomen">[http://books.google.com/books?id=EoJrHDirVQUC&pg=PA294&lpg=PA294&dq=%22first+southern+baptist+woman%22+ordained&source=bl&ots=zV41jbzziO&sig=IM5A4MpALB04f1-RNkqR-l3GEC4&hl=en&ei=m68XTO3HBMT48AbH0ZWGCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22first%20southern%20baptist%20woman%22%20ordained&f=false Encyclopedia of women and religion in North America, Volume 1] By Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon (pg. 294)</ref> However, the Southern Baptist Convention stopped ordaining women in 2000, although existing female pastors are allowed to continue their jobs.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1967:''' The Presbyterian Church in Canada started ordaining women.<ref name="womenguardians"/>
* '''1967:''' Margaret Henrichsen became the first American female district superintendent in the Methodist Church.<ref name="archives.umc.org"/>
* '''1970:''' The Northern Province of the Moravian Church approved women for ordination in 1970 at the Provincial Synod, but it was not until 1975 that the Rev. Mary Matz became the first female minister within the Moravian Church.<ref name="moravian"/>
* '''1970:''' In 1970 Ludmila Javorova was ordained as a Catholic priest in Czechoslovakia by a friend of her family, Bishop Felix Davidek (1921–88), himself clandestinely consecrated, due to the communist regime ruling Czechoslovakia being against the Catholic Church, and priests therefore being in short supply; however, an official Vatican statement in February 2000 declared the ordinations invalid while recognizing the severe circumstances under which they occurred.<ref name="depths"/>
* '''1970:''' On November 22, 1970, Elizabeth Alvina Platz became the first woman ordained by the ''Lutheran Church in America'', and as such was the first woman ordained by any Lutheran denomination in America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elca.org/Who-We-Are/History/ELCA-Archives/Exhibits/It-Did-Not-All-Begin-with-Ordination/Ordination.aspx |title=The ordination of Elizabeth Alvina Platz into the clergy of the Lutheran Church in America |publisher=Elca.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> The first woman ordained by the ''American Lutheran Church,'' Barbara Andrews, was ordained in December 1970.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elca.org/Growing-In-Faith/Ministry/Women-of-the-ELCA/Lutheran-Woman-Today/Articles/2010/May/Wisdom-Has-Blessed-Us.aspx |title=Wisdom Has Blessed Us |publisher=Elca.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> On January 1, 1988 the Lutheran Church in America, the American Lutheran Church, and the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches merged to form the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, which continues to ordain women<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elca.org/Who-We-Are/History.aspx |title=History of the ELCA A Union of Common Beliefs |publisher=Elca.org |date=1988-01-01 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> (The first woman ordained by the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches, Janith Otte, was ordained in 1977.<ref name="page317">[http://books.google.com/books?id=EoJrHDirVQUC&pg=PA317&lpg=PA317&dq=%22The+Association+of+Evangelical+Lutheran+Churches+%22+%22first+female%22&source=bl&ots=zV43kdBtiH&sig=YFgcP1_4lr4dJDwmeO1JZe6rcSc&hl=en&ei=Sw44TPTmMMO78gb61cWnBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Association%20of%20Evangelical%20Lutheran%20Churches%20%22%20%22first%20female%22&f=false Encyclopedia of women and religion in North America, Volume 1] By Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon (pg. 317)</ref>)
* '''1971:''' Joyce Bennett and Jane Hwang were the first regularly ordained priests in the Anglican Church in Hong Kong.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1972:''' Freda Smith became the first female minister to be ordained by the Metropolitan Community Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/metro_comm_church.html |title=Metropolitan Community Church |publisher=Glbtq.com |date=1968-10-06 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1972:''' [[Sally Priesand]] became the first female rabbi to be ordained in Reform Judaism, and also the first female rabbi in the world to be ordained by any theological seminary.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* '''1974:''' The Methodist Church in the United Kingdom started to ordain women again (after a lapse of ordinations).
* '''1974: ''' [[Sandy Eisenberg Sasso]] became the first female rabbi to be ordained in Reconstructionist Judaism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bez613.org/about-us/staff/rabbi-sandy-sasso/ |title=Rabbi Sandy Eisenberg Sasso |publisher=Bez613.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1975:''' Dorothea W. Harvey became the first woman to be ordained by the Swedenborgian Church.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=W5E8Ly58SQ0C&pg=PA119&lpg=PA119&dq=swedenborgian+church+%22dorothea%22+ordained&source=bl&ots=A3bV6metiS&sig=XqgwlSKQNI_K6JiGNeL3vP9Nw3s&hl=en&ei=v9Y3TK2xBIO88gbktZmnBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwADgK#v=snippet&q=%22first%20woman%20ordained%22&f=false Touring Swedish America: where to go and what to see] By Alan H. Winquist, Jessica Rousselow-Winquist (pg. 119)</ref>
* '''1975:''' Barbara Ostfeld-Horowitz became the first female cantor in Reform Judaism.<ref name="jwa.org"/>
* '''1975:''' In 1975, the Rev. Mary Matz became the first female minister in the Moravian Church.<ref name="moravian"/>
* '''1975:''' [[Jackie Tabick]], born in Dublin, became the first female rabbi ordained in England.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nwss.org.uk/community_rabbi.php |title=Rabbi Jackie Tabick |publisher=Nwss.org.uk |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1976:''' The Anglican Church in Canada ordained six female priests.<ref name="faq039"/>
* '''1976:''' The Rev. Pamela McGee was the first female ordained to the Lutheran ministry in Canada.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1977:''' The Anglican Church in New Zealand ordained five female priests.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1977:''' Pauli Murray became the first African American woman to be ordained as an Episcopal priest in 1977.<ref>[http://www.biography.com/articles/Pauli-Murray-214111 Pauli Murray Biography]</ref>
* '''1977:''' The first woman ordained by the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches, Janith Otte, was ordained in 1977.<ref name="page317"/>
* '''1977:''' On January 1, 1977, Jacqueline Means became the first woman ordained to the priesthood in the Episcopal Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecusa-chaplain.org/means.html |title=The Reverend Jacqueline Means |publisher=Ecusa-chaplain.org |date=1977-01-01 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> 11 women were "irregularly" ordained to the priesthood in Philadelphia on July 29, 1974, before church laws were changed to permit women's ordination.<ref name="Philadelphia11">{{cite web|url=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/41685_3311_ENG_HTM.htm |title=The Philadelphia 11 |publisher=Episcopalchurch.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> They are often called the "Philadelphia 11". Church laws were changed on September 16, 1976.<ref name="Philadelphia11"/>
* '''1978:''' [[Bonnie Koppell]] became the first female rabbi to serve in the U.S. military.<ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/bonniekappell.html</ref>
* '''1979:''' The Reformed Church in America started ordaining women as ministers.<ref>[https://www.rca.org/SSLPage.aspx?pid=1918 History of Women's Involvement in the RCA]</ref> Women had been admitted to the offices of deacon and elder in 1972.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1980:''' [[Marjorie Matthews]], at the age of 64, was the first woman elected as a bishop in the ''United Methodist Church''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umc.org/site/c.lwL4KnN1LtH/b.4592301/k.535B/United_Methodist_Bishop_Firsts.htm |title=United Methodist Bishop Firsts |publisher=Umc.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.umc.org/umns/news_archive2000.asp?ptid=&story=%7B8E8D91DC-ABE1-4226-8E53-FD7F3ACB1FC6%7D&mid=3366 |title=Pioneer Marjorie Matthews 'knew the call' |publisher=Archives.umc.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1981:''' [[Lynn Gottlieb]] became the first female rabbi to be ordained in the Jewish Renewal movement.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
* '''1981:''' Karen Soria, born and ordained in the United States, became Australia's first female rabbi.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=dwAt_3_ybmIC&pg=PA493&lpg=PA493&dq=%22australia's+first+female+rabbi%22&source=bl&ots=nO8pmm6KQ2&sig=vU_gU_1cIy_rONQU1xPgnD_Xrwo&hl=en&ei=LkXXTLymLcPflgfakan9CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22australia's%20first%20female%20rabbi%22&f=false The Women's Haftarah Commentary] (pg. 493)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200810291033/New-spiritual-leader-takes-helm-at-Winnipeg-temple.html |title=New spiritual leader takes helm at Winnipeg temple |publisher=Jewishtribune.ca |date=2008-10-29 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1983:''' An Anglican woman was ordained in Kenya.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1983:''' Three Anglican women were ordained in Uganda.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1983:''' Kinneret Shiryon, born in the United States, became the first female rabbi in Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:QLUR2v5r0CEJ:www.har-shalom.org/filelib/11.pdf+%22Kinneret+Shiryon%22&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjUnCQMpdmdfyeY5aJ-pmwY8oGPHFzeh1O7-543OTrckl53rY0_y1NbTrxCV6yhKT9QO7Ip_dGqjdf6_8yxGEe0ndU84nGCaVTxnDVoYHDxwzbZq2B1Rz_DzoBQjd7J8XRUcHGq&sig=AHIEtbR-7u5ZaEpfPLdRwDtmHMcXVV6QfQ |title=Einat Ramon |publisher=Docs.google.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
*'''1983:''' [[Elyse Goldstein ]], born in the United States and ordained in 1983, became the first female rabbi in Canada. <ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0007_0_07583.html Jewish Virtual Library] </ref> <ref>[http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/goldstein-elyse Jewish Women's Archive]</ref> <ref>[http://www.cjnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20441&Itemid=86 Jewish feminists look back and ahead]</ref>
* '''1984:''' The [[Community of Christ]] (known at the time as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints) authorized the ordination of women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> They are the second largest [[Latter Day Saint]] denomination.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1985:''' According to the ''[[New York Times]]'' for 1985-FEB-14: "After years of debate, the worldwide governing body of Conservative Judaism has decided to admit women as rabbis. The group, the ''Rabbinical Assembly,'' plans to announce its decision at a news conference...at the Jewish Theological Seminary...".<ref name="ReferenceC"/> In 1985 [[Amy Eilberg]] became the first female rabbi to be ordained in Conservative Judaism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/feminism/_html/JWA020.htm |title=Amy Eilberg |publisher=Jwa.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1985:''' The first women deacons were ordained by the Scottish Episcopal Church.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1985:''' Judy Harrow became the first member of CoG (Covenant of the Goddess, a Wiccan group) to be legally registered as clergy in New York City in 1985, after a five year effort requiring the assistance of the New York Civil Liberties Union.<ref>[http://www.proteuscoven.org/proteus/Biojh.htm Judy Harrow]</ref>
* '''1987:''' Erica Lippitz and Marla Rosenfeld Barugel became the first female cantors in Conservative Judaism.<ref name="jwa.org"/>
* '''1987:''' Joy Levitt became the first female president of the Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA553&lpg=PA553&dq=%22first+female+president+of+the+reconstructionist+rabbinical&source=bl&ots=3NiRCAwdGO&sig=-fqGdZZIInzDTWxAtCuavp5QROc&hl=en&ei=JvvfTKiwGcOBlAefm8SmAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&sqi=2&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22first%20female%20president%20of%20the%20reconstructionist%20rabbinical%22&f=false Encyclopedia of women and religion in North America, Volume 2] By Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon (pg. 553)</ref>
* '''1988:''' The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland started to ordain women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1988:''' Ahkon Norbu Lhamo, an American woman formerly called Catharine Burroughs, became the first Western woman to be named a reincarnate lama.<ref name="nytimes1988"/>
* '''1988:''' The Episcopal Church elected Barbara Harris as its first female bishop.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.episcopalarchives.org/Afro-Anglican_history/exhibit/leadership/harris.php |title=The Right Reverend Barbara C. Harris, 1930 |publisher=Episcopalarchives.org |date=2003-11-02 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1989:''' Einat Ramon, ordained in New York, became the first female native-Israeli rabbi.<ref name="jewishfederations.org">{{cite web|author=Marcus Moraes |url=http://www.jewishfederations.org/page.aspx?id=56780 |title=Brazil's First Female Rabbi Takes Praise - and Surprise - in Stride |publisher=Jewishfederations.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1990:''' Pauline Bebe became the first female rabbi in France, although she was ordained and previously employed as a rabbi in England.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jcrelations.net/en/?item=1751 |title=Rabbi Pauline Bebe |publisher=Jcrelations.net |date=2003-01-01 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0003_0_02236.html |title=Bebe, Pauline |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1990:''' Penny Jamieson became the first female Anglican diocesan bishop in the world. She was ordained a bishop of the Anglican Church in New Zealand in June 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/timeline/29/06 |title=World's first female Anglican bishop appointed |publisher=Nzhistory.net.nz |date=1925-11-17 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1990:''' Anglican women were ordained in Ireland.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1992:''' Naamah Kelman, born in the United States, became the first female rabbi ordained in Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/2479/first-woman-rabbi-in-israel-sees-slow-gains-for-reform-movement/ |title=First woman rabbi in Israel sees slow gains for Reform movement |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=1996-02-02 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=AfCF94AckkwC&pg=PA197&lpg=PA197&dq=Naamah+Kelman&source=bl&ots=UqGKcRQHl5&sig=TBl1hqngS8UPlVP9lMuW8ry7SAs&hl=en&ei=FqHVTNznIIa0lQezwZX-CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CCwQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=Naamah%20Kelman&f=false New Jewish feminism: probing the past, forging the future] By Elyse Goldstein (pg. 197)</ref>
* '''1992:''' In March 1992 the first female priests in Australia were appointed; they were priests of the Anglican Church in Australia.<ref name="epiphany">{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/from-epiphany-to-bishop/2008/04/11/1207856836839.html |title=From epiphany to bishop |publisher=Theage.com.au |date=2008-04-12 |accessdate=2010-11-19 |location=Melbourne |first=Ben |last=Doherty}}</ref>
* '''1992:''' Maria Jepsen became the world's first woman to be elected a Lutheran bishop when she was elected bishop of the North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church in Germany, but she resigned in 2010 after allegations that she failed to properly investigate cases of sexual abuse.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/07/19/maria-jepsen_n_651962.html |title=Maria Jepsen RESIGNS: Germany's First Woman Bishop Quits Over Sexual Abuse |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1992:''' In November 1992 the General Synod of the Church of England approved the ordination of women as priests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2457&dat=19940311&id=ZxwzAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XzgHAAAAIBAJ&pg=2810,3510147 |title=Bangor Daily News - Mar 11, 1994 |publisher=News.google.com |date=1994-03-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1992:''' The Anglican Church of South Africa started to ordain women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1993:''' Rebecca Dubowe became the first Deaf woman to be ordained as a rabbi in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forward.com/articles/129451/ |title=The Sisterhood 50 America's Influential Women Rabbis |publisher=Forward.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1993:''' Valerie Stessin became the first female Conservative rabbi to be ordained in Israel.<ref name="jewishfederations.org"/>
* '''1993:''' [[Chana Timoner]] became the first female rabbi to hold an active duty assignment as a chaplain in the U.S. Army.<ref>http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/1998-07-18/news/9807180215_1_fort-bragg-chaplain-fort-benning</ref>
* '''1993:''' Victoria Matthews was elected as the first female bishop of the Anglican Church of Canada; however she resigned in 2007, stating that “God is now calling me in a different direction”.<ref>{{cite web|last=Knisely |first=Nicholas |url=http://www.episcopalcafe.com/lead/bishops/bishop_victoria_matthews_will.html |title=Bishop Victoria Matthews will resign |publisher=Episcopalcafe.com |date=2007-08-03 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In 2008, she was ordained as Bishop of [[Christchurch]], becoming the first woman to hold that position.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chch.anglican.org.nz/Our-Bishop |title=Our Bishop |publisher=Chch.anglican.org.nz |date=2008-08-30 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1993:''' Maya Leibovich became the first native-born female rabbi in Israel.<ref>{{cite web|last=Cohen |first=Anat |url=http://www.womensenews.org/story/the-world/030811/rabbi-stakes-her-claim-orthodox-stronghold |title=Rabbi Stakes Her Claim In Orthodox Stronghold |publisher=Womensenews.org |date=2003-08-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1994:''' The first women priests were ordained by the Scottish Episcopal Church.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1994:''' Rabbi Laura Geller became the first woman to lead a major metropolitan congregation, specifically Temple Emanuel in Beverly Hills.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gruenbaum |first=Julie |url=http://www.jewishjournal.com/community/article/glass_ceiling_twice_shatteredat_board_of_rabbis_20090506/ |title=Glass Ceiling Twice Shattered at Board of Rabbis |publisher=Jewishjournal.com |date=2009-05-06 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tebh.org/about/clergy.php |title=Temple Emanuel Clergy |publisher=Tebh.org |date=2006-08-24 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1994:''' Indrani Rampersad was ordained as the first female Hindu priest in Trinidad.<ref>{{cite web|author=Paras Ramoutar, Trinidad |url=http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=3221 |title=Criticism and Acclaim Greet Trinidad's First Woman Priest |publisher=Hinduismtoday.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1994:''' On March 12, 1994, the Church of England ordained 32 women as its first female priests.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/13/world/after-460-years-the-anglicans-ordain-women.html |title=After 460 Years, The Anglicans Ordain Women |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=1994-03-13 |accessdate=2010-11-19 |first=John |last=Darnton}}</ref>
* '''1994:''' Amina Wadud, born in the United States, became the first woman in South Africa to deliver the jum'ah khutbah, at the Claremont Main Road Mosque in Cape Town.<ref name="independent.co.uk"/>
* '''1995:''' The Sligo Seventh-day Adventist Church in Takoma Park, Maryland, ordained three women in violation of the denomination's rules - Kendra Haloviak, Norma Osborn, and Penny Shell.<ref>[http://www.sdadefend.com/MINDEX-U-Z/Women's-ord-Sligo.pdf The Women's Ordination at Sligo]</ref>
* '''1995:''' The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Denmark ordained its first female bishop.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=LBXUVEdg_SsC&pg=PA1200&lpg=PA1200&dq=%22denmark%22+%22first+female+bishop%22&source=bl&ots=fOC2ze-nGB&sig=BWbcs8cVPdzsC2y1x3TIXd-d6UM&hl=en&ei=0ERTTMPtD8P6lwfD5Zlu&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCwQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22denmark%22%20%22first%20female%20bishop%22&f=false World and Its Peoples] (pg. 1200)</ref>
* '''1995:''' Bea Wyler, born in Switzerland, became the second female rabbi in Germany (the first being [[Regina Jonas]]),and the first to officiate at a congregation.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=jliEke1k5xAC&pg=PA154&lpg=PA154&dq=bea+wyler+rabbi&source=bl&ots=2Ivpw_Ymi7&sig=uqWAZrMkBb5ZuP1J4xtA9wIltb8&hl=en&ei=I6PiTOn7IcXflgexu8j_Aw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=bea%20wyler%20rabbi&f=false Resurgence of Jewish life in Germany] By Charlotte Kahn (pg. 154)</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Axelrod |first=Toby |url=http://www.interfaithfamily.com/spirituality/conversion/After_Long_Path_Female_Rabbi_Installed_in_German_Community.shtml |title=After Long Path, Female Rabbi Installed in German Community |publisher=Interfaithfamily.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1995:''' The Christian Reformed Church voted to allow women ministers, elders and evangelists.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> In 1998, the North American Presbyterian and Reformed Council (NAPARC) suspended the CRC's membership because of this decision.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1997:''' Christina Odenberg became the first female bishop in the Church of Sweden.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.svenskakyrkan.se/svk/eng/news973.htm |title=News from the Church of Sweden, 3/97 |publisher=Svenskakyrkan.se |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1997:''' Chava Koster, born in the Netherlands and ordained in the United States, became the first female rabbi from the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cuny.tv/schedule/action.lasso?-database=CUNYPEOP&-response=guest_detail.lasso&-table=webguestdetail&-sortField=Surname&-sortOrder=ascending&-sortField=FirstName&-sortOrder=ascending&-op=bw&Surname=koster&-maxRecords=1&-search |title=Rabbi Chava Koster Rabbi, Temple of Greenwich Village |publisher=Cuny.tv |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1998:''' The General Assembly of the [[Nippon Sei Ko Kai]] (Anglican Church in Japan) started to ordain women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1998:''' The Guatemalan Presbyterian Synod started to ordain women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1998:''' The Old Catholic Church in the Netherlands started to ordain women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1998:''' On July 28, 1998, Ava Muhammad became the first female minister in the [[Nation of Islam]], heading Muhammad's Mosque 15 in Atlanta, Ga., one of the largest mosques in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nathanielturner.com/africanamericanfaiths.htm |title=African American Faiths Show Innovation, New Divisions |publisher=Nathanielturner.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prlog.org/10009833-groundbreaking-conference-promises-to-shift-the-nation-consciousness.html |title=Groundbreaking Conference Promises To Shift The Nation's Consciousness |publisher=Prlog.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> In addition to administering day-to-day affairs there she was named Southern Regional Minister, giving her jurisdiction over Nation of Islam mosque activity in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and parts of Tennessee.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nathanielturner.com/africanamericanfaiths.htm |title=African American Faiths |publisher=Nathanielturner.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1998:''' Some Orthodox Jewish congregations started to employ women as congregational interns, a job created for learned Orthodox Jewish women. Although these interns do not lead worship services, they perform some tasks usually reserved for rabbis, such as preaching, teaching, and consulting on Jewish legal matters. The first woman hired as a congregational intern was Julie Stern Joseph, hired in 1998 by the Lincoln Square Synagogue of the Upper West Side.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1998/02/06/nyregion/unusual-but-not-unorthodox-causing-stir-2-synagogues-hire-women-assist-rabbis.html?pagewanted=all |title=Unusual, but Not Unorthodox; Causing a Stir, 2 Synagogues Hire Women to Assist Rabbis |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=1998-02-06 |accessdate=2010-11-19 |first=Laurie |last=Goodstein}}</ref>
* '''1998:''' Nelly Shulman, born in Russia and ordained in England, became the first female rabbi from Russia and the first female rabbi in Belarus, serving as the chief reform rabbi of Minsk, Belarus.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=d3ubW1dTTnEC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=%22+Nelly+Shulman%22+belarus&source=bl&ots=-UQv-HV9uh&sig=r-6lFhxFkb3YYC3hWpvs3AFnW2c&hl=en&ei=5jfXTN7-B8P-8AbCjOGYBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&sqi=2&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22%20Nelly%20Shulman%22%20belarus&f=false New Jews: the end of the Jewish diaspora] By Caryn Aviv, David Shneer (pg. 44)</ref><ref name="highbeam.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-79270399.html |title=Article: First Female Rabbi in Belarus travels the Hinterlands: On the Road with Nelly Shulman |publisher=Highbeam.com |date=2001-03-23 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1998:''' Sherry Chayat, born in Brooklyn, became the first American woman to receive transmission in the Rinzai school of Buddhism.<ref name="highbeam.com"/><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA642&lpg=PA642&dq=%22sherry+chayat+was+born%22&source=bl&ots=3NiMzEqjEK&sig=HK8D4FfKZwzAllMyBDk54sEvpqE&hl=en&ei=FqOPTPC1B8P7lweO79CcAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CCAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22sherry%20chayat%20was%20born%22&f=false Encyclopedia of women and religion in North America, Volume 2] By Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon (pg. 642)</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=HarperSanFrancisco, 2006 320 pages; $24.95 (hardcover) |url=http://www.thebuddhadharma.com/issues/2006/spring/women_of_the_way_review.html |title=The Lost Lineage |publisher=Thebuddhadharma.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1998:''' In 1998 Kay Ward became the first female bishop in the Moravian Church.<ref name="moravian"/>
* '''1998:''' After 900 years without such ordinations, Sri Lanka again began to ordain women as fully ordained Buddhist nuns, called [[bhikkhuni]]s.<ref name="sasana01"/>
* '''1999:''' The Independent Presbyterian Church of Brazil allowed the ordination of women as either clergy or elders.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''1999:''' The first female bishop of the Czechoslovak-Hussite church was elected to a 7-year term of office in April 1999.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://atheism.about.com/library/irf/irf99/blirf_czechrepublic99.htm |title=Czech Republic Religious Freedom Report 1999 |publisher=Atheism.about.com |date=2010-01-22 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''1999:''' [[Tamara Kolton]] became the first rabbi of either sex (and therefore, because she was female, the first female rabbi) to be ordained in Humanistic Judaism.<ref name="shj.org"/>
* '''1999:''' [[Angela Warnick Buchdahl]], born in Seoul, Korea,<ref name="jewishtimesasia.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishtimesasia.org/one-to-one-topmenu-45/angela-warnick-buchdahl |title=Cantor Angela Warnick Buchdahl - the face of the modern Jew |publisher=Jewishtimesasia.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> became the first Asian-American person to be ordained as a cantor in the world when she was ordained by [[HUC-JIR]], an American seminary for Reform Judaism.<ref name="asianamerican">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/thisweek/may/16/1999/angela-warnick-buchdahl/ |title=Angela Warnick Buchdahl invested as first Asian-American cantor |publisher=Jwa.org |date=1999-05-16 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2000:''' The ''Baptist Union of Scotland'' voted to allow their individual churches to make local decisions as to whether to allow or prohibit the ordination of women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''2000:''' In July 2000 Vashti McKenzie was elected as the first female bishop in the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hds.harvard.edu/news/article_archive/mckenzie.html |title=Bishop on a Pick-up Truck: First Woman AME Bishop Describes Her Work in Africa to HDS Audience |publisher=Hds.harvard.edu |date=2007-11-05 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2000:''' The Mombasa diocese of the Anglican Church in Kenya began to ordain women.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''2000:''' The Church of Pakistan ordained its first female deacons.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> It is a united church which dates back to the 1970 local merger of Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians, Lutherans and other Protestant denominations.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''2001:''' [[Angela Warnick Buchdahl]], born in Seoul, Korea,<ref name="jewishtimesasia.org"/> became the first Asian-American person to be ordained as a rabbi in the world; she was ordained by [[HUC-JIR]], an American seminary for Reform Judaism.<ref name="asianamerican"/>
* '''2001:''' Eveline Goodman-Thau became the first female rabbi in Austria; she was born in Austria but ordained in Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jta.org/news/article/2001/05/80/7100/Austriagetsfirstf |title=Austria gets first female rabbi |publisher=Jta.org |date=2001-07-19 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2001:''' Deborah Davis became the first cantor of either sex (and therefore, since she was female, the first female cantor) in Humanistic Judaism; however, Humanistic Judaism has since stopped graduating cantors.<ref name="jmwc.org"/>
* '''2002:''' Sharon Hordes became the very first cantor in Reconstructionist Judaism. Therefore, since she was a woman, she became their first female cantor.<ref name="kenesethisrael.com"/>
* '''2002:''' Rabbi Pamela Frydman became the first female president of OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) <ref>{{cite web|url=http://womenofthewall.org.il/solidarity/take-a-stand/rabbinicleaderbios |title=Women of the Wall |publisher=Women of the Wall |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2002:''' [[Avitall Gerstetter]] became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal and the first female cantor in Germany.
* '''2002:''' Khenmo Drolma, an American woman, became the first [[bhikkhuni]] (fully ordained Buddhist nun) in the [[Drikung Kagyu]] lineage of Buddhism, traveling to Taiwan to be ordained.<ref name="drolma"/>
* '''2003:''' Ayya Sudhamma became the first American-born woman to receive bhikkhuni ordination in Sri Lanka.<ref name="owbaw"/>
* '''2003:''' Sandra Kochmann, born in Paraguay, became the first female rabbi in Brazil.<ref name="jewishfederations.org"/>
* '''2003:''' Born in Canada and educated in England, Nancy Morris became Scotland's first female rabbi in 2003.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4156/is_20031102/ai_n12585498/ |title=Millionaires, mountaineers and marines; 10 of the best groundbreaking |publisher=Findarticles.com |date=2003-11-02 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2003:''' Rabbi Janet Marder was named the first female president of the Reform Movement's Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR) on March 26, 2003, making her the first woman to lead a major rabbinical organization and the first woman to lead any major Jewish co-ed religious organization in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/thisweek/mar/26/2003/janet-marder |title=Rabbi Janet Marder becomes president of Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR) |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2003-03-26 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2003:''' On February 28, 2003, Dhammananda Bhikkhuni, formerly known as Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, became the first Thai woman to receive full ordination as a Theravada nun.<ref name="thebuddhadharma"/> She was ordained in Sri Lanka.<ref name="bhikkhunis"/>
* '''2004:''' Khenmo Drolma, an American woman, became the first westerner of either sex to be installed as an abbot in the [[Drikung Kagyu]] lineage of Buddhism, being installed as the abbot of the Vajra Dakini Nunnery in Vermont (America's first Buddhist nunnery) in 2004.<ref name="vajradakini"/>
* '''2004:''' [[Barbara Aiello]], born and ordained in the United States, became the first female rabbi in Italy.<ref>{{cite web|author=MJ Rudnick, mjrudnick@mediazoa.com |url=http://rabbibarbara.com/about_us.html |title=About Rabbi Barbara |publisher=Rabbibarbara.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2004:''' In Canada, Yasmin Shadeer led the night 'Isha prayer for a mixed-gender (men as well as women praying and hearing the sermon) congregation.<ref name="enc.slider.com"/> This is the first recorded occasion in modern times where a woman led a congregation in prayer in a mosque.<ref name="enc.slider.com"/>
* '''2005:''' [[The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church]], (LEPC) (GCEPC) in the USA elected Nancy Kinard Drew as its first female Presiding Bishop.
* '''2005:''' Floriane Chinsky, although born in Paris and ordained in Jerusalem, became Belgium's first female rabbi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/28279/brussels-sprouting-belgium-gets-its-first-female-rabbi/ |title=Brussels sprouting: Belgium gets its first female rabbi |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=2006-01-27 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2005:''' Sivan Malkin Maas was ordained in Michigan; she was the first Israeli to be ordained as a rabbi in [[Humanistic Judaism]].<ref>[http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:ef_WMcZ9hMAJ:www.birminghamtemple.com/public_html(old)/pdf/humanist/Humanist-March06.pdf+Sivan+Malkin+Maas&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESirO3fjyd8k0TR0oIMWOjOcEi6qvghzvGRaVUrFxGC_6KQ5kYaWXCAoOGoGF8cySyJopyb2umL_Z16F65_f4amd1sphziyGIPd13jl8jVRIpZ7PhqsRsBJU3GyNlC7KLogQGlKE&sig=AHIEtbQuhIOvXDM2fciHPN4XKhRgTevOHg The Jewish Humanist]</ref>
* '''2005:''' In April 2005, [[Raheel Raza]], born in Pakistan, led Toronto's first woman-led mixed-gender Friday prayer service, delivering the sermon and leading the prayers of the mixed-gender congregation organized by the Muslim Canadian Congress to celebrate Earth Day in the backyard of the downtown Toronto home of activist Tarek Fatah.<ref name="muslimcanadiancongress.org"/>
* '''2005:''' On July 1, 2005, Pamela Taylor, a Muslim convert since 1986, became the first woman to lead Friday prayers in a Canadian mosque, and did so for a congregation of both men and women.<ref name="pluralism.org"/> Pamela Taylor is an American convert to Islam and co-chair of the New York-based Progressive Muslim Union.<ref name="pluralism.org"/> In addition to leading the prayers, Taylor also gave a sermon on the importance of equality among people regardless of gender, race, sexual orientation and disability.<ref name="pluralism.org"/>
* '''2005:''' Elisa Klapheck, born in Germany, became the first female rabbi in the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ejpress.org/article/1937 |title=Female rabbi leads gay shabbat |publisher=Ejpress.org |date=2005-07-28 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2005:''' On March 18, 2005, an American woman named [[Amina Wadud]] (an Islamic studies professor at Virginia Commonwealth University) gave a sermon and led Friday prayers for a Muslim congregation consisting of men as well as women, with no curtain dividing the men and women.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Another woman, Suheyla El-Attar, sounded the call to prayer while not wearing a headscarf at that same event.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> This was done in the Synod House of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York after mosques refused to host the event.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> This was the first time a woman led a mixed-gender Muslim congregation in prayer in American history.<ref name="nytimes.com"/>
* '''2006:''' Susan Wehle became the first American female cantor in Jewish Renewal in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buffalonews.com/city/special-reports/article35672.ece |title=Susan Wehle |publisher=Buffalonews.com |date=2010-08-21 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2006:''' The Episcopal Church elected [[Katharine Jefferts Schori]] as its first female Presiding Bishop, or Primate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/3577_76174_ENG_HTM.htm |title=From Columbus: Episcopal Church elects first woman Presiding Bishop |publisher=Episcopalchurch.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2006:''' [[Merle Kodo Boyd]], born in Texas, became the first African-American woman ever to receive Dharma transmission in Zen Buddhism.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=-kut6gcyTNEC&pg=PA166&lpg=PA166&dq=%22merle+kodo+boyd%22+%22first+black&source=bl&ots=eIfsa9MCDY&sig=ZLgE9pP6rbrM3iPDpBkAujE8mhY&hl=en&ei=LvyKTPLiIsGC8gb0wdCdDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&sqi=2&ved=0CCgQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=merle%20kodo%20boyd&f=false Zen master who?: a guide to the people and stories of Zen] By James Ishmael Ford</ref>
* '''2007:''' The Worldwide Church of God, a denomination with about 860 congregations worldwide, decided to allow women to serve as pastors and elders.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> This decision was reached after several years of study.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
* '''2007:''' The [[14th Dalai Lama|current Dalai Lama]] stated that the next Dalai Lama could possibly be a woman, remarking "If a woman reveals herself as more useful the lama could very well be reincarnated in this form".<ref>{{cite news|last=Spencer |first=Richard |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1571850/Dalai-Lama-says-successor-could-be-a-woman.html |title=Dalai Lama says successor could be a woman |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date=2007-12-07 |accessdate=2010-11-19 |location=London}}</ref>
* '''2007:''' Tanya Segal, born in Russia and ordained in Jerusalem, became the first full-time female rabbi in Poland.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gera |first=Vanessa |url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2008-02-14-poland-female-rabbi_N.htm |title=Poland's first female rabbi hopes to 'bring Jewish life' |publisher=Usatoday.com |date=2008-02-14 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2007:''' Nerva Cot Aguilera became Latin America's first female bishop, as the bishop of the Episcopal Church of Cuba.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.episcopalchurch.org/79425_123406_ENG_HTM.htm |title=Nerva Cot Aguilera, Latin America's first woman bishop, dies at 71 |publisher=Episcopalchurch.org |date=2010-07-11 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2007:''' The synod of the Christian Reformed Church voted 112-70 to allow any Christian Reformed Church congregation that wishes to do so to ordain women as ministers, elders, deacons and/or ministry associates; since 1995, congregations and regional church bodies called "classes" already had the option of ordaining women, and 26 of the 47 classes had exercised it before the vote in June.<ref>{{cite web|author=By: JAMES PRICHARD - Associated Press |url=http://www.nctimes.com/lifestyles/faith-and-values/article_99399c58-32f0-57c9-b857-fa6001c8cb8c.html |title=Christian Reformed Church opens door wider for female ministers |publisher=Nctimes.com |date=2007-11-09 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2007:''' Myokei Caine-Barrett, born and ordained in Japan, became the first female Nichiren priest in her affiliated Nichiren Order of North America.<ref>{{cite web|author=By Zen T.C. Zheng |url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/life/religion/6717424.html |title=Cultivating her faith: Buddhist order's first female priest tends to diverse congregation |publisher=Chron.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2008:''' Mildred "Bonnie" Hines was elected as the first female bishop in the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lasentinel.net/A.M.E.-Zion-Welcomes-First-Female-Bishop.html |title=A.M.E. Zion Welcomes First Female Bishop |publisher=Lasentinel.net |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2008:''' The Rev. Joaquina Filipe Nhanala was elected to oversee the Mozambique area for the United Methodist Church, thus becoming the first female United Methodist bishop in Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?c=lwL4KnN1LtH&b=2789393&ct=5855357 |title=Bishop Yemba re-elected in the Congo |publisher=Umc.org |date=2008-08-27 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2008:''' Kay Goldsworthy became the first female bishop of the Anglican Church in Australia.<ref name="epiphany"/>
* '''2008:''' On 17 October 2008, Amina Wadud, born in the United States, became the first woman to lead a mixed-gender congregation in prayer in the [[United Kingdom]] when she performed the Friday prayers at Oxford's Wolfson College.<ref name="independent.co.uk"/>
* '''2008:''' Rabbi Julie Schonfeld was named the new executive vice president of the Conservative movement's Rabbinical Assembly, becoming the first female rabbi to serve in the chief executive position of an American rabbinical association.<ref>{{cite web|last=Burdick |first=Chris |url=http://www.jta.org/news/article/2009/09/07/1007022/5769-the-year-in-review |title=5769: The year in review |publisher=Jta.org |date=2009-09-07 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2009:''' The first Bhikkhuni ordination in Australia in the Theravada Buddhist tradition was performed in Perth, Australia, on 22 October 2009 at Bodhinyana Monastery. Abbess Vayama together with Venerables Nirodha, Seri, and Hasapanna were ordained as Bhikkhunis by a dual Sangha act of Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis in full accordance with the Pali Vinaya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhammasara.org.au/bhikkhuni-ordination.html |title=Bhikkhuni Ordination |publisher=Dhammasara.org.au |date=2009-10-22 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2009:''' The [[Evangelical Church in Germany]] (EKD) elected [[Margot Käßmann]] as its first female Presiding Bishop, or Primate; she received 132 out of 142 votes. However, she chose to resign in 2010, after she was caught drink driving, although the Council of the EKD judged unanimously that it was not grounds for a resignation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christiantoday.com/article/german.churchs.first.female.protestant.head.resigns/25380.htm |title=German Church's first female Protestant head resigns |publisher=Christiantoday.com |date=2010-02-25 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2009:''' [[Alysa Stanton]], born in Cleveland and ordained by a Reform Jewish seminary in Cincinnati, became the world's first black female rabbi.<ref>{{cite news|last=Draper |first=Electa |url=http://www.denverpost.com/ci_12524456 |title=Colorado woman to be first black female rabbi |publisher=Denverpost.com |date= 2009-06-05|accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2009:''' Lynn Feinberg became the first female rabbi in Norway, where she was born.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thejewishchronicle.net/view/full_story/8110627/article-Norwegian-rabbi--Jewish-Renewal-adherent--to-speak-in-Pittsburgh- |title=Norwegian rabbi, Jewish Renewal adherent, to speak in Pittsburgh |publisher=Thejewishchronicle.net |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Bet Debora |url=http://www.bet-debora.de/2001/jewish-family/feinberg.htm |title=Single Mother in an Orthodox Community |publisher=Bet-debora.de |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2009:''' The Rev Jana Jeruma-Grinberga became Britain's first female bishop, from the Lutheran Church in Great Britain.<ref>{{cite news|last=Beckford |first=Martin |url=http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/martinbeckford/8099587/Britains_first_woman_bishop_to_take_office_this_weekend/ |title=Britain's first woman bishop to take office this weekend |publisher=Blogs.telegraph.co.uk |date=2009-01-14 |accessdate=2010-11-19 |location=London}}</ref>
* '''2009:''' Tannoz Bahremand Foruzanfar, who was born in Iran, became the first Persian woman to be ordained as a cantor in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ajrca.org/alumni/#bahremand |title=Cantor Tannoz Bahremand Foruzanfar |publisher=Ajrca.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ajrca.org/news_051509FIssuePage_4.pdf The Beverly Hills Courier] May 2009</ref>
* '''2009:''' In 2009 Wu Chengzhen became the first female Fangzhang (meaning principal abbot) in Taoism's 1,800-year history after being enthroned at Changchun Temple in Wuhan, capital of Hubei province, in China.<ref name="chinadaily.com.cn"/> Fangzhang is the highest position in a Taoist temple.<ref name="chinadaily.com.cn"/>
* '''2010:''' The [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]] elected [[Irja Askola]] of the [[Diocese of Helsinki]] as its first female bishop.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swedishwire.com/nordic/4858-finland-s-church-elects-first-woman-bishop |title=Finland 's church elects first woman bishop |publisher=Swedishwire.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2010:''' [[Sara Hurwitz]], an Orthodox Jewish woman born in South Africa, was given the title of “rabbah” (sometimes spelled “rabba”), the feminine form of rabbi. In early 2009, she had completed the same coursework and exams required of male rabbinic candidates. The idea of ordaining a woman rabbi is highly controversial in Orthodox Jewish communities, so the title “maharat” was created on her behalf. It was derived from the acronym for “manhiga”, “hilchatit”, “ruchanit” and “toranit”, loosely translating to mean a leader in religious law and spiritual matters. The term, however, did not catch on. As of 2010, Rabbah Sara Hurwitz serves as the Dean of Yeshivat Maharat and serves on the rabbinic staff of the Hebrew Institute of Riverdale in New York.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/thisweek/jan/27/2010/sara-hurwitz |title=Sara Hurwitz adopts the title of Rabbah |publisher=Jwa.org |date=2010-01-27 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2010:''' The International Rabbinic Fellowship, a fellowship of about 150 Orthodox rabbis, adopted a resolution stating that properly trained Orthodox Jewish women should have the opportunity to serve as "teachers of Torah", "persons who can answer questions and provide guidance to both men and women in all areas of Jewish law in which they are well-versed", "clergy who function as pastoral counselors", "spiritual preachers and guides who teach classes and deliver divrei Torah and derashot, in the synagogue and out, both during the week and on Shabbatot and holidays", "spiritual guides and mentors helping arrange and managing life-cycle events such as weddings, bar- and bat-mitzvah celebrations and funerals, while refraining from engaging in those aspects of these events that Halakha does not allow for women to take part in" and "presidents and full members of the boards of synagogues and other Torah institutions"; the resolution does not, however, mention whether these women should or can be ordained or what titles they can hold.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://joshyuter.com/2010/07/06/judaism/jewish-culture/international-rabbinic-fellowship-press-release/ |title=International Rabbinic Fellowship Press Release |publisher=Joshyuter.com |date=2010-07-06 |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref>
* '''2010:''' Alina Treiger, born in Ukraine, became the first female rabbi to be ordained in Germany since World War II (the very first female rabbi ordained in Germany was [[Regina Jonas]], ordained in 1935).<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11692934 Germany's new female rabbi sign of growing Jewish community]</ref>
* '''2010:''' Sandra Kviat became Denmark's first female rabbi; she was ordained in England.<ref>[http://www.dis.dk/news/archive/2010/fall/meet-denmarks-first-female-rabbi/ Meet Denmark's First Female Rabbi]</ref>
* '''2010:''' The first Buddhist nunnery in North America (Vajra Dakini Nunnery in Vermont), offering novice ordination in the Drikung Kagyu lineage of Buddhism, was officially consecrated.<ref name="vajradakini"/>
* '''2010:''' Raheel Raza, born in Pakistan, became the first Muslim-born woman to lead a mixed-gender British congregation through Friday prayers.<ref name="independent1"/>
* '''2010:''' With the October 16, 2010, ordination of Margaret Lee, in the Peoria-based Diocese of Quincy, Illinois, women have been ordained as priests in all 110 dioceses of the Episcopal Church in the United States.<ref name="lastepiscopol"/>

== See also ==
* [[Christian views of women]]
* [[Deaconess]]
* [[Episcopa Theodora]]
* [[Feminist theology]]
* [[List of the first 32 women ordained as Church of England priests]]
* [[List of women priests]]
* [[Mariavite Church]]
* [[Women as theological figures]]
* [[Women in the Bible]]

== Further reading ==

* Canon Law Society of America. ''The Canonical Implications of Ordaining Women to the Permanent Diaconate,'' 1995. ISBN 0-943616-71-9.
* [[J. G. Davies|Davies, J. G.]] "Deacons, Deaconesses, and Minor Orders in the Patristic Period," ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History,'' 1963, v. 14, p. 1-23.
* [[Ute E. Elsen|Elsen, Ute E.]] ''Women Officeholders in Early Christianity: Epigraphical and Literary Studies,'' Liturgical Press, 2000. ISBN 0-8146-5950-0.
* [[Wayne Grudem|Grudem, Wayne]]. ''Evangelical Feminism and Biblical Truth: An Analysis of Over 100 Disputed Questions'', Multnomah Press, 2004. 1-57673-840-X.
* [[Roger Gryson|Gryson, Roger]]. ''The Ministry of Women in the Early Church,'' Liturgical Press, 1976. ISBN 0-8146-0899-X. Translation of: ''Le ministère des femmes dans l'Église ancienne,'' J. Duculot, 1972.
* [[Jean LaPorte|LaPorte, Jean]]. ''The Role of Women in Early Christianity,'' Edwin Mellen Press, 1982. ISBN 0-88946-549-5.
* [[Kevin Madigan|Madigan, Kevin]], and [[Carolyn Osiek]]. ''Ordained Women in the Early Church: A Documentary History,'' Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8018-7932-9.
* [[Aimé Georges Martimort|Martimort, Aimé Georges]], ''Deaconesses: An Historical Study,'' Ignatius Press, 1986, ISBN 0-89870-114-7. Translation of: ''Les Diaconesses: Essai Historique,'' Edizioni Liturgiche, 1982.
* [[Patricia Cox Miller|Miller, Patricia Cox]]. ''Women in Early Christianity: Translations from Greek Texts,'' Catholic University of America Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8132-1417-3.
* [[Pamela Nadell|Nadell, Pamela]]. ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination, 1889–1985,'' Beacon Press, 1998. ISBN 0807036498.
* [[Mary Jo Weaver|Weaver, Mary Jo]]. ''New Catholic Women,'' Harper and Row, 1985, 1986. ISBN 0-253-20993-5.
* [[John Wijngaards|Wijngaards, John]], ''The Ordination of Women in the Catholic Church. Unmasking a Cuckoo's Egg Tradition'', Darton, Longman & Todd, 2001. ISBN ISBN 0-232-52420-3; Continuum, New York, 2001. ISBN 0-8264-1339-0.<ref>[http://www.womenpriests.org/interact/cuckoo1.asp The Ordination of Women in the Catholic Church Unmasking a Cuckoo’s Egg Tradition]</ref>
* [[John Wijngaards|Wijngaards, John]]. ''Women Deacons in the Early Church: Historical Texts and Contemporary Debates,'' Herder & Herder, 2002, 2006. ISBN 0-8245-2393-8.<ref>[http://www.womenpriests.org/interact/deacon.asp NO WOMEN IN HOLY ORDERS? The women deacons of the Early Church ]</ref>
* [[Miriam Winter|Winter, Miriam]]. ''Out of the Depths: The Story of Ludmila Javorova, Ordained Roman Catholic Priest,'' Crossroad General Interest, 2001. ISBN-10: 0824518896 ISBN-13: 978-0824518899
* [[Phyllis Zagano|Zagano, Phyllis]]. ''Holy Saturday: An Argument for the Restoration of the Female Diaconate in the Catholic Church,'' Herder & Herder, 2000. ISBN 978-0-8245-1832-5.
* Zagano, Phyllis. "Catholic Women Deacons: Present Tense," '' Worship'' 77:5 (September 2003) 386-408.

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ordination Of Women}}
[[Category:Christianity and women]]
[[Category:Feminist theology]]
[[Category:Judaism and women]]
[[Category:Ordination of women]]
[[Category:Priestesses]]
[[Category:Women and religion]]

[[de:Frauenordination]]
[[fr:Ordination des femmes]]
[[pl:Kapłaństwo i ordynacja kobiet]]
[[ru:Ординация женщин]]
[[fi:Naispappeus kristillisissä kirkoissa]]

Santosh

2009-07-29T10:22:10Z

122.57.184.195:

'''Sant(h)osh''' is a word of Hindi which means "Satisfaction". It is derived from the Sanskrit [[Santosha]], one of the [[Niyama|niyamas]] of yoga. In Hindu society, it is also used as a name of a male person. It is a very popular name among Hindu. Also written as Santhosh. [[Santoshi Mata|Santoshi]] also means the same and used for female name. Santoshi is also name of a Hindu Goddess.Santosh also has other meaning which is "HAPPINESS".

'''Numerological Meaning'''

People with this name tend to be very warm and nurturing. They are extremely reliable and are often found taking care of others. They have a deep need to try and create harmony in their surroundings. Unfortunately, this can sometimes lead to getting taken advantage of. They can have difficulties saying, "No. " They can be quite successful as a Personal assistant, educator, or caterer to a small business.

'''Santosh'''

santosh is also every indian person in the world, except he just runs really fast, and is often talking to himself several times at once.
{{given-name-stub}}

WHAT THE HELL!
NO FOOL!
WHAT THE HELL!
NO FOOL!
WHAT THE HELL!
NO FOOL!
WHAT THE HELL!
NO FOOL!
WHAT THE HELL!
NO FOOL!
WHAT THE HELL!
NO FOOL!
WHAT THE HELL!
NO FOOL!
WHAT THE HELL!
NO FOOL!

SAntooooooosh