Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

User talk:Ckatz

2009-10-14T18:45:11Z

128.197.210.89: /* Apology for misuse of External Links sections */ new section

''User talk:''Ckatz
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{{User:Ckatz/FAQ}}
{{TOChidden}}

Hello: I have sent you two messages before this but not heard back. As you know, Wiki guidelines require editors to explore differences of editing opinion through the talk page. If there is not sufficient resolve through this method of conversation, third party opinion and conflict of interest protocols are the next step. I would appreciate hearing back from you on this matter to avoid moving to these next levels of problem solving.

I am monitoring the Salt Spring Island site and see that you have edited out a link I added and other links community members have added, but have kept others in place. Can you please share with us your rationale for keeping some sites included and others not? You are keeping commercial vested interest sites in place, so why have you deleted others? Do you have an association with those links you are keeping in place? I would like your insight so that our community website which represents a cross section of Salt Spring Islanders can be listed under external links.

I see you are very active on wikipedia so I assume you are getting my messages. Please take a moment to respond, it would be appreciated.

````slinctank, Suzanne Little, Editorial Manager, www.saltspringcommunity.com —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Slinctank|Slinctank]] ([[User talk:Slinctank|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Slinctank|contribs]]) 17:41, 2 September 2009 (UTC) 

== Our Prattville removal after User:AniMate created the entry ==

On entry 07:41, 17 September 2009, Admin Animate reworked the Prattville Wiki and added the Our Prattville link where it should be under Media. Then on 10:16 of that same day IP Address 76.73.140.26 undid his revision and stated no reason. Then on 11:57 of the same day IP address 98.89.12.105 properly undid that revision and at 13:05 Admin Baseball Bugs calls 98.89.12.105 a spammer and undoes it.

Therefore, if 98.89.12.105 did not create the entry and only undid what 76.73.140.26 undid, all of this refers back to the original poster Admin Animate as the spammer, right? I highly doubt that one of your administrators could be considered a spammer? What in the world is going on here? Please, somebody clarify this for me. Should not Animate's revision stand? Why is it being removed? He said he would do that for us and he did and we thank him for that. Now it is removed...why? Please advise.{{unsigned|Mtp1960}} and associated IP {{unsignedIP|98.89.12.105}}

== I read the guidelines ==

Nowhere did I find information in the external links guide that would lead me to believe that the link I published was inappropriate.

What should be linked:
"Sites that contain neutral and accurate material that cannot be integrated into the Wikipedia article due to copyright issues, amount of detail (such as professional athlete statistics, movie or television credits, interview transcripts, or online textbooks) or other reasons."

Links to be considered:
"Sites which fail to meet criteria for reliable sources yet still contain information about the subject of the article from knowledgeable sources."

The website SkiingtheBackcountry.com is a leading source of information, resources, gear reviews, where to ski and all sorts of other stuff related to ski touring. My understanding is that it's based in Jackson Hole, but I don't even know who is behind it. It's a core site, and I was simply trying to share information, as I said before, about an activity that I love, to the people who are involved in the sport.

Is ski touring something that you care deeply about? If so, have you been to the site I was linking to? And if so, why would you care to remove it? And if you are not interested in ski touring, please leave the page alone.
-MBailey

== Cantinflas ==

Please stop removing information about Cantinflas personal life. He has relatives in Houston Texas and Miami, Florida. I would appreciate if you respect my family from removing this information from my uncle's page. Best regards, Carlo Moreno —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Cjmoreno79|Cjmoreno79]] ([[User talk:Cjmoreno79|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cjmoreno79|contribs]]) 21:26, 8 October 2009 (UTC) 

:The problem lies in the fact that the material is unreferenced. You may say that it is true - and it may well be true - but Wikipedia requires sources that can be verified by readers. If you can provide proof from [[WP:RS|reliable, verifiable sources]], then it would help in allowing the material to remain. --'''[[User:Ckatz|Ckatz]]'''''[[User_talk:Ckatz|chat]][[Special:Contributions/Ckatz|spy]]'' 21:59, 8 October 2009 (UTC)

My word is more than facts cause that is my relative that Wikipedia is reporting. Like I mentioned before THE NAME AND IMAGE OF CANTINFLAS IS PROTECTED BY INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHTS LAWS, WHICH WE HAVE RIGHTS TO AND NO ONE ELSE. If you don't comply I will ask to have my relative's information deleted from this website.

Thank you. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Cjmoreno79|Cjmoreno79]] ([[User talk:Cjmoreno79|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cjmoreno79|contribs]]) 02:37, 13 October 2009 (UTC) 

== [[Jon Gettman]] ==

Hiya. Earlier today you removed all information from the [[Jon Gettman]] article sourced by [[ProCon.org]] (without giving a reason). While it is not the best source, and I did find replacements, I would like to know why you did that, so I can avoid repeating whatever error I made in the future.

Also, one replacement source I found is Gettman's personal resume, which is especially useful as it is the only page where I have found his birth date.[http://katzjustice.com/Gettman2008.pdf] It is apparently hosted on a lawyer's website who has worked with Gettman.[http://katzjustice.com/underdog/archives/1421-Jon-Gettman-on-Marijuana.html] Is this a reliable source?

Thanks, [[User:Mnation2|Mnation2]] ([[User talk:Mnation2|talk]]) 22:54, 10 October 2009 (UTC)

== Your attempts to hide the notable and controversial use of GMC Yukon by self-described "environmentalists" ==

Please stop deleting properly referenced information on the use of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chevrolet_Tahoe&oldid=319416350#Alleged_hypocrisy_by_politicians GMC Yukon] by self-described "environmentalist" politicians such as Congressman [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Wu&oldid=318995866#Environmental_controversy David Wu.] Whether an individual editor likes it or not, the particular automobile model is an integral part of this developing story. Maybe you're unaware that this story is in dozens of newspapers around the country. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/24.187.199.178|24.187.199.178]] ([[User talk:24.187.199.178|talk]]) 13:28, 12 October 2009 (UTC) 

:Actually, you are the one who needs to stop your repeated efforts to add Wu-related material to articles where it does not belong. The ''class' of vehicle is relevant, but the ''make'' is completely irrelevant to the story, as evidenced by the news article you've linked to. (In the ''Times'' article, "SUV" is mentioned four times, in the headline and the first, third and ninth paragraphs, whereas "Yukon" is only a passing mention in paragraph seven.) Note that your terminology ("self-described "environmentalists") strongly suggests a POV on your part, one that cannot form a part of an article. --'''[[User:Ckatz|Ckatz]]'''''[[User_talk:Ckatz|chat]][[Special:Contributions/Ckatz|spy]]'' 14:48, 12 October 2009 (UTC)

::You're being ridiculous. You apparently believe that no one beside me reads the news and believes the matter to be notable, which is not a reasonable assumption since I copied most of the new section from another article ([[David Wu]]) on the day I heard this on the news. The term "self-described environmentalist" is not offensive. It was the most neutral accurate term I could think of. If you believe "self-described environmentalist" in an unacceptable term, why not just replace it with a term you like better? Instead you pretend the term is "vandalism" and necessitates semiprotecting the article. The fact is that two or three or four users apparently agree that this matter is appropriate for this article and you are abusing your administrator authority by calling it "vandalism" (which it is not), refusing to explain yourself (though explicitly asked to do so), and personally semiprotecting the article despite your obvious conflict of interest.
::Per [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:RFUP#Current_requests_for_unprotection], since you are apparently "the protecting admin" I'll state this explicitly to you first: Please unprotect [[Chevrolet Tahoe]]. --[[Special:Contributions/24.187.199.178|24.187.199.178]] ([[User talk:24.187.199.178|talk]]) 19:10, 12 October 2009 (UTC)
::Incidentally, I could add another 50 or 100 articles about the incident which have since been published. It's ignorant to challenge the matter's worthiness to be included. --[[Special:Contributions/24.187.199.178|24.187.199.178]] ([[User talk:24.187.199.178|talk]]) 19:13, 12 October 2009 (UTC)

:::You are more than welcome to open discussion regarding the matter on the article's talk page. However, I would point out that you are making several presumptions in your statements that are not grounded in fact. First and foremost, please do not presume that anyone who does not embrace your perspective on the matter is trying to cover something up, or that they hold an opposing view with regards to Wu. Simply put, an article was being repeatedly changed by IPs whose edits served only to further one and the same purpose, that is to add material only tangentially related to the subject of the article. Secondly, note that no-one is "challenging the matter's worthiness to be included" in the ''Wu'' article, where it belongs. However, the focus of the controversy is not that Wu specifically drives a Yukon, but that ''he'' drives a SUV when making statements about environmental issues. The make of the SUV does not matter; for that matter, the fact he drives an SUV is irrelevant to the ''article'' about SUVs, and as such we don't add details on Wu to that article either. Beyond that, you were repeatedly adding the material despite being advised it was not appropriate to this article, a pattern that was proving disruptive to the article. Hence, semi-protection. If you can achieve consensus to add the material here, it can certainly return - but keep in mind that you would have to convince others that ''this'' abstract reference to a Yukon is more relevant than any other cultural reference to it. --'''[[User:Ckatz|Ckatz]]'''''[[User_talk:Ckatz|chat]][[Special:Contributions/Ckatz|spy]]'' 21:11, 12 October 2009 (UTC)

You're being hypocritical.

I'm the one who has been writing at the article's discussion page. You're ignoring others' request to do that.

You've accused me of "vandalism" when you and I know well that there was no vandalism. Your baseless accusations seem far worse than my innocent use of the term "self-described environmentalist".

I haven't previously accused you or anyone of a "cover up" in this controversy. The act of "hiding" connotes results rather than motives, whereas "cover up" connotes motives. Maybe you do have motives; that would explain certain things, but I'm not making that accusation. Throwing baseless accusations is a sign of intellectual dishonesty.

I'd agree that the make (''GM'') is of lesser importance than the model (''Yukon''), since GM makes many vehicles that do conform to [[David Wu]]'s advocacy of what Americans should be allowed to drive. You are lyingly stating that I've argued to include ''the make'' when I believe readers benefit much more from learning the exact '''''model'''''. Without knowing the model, how could a reader compare its statistics with those Wu has voted for or against?

Another lie: I have not been "repeatedly adding the material". I added it the first time, and restored it once. Your accusations would be more persuasive if they weren't based on lies. --[[Special:Contributions/24.187.199.178|24.187.199.178]] ([[User talk:24.187.199.178|talk]]) 21:41, 12 October 2009 (UTC)

:If you have concerns, discuss them on the article's talk page, so that all editors can participate. As for your actions, I must say that your decision to go through my recent contributions and look for problems with them is an interesting course of action. It may not, however, help you in your desire to appear innocent in all of this. --'''[[User:Ckatz|Ckatz]]'''''[[User_talk:Ckatz|chat]][[Special:Contributions/Ckatz|spy]]'' 21:49, 12 October 2009 (UTC)
You're paranoid, and you're continuing to pretend that I haven't done what I already had and have done what I haven't. You're a bad admin.
By the way, what is your studied alternative to the term you claim is unacceptable: "self-described environmentalist"? If you haven't come up with one by now, it's clear you "blurted" an empty excuse of a criticism. --[[Special:Contributions/24.187.199.178|24.187.199.178]] ([[User talk:24.187.199.178|talk]]) 13:51, 13 October 2009 (UTC)

== Remote goat ==

Hi. I see you've been deleting lots of links to Remote Goat reviews. I'm sure that some of these deletions were justified, but I think some of them might not be. If I explain how the site works, perhaps you'd let me know whether you'd still consider them all to be spam/inappropriate links.

Remote Goat is a bit like IMDb in that any visitor to the site can create an account and post a review of an event. Unquestionably, I think such reviews should be deleted as self-published/personal reviews. However, there are also "official Remote Goat" reviews which are submitted by an official reviewer and edited by he Remote Goat staff before publication. You can tell these reviews from the personal reviews because the review says "by X for remotegoat". Compare this "official" review [http://www.remotegoat.co.uk/review_view.php?uid=1667] with this personal one [http://www.remotegoat.co.uk/review_view.php?uid=3430].

I know remotegoat is not well known, but there are so few sites that review theatre productions, particularly fringe/amateur/local, theatre that it would be a shame to lose this resource which, for the official reviews at least, appears to me to meet the requirements for being a reliable source.

Let me know what you think. [[User:GDallimore|GDallimore]] ([[User talk:GDallimore|Talk]]) 09:15, 13 October 2009 (UTC)

== Apology for misuse of External Links sections ==

I'd like to apologize for my misuse of Wikipedia's External Links sections and my ignorance of the guidelines for including them. I am a student who was hired part time to assist in generating traffic for a publication by distributing their articles to related forums, blogs, and interested parties, and in my efforts I did include relevant links in the External Links sections of relevant Wiki articles. Please be assured that my intention was not to spam or disrupt Wikipedia at all--I love Wikipedia, and I experience and hate spam like any avid Internet user--but to provide interested parties visiting those Wikipedia articles to related quality extra reading or watching material. But after receiving your message and reviewing the Guidelines I understand what I've done was a violation thereof and I will cease immediately. As far as I know, the warning this IP address received should have been the work of only one person (me), so any additional suspicious activity is not the work of my department or publication, and because I am on my university's network, blocking this IP would likely affect many innocent people. Again, I'm very sorry for any trouble I might have caused you or Wikipedia's community in general, and I will cease immediately and let my supervisors know about Wikipedia's guidelines. Thank you! -SN

[[Special:Contributions/128.197.210.89|128.197.210.89]] ([[User talk:128.197.210.89|talk]]) 18:45, 14 October 2009 (UTC)

Citgo

2009-10-14T17:58:03Z

128.197.210.89: /* External links */

{{Infobox_Company
| name = Citgo Petroleum Corporation
| logo = [[File:Citgopyramid.png]] [[File:Citgologo.png]]
| genre = [[Subsidiary]]
| foundation = 1910<ref>http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/C/CI006.html</ref> [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma]]
| location = [[Houston, Texas]]
| key_people = [[Alejandro Granado]], President, CEO & Director
| industry = [[List of petroleum companies|Oil and Gasoline]]
| num_employees = 4,000
| products = [[Petrochemical]]
| revenue = $32.028 billion [[U.S. dollar|USD]] (2004)
| parent = [[Petróleos de Venezuela S.A.]]
| homepage = [http://www.citgo.com/ www.citgo.com]
}}
'''Citgo Petroleum Corporation''' (or '''Citgo''') is a [[United States]]-incorporated, [[Venezuela]]-owned refiner and marketer of [[gasoline]], lubricants, [[petrochemicals]], and other petroleum products.

Citgo has supplied 14,000 [[retailer]]s, but in July 2006 announced plans to cease serving 14% of their independent retailers in the United States.

As of 2004, the company is headquartered in [[Houston, Texas]]<ref>[http://www.carsandracingstuff.com/library/articles/0850.php Citgo Selects Houston, Texas for New Headquarters], by [[Greg Flakus]], accessed on 18 January 2008.</ref>, with over 4,000 [[employee]]s and annual [[revenue]] in excess of $32 billion. Before relocating to Houston, Citgo was headquartered in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]]. (Cities Service Company continued on under various Occidental names as a part of OXY's domestic exploration and production business, but all Cities Service trademarks are now owned by Citgo.)

==History==
===Cities Service Period===
[[File:Cities Service, 425 Grinnell St, Key West, FL.jpg|thumb|250px|Cities Service station in Key West, Florida.]]
The company traces its heritage back to the early 1900s and an oil entrepreneur named [[Henry Latham Doherty]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/168035/Henry-L-Doherty|title=Henry L. Doherty|publisher=Enciclopaedia Britannica|accessdate=2009-03-11}}</ref> After quickly climbing the ladder of success in the manufactured gas and [[electricity|electric]] [[utility]] world, Doherty in 1910 created his own organization, Cities Service Company, to supply gas and electricity to small public utilities. He began by acquiring gas producing properties in the mid-continent and southwest.

The company then developed a [[pipeline transport|pipeline]] system, tapping dozens of [[natural gas field|gas pools]]. To make this gas available to consumers, Doherty moved to acquire distributing companies and tied them into a common source of supply. Cities Service became the first company in the mid-continent to use the slack demand period of summer to refill depleted fields near its market areas. In this way, gas could be conveniently and inexpensively withdrawn during peak demand times. In 1931, Cities Service completed the nation's first long-distance high pressure natural gas transportation system, a 24-inch pipeline stretching some 1,000 miles from [[Amarillo, Texas]], to [[Chicago, Illinois]].

A logical step in the company's program for finding and developing supplies of natural gas was its entry into the oil business. This move was marked by major discoveries at [[Augusta, Kansas]], in 1914, and in El Dorado a year later. In 1928, a Cities Service subsidiary discovered the [[Oklahoma City]] field, one of the world's largest. Another participated in the discovery of the East Texas field, which, in its time, was the most sensational on the globe.

Over three decades, the company sponsored the ''[[Cities Service Concerts]]'' on [[NBC]] radio. The long run of these musical broadcasts were heard on NBC from 1925 to 1956, encompassing a variety of vocalists and musicians. In 1944, it was retitled ''Highways in Melody'', and later the series was known as ''The Cities Service Band of America''. In 1964, the company moved its headquarters from [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma|Bartlesville]], [[Oklahoma]], to [[Tulsa]].

At the height of Cities Service's growth, Congress passed the [[Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935]], which forced the company to divest itself of either its utility operations or its oil and gas holdings. In a difficult decision, Cities Service elected to remain in the petroleum business. The first steps to liquidate investments in its public utilities were taken in 1943 and affected over 250 different utility corporations.

At the same time, the government was nearing completion of a major refinery at Rose Bluff just outside of [[Lake Charles, Louisiana]], that would eventually become the foundation of the company's manufacturing operation. Using designs developed by Cities Service and the Kellogg Co., the plant was dedicated only 18 months after the first concrete was poured. A month before Allied troops landed in [[D-Day|France]], it was turning out enough critically needed 100-[[octane]] [[aviation fuel|aviation gasoline]] to fuel 1,000 daily [[Strategic bombing during World War II|bomber]] sorties from [[England]] to [[Germany]]. Government funding through the [[Defense Plant Corporation]] (DPC) also prompted Cities Service to build plants to manufacture [[butadiene]], used to make [[synthetic rubber]], and [[toluene]], a fuel octane booster and solvent.
[[Image:Citgo-Petrol Station.jpg|thumb|250px|Gas station in Bergen/NY]]
The years that followed saw Cities Service grow into a fully diversified oil and gas company with operations around the world. Its green, expanding circle marketing logo became a familiar sight across much of the nation.

Cities Service Company first inaugurated use of the Citgo brand in 1965 (officially styled "CITGO") for its refining, marketing and retail petroleum businesses (which became known internally as the RMT Division, for Refining, Marketing and Transportation). CITGO continued to be only a trademark, and not a company name, until the 1983 sale of what had been the RMT Division of Cities Service to Southland Corporation. (See following discussion of 1982-83 history.)

===1982-1983: Demise of Cities Service and Birth of Citgo Petroleum Corporation===

In 1982, [[T. Boone Pickens]], founder of [[Mesa Petroleum]], offered to buy Cities Service Company. Citgo responded by offering to buy Mesa, which was the first use of what became known as the "[[Pac-Man]]" take-over defense; i.e., a counter-tender offer initiated by a takeover target. Cities Service also threatened to dissolve itself by incremental sales rather than being taken over by Mesa, stating that it believed that the pieces would sell for more than Pickens was offering for the whole. Cities Service Company located what they thought would be a "white knight" to give them a better deal and entered into a merger agreement with [[Gulf Oil]] Corporation. Late in the Summer of 1982, Gulf Oil terminated the merger agreement claiming that Cities Service's reserve estimates were over-stated. Over fifteen years of litigation resulted. (For a more detailed discussion of the Cities Service vs. Gulf Oil litigation, see the topic of "Demise" under the entry for [[Gulf Oil]].) Ironically, two years later, Gulf Oil itself would collapse as a result of a Pickens initiated takeover attempt; something that might not have happened if Gulf Oil had incurred the debt necessary to conclude the Cities Service deal.

In the chaos that ensued after Gulf Oil's termination of its deal, Cities Service eventually entered into a merger agreement with, and was acquired by, [[Occidental Petroleum Corporation]] - a deal that was closed in the Fall of 1982. That same year, Cities Service Company transferred all of the assets of its Refining, Marketing and Transportation division (which comprised its refining and retail petroleum business) into the newly formed Citgo Petroleum Corporation subsidiary, to ease the divestiture of the division, which Occidental had no interest in retaining. Pursuant to an agreement entered into in 1982, Citgo and the Citgo and Cities Service brands were sold by Occidental in 1983 to [[Southland Corporation]], original owners of the [[7-Eleven]] chain of [[convenience store]]s; 50% of Citgo was then sold to [[Petróleos de Venezuela]] in 1986, and the remainder in 1990, resulting in the current ownership structure.<ref>[http://www.citgo.com/AboutCITGO/CompanyHistory.jsp Company History], by Citgo, accessed on 10 December 2007.</ref>

==Venezuelan controversy==

[[Image:7-11 Citgo message.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sign on a 7-Eleven gas station pump]]On [[September 27]], [[2006]] the [[7-Eleven]] chain of convenience stores announced its 20-year contract with Citgo was coming to an end and would not be renewed. 7-Eleven Spokeswoman Margaret Chabris said "Regardless of politics, we sympathize with many Americans' concern over derogatory comments about our country and its leadership recently made by Venezuela's president. Certainly [[Hugo Chavez|Chavez]]' position and statements over the past year or so didn't tempt us to stay with Citgo."<ref>[http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/20060927/7-eleven-drops-citgo-as-gas-supplier.htm 7-Eleven Drops Citgo As Gas Supplier], ''International Business Times'', September 27, 2006.</ref>
Citgo launched a national ad campaign in the fall of 2006 emphasizing the company's [[corporate social responsibility]]<ref>[http://www.brandweek.com/bw/news/recent_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003314396 Citgo To Gush About Its Charitable Side], [[BrandWeek]], Oct. 25, 2006</ref>. National television ads featuring [[Joseph Patrick Kennedy II|Joe Kennedy]] also aired through February 2007 featuring ordinary Americans thanking Citgo and Venezuela for providing discounted [[heating oil]] to low-income people.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/23/AR2007022302000.html Is Citgo Program for Poor, or for Chávez?], [[Washington Post]], Feb. 24, 2007</ref>

==Refinery locations==
*[[Lake Charles, Louisiana]]
*[[Corpus Christi, Texas]]
*[[Lemont, Illinois]](due to boundary shift no longer in Lemont){{Fact|date=June 2009}}

==Sponsorships==


Citgo was a sponsor of the Wood Brothers racing team in [[NASCAR]] for many years, with drivers such as [[Elliott Sadler]], [[Kyle Petty]], [[Neil Bonnett]], [[Morgan Shepherd]] and [[Dale Jarrett]]. They also sponsored the #99 [[Roush Racing]] team of [[Jeff Burton]] from late 2000 until pulling out of the sport in 2003.

The company sponsored the Citgo [[Pontiac]]-[[Riley]] of Venezuelan [[Milka Duno]] in the [[Rolex Sports Car Series]]. Duno has three overall wins in the Rolex Series and finished second at the 2007 [[24 Hours of Daytona]], becoming the highest-finishing female in the history of the famous race. Midway through the 2007 season, Citgo sponsored the #23 [[SAMAX Motorsport]] entry in the [[IndyCar Series]] for Duno. In 2008 this sponsorship went with Duno to the [[Dreyer & Reinbold Racing]] #23 entry, which she currently shares with [[Townsend Bell]].

Citgo is now a major sponsor of the Bassmaster Fishing Tour, and is also the sponsor of a charity [[golf]] tournament benefiting the [[Muscular Dystrophy Association]] (MDA). The company's relationship with the MDA goes back to its 1983 purchase by Southland, an existing MDA sponsor. Citgo is currently MDA's biggest corporate sponsor, and its executives have appeared on the [[Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon]].<ref>[http://www.mda.org/publications/Quest/q141citgo.html CITGO: On the Road to a Cure], MDA Quest Magazine, Jan./Feb. 2007</ref>

Consistent with its former sponsorship of the Boston Marathon, CITGO has for the past few years sponsored an elite level multisport team that competes in both adventure racing and triathlon events throughout the United States.

==The Boston Citgo sign==
[[Image:Citgo boston.jpg|thumb|left|The Citgo sign, as seen from Lansdowne St., Boston]]

Citgo refers to its logo as the "trimark." A large, double-faced sign featuring this logo overlooks [[Fenway Park]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] and has become a landmark, partly because of its appearance in the background in televised [[baseball]] games. The current 60-foot by 60-foot incarnation, unveiled in March 2005 after a six-month restoration project, features thousands of [[light-emitting diodes]] (LEDs). LEDs were selected for their durability, energy efficiency, intensity, and ease of maintenance. Earlier versions featured [[neon lamp|neon lighting]]; the previous sign contained some 5,878 glass tubes with a total length of over five miles.

The first sign featuring the Cities Service green-and-white [[trefoil]] logo was built in 1940, and was replaced with the trimark in 1965. In 1979 Governor [[Edward J. King]] ordered the sign turned off as an example of [[energy conservation]]. Four years later, Citgo attempted to disassemble the weatherbeaten sign, and was surprised to be met with widespread public affection for the sign and protest at its threatened removal. The Boston Landmarks Commission ordered its disassembly postponed while the issue was debated. While never formally declared a landmark, it was refurbished and relit by Citgo in 1983 and has remained in operation ever since. Neighboring Boston's Fenway Park, the sign has been nicknamed "See It Go," as when a home run is hit during a Red Sox game.

The shutoff and refurbishing was marked by a loss of functionality. The earlier sign had a seemingly endless set of variations in appearance, while the current one runs through a much shorter routine.

The sign was highlighted in the [[short film]] ''Go, Go Citgo'' and the [[movie]] ''[[Field of Dreams]]''. It was also featured in a 1983 ''[[Life Magazine]]'' [[photograph]] feature, as well as a 1987 animated film as [[Kenmore Square]]'s "neon god." The association with Fenway and the [[Boston Red Sox|Red Sox]] is so strong that some local [[Little League Baseball|Little League]] fields often are decorated with replicas of the Citgo sign, as is [[Hadlock Field]] in [[Portland, Maine]], home of the [[Boston Red Sox]]' AA affiliate [[Portland Sea Dogs]]. Citgo installed a similar (albeit smaller) sign high on the glass wall above left field in [[Minute Maid Park]], the home of the [[Houston Astros]]. In 2007, the [[Houston Astros|Astros']] AA affiliate, the [[Corpus Christi Hooks]], installed a 50-foot replica of the Boston sign in their ballpark, [[Whataburger Field]].<ref>http://www.caller.com/news/2007/apr/29/hooks-team-gets-its-own-landmark-citgo-sign/</ref>

A large number of individuals in the United States have become uncomfortable with the prominence of this symbol given that the company is closely associated with Venezuelan president [[Hugo Chavez]].<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2006/09/22/boston_pol_takes_aim_at_citgo_sign_after_devil_comment/ Boston pol takes aim at Citgo sign after 'devil' comment - Boston.com]</ref>

On [[October 15]], [[2008]] the Citgo Sign caught fire, causing about $5,000 in damage.<ref>http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2008/10/omen_citgo_sign.html?p1=Well_MostPop_Emailed3</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of automotive fuel brands|Brands of gasoline]]
*[[PDVSA]]
*On the Oil Lands With Cities Service ([Tulsa, Okla.]: Cities Service Oil and Gas Corporation, 1983) (Company History Publication)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.citgo.com Citgo]
* [http://www.pdvsa.com Petróleos de Venezuela] (Spanish)
* [http://www.gassigns.org/citgo.htm Citgo Logos]
* [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/C/CI006.html Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Cities Service Company]
* Articles from CEOs of Citgo
** [http://www.worldenergysource.com/articles/text/tippeconnic_WE_v3n2.cfm David J. Tippeconnic: The Sustainability of Affordable Fuels in America - World Energy Magazine Vol. 3 No. 1]
** [http://www.worldenergysource.com/articles/text/rodriguez_WE_v8n3.cfm Félix M. Rodríguez: World-Class Reserves, Local Service - World Energy Magazine Vol. 8 No.3]
* [http://www.bu.edu/today/node/9372 Icons Among Us: The CITGO Sign] Article with slideshow

[[Category:Oil companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Automotive fuel brands]]
[[Category:Companies based in Houston, Texas]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1910]]
[[es:Citgo]]
[[fa:سیتگو]]
[[fr:CITGO]]
[[ja:シットゴー]]

Kenmore Square

2009-10-14T17:56:51Z

128.197.210.89: /* External links */

[[File:Kenmore-Square-January-2009.JPG|222px|thumb|left|Winter in Kenmore Square]]
'''Kenmore Square''' is a [[Town square|square]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States]], consisting of the intersection of several main avenues, (including [[Beacon Street]] and [[Commonwealth Avenue, Boston|Commonwealth Avenue]]) as well as several other cross streets, and [[Kenmore (MBTA station)|Kenmore Station]], an [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority|MBTA]] subway stop. Kenmore Square is close to or abuts [[Boston University]], [[Fenway Park]], and Lansdowne Street, a center of Boston nightlife. Kenmore Square is also the eastern terminus of [[U.S. Route 20]], the longest road in the United States.

==History==
[[File:BostonHotelBuckminster.jpg|222px|right|thumb|[[Boston Hotel Buckminster]] at intersection of [[Beacon Street]] and [[Brookline Avenue]]; [[Sovereign Bank]] and [[Pizzeria Uno]] signs also visible.]]
The land that is now Kenmore Square was originally the swampy, uninhabited corner of the mainland, which marked where the narrow [[Charles River]] fed into the wide, marshy [[Back Bay]]. It was part of the colonial settlement of Boston until 1705, when the hamlet of Muddy River incorporated as the independent town of [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]]. The land ended up in Brookline because the Muddy River - several blocks to the east - formed the eastern border of the new city.<ref>See [[:Image:Middlesex Canal (Massachusetts) map, 1852.jpg]] or [http://www.town.brookline.ma.us/gis/maplib/comp1844.pdf 1844 Brookline map]</ref>

Known as Sewell's Point at the time, an 1821 map shows the Great Dam, Brighton Road (Brighton Ave and Commonwealth Ave), and Punch Bowl Road (now Brookline Ave)<ref>http://www.bostonfirehistory.org/historyroxburybefore1868.html</ref> intersecting at Kenmore<ref>http://bostonhistory.typepad.com/.shared/image.html?/photos/uncategorized/milldammap1821smaller.jpg</ref> which was now connected to the mainland to the west, in addition to the southern connection shown in 1777.<ref>http://bostonhistory.typepad.com/.shared/image.html?/photos/uncategorized/2007/03/16/1777bostonmap010numbered_2.jpg</ref>

The portion of [[Beacon Street]] west of Kenmore Square was laid out in 1850, intersecting with Avenue Street (now the Allston portion of Commonwealth Avenue), Mill Dam Road (now Brookline Avenue), and Western Avenue, a road traversing the Back Bay mill dam in approximately the modern location of Beacon Street. The [[Boston and Worcester Rail Road]] and the [[Charles River Branch Rail Road]] combined here to cross the Back Bay on a separate railroad bridge, making a beeline for the Leather District. The railroad lines still exist on more or less their original alignments, with the city developing around them. Minor adjustments have been made for the construction of [[South Station (Boston)|South Station]], what is now the [[Green Line (MBTA)|MBTA Green Line]], and the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]].

The city of [[Brighton, Massachusetts|Brighton]] was merged with Boston in 1874, and the Boston-Brookline line was redrawn to connect the new Back Bay neighborhood with Allston-Brighton.

Even as late as 1880, Kenmore Square was only sparsely developed.<ref>http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/boston_ground_1880.jpg</ref> By 1890, the Back Bay landfill project had reached Kenmore Square, for the first time fully connecting it with parts of the city to the east.
[[Image:Tremont Street Subway.jpg|thumb|200px|right]]
[[Streetcar]] tracks were laid on Beacon Street in 1888, passing through Kenmore Square on the surface, from [[Coolidge Corner]] to [[Massachusetts Avenue]]. These would eventually become the [[Green Line "C" Branch]]. Tracks were laid on what by then was called Commonwealth Avenue in 1896, from Union Square in Brighton. These would later serve the [[Green Line "A" Branch]] and [[Green Line "B" Branch]]. The [[Boylston Street Subway]] was extended to Kenmore Square in 1914, where it rose above ground. In 1932, the Kenmore Square portion of the Green Line was put underground, and branch portals opened at Blandford and St. Mary's Streets.

In 1915, the Kenmore Apartments were built on the corner of Kenmore and Commonwealth Avenue. Later, the apartments became the Hotel Kenmore with 400 guest rooms. The Kenmore was owned by Bertram Druker, a prominent Boston developer and was known as the baseball hotel. It housed every one of the 14 teams after the war. When larger hotels like the Sheraton were built, the Hotel Kenmore started to show its age and eventually became apartments again. It is now called Kenmore Abbey.

==The Citgo sign==
A large, double-faced sign featuring the logo of oil company [[Citgo]] overlooks Kenmore Square, and has become a famous landmark, partly because of its appearance in the background of televised [[Boston Red Sox|Red Sox]] [[baseball]] games. The current {{convert|60|ft|m|sing=on}} by {{convert|60|ft|m|sing=on}} incarnation, unveiled in March 2005 after a six-month restoration project, features thousands of [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) that turn off at 1:00 AM. LEDs were selected for their durability, energy efficiency, intensity, and ease of maintenance. Earlier versions featured [[neon lamp|neon lighting]]; the previous sign contained some 5,878 glass tubes with a total length of over 5 miles (8 km).<ref>[http://www.citgo.com/AboutCITGO/SignFacts.jsp Citgo Sign Facts]</ref> [[Citgo]], which is a subsidiary of [[Petróleos de Venezuela S.A.]], refers to its logo as the "trimark".

The first sign, featuring the Cities Service logo, was built in 1940, and replaced with the trimark in 1965. In 1979, Governor [[Edward J. King]] ordered it turned off as a symbol of [[energy conservation]]. Four years later, Citgo attempted to disassemble the weatherbeaten sign, and was surprised to be met with widespread public affection for the sign and protest at its threatened removal. The Boston Landmarks Commission ordered its disassembly postponed while the issue was debated. While never formally given landmark status, it was refurbished and relit by Citgo in 1983 and has remained in operation ever since. In 2005, during a major renovation, the neon lights of the Citgo sign were removed and replaced with a [[light-emitting diode]] display.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kenmore Sq. sign gets high-tech makeover |publisher=[[The Boston Globe]] |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2005/03/16/kenmore_sq_sign_gets_high_tech_makeover/ |date=2005-03-16 |accessdate=2006-09-24}}</ref>

Although there was, originally, a Cities Service station on the ground floor of the building, there is no associated Citgo gas station—the sign is now a historical landmark, visible over the left field wall of Fenway Park during most televised [[Boston Red Sox]] games. It was highlighted in the 1968 [[short subject|short film]] ''Go, Go Citgo'' and a 1983 ''[[Life Magazine]]'' [[photograph]] feature. The association with Fenway and the [[Boston Red Sox|Red Sox]] is so strong that local [[little league]] fields often are decorated with replicas of the Citgo sign, as is [[Hadlock Field]] in [[Portland, Maine]]. The sign is caricatured in [[Neal Stephenson]]'s 1984 book ''[[The Big U]]'' as "the Big Wheel sign", worshipped by members of a fictional American Megaversity fraternity.

In September 2006, Jerry McDermott, a Boston [[city councillor]], proposed that the sign be removed in response to [[List of Presidents of Venezuela|Venezuelan President]] [[Hugo Chávez]]'s insults toward [[President of the United States|American President]] [[George W. Bush]]. McDermott also suggested draping an [[American flag]] or Boston Red Sox banner over the sign until Chávez is out of office.<ref>{{cite news |title=Boston Official Wants Citgo Sign Removed |publisher=Turnto10 |url=http://www.turnto10.com/news/9911363/detail.html |date=2006-08-22 |accessdate=2006-09-24}}</ref>

On October 15, 2008, a small electrical fire inside the sign caused approximately $5,000 worth of damage, partially melting the plastic and leaving visible smoke damage.<ref>{{cite news |title=Omen? Citgo sign burns in small fire |publisher=[[The Boston Globe]] |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2008/10/omen_citgo_sign.html |date=2008-10-15 |accessdate=2008-10-15}}</ref>
<gallery heights="150" perrow="5">
Image:Citgo boston.jpg|Citgo sign
Image:Citgo Sign Profile.JPG|Profile view revealing inner steel skeleton
Image:Citgo sign and Yawkey way.jpg|Citgo sign viewed from the end of [[Yawkey Way]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Boston University]]
* [[Fenway-Kenmore]]
* [[Grahm Junior College]]
* [[Shell Oil Company "Spectacular" Sign]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.bostonsquares.com/kenmore bostonsquares.com - Boston Squares Guide ] Guide to restaurants, bars and shops in Kenmore Square
*[http://www.bu.edu/today/node/9372 Icons Among Us: The CITGO Sign] Article with slideshow

{{coord|42.348712|-71.095619|type:city_region:US|format=dms|display=title}}
{{Streets and squares in Boston}}

[[Category:Squares in Boston, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:U.S. Route 20]]

Kenmore Square

2009-10-14T17:56:27Z

128.197.210.89: /* External links */

[[File:Kenmore-Square-January-2009.JPG|222px|thumb|left|Winter in Kenmore Square]]
'''Kenmore Square''' is a [[Town square|square]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States]], consisting of the intersection of several main avenues, (including [[Beacon Street]] and [[Commonwealth Avenue, Boston|Commonwealth Avenue]]) as well as several other cross streets, and [[Kenmore (MBTA station)|Kenmore Station]], an [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority|MBTA]] subway stop. Kenmore Square is close to or abuts [[Boston University]], [[Fenway Park]], and Lansdowne Street, a center of Boston nightlife. Kenmore Square is also the eastern terminus of [[U.S. Route 20]], the longest road in the United States.

==History==
[[File:BostonHotelBuckminster.jpg|222px|right|thumb|[[Boston Hotel Buckminster]] at intersection of [[Beacon Street]] and [[Brookline Avenue]]; [[Sovereign Bank]] and [[Pizzeria Uno]] signs also visible.]]
The land that is now Kenmore Square was originally the swampy, uninhabited corner of the mainland, which marked where the narrow [[Charles River]] fed into the wide, marshy [[Back Bay]]. It was part of the colonial settlement of Boston until 1705, when the hamlet of Muddy River incorporated as the independent town of [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]]. The land ended up in Brookline because the Muddy River - several blocks to the east - formed the eastern border of the new city.<ref>See [[:Image:Middlesex Canal (Massachusetts) map, 1852.jpg]] or [http://www.town.brookline.ma.us/gis/maplib/comp1844.pdf 1844 Brookline map]</ref>

Known as Sewell's Point at the time, an 1821 map shows the Great Dam, Brighton Road (Brighton Ave and Commonwealth Ave), and Punch Bowl Road (now Brookline Ave)<ref>http://www.bostonfirehistory.org/historyroxburybefore1868.html</ref> intersecting at Kenmore<ref>http://bostonhistory.typepad.com/.shared/image.html?/photos/uncategorized/milldammap1821smaller.jpg</ref> which was now connected to the mainland to the west, in addition to the southern connection shown in 1777.<ref>http://bostonhistory.typepad.com/.shared/image.html?/photos/uncategorized/2007/03/16/1777bostonmap010numbered_2.jpg</ref>

The portion of [[Beacon Street]] west of Kenmore Square was laid out in 1850, intersecting with Avenue Street (now the Allston portion of Commonwealth Avenue), Mill Dam Road (now Brookline Avenue), and Western Avenue, a road traversing the Back Bay mill dam in approximately the modern location of Beacon Street. The [[Boston and Worcester Rail Road]] and the [[Charles River Branch Rail Road]] combined here to cross the Back Bay on a separate railroad bridge, making a beeline for the Leather District. The railroad lines still exist on more or less their original alignments, with the city developing around them. Minor adjustments have been made for the construction of [[South Station (Boston)|South Station]], what is now the [[Green Line (MBTA)|MBTA Green Line]], and the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]].

The city of [[Brighton, Massachusetts|Brighton]] was merged with Boston in 1874, and the Boston-Brookline line was redrawn to connect the new Back Bay neighborhood with Allston-Brighton.

Even as late as 1880, Kenmore Square was only sparsely developed.<ref>http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/boston_ground_1880.jpg</ref> By 1890, the Back Bay landfill project had reached Kenmore Square, for the first time fully connecting it with parts of the city to the east.
[[Image:Tremont Street Subway.jpg|thumb|200px|right]]
[[Streetcar]] tracks were laid on Beacon Street in 1888, passing through Kenmore Square on the surface, from [[Coolidge Corner]] to [[Massachusetts Avenue]]. These would eventually become the [[Green Line "C" Branch]]. Tracks were laid on what by then was called Commonwealth Avenue in 1896, from Union Square in Brighton. These would later serve the [[Green Line "A" Branch]] and [[Green Line "B" Branch]]. The [[Boylston Street Subway]] was extended to Kenmore Square in 1914, where it rose above ground. In 1932, the Kenmore Square portion of the Green Line was put underground, and branch portals opened at Blandford and St. Mary's Streets.

In 1915, the Kenmore Apartments were built on the corner of Kenmore and Commonwealth Avenue. Later, the apartments became the Hotel Kenmore with 400 guest rooms. The Kenmore was owned by Bertram Druker, a prominent Boston developer and was known as the baseball hotel. It housed every one of the 14 teams after the war. When larger hotels like the Sheraton were built, the Hotel Kenmore started to show its age and eventually became apartments again. It is now called Kenmore Abbey.

==The Citgo sign==
A large, double-faced sign featuring the logo of oil company [[Citgo]] overlooks Kenmore Square, and has become a famous landmark, partly because of its appearance in the background of televised [[Boston Red Sox|Red Sox]] [[baseball]] games. The current {{convert|60|ft|m|sing=on}} by {{convert|60|ft|m|sing=on}} incarnation, unveiled in March 2005 after a six-month restoration project, features thousands of [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) that turn off at 1:00 AM. LEDs were selected for their durability, energy efficiency, intensity, and ease of maintenance. Earlier versions featured [[neon lamp|neon lighting]]; the previous sign contained some 5,878 glass tubes with a total length of over 5 miles (8 km).<ref>[http://www.citgo.com/AboutCITGO/SignFacts.jsp Citgo Sign Facts]</ref> [[Citgo]], which is a subsidiary of [[Petróleos de Venezuela S.A.]], refers to its logo as the "trimark".

The first sign, featuring the Cities Service logo, was built in 1940, and replaced with the trimark in 1965. In 1979, Governor [[Edward J. King]] ordered it turned off as a symbol of [[energy conservation]]. Four years later, Citgo attempted to disassemble the weatherbeaten sign, and was surprised to be met with widespread public affection for the sign and protest at its threatened removal. The Boston Landmarks Commission ordered its disassembly postponed while the issue was debated. While never formally given landmark status, it was refurbished and relit by Citgo in 1983 and has remained in operation ever since. In 2005, during a major renovation, the neon lights of the Citgo sign were removed and replaced with a [[light-emitting diode]] display.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kenmore Sq. sign gets high-tech makeover |publisher=[[The Boston Globe]] |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2005/03/16/kenmore_sq_sign_gets_high_tech_makeover/ |date=2005-03-16 |accessdate=2006-09-24}}</ref>

Although there was, originally, a Cities Service station on the ground floor of the building, there is no associated Citgo gas station—the sign is now a historical landmark, visible over the left field wall of Fenway Park during most televised [[Boston Red Sox]] games. It was highlighted in the 1968 [[short subject|short film]] ''Go, Go Citgo'' and a 1983 ''[[Life Magazine]]'' [[photograph]] feature. The association with Fenway and the [[Boston Red Sox|Red Sox]] is so strong that local [[little league]] fields often are decorated with replicas of the Citgo sign, as is [[Hadlock Field]] in [[Portland, Maine]]. The sign is caricatured in [[Neal Stephenson]]'s 1984 book ''[[The Big U]]'' as "the Big Wheel sign", worshipped by members of a fictional American Megaversity fraternity.

In September 2006, Jerry McDermott, a Boston [[city councillor]], proposed that the sign be removed in response to [[List of Presidents of Venezuela|Venezuelan President]] [[Hugo Chávez]]'s insults toward [[President of the United States|American President]] [[George W. Bush]]. McDermott also suggested draping an [[American flag]] or Boston Red Sox banner over the sign until Chávez is out of office.<ref>{{cite news |title=Boston Official Wants Citgo Sign Removed |publisher=Turnto10 |url=http://www.turnto10.com/news/9911363/detail.html |date=2006-08-22 |accessdate=2006-09-24}}</ref>

On October 15, 2008, a small electrical fire inside the sign caused approximately $5,000 worth of damage, partially melting the plastic and leaving visible smoke damage.<ref>{{cite news |title=Omen? Citgo sign burns in small fire |publisher=[[The Boston Globe]] |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2008/10/omen_citgo_sign.html |date=2008-10-15 |accessdate=2008-10-15}}</ref>
<gallery heights="150" perrow="5">
Image:Citgo boston.jpg|Citgo sign
Image:Citgo Sign Profile.JPG|Profile view revealing inner steel skeleton
Image:Citgo sign and Yawkey way.jpg|Citgo sign viewed from the end of [[Yawkey Way]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Boston University]]
* [[Fenway-Kenmore]]
* [[Grahm Junior College]]
* [[Shell Oil Company "Spectacular" Sign]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.bostonsquares.com/kenmore bostonsquares.com - Boston Squares Guide ] Guide to restaurants, bars and shops in Kenmore Square
*[http://www.bu.edu/today/node/9372 - Icons Among Us: The CITGO Sign] Article with slideshow

{{coord|42.348712|-71.095619|type:city_region:US|format=dms|display=title}}
{{Streets and squares in Boston}}

[[Category:Squares in Boston, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:U.S. Route 20]]

Hungarian literature

2009-09-25T16:21:09Z

128.197.210.89: /* Specific sources */

'''Hungarian literature''' is literature written in the [[Hungarian language]], predominantly by [[Hungary|Hungarians]]. Hungarian literature may also include literature written in another language than Hungarian (mostly Latin) which is significant due to its Hungary-related topic or if it includes fragments in Hungarian. While virtually unknown in the [[Anglosphere]] for centuries, Hungary's literature gained renown by the end of the 20th century thanks to a new wave of internationally accessible writers like [[Antal Szerb]], [[Sándor Márai]], [[Imre Kertész]] and [[Magda Szabó]].

==Middle Ages and before==
[[Image:Ohlm original.jpg|100px|right|thumb|The oldest survivng Hungarian poem, [[Old Hungarian 'Lamentations of Mary'|Old Hungarian Laments of Mary]]]]
[[Image:Képes Krónika 1360.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Chronicon Pictum]]]]
[[Image:Gesta Hungarorum Anonymous.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Gesta Hungarorum]]]]
The beginning of the history of Hungarian language as such (and so the proto-Hungarian period) is set to 1000 B.C., when – according to current scientific understanding – it separated from its closest relatives, the [[Ugric languages|Ob-Ugric languages]].

In the earliest times Hungarian language was written in a [[Old Hungarian script|runic-like script]] (although it was not used for literature purposes in the modern interpretation). The country switched to the [[Latin alphabet]] after being Christianized under the reign of [[Stephen I of Hungary|Stephen I]] (1000–1038). There are no existing documents from the pre-11th century era.

The Old Hungarian counted from 896 A.D., when the Hungarians occupied the [[Carpathian Basin]], settled down and started to build their own state. Not long after followed the creation of the first written extant records.

The oldest written record in Hungarian is a fragment in the founding document of the Abbey of [[Tihany]] (1055) which contains several Hungarian terms, among them the words ''feheruuaru rea meneh hodu utu rea'', "up the military road to [[Székesfehérvár|Fehérvár]]" (referring to the place where the abbey was built). (This text is probably to be read as ''Fehérü váru reá meneü hodu utu reá'' with today's spelling and it would sound as ''a Fehérvárra menő had[i] útra'' in today's Hungarian.) The rest of the document was written in Latin.

The oldest complete text is the [[Funeral Sermon and Prayer]] ''(Halotti beszéd és könyörgés)'' (1192–1195), a translation of a [[Latin]] [[sermon]]. (See also [[Funerary text]] and the links below.)

The oldest poem is the [[Old Hungarian 'Lamentations of Mary'|Old Hungarian Laments of Mary]] ''(Ómagyar Mária-siralom)'', also a (not very strict) translation from Latin, from the 13th century. It is also the oldest surviving [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] poem.

Both the ''Funeral Sermon'' and the ''Lamentations'' are hard to read and not quite comprehensible for modern-day Hungarians, mostly because the 26-letter Latin alphabet was not fit to represent all the sounds in Hungarian language, as diacritic marks and double letters had not been developed yet.

During the Middle Ages and well into the Renaissace the language of writing was mostly Latin. Important Latin-language documents include the ''[[Admonitions of St. Stephen]],'' which includes the king's admonitions to his son, [[Emeric of Hungary (saint)|Prince Imre]].

Among the first chronicles about Hungarian history were [[Gesta Hungarorum]] ("Deeds of the Hungarians") by the unknown author usually called ''Anonymus'', and [[Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum]] ("Deeds of the Huns and the Hungarians") by Simon Kézai. Both are in Latin. These chronicles mix history with legends, so historically they are not always authentic. Another chronicle is the ''Képes krónika'' (Illustrated Chronicle), which was written for [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis the Great]].

==Renaissance and Baroque==

Renaissance literature flourished under the reign of [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary|King Matthias]] (1458–1490). [[Janus Pannonius]], although wrote in Latin, counts as one of the most important persons in Hungarian literature, being the only significant Hungarian Humanist poet of the period. The first printing house was also founded during Matthias' reign, by [[András Hess]], in Buda. The first book printed in Hungary was the ''Chronica Hungarorum''.

In the 1526 most of Hungary fell under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] occupation, which date is where the beginning of Middle Hungarian Period is set, in connection with various cultural changes.

The most important poets of the period was [[Bálint Balassi]] (1554–1594) and [[Nikola Zrinski|Miklós Zrínyi]] (1620–1664). Balassi's poetry shows Mediaeval influences, his poems can be divided into three sections: love poems, war poems and religious poems. Zrínyi's most significant work, the epic ''[[Peril of Sziget|Szigeti veszedelem]]'' ("[[Peril of Sziget]]", written in 1648/49) is written in a fashion similar to ''[[The Iliad]]'', and recounts the heroic [[Battle of Szigetvár]], where his great-grandfather died while defending the castle of Szigetvár.
[[Image:Heltai chronica.jpg|right|thumb|220px|The cover of a Hungarian book from the time: [[Gáspár Heltai]]'s "Chronicle about the affairs of the [[Magyars]]"]]
Among the religious literary works the most important is the [[Bible]] translation by [[Gáspár Károli]], the [[Protestant]] pastor of [[Gönc]], in 1590. The translation is called the ''Bible of Vizsoly'', after the town where it was first published. (See [[Bible translations#Hungarian Translation|Hungarian Bible translations]] for more details.) Another important religious work is the ''[[Legend of Saint Margaret]]'', copied by [[Lea Ráskai]] around 1510 from an earlier work that didn't survive.
{{Sectstub|date=May 2008}}

==Enlightenment and the language reform==
The Hungarian enlightenment delayed about fifty years compared to the Western European enlightenment. The new thoughts arrived to Hungary across [[Vienna]]. The first enlightened writers were [[Maria Theresia]]'s bodyguards ([[György Bessenyei]], [[János Batsányi]] and so on). The greatest poets of the time was [[Mihály Csokonai Vitéz]] and [[Dániel Berzsenyi]].

The greatest figure of the language reform was [[Ferenc Kazinczy]]. The [[Hungarian language]] became feasible for scientific explanations this time, farther a lot of new words were coined for describing new inventions (for example, ''mozdony'', which means locomotive. Previously the term ''lokomotív'' was used.)
{{Sectstub|date=May 2008}}

==Romanticism and Reform period==
{{Sectstub|date=May 2008}}

==20th century==
{{Sectstub|date=May 2008}}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Endre Ady.jpg|[[Endre Ady]]
Image:Barabas-arany.jpg|[[János Arany]]
Image:rippl-babits.jpg|[[Mihály Babits]]
Image:Balassi Bálint költő.jpg|[[Bálint Balassi]]
Image:Donát Berzsenyi.jpg|[[Dániel Berzsenyi]]
Image:Csokonai portre.jpg|[[Mihály Csokonai Vitéz]]
Image:Barabas-eotvos.jpg|[[József Eötvös]]
Image:Geza gardonyi.jpg|[[Géza Gárdonyi]]
Image:Mor Jokai.jpg|[[Mór Jókai]]

Image:Kaffka_Margit.jpg|[[Margit Kaffka]]
Image:Katona József Szeged.jpg|[[József Katona]]
Image:Kazinczy.jpg|[[Ferenc Kazinczy]]
Image:Kemény Zsigmond.jpg|[[Zsigmond Kemény]]

Image:Kisfaludy Károly szobra.jpg|[[Károly Kisfaludy]]
Image:Kolcsey ferenc.jpg|[[Ferenc Kölcsey]]
Image:Madachimre.jpg|[[Imre Madách]]
Image:Márai-socha2.jpg|[[Sándor Márai]]
Image:Ferenc Molnár 1941.jpg|[[Ferenc Molnár]]
Image:Rippl-moricz.jpg|[[Zsigmond Móricz]]
Image:pazmany.jpg|[[Péter Pázmány]]
Image:Petofi Sandor.jpg|[[Sándor Petőfi]]
Image:Radnoti1.jpg|[[Miklós Radnóti]]
Image:Rippl-szabo.jpg|[[Lőrinc Szabó]]
Image:Árpád Tóth.jpg|[[Árpád Tóth]]
Image:Vorosmarty Mihály.jpg|[[Mihály Vörösmarty]]
Image:Nicholas_Zrinski.jpg|[[Nikola Zrinski|Miklós Zrínyi]]
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[List of Hungarian writers]], [[:Category:Hungarian writers]]
*[[:Category:Hungarian poets]]
*[[:Category:Hungarian novelists]]
*[[:Category:Hungarian journalists]]

==External links==
===General===
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/02000/02042/html/index.html A History of Hungarian Literature (From the Earliest Times to the mid-1970s) by Lóránt Czigány]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/00000/00017/ Albert Tezla: Hungarian authors – A bibliographical handbook]
* [http://www.ssees.ac.uk/abondolo.htm An overview of Hungarian literature by Daniel Abondolo]
* [http://www.ssees.ac.uk/bahees.htm A brefer view, from the 'same' source]
* [http://www.magyarorszag.hu/angol/orszaginfo/kultura/irodalom Hungarian literature]
*János Kőbányai,[http://www.acheret.co.il/en/?cmd=sections.231&act=read&id=1310 Sándor Márai: a smoldering within],[http://www.acheret.co.il/en "Eretz Acheret"]Magazine
summarized at the administrative website of Hungary
* [http://www.hlo.hu/ Hungarian Literature Online]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/html/vgi/kereses/keresesujt.phtml The Hungarian Electronic Library]
* [http://translations.bookfinder.hu/indexa.htm Database for translations of Hungarian literary works]
* [http://www.hungarianbookfoundation.hu/Html/Hunagrian_authors.htm Selected bibliographies of important Hungarian authors]

===Specific sources===
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01955/html/index282.html Funeral Oration and Prayer]
* [http://users.tpg.com.au/etr/oldhu/halotti.html Sermon above the grave or the Funeral Oration]
* [http://www.brindin.com/pwpoth.htm#hungarian Hungarian poems in English]
* [http://www.bu.edu/phpbin/buniverse/videos/view/?id=328 Reading by Attila Bartis from ''Tranquility''] April 7, 2009

===Literary chapters from the ''Encyclopaedia Humana Hungarica'' (1–5)===
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01993/html/index3.html The Remains of Oral Tradition; The Beginning of Literacy (from the beginnings till 1038)]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01955/html/index3.html The External Conditions of Literature; The Characteristics of the Contents of Literature; The Authors; The Works (1038-1301)]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01949/html/index3.html The Level of Education; Authors, Genres, Works (1301-1437)]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01919/html/index3.html Hungarian Literature; Latin Literature; Humanist Literature (1437-1526)]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index3.html Hungarian Literature; Turkish Literature (1526-1699)]
* (The English translation of volumes 6 to 9 are in preparation.)

{{Hungarian literature}}

[[Category:Hungarian literature|*]]

[[ca:literatura hongaresa]]
[[de:Ungarische Literatur]]
[[et:Ungari kirjandus]]
[[es:Literatura de Hungría]]
[[eu:Hungarierazko literatura]]
[[fr:Littérature hongroise]]
[[it:Letteratura ungherese]]
[[hu:Magyar irodalom]]
[[pl:Literatura węgierska]]
[[ru:Венгерская литература]]

List of Hungarian writers

2009-09-25T16:10:43Z

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==A==
*[[Emil Ábrányi]] (1850–1920)
*[[Ignác Acsády]] (1845–1904)
*[[Tamás Aczél]] (1921–1994)
*[[István Ágh]] (1938–)
*[[László Amade]] (1703–1764)
*[[Endre Ady]] (1877–1919)
*[[Zoltán Ambrus]] (1861–1932)
*[[Sándor András]] (1934–)
*[[Anonymus]] (11-12th century)
*[[Pál István Ányos]] (1756–1784)
*[[Ignác Acsády]] (1845–1904)
*[[Csere János Apáczai]] (1625–1659)
*[[Péter Apor]] (1676–1752)
*[[Lajos Áprily]] (1887–1965)
*[[János Arany]] (1817–1882)
*[[László Arany]] (1844–1898)
*[[János Asbóth]] (1845–1911)

==B==
*[[Mihály Babits]] (1883–1941)
*[[József Bajza]]
*[[József Bakucz]] (1929–1990)
*[[Bálint Balassi]] (1554–1594)
*[[Béla Balázs]] (1884–1949)
*[[Zsófia Balla]]
*[[Miklós Bánffy]] (1873–1950)
*[[Károly Bari]]
*[[Attila Bartis]]
*[[Pál Békés]]
*[[Ádám Bodor]]
*[[Gyula Böszörményi]]
*[[János Batsányi]] (1763–1845)
*[[Pál Békés]]
*[[István Bella]]
*[[Elek Benedek]]
*[[József Berda]]
*[[Mária Berde]]
*[[Dániel Berzsenyi]] (1776–1836)
*[[György Bessenyei]] (1747–1811)
*[[Kata Bethlen]] (1700–1759)
*[[Miklós Bethlen]] (1642–1716)
*[[Laszlo Z. Bito]] (1934-)
*[[Ádám Bodor]] (1936–)
*[[Péter Bornemisza]] (1535–1584)
*[[Gyula Böszörményi]]
*[[Sándor Bródy]] (1863–1924)

==C==
*[[László Cs. Szabó]] (1905–1984)
*[[László Cholnoky]] (1879–1929)
*[[Viktor Cholnoky]] (1868–1912)
*[[Géza Csáth]] (1887–1919)
*[[Kálmán Csathó]]
*[[Tamás Cseh]]
*[[Gergely Csiky]]
*[[Mihály Csokonai Vitéz]] (1773–1805)
*[[Sándor Csoóri]]
*[[Győző Csorba]]
*[[István Csukás]]

==D, E, F==
*[[Sándor Dallos]]
*[[György Dalos]] (1943–)
*[[József Darvas]]
*[[László Darvasi]]
*[[András Dékány]]
*[[Tibor Déry]] (1894–1977)
*[[Gábor Devecseri]] (1917-1971)
*[[András Dugonics]] (1740–1818)
*[[Jenő Dsida]] (1907–1938)
*[[István Eörsi]] (1931–2005)
*[[József Eötvös]] (1813–1871)
*[[Károly Eötvös]]
*[[József Erdélyi]]
*[[Renée Erdős]]
*[[Péter Esterházy]] (1950–)
*[[Vavyan Fable]]
*[[Ferenc Faludi]] (1704–1779)
*[[György Faludy]] (1910–2006)
*[[Ladislas Farago]] (1906–1980)
*[[Jenő Farkass]] (1896–1951)
*[[Mihály Fazekas]] (1766–1828)
*[[András Fáy]] (1786–1864)
*[[Géza Féja]]
*[[Endre Fejes]]
*[[Klára Fehér]]
*[[István Fekete]] (1900–1970)
*[[Miksa Fenyő]] (1877–1972)
*[[András Fodor]]
*[[Sándor Fodor]]
*[[András Forgách]]
*[[Jolán Földes]]
*[[Milán Füst]] (1888–1967)

==G==
*[[Judit G. Szabó]]
*[[Erzsébet Galgóczi]] (1930–1989)
*[[László Garaczi]]
*[[Géza Gárdonyi]] (1863–1922)
*[[János Garay]]
*[[Loránd Gáspár]] (1925–)
*[[István Géher]]
*[[Andor Endre Gelléri]]
*[[Oszkár Gellért]]
*[[Attila Gérecz]]
*[[Albert Gergei]] (16th c.)
*[[Ágnes Gergely]]
*[[Márton Gerlóczy]] (1981–)
*[[Nándor Gion]] (1941–2002)
*[[Gábor Görgey]]
*[[Lajos Grendel]] (1948–)
*[[Irén Gulácsy]]
*[[Albert Gyergyai]] (1893–1981)
*[[István Gyöngyösi]]
*[[Elek Gozsdu]] (1849–1919)
*[[Krisztián Grecsó]]
*[[Géza Gyóni]] (1884–1917)
*[[Balázs Györe]] (1954–)
*[[Pál Gyulai]] (1826–1909)

==H, I, J==
*[[Anna Hajnal]]
*[[Péter Hajnóczy]] (1942–1981)
*[[Béla Hamvas]]
*[[Győző Határ]] (Victor Hatar) (1914–2006)
*[[Géza Hegedűs]]
*[[Gáspár Heltai]]
*[[Jenő Heltai]]
*[[Ferenc Herczeg]] (1863–1954)
*[[Gyula Hernádi]]
*[[Gizella Hervay]]
*[[András Hevesi]] (1902–1940)
*[[Elemér Horváth]] (1933–)
*[[János Horváth]] (1878–1953)
*[[Miklós Hubay]] (1918–)
*[[Sándor Hunyady]] (1890–1942)
*[[Rózsa Ignácz]]
*[[Ignotus]]
*[[Endre Illés]]
*[[Gyula Illyés]] (1902–1983)
*[[Éva Janikovszky]]
*[[Ferenc Jankovich]]
*[[Zoltán Jékely]]
*[[Anna Jókai]]
*[[Mór Jókai]] (1825–1904)
*[[Miklós Jósika]] (1794–1865)
*[[Attila József]] (1905–1937)
*[[Ferenc Juhász (poet)|Ferenc Juhász]] (1924–)
*[[Gyula Juhász]] (1883–1937)

==K==
*[[László Kálnoky]] (1912–1985)
*[[Margit Kaffka]] (1880–1918)
*[[Adél Kálnay]]
*[[Sándor Kányádi]] (1929–)
*[[Balázs Kántás]] (1987–)
*[[Benő Karácsony]]
*[[Orsolya Karafiáth]]
*[[György Kardos G.]] (1925–1997)
*[[Ferenc Karinthy]] (1921–1992)
*[[Frigyes Karinthy]] (1887–1938)
*[[Márton Karinthy]]
*[[Jozsef Karman|József Kármán]]
*[[György Károly]] (1953–)
*[[Amy Károlyi]]
*[[Andor Kárpáti]]
*[[Lajos Kassák]] (1887–1967)
*[[József Katona]] (1791–1830)
*[[Ferenc Kazinczy]] (1759–1831)
*[[Zsigmond Kemény]] (1814–1875)
*[[Géza Képes]]
*[[Grácia Kerényi]]
*[[Imre Kertész]] (1929–) [[Nobel Prize]] winner in [[2002]]
*[[Ákos Kertész]] (1932–)
*[[Károly Kisfaludy]] (1788–1830)
*[[Sándor Kisfaludy]] (1772–1844)
*[[Ephraim Kishon]] (1924–2004)
*[[József Kiss]] (1842–1921)
*[[János Kodolányi]] (1899–1969)
*[[Arthur Koestler]] (1905–1983)
*[[János Komáromi]]
*[[Károly Kós]]
*[[Ferenc Kölcsey]] (1790–1838)
*[[György Konrád]] (1933–)
*[[István Kormos]] (1923–1977)
*[[Dezső Kosztolányi]] (1885–1936)
*[[László Krasznahorkai]] (1954–)
*[[Gyula Krúdy]] (1878–1933)

==L, M==
*[[Mihály Ladányi]]
*[[Menyhért Lakatos]]
*[[Zsolt Láng]] (1958–)
*[[Miklós László]] (1903–1973)
*[[Ervin Lázár]] (1936–2006)
*[[Ödön Lénárd]] (1911–2003)
*[[Menyhért Lengyel]]
*[[Péter Lengyel]]
*[[Anna Lesznai]]
*[[Ignatz Lichtenstein]] (1824–1909)
*[[László L. Lőrincz]]
*[[Imre Madách]] (1823–1864)
*[[Sándor Makkai]]
*[[Gitta Mallasz]] (1907–1992)
*[[Iván Mándy]] (1918–1995)
*[[Sándor Márai]] (1900–1989)
*[[Béla Markó]]
*[[Rodion Markovits]]
*[[László Márton]] (1959–)
*[[László Mécs]]
*[[Miklós Mészöly]] (1921–)
*[[Kelemen Mikes]]
*[[Kálmán Mikszáth]] (1847–1910)
*[[György Moldova]] (1934–)
*[[Ferenc Molnár]] (1878–1952)
*[[Ferenc Móra]]
*[[Zsigmond Móricz]] (1879–1942)
*[[Virág Móricz]]
*[[Ilona Moyzes]] (1921–2008)
*[[Péter Müller]]
*[[Péter Müller Sziámi]]

==N, O==
*[[Péter Nádas]] (1942–)
*[[Ádám Nádasdy]]
*[[Gáspár Nagy]]
*[[Imre Nagy (poet)|Imre Nagy]]
*[[Lajos Nagy (writer)|Lajos Nagy]] (1883–1954)
*[[László Nagy (Writer)|László Nagy]] (1925–1978)
*[[Ágnes Nemes Nagy]] (1922–1991)
*[[László Németh]] (1903–1975)
*[[Gábor Nógrádi]]
*[[József Nyírő]]
*[[Nicolaus Olahus]]
*[[Imre Oravecz]]
*[[Ottó Orbán]]
*[[István Örkény]] (1912–1979)
*[[Ferenc Örsi]]
*[[Géza Ottlik]] (1912–1990)
*[[Zsolt Őz]]

==P==
*[[Boris Palotai]]
*[[András Pályi]] (1942–)
*[[Janus Pannonius]] (1434–1472)
*[[Károly Pap]]
*[[Lajos Parti Nagy]] (1953–)
*[[Géza Páskándi]]
*[[László Passuth]]
*[[Péter Pázmány]] (1570–1637)
*[[Jenő Péterfy]] (1850–1899)
*[[András Petöcz|András Petőcz]] (1959–)
*[[Sándor Petőfi]] (1823–1849)
*[[György Petri]] (1943–2000)
*[[János Pilinszky]] (1921–1981)
*[[Alaine Polcz]]

==R, S==
*[[György Rába]]
*[[Zsuzsa Rácz]]
*[[Miklós Radnóti]] (1909–1944)
*[[Zsuzsa Rakovszky]] (1950–)
*[[Agnes Rapai]] (1952–)
*[[Jenő Rejtő]]
*[[Zsigmond Remenyik]] (1900–1962)
*[[Sándor Reményik]]
*[[András Réz]]
*[[Sándor Rideg]]
*[[János Rimay]]
*[[József Romhányi]]
*[[György Rónay]]
*[[Pál Salamon]]
*[[Richárd Salinger]]
*[[Iván Sándor]] (1930–)
*[[Ferenc Sánta]] (–2008)
*[[György Sárközy]]
*[[György Schwajda]]
*[[Henriett Seth-F.]] (1980–), [[autistic]] writer
*[[Sándor Sík]]
*[[András Simor]]
*[[István Sinka]]
*[[Tamás Sipos]] (1931–2002)
*[[Edit Sohonyai]]
*[[György Somlyó]] (1920–)
*[[István Sőtér]]
*[[György Spiró]] (1946–)
*[[András Sütő]] (1927–2006)
*[[János Sylvester]]
*[[Dezső Szabó]] (1879–1945)
*[[Lőrinc Szabó]] (1901–1957)
*[[Magda Szabó]] (1917–2007)
*[[Pál Szabó]]
*[[Károly Szakonyi]]
*[[Sándor Szathmári]]
*[[István Széchenyi]], comte (1791–1860)
*[[Zsigmond Széchenyi]], (1898–1967)
*[[Miklós Szentkuthy]] (1908–1988)
*[[Ernő Szép]] (1884–1953)
*[[Mária Szepes]]
*[[Antal Szerb]] (1901–1945)
*[[Ede Szigligeti]]
*[[Domokos Szilágyi]] (1938–1976)
*[[István Szilágyi (writer)|István Szilágyi]] (1819–1897)
*[[Dezső Szomory]] (1869–1944)
*[[Géza Szőcs]] (1952–)

==T==
*[[Áron Tamási]] (1897–1966)
*[[Dezső Tandori]] (1938–)
*[[Sándor Tatay]]
*[[Ferenc Temesi]]
*[[János Térey]] (1970–)
*[[Józsi Jenő Tersánszky]] (1888–1969)
*[[Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos]]
*[[Ottó Tolnai]] (1941–)
*[[Mihály Tompa]]
*[[István Tömörkény]] (1866–1917)
*[[Cécile Tormay]]
*[[Árpád Tóth]] (1886–1928)
*[[Kálmán Tóth]] (1831–1891)
*[[Sándor Török]]
*[[Sophie Török]]

==V, W, Z==
*[[Mihály Váci]]
*[[János Vajda]] (1825–1897)
*[[Miklós Vámos]]
*[[Zseni Várnai]]
*[[Dániel Varró]]
*[[István Vas]] (1910–1991)
*[[Gábor Vaszary]]
*[[Győrgy Végh]] (1919–1982)
*[[Péter Veres]]
*[[Endre Vészi]]
*[[Mihály Vörösmarty]] (1800–1855)
*[[Albert Wass]] (1908–1998)
*[[Sándor Weöres]] (1913–1989)
*[[Pál Závada]]
*[[Zoltán Zelk]] (1906–1981)
*[[Lajos Zilahy]] (1891–1974)
*[[Peter Zilahy]] (1970–)
*[[Nikola Zrinski|Miklós Zrínyi]] (1620–1664)
*[[Péter Zsoldos]]
*[[Béla Zsolt]]

==External links==
*[http://translations.bookfinder.hu/indexa.htm Database of translations of Hungarian literary works]
*[http://www.bu.edu/phpbin/buniverse/videos/view/?id=328 Reading by Attila Bartis from ''Tranquility''] April 7, 2009

[[Category:Hungarian writers|*]]
[[Category:Lists of writers by nationality|Hungarian]]
[[Category:Lists of Hungarian people|Writers]]

[[cs:Seznam maďarských spisovatelů]]
[[de:Liste ungarischer Schriftsteller]]
[[eo:Listo de hungaraj verkistoj]]
[[fr:Liste d'écrivains hongrois]]
[[it:Lista di scrittori e poeti ungheresi]]
[[lb:Lëscht vun ungaresche Schrëftsteller]]
[[hu:Magyar költők, írók listája]]
[[nl:Lijst van Hongaarse literaire schrijvers]]
[[pl:Lista węgierskich pisarzy]]
[[pt:Anexo:Lista de escritores húngaros]]
[[sk:Zoznam maďarských spisovateľov]]
[[sl:Seznam madžarskih pisateljev]]

Mental disorder

2009-09-25T15:45:07Z

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{{Infobox disease |
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ICD10 = |
ICD9 = |
ICDO = |
OMIM = |
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MeshID = D001523 |
}}
A '''mental disorder''' or '''mental illness''' is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as part of normal development or culture. The recognition and understanding of mental disorders has changed over time and across cultures. Definitions, assessments, and classifications of mental disorders can vary, but guideline criteria listed in the [[ICD]], [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]] and other manuals are widely accepted by [[mental health professional]]s. Categories of diagnoses in these schemes may include [[dissociative disorders]], [[mood disorders]], [[anxiety disorder]]s, [[Psychosis|psychotic]] disorders, [[eating disorder]]s, [[developmental disorders]], [[personality disorder]]s, [[ambulatory disorders]] and many other categories. In many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause of mental disorders, although they are often explained in terms of a [[diathesis-stress model]] and [[biopsychosocial]] model. Mental disorders have been found to be common, with over a third of people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria at some point in their life. Services for mental disorders may be based in hospitals or in the community. [[Mental health professionals]] diagnose individuals using different methodologies, often relying on case history and interview. [[Psychotherapy]] and [[psychiatric medication]] are two major treatment options, as well as supportive interventions and self-help. Treatment may be involuntary where legislation allows. Several movements campaign for changes to services and attitudes.

==Classifications==

{{main|Classification of mental disorders}}
The [[definition]] and [[wiktionary:Classification|classification]] of mental disorders is a key issue for [[mental health]] and for users and providers of mental health services. Most international clinical documents use the term "mental disorder" rather than "mental illness". There is no single [[definition]] and the inclusion criteria are said to vary depending on the social, legal and political context. In general, however, a mental disorder has been characterized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological pattern that occurs in an individual and is usually associated with [[distress]], [[disability]] or increased risk of [[suffering]]. The term "serious mental illness" [SMI] is sometimes used to refer to more severe and long-lasting disorders. A broad definition of the term would cover mental disorder, mental retardation, [[personality disorder]] and [[substance dependence]]. The phrase "[[mental health]] problems" may be used to refer only to milder or more transient issues. There is often a criterion that a condition does not occur as part of a person's usual [[culture]] or [[religion]].

There are currently two widely established systems that classify mental disorders - Chapter V of the [[International Classification of Diseases]] (ICD-10), produced by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), and the ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM-IV) produced by the [[American Psychiatric Association]] (APA). Both list categories of disorder and provide standardized criteria for diagnosis. They have deliberately converged their codes in recent revisions so that the manuals are often broadly comparable, although significant differences remain. Other classification schemes are used in non-western cultures (see, for example, the ''[[Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders]]''). Other manuals may be used by those of alternative theoretical persuasions, for example the ''[[Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual]]''.

Some approaches to classification do not employ distinct categories based on cut-offs separating the abnormal from the normal. They are variously referred to as spectrum, continuum or dimensional systems. There is a significant scientific debate about the relative merits of a categorical vs a non-categorical system. There is also significant controversy about the role of science and values in classification schemes, and about the professional, legal and social uses to which they are put.

==Disorders==
{{Refimprovesect|date=June 2007}}
There are many different categories of mental disorder, and many different facets of human behavior and personality that can become disordered.<ref name=Gazzaniga>Gazzaniga, M.S., & Heatherton, T.F. (2006). ''Psychological Science''. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.</ref><ref name=WebMDTypesIllness>WebMD, Inc. (2005, July 01). ''Mental Health: Types of Mental Illness''. Retrieved April 19, 2007, from http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/mental-health-types-illness</ref><ref name=USDHHS>United States Department of Health & Human Services. (1999). ''[http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter2/sec2.html Overview of Mental Illness]''. Retrieved April 19, 2007</ref><ref>NIMH (2005) [http://science-education.nih.gov/supplements/nih5/Mental/guide/info-mental-c.htm Teacher's Guide: Information about Mental Illness and the Brain] Curriculum supplement from The NIH Curriculum Supplements Series</ref>

The state of [[anxiety]] or [[fear]] can become disordered, so that it is unusually intense or generalized over a prolonged period of time. Commonly recognized categories of [[anxiety disorder]]s include specific [[phobia]], [[Generalized anxiety disorder]], [[Social Anxiety Disorder]], [[Panic Disorder]], [[Agoraphobia]], [[Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder]], [[Post-traumatic stress disorder]]. Relatively long lasting [[affective]] states can also become disordered. [[Mood disorder]] involving unusually intense and sustained sadness, melancholia or despair is know as [[Clinical depression]] (or Major depression), and may more generally be described as [[Emotional dysregulation]]. Milder but prolonged depression can be diagnosed as [[dysthymia]]. [[Bipolar disorder]] involves abnormally "high" or pressured mood states, known as [[mania]] or [[hypomania]], alternating with normal or depressed mood. Whether unipolar and bipolar mood phenomena represent distinct categories of disorder, or whether they usually mix and merge together along a dimension or spectrum of mood, is under debate in the scientific literature.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Akiskal HS, Benazzi F |title=The DSM-IV and ICD-10 categories of recurrent [major] depressive and bipolar II disorders: evidence that they lie on a dimensional spectrum |journal=J Affect Disord |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=45–54 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16488021 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2005.12.035 }}</ref>

Patterns of belief, language use and perception can become disordered. [[Psychotic disorder]]s centrally involving this domain include [[Schizophrenia]], and [[Delusional disorder]]. [[Schizoaffective disorder]] is a category used for individuals showing aspects of both schizophrenia and affective disorders. [[Schizotypy]] is a category used for individuals showing some of the characteristics associated with schizophrenia but without meeting cut-off criteria.

The fundamental characteristics of a person that influence his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors across situations and time - can be seen as disordered due to being abnormally rigid and maladaptive. Categorical schemes list a number of different [[personality disorder]]s, such as those classed as eccentric (e.g. [[Paranoid personality disorder]], [[Schizoid personality disorder]], [[Schizotypal personality disorder]]), those described as dramatic or emotional ([[Antisocial personality disorder]], [[Borderline personality disorder]], [[Histrionic personality disorder]], [[Narcissistic personality disorder]]) or those seen as fear-related ([[Avoidant personality disorder]], [[Dependent personality disorder]], [[Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder]]).

There is an emerging consensus that personality disorders, like personality traits in the normal range, incorporate a mixture of more acute dysfunctional behaviors that resolve in relatively short periods, and maladaptive temperamental traits that are relatively more stable.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Clark LA |title=Assessment and diagnosis of personality disorder: perennial issues and an emerging reconceptualization |journal=Annu Rev Psychol |volume=58 |pages=227–57 |year=2007 |pmid=16903806 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190200 |url=http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190200}}</ref> Non-categorical schemes may rate individuals via a profile across different dimensions of personality that are not seen as cut off from normal personality variation, commonly through schemes based on the [[Big Five personality traits]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Morey LC, Hopwood CJ, Gunderson JG, ''et al.'' |title=Comparison of alternative models for personality disorders |journal=Psychol Med |volume=37 |issue=7 |pages=983–94 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17121690 |doi=10.1017/S0033291706009482 }}</ref>

Other disorders may involve other attributes of human functioning. [[Eating]] practices can be disordered, at least in relatively rich industrialized areas, with either compulsive over-eating or under-eating or binging. Categories of disorder in this area include [[Anorexia nervosa]], [[Bulimia nervosa]], [[Exercise bulimia]] or [[Binge eating disorder]]. [[Sleep disorder]]s such as [[Insomnia]] also exist and can disrupt normal [[sleep]] patterns. [[Sexual disorder|Sexual]] and gender identity disorders, such as [[Dyspareunia]] or [[Gender identity disorder]] or [[Egodystonic sexual orientation|ego-dystonic homosexuality]]. People who are abnormally unable to resist urges, or impulses, to perform acts that could be harmful to themselves or others, may be classed as having an impulse control disorder, including various kinds of [[Tic disorders]] such as [[Tourette's Syndrome]], and disorders such as [[Kleptomania]] (stealing) or [[Pyromania]] (fire-setting). Substance-use disorders include [[Substance abuse]] disorder. Addictive [[gambling]] may be classed as a disorder. Inability to sufficiently adjust to life circumstances may be classed as an [[Adjustment disorder]]. The category of adjustment disorder is usually reserved for problems beginning within three months of the event or situation and ending within six months after the stressor stops or is eliminated. People who suffer severe disturbances of their self-identity, memory and general awareness of themselves and their surroundings may be classed as having a [[Dissociative identity disorder]], such as [[Depersonalization disorder]] or Dissociative Identity Disorder itself (which has also been called multiple personality disorder, or "split personality"). [[Factitious disorder]]s, such as [[Munchausen syndrome]], also exist where symptoms are experienced and/or reported for personal gain.

Disorders appearing to originate in the body, but thought to be mental, are known as somatoform disorders, including [[Somatization disorder]]. There are also disorders of the perception of the body, including [[Body dysmorphic disorder]]. [[Neurasthenia]] is a category involving somatic complaints as well as fatigue and low spirits/depression, which is officially recognized by the ICD-10 but not by the DSM-IV.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gamma A, Angst J, Ajdacic V, Eich D, Rössler W |title=The spectra of neurasthenia and depression: course, stability and transitions |journal=Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci |volume=257 |issue=2 |pages=120–7 |year=2007 |month=March |pmid=17131216 |doi=10.1007/s00406-006-0699-6 }}</ref> Memory or cognitive disorders, such as [[amnesia]] or [[Alzheimer's disease]] exist.

Other proposed disorders include: [[Self-defeating personality disorder]], [[Sadistic personality disorder]], [[Passive-aggressive personality disorder]], [[Premenstrual dysphoric disorder]].

==Culture==
Different societies or cultures and even different individuals in a culture can disagree as to what constitutes optimal vs. pathological biological and psychological functioning. Research has demonstrated that cultures vary in the relative importance placed on, for example, happiness, autonomy, or social relationships for pleasure. Likewise, the fact that a behaviour pattern is valued, accepted, encouraged, or even statistically normative in a culture does not necessarily mean that it is conducive to optimal psychological functioning.

People in all cultures find some behaviours bizarre or even incomprehensible. But just what they feel is bizarre or incomprehensible is ambiguous and subjective.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Heinimaa M |title=Incomprehensibility: the role of the concept in DSM-IV definition of schizophrenic delusions |journal=Med Health Care Philos |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=291–5 |month=October |year=2002 |pmid=12517037 |doi=10.1023/A:1021164602485 |url=http://www.kluweronline.com/art.pdf?issn=1386-7423&volume=5&page=291}}</ref> These differences in determination can become highly contentious.

==Intangible experiences==
[[Religious]], [[spirituality|spiritual]], or [[transpersonal]] experiences and beliefs are typically not defined as disordered, especially if widely shared, despite meeting many criteria of delusional or psychotic disorders.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pierre JM |title=Faith or delusion? At the crossroads of religion and psychosis |journal=J Psychiatr Pract |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=163–72 |year=2001 |month=May |pmid=15990520 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1527-4160&volume=7&issue=3&spage=163 |doi=10.1097/00131746-200105000-00004}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Johnson CV, Friedman HL |title=Enlightened or Delusional? Differentiating Religious, Spiritual, and Transpersonal Experiences from Psychopathology |journal=Journal of Humanistic Psychology |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=505–27 |year=2008 |doi=10.1177/0022167808314174 |url=http://jhp.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/48/4/505}}</ref> Even when a belief or experience can be shown to produce distress or disability, the ordinary standard for judging mental disorders; the presence of a strong cultural basis for that belief, experience, or interpretation of experience generally disqualifies it from counting as evidence of mental disorder.

==Psychosocial variables==
In the mental health community, the psychosocial interaction is being discussed.

In recent years, some psychiatrists and psychologists have argued that current diagnostic standards tend to overstate or misinterpret neurophysiological findings and to understate the scientific importance of social-psychological variables.<ref name=Widiger2000/> Advocating a more culturally sensitive approach to psychology, critics such as [[Carl Bell (physician)|Carl Bell]] and [[Marcello Maviglia]] contend that the cultural and ethnic diversity of individuals is often discounted by researchers and service providers.<ref name=wash-post>Shankar Vedantam, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/25/AR2005062500982.html Psychiatry's Missing Diagnosis: Patients' Diversity Is Often Discounted] Washington Post: Mind and Culture, June 26</ref>

==Western bias==
Current diagnostic guidelines have been criticized as having a fundamentally Euro-American outlook. They have been widely implemented, but opponents argue that even when diagnostic criteria are accepted across different cultures, it does not mean that the underlying constructs have any validity within those cultures; even reliable application can prove only consistency, not legitimacy.<ref name=Widiger2000>{{cite journal |author=Widiger TA, Sankis LM |title=Adult psychopathology: issues and controversies |journal=Annu Rev Psychol |volume=51 |issue= |pages=377–404 |year=2000 |pmid=10751976 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.377 }}</ref>

[[Cross-cultural psychiatry|Cross-cultural]] psychiatrist [[Arthur Kleinman]] contends that the Western bias is ironically illustrated in the introduction of cultural factors to the [[DSM-IV]]: that disorders or concepts from non-Western or non-mainstream cultures are described as "culture-bound", whereas standard psychiatric diagnoses are given no cultural qualification whatsoever, reveals to Kleinman an underlying assumption that Western cultural phenomena are universal.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kleinman A |title=Triumph or pyrrhic victory? The inclusion of culture in DSM-IV |journal=Harv Rev Psychiatry |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=343–4 |year=1997 |pmid=9385013 |doi=10.3109/10673229709030563 }}</ref> Kleinman's negative view towards the [[culture-bound syndrome]] is largely shared by other [[Cross-cultural psychiatry|cross-cultural]] critics, common responses included both disappointment over the large number of documented non-Western mental disorders still left out and frustration that even those included were often misinterpreted or misrepresented.<ref>Bhugra, D. & Munro, A. (1997) ''Troublesome Disguises: Underdiagnosed Psychiatric Syndromes'' Blackwell Science Ltd</ref>

Many mainstream psychiatrists are dissatisfied with the new culture-bound diagnoses, although for different reasons. [[Robert Spitzer (psychiatrist)|Robert Spitzer]], a lead architect of the [[DSM-III]], has opined that adding cultural formulations was an attempt to placate cultural critics and that the formulations lack any scientific motivation or support. Spitzer also posits that the new culture-bound diagnoses are rarely used, maintaining that the standard diagnoses apply regardless of the culture involved. In general, mainstream psychiatric opinion remains that if a diagnostic category is valid, cross-cultural factors are either irrelevant or are significant only to specific symptom presentations.<ref name="Widiger2000" />

==Society==
Clinical conceptions of mental illness also overlap with cultural values and in the realm of [[morality]] and social behaviour, so much so that it is sometimes argued that separating the two would be impossible without fundamentally redefining a person's role in society.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Clark LA |title=The role of moral judgment in personality disorder diagnosis |journal=J Pers Disord. |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=184–5 |year=2006 |doi=10.1521/pedi.2006.20.2.184 }}</ref> In clinical psychiatry, persistent distress and disability indicate an internal disorder requiring treatment; but in another context, that same distress and disability can be seen as an indicator of emotional struggle and the need to address social and structural problems.<ref name="Karasz05">{{cite journal |author=Karasz A |title=Cultural differences in conceptual models of depression |journal=Social Science in Medicine |volume=60 |issue=7 |pages=1625–35 |year=2005 |month=April |pmid=15652693 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.08.011}}</ref><ref>Tilbury, F., Rapley, M. (2004) [http://www.atypon-link.com/EMP/doi/abs/10.5555/hesr.2004.13.1.54 'There are orphans in Africa still looking for my hands': African women refugees and the sources of emotional distress] ''Health Sociology Review''. Vol 13, Issue 1, 54–64</ref> This dichotomy has lead some academics and clinicians to advocate a [[postmodernist]] conceptualization of mental distress and well-being.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bracken P, Thomas P |title=Postpsychiatry: a new direction for mental health |journal=BMJ |volume=322 |issue=7288 |pages=724–7 |year=2001 |month=March |pmid=11264215 |pmc=1119907 |url=http://bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11264215 |doi=10.1136/bmj.322.7288.724}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Lewis B |title=Psychiatry and Postmodern Theory |journal=J Med Humanit |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=71–84 |year=2000 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/link.asp?id=j75517g14h618189 |doi=10.1023/A:1009018429802}}</ref>

Such approaches, along with [[cross-cultural psychiatry|cross-cultural]] and "[[heretical]]" psychologies centred on alternative cultural and ethnic identities and experiences, stand in contrast to the mainstream psychiatric community's active avoidance of any involvement with either morality or culture.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kwate NO |title=The heresy of African-centered psychology |journal=J Med Humanit |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=215–35 |year=2005 |pmid=16333686 |doi=10.1007/s10912-005-7698-x }}</ref>

== Diagnosis ==
Many [[mental health professionals]], particularly psychiatrists, seek to [[medical diagnosis|diagnose]] individuals by ascertaining their particular mental disorder. Some professionals, for example some [[clinical psychologists]], may avoid diagnosis in favor of other assessment methods such as formulation of a client's difficulties and circumstances.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kinderman P, Lobban F |title=Evolving formulations: Sharing complex information with clients |journal=Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=307–10 |year=2000 |doi=10.1017/S1352465800003118 }}</ref> The majority of mental health problems are actually assessed and treated by family physicians during consultations, who may refer on for more specialist diagnosis in acute or chronic cases. Routine diagnostic practice in mental health services typically involves an interview (which may be referred to as a [[mental status examination]]), where judgments are made of the interviewee's appearance and behavior, self-reported symptoms, mental health history, and current life circumstances. The views of relatives or other third parties may be taken into account. A physical examination to check for ill health or the effects of medications or other drugs may be conducted. [[Psychological testing]] is sometimes used via paper-and-pen or computerized questionnaires, which may include [[algorithms]] based on ticking off standardized diagnostic criteria, and in relatively rare specialist cases neuroimaging tests may be requested, but these methods are more commonly found in research studies than routine clinical practice.<ref>HealthWise (2004) [http://health.yahoo.com/topic/mentalhealth/symptoms/medicaltest/healthwise/tp16780 Mental Health Assessment.] Yahoo! Health</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Davies T |title=ABC of mental health. Mental health assessment |journal=BMJ |volume=314 |issue=7093 |pages=1536–9 |year=1997 |month=May |pmid=9183204 |pmc=2126757 |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/314/7093/1536}}</ref> Time and budgetary constraints often limit practicing psychiatrists from conducting more thorough diagnostic evaluations.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kashner TM, Rush AJ, Surís A, ''et al.'' |title=Impact of structured clinical interviews on physicians' practices in community mental health settings |journal=Psychiatr Serv |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=712–8 |year=2003 |month=May |pmid=12719503 |url=http://ps.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12719503 |doi=10.1176/appi.ps.54.5.712}}</ref> It has been found that most clinicians evaluate patients using an unstructured, open-ended approach, with limited training in evidence-based assessment methods, and that inaccurate diagnosis may be common in routine practice.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shear MK, Greeno C, Kang J, ''et al.'' |title=Diagnosis of nonpsychotic patients in community clinics |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=157 |issue=4 |pages=581–7 |year=2000 |month=April |pmid=10739417 |url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10739417 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.157.4.581}}</ref> Mental illness involving hallucinations or delusions (especially schizophrenia) are prone to misdiagnosis in developing countries due to the presence of psychotic symptoms instigated by nutritional deficiencies. [[Comorbidity]] is very common in psychiatric diagnosis, i.e. the same person given a diagnosis in more than one category of disorder.

== Services and treatments ==
{{main|Treatment of mental disorders}}
{{main|Services for mental disorders}}

Treatment and support may be provided in [[psychiatric hospitals]], [[clinics]] or any of a diverse range of [[community mental health services]]. Often an individual may engage in different treatment modalities. A strong sense of being part of an interdependent society in developing countries makes the community-based treatment model the most effective mode of treatment. A combination of community-based treatment and the use of typical antipsychotic drugs have been found to yield the most positive, cost-effective results. Individuals may be [[involuntary treatment|treated against their will]] in some cases. Services in many countries are increasingly based on a [[Recovery model]] that supports an individual's personal journey to regain a meaningful life.

===Psychotherapy===
{{wikinews|Dr. Joseph Merlino on sexuality, insanity, Freud, fetishes and apathy}}
A major option for many mental disorders is [[psychotherapy]]. There are several main types. [[Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) is widely used and is based on modifying the patterns of thought and behavior associated with a particular disorder. [[Psychoanalysis]], addressing underlying psychic conflicts and defenses, has been a dominant school of psychotherapy and is still in use. [[Systemic therapy]] or [[family therapy]] is sometimes used, addressing a network of significant others as well as an individual. Some psychotherapies are based on a [[humanistic psychology|humanistic]] approach. There are a number of specific therapies used for particular disorders, which may be offshoots or hybrids of the above types. [[Mental health professionals]] often employ an [[Integrative Psychotherapy|eclectic or integrative approach]]. Much may depend on the [[therapeutic relationship]], and there may be problems with [[Trust (social sciences)|trust]], [[confidentiality]] and [[engagement]].

===Medication===
A major option for many mental disorders is [[psychiatric medication]]. There are several main groups.

[[Antidepressants]] are used for the treatment of [[clinical depression]] as well as often for anxiety and other disorders. There are a number of antidepressants beginning with the tricyclics, moving through a wide variety of drugs that modify various facets of the brain chemistry dealing with intercellular communication. Beta-blockers, developed as a heart medication, are also used as an antidepressant.

[[Anxiolytics]] are used for [[anxiety disorder]]s and related problems such as insomnia.

[[Mood stabilizers]] are used primarily in [[bipolar disorder]]. Lithium carbonate (a salt) and Lamictal (an epileptic drug) are notable for treating both mania and depression. The others, mainly targeting [[mania]] rather than depression, are a wide variety of epilepsy medications and antipsychotics.

[[Antipsychotics]] are used for [[psychosis|psychotic disorders]], notably for [[Schizophrenia#Positive and negative symptoms|positive symptoms in schizophrenia]]. Although there has not been any evidence of the superiority of newer, atypical antipsychotic drugs, they are being prescribed to individuals throughout the world. The prescription of relatively cheaper, older typical antipsychotic drugs is also used.

[[Stimulants]] are commonly used, notably for [[ADHD]]. Despite the different conventional names of the drug groups, there can be considerable overlap in the kinds of disorders for which they are actually indicated.

There may also be [[off-label use]] of medications. There can be problems with [[adverse effects]] of medication and [[Compliance (medicine)|adherence]].

Recently, the pharmaceutical industry has come into severe criticism for hiding negative results from clinical trials from the public and the USFDA and for promoting medications for unapproved uses by pharmaceutical sales representatives. Prominent psychiatric researchers have also come under fire recently for failing to disclose drug company compensation which poses serious potential conflicts of interest with their research and professional activities.

===Other===
Electroconvulsive therapy ([[Electroconvulsive therapy|ECT]]) is sometimes used in severe cases when other interventions for severe intractable depression have failed. [[Psychosurgery]] is considered experimental but is advocated by certain [[neurologists]] in certain rare cases.<ref>Mind Disorders Encyclopedia [http://www.minddisorders.com/Ob-Ps/Psychosurgery.html Psychosurgery] [Retrieved on August 5th 2008]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Mashour GA, Walker EE, Martuza RL |title=Psychosurgery: past, present, and future |journal=Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=409–19 |year=2005 |month=June |pmid=15914249 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.09.002 |url=http://dura.stanford.edu/Articles/Psychosurgery.pdf}}</ref>

[[Psychoeducation]] may be used to provide people with the information to understand and manage their problems. Creative therapies are sometimes used, including [[music therapy]], [[art therapy]] or [[drama therapy]]. Lifestyle adjustments and supportive measures are often used, including [[peer support]], [[self-help groups for mental health]] and [[supported housing]] or supported [[employment]] (including [[social firms]]). Some advocate [[dietary supplements]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lakhan SE, Vieira KF |title=Nutritional therapies for mental disorders |journal=Nutr J |volume=7 |issue= |pages=2 |year=2008 |pmid=18208598 |pmc=2248201 |doi=10.1186/1475-2891-7-2 |url=http://www.nutritionj.com/content/7/1/2}}</ref> Many things have been found to help at least some people. A [[placebo]] effect may play a role in any intervention.

== Prognosis ==
Prognosis depends on the disorder, the individual and numerous related factors. Some disorders are transient, while others may last a lifetime. Some disorders may be very limited in their functional effects, while others may involve substantial [[disability]] and support needs. The degree of ability or disability may vary across different life domains. Continued disability has been linked to [[institutionalization]], discrimination and social exclusion as well as to the inherent properties of disorders.

Even those disorders often considered the most serious and intractable have varied courses. Long-term international studies of [[schizophrenia]] have found that over a half of individuals recover in terms of symptoms, and around a fifth to a third in terms of symptoms and functioning, with some requiring no medication. At the same time, many have serious difficulties and support needs for many years, although "late" recovery is still possible. The [[World Health Organization]] concluded that the long-term studies' findings converged with others in "relieving patients, carers and clinicians of the chronicity paradigm which dominated thinking throughout much of the 20th century."<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harrison G, Hopper K, Craig T, ''et al.'' |title=Recovery from psychotic illness: a 15- and 25-year international follow-up study |journal=Br J Psychiatry |volume=178 |issue= |pages=506–17 |year=2001 |month=June |pmid=11388966 |url=http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11388966 |accessdate=2008-07-04 |doi=10.1192/bjp.178.6.506}}</ref><ref name="Jobe2005">{{cite journal |author=Jobe TH, Harrow M |title=Long-term outcome of patients with schizophrenia: a review |journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=50 |issue=14 |pages=892–900 |year=2005 |month=December |pmid=16494258 |url=http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2005/december/cjp-dec-05-Harrow-IR.pdf|format=PDF |accessdate=2008-07-05}}</ref> Around half of people initially diagnosed with [[bipolar disorder]] achieve syndromal recovery (no longer meeting criteria for the diagnosis) within six weeks, and nearly all achieve it within two years, with nearly half regaining their prior occupational and residential status in that period. However, nearly half go on to experience a new episode of mania or major depression within the next two years.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tohen M, Zarate CA, Hennen J, ''et al.'' |title=The McLean-Harvard First-Episode Mania Study: prediction of recovery and first recurrence |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=160 |issue=12 |pages=2099–107 |year=2003 |month=December |pmid=14638578 |url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/160/12/2099 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.160.12.2099}}</ref> Functioning has been found to vary, being poor during periods of [[major depression]] or [[mania]] but otherwise fair to good, and possibly superior during periods of hypomania in Bipolar II.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Judd LL, Akiskal HS, Schettler PJ, ''et al.'' |title=Psychosocial disability in the course of bipolar I and II disorders: a prospective, comparative, longitudinal study |journal=Arch. Gen. Psychiatry |volume=62 |issue=12 |pages=1322–30 |year=2005 |month=December |pmid=16330720 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.62.12.1322 |url=http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/62/12/1322.pdf}}</ref>

Despite often being characterized in purely negative terms, some mental states labeled as disorders can also involve above-average creativity, non-conformity, goal-striving, meticulousness, or empathy.<ref name="Rogers&Pilgram05"/> In addition, the public perception of the level of disability associated with mental disorders can change.<ref>Ferney, V. (2003) [http://www.newyorkcityvoices.org/2003janmar/20030318.html The Hierarchy of Mental Illness: Which diagnosis is the least debilitating?] ''New York City Voices'' Jan/March</ref>

== Prevalence ==
{{main|Prevalence of mental disorders}}

Mental disorders have been found to be relatively common, with more than one in three people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria for at least one diagnosis at some point in their life up to the time they were assessed.<ref>WHO International Consortium in Psychiatric Epidemiology (2000) [http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0042-96862000000400003&lng=&nrm=iso Cross-national comparisons of the prevalences and correlates of mental disorders] ''Bulletin of the World Health Organization'' v.78 n.4</ref> A new WHO global survey currently underway[http://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/wmh/index.php] indicates that anxiety disorders are the most common in all but 1 country, followed by mood disorders in all but 2 countries, while substance disorders and impulse-control disorders were consistently less prevalent. Rates varied by region.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Demyttenaere K, Bruffaerts R, Posada-Villa J, ''et al.'' |title=Prevalence, severity, and unmet need for treatment of mental disorders in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys |journal=JAMA |volume=291 |issue=21 |pages=2581–90 |year=2004 |month=June |pmid=15173149 |doi=10.1001/jama.291.21.2581 }}</ref> Such statistics are widely believed to be underestimates, due to poor diagnosis (especially in countries without affordable access to mental health services) and low reporting rates, in part because of the predominant use of self-report data rather than semi-structured instruments.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} Actual lifetime prevalence rates for mental disorders are estimated to be between 65% and 85%.{{Fact|date=July 2008}}

A review of anxiety disorder surveys in different countries found average lifetime prevalence estimates of 16.6%, with women having higher rates on average.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Somers JM, Goldner EM, Waraich P, Hsu L |title=Prevalence and incidence studies of anxiety disorders: a systematic review of the literature |journal=Can J Psychiatry |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=100–13 |year=2006 |month=February |pmid=16989109 |url=http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2004/february/waraich.asp}}</ref> A review of mood disorder surveys in different countries found lifetime rates of 6.7% for major depressive disorder (higher in some studies, and in women) and 0.8% for bipolar 1 disorder.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Waraich P, Goldner EM, Somers JM, Hsu L |title=Prevalence and incidence studies of mood disorders: a systematic review of the literature |journal=Can J Psychiatry |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=124–38 |year=2004 |month=February |pmid=15065747 |url=http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2004/february/waraich.asp}}</ref>

The updated US National Comorbidity Survey (NCS) reported that nearly half of Americans (46.4%) meet criteria at some point in their life for either an anxiety disorder (28.8%), mood disorder (20.8%), impulse-control disorder (24.8%) or substance use disorder (14.6%).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE |title=Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication |journal=Arch. Gen. Psychiatry |volume=62 |issue=6 |pages=593–602 |year=2005 |month=June |pmid=15939837 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Merikangas KR, Walters EE |title=Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication |journal=Arch. Gen. Psychiatry |volume=62 |issue=6 |pages=617–27 |year=2005 |month=June |pmid=15939839 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617 }}</ref><ref>US National Institute of Mental Health (2006) [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/numbers.cfm The Numbers Count: Mental Disorders in America] Retrieved May 2007</ref>

A 2004 cross-Europe study found that approximately one in four people reported meeting criteria at some point in their life for at least one of the DSM-IV disorders assessed, which included mood disorders (13.9%), anxiety disorders (13.6%) or alcohol disorder (5.2%). Approximately one in ten met criteria within a 12-month period. Women and younger people of either gender showed more cases of disorder.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Alonso J, Angermeyer MC, Bernert S, ''et al.'' |title=Prevalence of mental disorders in Europe: results from the European Study of the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (ESEMeD) project |journal=Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl |volume= 109|issue=420 |pages=21–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15128384 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0047.2004.00327.x }}</ref> A 2005 review of surveys in 16 European countries found that 27% of adult Europeans are affected by at least one mental disorder in a 12 month period.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wittchen HU, Jacobi F |title=Size and burden of mental disorders in Europe—a critical review and appraisal of 27 studies |journal=Eur Neuropsychopharmacol |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=357–76 |year=2005 |month=August |pmid=15961293 |doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.04.012}}</ref>

An international review of studies on the prevalence of schizophrenia found an average (median) figure of 0.4% for lifetime prevalence; it was consistently lower in poorer countries.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Saha S, Chant D, Welham J, McGrath J |title=A systematic review of the prevalence of schizophrenia |journal=PLoS Med. |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=e141 |year=2005 |month=May |pmid=15916472 |pmc=1140952 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020141 }}</ref>

Studies of the prevalence of personality disorders (PDs) have been fewer and smaller-scale, but one broad Norwegian survey found a five-year prevalence of almost 1 in 7 (13.4%). Rates for specific disorders ranged from 0.8% to 2.8%, differing across countries, and by gender, educational level and other factors.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Torgersen S, Kringlen E, Cramer V |title=The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample |journal=Arch. Gen. Psychiatry |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=590–6 |year=2001 |month=June |pmid=11386989 |url=http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11386989 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.58.6.590}}</ref> A US survey that incidentally screened for personality disorder found a rate of 14.79%.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Grant BF, Hasin DS, Stinson FS, ''et al.'' |title=Prevalence, correlates, and disability of personality disorders in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=65 |issue=7 |pages=948–58 |year=2004 |month=July |pmid=15291684 |url=http://article.psychiatrist.com/?ContentType=START&ID=10000967}}</ref>

Approximately 7% of a preschool pediatric sample were given a psychiatric diagnosis in one clinical study, and approximately 10% of 1- and 2-year-olds receiving developmental screening have been assessed as having significant emotional/behavioral problems based on parent and pediatrician reports.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Carter AS, Briggs-Gowan MJ, Davis NO |title=Assessment of young children's social-emotional development and psychopathology: recent advances and recommendations for practice |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=109–34 |year=2004 |month=January |pmid=14959805 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0021-9630&date=2004&volume=45&issue=1&spage=109 |doi=10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00316.x}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Gautier - Salpetriere.JPG|thumb|320px|Eight women representing prominent mental diagnoses in the nineteenth century. ([[Armand Gautier (painter)|Armand Gautier]])]]
{{main|History of mental disorders}}

===Ancient civilizations===
Ancient civilizations described and treated a number of mental disorders. The Greeks coined terms for [[melancholy]], [[hysteria]] and [[phobia]] and developed the [[humorism]] theory. Psychiatric theories and treatments developed in Persia, Arabia and the Muslim Empire, particularly in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] from the 8th century, where the first [[psychiatric hospital]]s were built.

===Europe===
====Middle Ages====
Conceptions of madness in the Middle Ages in Christian Europe were a mixture of the divine, diabolical, magical and humoral, as well as more down to earth considerations. In the early modern period, some people with mental disorders may have been victims of the witch-hunts but were increasingly admitted to local workhouses and jails or sometimes to private madhouses. Many terms for mental disorder that found their way into everyday use first became popular the 16th and 17th centuries.

====Eighteenth century====
By the end of the 17th century and into the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], madness was increasingly seen as an organic physical phenomenon with no connection to the soul or moral responsibility. Asylum care was often harsh and treated people like wild animals, but towards the end of the 18th century a [[moral treatment]] movement gradually developed. Clear descriptions of some syndromes may be relatively rare prior to the 1800s.

====Nineteenth century====
[[Industrialization]] and population growth led to a massive expansion of the number and size of insane asylums in every Western country in the 19th century. Numerous different [[classification of mental disorders|classification schemes]] and diagnostic terms were developed by different authorities, and the term [[psychiatry]] was coined, though medical superintendents were still known as alienists.

====Twentieth century====
The turn of the 20th century saw the development of [[psychoanalysis]], which would later come to the fore, along with [[Kraepelin]]'s classification scheme. Asylum "inmates" were increasingly referred to as "patients" and asylums renamed as hospitals.

===Europe and the U.S.===
In the twentieth century in the United States, a mental hygiene movement developed, aiming to prevent mental disorders. Clinical psychology and social work developed as professions. [[World War I]] saw a massive increase of conditions that came to be termed "[[Combat stress reaction|shell shock]]."

[[World War II]] saw the development in the U.S. of a new psychiatric manual for categorizing mental disorders, which along with existing systems for collecting census and hospital statistics led to the first [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM). The [[International Classification of Diseases]] (ICD) followed suit with a section on mental disorders.

The term [[stress (biological)|stress]], having emerged out of [[endocrinology]] work in the 1930s, was increasingly applied to mental disorders. [[Electroconvulsive therapy]], [[insulin shock therapy]], [[lobotomy|lobotomies]] and the "[[neuroleptic]]" [[chlorpromazine]] came to be used by mid-century. An [[antipsychiatry]] movement came to the fore in the 1960s. [[Deinstitutionalization]] gradually occurred in the West, with isolated [[psychiatric hospitals]] being closed down in favor of [[community mental health services]]. A [[consumer/survivor movement]] gained momentum. Other kinds of [[psychiatric medication]] gradually came into use, such as "[[antidepressants|psychic energizers]]" and [[lithium pharmacology|lithium]]. [[Benzodiazepines]] gained widespread use in the 1970s for anxiety and depression, until dependency problems curtailed their popularity.

Advances in [[neuroscience]] and [[genetics]] led to new research agendas. [[Cognitive behavioral therapy]] was developed. The DSM and then ICD adopted new criteria-based classifications, and the number of "official" diagnoses saw a large expansion. Through the 1990s, new SSRI [[antidepressant]]s became some of the most widely prescribed drugs in the world. Also during the 1990s, a [[recovery model]] developed.

== Professions and fields ==
{{main|Mental health professional}}

A number of [[professions]] have developed that specialise in the treatment of mental disorders, including the [[Medicine|medical]] speciality of [[psychiatry]] (including psychiatric nursing),<ref name=AJP154Editorial>{{cite journal |author=Andreasen NC |title=What is psychiatry? |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=154 |issue=5 |pages=591–3 |year=1997 |month=May |pmid=9137110 |url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9137110 |day=01}}</ref><ref name=UM>University of Melbourne. (2005, August 19). ''What is Psychiatry?''. Retrieved April 19, 2007, from http://www.psychiatry.unimelb.edu.au/info/what_is_psych.html</ref><ref name=CPA>California Psychiatric Association. (2007, February 28). ''Frequently Asked Questions About Psychiatry & Psychiatrists''. Retrieved April 19, 2007, from http://www.calpsych.org/publications/cpa/faqs.html</ref> a subset of [[psychology]] known as [[clinical psychology]],<ref>American Psychological Association, Division 12, http://www.apa.org/divisions/div12/aboutcp.html</ref> [[social work]],<ref>Golightley, M. (2004) Social work and Mental Health Learning Matters, UK</ref> as well as hental health counselors, marriage and family therapists, [[psychotherapists]], [[Licensed Professional Counselor|counselors]] and [[public health]] professionals. Those with personal experience of using mental health services are also increasingly involved in researching and delivering mental health services and working as mental health professionals.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Goldstrom ID, Campbell J, Rogers JA, ''et al.'' |title=National estimates for mental health mutual support groups, self-help organizations, and consumer-operated services |journal=Adm Policy Ment Health |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=92–103 |year=2006 |month=January |pmid=16240075 |doi=10.1007/s10488-005-0019-x |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/u132325343qlw4r0/}}</ref><ref>The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (1998) [http://www.jrf.org.uk/knowledge/findings/socialcare/SCR488.asp The experiences of mental health service users as mental health professionals]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Chamberlin J |title=User/consumer involvement in mental health service delivery |journal=Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=10–4 |year=2005 |pmid=15792289 }}</ref><ref>Terence V. McCann, John Baird, Eileen Clark, Sai Lu (2006) [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1447-0349.2006.00432.x Beliefs about using consumer consultants in inpatient psychiatric units] ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'' 15 (4), 258–265.</ref> The different clinical and scientific perspectives draw on diverse fields of research and theory, and different disciplines may favor differing models, explanations and goals.<ref name="Rogers&Pilgram05">{{cite book |author=Pilgrim, David; Rogers, Anne |title=A sociology of mental health and illness |publisher=Open University Press |location=[Milton Keynes] |year=2005 |isbn=0-335-21583-1 |edition=3rd}}</ref>

== Movements ==

The [[consumer/survivor movement]] (also known as user/survivor movement) is made up of individuals (and organizations representing them) who are clients of mental health services or who consider themselves "survivors" of mental health services. The movement campaigns for improved mental health services and for more involvement and empowerment within mental health services, policies and wider society.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Everett B |title=Something is happening: the contemporary consumer and psychiatric survivor movement in historical context |journal=Journal of Mind and Behavior |volume=15 |issue=1-2 |pages=55–7 |year=1994 |url=http://www.umaine.edu/JMB/archives/volume15/15_1-2_1994winterspring.html#abstract4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rissmiller DJ, Rissmiller JH |title=Evolution of the antipsychiatry movement into mental health consumerism |journal=Psychiatr Serv |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=863–6 |year=2006 |month=June |pmid=16754765 |doi=10.1176/appi.ps.57.6.863 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Oaks D |title=The evolution of the consumer movement |journal=Psychiatr Serv |volume=57 |issue=8 |pages=1212; author reply 1216 |year=2006 |month=August |pmid=16870979 |doi=10.1176/appi.ps.57.8.1212 |url=http://psychservices.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/57/8/1212}}</ref> [[Patient advocacy]] organizations have expanded with increasing [[deinstitutionalization]] in developed countries, working to challenge the [[stereotypes]], [[stigma]] and exclusion associated with psychiatric conditions. An [[antipsychiatry]] movement fundamentally challenges mainstream psychiatric theory and practice, including asserting that psychiatric diagnoses of mental illnesses are neither real nor useful.<ref name=AntiPsychCoal>The Antipsychiatry Coalition. (2005, November 26). The Antipsychiatry Coalition. Retrieved April 19, 2007, from www.antipsychiatry.org</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=O'Brien AP, Woods M, Palmer C |title=The emancipation of nursing practice: applying anti-psychiatry to the therapeutic community |journal=Aust N Z J Ment Health Nurs |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=3–9 |year=2001 |month=March |pmid=11421968 |doi=10.1046/j.1440-0979.2001.00183.x |url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1440-0979.2001.00183.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Weitz D |title=Call me antipsychiatry activist—not "consumer" |journal=Ethical Hum Sci Serv |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=71–2 |year=2003 |pmid=15279009 }}</ref>

== Laws and policies ==
Three quarters of countries around the world have mental
health legislation. Compulsory admission to mental health facilities (also known as [[Involuntary commitment]] or [[sectioning]]), is a controversial topic. From some points of view it can impinge on personal liberty and the right to choose, and carry the risk of abuse for political, social and other reasons; from other points of view, it can potentially prevent harm to self and others, and assist some people in attaining their right to healthcare when unable to decide in their own interests.<ref name="WHORIGHTS">World Health Organization (2005) [http://www.who.int/mental_health/policy/who_rb_mnh_hr_leg_FINAL_11_07_05.pdf WHO Resource Book on Mental Health: Human rights and legislation] ISBN 924156282 (PDF)</ref>

All human-rights oriented mental health laws require proof of the presence of a mental disorder as defined by internationally accepted standards, but the type and severity of disorder that counts can vary in different jurisdictions. The two most often utilized grounds for involuntary admission are said to be serious likelihood of immediate or imminent danger to self or others, and the need for treatment. Applications for someone to be involuntarily admitted may usually come from a mental health practitioner, a family member, a close relative, or a guardian. Human-rights-oriented laws usually stipulate that independent medical practitioners or other accredited mental health practitioners must examine the patient separately and that there should be regular, time-bound review by an independent review body.<ref name="WHORIGHTS"/> An individual must be shown to lack the capacity to give or withhold informed consent (i.e. to understand treatment information and its implications). Legal challenges in some areas have resulted in [[supreme court]] decisions that a person does NOT have to agree with a psychiatrist's characterization of their issues as an "illness", nor with a psychiatrist's conviction in medication, but only recognise the issues and the information about treatment options.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sklar R |title=Starson v. Swayze: the Supreme Court speaks out (not all that clearly) on the question of "capacity" |journal=Can J Psychiatry |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=390–6 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17696026 }}</ref>

Proxy consent (also known as [[substituted decision-making]]) may be given to a personal representative, a family member or a legally appointed guardian, or patients may have been able to enact an [[advance directive]] as to how they wish to be treated.<ref name="WHORIGHTS"/> The right to [[supported decision-making]] may also be included in legislation.<ref>Manitoba Family Services and Housing. The Vulnerable Persons Living with a Mental Disability Act, 1996</ref> [[Involuntary treatment]] laws are increasingly extended to those living in the community, for example [[outpatient commitment]] laws (known by different names) are used in [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], [[United Kingdom]] and most of the [[United States]].

The World Health Organization reports that in many instances national mental health legislation takes away the rights of persons with mental disorders rather than protecting rights, and is often outdated.<ref name="WHORIGHTS"/> In 1991, the [[United Nations]] adopted the [[Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness and the Improvement of Mental Health Care]], which established minimum human rights standards of practice in the mental health field. In 2006 the UN formally agreed the [[Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities]] to protect and enhance the rights and opportunities of disabled people, including those with psychosocial disabilities<ref>[http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/ ENABLE website] UN section on disability</ref>

The term [[insanity]], sometimes used [[Colloquialism|colloquially]] as a [[synonym]] for mental illness, is often used technically as a legal term.

== Perception and discrimination ==
=== Stigma ===

The [[social stigma]] associated with mental disorders is a widespread problem. Some people believe those with serious mental illnesses cannot recover, or are to blame for problems.<ref>[http://www.camh.net/News_events/News_releases_and_media_advisories_and_backgrounders/torontostar_stigmaoped1204.html CAMH: Toronto Star Opinion Editorial: Ending stigma of mental illness]</ref> The US Surgeon General stated in 1999 that: "Powerful and pervasive, stigma prevents people from acknowledging their own mental health problems, much less disclosing them to others.<ref>[http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter8/sec1.html Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General - Chapter 8]</ref> [[Employment discrimination]] is reported to play a significant part in the high rate of [[unemployment]] among those with a diagnosis of mental illness.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stuart H |title=Mental illness and employment discrimination |journal=Curr Opin Psychiatry |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=522–6 |year=2006 |month=September |pmid=16874128 |doi=10.1097/01.yco.0000238482.27270.5d |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/542517}}</ref>

Efforts are being undertaken worldwide to eliminate the stigma of mental illness<ref>[http://bipolarworld-net.canadawebhosting.com/Disability/Stigma/stop_stigma.htm Stop Stigma]</ref> Their methods and outcomes have sometimes been criticized as counterproductive.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Read J, Haslam N, Sayce L, Davies E |title=Prejudice and schizophrenia: a review of the 'mental illness is an illness like any other' approach |journal=Acta Psychiatr Scand |volume=114 |issue=5 |pages=303–18 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17022790 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00824.x }}</ref>

A study by [[Baylor University]] researchers found that clergy often deny or dismiss the existence of the mental illness. In a study published in Mental Health, Religion and Culture, researchers found that in a study of 293 Christian church members, more than 32 percent were told by their church pastor that they or their loved one did not really have a mental illness. The study found these church members were told the cause of their problem was solely spiritual in nature, such as a personal sin, lack of faith or demonic involvement. Baylor researchers also found that women were more likely than men to have their mental disorders dismissed by the church. All of the participants in both studies were previously diagnosed by a licensed mental health provider as having a serious mental illness, like [[bipolar disorder]] and [[schizophrenia]], prior to approaching their local church for assistance.<ref>[http://newswise.com/articles/view/545316/ Study Finds Serious Mental Illness Often Dismissed by Local Church] Newswise, Retrieved on [[October 15]], [[2008]].</ref>

=== Media and general public ===
{{main|Mental disorders in art and literature}}

Media coverage of mental illness comprises predominantly negative depictions, for example, of incompetence, violence or criminality, with far less coverage of positive issues such as accomplishments or [[human rights]] issues.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Coverdate J, Nairn R, Claasen D |title= Depictions of mental illness in print media: a prospective national sample |journal=Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=697–700 |year=2001 |doi=10.1046/j.1440-1614.2002.00998.x |url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1440-1614.2002.00998.x}}</ref><ref>Edney, RD. (2004) [http://www.ontario.cmha.ca/content/about_mental_illness/mass_media.asp Mass Media and Mental Illness: A Literature Review] Canadian Mental Health Association</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Diefenbach DL |title=The portrayal of mental illness on prime-time television |journal=Journal of Community Psychology |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=289–302 |year=1998 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(199705)25:3<289::AID-JCOP5>3.0.CO;2-R |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/46099/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0}}</ref> Such negative depictions, including in children's cartoons, are thought to contribute to [[stigma]] and negative attitudes in the public and in those with mental health problems themselves, although more sensitive or serious cinematic portrayals have increased in prevalence.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sieff, E |title=Media frames of mental illnesses: The potential impact of negative frames |journal=Journal of Mental Health |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=259–69 |year=2003 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/cjmh/2003/00000012/00000003/art00006 |doi=10.1080/0963823031000118249}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Wahl, O.F. |title=News Media Portrayal of Mental Illness: Implications for Public Policy |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=1594–600 |year=2003 |doi=10.1177/0002764203254615 |url=http://abs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/46/12/1594 }}</ref>

In the [[United States]], [[Carter Center|The Carter Center]] has created fellowships for journalists in [[South Africa]], the U.S., and [[Romania]], to enable reporters to research and write stories on mental health topics.<ref name="Fellows">{{Citation | author= The Carter Center | title="The Carter Center Awards 2008-2009 Rosalynn Carter Fellowships for Mental Health Journalism" |date=2008-07-18|
url=http://www.cartercenter.com/news/pr/mental_health_fellows_2008_2009.html|accessdate=2008-07-21}}</ref> Former [[First Lady of the United States|U.S. First Lady]] [[Rosalynn Carter]] began the fellowships not only to train reporters in how to sensitively and accurately discuss mental health and mental illness, but also to increase the number of stories on these topics in the news media.<ref name="RCFellows">{{Citation | author= The Carter Center|title="The Rosalynn Carter Fellowships For Mental Health Journalism"|url=http://www.cartercenter.com/health/mental_health/fellowships/index.html|accessdate=2008-07-21}}</ref><ref name="RCadvoc">{{Citation | author= The Carter Center|title="Rosalynn Carter's Advocacy in Mental Health"|url=http://www.cartercenter.com/health/mental_health/rc_advocacy.html|accessdate=2008-07-21}}</ref>

The general public have been found to hold a strong stereotype of dangerousness and desire for social distance from individuals described as mentally ill.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Link BG, Phelan JC, Bresnahan M, Stueve A, Pescosolido BA |title=Public conceptions of mental illness: labels, causes, dangerousness, and social distance |journal=Am J Public Health |volume=89 |issue=9 |pages=1328–33 |year=1999 |month=September |pmid=10474548 |pmc=1508784 |url=http://www.ajph.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10474548 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.89.9.1328}}</ref>

===Violence===
People with mental disorders are often afraid of violence against them. Over a quarter of individuals diagnosed with "severe mental illness" accessing community mental health services in a US inner-city area were found to have been victims of at least one violent crime in a year, a proportion eleven times higher than the inner-city average. The proportion is many times greater in every category of crime, including rape/sexual assault, other violent assaults, and personal and property theft.<ref>Linda A. Teplin, PhD; Gary M. McClelland, PhD; Karen M. Abram, PhD; Dana A. Weiner, PhD (2005) [http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/62/8/911 Crime Victimization in Adults With Severe Mental Illness: Comparison With the National Crime Victimization Survey] Arch Gen Psychiatry. 62(8):911-921.</ref><ref>Petersilia, J.R. (2001) [http://cjb.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/28/6/655?ijkey=3a7777608a8a96498b90a1bd867e7c6efb2a6121&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha Crime Victims With Developmental Disabilities: A Review Essay] Criminal Justice and Behavior, Vol. 28, No. 6, 655-694 (2001)</ref> Findings consistently indicate that it is many times more likely that people diagnosed with a serious mental illness living in the community will be the victims rather than the perpetrators of violence.<ref name="Stuart03"/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Brekke JS, Prindle C, Bae SW, Long JD |title=Risks for individuals with schizophrenia who are living in the community |journal=Psychiatr Serv |volume=52 |issue=10 |pages=1358–66 |year=2001 |month=October |pmid=11585953 |url=http://ps.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11585953 |doi=10.1176/appi.ps.52.10.1358}}</ref>

Violence related to mental disorder (against the mentally ill or by the mentally ill) typically occurs in the context of complex social interactions, often in a family setting rather than between strangers.<ref>Solomon, PL., Cavanaugh, MM., Gelles, RJ. (2005) [http://tva.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/6/1/40 Family Violence among Adults with Severe Mental Illness.] ''Trauma, Violence, & Abuse'', Vol. 6, No. 1, 40-54</ref> It is also an issue in health care settings<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chou KR, Lu RB, Chang M |title=Assaultive behavior by psychiatric in-patients and its related factors |journal=J Nurs Res |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=139–51 |year=2001 |month=December |pmid=11779087 }}</ref> and the wider community.<ref>B. Lögdberg, L.-L. Nilsson, M. T. Levander, S. Levander (2004) [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0047.2004.00322.x/abs/ Schizophrenia, neighborhood, and crime.] ''[[Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica]],'' 110(2) Page 92.</ref>

One US national survey found that a much higher percentage of Americans rated individuals described as displaying the characteristics of a mental disorder (for example schizophrenia or substance use disorder) as "likely to do something violent to others" compared to those described as being 'troubled'.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pescosolido BA, Monahan J, Link BG, Stueve A, Kikuzawa S |title=The public's view of the competence, dangerousness, and need for legal coercion of persons with mental health problems |journal=Am J Public Health |volume=89 |issue=9 |pages=1339–45 |year=1999 |month=September |pmid=10474550 |pmc=1508769 |url=http://www.ajph.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10474550 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.89.9.1339}}</ref> Research indicates a higher than average number of violent acts by individuals with [[antisocial personality disorder]]. There are conflicting findings about specific symptoms (for example links between [[psychosis]] and violence in community settings), but the mediating factors of such acts are most consistently found to be mainly socio-demographic and socio-economic factors such as being young, [[male]], of lower socio-economic [[status]] and, in particular, being a substance abuser (including abusing [[alcohol]]).<ref name="Rogers&Pilgram05"/><ref name="Stuart03">{{cite journal |author=Stuart H |title=Violence and mental illness: an overview |journal=World Psychiatry |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=121–124 |year=2003 |month=June |pmid=16946914 |pmc=1525086 }}</ref><ref>Steadman HJ, Mulvey EP, Monahan J, Robbins PC, Appelbaum PS, Grisso T, Roth LH, Silver E. (1998) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Retrieve&list_uids=9596041 Violence by people discharged from acute psychiatric inpatient facilities and by others in the same neighborhoods.] ''Archives of General Psychiatry.'' May;55(5):393-401.</ref> High-profile cases have lead to fears that serious crimes, such as homicide, have increased due to [[deinstitutionalization]]; however, the evidence does not support this conclusion.<ref>Taylor, P.J., Gunn, J. (1999) [http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/abstract/174/1/9 Homicides by people with mental illness: Myth and reality] British Journal of Psychiatry Volume 174, Issue JAN., 1999, Pages 9-14</ref>

==Non-human==
[[Psychopathology]] in non-human [[primates]] has been studied since the mid 20th century. Over 20 behavioral patterns in captive chimpanzees have been documented as (statistically) abnormal for their frequency, severity or oddness - some of which have also been observed in the wild. Captive [[great apes]] show gross behavioral abnormalities such as [[stereotypy]] of movements, [[self-mutilation]], disturbed emotional reactions (mainly fear or aggression) towards companions, lack of species-typical communications, and generalized [[learned helplessness]]. In some cases such behaviors are hypothesized to be equivalent to symptoms associated with psychiatric disorders in humans such as depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder. Concepts of antisocial, borderline and schizoid personality disorders have also been applied to non-human great apes.<ref name="Brune2006">{{cite journal |author=Brüne M, Brüne-Cohrs U, McGrew WC, Preuschoft S |title=Psychopathology in great apes: concepts, treatment options and possible homologies to human psychiatric disorders |journal=Neurosci Biobehav Rev |volume=30 |issue=8 |pages=1246–59 |year=2006 |pmid=17141312 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.09.002 }}</ref>

The risk of [[anthropomorphism]] is often raised with regard to such comparisons, and assessment of non-human animals cannot incorporate evidence from linguistic communication. However, available evidence may range from nonverbal behaviors - including physiological responses and homologous facial displays and acoustic utterances - to neurochemical studies. It is pointed out that human psychiatric classification is often based on statistical description and judgement of behaviors (especially when speech or language is impaired) and that the use of verbal self-report is itself problematic and unreliable.<ref name="Brune2006"/><ref name="Fabrega2006">{{cite journal |author=Fabrega H |title=Making sense of behavioral irregularities of great apes |journal=Neurosci Biobehav Rev |volume=30 |issue=8 |pages=1260–73; discussion 1274–7 |year=2006 |pmid=17079015 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.09.004 }}</ref>

Psychopathology has generally been traced, at least in captivity, to adverse rearing conditions such as early separation of infants from mothers; early sensory deprivation; and extended periods of social isolation. Studies have also indicated individual variation in temperament, such as sociability or impulsiveness. Particular causes of problems in captivity have included integration of strangers in to existing groups and a lack of individual space, in which context some pathological behaviors have also been seen as coping mechanisms. Remedial interventions have included careful individually-tailored re-socialization programs, [[behavior therapy]], environment enrichment, and on rare occasions psychiatric drugs. Socialization has been found to work 90% of the time in disturbed chimpanzees, although restoration of functional sexuality and care-giving is often not achieved.<ref name="Brune2006"/><ref name="Lilienfeld1999">{{cite journal |author=Lilienfeld SO, Gershon J, Duke M, Marino L, de Waal FB |title=A preliminary investigation of the construct of psychopathic personality (psychopathy) in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) |journal=J Comp Psychol |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=365–75 |year=1999 |month=December |pmid=10608560 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/com/113/4/365 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.113.4.365}}</ref>

Laboratory researchers sometimes try to induce symptoms in animals through genetic, neurological or behavioral manipulation,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moran M |title=Animals Can Model Psychiatric Symptoms |journal=Psychiatric News |volume=38 |issue=12 |pages=20 |date=June 20, 2003 |url=http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/38/12/20 |month=Jun |day=20}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Sánchez MM, Ladd CO, Plotsky PM |title=Early adverse experience as a developmental risk factor for later psychopathology: evidence from rodent and primate models |journal=Dev. Psychopathol. |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=419–49 |year=2001 |pmid=11523842 |doi= 10.1017/S0954579401003029|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?aid=82066}}</ref> although this has been criticized on [[empirical]] grounds{{Fact|date=January 2009}} and opposed on [[animal rights]] grounds.

== See also ==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
* [[Allan Memorial Institute]]
* [[Anti-psychiatry]]
* [[Douglas Hospital]]
* [[DSM-IV Codes]]
* [[List of mentally ill monarchs]]
* [[Mental disorder defence]]
* [[Mental disorders and gender]]
{{Col-break}}
* [[Mental health]]
* [[Mental Illness Awareness Week]]
* [[Mental illness in films]]
* [[Mental retardation]]
* [[Psychiatric assessment]]
* [[Psychopathology]]
* [[Self-help groups for mental health]]
* [[Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV]] ''(SCID)''
{{Col-end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

=== Further reading ===

* Atkinson, J. (2006) ''Private and Public Protection: Civil Mental Health Legislation'', Edinburgh, Dunedin Academic Press ISBN 1903765617
* {{cite book | author=Hockenbury, Don and Sandy | title=Discovering Psychology | publisher=Worth Publishers | year=2004 | isbn=0-7167-5704-4}}
* {{cite book | author=Fried, Yehuda and Joseph Agassi, | title=Paranoia: A Study in Diagnosis| publisher=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 50 | year=1976 | isbn=90-277-0704-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Fried, Yehuda and Joseph Agassi, | title=Psychiatry as Medicine | publisher=The HAgue, Nijhoff| year=1983 | isbn=90-247-2837-1}}
* {{cite book |author=[[Roy Porter|Porter, Roy]] |title=Madness: a brief history |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-280266-6 }}
* Weller M.P.I. and Eysenck M. The Scientific Basis of Psychiatry, W.B. Saunders, London, Philadelphia, Toronto etc. 1992
* Wiencke, Markus (2006) ''Schizophrenie als Ergebnis von Wechselwirkungen: Georg Simmels Individualitätskonzept in der Klinischen Psychologie''. In David Kim (ed.), ''Georg Simmel in Translation: Interdisciplinary Border-Crossings in Culture and Modernity'' (pp. 123–155). Cambridge Scholars Press, Cambridge, ISBN 1-84718-060-5

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Mental_illness.ogg|2005-08-20}}
* [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/ NIMH.NIH.gov] - 'Working to improve mental health through biomedical research on mind, brain, and behavior', [[National Institute of Mental Health]] ([[United States]])
* [http://www.nimhe.csip.org.uk/ NIMHE] - 'Responsible for supporting the implementation of positive change in mental health and mental health services', [[National Institute for Mental Health]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [http://www.cartercenter.com/health/mental_health/intl_women.html International Committee of Women Leaders on Mental Health] – an international body of women political leaders founded by the World Mental Health Federation to produce positive change for citizens who struggle with mental illnesses.
* [http://www.brokenplate.biz/mental-disorder-in-old-age.html Mental Disorder In Old Age]
* [http://dictionary-psychology.com Psychology Dictionary]
* [http://www.psychiatrist.com/ Journal of Clinical Psychiatry]
* [http://www.miwatch.org/ Mental Illness Watch]
*[http://www.cchr.org.uk Citizens Commission on Human Rights.] Report Psychiatric Abuse.
*[http://metapsychology.mentalhelp.net/poc/center_index.php?id=390&cn=390 ''Metapsychology Online Reviews'': Medications & Psychiatry]
* [http://www.bu.edu/phpbin/buniverse/videos/view/?id=344 "Confronting the Stigma of Mental Illness with Empowerment and Advocacy"] Lecture given at Boston University, April 8 2009

{{Medical conditions}}
{{Mental illness (alphabetical list)}}
{{Mental and behavioural disorders}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mental Disorder}}
[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ICD]]
[[Category:Psychiatry]]
[[Category:Psychology]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Abnormal psychology]]
[[Category:Human rights]]

[[ar:مرض عقلي]]
[[zh-min-nan:Cheng-sîn-pēⁿ]]
[[ca:Malaltia mental]]
[[cs:Duševní porucha]]
[[cy:Afiechyd meddwl]]
[[da:Psykisk sygdom]]
[[de:Psychische Störung]]
[[et:Psüühika- ja käitumishäired]]
[[es:Enfermedad mental]]
[[eo:Psika malsano]]
[[eu:Buruko gaitza]]
[[fa:بیماری روانی]]
[[fr:Maladie mentale]]
[[gl:Enfermidade mental]]
[[ko:정신 질환]]
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[[is:Geðsjúkdómur]]
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[[he:הפרעה נפשית]]
[[la:Morbus mentalis]]
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[[ja:精神疾患]]
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[[pt:Doença mental]]
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[[zh:精神疾病]]

Jack Welch

2009-09-25T14:34:12Z

128.197.210.89: /* External links */

{{for|the American illustrator|Jack Welch (illustrator)}}
{{Infobox Person
| name = Dr. John Francis Welch, Jr.
| image =
| image_size = 200px
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1935|11|19}}
| birth_place = [[Peabody, Massachusetts]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Management]] expert, [[Chief executive officer|CEO]], [[author]]
| main interests =
| spouse = [[Carolyn Welch]], [[Jane Welch]], [[Suzy Welch]]
| url =
}}
'''Dr. John Francis "Jack" Welch, Jr., PhD''' (born {{birth date|1935|11|19}}) is the former [[Chairman]] and [[Chief Executive Officer|CEO]] of [[General Electric]] between 1981 and 2001. Welch gained a solid reputation for uncanny business acumen and unique leadership strategies at GE. He remains a highly regarded figure in business circles due to his innovative management strategies and leadership style.

Welch's net worth is estimated at $720 million.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.bostonmagazine.com/articles/the_50_wealthiest_bostonians/ |title= The 50 Wealthiest Bostonians |accessdate=2008-10-03 |last= Storrs |first= Francis |coauthors= |date= March 2006 |work= |publisher= [[Boston magazine]]}}</ref>

==Early life and career==

Jack Welch was born in [[Peabody, Massachusetts]] to John, a [[Boston & Maine Railroad]] conductor, and Grace, a housewife.

Welch attended [[Salem High School (Massachusetts)|Salem High School]] and later the [[University of Massachusetts Amherst]], graduating in 1957 with a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in [[chemical engineering]]. While at UMass he was a member of the Alpha chapter of the [[Phi Sigma Kappa]] fraternity.

Welch went on to receive his [[Master's degree|M.S.]] and [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D]] at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] in 1960.

Welch joined General Electric in 1960. He worked as a junior [[engineer]] in [[Pittsfield, Massachusetts]], at a [[salary]] of $10,500 annually. Welch was displeased with the $1,000 raise he was offered after his first year, as well as the strict bureaucracy within GE. He planned to leave the company to work with International Minerals & Chemicals in [[Skokie, Illinois]].

However, Reuben Gutoff, a young executive two levels higher than Welch, decided that the man was too valuable a resource for the company to lose. He took Welch and his first wife Carolyn out to dinner at the Yellow Aster in Pittsfield, and spent eight hours trying to convince Welch to stay. Gutoff vowed to work to change the bureaucracy to create a small-company environment.

<blockquote>"''Trust me''," Gutoff remembers pleading. "''As long as I am here, you are going to get a shot to operate with the best of the big company and the worst part of it pushed aside''."
"''Well, you are on trial''," retorted Welch.
"''I'm glad to be on trial''," Gutoff said. "''To try to keep you here is important''."
At daybreak, Welch gave him his answer. "''It was one of my better marketing jobs in life''," recalls Gutoff. "''But then he said to me--and this is vintage Jack--'I'm still going to have the party because I like parties, and besides, I think they have some little presents for me.'''" Some 12 years later, Welch would audaciously write in his annual performance review that his long-term goal was to become CEO.<ref name=Byrne1998>[http://www.businessweek.com/1998/23/b3581001.htm How Jack Welch Runs GE]</ref></blockquote>

Welch was named a [[vice president]] of GE in 1972. He moved up the ranks to become senior vice president in 1977 and vice chairman in 1979. Welch became GE's youngest chairman and CEO in 1981, succeeding [[Reginald H. Jones]]. By 1982, Welch had disassembled much of the earlier management put together by Jones.

==Tenure as CEO of GE==
Through the 1980s, Welch worked to streamline GE. In 1981 he made a speech in [[New York City]] called "Growing fast in a slow-growth economy".<ref>Betsy Morris, [http://money.cnn.com/2006/07/10/magazines/fortune/rules.fortune/index.htm 'Tearing up the Jack Welch playbook'] (11.7.2006) ''Fortune'' at CNNmoney.com</ref> This is often acknowledged as the "dawn" of the obsession with [[shareholder value]]. Later, in an interview with the [[Financial Times]] on the [[Global financial crisis of 2008–2009]], Welch said, “On the face of it, shareholder value is the dumbest idea in the world. Shareholder value is a result, not a strategy... your main constituencies are your employees, your customers and your products.”<ref>{{cite news
| last = Guerrera
| first = Francesco
| coauthors =
| title = Welch rues short-term profit ‘obsession’
| work =
| pages =
| language =
| publisher = Financial Times
| date = [[2009-03-12]]
| url = http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/294ff1f2-0f27-11de-ba10-0000779fd2ac.html
| accessdate = 2009-03-12}}
</ref>

He also pushed the managers of the businesses he kept to become more productive. Welch worked to eradicate inefficiency by trimming inventories and dismantling the bureaucracy that had almost led him to leave GE in the past. He shut down factories, reduced payrolls and cut lackluster old-line units. Welch's philosophy was that a company should be either #1 or #2 in a particular industry, or else leave it completely. Welch's strategy was later adopted by other CEOs across corporate America.

Each year, Welch would fire the bottom 10% of his managers. He earned a reputation for brutal candor in his meetings with executives. He would push his managers to perform, but he would reward those in the top 20% with bonuses and stock options. He also expanded the broadness of the stock options program at GE from just top executives to nearly one third of all employees. Welch is also known for destroying the nine-layer management hierarchy and bringing a sense of informality to the company.

During the early 1980s he was dubbed "Neutron Jack" (in reference to the [[neutron bomb]]) for eliminating employees while leaving buildings intact. In ''Jack: Straight From The Gut'', Welch states that GE had 411,000 employees at the end of 1980, and 299,000 at the end of 1985. Of the 112,000 who left the payroll, 37,000 were in sold businesses, and 81,000 were reduced in continuing businesses. In return, GE had increased its market capital tremendously.

In 1986, GE acquired NBC, which was located in Rockefeller Center; Welch subsequently took up an office in the GE Building at 30 Rockefeller Plaza. During the 1990s, Welch helped to modernize GE by shifting from manufacturing to financial services through numerous acquisitions.

Welch adopted Motorola's [[Six Sigma]] quality program in late 1995. He led the company to massive revenues. In 1980, the year before Welch became CEO, GE recorded revenues of roughly $26.8 billion. In 2000, the year before he left, the revenues increased to nearly $130 billion. When Jack Welch left GE, the company had gone from a market value of $14 billion to one of more than $410 billion at the end of 2004, making it the most valuable and largest company in the world.

At the time of his retirement, Welch received a salary of $4 million a year, followed by his record retirement plan of $8 million a year. In 1999 he was named "Manager of the Century" by Fortune magazine.

There was a lengthy and well-publicized succession planning saga prior to his retirement between [[James McNerney]], [[Robert Nardelli]], and [[Jeffrey Immelt]], with Immelt eventually selected to succeed him as Chairman and CEO. Nardelli became the CEO of [[Home Depot]] until his resignation in early 2007, and until recently, was the CEO of [[Chrysler]], while McNerney became CEO of [[3M]] until he left that post to serve in the same capacity at [[Boeing]].

==Criticism==

Some industry analysts claim that Welch is given too much credit for GE's success. They contend that individual managers are largely responsible for the company's success.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Khurana
| first = Rakesh
| coauthors =
| title = Good Charisma, Bad Business
| work =
| pages =
| language =
| publisher = New York Times
| date = [[2002-09-13]]
| url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C02E0DD1031F930A2575AC0A9649C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all
| accessdate = 2008-07-06}}
</ref> For example [[GE Capital]], under Gary C. Wendt, contributed nearly 40% of the company's total earnings while NBC and [[Robert Charles Wright|Robert C. Wright]] worked to turn the network around, leading to five years of double-digit earnings growth. It is also held that Welch did not rescue GE from great losses as the company had 16% annual earnings growth during the tenure of his predecessor, Reginald H. Jones. Critics also say that "the pressure Welch imposes leads some employees to cut corners, possibly contributing to some of the defense-contracting scandals that have plagued GE, or to the humiliating [[Kidder, Peabody & Co.]] bond-trading scheme of the early 1990s that generated bogus profits".<ref name="Byrne1998" />

Welch has also received criticism over the years for an apparent lack of compassion for the middle class and working class. Welch has publicly stated that he is not concerned with the discrepancy between the salaries of top-paid CEOs and those of average workers. When asked about the issue of excessive CEO pay, Welch has stated that such allegations are "outrageous" and has vehemently opposed proposed [[United States Securities and Exchange Commission|SEC]] regulations affecting executive compensation. Countering the public uproar over excessive executive pay (including backdating [[stock options]], [[golden parachutes]] for nonperformance, and extravagant retirement packages), Welch stated that CEO compensation should continue to be dictated by the free market, without interference from government or other outside agencies.<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13840941/ 'Hardball with Chris Matthews' for July 12, 2006]</ref> In addition, Welch is a vocal opponent of the [[Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002]].<ref>[http://juniorbird.com/archive/001455.php Jack Welch Gives Straight Talk About Winning]</ref>

His views are often described as controversial, particularly regarding [[Corporate social responsibility|CSR]], which he regards as an attractive strategy as long as customers are prepared to put up with the higher prices that go with it. The 2009 recession, says Welch, makes it very difficult for consumers to choose higher prices simply for the benefit of "feeling good about themselves". On environmentally friendly cars, he says: "When gas costs $4 per gallon, a hybrid [[Toyota Prius]] is an attractive value proposition. When gas is $2 per gallon, that's no longer the case. When most consumers have good jobs and feel secure in them, it makes sense to expect them to pay more for a product that's environmentally friendly. When bank accounts have been drained, that more expensive product is a very tough sell."<ref>[http://director.co.uk/ONLINE/05_09_jack_welch3.html 'Profits first, CSR second' for May 26, 2009]</ref>

==Personal life==

Welch has had a slight [[stuttering|stutter]] since childhood. He had four children with his first wife, Carolyn. They [[divorce]]d amicably in April 1987 after 28 years of marriage. His second wife, Jane Beasley, was a former [[Mergers and acquisitions|mergers-and-acquisitions]] lawyer. She married Jack in April 1989, and they divorced in 2003. While Welch had crafted a [[prenuptial agreement]], Beasley insisted on a ten-year time limit to its applicability, and thus she was able to leave the marriage with an amount believed to be in the range of $180 million.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3992381.stm Lovers seek lawyers as divorce booms]</ref>

The third wife of Jack Welch is [[Suzy Wetlaufer]], who co-authored his 2005 book ''Winning'' as Suzy Welch. Wetlaufer served briefly as the editor-in-chief of the ''Harvard Business Review'' before being forced to resign in early 2002 after admitting to having been involved in an affair with Welch while preparing an interview with him for the magazine.

Welch underwent triple [[bypass surgery]] in May 1995. He returned to work full time in September of the same year and also adopted an exercise schedule that included golf. Welch is a member of [[Augusta National Golf Club]]. However, in ''Winning'', Welch acknowledges that back problems forced him to give up playing golf, and that, surprisingly, he doesn't miss it. He acknowledges using his time formerly spent on the golf course to consult with companies and indulge other personal interests such as modern art, international travel, teaching and attending [[Boston Red Sox|Red Sox]] games. Since then, he has picked up his golf game, playing at courses such as Nantucket Golf Club, [[Sankaty Head Golf Club]], and the Country Club of Fairfield, CT, among others.

On [[January 25]], [[2006]], Welch gave his name to [[Sacred Heart University]]'s College of Business, which will be known as the "John F. Welch College of Business".<ref>[http://www.sacredheart.edu/pages/12142_sacred_heart_university_names_college_of_business_for_legendary_ge_chairman_jack_welch.cfm Sacred Heart University Names College of Business for Legendary GE Chairman Jack Welch]</ref>

Since September 2006, Welch has been teaching a class at the [[MIT Sloan School of Management]] to a hand-picked group of 30 MBA students with a demonstrated career interest in [[leadership]].<ref>[http://mitsloan.mit.edu/newsroom/2006-welchclass.php Corporate icon Jack Welch to teach at MIT Sloan]</ref> He is also a [[global warming]] skeptic.<ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/peter-sasso/2008/07/03/former-general-electric-ceo-jack-welsh-global-warming-skeptic Peter Sasso reports on MSNBC's Morning Joe: global warming skepticism]</ref> Yet he has said that every business must embrace green products and green ways of doing business, "whether you believe in global warming or not...…because the world wants these products." <ref>[http://www.freshdialogues.com/2009/05/12/jack-welch-why-companies-must-go-green/ Fresh Dialogues Interview with Alison van Diggelen, May 2009]</ref>

Thanks to a donation from Jack Welch the Jack Welch Management Institute at the Chancellor University in Ohio was found in July 2009. The institute offers a MBA program based on Welch's management philosophy. Classes are offered both online and at the school’s Cleveland campus.<ref>[http://www.mba-channel.com/channel/article/jack-welch-mba/ The Jack Welch MBA, July 2009]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Vitality curve]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Books==
* ''Jack: Straight From The Gut'', (ISBN 0-446-69068-6)
* ''Winning'' by Jack and Suzy Welch - HarperCollins (April 2005), (ISBN 0-06-075394-3)
* ''Winning: The Answers'' by Jack and Suzy Welch - Harper 2006, (ISBN 0-00725264-1)
* ''Jack Welch and the GE way : management insights and leadership secrets of the legendary CEO'' by Robert Slater (ISBN
0070581045)
* ''The New GE: How Jack Welch Revived an American Institution'', (ISBN 1-55623-670-0)
* ''Jacked Up: The Inside Story of how Jack Welch Talked GE into Becoming the World's Greatest Company'' by Bill Lane - McGraw Hill (2008), (ISBN 978-0-07-154410-8)
* ''At Any Cost: Jack Welch, General Electric, and the Pursuit of Profit'', (ISBN 0-375-70567-8)

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

===Bios===
*[http://www.welchway.com/ Official Website of Jack Welch]
*[http://www.straightfromthegut.com/ Jack - Straight from the Gut]
*[http://www.cdr-inc.com Clayton, Dubilier & Rice, Inc.]
*[http://www.suzywelch101010.com/ Official Website of Suzy Welch]
*[http://us.hsmglobal.com/interior/index.php?p=speaker&idPersona=574&idEvento=184 Jack Welch Speaker Biography ] on the [[World Business Forum]] website where he is a speaker for the 2009 event

===Articles===
*[http://www.imno.org/articles.asp?qid=163&sid=18 IMNO Interviews Jack Welch Nov 2004]
*[http://www.businessweek.com/1996/44/b34991.htm Jack Welch's Encore - 1996 Business Week article]
*[http://www.spcpress.com/pdf/The_Final_6_Sigma_Zone.pdf The Six-Sigma Zone]
*[http://www.businessweek.com/1998/23/b3581001.htm How Jack Welch Runs GE - 1998 Business Week article]
*[http://www.nni.nikkei.co.jp/FR/TNKS/TNKSHM/welch/index.html Jack Welch: My Personal History]
*[http://money.cnn.com/2006/07/10/magazines/fortune/rules.fortune/index.htm Tearing up the Jack Welch playbook - 2006 Fortune article]
*[http://www.execdigital.com/Magazine.aspx?id=1208&page=26 The Power of Two: Jack & Suzy Welch - 2009 Exec Digital]

===Awards===
*[http://www.timewarner.com/corp/newsroom/pr/0,20812,667526,00.html FORTUNE - GE's Jack Welch Named Manager of the Century - November 01, 1999]
* Mr. Welch was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1997.

===Videos===
*[http://www.bu.edu/phpbin/buniverse/videos/view/?id=348 Suzy Welch and Jack Welch give a talk on decision-making at Boston University, April 28 2009]
*[http://welchway.com/Management/Leadership/What-Makes-a-Leader/Are-Leaders-Born-or-Made.aspx Jack Welch on Leadership]
*[http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/headlines/vftt_welch.shtml April 27, 2005 - Mr. Welch speaks about creating candor in the workplace at the Stanford Graduate School of Business]
*[http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/260/ April 12, 2005 - A Conversation with Jack Welch at MIT Sloan School of Management]
*[http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/news/whatsnew/welch.htm October 16, 2001 - Mr. Welch speaks at the Kellogg School of Management]
*[http://www.straightfromthegut.com/meet/meet_video.html 2000 (?) - Mr. Welch at the Fairfield University-Charles F. Dolan School of Business]
*[http://www.rotman.utoronto.ca/integrativethinking/seminars.htm September 12, 2005 Mr. Welch speaks at the Rotman School of management in Toronto]
*[http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/documents/areas/adm/web/vid_JWelch.html Jack Welch talks about Leadership and the State of Corporate America at UCLA Anderson School of Management]
*[http://chicagogsb.edu/multimedia/welch.aspx October 16, 2001 - Jack Welch at University of Chicago Graduate School of Business]

{{start box}}
{{s-bus}}
{{succession box
| title = Chairman & CEO of [[General Electric]]
| before= [[Reginald H. Jones]]
| after= [[Jeffrey Immelt]]
| years=1981 – 2001}}
{{end box}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Welch, Jack}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1935 births]]
[[Category:American chief executives]]
[[Category:General Electric people]]
[[Category:American businesspeople]]
[[Category:American business writers]]
[[Category:American philanthropists]]
[[Category:Rockefeller Center]]
[[Category:American Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Irish-American writers]]
[[Category:Irish Americans]]
[[Category:People from Essex County, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign alumni]]
[[Category:University of Massachusetts Amherst alumni]]

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Suzy Welch

2009-09-25T14:33:00Z

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'''Suzy Welch''' (née Spring) (born 1959), formerly '''Suzy Wetlaufer''', is a noted commentator and business journalist. She was editor of the ''[[Harvard Business Review]]'', and has written extensively on management and leadership. Her latest book, 10-10-10: A Life-Transforming Idea (Scribner), is a New York Times best-seller that deals with life decision-making strategies.

==Professional career==
Welch attended [[Phillips Exeter Academy]], [[Harvard College]], and [[Harvard Business School]], from which she graduated as a [[Baker Scholar]], in the top five percent of her class.

She started her career as a reporter with the ''Miami Herald'', and then the Associated Press. After business school, her professional experience included several years at [[Bain & Company]], a management consulting firm based in Boston, where she focused on manufacturing clients. Although she has written a novel, she is probably best known as the writer and editor of numerous books and articles dealing with leadership, organizational change, and human resource management.

In early 2002, she was forced to resign from the ''Harvard Business Review'' after admitting to an affair with the then-married [[Jack Welch]], the former chief executive officer of [[General Electric]], while preparing an interview with him for the magazine. At that time, her last name was that of her first husband: Suzy Wetlaufer (the marriage had ended in divorce). Jack Welch divorced and then the couple married, and she had the interview pulled before it appeared in the ''Business Review''.<ref>http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=513681 - Retrieved: April 12, 2007</ref>

The Welches currently live in the [[Beacon Hill, Boston, Massachusetts|Beacon Hill]] neighborhood of [[Boston]]. Suzy is involved with the Babson Executive MBA Program and often lectures on issues of women’s leadership. She and her husband co-wrote the international best-seller ''Winning'', published by [[Harper Collins]] in May 2005, and its companion volume, ''Winning: The Answers''.

Suzy, who has four teenage children, is a columnist for ''[[O (magazine)|O]]'' ([[Oprah]]'s magazine), and co-writes a weekly column with her husband for ''[[BusinessWeek]]'' magazine, which is syndicated to more than thirty major newspapers around the world. <ref>http://www.imgspeakers.com/_images/speakers/WelchSuzy.pdf - Retrieved: June 24, 2007</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.suzywelch101010.com/ Official Website of Suzy Welch]
*[http://obsessedtv.com/2009/05/samantha-ettus-interviews-best-selling-author-suzy-welch/ in Depth Interview with Suzy]
*[http://www.welchway.com/ Official Website of Suzy and Jack Welch]
*[http://www.suzywelch101010.com Suzy Welch Author Website]
*[http://www.execdigital.com/Magazine.aspx?id=1208&page=26 Interview with Suzy & Jack Welch - July 2009]
*[http://www.bu.edu/phpbin/buniverse/videos/view/?id=348 Suzy Welch and Jack Welch give a talk on decision-making at Boston University]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Welch, Suzy}}
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Phillips Exeter Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard Business School alumni]]