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Matiur Rahman (military pilot)

2024-10-20T22:25:12Z

131.111.5.201: /* Death */

{{short description|Bengali PAF pilot defector and recipient of Bir Shreshto}}
{{Other people|Matiur Rahman}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = [[Flight Lieutenant]]
| name = Matiur Rahman
| native_name = মতিউর রহমান
| native_name_lang = bn
| honorific_suffix = [[Bir Sreshtho]]
| image = Bir Shreshto Flt. Lft. Matiur Rahman-6.png
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1941|10|29}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1971|08|20|1941|10|29|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Narsingdi]], [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_place = [[Thatta]], [[Sindh]], [[Pakistan]]
| nickname =
| allegiance = {{Flag|Pakistan}} (until March 1971) {{Flag|Bangladesh}} (from March 1971)
| branch = {{Air force|Pakistan|size=23px}} (1963 – March 1971) {{Air force|Bangladesh|size=23px}} (March 1971 – 20 August 1971)
| serviceyears = 1963–1971 (his death)
| rank = [[File:British RAF OF-2.svg|20px]] [[Flight Lieutenant]]
| servicenumber = PAK-4367
| unit = [[No. 2 Squadron (Pakistan Air Force)|No. 2 Squadron]]
| commands =
| battles = {{ubl|[[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]|[[Bangladesh Liberation War]]{{KIA}}}}
| awards = [[File:Bir Sreshtho ribbon.svg|40px]] [[Bir Sreshtho]]
| spouse = Milly Rahman<ref name="auto"/>
}}

[[Flight lieutenant|Flight Lieutenant]] '''Matiur Rahman''' [[Bir Sreshtho|BS]] (29 October 1941 – 20 August 1971) was a Bengali fighter pilot in the [[Pakistan Air Force]] from [[East Pakistan]] (now [[Bangladesh]]) and a recipient of [[Bir Sreshtho]], Bangladesh's highest military award for his actions during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]].

He attempted to escape from West Pakistan and join the Bangladesh Liberation War in then East Pakistan by [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacking]] a [[Lockheed T-33]] aircraft being flown by a 20-year-old newly commissioned [[Pilot Officer]] [[Rashid Minhas]], who was conducting his second solo flight. Rahman stopped the aircraft on the runway, climbed into the cockpit and steered the aircraft toward the Indian border, but Minhas soon realized his intentions and fought against him through the mechanically linked controls. Minhas then released the canopy, and since he was not properly strapped in, Rahman was sucked out of the cockpit. Minhas then tried to recover the plane but it crashed since it was flying too low, killing him as well. For his support to the state of Bangladesh, Rahman was decorated by Bangladesh with the Bir Sreshtho award.<ref name=BBC>{{cite news |date=25 June 2006 |title=Bangladesh 'war hero' goes home |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5112868.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=18 June 2015}}</ref>

==Early life==
Matiur Rahman completed his primary education at [[Dhaka Collegiate School]]. After that, he was admitted into [[PAF College Sargodha|Pakistan Air Force School Sargodha]] in West Pakistan. On 15 August 1961, he joined the [[Pakistan Air Force Academy]] (then Pakistan Air Force College) at [[Risalpur]]. On 22 June 1963, Matiur Rahman was commissioned as a pilot officer from the 36th GD(P) Course and was posted at No. 2 Squadron of Mauripur Air Base (now Masroor) at [[Karachi]] in West Pakistan. After that, he successfully completed the Jet Conversion Training on T-33 jet trainers in that base. He successfully passed the course with a mark of 75.66% and was earmarked for Fighter Conversion Training. Fighter Conversion Training took place in F-86 Sabre Jets, this course he passed with a mark of 81%. He was posted in Peshawar (in No.19 Squadron) due to his bright result in the Fighter Conversion Course.

==During the Bangladesh Liberation War==
Flight Lieutenant Matiur Rahman smuggled the family of Group Captain Taher Quddus on Royal Saudi Arabian [[C-130 transport plane]] bound for [[Riyadh]] during the [[liberation war of Bangladesh]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Quddus|first1=Farhan|title=Tribute to a father|url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/op-ed/2014/sep/04/tribute-father|work=Dhaka Tribune|access-date=19 June 2015}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=August 2020}}
Matiur Rahman and his family went to [[Dhaka]] for a two-month vacation at the end of January 1971. He was staying in the village of [[Ramnagar, Bangladesh|Ramanagar]] in [[Raipur Upazila|Raipur]] during the military operation of 25 March 1971 conducted by the [[Pakistan army]] in the name of [[Operation Searchlight]]. Despite being a member of the PAF, Rahman opened a training camp in [[Bhairab Upazila|Vairab]] and started training Bengali people who were willing to join the [[Mukti Bahini]]. He formed a small defense force with willing members and a few collected weapons. His camp was bombed by the PAF on 14 April 1971. But Rahman anticipated the attack beforehand and changed the place of his camp. Thus, his crew and he was saved from the bombing. Rahman returned to Dhaka on 23 April and then returned to Karachi on 9 May with his family.

==Death==
Rahman was an instructor pilot at [[PAF Base Masroor]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite news |date=20 August 2014 |title=August 20 marks the death anniversary of Rashid Minhas |url=http://nation.com.pk/karachi/20-Aug-2014/august-20-marks-the-death-anniversary-of-rashid-minhas |newspaper=The Nation |access-date=19 June 2015}}</ref> He was planning to defect to Bangladesh with a plane to join the Bangladesh Liberation War. On 20 August 1971, Pilot Officer [[Rashid Minhas]] was scheduled to fly with a [[Lockheed T-33]] [[jet trainer]]. Rahman saw Minhas about to take off and asked to join him. He jumped into the instructor seat.<ref>{{cite web|title=42nd Martyrdom Anniversary Pilot Officer Rashid Minhas Shaheed [Nishan-e-Hyder.] – SFP News|url=http://www.shaheedfoundation.org/foundationnews.asp?id=2165|website=www.shaheedfoundation.org|access-date=3 January 2016}}</ref> He attempted to hijack the T-33 in midair to defect to India. Minhas sent a message to the control tower that he was hijacked, and wrestled with Rahman for control, which crashed the plane in Pakistani territory, causing the death of both pilots. The plane never crossed into Indian airspace and crashed near the border in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rashid Minhas 39th death anniversary observed today |url=http://aaj.tv/2010/08/rashid-minhas-39th-death-anniversary-observed-today/ |work=AAJ News |agency=APP |access-date=3 January 2016 |archive-date=10 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810055445/http://www.aaj.tv/2010/08/rashid-minhas-39th-death-anniversary-observed-today/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Yawar A. Mazhar, a writer for Pakistan Military Consortium, relayed in 2004 that he spoke to retired PAF Group Captain [[Cecil Chaudhry]] about Minhas and that he learned more details not generally known to the public. According to Mazhar, Chaudhry led the immediate task of investigating the wreckage and writing the accident report. Chaudhry told Mazhar that he found the jet had hit the ground nose first, instantly killing Minhas in the front seat. Rahman's body, however, was not in the jet and the canopy was missing. Chaudhry searched the area and saw Rahman's body some distance behind the jet, with severe abrasions from hitting the sand at a low angle and a high speed. Chaudhry thought that Minhas probably jettisoned the canopy at low altitude causing Rahman to be thrown from the cockpit because he was not strapped in. Chaudhry felt that the jet was too close to the ground at that time, too far out of control for Minhas to be able to prevent the crash. Minhas received the [[Nishan-e-Haider]] award, equivalent to the Bir Shrestho award in [[Pakistan]] for his actions in attempting to hijack the aircraft.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.pakdef.info/forum/showthread.php?5946-Rashid-Minhas-Story&s=de5ef68cd5f911279850111a8e226133 | title=Rashid Minhas Story | access-date=19 February 2024 | archive-date=8 September 2012 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20120908080136/http://www.pakdef.info/forum/showthread.php?5946-Rashid-Minhas-Story&s=de5ef68cd5f911279850111a8e226133 | url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

===Grave transfer===
[[File: Martyr Bir Shreshto Flt. Lft. Matiur Rahman's Grave.jpg|thumb|Rahman's grave in Dhaka]]
After over 30 years of negotiations, Rahman's body was finally returned to Bangladesh on 24 June 2006 for a ceremonial and highly symbolic reburial in 2006. Pakistani foreign ministry spokesperson Tasneem Aslam described it as a 'goodwill gesture'.<ref>{{cite news |last=Abbas |first=Zaffar |date=20 April 2006 |title=Bengali hero's remains given back |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4928268.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=18 June 2015}}</ref> He was buried at the Martyred Intellectuals Graveyard, in Mirpur, Dhaka, with full military honours.<ref name="dstar">{{cite news |date=25 June 2006 |title=Matiur's remains received in state honour |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/2006/06/25/d6062501129.htm |newspaper=The Daily Star}}</ref> His original burial in a grave in fourth class employees' graveyard in Pakistan and the hanging of his photo at the entrance of Mashrur Airbase identifying him as a traitor had been a sore point between Bangladesh and Pakistan for decades.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Rahman|first1=Ashiqur|title=Elegy for a Bir Sreshtha|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/2005/03/24/d5032401098.htm|work=The Daily Star|access-date=3 January 2016|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103812/http://archive.thedailystar.net/2005/03/24/d5032401098.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Eponyms==
* Bangladesh Air Force Base Matiur Rahman at [[Jessore (city)|Jessore]].<ref name="auto">{{cite news |last1=Manik |first1=Julfikar Ali |title=Year ends with a milestone for women |url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2015/jan/01/year-ends-milestone-women |newspaper=Dhaka Tribune |access-date=18 June 2015}}</ref>
* Bangladesh Air Force also gives out a trophy for best performance in the flying training.<ref>{{cite news |date=18 June 2015 |title=President parade held at BAF Academy |url=http://www.theindependentbd.com/printversion/details/4127 |location=Dhaka |newspaper=The Independent |access-date=19 June 2015}}</ref>
* Birshreshto Matiur Rahman trophy (a.k.a. Golden Pen award) awarded for the best Individual Research Paper of Air Wing in Defence Services Command and Staff College.
* Dining halls in the [[Cadet Colleges in Bangladesh|Cadet Colleges]] of Bangladesh.

==Personal life and legacy==
Rahman was married to Milly Rahman. Together they had a daughter, Mahim Matiur Khandaker.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://archive.thedailystar.net/2005/03/24/d5032401098.htm|title=Elegy for a Bir Sreshtha|author=Ashiqur Rahman|accessdate=2023-08-31|date=2005-03-24|publisher=The Daily Star}}</ref>

There is a docudrama based on Matiur's life named ''Ognibolaka'' with Bangladeshi film actor [[Riaz (actor)|Riaz]] in the role of Matiur and television actress [[Tarin Ahmed|Tarin]] in the role of his wife Mili. There is also a Bengali film named "Ostistte Amar Desh" based on Matiur's life, directed by "Khiljir Hayat Khan". His wife "Mili Rahman" was the co-writer of this film and also acted in it.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Bir Sreshtho}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rahman, Matiur}}
[[Category:1941 births]]
[[Category:1971 deaths]]
[[Category:Dhaka Collegiate School alumni]]
[[Category:PAF College Sargodha alumni]]
[[Category:Pakistan Air Force officers]]
[[Category:Pakistani military aviators]]
[[Category:People of the Bangladesh Liberation War]]
[[Category:Pakistani defectors]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Bir Sreshtho]]
[[Category:Burials at Mirpur Martyred Intellectual Graveyard]]
[[Category:Martyr of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:History of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Bangladesh Liberation War]]

Jan Klabbers

2024-10-19T17:40:20Z

131.111.5.201: He was elected as the Whewell Professor of International Law at Cambridge University. I added this information.

{{Infobox academic
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Jan Klabbers
| honorific_suffix =
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Johannes Antonius Maria Klabbers
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1963|08|13}}
| birth_place = [[Heumen]]
| death_date = 
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| nationality = 
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| other_names =
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| known_for =
| title = [[Academy of Finland#Academy Professors|Academy Professor]] (Martti Ahtisaari Chair)
| boards = 
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| website = [https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/en/persons/jan-klabbers University of Helsinki]
| education =
| alma_mater = [[University of Amsterdam]] ([[Master of Laws|LLM]], [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])
| thesis_title = The Concept of Treaty in International Law
| thesis_url = https://brill.com/display/title/10299
| thesis_year = 1996
| school_tradition =
| doctoral_advisor = Bert Vierdag
| academic_advisors =
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| era =
| discipline = [[Public international law]]
| sub_discipline = International institutional law
| workplaces = [[University of Helsinki]]
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'''Johannes Antonius Maria "Jan" Klabbers''' (born 13 August 1963, [[Heumen]], [[Netherlands]])<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.helsinki.fi/eci/Staff/Jan%20KlabbersCV2010.pdf |title= Jan Klabbers |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date= 2010|website=University of Helsinki |publisher= |access-date= |quote=CV}}</ref> is the [[Whewell Professor of International Law]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]],[https://www.law.cam.ac.uk/press/news/2024/08/professor-jan-klabbers-elected-whewell-professorship-international-law] and formerly a [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[Academy of Finland#Academy Professors|Academy Professor]] (Martti Ahtisaari Chair) at the [[University of Helsinki]], on leave from his regular position as Professor of International Law at the University of Helsinki. He was Director of the [[Academy of Finland]] Centre of Excellence in Global Governance Research, based at the [[University of Helsinki]], Faculty of Law, and deputy director of the Erik Castrén Institute of International Law and Human Rights. He has previously held several positions at the [[University of Amsterdam]], where he also completed his doctoral degree.

Klabbers is considered to be one of the world's leading experts in the law of treaties<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://opiniojuris.org/2010/01/18/welcome-to-guest-blogger-jan-klabbers/|title=Welcome to Guest Blogger Jan Klabbers|date=January 18, 2010}}</ref> and the law of international organizations.<ref>http://www.shef.ac.uk/content/1/c6/09/59/72/Klabbers%20Summary.pdf{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> He has published several monographs and articles on the topics, some of the most important ones being The Concept of Treaty in International Law (1996), Treaty Conflict and the European Union (2008), An Introduction to International Organizations Law 3rd ed. (2015, previously An Introduction to International Institutional Law), and International Law (2013). In his recent work Klabbers has also been focusing on finding novel approaches to international legal research by combining it with virtue ethics.

Klabbers has held several visiting professorships/fellowships at different universities and institutes, including [[Hofstra University School of Law]] (2007), [[Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies]], Geneva (2008, 2013), Straus Institute for the Advanced Study of Law and Justice, [[New York University Law School]] (2009–10), and [[Panthéon-Assas University]] (2011). He has also won several awards for his teaching.

==Lectures==
* Jan Klabbers, [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Klabbers_LOT.html "Treaty Conflict"], [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html ''United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law, Lecture Series''] (accessed on 26 March 2013)
* Jan Klabbers, [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Klabbers_ROL.html "Law, Ethics and Global Governance"], [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html ''United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law, Lecture Series''] (accessed on 26 March 2013)

==External links==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Klabbers, Jan}}
[[Category:1963 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Dutch legal scholars]]
[[Category:International law scholars]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Helsinki]]
[[Category:University of Amsterdam alumni]]
[[Category:Dutch expatriates in Finland]]
[[Category:People from Heumen]]

History of the Middle East

2024-10-17T16:37:23Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|none}}
[[Image:Middle East geographic.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|A map showing territories commonly considered part of the [[Near East]]]]
The [[Middle East]], also known as the [[Near East]], is home to one of the [[cradles of civilization]] and has seen many of the world's oldest systematically hierarchical cultures and civilizations. The region's history started from the earliest human settlements and continues through several major pre- and post-Islamic Empires to today's nation-states of the Middle East.
<noinclude>{{Human history}}</noinclude>

The [[Sumer]]ians, around the 5th millennium BC, were among the first to develop the contemporary notion of a [[civilization]]. By 3150 BC, Egyptian civilization had unified under its first pharaoh.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Egyptian Rock Cut Tombs |last=Dodson |first=Aidan |publisher=Shire |year=1991 |location=Buckinghamshire |isbn=978-0-7478-0128-3|page=46}}</ref> [[Mesopotamia]] hosted powerful empires, notably the [[Assyrian Empire]]s (1365–1076 BC and 911–609 BC). From the 7th century BC, the region was dominated by Iranian powers, including the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. In the 1st century BC, the [[Roman Republic]] expanded to include much of the [[Near East]], and the [[Byzantine Empire]] later ruled from the [[Balkans]] to the [[Euphrates]], increasingly defined by and dogmatic about [[Christianity]]. Between the 3rd and 7th centuries AD, the Middle East was dominated by the Byzantines and the [[Sasanian Empire]]. From the 7th century onward, [[Islam]] began to shape the region, bringing a new cultural and religious identity. The [[Seljuq dynasty]] displaced [[Arabs|Arab]] dominance in the mid-11th century, followed by the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] invasions in the 13th century By the 15th century, the [[Ottoman Empire]], rooted in [[Anatolia|western Anatolia]], rose to prominence, [[Fall of Constantinople|capturing Constantinople in 1453]] and establishing a lasting sultanate.

Large parts of the Middle East were contested between the Ottomans and the [[Safavid dynasty]] from the early 16th century. By 1700, the Ottomans had been pushed out of [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Hungary]], shifting the [[Balance of power (international relations)|power balance]] towards the West. The [[British Empire]] gained control over the [[Persian Gulf]], while [[French colonial empire]] extended into [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]]. In 1912, Italy took Libya and the Dodecanese islands. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers sought modernization to match European powers. A key moment came with the discovery of [[Petroleum|oil]], first in Persia (1908), then in [[Saudi Arabia]] (1938), the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf states]], [[Libya]], and [[Algeria]], leading to increased Western and later American interest in the region.

In the 1920s to 1940s, Syria and [[Egypt]] pursued independence. The British, French, and [[Soviets]] withdrew from much of the Middle East during and after [[World War II]]. The [[Arab–Israeli conflict]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] culminated in the 1947 [[United Nations]] [[1947 UN Partition Plan|plan to partition Palestine]]. Amid [[Cold War]] tensions, [[pan-Arabism]] emerged in Western Asia and Northern Africa. The end of European control, the establishment of [[Israel]], and the rise of the [[petroleum industry]] shaped the modern Middle East. Despite economic growth, many countries faced challenges like political restrictions, corruption, [[cronyism]] and overreliance on oil. The wealthiest [[per capita]] are the small, oil-rich Persian Gulf states: [[Qatar]], [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]], and the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]].

Several key events shaped the modern Middle East: the 1967 [[Six-Day War]],<ref name="wright">Robin Wright, ''Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam'', pp. 65–66</ref> the [[1970s energy crisis|1973 OPEC oil embargo]] in response to US support for Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]],<ref name="wright"/><ref>interview by Robin Wright of UK Foreign Secretary (at the time) Lord Carrington in November 1981, ''Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam'' by Robin Wright, Simon and Schuster, (1985), p. 67</ref> and the rise of [[Salafism]]/[[Wahhabism]] in Saudi Arabia that led to rise of [[Islamism]].<ref name=Kepel-petro>{{cite book|last=Kepel|first=Gilles|title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam|year=2003|publisher=I.B. Tauris|pages=61–62|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OLvTNk75hUoC&pg=PA61 |isbn=978-1-84511-257-8}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Iranian Revolution]] contributed to a significant [[Islamic revival]] (Tajdid).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Martin Kramer|journal=Middle East Quarterly|title=Fundamentalist Islam: The Drive for Power|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050213035635/http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/FundamentalistPower.htm|archive-date=February 13, 2005|url=http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/FundamentalistPower.htm}}</ref> The [[Fall of the Soviet Union]] in 1991 shifted global focus from the Cold War to the [[War on Terror]]. In the early 2010s, the [[Arab Spring]] triggered major protests and revolutions in the region. Clashes in [[Anbar campaign (2013–2014)|western Iraq]] on December 30, 2013, set the stage for the [[Islamic State|ISIL]] uprising.

The term ''Near East'' can be used interchangeably with ''Middle East'', but in a different context, especially in discussing [[ancient history]], it may have a limited meaning, namely the northern historically-[[Aramaic]]-speaking [[Semitic people]] area and adjacent [[Anatolia]]n territories, marked in the two maps below.

[[File:NearEast3.png|right|thumb|{{legend|#008000|The limited modern archaeological and historical context of the Near East}}{{legend|#00ff00|Middle East and Near East}}]]
[[File:Semitic languages.svg|right|thumb|The historical [[Semitic people|Semitic region]], defined by the pre-Islamic distribution of [[Semitic language]]s and coinciding very roughly with the [[Arabian Plate]]. Not so much lingually but rather culturally, politically and historically, the most significant division here has been between the north and the south, which is to some degree isolated from each other by the sparsely-populated [[Arabian Desert]]. The north comprises Mesopotamia and the [[Levant]], which, together with the lower [[Nile]], constitute the [[Fertile Crescent]].]]

==General==
Geographically, the Middle East can be thought of as [[Western Asia]] with the addition of [[Egypt]] (which is the non-[[Maghreb]] region of [[Northern Africa]]) and with the exclusion of the [[Caucasus]]. The Middle East was the first to experience a [[Neolithic Revolution]] (c. the 10th millennium BCE), as well as the first to enter the [[Bronze Age]] (c. 3300–1200 BC) and [[Iron Age]] (c. 1200–500 BC).

Historically human populations have tended to settle around bodies of water, which is reflected in modern population density patterns. [[Irrigation]] systems were extremely important for the agricultural Middle East: for Egypt that of the lower [[Nile River]], and for Mesopotamia that of the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers. Levantine agriculture depended on [[precipitation]] rather than on the river-based irrigation of Egypt and Mesopotamia, resulting in preference for different crops. Since travel was faster and easier by sea, civilizations along the [[Mediterranean]], such as [[Phoenicia]] and later [[Greece]], participated in intense trade. Similarly, [[History of Yemen#Ancient history|Ancient Yemen]], being much more conducive to agriculture than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula, sea traded heavily with the [[Horn of Africa]], some of which it lingually Semitized. The [[Adnanite]] Arabs, inhabiting the drier desert areas of the Middle East, were all [[nomadic]] [[pastoralism|pastoralists]] before some began settling in [[city state]]s, with the geo-linguistic distribution today being divided between [[Persian Gulf]], the [[Najd]] and the [[Hejaz]] in the Peninsula, as well as the [[Bedouin]] areas beyond the Peninsula.

Since ancient times the Middle East has had several [[lingua franca]]: [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ({{circa}} 14th–8th century BC), [[Hebrew]] ({{circa}} 5th century BC – 2nd century AD), [[Aramaic]] ({{circa}} 8th century BC – 8th century AD),<ref>{{Cite book|title=Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader|first1=Suzanne|last1=Richard|edition=Illustrated|publisher=EISENBRAUNS|year=2003|isbn=978-1-57506-083-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=khR0apPid8gC&pg=PA69 |page=69}}</ref> [[Greek language|Greek]] ({{circa}} 4th century BC – 8th century AD), and [[Arabic]] ({{circa}} 8th century AD – present). Familiarity with English is not uncommon among the [[Middle Class|middle]] and [[upper class]]es.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jordan/ |title=World Factbook – Jordan|date=17 January 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kuwait/ |title=World Factbook – Kuwait|date=11 January 2023 }}</ref> Arabic is not commonly spoken in Turkey, Iran, and Israel, and some [[varieties of Arabic]] lack [[mutual intelligibility]], thus [[Arabic language#Diglossia|qualifying as distinct languages]] by this linguistic criterion.

The Middle East was the birthplace of the [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]], [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]], and most [[Iranian religions]]. Initially the ancient inhabitants of the region followed various [[ethnic religion]]s, but most of those began to be gradually replaced at first by Christianity (even before the 313 AD [[Edict of Milan]]) and finally by Islam (after the spread of the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] beyond the [[Arabian Peninsula]] in 634 AD). To this day, however, the Middle East has, in particular, some [[Christianity in the Middle East|sizable, ethnically distinct Christian minority groups]],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East|first=Philip |last=Jenkins|year= 2020| isbn=9781538124185| page =XLVIII|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|quote=The Middle East still stands at the heart of the Christian world. After all, it is the birthplace, and the death place, of Christ, and the cradle of the Christian tradition.}}</ref> as well as Jews, concentrated in Israel, and followers of Iranian religions, such as [[Yazdânism]] and [[Zoroastrianism]]. Some of the smaller [[ethnoreligious]] minorities include the [[Shabak people]], the [[Mandaeans]] and the [[Samaritans]]. It is somewhat controversial whether the [[Druze]] religion is a distinct religion in its own right or merely a part of the [[Ismailism|Ismailist]] branch of [[Shia Islam]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives| first=Dona|last= J. Stewart|year=2008| isbn=9781135980795| page = 33|publisher=Routledge|quote= Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of American Islam| first=Yvonne |last=Yazbeck Haddad|year=2014| isbn=9780199862634| page = 142|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote=While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is considered distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze consider themselves fully assimilated in American society and do not necessarily identify as Muslims..}}</ref><ref name="De McLaurin 1979 114">{{cite book|title= The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East|first=Ronald|last= De McLaurin|year= 1979| isbn= 9780030525964| page =114 |publisher=Michigan University Press|quote= Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above..}}</ref>

==Prehistoric Near East{{anchor|Prehistoric_Near_East}}==
{{See also|Prehistoric Egypt||Prehistory of Iran|Prehistory of the Southern Levant|Prehistoric Cyprus|Natufian culture|History of agriculture|Timeline of Middle Eastern history|Timeline of human prehistory}}
[[File:Fertile crescent Neolithic B circa 7500 BC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Area of the [[fertile crescent]], circa 7500 BC, with main sites of the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic]] period. The area of [[Mesopotamia]] proper was not yet settled by humans.]]
The [[Arabian Plate|Arabian Tectonic Plate]] was part of the [[African Plate]] during much of the [[Phanerozoic]] Eon ([[Paleozoic]]–[[Cenozoic]]), until the [[Oligocene]] Epoch of the [[Cenozoic Era]]. [[Red Sea]] rifting began in the [[Eocene]], but the separation of Africa and Arabia occurred in the Oligocene, and since then the Arabian Plate has been slowly moving toward the [[Eurasian Plate]].

The collision between the Arabian Plate and [[Eurasia]] is pushing up the [[Zagros Mountains]] of Iran. Because the Arabian Plate and Eurasia plate collide, many cities are in danger such as those in south eastern Turkey (which is on the Arabian Plate). These dangers include earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes.

The [[Early human migrations|earliest human migrations]] out of Africa occurred through the Middle East, namely over the [[Levantine corridor]], with the pre-modern ''[[Homo erectus]]'' about 1.8 million years [[Before present|BP]]. One of the potential routes for early human migrations toward southern and eastern Asia is Iran.

[[Haplogroup J-P209]], the most common [[human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup]] in the Middle East today, is believed to have arisen in the region 31,700±12,800 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/386295 |title=Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area |year=2004 |last1=Semino |first1=Ornella |last2=Magri |first2=Chiara |last3=Benuzzi |first3=Giorgia |last4=Lin |first4=Alice A. |last5=Al-Zahery |first5=Nadia |last6=Battaglia |first6=Vincenza |last7=MacCioni |first7=Liliana |last8=Triantaphyllidis |first8=Costas |last9=Shen |first9=Peidong |last10=Oefner |first10=Peter J. |last11=Zhivotovsky |first11=Lev A. |last12=King |first12=Roy |last13=Torroni |first13=Antonio |last14=Cavalli-Sforza |first14=L. Luca |last15=Underhill |first15=Peter A. |last16=Santachiara-Benerecetti |first16=A. Silvana |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=74 |issue=5 |pages=1023–1034 |pmid=15069642 |pmc=1181965}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1353/hub.2006.0045 |title=North African Berber and Arab Influences in the Western Mediterranean Revealed by Y-Chromosome DNA Haplotypes |year=2006 |last1=Gérard |first1=Nathalie |last2=Berriche |first2=Sala |last3=Aouizérate |first3=Annie |last4=Diéterlen |first4=Florent |last5=Lucotte |first5=Gérard |journal=Human Biology |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=307–316 |pmid=17216803|s2cid=13347549 }}</ref> The two main current subgroups, [[Haplogroup J1|J-M267]] and [[Haplogroup J2|J-M172]], which now comprise between them almost all of the population of the haplogroup, are both believed to have arisen very early, at least 10,000 years ago. Nonetheless, Y-chromosomes [[Haplogroup F-M89|F-M89*]] and [[Haplogroup IJ|IJ-M429*]] were reported to have been observed in the Iranian plateau.<ref name="Grugni2012">{{cite journal |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0041252 |title = Ancient Migratory Events in the Middle East: New Clues from the Y-Chromosome Variation of Modern Iranians |year = 2012 |editor1-last = Kivisild |editor1-first = Toomas |last1 = Grugni |first1 = Viola |last2 = Battaglia |first2 = Vincenza |last3 = Hooshiar Kashani |first3 = Baharak |last4 = Parolo |first4 = Silvia |last5 = Al-Zahery |first5 = Nadia |last6 = Achilli |first6 = Alessandro |last7 = Olivieri |first7 = Anna |last8 = Gandini |first8 = Francesca |last9 = Houshmand |first9 = Massoud |last10 = Sanati |first10 = M. H. |last11 = Torroni |first11 = A |last12 = Semino |first12 = O |journal = PLOS ONE |volume = 7 |issue = 7 |pages = e41252 |pmid = 22815981 |pmc = 3399854|display-authors = 8 |bibcode = 2012PLoSO...741252G |doi-access = free }}</ref>

There is evidence of [[rock carvings]] along the [[Nile]] terraces and in desert oases. In the [[10th millennium BC]], a culture of [[hunter-gatherer]]s and [[fishing|fishermen]] was replaced by a [[cereal|grain]]-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 6000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the [[Sahara]]. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River, where they developed a settled agricultural [[Economic system|economy]] and more centralized society.<ref>Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. ''The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.</ref>

[[Neolithic]] [[agriculturalists]], who may have resided in [[Northeast Africa]] and the [[Near East]], may have been the source population for [[lactase persistence]] variants, including –13910*T, and may have been subsequently supplanted by later migrations of peoples.<ref name="Priehodová">{{cite web |last1=Priehodová |first1=Edita |display-authors=etal |title=Sahelian pastoralism from the perspective of variantsassociated with lactase persistence |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02919786/file/ajpa_ms_final.pdf |website=HAL Archives |publisher=American Journal of Physical Anthropology}}</ref> The [[Sub-Saharan]] [[West African]] Fulani, the [[North African]] [[Tuareg]], and [[Early European Farmers|European agriculturalists]], who are descendants of these Neolithic agriculturalists, share the lactase persistence variant –13910*T.<ref name="Priehodová" /> While shared by [[Fulani herdsmen|Fulani]] and [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] herders, compared to the Tuareg variant, the Fulani variant of –13910*T has undergone a longer period of haplotype differentiation.<ref name="Priehodová" /> The [[Fulani]] lactase persistence variant –13910*T may have spread, along with cattle [[pastoralism]], between 9686 BP and 7534 BP, possibly around 8500 BP; corroborating this timeframe for the Fulani, by at least 7500 BP, there is evidence of herders engaging in the act of [[milking]] in the Central [[Sahara]].<ref name="Priehodová" />

==Ancient Near East==
{{Main|Ancient Near East|Ancient history}}
{{See also|Chronology of the ancient Near East}}
[[File:Ancient Egypt Wings.svg|350px|thumb|The symbol of the [[winged sun]] was found throughout the Middle East. It was associated with divinity, royalty, and power. The symbol shown above is an Egyptian version. The modern-day [[Assyrian flag|Assyrian]] and [[Aramean flag]]s feature different versions of the symbol. The [[Israelite]] royal [[Winged sun#Hebrew|Seals of Hezekiah]] also featured one, sometimes flanked on either side with the Egyptian [[ankh]] symbol. The Iranian kingdom has a related symbol called [[Faravahar]] which mistakenly is being called as the symbol of [[Zoroastrianism]].{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}]]
{{Ancient Near East topics}}

The ancient Near East was the first to practice intensive year-round [[agriculture]] and [[currency]]-mediated [[trade]] (as opposed to [[barter]]), gave the rest of the world the first [[history of writing|writing system]], invented the [[potter's wheel]] and then the vehicular and mill [[wheel]], created the first [[centralized government]]s and [[law code]]s, served as birthplace to the [[Cities of the ancient Near East|first city-states]] with their high degree of [[division of labor]], as well as laying the foundation for the fields of [[astronomy]] and [[mathematics]]. However, its empires also introduced rigid [[social stratification]], [[slavery]], and organized [[warfare]].

===Cradle of civilization, Sumer and Akkad===
The earliest [[civilization]]s in history were established in the region now known as the Middle East around 3500 BC by the [[Sumer]]ians, in southern [[Mesopotamia]] (modern-day [[Iraq]]), widely regarded as the [[cradle of civilization]]. The [[Sumer]]ians and the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadians]]—who extended their empire to northern Mesopotamia (now northern [[Syria]])—and later [[Babylonia]]ns and [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] all flourished in this region.

"In the course of the fourth millennium BC, city-states developed in southern Mesopotamia that were dominated by temples whose priests represented the cities' patron deities. The most prominent of the city-states was Sumer, which gave its language to the area, [presumably the [[History of writing|first written language]],] and became the first great civilization of mankind. About 2340 BC, [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon the Great]] (c. 2360–2305 BC) united the city-states in the south and founded the Akkadian dynasty, the world's first empire."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/6308/1/Ancient-Civilizations--Mesopotamia.html|title=Ancient Civilizations – Mesopotamia|first=Albert S.|last=Lyons|publisher=Health Guidance.org|access-date=24 August 2013}}</ref>

During this same time period, Sargon the Great appointed his daughter, [[Enheduanna]], as High Priestess of Inanna at Ur.<ref>[https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/ worldhistory.org]</ref> Her writings, which established her as the first known author in world history, also helped cement Sargon's position in the region.

===Egypt===
{{Main|Ancient Egypt}}
[[File:Ramses_II._1989.jpg|alt=Ramses_II._1989|thumb|265x265px|Statue of [[Ramesses II]] of Egypt in Luxor.]]
Soon after the Sumerian civilization began, the [[Nile valley]] of [[Lower Egypt|Lower]] and [[Upper Egypt]] was unified under the [[Pharaoh]]s approximately around 3150 BC. Since then, Ancient Egypt experienced 3 high points of civilization, the so-called "Kingdom" periods:
* The [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] (2686–2181),
* The [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] (2055–1650) and, most notably,
* The [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] (1550–1069).
The history of Ancient Egypt is concluded by the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]] (664–332 BC), immediately followed by the history of Egypt in [[Classical Antiquity]], beginning with [[Ptolemaic Egypt]].

===The Levant and Anatolia===
{{Main|History of the ancient Levant|History of Anatolia}}
Thereafter, civilization quickly spread through the [[Fertile Crescent]] to the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea and throughout the [[Levant]], as well as to [[History of Anatolia|ancient Anatolia]]. Ancient Levantine kingdoms and city states included [[Ebla]] City, [[Ugarit]] City, [[Aram-Damascus|Kingdom of Aram-Damascus]], [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]], [[Kingdom of Judah]], [[Kingdom of Ammon]], [[Kingdom of Moab]], [[Kingdom of Edom]], and the [[Nabatean kingdom]]. The [[Phoenicia]]n civilization, encompassing several city states, was a [[Thalassocracy|maritime trading culture]] that established [[Colony|colonial]] cities in the [[Mediterranean Basin]], most notably [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage, in 814 BC]].

===Assyrian empires===
{{Main|Assyria}}
[[Mesopotamia]] was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost the entire Middle East—particularly the [[Assyrian Empire]]s of 1365–1076 BC and the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] of 911–605 BC. The Assyrian Empire, at its peak, was the largest the world had seen. It ruled all of what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Kuwait, Jordan, Egypt, Cyprus, and Bahrain—with large swathes of Iran, Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Sudan, and Arabia.
"The Assyrian empires, particularly the third, had a profound and lasting impact on the Near East. Before Assyrian hegemony ended, the Assyrians brought the highest civilization to the then known world. From the Caspian to Cyprus, from Anatolia to Egypt, Assyrian imperial expansion would bring into the Assyrian sphere nomadic and barbaric communities, and would bestow the gift of civilization upon them."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aina.org/brief.html |title=Brief History of Assyrians |first=Peter |last=BetBasoo |year=2007 |publisher=Assyrian International News Agency |access-date=24 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017014421/http://www.aina.org/brief.html |archive-date=17 October 2013 }}</ref>

===Neo-Babylonian and Persian empires===
{{Main|Babylonia|Persian Empire}}
From the early 6th century BC onwards, several Persian states dominated the region, beginning with the [[Medes]] and non-Persian [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], then their successor the [[Achaemenid Empire]] known as the first Persian Empire, conquered in the late 4th century BC by the very short-lived [[Macedonian Empire]] of [[Alexander the Great]], and then successor kingdoms such as [[History of Egypt|Ptolemaic Egypt]] and the [[Seleucid]] state in Western Asia.

After a century of hiatus, the idea of the Persian Empire was revived by the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] in the 3rd century BC—and continued by their successors, the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanids]] from the 3rd century AD. This empire dominated sizable parts of what is now the Asian part of the Middle East and continued to influence the rest of the Asiatic and African Middle East region, until the Arab [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] in the mid-7th century AD. Between the 1st century BC and the early 7th century AD, the region was completely dominated by the Romans and the Parthians and Sassanids on the other hand, which often culminated in various [[Roman-Persian Wars]] over the seven centuries. Eastern Rite, [[Church of the East]] Christianity took hold in [[Asorestan|Persian-ruled Mesopotamia]], particularly in [[Assyria]] from the 1st century AD onwards, and the region became a center of a flourishing [[Syriac Christians|Syriac]]–[[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] literary tradition.

===Greek and Roman Empire===
{{Main|Macedonian Empire|Roman Empire}}
[[File:RomanEmpire 117.svg|thumb|right|240px|The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, under [[Trajan]], 117 AD]]
In 66–63 BC, the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] general [[Pompey]] conquered much of the Middle East.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Brief History of the Middle East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=krKeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34|first = Christopher|last = Catherwood |publisher = Little, Brown Book Group|date = 2011|isbn = 9781849018074}}</ref> The [[Roman Empire]] united the region with most of Europe and North Africa in a single political and economic unit. Even areas not directly annexed were strongly influenced by the Empire, which was the most powerful political and cultural entity for centuries. Though [[Culture of ancient Rome|Roman culture]] spread across the region, the [[Greek culture]] and language first established in the region by the [[Macedonian Empire]] continued to dominate throughout the Roman period. Cities in the Middle East, especially [[Alexandria]], became major urban centers for the Empire and the region became the Empire's "bread basket" as the key agricultural producer. [[Egypt (Roman province)|Ægyptus]] was by far the most wealthy Roman province.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rXmdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA102|title =Ancient Egypt: From Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest|page= 102|editor-first = Kathleen |editor-last = Kuiper|publisher = Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn = 9781615302109 |date = 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yDiDfipV4AIC&pg=PT461 |title = The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000|first = Chris |last = Wickham|publisher = Penguin UK|date= 2009|isbn = 9780141908533}}</ref>

During the time that [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery cults]] were introduced to the region, traditional religions were often criticized and the cults gained societal influence.<ref name="Storm-2011">{{Cite book |last=Storm |first=Rachel |title=Myths & Legends of India, Egypt, China & Japan |publisher=Lorenz Books |year=2011 |editor-last=Sudell |editor-first=Helen |edition=2nd |location=Wigston, Leicestershire |pages=12}}</ref> These cults formed around gods like [[Cybele]], [[Isis]], and [[Mithra]].<ref name="Storm-2011" />
[[File:Jerusalem-Grabeskirche-14-vom Erloeserkirchturm-2010-gje.jpg|240px|thumb|[[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in [[Jerusalem]]: Jerusalem is generally considered the cradle of [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Orientalism and Musical Mission: Palestine and the West|first=Rachel |last=Beckles Willson|year= 2013| isbn=9781107036567| page =146|publisher=Cambridge University Press|quote= }}</ref>]]
As the Christian religion spread throughout the Roman and Persian Empires, it took root in the Middle East, and cities such as [[Alexandria]] and [[Edessa]] became important centers of Christian scholarship. By the 5th century, Christianity was the dominant religion in the Middle East, with other faiths (gradually including ''[[heresy|heretical]]'' Christian sects) being actively repressed. The Middle East's ties to the city of [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] were gradually severed as the Empire [[Roman Empire#Partition of the Empire|split]] into [[Byzantine Empire|East]] and [[Western Roman Empire|West]], with the Middle East tied to the new Roman capital of [[Constantinople]]. The subsequent [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire]] therefore, had minimal direct impact on the region.

====Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)====
{{Main|Byzantine Empire}}
The Eastern Roman Empire, today commonly known as the [[Byzantine Empire]], ruling from the [[Balkans]] to the [[Euphrates]], became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity, gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. By this time, Greek had become the '[[lingua franca]]' of the region, although ethnicities such as the Syriacs and the Hebrew continued to exist. Under Byzantine/Greek rule the area of the [[Levant]] met an era of stability and prosperity.

==Medieval Middle East{{anchor|Medieval Near East|Medieval Middle East}}==
{{further|Post-classical history}}

===Pre-Islam===
In the 5th century, the Middle East was separated into small, weak states; the two most prominent were the [[Sasanian Empire]] of the [[History of Iran|Persians]] in what is now [[Iran]] and [[Iraq]], and the Byzantine Empire in [[Anatolia]] (modern-day [[Turkey]]) and the [[Levant]]. The Byzantines and Sasanians fought with each other a reflection of the rivalry between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire seen during the previous five hundred years. The Byzantine-Sasanian rivalry was also seen through their respective cultures and religions. The Byzantines considered themselves champions of [[Hellenization|Hellenism]] and Christianity. Meanwhile, the Sasanians thought themselves heroes of ancient Iranian traditions and of the traditional Persian religion, [[Zoroastrianism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Esposito|1999|pages=1–5}}, for the Byzantine–Sasanian rivalry and its cultural/religious overtones.</ref>

[[File:Roman-Persian_Frontier,_5th_century.png|thumb|Map of the Roman–Persian frontier after the division of Armenia in 384. The frontier remained stable throughout the 5th century.]]

The Arabian peninsula already played a role in the power struggles of the Byzantines and Sasanians. While Byzantium allied itself with the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] in the horn of Africa, the Sasanian Empire assisted the [[Himyarite Kingdom]] in what is now [[Yemen]] (southwest Arabia). Thus the clash between the kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar in 525 displayed a higher power struggle between Byzantium and Persia for control of the [[Red Sea]] trade. Territorial wars soon became common, with the Byzantines and Sasanians fighting over upper [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Armenia]] and key cities that facilitated trade from Arabia, [[India]], and [[China]].<ref>{{harvnb|Esposito|1999|pages=1–5}}, for the Byzantine–Sasanian struggle with Aksum and Himyar, as well as the territorial wars and focus on trade.</ref> Byzantium, as the continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire, continued control of the latter's territories in the Middle East. Since 527, this included Anatolia, [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and [[Egypt]]. But in 603 the Sasanians invaded, conquering Damascus and Egypt. It was Emperor [[Heraclius]] who was able to repel these invasions, and in 628 he replaced the Sasanian Great King with a more docile one. But the fighting weakened both states, leaving the stage open to a new power.{{sfn|Wawro|2008|pages=112–115|ps=, for Byzantine territory, Sasanian invasions, Heraclius' success at repelling invasion, and the exhaustion of both states.}}<ref>{{harvnb|Esposito|1999|pages=1–5}}, for the replacement of the Sasanian king by Heraclius.</ref>

The nomadic [[Bedouin]] tribes dominated the Arabian desert, where they worshiped [[Idolatry|idols]] and remained in small clans tied together by kinship. Urbanization and agriculture was limited in Arabia, save for a few regions near the coast. [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]] (then called Yathrib) were two such cities that were important hubs for trade between Africa and Eurasia. This commerce was central to city-life, where most inhabitants were merchants.{{sfn|Stearns|Adas|Schwartz|Gilbert|2011|page=138}} Nevertheless, some Arabs saw it fit to migrate to the northern regions of the [[Fertile Crescent]], a region so named for its place between the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system|Tigris and Euphrates rivers]] that offered it fertile land. This included entire tribal chiefdoms such as the [[Lakhmids]] in a less controlled area of the Sasanian Empire, and the [[Ghassanids]] in a similar area inside of Byzantine territory; these political units of Arab origin offered a surprising stability that was rare in the region and offered Arabia further connections to the outside world. The Lakhmid capital, [[Al-Hirah|Hira]] was a center for Christianity and Jewish craftsmen, merchants, and farmers were common in western Arabia as were Christian monks in central Arabia. Thus pre-Islamic Arabia was no stranger to Abrahamic religions or monotheism, for that matter.{{sfn|Hourani|2013|loc=The world into which the Arabs came|ps=, for Arabian migrations, the Lakhmids & Ghassanids, and religious diversity.}}

===Islamic caliphate===
{{See also|Caliphate|Early Muslim conquests|Iranian Intermezzo}}

[[Image:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|350px|Age of the [[Caliph]]s {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under [[Muhammad]], 622–632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], 632–661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliphate]], 661–750}}]]
While the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Roman and [[Sassanian Empire|Sassanid]] Persian empires were both weakened by [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|warfare (602–628)]], a new power in the form of [[Islam]] grew in the Middle East. In a series of rapid [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]], [[Rashidun army|Arab armies]], led by the [[Caliph]]s and skilled military commanders such as [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]], swept through most of the Middle East, taking more than half of [[Arab–Byzantine wars|Byzantine territory]] and completely [[Muslim conquest of Persia|engulfing the Persian lands]]. In [[Anatolia]], they were stopped in the [[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)]] by the Byzantines, who were helped by the [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarians]].

The Byzantine provinces of [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Roman Syria]], [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|North Africa]], and [[Sicily]], however, could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through those regions. At the far west, they crossed the sea taking [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Visigothic Hispania]] before being halted in southern France in the [[Battle of Tours]] by the [[Franks]]. At its greatest extent, the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Arab Empire]] was the first empire to control the entire Middle East, as well three-quarters of the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean region]], the only other empire besides the Roman Empire to control most of the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79–96 [80].</ref> It would be the Arab [[Caliphate]]s of the [[Middle Ages]] that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant [[Arab|ethnic identity]] that persists today. The [[Seljuq Empire]] would also later dominate the region.

Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centres in the Middle East, but Iberia ([[Al-Andalus]]) and Morocco soon broke away from this distant control and founded one of the world's most advanced societies at the time, along with [[Baghdad]] in the eastern Mediterranean. Between 831 and 1071, the [[Emirate of Sicily]] was one of the major centres of Islamic culture in the Mediterranean. After its conquest by the [[Normans]] the island developed its own distinct culture with the fusion of Arab, Western, and Byzantine influences. [[Palermo]] remained a leading artistic and commercial centre of the Mediterranean well into the Middle Ages.

Africa was reviving, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later [[Middle Ages]] after the [[Renaissance of the 12th century|Renaissance of the 12th century]]. Motivated by religion and conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of [[Crusades]] to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the [[Holy Land]]. The Crusades were unsuccessful but were far more effective in weakening the already tottering Byzantine Empire. They also rearranged the [[balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] in the Muslim world as Egypt once again emerged as a major power.

===Islamic culture and science===
{{main|Islamic Golden Age|Early social changes under Islam|Science in the medieval Islamic world}}
[[File:Interior de la mezquita de Córdoba.jpg|thumb|right|The interior of the former mosque of Córdoba, showing its distinctive arches.]]

Religion always played a prevalent role in Middle Eastern culture, affecting learning, architecture, and the ebb and flow of cultures. When Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture, inspiring achievements in [[architecture]], the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. Islam primarily consisted of the [[Five Pillars of Islam|five pillars of belief]], including confession of faith, the five prayers a day, to [[Fasting|fast]] during the holy month of [[Ramadan]], to pay the tax for charity (the [[zakāt]]), and the [[hajj]], or the pilgrimage that a Muslim needed to take at least once in their lifetime, according to the five (or six) pillars of Islam. Islam also created the need for spectacularly built [[mosque]]s which created a distinct form of architecture. Some of the more magnificent mosques include [[Al-Aqsa]] and the former [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba|Mosque of Cordoba]]. Islam unified the Middle East and helped the empires there to remain stable. Missionaries and warriors spread the religion from Arabia to North and Sudanic Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and the Mesopotamia area. This created a mix of cultures, especially in Africa, and the mawali demographic. Although the mawali would experience discrimination from the Umayyad, they would gain widespread acceptance from the [[Abbasid]]s and it was because of this that allowed for mass conversions in foreign areas. "People of the book" or dhimmi were always treated well; these people included Christians, Jews, [[Hinduism|Hindus]], and [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]]. However, the crusades started a new thinking in the Islamic empires, that non-Islamic ideas were immoral or inferior; this was primarily perpetrated by the ulama (علماء) scholars.{{sfn|Stearns|Adas|Schwartz|Gilbert|2011|page=171}}

Arabian culture took off during the early Abbasid age, despite the prevalent political issues. Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in [[History of medicine|medicine]], [[History of elementary algebra|algebra]], [[History of geometry|geometry]], [[History of astronomy|astronomy]], [[History of anatomy|anatomy]], and [[History of ethics|ethics]] that would later find its way back to Western Europe. The works of [[Aristotle]], [[Galen]], [[Hippocrates]], [[Ptolemy]], and [[Euclid]] were saved and distributed throughout the empire (and eventually into Europe) in this manner. Muslim scholars also discovered the [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] in their [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|conquests of south Asia]]. The use of this system in Muslim trade and political institutions allowed for the eventual popularization of it around the world; this number system would be critical to the [[Scientific Revolution]] in Europe. Muslim intellectuals would become experts in [[chemistry]], [[optics]], and [[mapmaking]] during the Abbasid Caliphate. In the arts, [[Abbasid architecture]] expanded upon [[Umayyad architecture]], with larger and more extravagant mosques. [[Persian literature]] grew based on ethical values. Astronomy was stressed in art. Much of this learning would find its way to the West. This was especially true during the crusades, as warriors would bring back Muslim treasures, weapons, and medicinal methods.{{sfn|Stearns|Adas|Schwartz|Gilbert|2011|page=159}}

===Turks, Crusaders, and Mongols===
{{See also|Crusades|Mongol conquests|History of Jerusalem}}
The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the [[Seljuq Turks]], migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia. They conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the [[Hejaz]]. Egypt held out under the [[Fatimid caliph]]s until 1169, when it too fell to the [[Ayyubid Dynasty|Turks]].

Despite massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the Christian [[Byzantine Empire]] continued to be a potent military and economic force in the Mediterranean, preventing Arab expansion into much of Europe. The Seljuqs' defeat of the Byzantine military in the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in the 11th century and settling in [[Anatolia]] effectively marked the end of Byzantine power. The Seljuks ruled most of the Middle East region for the next 200 years, but their empire soon broke up into a number of smaller sultanates.

Christian Western Europe staged a remarkable economic and demographic recovery in the 11th century since its nadir in the 7th century. The fragmentation of the Middle East allowed joined forces, mainly from England, France, and the emerging [[Holy Roman Empire]], to enter the region. In 1095, [[Pope Urban II]] responded to pleas from the flagging Byzantine Empire and summoned the European aristocracy to recapture the [[Holy Land]] for Christianity. In 1099 the knights of the [[First Crusade]] captured [[Jerusalem]] and founded the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], which survived until 1187, when [[Saladin]], the founder of the [[Ayyubid]] dynasty, retook the city. Smaller crusader kingdoms and fiefdoms survived until 1291.

====Mongol rule====
{{main|Ilkhanate|Mongol invasions and conquests#West Asia}}

The conquest of Baghdad and the death of the caliph in 1258 officiated the end of the Abbasid Caliphate and annexed its territories to the [[Mongol Empire]], excluding [[Mamluk Egypt]] and the majority of Arabia.{{sfn|Wawro|2008|pages=146–149}} When the [[Khagan]] (or Great Khan) of the Mongol Empire, [[Möngke Khan]], died in 1259, any further expansion by Hulegu was halted, as he had to return to the Mongol capital [[Karakorum]] for the election of a new khagan. His absence resulted in the first defeat of the Mongols (by the Mamluk Egyptians) during the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260.{{sfn|Guzman|1985|pages=230–233}} Issues began to arise when the Mongols grew increasingly unable to reach a consensus as to whom to elect khagan. Additionally, societal clashing occurred between traditionalists who wished to retain their nomadic culture and Mongols moving towards sedentary agriculture. All of this led to the fragmentation of the empire in 1260.<ref name="Rossabi Mongol conquests">{{cite web|last=Rossabi|first=Morris|title=The Mongol Conquests|url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/conquests/conquests.htm|work=Asian Topics in World History: The Mongols in World History|publisher=Asia for Educators, Columbia University|access-date=20 July 2013}}</ref> Hulegu carved out his Middle Eastern territory into the independent [[Ilkhanate]], which included most of Armenia, Anatolia, Azerbaijan, Mesopotamia, and Iran.
[[File:تمثال_للسلطان_الظاهر_بيبرس_(cropped).JPG|alt=تمثال_للسلطان_الظاهر_بيبرس_(cropped)|thumb|218x218px|Statue of [[Baybars]] of Egypt in Cairo.]]
The Mongols eventually retreated in 1335, but the chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuq Turks. In 1401, the region was further plagued by the Turko-Mongol, [[Timur]], and his ferocious raids. By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]]. Based in [[Anatolia]], by 1566 they would conquer the Iraq-Iran region, the Balkans, Greece, Byzantium, most of Egypt, most of north Africa, and parts of Arabia, unifying them under the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The rule of the Ottoman sultans marked the end of the Medieval (Postclassical) Era in the Middle East.

==Early Modern Near East==
{{further|Early modern history}}

===The Ottoman Empire (1299–1918)===
{{See also|Ottoman Empire}}
[[Image:OttomanEmpire1590.png|thumb|The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent in the Middle East, including [[Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire|its client states]].]]
[[Image:I Selim.jpg|thumb|[[Selim the Grim]], Ottoman conqueror of the Middle East]]
By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman khans, who in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capitol of Constantinople and made themselves sultans. The Mamluks held the Ottomans out of the Middle East for a century, but in 1514 [[Selim I|Selim the Grim]] began the systematic Ottoman conquest of the region. Syria was occupied in 1516 and Egypt in 1517, extinguishing the Mameluk line. Iraq was conquered almost in 40 years from the Iranian [[Safavids]], who were successors of the [[Aq Qoyunlu]].

The Ottomans united the whole region under one ruler for the first time since the reign of the [[Abbasid caliphs]] of the 10th century, and they kept control of it for 400 years, despite brief intermissions created by the Iranian Safavids and [[Afsharids]].{{sfn|Quataert|2000}} By this time the Ottomans also held [[Greece]], the [[Balkans]], and most of [[Hungary]], setting the new frontier between east and west far to the north of the [[Danube]]. Regions such as [[Albania]] and [[Bosnia Eyalet|Bosnia]] saw many conversions to Islam, but Ottoman Europe was not culturally absorbed into the Muslim world.

====Rivalry with the West====
By 1699, the Ottomans had been driven out of Hungary, [[Poland]]-[[Lithuania]] and parts of the western Balkans in the [[Great Turkish War]]. In the [[Great Divergence]], Europe had overtaken the Muslim world in wealth, population and technology. (Some historians argue that science had already been in decline in the Muslim world since the 14th century<ref>{{Citation |title=Islamic Science and Renaissance Europe: The Copernican Connection |date=2007 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 |work=Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance |pages=193–232 |publisher=The MIT Press |doi=10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 |isbn=9780262282888 |access-date=2023-01-21}}</ref> while other argue that sciences still continued until the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=El-Rouayheb |first=Khaled |title=The Myth of "The Triumph of Fanaticism" in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire |journal=Die Welt des Islams |volume=48 |year=2008 |issue=2 |pages=196–221 |doi=10.1163/157006008x335930}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=El-Rouayheb |first=Khaled |title=Opening the Gate of Verification: The Forgotten Arab-Islamic Florescence of the 17th Century |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=38 |year=2006 |issue=2 |pages=263–81 |doi=10.1017/s0020743806412344 |doi-broken-date=2024-10-04 |s2cid=162679546}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=El-Rouhayeb |first=Khaled |title=Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb |date=2015 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |place=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-107-04296-4 |pages=1–10}}</ref>) The [[Industrial Revolution]] and growth of [[capitalism]] magnified the divergence, and from 1768 to 1918, the Ottomans gradually lost territory.

[[Greece]], [[Serbia]], [[Romania]], and [[Bulgaria]] achieved independence during the 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire became known as the "[[sick man of Europe]]", increasingly under the financial control of European powers. Domination soon turned to outright conquest: the French annexed [[Algeria]] in 1830 and [[Tunisia]] in 1878 and the British occupied Egypt in 1882, though it remained under nominal Ottoman sovereignty. In the [[Balkan Wars]] of 1912–13 the Ottomans were driven out of Europe altogether, except for the city of [[Constantinople]] and its hinterland.

The British also [[British Residency of the Persian Gulf|established effective control]] of the [[Persian Gulf]], and the French extended their influence into [[Lebanon]] and Syria. In 1912, the Italians seized [[Libya]] and the [[Dodecanese|Dodecanese islands]], just off the coast of the Ottoman heartland of Anatolia. The Ottomans turned to Germany to protect them from the western powers, but the result was increasing financial and military dependence on Germany.

====Ottoman reform efforts====
[[File:Map of the Ottoman empire in 1916 - Banse Ewald - 1919.jpg|300px|thumb|Middle East Map, 1916]]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers tried to modernize their states to compete more effectively with Europe. In the Ottoman Empire, the [[Tanzimat]] reforms re-invigorated Ottoman rule and were furthered by the [[Young Ottomans]] in the late 19th century, leading to the [[First Constitutional Era]] in the Empire that included the writing of the [[1876 Ottoman constitution|1876 constitution]] and the establishment of the [[Ottoman Parliament]]. The authors of the [[Persian Constitutional Revolution|1906 revolution in Persia]] all sought to import versions of the western model of constitutional government, civil law, secular education, and industrial development into their countries. Throughout the region, railways and telegraph lines were constructed, schools and universities were opened, and a new class of army officers, lawyers, teachers, and administrators emerged, challenging the traditional leadership of [[Islamic scholars]].

This first Ottoman constitutional experiment ended soon after it began, however, when the autocratic Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] abolished the [[Ottoman Parliament|parliament]] and the [[1876 Ottoman constitution|constitution]] in favor of personal rule. Abdul Hamid ruled by decree for the next 30 years, stirring democratic resentment. The reform movement known as the [[Young Turks]] emerged in the 1890s against his rule, which included [[Hamidian massacres|massacres against minorities]]. The Young Turks seized power in the 1908 [[Young Turk Revolution]] and established the [[Second Constitutional Era]], leading to a pluralist and multiparty elections in the Empire for the first time [[1908 Ottoman general election|in 1908]]. The Young Turks split into two parties, the pro-German and pro-centralization [[Committee of Union and Progress]] and the pro-British and pro-decentralization [[Freedom and Accord Party]]. The former was led by an ambitious pair of army officers, [[Enver Pasha|Ismail Enver Bey]] (later Pasha) and [[Djemal Pasha|Ahmed Cemal Pasha]], and a radical lawyer, [[Talaat Pasha|Mehmed Talaat Bey (later Pasha)]]. After a power struggle between the two parties of Young Turks, the Committee [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état|emerged victorious]] and became a ruling junta, with Talaat as Grand Vizier and Enver as War Minister, and established a German-funded modernisation program across the Empire.{{sfn|Mansfield|Pelham|2013|pp=141–147}}
[[File:Ibrahim_Pasha_During_his_Final_Years.jpg|alt=Ibrahim_Pasha_During_his_Final_Years|thumb|265x265px|[[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]]]]
Enver Bey's alliance with Germany, which he considered the most advanced military power in Europe, was enabled by British demands that the Ottoman Empire cede their formal capital [[Edirne]] (Adrianople) to the Bulgarians after losing the [[First Balkan War]], which the Turks saw as a betrayal by Britain.<ref name="Zürcher">{{cite book |title=Turkey: A Modern History |author=[[Erik-Jan Zürcher]] |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-86064-958-5 |edition=Revised |pages=107 ''ff.''}}</ref> These demands cost Britain the support of the Turks, as the pro-British Freedom and Accord Party was now repressed under the pro-German Committee for, in Enver's words, "shamefully delivering the country to the enemy" (Britain) after agreeing to the demands to give up Edirne.<ref name="L'Illustration">{{cite journal |author=Y.R. |date=1 February 1913 |title=Le coup d'état du 23 Janvier |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/37526/37526-h/37526-h.htm |journal=[[L'Illustration]] |access-date=28 July 2014 }}</ref>

==Modern Middle East==
{{further|Modern history}}

===Final years of the Ottoman Empire===
{{See also|Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|Mandatory Palestine|Mandatory Iraq|Modern history of Cyprus|Protectorate of Cyprus|List of modern conflicts in the Middle East}}
[[Image:Mustafa Kemal November 1918.png|180px|thumb|[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], Ottoman general and the founder of modern Turkey]]
In 1878, as the result of the [[Cyprus Convention]], the United Kingdom took over the government of [[Cyprus]] as a protectorate from the [[Ottoman Empire]]. While the Cypriots at first welcomed [[British Empire|British rule]], hoping that they would gradually achieve prosperity, democracy and national liberation, they soon became disillusioned. The British imposed heavy taxes to cover the compensation they paid to the Sultan for conceding Cyprus to them. Moreover, the people were not given the right to participate in the administration of the island, since all powers were reserved to the [[High Commissioner]] and to London.<ref>{{cite book|last = Tofallis|first = Kypros|title = A history of Cyprus: from the ancient times to the present|page = 98 |date =2002|publisher = Greek Institute|isbn = 9780905313238}}</ref>

Meanwhile, the fall of the Ottomans and the partitioning of Anatolia by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] led to resistance by the Turkish population, under the [[Turkish National Movement]] led by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], the Turkish victory against the invading powers during the [[Turkish War of Independence]], and the founding of the modern [[Republic of Turkey]] in 1923. Atatürk, the Republic's first President, embarked on a [[Atatürk's Reforms|program of modernisation and secularisation]] that pushed Turkey both economically and culturally closer to Europe and away from the Arab world. He abolished the [[caliphate]], emancipated women, enforced western dress and the use of a new [[Turkish alphabet]] based on [[Latin script]] in place of the [[Ottoman Turkish alphabet|Arabic alphabet]], and abolished the jurisdiction of the Islamic courts.

Another turning point came when [[petroleum|oil]] was discovered, first in Persia (1908) and later in [[Saudi Arabia]] (1938) as well as the other Persian Gulf states, [[Libya]], and [[Algeria]]. The Middle East, it turned out, possessed the world's largest easily untapped reserves of [[crude oil]], the most important commodity in the 20th century. The discovery of oil in the region made many of the kings and emirs of the Middle East immensely wealthy and enabled them to consolidate their hold on power while giving them a stake in preserving western hegemony over the region.<ref name="Morton 39–54">{{cite journal|last=Morton |first=Michael Quentin |title=Narrowing the Gulf: Anglo-American Relations and Arabian Oil, 1928–74 |journal=Liwa |date=December 2011 |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=39–54 |url=http://www.ncdr.ae/liwa/issues/LIWA06E.pdf |access-date=14 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419013816/http://www.ncdr.ae/liwa/issues/LIWA06E.pdf |archive-date=19 April 2014 }}</ref>

As the West became dependent on Middle Eastern oil exports and British influence steadily declined, American interest in the region grew. Initially, Western oil companies established a dominance over oil production and extraction. However, indigenous movements towards [[nationalization|nationalizing]] oil assets, oil sharing, and the advent of [[OPEC]] ensured a shift in the [[balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] towards the Arab oil states.<ref name="Morton 39–54"/>

===World War I===

In 1914, [[Enver Pasha]]'s [[Ottoman–German Alliance|alliance with Germany]] led the Ottoman Empire into the fatal step of entering [[World War I]] on the side of the [[Central Powers]] against the [[Allies of World War I|Entente]], an alliance that included Russia, Great Britain and France. The British saw the Ottomans as the weak link in the enemy alliance, and concentrated on knocking them out of the war. When a direct assault failed at [[Gallipoli Campaign|Gallipoli]] in 1916, they turned to fomenting revolution in the Ottoman domains, exploiting the awakening force of [[Arab nationalism|Arab]], [[Armenian nationalism|Armenian]], and [[Assyrian nationalism]] against the Ottomans.<ref>Frank G. Weber, ''Eagles on the Crescent: Germany, Austria, and the diplomacy of the Turkish alliance, 1914-1918'' (Cornell University Press, 1970)</ref>

The British found an ally in [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Sharif Hussein]], the hereditary ruler of [[Mecca]] believed by many to be a descendant of [[Muhammad]], who led an [[Arab Revolt]] against Ottoman rule, after being promised independence.

The Entente, won the war and the Ottoman Empire was abolished with most of its territories ceded to Britain and France; Turkey just managed to survive. The war transformed the region in terms of shattering Ottoman power which was supplanted by increased British and French involvement; the creation of the Middle Eastern state system as seen in Turkey and Saudi Arabia; the emergence of explicitly more nationalist politics, as seen in Turkey and Egypt; and the expansion of oil industry, particularly in the Gulf States.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhu031|doi=10.1093/dh/dhu031|title=World War I: A War (And Peace?) for the Middle East|year=2014|last1=Jacobs|first1=M. F.|journal=Diplomatic History|volume=38|issue=4|pages=776–785}}</ref>

===Ottoman defeat and partition (1918–1922)===
{{Main|Partition of the Ottoman Empire}}

When the Ottoman Empire surrendered to the Allies in 1918, the Arab patriots did not get what they had expected. Islamic activists of more recent times have described it as an Anglo-French betrayal. The governments of the European Entente had concluded a secret treaty before the armistice, the [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]], partitioning the Middle East amongst themselves. The British had in 1917, endorsed the [[Balfour Declaration]] promising the international [[Zionism|Zionist]] movement their support in re-creating the historic Jewish homeland in Palestine.

After the Ottomans withdrew, Arab leaders proclaimed an independent state in [[Damascus]], but were swiftly defeated by the forces of Great Britain and France who soon after establishing control, re-arranged the Middle East to suit themselves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crethiplethi.com/the-sykes-picot-agreement-1916/historical-documents/2009/|title=Skyes Picot Agreement: Division of Territory|year=2009|publisher=Crethi Plethi|access-date=24 August 2013}}</ref>

[[Syria]] became a French protectorate as a [[League of Nations mandate]]. The Christian coastal areas were split off to become [[Lebanon]], another French protectorate. [[Iraq]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] became British mandated territories. Iraq became the "[[Kingdom of Iraq]]" and one of Sharif Hussein's sons, [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]], was installed as the [[King of Iraq]]. Iraq incorporated large populations of [[Kurdish people|Kurds]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and [[Turkmen people|Turkmens]], many of whom had been promised independent states of their own.

Britain was granted a Mandate for Palestine on 25 April 1920 at the [[San Remo Conference]], and, on 24 July 1922, this mandate was approved by the League of Nations. Palestine became the "[[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate of Palestine]]" and was placed under direct British administration. The Jewish population of Palestine, consisting overwhelmingly of recent migrants from Europe, numbered less than 8 percent in 1918. Under the British mandate, Zionist settlers were granted wide rein to immigrate initially, buy land from absentee landlords, set up a local government and later establish the nucleus of a state all under the protection of the British Army, which brutally suppressed multiple Palestinian Arab revolts in the years that followed, [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine|including in 1936]].<ref>{{cite book|first = Justin|last = McCarthy|title = The Population of Palestine: Population History and Statistics of the Late Ottoman Period and the Mandate|date = 1990|publisher = Columbia University Press|isbn = 9780231939782}}</ref> The Territory East of the Jordan River and west of Iraq was also declared a British Mandate when the Council of the League of Nations passed the British written Transjordan Memorandum on 16 September 1922. Most of the Arabian peninsula, including the Holy cities of Mecca and Medina, though not incorporated into either a British or French colonial mandate, fell under the control of another British ally, [[Ibn Saud]], who in 1932, founded the [[Saudi Arabia|Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]].

===1920–1945===
[[File:ModernEgypt,_Saad_Zaghloul,_BAP_14785.jpg|alt=ModernEgypt,_Saad_Zaghloul,_BAP_14785|thumb|252x252px|[[Saad Zaghloul]]]]
During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] made moves towards independence. In 1919, Egypt's [[Saad Zaghloul]] orchestrated mass demonstrations in Egypt known as the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1919|First Revolution]]. While Zaghloul would later become Prime Minister, the British repression of the anticolonial riots led to around 800 deaths. In 1920, Syrian forces were defeated by the French in the [[Battle of Maysalun]] and Iraqi forces were defeated by the British when they [[Iraqi revolt against the British|revolted]]. In 1922, the (nominally) independent [[Kingdom of Egypt]] was created following the British government's issuance of the [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence]].

Although the Kingdom of Egypt was technically "neutral" during World War II, [[Cairo]] soon became a major military base for the British and the country was occupied. The British cited the [[Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936|1936 treaty]] that allowed it to station troops on Egyptian soil to protect the [[Suez Canal]]. In 1941, the [[1941 Iraqi coup d'état|Rashīd `Alī al-Gaylānī coup]] in Iraq led to the British to invade, leading to the [[Anglo-Iraqi War]]. This was followed by the [[Syria–Lebanon Campaign|Allied invasion of Syria–Lebanon]] and the [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran]].

In Palestine, conflicting forces of [[Arab nationalism]] and [[Zionism]] created a situation the British could neither resolve nor extricate themselves from. The rise of German dictator [[Adolf Hitler]] had created a new urgency in the Zionist quest to immigrate to Palestine and create a [[Jewish state]]. A Palestinian state was also an attractive alternative to the Arab and Persian leaders, instead of the de facto British, French, and perceived Jewish colonialism or imperialism, under the logic of "[[the enemy of my enemy is my friend]]".{{sfn|Lewis|1995|pp=348–350}}

===New states after World War II===
[[File:King_Farouk_I_1948.jpg|alt=King_Farouk_I_1948|thumb|[[Farouk of Egypt|Farouk]] of Egypt|200x200px]]
When [[World War II]] ended, the British,<ref>[[Elizabeth Monroe (historian)|Elizabeth Monroe]], ''Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956'' (1963) [https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921121807/https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 |date=2018-09-21 }}</ref> French, and Soviets, withdrew from most parts of the regions they had occupied both before and during the War II and seven Middle East states gained or regained independence:
* 22 November 1943 – Lebanon
* 1 January 1944 – Syria
* 22 May 1946 – Jordan (British mandate ended)
* 1947 – Iraq (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn)
* 1947 – Egypt (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn to the [[Suez Canal]] area)
* 1948 – Israel (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn)
* August 16, 1960 – Cyprus

The struggle between the Arabs and the Jews in Palestine culminated in the 1947 [[United Nations]] [[1947 UN Partition Plan|plan to partition Palestine]]. This plan sought to create an Arab state and a separate Jewish state in the narrow space between the [[Jordan River]] and the Mediterranean. Jewish leaders accepted the plan, but Arab leaders rejected it.<ref>{{cite book|author=Benny Morris|title=1948: a history of the first Arab-Israeli war|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5jtAAAAMAAJ|access-date=13 July 2013|year=2008|publisher=Yale University Press|page=73|isbn=9780300126969|quote=Bevin regarded the UNSCOP majority report of 1 September 1947 as unjust and immoral. He promptly decided that Britain would not attempt to im- pose it on the Arabs; indeed, he expected them to resist its implementation… The British cabinet...: in the meeting on 4 December 1947... It decided, in a sop to the Arabs, to refrain from aiding the enforcement of the UN resolution, meaning the partition of Palestine. And in an important secret corollary... it agreed that Britain would do all in its power to delay until early May the arrival in Palestine of the UN (Implementation) Commission. The Foreign Office immediately informed the commission "that it would be intolerable for the Commission to begin to exercise its authority while the [Mandate] Palestine Government was still administratively responsible for Palestine"... This... nullified any possibility of an orderly implementation of the partition resolution.}}</ref>

On 14 May 1948, when the British Mandate expired, the [[Zionist]] leadership declared the [[State of Israel]]. In the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] which immediately followed, the armies of Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia intervened and were defeated by Israel.<ref>{{cite book|title=Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, Pre-1948 to the Present |last=Rabinovich |first=Itamar |author2=Reinharz, Jehuda |year=2007 |publisher=Brandeis |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780874519624/page/74 74] |isbn=978-0-87451-962-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780874519624/page/74 }}</ref> About 800,000 Palestinians fled from areas annexed by Israel and became [[Palestinian refugee|refugees]] in neighbouring countries, thus creating the "Palestinian problem", which has troubled the region ever since.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Warf |first1=C. |last2=Charles |first2=G. |title=Clinical Care for Homeless, Runaway and Refugee Youth: Intervention Approaches, Education and Research Directions |publisher=Springer International Publishing |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-030-40675-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irzhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA384 |quote=By 1948, the majority of Palestinians, about 700,000 to 800,000 people from 500 to 600 villages, were displaced. They were either expelled or fled from their homes for fear of being killed, as had actually taken place in a number of villages.}}</ref> Approximately two-thirds of 758,000–866,000 of the [[Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries|Jews expelled or who fled from Arab lands]] after 1948 were absorbed and naturalized by the State of Israel.<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il VI- The Arab Refugees – Introduction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117094828/http://mfa.gov.il/ |date=17 January 2009 }}</ref>

On August 16, 1960, [[Cyprus]] gained its independence from the British Empire. Archbishop [[Makarios III]], a charismatic religious and political leader, was elected its first independent president, and in 1961 it became the 99th member of the [[United Nations]].{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

===Modern states===
{{See also|Economy of the Middle East|List of modern conflicts in the Middle East}}
[[File:The Middle East.ogv|thumb|1963 film about contemporary events in the Middle East]]The modern Middle East was shaped by three things: departure of European powers, the [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|founding of Israel]], and the growing importance of the oil industry. These developments eventually led to increased [[United States foreign policy in the Middle East|U.S. involvement in the region]]. The United States was the ultimate guarantor of the region's stability as well as the dominant force in the oil industry after the 1950s. When revolutions brought radical [[Anti-Western sentiment|anti-Western]] regimes to power in Egypt (1954), Syria (1963), Iraq (1968), and [[Libya]] (1969), the [[Soviet Union]], seeking to open a new arena of the [[Cold War]], allied itself with [[Arab socialism|Arab socialist]] rulers like [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in [[Egypt]] and [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[Iraq]].
These regimes gained popular support with promises to destroy the state of Israel and other "western imperialists", and to bring prosperity to the Arab masses. When the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967 ended with an overwhelming Israeli victory, many viewed the defeat as the failure of Arab socialism. This represents a turning point when "[[Islamic fundamentalism|fundamental]] and [[Islamic terrorism|militant Islam]] began to fill the political vacuum created".<ref name="watson">Watson, Peter (2006). ''Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention, from Fire to Freud''. New York: Harper Perennial. p. 1096. {{ISBN|0-06-093564-2}}.</ref>

The United States, in response, felt obliged to defend its remaining allies, the monarchies of Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iran, and the Persian Gulf emirates, whose methods of rule were often almost as unattractive in western eyes as those of the anti-western regimes. Iran in particular became a key U.S. ally, until a revolution led by the [[Shi'a]] clergy [[Iranian revolution|overthrew the monarchy in 1979]] and established a [[theocracy|theocratic state]] that proved to be far more anti-western than the secular regimes in Iraq or Syria. The list of Arab-Israeli wars includes a great number of major wars such as [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]], [[1956 Suez War]], 1967 [[Six-Day War]], 1967–1970 [[War of Attrition]], 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[1982 Lebanon War]], as well as a number of lesser conflicts of lower intensity.

In [[Cyprus]] between 1955 and 1974, conflict arising between [[Greek Cypriots]] and [[Turkish Cypriots]] led to [[Cypriot intercommunal violence]] and the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]]. The [[Cyprus dispute]] remains unresolved.

In the mid-to-late 1960s, the [[Ba'ath Party|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]] led by [[Michel Aflaq]] and [[Salah al-Din al-Bitar]] took power in both Iraq and Syria. Iraq was first ruled by [[Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr]], but was succeeded by [[Saddam Hussein]] in 1979, and Syria was ruled first by a Military Committee led by [[Salah Jadid]], and later [[Hafez al-Assad]] until 2000, when he was succeeded by his son, [[Bashar al-Assad]].

[[File:Close up of Menahem Begin, Jimmy Carter and Anwar Sadat attending a military exhibition during the Camp David Summit. - NARA - 181142.tif|thumb|[[Anwar Sadat]], [[Jimmy Carter]] and [[Menachem Begin]] concluded a peace treaty in 1978.|276x276px]]In 1979, Egypt under Nasser's successor, [[Anwar Sadat]], concluded a peace treaty with Israel, ending the prospects of a united Arab military front. From the 1970s the Palestinians, led by [[Yasser Arafat]]'s [[Palestine Liberation Organization]], resorted to a prolonged campaign of violence against Israel and against American, Jewish, and western targets generally, as a means of weakening Israeli resolve and undermining western support for Israel. The Palestinians were supported in this, to varying degrees, by the regimes in Syria, Libya, Iran, and Iraq. The high point of this campaign came in the 1975 [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379]] condemning Zionism as a form of racism and the reception given to Arafat by the [[United Nations General Assembly]]. Resolution 3379 was revoked in 1991 by the [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 4686]].

Due to many of the frantic events of the late 1970s in the Middle East it culminated in the [[Iran–Iraq War]] between neighbouring Iran and Iraq. The war, started by Iraq, who invaded Iranian [[Khuzestan]] in 1980 at the behest of the latter's chaotic state of country due to the 1979 Islamic Revolution, eventually turned into a stalemate with hundreds of thousands of dead on both sides.

The fall of the [[Soviet Union]] and the collapse of [[communism]] in the early 1990s had several consequences for the Middle East. It allowed large numbers of [[Soviet Jews]] to emigrate from [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]] to Israel, further strengthening the Jewish state. It cut off the easiest source of credit, armaments, and diplomatic support to the anti-western Arab regimes, weakening their position. It opened up the prospect of cheap oil from Russia, driving down the price of oil and reducing the west's dependence on oil from the Arab states. It discredited the model of development through authoritarian state socialism, which Egypt (under Nasser), Algeria, Syria, and Iraq had followed since the 1960s, leaving these regimes politically and economically stranded. Rulers such as Iraq's Saddam Hussein increasingly relied on [[Arab nationalism]] as a substitute for socialism.

[[File:Saddam_Hussein_1979.jpg|alt=Saddam_Hussein_1979|thumb|253x253px|[[Saddam Hussein]]]]Saddam Hussein led Iraq into a prolonged and [[Iran–Iraq War|costly war with Iran]] from 1980 to 1988, and then into its fateful invasion of [[Kuwait]] in 1990. Kuwait had been part of the Ottoman province of [[Basra]] before 1918, and thus in a sense part of Iraq, even though Iraq had recognized its [[History of Kuwait#Independence and early state-building (1946–89)|independence in 1961]]. In response, the United States formed a coalition of allies with Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Syria, gained [[United Nations|UN]] approval, and evicted Iraq from Kuwait by force in the [[Gulf War]]. President [[George H. W. Bush|George H. W. Bush]] did not, however, attempt to overthrow Saddam Hussein, which the United States later came to regret.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rupok |first=Rifat |url= |title=Asking Questions: The Israeli-Palestinian Puzzle |date=2023-11-10 |publisher=Independently published |year=2023 |isbn=979-8-8672-7847-2 |language=English}}</ref> The Gulf War led to a permanent U.S. military presence in the Persian Gulf, particularly in Saudi Arabia, which offended many Muslims, and was a reason often cited by [[Osama bin Laden]] as justification for the [[September 11 attacks]].

===1990s–present===
[[File:MiddleEast.png|thumb|400px|A map of the Middle East (2003)]]

The worldwide change of governance in Eastern Europe, Latin America, East Asia, and parts of Africa following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] did not occur in the Middle East. In the whole region, only Israel, Turkey and to some extent Lebanon and the Palestinian territories were considered to be democracies. Some countries had legislative bodies, but these were said to have little power. In the [[Persian Gulf states]] the majority of the population could not vote because they were guest workers rather than citizens.

In most Middle Eastern countries, the growth of market economies was said to be limited by political restrictions, corruption, and [[cronyism]], overspending on arms and prestige projects and over-dependence on oil revenues. The successful economies were countries that had oil wealth and low populations, such as [[Qatar]], [[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]], where the ruling emirs allowed some political and social liberalization, but without giving up any of their own power. Lebanon also rebuilt a fairly successful economy after a prolonged [[Lebanese Civil War|civil war]] in the 1980s.

At the beginning of the 21st century, all these factors intensified conflict in the Middle East, which affected the entire world. [[Bill Clinton]]'s failed attempt to broker a peace deal between Israel and Palestine at the [[2000 Camp David Summit|Camp David Summit]] in 2000 led directly to the election of [[Ariel Sharon]] as Prime Minister of Israel and to the [[Second Intifada]], which conducted [[suicide bombing]]s on Israeli civilians. This was the first major outbreak of violence since the [[Oslo Peace Accords]] of 1993.

Many of the [[Mujahideen|Afghan jihadists]], though supposedly none of the Arab volunteers, were funded by the United States under [[Operation Cyclone]] as part of the [[Reagan Doctrine]], one of the longest and most expensive [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] [[covert operations]] ever.<ref name=bergen68>Bergen, Peter, ''Holy War Inc.'', Free Press, (2001), p. 68</ref><ref name="Oily">{{cite magazine |title=The Oily Americans |date=13 May 2003 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,450997-92,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204024027/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,450997-92,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 4, 2008 |magazine=Time |access-date=2008-07-08 |first1=Donald L. |last1=Barlett |first2=James B. |last2=Steele}}</ref>

One of these Arab militants was a wealthy Saudi Arabian named [[Osama bin Laden]]. After fighting against the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviets in Afghanistan]] in the 1980s, he formed the [[al-Qaida]] organization, which was responsible for the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]], the [[USS Cole bombing|USS ''Cole'' bombing]] and the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] on the United States.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} The September 11 attacks led the [[George W. Bush]] administration to [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|invade Afghanistan]] in 2001 to overthrow the [[Taliban]] regime, which had been harboring Bin Laden and al-Qaida. The United States and its allies described this operation as part of a global "[[War on Terror]]".

In 2002, U.S. Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] developed a plan to invade Iraq, remove Saddam from power, and turn Iraq into a democratic state with a free-market economy, which they hoped would serve as a model for the rest of the Middle East. The United States and its principal allies—Britain, Italy, Spain, and Australia—could not secure [[United Nations]] approval for the execution of the numerous UN resolutions, so they launched an invasion of Iraq and deposed Saddam without much difficulty in April 2003.

The advent of a new western army of occupation in a Middle Eastern capital marked a turning point in the history of the region. Despite successful elections (although boycotted by large portions of Iraq's Sunni population) held in January 2005, much of Iraq had all but disintegrated, due to a post-war insurgency which morphed into persistent ethnic violence that the American army was initially unable to quell. Many of Iraq's intellectual and business elite fled the country, and many Iraqi refugees left as a result of the insurgency, further destabilizing the region. A responsive surge in U.S. forces in Iraq was largely successful in controlling the insurgency and stabilizing the country. U.S. forces [[Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq (2007–2011)|withdrew]] from Iraq by December 2011.

By 2005, President George W. Bush's [[Road map for peace]] between Israel and the Palestinians was stalled, although this situation had begun to change with [[Yasser Arafat]]'s death in 2004. In response, Israel moved towards a unilateral solution, pushing ahead with the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]] to protect Israel from Palestinian [[Suicide attack|suicide bombers]] and unilateral withdrawing from [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]]. In 2006 a new conflict erupted between Israel and [[Hezbollah]] Shi'a militia in southern Lebanon, further setting back any "prospects for peace".

In the early 2010s, a [[revolutionary wave]] popularly known as the [[Arab Spring]] brought major protests, uprisings, and revolutions to several Middle Eastern countries, followed by prolonged civil wars in [[Syrian Civil War|Syria]], [[Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017)|Iraq]], [[Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)|Yemen]], and [[Libyan Civil War (2011–present)|Libya]]. In 2014, a terrorist group and self-proclaimed caliphate calling itself the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]] made rapid territorial gains in western Iraq and eastern Syria, prompting [[International military intervention against ISIL|international military intervention]]. At its peak, the group controlled an area containing an estimated 2.8 to 8 million people, 98% of which was lost by December 2017.

== See also ==
* [[Genetic history of the Middle East]]
* [[History of the Mediterranean region]]
* [[List of history journals#Middle East]]
* [[Middle Eastern empires]]
* [[Timeline of Middle Eastern history]]
* The [[1970s energy crisis|oil crises]]
* [[British foreign policy in the Middle East]]
* [[United States foreign policy in the Middle East]]
* [[Near Eastern archaeology]]
'''By country:'''
* [[History of Armenia]]
* [[History of Azerbaijan]]
* [[History of Bahrain]]
* [[History of Cyprus]]
* [[History of Egypt]]
* [[History of Georgia (country)|History of Georgia]]
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[History of Iraq]]
* [[History of Israel]]
* [[History of Jordan]]
* [[History of Kuwait]]
* [[History of Lebanon]]
* [[History of Oman]]
* [[History of Palestine]]
* [[History of Qatar]]
* [[History of Malta]]
* [[History of Saudi Arabia]]
* [[History of Syria]]
* [[History of Turkey]]
* [[History of the United Arab Emirates]]
* [[History of Yemen]]

'''General:'''
* [[History of North Africa]]
* [[History of Asia]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{citation|last=Esposito|first=John L.|title=The Oxford History of Islam|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York City|isbn=978-0-19-510799-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PR7|edition=Illustrated|author-link=John Esposito}}
* {{citation|last=Guzman|first=Gregory|title=Christian Europe and Mongol Asia: First Medieval Intercultural Contact Between East and West|journal=Essays in Medieval Studies|year=1985|volume=2|url=http://www.illinoismedieval.org/EMS/EMSpdf/V2/V2Guzman.pdf}}
* {{citation|last=Hourani|first=Albert|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|year=2013|publisher=Faber and Faber|isbn=978-0-571-30249-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irtb55WDsjMC|edition=Updated|author-link=Albert Hourani}}
* {{citation|last=Stearns|first=Peter N.|year=2007|title=A Brief History of the World|publisher=[[The Teaching Company]]|author-link=Peter Stearns}}
* {{citation |last1=Stearns |first1=Peter N. |author-link1=Peter Stearns |last2=Adas |first2=Michael |author-link2=Michael Adas |last3=Schwartz |first3=Stuart B. |author-link3=Stuart B. Schwartz |last4=Gilbert |first4=Marc Jason |title=World Civilizations: The Global Experience |year=2011 |publisher=Longman |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |isbn=978-0-13-136020-4 |edition=6th}}
* {{citation|last=Wawro|first=Geoffrey|title=Historical Atlas: A Comprehensive History of the World|year=2008|publisher=Millennium House|location=Elanora Heights, NSW, Australia|isbn=978-1-921209-23-9|author-link=Geoffrey Wawro}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* Cheta, Omar Youssef. "The economy by other means: The historiography of capitalism in the modern Middle East." ''History Compass'' (April 2018) 16#4 DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12444
* Cleveland, William L. and Martin Bunton. (2016) ''A History of the Modern Middle East.'' 6th ed. Westview Press.
* Fawaz, Leila Tarazi. ''A Land of Aching Hearts: The Middle East in the Great War'' (2014)
* Fawcett, Louise, ed. ''International relations of the Middle East'' (Oxford University Press, 2013)
* Gause III, F. Gregory. "'Hegemony' Compared: Great Britain and the United States in the Middle East." ''Security Studies'' 28.3 (2019): 565-587. https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2019.1604987
* Goldschmidt, Arthur, and Lawrence Davidson. ''A concise history of the Middle East'' (Westview Press, 1991)
* Issawi, Charles. ''An economic history of the Middle East and North Africa'' (Routledge, 2013) [https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ5TAQAAQBAJ Excerpt and text search]
* Issawi, Charles, ed. ''The Economic History of the Middle East 1800–1914: A Book of Readings'' (1966) [https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo0000unse_o2c3 online]
* Kirk, George Eden. ''A short history of the Middle East: from the rise of Islam to modern times''(Methuen, 1964) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206224/page/n5/mode/2up online]
* {{citation|last=[[Bernard Lewis|Lewis]]|first=Bernard|title=The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years|location=New York|publisher=Scribner|year=1995}}
* Monroe, Elizabeth. '' Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956'' (1963) [https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921121807/https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 |date=2018-09-21 }}
* {{citation|title=A History of the Middle East|last1=Mansfield|first1=Peter|last2=Pelham|first2=Nicolas|year=2013|edition=4|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-7181-9967-8}}
* {{citation|last=Rogan|first=Eugene|year=2009|title=The Arabs: A History}}
* {{citation|last=Quataert|first=Donald|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1jR39OM_hsC|isbn=978-1-139-44591-7}}
* Vasiliev, Alexey. ''Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin'' (Routledge, 2018).

* [[Robert F. Worth|Worth, Robert F.]], "Syria's Lost Chance" (review of Elizabeth F. Thompson, ''How the West Stole Democracy from the Arabs: the Syrian Arab Congress of 1920 and the Destruction of Its Historic Liberal-Islamic Alliance'', Atlantic Monthly, 466 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVII, no. 15 (8 October 2020), pp. 31–33. Worth writes (p. 33): "Perhaps things would have been different if the Syrians had been left to govern themselves a century ago."
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Wikipedia_-_History_of_the_Middle_East.ogg|date=2008-03-28}}
* [http://www.qdl.qa/en/articles-from-our-experts Articles From Our Experts] – [[Qatar Digital Library]] – an online portal providing access to previously undigitised [[British Library]] archive materials relating to Persian Gulf history and Arabic science
* [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552622 The Middle East : peace and the changing order] from the [[Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]]
* [http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/6308/1/Ancient-Civilizations--Mesopotamia.html Ancient Civilizations Medicine]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131017014421/http://www.aina.org/brief.html Assyrians]
* [http://gulf2000.columbia.edu/images/maps/MidEast_Cultural_Historical_Zones_lg.png Middle East: Primary Cultural and Historical Zones]

{{Middle East}}
{{Middle East topic| History of }}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of The Middle East}}
[[Category:History of West Asia| ]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern studies]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

History of the Middle East

2024-10-17T16:37:01Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|none}}
[[Image:Middle East geographic.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|A map showing territories commonly considered part of the [[Near East]]]]
The [[Middle East]], also known as the [[Near East]], is home to one of the [[cradles of civilization]] and has seen many of the world's oldest systematically heirarchical cultures and civilizations. The region's history started from the earliest human settlements and continues through several major pre- and post-Islamic Empires to today's nation-states of the Middle East.
<noinclude>{{Human history}}</noinclude>

The [[Sumer]]ians, around the 5th millennium BC, were among the first to develop the contemporary notion of a [[civilization]]. By 3150 BC, Egyptian civilization had unified under its first pharaoh.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Egyptian Rock Cut Tombs |last=Dodson |first=Aidan |publisher=Shire |year=1991 |location=Buckinghamshire |isbn=978-0-7478-0128-3|page=46}}</ref> [[Mesopotamia]] hosted powerful empires, notably the [[Assyrian Empire]]s (1365–1076 BC and 911–609 BC). From the 7th century BC, the region was dominated by Iranian powers, including the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. In the 1st century BC, the [[Roman Republic]] expanded to include much of the [[Near East]], and the [[Byzantine Empire]] later ruled from the [[Balkans]] to the [[Euphrates]], increasingly defined by and dogmatic about [[Christianity]]. Between the 3rd and 7th centuries AD, the Middle East was dominated by the Byzantines and the [[Sasanian Empire]]. From the 7th century onward, [[Islam]] began to shape the region, bringing a new cultural and religious identity. The [[Seljuq dynasty]] displaced [[Arabs|Arab]] dominance in the mid-11th century, followed by the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] invasions in the 13th century By the 15th century, the [[Ottoman Empire]], rooted in [[Anatolia|western Anatolia]], rose to prominence, [[Fall of Constantinople|capturing Constantinople in 1453]] and establishing a lasting sultanate.

Large parts of the Middle East were contested between the Ottomans and the [[Safavid dynasty]] from the early 16th century. By 1700, the Ottomans had been pushed out of [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Hungary]], shifting the [[Balance of power (international relations)|power balance]] towards the West. The [[British Empire]] gained control over the [[Persian Gulf]], while [[French colonial empire]] extended into [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]]. In 1912, Italy took Libya and the Dodecanese islands. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers sought modernization to match European powers. A key moment came with the discovery of [[Petroleum|oil]], first in Persia (1908), then in [[Saudi Arabia]] (1938), the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf states]], [[Libya]], and [[Algeria]], leading to increased Western and later American interest in the region.

In the 1920s to 1940s, Syria and [[Egypt]] pursued independence. The British, French, and [[Soviets]] withdrew from much of the Middle East during and after [[World War II]]. The [[Arab–Israeli conflict]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] culminated in the 1947 [[United Nations]] [[1947 UN Partition Plan|plan to partition Palestine]]. Amid [[Cold War]] tensions, [[pan-Arabism]] emerged in Western Asia and Northern Africa. The end of European control, the establishment of [[Israel]], and the rise of the [[petroleum industry]] shaped the modern Middle East. Despite economic growth, many countries faced challenges like political restrictions, corruption, [[cronyism]] and overreliance on oil. The wealthiest [[per capita]] are the small, oil-rich Persian Gulf states: [[Qatar]], [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]], and the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]].

Several key events shaped the modern Middle East: the 1967 [[Six-Day War]],<ref name="wright">Robin Wright, ''Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam'', pp. 65–66</ref> the [[1970s energy crisis|1973 OPEC oil embargo]] in response to US support for Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]],<ref name="wright"/><ref>interview by Robin Wright of UK Foreign Secretary (at the time) Lord Carrington in November 1981, ''Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam'' by Robin Wright, Simon and Schuster, (1985), p. 67</ref> and the rise of [[Salafism]]/[[Wahhabism]] in Saudi Arabia that led to rise of [[Islamism]].<ref name=Kepel-petro>{{cite book|last=Kepel|first=Gilles|title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam|year=2003|publisher=I.B. Tauris|pages=61–62|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OLvTNk75hUoC&pg=PA61 |isbn=978-1-84511-257-8}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Iranian Revolution]] contributed to a significant [[Islamic revival]] (Tajdid).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Martin Kramer|journal=Middle East Quarterly|title=Fundamentalist Islam: The Drive for Power|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050213035635/http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/FundamentalistPower.htm|archive-date=February 13, 2005|url=http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/FundamentalistPower.htm}}</ref> The [[Fall of the Soviet Union]] in 1991 shifted global focus from the Cold War to the [[War on Terror]]. In the early 2010s, the [[Arab Spring]] triggered major protests and revolutions in the region. Clashes in [[Anbar campaign (2013–2014)|western Iraq]] on December 30, 2013, set the stage for the [[Islamic State|ISIL]] uprising.

The term ''Near East'' can be used interchangeably with ''Middle East'', but in a different context, especially in discussing [[ancient history]], it may have a limited meaning, namely the northern historically-[[Aramaic]]-speaking [[Semitic people]] area and adjacent [[Anatolia]]n territories, marked in the two maps below.

[[File:NearEast3.png|right|thumb|{{legend|#008000|The limited modern archaeological and historical context of the Near East}}{{legend|#00ff00|Middle East and Near East}}]]
[[File:Semitic languages.svg|right|thumb|The historical [[Semitic people|Semitic region]], defined by the pre-Islamic distribution of [[Semitic language]]s and coinciding very roughly with the [[Arabian Plate]]. Not so much lingually but rather culturally, politically and historically, the most significant division here has been between the north and the south, which is to some degree isolated from each other by the sparsely-populated [[Arabian Desert]]. The north comprises Mesopotamia and the [[Levant]], which, together with the lower [[Nile]], constitute the [[Fertile Crescent]].]]

==General==
Geographically, the Middle East can be thought of as [[Western Asia]] with the addition of [[Egypt]] (which is the non-[[Maghreb]] region of [[Northern Africa]]) and with the exclusion of the [[Caucasus]]. The Middle East was the first to experience a [[Neolithic Revolution]] (c. the 10th millennium BCE), as well as the first to enter the [[Bronze Age]] (c. 3300–1200 BC) and [[Iron Age]] (c. 1200–500 BC).

Historically human populations have tended to settle around bodies of water, which is reflected in modern population density patterns. [[Irrigation]] systems were extremely important for the agricultural Middle East: for Egypt that of the lower [[Nile River]], and for Mesopotamia that of the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers. Levantine agriculture depended on [[precipitation]] rather than on the river-based irrigation of Egypt and Mesopotamia, resulting in preference for different crops. Since travel was faster and easier by sea, civilizations along the [[Mediterranean]], such as [[Phoenicia]] and later [[Greece]], participated in intense trade. Similarly, [[History of Yemen#Ancient history|Ancient Yemen]], being much more conducive to agriculture than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula, sea traded heavily with the [[Horn of Africa]], some of which it lingually Semitized. The [[Adnanite]] Arabs, inhabiting the drier desert areas of the Middle East, were all [[nomadic]] [[pastoralism|pastoralists]] before some began settling in [[city state]]s, with the geo-linguistic distribution today being divided between [[Persian Gulf]], the [[Najd]] and the [[Hejaz]] in the Peninsula, as well as the [[Bedouin]] areas beyond the Peninsula.

Since ancient times the Middle East has had several [[lingua franca]]: [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ({{circa}} 14th–8th century BC), [[Hebrew]] ({{circa}} 5th century BC – 2nd century AD), [[Aramaic]] ({{circa}} 8th century BC – 8th century AD),<ref>{{Cite book|title=Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader|first1=Suzanne|last1=Richard|edition=Illustrated|publisher=EISENBRAUNS|year=2003|isbn=978-1-57506-083-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=khR0apPid8gC&pg=PA69 |page=69}}</ref> [[Greek language|Greek]] ({{circa}} 4th century BC – 8th century AD), and [[Arabic]] ({{circa}} 8th century AD – present). Familiarity with English is not uncommon among the [[Middle Class|middle]] and [[upper class]]es.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jordan/ |title=World Factbook – Jordan|date=17 January 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kuwait/ |title=World Factbook – Kuwait|date=11 January 2023 }}</ref> Arabic is not commonly spoken in Turkey, Iran, and Israel, and some [[varieties of Arabic]] lack [[mutual intelligibility]], thus [[Arabic language#Diglossia|qualifying as distinct languages]] by this linguistic criterion.

The Middle East was the birthplace of the [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]], [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]], and most [[Iranian religions]]. Initially the ancient inhabitants of the region followed various [[ethnic religion]]s, but most of those began to be gradually replaced at first by Christianity (even before the 313 AD [[Edict of Milan]]) and finally by Islam (after the spread of the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] beyond the [[Arabian Peninsula]] in 634 AD). To this day, however, the Middle East has, in particular, some [[Christianity in the Middle East|sizable, ethnically distinct Christian minority groups]],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East|first=Philip |last=Jenkins|year= 2020| isbn=9781538124185| page =XLVIII|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|quote=The Middle East still stands at the heart of the Christian world. After all, it is the birthplace, and the death place, of Christ, and the cradle of the Christian tradition.}}</ref> as well as Jews, concentrated in Israel, and followers of Iranian religions, such as [[Yazdânism]] and [[Zoroastrianism]]. Some of the smaller [[ethnoreligious]] minorities include the [[Shabak people]], the [[Mandaeans]] and the [[Samaritans]]. It is somewhat controversial whether the [[Druze]] religion is a distinct religion in its own right or merely a part of the [[Ismailism|Ismailist]] branch of [[Shia Islam]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives| first=Dona|last= J. Stewart|year=2008| isbn=9781135980795| page = 33|publisher=Routledge|quote= Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of American Islam| first=Yvonne |last=Yazbeck Haddad|year=2014| isbn=9780199862634| page = 142|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote=While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is considered distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze consider themselves fully assimilated in American society and do not necessarily identify as Muslims..}}</ref><ref name="De McLaurin 1979 114">{{cite book|title= The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East|first=Ronald|last= De McLaurin|year= 1979| isbn= 9780030525964| page =114 |publisher=Michigan University Press|quote= Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above..}}</ref>

==Prehistoric Near East{{anchor|Prehistoric_Near_East}}==
{{See also|Prehistoric Egypt||Prehistory of Iran|Prehistory of the Southern Levant|Prehistoric Cyprus|Natufian culture|History of agriculture|Timeline of Middle Eastern history|Timeline of human prehistory}}
[[File:Fertile crescent Neolithic B circa 7500 BC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Area of the [[fertile crescent]], circa 7500 BC, with main sites of the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic]] period. The area of [[Mesopotamia]] proper was not yet settled by humans.]]
The [[Arabian Plate|Arabian Tectonic Plate]] was part of the [[African Plate]] during much of the [[Phanerozoic]] Eon ([[Paleozoic]]–[[Cenozoic]]), until the [[Oligocene]] Epoch of the [[Cenozoic Era]]. [[Red Sea]] rifting began in the [[Eocene]], but the separation of Africa and Arabia occurred in the Oligocene, and since then the Arabian Plate has been slowly moving toward the [[Eurasian Plate]].

The collision between the Arabian Plate and [[Eurasia]] is pushing up the [[Zagros Mountains]] of Iran. Because the Arabian Plate and Eurasia plate collide, many cities are in danger such as those in south eastern Turkey (which is on the Arabian Plate). These dangers include earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes.

The [[Early human migrations|earliest human migrations]] out of Africa occurred through the Middle East, namely over the [[Levantine corridor]], with the pre-modern ''[[Homo erectus]]'' about 1.8 million years [[Before present|BP]]. One of the potential routes for early human migrations toward southern and eastern Asia is Iran.

[[Haplogroup J-P209]], the most common [[human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup]] in the Middle East today, is believed to have arisen in the region 31,700±12,800 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/386295 |title=Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area |year=2004 |last1=Semino |first1=Ornella |last2=Magri |first2=Chiara |last3=Benuzzi |first3=Giorgia |last4=Lin |first4=Alice A. |last5=Al-Zahery |first5=Nadia |last6=Battaglia |first6=Vincenza |last7=MacCioni |first7=Liliana |last8=Triantaphyllidis |first8=Costas |last9=Shen |first9=Peidong |last10=Oefner |first10=Peter J. |last11=Zhivotovsky |first11=Lev A. |last12=King |first12=Roy |last13=Torroni |first13=Antonio |last14=Cavalli-Sforza |first14=L. Luca |last15=Underhill |first15=Peter A. |last16=Santachiara-Benerecetti |first16=A. Silvana |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=74 |issue=5 |pages=1023–1034 |pmid=15069642 |pmc=1181965}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1353/hub.2006.0045 |title=North African Berber and Arab Influences in the Western Mediterranean Revealed by Y-Chromosome DNA Haplotypes |year=2006 |last1=Gérard |first1=Nathalie |last2=Berriche |first2=Sala |last3=Aouizérate |first3=Annie |last4=Diéterlen |first4=Florent |last5=Lucotte |first5=Gérard |journal=Human Biology |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=307–316 |pmid=17216803|s2cid=13347549 }}</ref> The two main current subgroups, [[Haplogroup J1|J-M267]] and [[Haplogroup J2|J-M172]], which now comprise between them almost all of the population of the haplogroup, are both believed to have arisen very early, at least 10,000 years ago. Nonetheless, Y-chromosomes [[Haplogroup F-M89|F-M89*]] and [[Haplogroup IJ|IJ-M429*]] were reported to have been observed in the Iranian plateau.<ref name="Grugni2012">{{cite journal |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0041252 |title = Ancient Migratory Events in the Middle East: New Clues from the Y-Chromosome Variation of Modern Iranians |year = 2012 |editor1-last = Kivisild |editor1-first = Toomas |last1 = Grugni |first1 = Viola |last2 = Battaglia |first2 = Vincenza |last3 = Hooshiar Kashani |first3 = Baharak |last4 = Parolo |first4 = Silvia |last5 = Al-Zahery |first5 = Nadia |last6 = Achilli |first6 = Alessandro |last7 = Olivieri |first7 = Anna |last8 = Gandini |first8 = Francesca |last9 = Houshmand |first9 = Massoud |last10 = Sanati |first10 = M. H. |last11 = Torroni |first11 = A |last12 = Semino |first12 = O |journal = PLOS ONE |volume = 7 |issue = 7 |pages = e41252 |pmid = 22815981 |pmc = 3399854|display-authors = 8 |bibcode = 2012PLoSO...741252G |doi-access = free }}</ref>

There is evidence of [[rock carvings]] along the [[Nile]] terraces and in desert oases. In the [[10th millennium BC]], a culture of [[hunter-gatherer]]s and [[fishing|fishermen]] was replaced by a [[cereal|grain]]-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 6000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the [[Sahara]]. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River, where they developed a settled agricultural [[Economic system|economy]] and more centralized society.<ref>Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. ''The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.</ref>

[[Neolithic]] [[agriculturalists]], who may have resided in [[Northeast Africa]] and the [[Near East]], may have been the source population for [[lactase persistence]] variants, including –13910*T, and may have been subsequently supplanted by later migrations of peoples.<ref name="Priehodová">{{cite web |last1=Priehodová |first1=Edita |display-authors=etal |title=Sahelian pastoralism from the perspective of variantsassociated with lactase persistence |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02919786/file/ajpa_ms_final.pdf |website=HAL Archives |publisher=American Journal of Physical Anthropology}}</ref> The [[Sub-Saharan]] [[West African]] Fulani, the [[North African]] [[Tuareg]], and [[Early European Farmers|European agriculturalists]], who are descendants of these Neolithic agriculturalists, share the lactase persistence variant –13910*T.<ref name="Priehodová" /> While shared by [[Fulani herdsmen|Fulani]] and [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] herders, compared to the Tuareg variant, the Fulani variant of –13910*T has undergone a longer period of haplotype differentiation.<ref name="Priehodová" /> The [[Fulani]] lactase persistence variant –13910*T may have spread, along with cattle [[pastoralism]], between 9686 BP and 7534 BP, possibly around 8500 BP; corroborating this timeframe for the Fulani, by at least 7500 BP, there is evidence of herders engaging in the act of [[milking]] in the Central [[Sahara]].<ref name="Priehodová" />

==Ancient Near East==
{{Main|Ancient Near East|Ancient history}}
{{See also|Chronology of the ancient Near East}}
[[File:Ancient Egypt Wings.svg|350px|thumb|The symbol of the [[winged sun]] was found throughout the Middle East. It was associated with divinity, royalty, and power. The symbol shown above is an Egyptian version. The modern-day [[Assyrian flag|Assyrian]] and [[Aramean flag]]s feature different versions of the symbol. The [[Israelite]] royal [[Winged sun#Hebrew|Seals of Hezekiah]] also featured one, sometimes flanked on either side with the Egyptian [[ankh]] symbol. The Iranian kingdom has a related symbol called [[Faravahar]] which mistakenly is being called as the symbol of [[Zoroastrianism]].{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}]]
{{Ancient Near East topics}}

The ancient Near East was the first to practice intensive year-round [[agriculture]] and [[currency]]-mediated [[trade]] (as opposed to [[barter]]), gave the rest of the world the first [[history of writing|writing system]], invented the [[potter's wheel]] and then the vehicular and mill [[wheel]], created the first [[centralized government]]s and [[law code]]s, served as birthplace to the [[Cities of the ancient Near East|first city-states]] with their high degree of [[division of labor]], as well as laying the foundation for the fields of [[astronomy]] and [[mathematics]]. However, its empires also introduced rigid [[social stratification]], [[slavery]], and organized [[warfare]].

===Cradle of civilization, Sumer and Akkad===
The earliest [[civilization]]s in history were established in the region now known as the Middle East around 3500 BC by the [[Sumer]]ians, in southern [[Mesopotamia]] (modern-day [[Iraq]]), widely regarded as the [[cradle of civilization]]. The [[Sumer]]ians and the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadians]]—who extended their empire to northern Mesopotamia (now northern [[Syria]])—and later [[Babylonia]]ns and [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] all flourished in this region.

"In the course of the fourth millennium BC, city-states developed in southern Mesopotamia that were dominated by temples whose priests represented the cities' patron deities. The most prominent of the city-states was Sumer, which gave its language to the area, [presumably the [[History of writing|first written language]],] and became the first great civilization of mankind. About 2340 BC, [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon the Great]] (c. 2360–2305 BC) united the city-states in the south and founded the Akkadian dynasty, the world's first empire."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/6308/1/Ancient-Civilizations--Mesopotamia.html|title=Ancient Civilizations – Mesopotamia|first=Albert S.|last=Lyons|publisher=Health Guidance.org|access-date=24 August 2013}}</ref>

During this same time period, Sargon the Great appointed his daughter, [[Enheduanna]], as High Priestess of Inanna at Ur.<ref>[https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/ worldhistory.org]</ref> Her writings, which established her as the first known author in world history, also helped cement Sargon's position in the region.

===Egypt===
{{Main|Ancient Egypt}}
[[File:Ramses_II._1989.jpg|alt=Ramses_II._1989|thumb|265x265px|Statue of [[Ramesses II]] of Egypt in Luxor.]]
Soon after the Sumerian civilization began, the [[Nile valley]] of [[Lower Egypt|Lower]] and [[Upper Egypt]] was unified under the [[Pharaoh]]s approximately around 3150 BC. Since then, Ancient Egypt experienced 3 high points of civilization, the so-called "Kingdom" periods:
* The [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] (2686–2181),
* The [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] (2055–1650) and, most notably,
* The [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] (1550–1069).
The history of Ancient Egypt is concluded by the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]] (664–332 BC), immediately followed by the history of Egypt in [[Classical Antiquity]], beginning with [[Ptolemaic Egypt]].

===The Levant and Anatolia===
{{Main|History of the ancient Levant|History of Anatolia}}
Thereafter, civilization quickly spread through the [[Fertile Crescent]] to the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea and throughout the [[Levant]], as well as to [[History of Anatolia|ancient Anatolia]]. Ancient Levantine kingdoms and city states included [[Ebla]] City, [[Ugarit]] City, [[Aram-Damascus|Kingdom of Aram-Damascus]], [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]], [[Kingdom of Judah]], [[Kingdom of Ammon]], [[Kingdom of Moab]], [[Kingdom of Edom]], and the [[Nabatean kingdom]]. The [[Phoenicia]]n civilization, encompassing several city states, was a [[Thalassocracy|maritime trading culture]] that established [[Colony|colonial]] cities in the [[Mediterranean Basin]], most notably [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage, in 814 BC]].

===Assyrian empires===
{{Main|Assyria}}
[[Mesopotamia]] was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost the entire Middle East—particularly the [[Assyrian Empire]]s of 1365–1076 BC and the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] of 911–605 BC. The Assyrian Empire, at its peak, was the largest the world had seen. It ruled all of what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Kuwait, Jordan, Egypt, Cyprus, and Bahrain—with large swathes of Iran, Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Sudan, and Arabia.
"The Assyrian empires, particularly the third, had a profound and lasting impact on the Near East. Before Assyrian hegemony ended, the Assyrians brought the highest civilization to the then known world. From the Caspian to Cyprus, from Anatolia to Egypt, Assyrian imperial expansion would bring into the Assyrian sphere nomadic and barbaric communities, and would bestow the gift of civilization upon them."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aina.org/brief.html |title=Brief History of Assyrians |first=Peter |last=BetBasoo |year=2007 |publisher=Assyrian International News Agency |access-date=24 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017014421/http://www.aina.org/brief.html |archive-date=17 October 2013 }}</ref>

===Neo-Babylonian and Persian empires===
{{Main|Babylonia|Persian Empire}}
From the early 6th century BC onwards, several Persian states dominated the region, beginning with the [[Medes]] and non-Persian [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], then their successor the [[Achaemenid Empire]] known as the first Persian Empire, conquered in the late 4th century BC by the very short-lived [[Macedonian Empire]] of [[Alexander the Great]], and then successor kingdoms such as [[History of Egypt|Ptolemaic Egypt]] and the [[Seleucid]] state in Western Asia.

After a century of hiatus, the idea of the Persian Empire was revived by the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] in the 3rd century BC—and continued by their successors, the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanids]] from the 3rd century AD. This empire dominated sizable parts of what is now the Asian part of the Middle East and continued to influence the rest of the Asiatic and African Middle East region, until the Arab [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] in the mid-7th century AD. Between the 1st century BC and the early 7th century AD, the region was completely dominated by the Romans and the Parthians and Sassanids on the other hand, which often culminated in various [[Roman-Persian Wars]] over the seven centuries. Eastern Rite, [[Church of the East]] Christianity took hold in [[Asorestan|Persian-ruled Mesopotamia]], particularly in [[Assyria]] from the 1st century AD onwards, and the region became a center of a flourishing [[Syriac Christians|Syriac]]–[[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] literary tradition.

===Greek and Roman Empire===
{{Main|Macedonian Empire|Roman Empire}}
[[File:RomanEmpire 117.svg|thumb|right|240px|The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, under [[Trajan]], 117 AD]]
In 66–63 BC, the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] general [[Pompey]] conquered much of the Middle East.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Brief History of the Middle East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=krKeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34|first = Christopher|last = Catherwood |publisher = Little, Brown Book Group|date = 2011|isbn = 9781849018074}}</ref> The [[Roman Empire]] united the region with most of Europe and North Africa in a single political and economic unit. Even areas not directly annexed were strongly influenced by the Empire, which was the most powerful political and cultural entity for centuries. Though [[Culture of ancient Rome|Roman culture]] spread across the region, the [[Greek culture]] and language first established in the region by the [[Macedonian Empire]] continued to dominate throughout the Roman period. Cities in the Middle East, especially [[Alexandria]], became major urban centers for the Empire and the region became the Empire's "bread basket" as the key agricultural producer. [[Egypt (Roman province)|Ægyptus]] was by far the most wealthy Roman province.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rXmdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA102|title =Ancient Egypt: From Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest|page= 102|editor-first = Kathleen |editor-last = Kuiper|publisher = Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn = 9781615302109 |date = 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yDiDfipV4AIC&pg=PT461 |title = The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000|first = Chris |last = Wickham|publisher = Penguin UK|date= 2009|isbn = 9780141908533}}</ref>

During the time that [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery cults]] were introduced to the region, traditional religions were often criticized and the cults gained societal influence.<ref name="Storm-2011">{{Cite book |last=Storm |first=Rachel |title=Myths & Legends of India, Egypt, China & Japan |publisher=Lorenz Books |year=2011 |editor-last=Sudell |editor-first=Helen |edition=2nd |location=Wigston, Leicestershire |pages=12}}</ref> These cults formed around gods like [[Cybele]], [[Isis]], and [[Mithra]].<ref name="Storm-2011" />
[[File:Jerusalem-Grabeskirche-14-vom Erloeserkirchturm-2010-gje.jpg|240px|thumb|[[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in [[Jerusalem]]: Jerusalem is generally considered the cradle of [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Orientalism and Musical Mission: Palestine and the West|first=Rachel |last=Beckles Willson|year= 2013| isbn=9781107036567| page =146|publisher=Cambridge University Press|quote= }}</ref>]]
As the Christian religion spread throughout the Roman and Persian Empires, it took root in the Middle East, and cities such as [[Alexandria]] and [[Edessa]] became important centers of Christian scholarship. By the 5th century, Christianity was the dominant religion in the Middle East, with other faiths (gradually including ''[[heresy|heretical]]'' Christian sects) being actively repressed. The Middle East's ties to the city of [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] were gradually severed as the Empire [[Roman Empire#Partition of the Empire|split]] into [[Byzantine Empire|East]] and [[Western Roman Empire|West]], with the Middle East tied to the new Roman capital of [[Constantinople]]. The subsequent [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire]] therefore, had minimal direct impact on the region.

====Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)====
{{Main|Byzantine Empire}}
The Eastern Roman Empire, today commonly known as the [[Byzantine Empire]], ruling from the [[Balkans]] to the [[Euphrates]], became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity, gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. By this time, Greek had become the '[[lingua franca]]' of the region, although ethnicities such as the Syriacs and the Hebrew continued to exist. Under Byzantine/Greek rule the area of the [[Levant]] met an era of stability and prosperity.

==Medieval Middle East{{anchor|Medieval Near East|Medieval Middle East}}==
{{further|Post-classical history}}

===Pre-Islam===
In the 5th century, the Middle East was separated into small, weak states; the two most prominent were the [[Sasanian Empire]] of the [[History of Iran|Persians]] in what is now [[Iran]] and [[Iraq]], and the Byzantine Empire in [[Anatolia]] (modern-day [[Turkey]]) and the [[Levant]]. The Byzantines and Sasanians fought with each other a reflection of the rivalry between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire seen during the previous five hundred years. The Byzantine-Sasanian rivalry was also seen through their respective cultures and religions. The Byzantines considered themselves champions of [[Hellenization|Hellenism]] and Christianity. Meanwhile, the Sasanians thought themselves heroes of ancient Iranian traditions and of the traditional Persian religion, [[Zoroastrianism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Esposito|1999|pages=1–5}}, for the Byzantine–Sasanian rivalry and its cultural/religious overtones.</ref>

[[File:Roman-Persian_Frontier,_5th_century.png|thumb|Map of the Roman–Persian frontier after the division of Armenia in 384. The frontier remained stable throughout the 5th century.]]

The Arabian peninsula already played a role in the power struggles of the Byzantines and Sasanians. While Byzantium allied itself with the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] in the horn of Africa, the Sasanian Empire assisted the [[Himyarite Kingdom]] in what is now [[Yemen]] (southwest Arabia). Thus the clash between the kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar in 525 displayed a higher power struggle between Byzantium and Persia for control of the [[Red Sea]] trade. Territorial wars soon became common, with the Byzantines and Sasanians fighting over upper [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Armenia]] and key cities that facilitated trade from Arabia, [[India]], and [[China]].<ref>{{harvnb|Esposito|1999|pages=1–5}}, for the Byzantine–Sasanian struggle with Aksum and Himyar, as well as the territorial wars and focus on trade.</ref> Byzantium, as the continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire, continued control of the latter's territories in the Middle East. Since 527, this included Anatolia, [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and [[Egypt]]. But in 603 the Sasanians invaded, conquering Damascus and Egypt. It was Emperor [[Heraclius]] who was able to repel these invasions, and in 628 he replaced the Sasanian Great King with a more docile one. But the fighting weakened both states, leaving the stage open to a new power.{{sfn|Wawro|2008|pages=112–115|ps=, for Byzantine territory, Sasanian invasions, Heraclius' success at repelling invasion, and the exhaustion of both states.}}<ref>{{harvnb|Esposito|1999|pages=1–5}}, for the replacement of the Sasanian king by Heraclius.</ref>

The nomadic [[Bedouin]] tribes dominated the Arabian desert, where they worshiped [[Idolatry|idols]] and remained in small clans tied together by kinship. Urbanization and agriculture was limited in Arabia, save for a few regions near the coast. [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]] (then called Yathrib) were two such cities that were important hubs for trade between Africa and Eurasia. This commerce was central to city-life, where most inhabitants were merchants.{{sfn|Stearns|Adas|Schwartz|Gilbert|2011|page=138}} Nevertheless, some Arabs saw it fit to migrate to the northern regions of the [[Fertile Crescent]], a region so named for its place between the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system|Tigris and Euphrates rivers]] that offered it fertile land. This included entire tribal chiefdoms such as the [[Lakhmids]] in a less controlled area of the Sasanian Empire, and the [[Ghassanids]] in a similar area inside of Byzantine territory; these political units of Arab origin offered a surprising stability that was rare in the region and offered Arabia further connections to the outside world. The Lakhmid capital, [[Al-Hirah|Hira]] was a center for Christianity and Jewish craftsmen, merchants, and farmers were common in western Arabia as were Christian monks in central Arabia. Thus pre-Islamic Arabia was no stranger to Abrahamic religions or monotheism, for that matter.{{sfn|Hourani|2013|loc=The world into which the Arabs came|ps=, for Arabian migrations, the Lakhmids & Ghassanids, and religious diversity.}}

===Islamic caliphate===
{{See also|Caliphate|Early Muslim conquests|Iranian Intermezzo}}

[[Image:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|350px|Age of the [[Caliph]]s {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under [[Muhammad]], 622–632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], 632–661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliphate]], 661–750}}]]
While the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Roman and [[Sassanian Empire|Sassanid]] Persian empires were both weakened by [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|warfare (602–628)]], a new power in the form of [[Islam]] grew in the Middle East. In a series of rapid [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]], [[Rashidun army|Arab armies]], led by the [[Caliph]]s and skilled military commanders such as [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]], swept through most of the Middle East, taking more than half of [[Arab–Byzantine wars|Byzantine territory]] and completely [[Muslim conquest of Persia|engulfing the Persian lands]]. In [[Anatolia]], they were stopped in the [[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)]] by the Byzantines, who were helped by the [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarians]].

The Byzantine provinces of [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Roman Syria]], [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|North Africa]], and [[Sicily]], however, could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through those regions. At the far west, they crossed the sea taking [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Visigothic Hispania]] before being halted in southern France in the [[Battle of Tours]] by the [[Franks]]. At its greatest extent, the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Arab Empire]] was the first empire to control the entire Middle East, as well three-quarters of the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean region]], the only other empire besides the Roman Empire to control most of the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79–96 [80].</ref> It would be the Arab [[Caliphate]]s of the [[Middle Ages]] that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant [[Arab|ethnic identity]] that persists today. The [[Seljuq Empire]] would also later dominate the region.

Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centres in the Middle East, but Iberia ([[Al-Andalus]]) and Morocco soon broke away from this distant control and founded one of the world's most advanced societies at the time, along with [[Baghdad]] in the eastern Mediterranean. Between 831 and 1071, the [[Emirate of Sicily]] was one of the major centres of Islamic culture in the Mediterranean. After its conquest by the [[Normans]] the island developed its own distinct culture with the fusion of Arab, Western, and Byzantine influences. [[Palermo]] remained a leading artistic and commercial centre of the Mediterranean well into the Middle Ages.

Africa was reviving, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later [[Middle Ages]] after the [[Renaissance of the 12th century|Renaissance of the 12th century]]. Motivated by religion and conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of [[Crusades]] to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the [[Holy Land]]. The Crusades were unsuccessful but were far more effective in weakening the already tottering Byzantine Empire. They also rearranged the [[balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] in the Muslim world as Egypt once again emerged as a major power.

===Islamic culture and science===
{{main|Islamic Golden Age|Early social changes under Islam|Science in the medieval Islamic world}}
[[File:Interior de la mezquita de Córdoba.jpg|thumb|right|The interior of the former mosque of Córdoba, showing its distinctive arches.]]

Religion always played a prevalent role in Middle Eastern culture, affecting learning, architecture, and the ebb and flow of cultures. When Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture, inspiring achievements in [[architecture]], the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. Islam primarily consisted of the [[Five Pillars of Islam|five pillars of belief]], including confession of faith, the five prayers a day, to [[Fasting|fast]] during the holy month of [[Ramadan]], to pay the tax for charity (the [[zakāt]]), and the [[hajj]], or the pilgrimage that a Muslim needed to take at least once in their lifetime, according to the five (or six) pillars of Islam. Islam also created the need for spectacularly built [[mosque]]s which created a distinct form of architecture. Some of the more magnificent mosques include [[Al-Aqsa]] and the former [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba|Mosque of Cordoba]]. Islam unified the Middle East and helped the empires there to remain stable. Missionaries and warriors spread the religion from Arabia to North and Sudanic Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and the Mesopotamia area. This created a mix of cultures, especially in Africa, and the mawali demographic. Although the mawali would experience discrimination from the Umayyad, they would gain widespread acceptance from the [[Abbasid]]s and it was because of this that allowed for mass conversions in foreign areas. "People of the book" or dhimmi were always treated well; these people included Christians, Jews, [[Hinduism|Hindus]], and [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]]. However, the crusades started a new thinking in the Islamic empires, that non-Islamic ideas were immoral or inferior; this was primarily perpetrated by the ulama (علماء) scholars.{{sfn|Stearns|Adas|Schwartz|Gilbert|2011|page=171}}

Arabian culture took off during the early Abbasid age, despite the prevalent political issues. Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in [[History of medicine|medicine]], [[History of elementary algebra|algebra]], [[History of geometry|geometry]], [[History of astronomy|astronomy]], [[History of anatomy|anatomy]], and [[History of ethics|ethics]] that would later find its way back to Western Europe. The works of [[Aristotle]], [[Galen]], [[Hippocrates]], [[Ptolemy]], and [[Euclid]] were saved and distributed throughout the empire (and eventually into Europe) in this manner. Muslim scholars also discovered the [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] in their [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|conquests of south Asia]]. The use of this system in Muslim trade and political institutions allowed for the eventual popularization of it around the world; this number system would be critical to the [[Scientific Revolution]] in Europe. Muslim intellectuals would become experts in [[chemistry]], [[optics]], and [[mapmaking]] during the Abbasid Caliphate. In the arts, [[Abbasid architecture]] expanded upon [[Umayyad architecture]], with larger and more extravagant mosques. [[Persian literature]] grew based on ethical values. Astronomy was stressed in art. Much of this learning would find its way to the West. This was especially true during the crusades, as warriors would bring back Muslim treasures, weapons, and medicinal methods.{{sfn|Stearns|Adas|Schwartz|Gilbert|2011|page=159}}

===Turks, Crusaders, and Mongols===
{{See also|Crusades|Mongol conquests|History of Jerusalem}}
The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the [[Seljuq Turks]], migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia. They conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the [[Hejaz]]. Egypt held out under the [[Fatimid caliph]]s until 1169, when it too fell to the [[Ayyubid Dynasty|Turks]].

Despite massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the Christian [[Byzantine Empire]] continued to be a potent military and economic force in the Mediterranean, preventing Arab expansion into much of Europe. The Seljuqs' defeat of the Byzantine military in the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in the 11th century and settling in [[Anatolia]] effectively marked the end of Byzantine power. The Seljuks ruled most of the Middle East region for the next 200 years, but their empire soon broke up into a number of smaller sultanates.

Christian Western Europe staged a remarkable economic and demographic recovery in the 11th century since its nadir in the 7th century. The fragmentation of the Middle East allowed joined forces, mainly from England, France, and the emerging [[Holy Roman Empire]], to enter the region. In 1095, [[Pope Urban II]] responded to pleas from the flagging Byzantine Empire and summoned the European aristocracy to recapture the [[Holy Land]] for Christianity. In 1099 the knights of the [[First Crusade]] captured [[Jerusalem]] and founded the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], which survived until 1187, when [[Saladin]], the founder of the [[Ayyubid]] dynasty, retook the city. Smaller crusader kingdoms and fiefdoms survived until 1291.

====Mongol rule====
{{main|Ilkhanate|Mongol invasions and conquests#West Asia}}

The conquest of Baghdad and the death of the caliph in 1258 officiated the end of the Abbasid Caliphate and annexed its territories to the [[Mongol Empire]], excluding [[Mamluk Egypt]] and the majority of Arabia.{{sfn|Wawro|2008|pages=146–149}} When the [[Khagan]] (or Great Khan) of the Mongol Empire, [[Möngke Khan]], died in 1259, any further expansion by Hulegu was halted, as he had to return to the Mongol capital [[Karakorum]] for the election of a new khagan. His absence resulted in the first defeat of the Mongols (by the Mamluk Egyptians) during the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260.{{sfn|Guzman|1985|pages=230–233}} Issues began to arise when the Mongols grew increasingly unable to reach a consensus as to whom to elect khagan. Additionally, societal clashing occurred between traditionalists who wished to retain their nomadic culture and Mongols moving towards sedentary agriculture. All of this led to the fragmentation of the empire in 1260.<ref name="Rossabi Mongol conquests">{{cite web|last=Rossabi|first=Morris|title=The Mongol Conquests|url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/conquests/conquests.htm|work=Asian Topics in World History: The Mongols in World History|publisher=Asia for Educators, Columbia University|access-date=20 July 2013}}</ref> Hulegu carved out his Middle Eastern territory into the independent [[Ilkhanate]], which included most of Armenia, Anatolia, Azerbaijan, Mesopotamia, and Iran.
[[File:تمثال_للسلطان_الظاهر_بيبرس_(cropped).JPG|alt=تمثال_للسلطان_الظاهر_بيبرس_(cropped)|thumb|218x218px|Statue of [[Baybars]] of Egypt in Cairo.]]
The Mongols eventually retreated in 1335, but the chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuq Turks. In 1401, the region was further plagued by the Turko-Mongol, [[Timur]], and his ferocious raids. By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]]. Based in [[Anatolia]], by 1566 they would conquer the Iraq-Iran region, the Balkans, Greece, Byzantium, most of Egypt, most of north Africa, and parts of Arabia, unifying them under the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The rule of the Ottoman sultans marked the end of the Medieval (Postclassical) Era in the Middle East.

==Early Modern Near East==
{{further|Early modern history}}

===The Ottoman Empire (1299–1918)===
{{See also|Ottoman Empire}}
[[Image:OttomanEmpire1590.png|thumb|The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent in the Middle East, including [[Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire|its client states]].]]
[[Image:I Selim.jpg|thumb|[[Selim the Grim]], Ottoman conqueror of the Middle East]]
By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman khans, who in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capitol of Constantinople and made themselves sultans. The Mamluks held the Ottomans out of the Middle East for a century, but in 1514 [[Selim I|Selim the Grim]] began the systematic Ottoman conquest of the region. Syria was occupied in 1516 and Egypt in 1517, extinguishing the Mameluk line. Iraq was conquered almost in 40 years from the Iranian [[Safavids]], who were successors of the [[Aq Qoyunlu]].

The Ottomans united the whole region under one ruler for the first time since the reign of the [[Abbasid caliphs]] of the 10th century, and they kept control of it for 400 years, despite brief intermissions created by the Iranian Safavids and [[Afsharids]].{{sfn|Quataert|2000}} By this time the Ottomans also held [[Greece]], the [[Balkans]], and most of [[Hungary]], setting the new frontier between east and west far to the north of the [[Danube]]. Regions such as [[Albania]] and [[Bosnia Eyalet|Bosnia]] saw many conversions to Islam, but Ottoman Europe was not culturally absorbed into the Muslim world.

====Rivalry with the West====
By 1699, the Ottomans had been driven out of Hungary, [[Poland]]-[[Lithuania]] and parts of the western Balkans in the [[Great Turkish War]]. In the [[Great Divergence]], Europe had overtaken the Muslim world in wealth, population and technology. (Some historians argue that science had already been in decline in the Muslim world since the 14th century<ref>{{Citation |title=Islamic Science and Renaissance Europe: The Copernican Connection |date=2007 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 |work=Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance |pages=193–232 |publisher=The MIT Press |doi=10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 |isbn=9780262282888 |access-date=2023-01-21}}</ref> while other argue that sciences still continued until the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=El-Rouayheb |first=Khaled |title=The Myth of "The Triumph of Fanaticism" in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire |journal=Die Welt des Islams |volume=48 |year=2008 |issue=2 |pages=196–221 |doi=10.1163/157006008x335930}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=El-Rouayheb |first=Khaled |title=Opening the Gate of Verification: The Forgotten Arab-Islamic Florescence of the 17th Century |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=38 |year=2006 |issue=2 |pages=263–81 |doi=10.1017/s0020743806412344 |doi-broken-date=2024-10-04 |s2cid=162679546}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=El-Rouhayeb |first=Khaled |title=Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb |date=2015 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |place=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-107-04296-4 |pages=1–10}}</ref>) The [[Industrial Revolution]] and growth of [[capitalism]] magnified the divergence, and from 1768 to 1918, the Ottomans gradually lost territory.

[[Greece]], [[Serbia]], [[Romania]], and [[Bulgaria]] achieved independence during the 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire became known as the "[[sick man of Europe]]", increasingly under the financial control of European powers. Domination soon turned to outright conquest: the French annexed [[Algeria]] in 1830 and [[Tunisia]] in 1878 and the British occupied Egypt in 1882, though it remained under nominal Ottoman sovereignty. In the [[Balkan Wars]] of 1912–13 the Ottomans were driven out of Europe altogether, except for the city of [[Constantinople]] and its hinterland.

The British also [[British Residency of the Persian Gulf|established effective control]] of the [[Persian Gulf]], and the French extended their influence into [[Lebanon]] and Syria. In 1912, the Italians seized [[Libya]] and the [[Dodecanese|Dodecanese islands]], just off the coast of the Ottoman heartland of Anatolia. The Ottomans turned to Germany to protect them from the western powers, but the result was increasing financial and military dependence on Germany.

====Ottoman reform efforts====
[[File:Map of the Ottoman empire in 1916 - Banse Ewald - 1919.jpg|300px|thumb|Middle East Map, 1916]]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers tried to modernize their states to compete more effectively with Europe. In the Ottoman Empire, the [[Tanzimat]] reforms re-invigorated Ottoman rule and were furthered by the [[Young Ottomans]] in the late 19th century, leading to the [[First Constitutional Era]] in the Empire that included the writing of the [[1876 Ottoman constitution|1876 constitution]] and the establishment of the [[Ottoman Parliament]]. The authors of the [[Persian Constitutional Revolution|1906 revolution in Persia]] all sought to import versions of the western model of constitutional government, civil law, secular education, and industrial development into their countries. Throughout the region, railways and telegraph lines were constructed, schools and universities were opened, and a new class of army officers, lawyers, teachers, and administrators emerged, challenging the traditional leadership of [[Islamic scholars]].

This first Ottoman constitutional experiment ended soon after it began, however, when the autocratic Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] abolished the [[Ottoman Parliament|parliament]] and the [[1876 Ottoman constitution|constitution]] in favor of personal rule. Abdul Hamid ruled by decree for the next 30 years, stirring democratic resentment. The reform movement known as the [[Young Turks]] emerged in the 1890s against his rule, which included [[Hamidian massacres|massacres against minorities]]. The Young Turks seized power in the 1908 [[Young Turk Revolution]] and established the [[Second Constitutional Era]], leading to a pluralist and multiparty elections in the Empire for the first time [[1908 Ottoman general election|in 1908]]. The Young Turks split into two parties, the pro-German and pro-centralization [[Committee of Union and Progress]] and the pro-British and pro-decentralization [[Freedom and Accord Party]]. The former was led by an ambitious pair of army officers, [[Enver Pasha|Ismail Enver Bey]] (later Pasha) and [[Djemal Pasha|Ahmed Cemal Pasha]], and a radical lawyer, [[Talaat Pasha|Mehmed Talaat Bey (later Pasha)]]. After a power struggle between the two parties of Young Turks, the Committee [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état|emerged victorious]] and became a ruling junta, with Talaat as Grand Vizier and Enver as War Minister, and established a German-funded modernisation program across the Empire.{{sfn|Mansfield|Pelham|2013|pp=141–147}}
[[File:Ibrahim_Pasha_During_his_Final_Years.jpg|alt=Ibrahim_Pasha_During_his_Final_Years|thumb|265x265px|[[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]]]]
Enver Bey's alliance with Germany, which he considered the most advanced military power in Europe, was enabled by British demands that the Ottoman Empire cede their formal capital [[Edirne]] (Adrianople) to the Bulgarians after losing the [[First Balkan War]], which the Turks saw as a betrayal by Britain.<ref name="Zürcher">{{cite book |title=Turkey: A Modern History |author=[[Erik-Jan Zürcher]] |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-86064-958-5 |edition=Revised |pages=107 ''ff.''}}</ref> These demands cost Britain the support of the Turks, as the pro-British Freedom and Accord Party was now repressed under the pro-German Committee for, in Enver's words, "shamefully delivering the country to the enemy" (Britain) after agreeing to the demands to give up Edirne.<ref name="L'Illustration">{{cite journal |author=Y.R. |date=1 February 1913 |title=Le coup d'état du 23 Janvier |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/37526/37526-h/37526-h.htm |journal=[[L'Illustration]] |access-date=28 July 2014 }}</ref>

==Modern Middle East==
{{further|Modern history}}

===Final years of the Ottoman Empire===
{{See also|Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|Mandatory Palestine|Mandatory Iraq|Modern history of Cyprus|Protectorate of Cyprus|List of modern conflicts in the Middle East}}
[[Image:Mustafa Kemal November 1918.png|180px|thumb|[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], Ottoman general and the founder of modern Turkey]]
In 1878, as the result of the [[Cyprus Convention]], the United Kingdom took over the government of [[Cyprus]] as a protectorate from the [[Ottoman Empire]]. While the Cypriots at first welcomed [[British Empire|British rule]], hoping that they would gradually achieve prosperity, democracy and national liberation, they soon became disillusioned. The British imposed heavy taxes to cover the compensation they paid to the Sultan for conceding Cyprus to them. Moreover, the people were not given the right to participate in the administration of the island, since all powers were reserved to the [[High Commissioner]] and to London.<ref>{{cite book|last = Tofallis|first = Kypros|title = A history of Cyprus: from the ancient times to the present|page = 98 |date =2002|publisher = Greek Institute|isbn = 9780905313238}}</ref>

Meanwhile, the fall of the Ottomans and the partitioning of Anatolia by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] led to resistance by the Turkish population, under the [[Turkish National Movement]] led by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], the Turkish victory against the invading powers during the [[Turkish War of Independence]], and the founding of the modern [[Republic of Turkey]] in 1923. Atatürk, the Republic's first President, embarked on a [[Atatürk's Reforms|program of modernisation and secularisation]] that pushed Turkey both economically and culturally closer to Europe and away from the Arab world. He abolished the [[caliphate]], emancipated women, enforced western dress and the use of a new [[Turkish alphabet]] based on [[Latin script]] in place of the [[Ottoman Turkish alphabet|Arabic alphabet]], and abolished the jurisdiction of the Islamic courts.

Another turning point came when [[petroleum|oil]] was discovered, first in Persia (1908) and later in [[Saudi Arabia]] (1938) as well as the other Persian Gulf states, [[Libya]], and [[Algeria]]. The Middle East, it turned out, possessed the world's largest easily untapped reserves of [[crude oil]], the most important commodity in the 20th century. The discovery of oil in the region made many of the kings and emirs of the Middle East immensely wealthy and enabled them to consolidate their hold on power while giving them a stake in preserving western hegemony over the region.<ref name="Morton 39–54">{{cite journal|last=Morton |first=Michael Quentin |title=Narrowing the Gulf: Anglo-American Relations and Arabian Oil, 1928–74 |journal=Liwa |date=December 2011 |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=39–54 |url=http://www.ncdr.ae/liwa/issues/LIWA06E.pdf |access-date=14 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419013816/http://www.ncdr.ae/liwa/issues/LIWA06E.pdf |archive-date=19 April 2014 }}</ref>

As the West became dependent on Middle Eastern oil exports and British influence steadily declined, American interest in the region grew. Initially, Western oil companies established a dominance over oil production and extraction. However, indigenous movements towards [[nationalization|nationalizing]] oil assets, oil sharing, and the advent of [[OPEC]] ensured a shift in the [[balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] towards the Arab oil states.<ref name="Morton 39–54"/>

===World War I===

In 1914, [[Enver Pasha]]'s [[Ottoman–German Alliance|alliance with Germany]] led the Ottoman Empire into the fatal step of entering [[World War I]] on the side of the [[Central Powers]] against the [[Allies of World War I|Entente]], an alliance that included Russia, Great Britain and France. The British saw the Ottomans as the weak link in the enemy alliance, and concentrated on knocking them out of the war. When a direct assault failed at [[Gallipoli Campaign|Gallipoli]] in 1916, they turned to fomenting revolution in the Ottoman domains, exploiting the awakening force of [[Arab nationalism|Arab]], [[Armenian nationalism|Armenian]], and [[Assyrian nationalism]] against the Ottomans.<ref>Frank G. Weber, ''Eagles on the Crescent: Germany, Austria, and the diplomacy of the Turkish alliance, 1914-1918'' (Cornell University Press, 1970)</ref>

The British found an ally in [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Sharif Hussein]], the hereditary ruler of [[Mecca]] believed by many to be a descendant of [[Muhammad]], who led an [[Arab Revolt]] against Ottoman rule, after being promised independence.

The Entente, won the war and the Ottoman Empire was abolished with most of its territories ceded to Britain and France; Turkey just managed to survive. The war transformed the region in terms of shattering Ottoman power which was supplanted by increased British and French involvement; the creation of the Middle Eastern state system as seen in Turkey and Saudi Arabia; the emergence of explicitly more nationalist politics, as seen in Turkey and Egypt; and the expansion of oil industry, particularly in the Gulf States.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhu031|doi=10.1093/dh/dhu031|title=World War I: A War (And Peace?) for the Middle East|year=2014|last1=Jacobs|first1=M. F.|journal=Diplomatic History|volume=38|issue=4|pages=776–785}}</ref>

===Ottoman defeat and partition (1918–1922)===
{{Main|Partition of the Ottoman Empire}}

When the Ottoman Empire surrendered to the Allies in 1918, the Arab patriots did not get what they had expected. Islamic activists of more recent times have described it as an Anglo-French betrayal. The governments of the European Entente had concluded a secret treaty before the armistice, the [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]], partitioning the Middle East amongst themselves. The British had in 1917, endorsed the [[Balfour Declaration]] promising the international [[Zionism|Zionist]] movement their support in re-creating the historic Jewish homeland in Palestine.

After the Ottomans withdrew, Arab leaders proclaimed an independent state in [[Damascus]], but were swiftly defeated by the forces of Great Britain and France who soon after establishing control, re-arranged the Middle East to suit themselves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crethiplethi.com/the-sykes-picot-agreement-1916/historical-documents/2009/|title=Skyes Picot Agreement: Division of Territory|year=2009|publisher=Crethi Plethi|access-date=24 August 2013}}</ref>

[[Syria]] became a French protectorate as a [[League of Nations mandate]]. The Christian coastal areas were split off to become [[Lebanon]], another French protectorate. [[Iraq]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] became British mandated territories. Iraq became the "[[Kingdom of Iraq]]" and one of Sharif Hussein's sons, [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]], was installed as the [[King of Iraq]]. Iraq incorporated large populations of [[Kurdish people|Kurds]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and [[Turkmen people|Turkmens]], many of whom had been promised independent states of their own.

Britain was granted a Mandate for Palestine on 25 April 1920 at the [[San Remo Conference]], and, on 24 July 1922, this mandate was approved by the League of Nations. Palestine became the "[[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate of Palestine]]" and was placed under direct British administration. The Jewish population of Palestine, consisting overwhelmingly of recent migrants from Europe, numbered less than 8 percent in 1918. Under the British mandate, Zionist settlers were granted wide rein to immigrate initially, buy land from absentee landlords, set up a local government and later establish the nucleus of a state all under the protection of the British Army, which brutally suppressed multiple Palestinian Arab revolts in the years that followed, [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine|including in 1936]].<ref>{{cite book|first = Justin|last = McCarthy|title = The Population of Palestine: Population History and Statistics of the Late Ottoman Period and the Mandate|date = 1990|publisher = Columbia University Press|isbn = 9780231939782}}</ref> The Territory East of the Jordan River and west of Iraq was also declared a British Mandate when the Council of the League of Nations passed the British written Transjordan Memorandum on 16 September 1922. Most of the Arabian peninsula, including the Holy cities of Mecca and Medina, though not incorporated into either a British or French colonial mandate, fell under the control of another British ally, [[Ibn Saud]], who in 1932, founded the [[Saudi Arabia|Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]].

===1920–1945===
[[File:ModernEgypt,_Saad_Zaghloul,_BAP_14785.jpg|alt=ModernEgypt,_Saad_Zaghloul,_BAP_14785|thumb|252x252px|[[Saad Zaghloul]]]]
During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] made moves towards independence. In 1919, Egypt's [[Saad Zaghloul]] orchestrated mass demonstrations in Egypt known as the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1919|First Revolution]]. While Zaghloul would later become Prime Minister, the British repression of the anticolonial riots led to around 800 deaths. In 1920, Syrian forces were defeated by the French in the [[Battle of Maysalun]] and Iraqi forces were defeated by the British when they [[Iraqi revolt against the British|revolted]]. In 1922, the (nominally) independent [[Kingdom of Egypt]] was created following the British government's issuance of the [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence]].

Although the Kingdom of Egypt was technically "neutral" during World War II, [[Cairo]] soon became a major military base for the British and the country was occupied. The British cited the [[Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936|1936 treaty]] that allowed it to station troops on Egyptian soil to protect the [[Suez Canal]]. In 1941, the [[1941 Iraqi coup d'état|Rashīd `Alī al-Gaylānī coup]] in Iraq led to the British to invade, leading to the [[Anglo-Iraqi War]]. This was followed by the [[Syria–Lebanon Campaign|Allied invasion of Syria–Lebanon]] and the [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran]].

In Palestine, conflicting forces of [[Arab nationalism]] and [[Zionism]] created a situation the British could neither resolve nor extricate themselves from. The rise of German dictator [[Adolf Hitler]] had created a new urgency in the Zionist quest to immigrate to Palestine and create a [[Jewish state]]. A Palestinian state was also an attractive alternative to the Arab and Persian leaders, instead of the de facto British, French, and perceived Jewish colonialism or imperialism, under the logic of "[[the enemy of my enemy is my friend]]".{{sfn|Lewis|1995|pp=348–350}}

===New states after World War II===
[[File:King_Farouk_I_1948.jpg|alt=King_Farouk_I_1948|thumb|[[Farouk of Egypt|Farouk]] of Egypt|200x200px]]
When [[World War II]] ended, the British,<ref>[[Elizabeth Monroe (historian)|Elizabeth Monroe]], ''Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956'' (1963) [https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921121807/https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 |date=2018-09-21 }}</ref> French, and Soviets, withdrew from most parts of the regions they had occupied both before and during the War II and seven Middle East states gained or regained independence:
* 22 November 1943 – Lebanon
* 1 January 1944 – Syria
* 22 May 1946 – Jordan (British mandate ended)
* 1947 – Iraq (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn)
* 1947 – Egypt (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn to the [[Suez Canal]] area)
* 1948 – Israel (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn)
* August 16, 1960 – Cyprus

The struggle between the Arabs and the Jews in Palestine culminated in the 1947 [[United Nations]] [[1947 UN Partition Plan|plan to partition Palestine]]. This plan sought to create an Arab state and a separate Jewish state in the narrow space between the [[Jordan River]] and the Mediterranean. Jewish leaders accepted the plan, but Arab leaders rejected it.<ref>{{cite book|author=Benny Morris|title=1948: a history of the first Arab-Israeli war|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5jtAAAAMAAJ|access-date=13 July 2013|year=2008|publisher=Yale University Press|page=73|isbn=9780300126969|quote=Bevin regarded the UNSCOP majority report of 1 September 1947 as unjust and immoral. He promptly decided that Britain would not attempt to im- pose it on the Arabs; indeed, he expected them to resist its implementation… The British cabinet...: in the meeting on 4 December 1947... It decided, in a sop to the Arabs, to refrain from aiding the enforcement of the UN resolution, meaning the partition of Palestine. And in an important secret corollary... it agreed that Britain would do all in its power to delay until early May the arrival in Palestine of the UN (Implementation) Commission. The Foreign Office immediately informed the commission "that it would be intolerable for the Commission to begin to exercise its authority while the [Mandate] Palestine Government was still administratively responsible for Palestine"... This... nullified any possibility of an orderly implementation of the partition resolution.}}</ref>

On 14 May 1948, when the British Mandate expired, the [[Zionist]] leadership declared the [[State of Israel]]. In the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] which immediately followed, the armies of Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia intervened and were defeated by Israel.<ref>{{cite book|title=Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, Pre-1948 to the Present |last=Rabinovich |first=Itamar |author2=Reinharz, Jehuda |year=2007 |publisher=Brandeis |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780874519624/page/74 74] |isbn=978-0-87451-962-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780874519624/page/74 }}</ref> About 800,000 Palestinians fled from areas annexed by Israel and became [[Palestinian refugee|refugees]] in neighbouring countries, thus creating the "Palestinian problem", which has troubled the region ever since.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Warf |first1=C. |last2=Charles |first2=G. |title=Clinical Care for Homeless, Runaway and Refugee Youth: Intervention Approaches, Education and Research Directions |publisher=Springer International Publishing |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-030-40675-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irzhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA384 |quote=By 1948, the majority of Palestinians, about 700,000 to 800,000 people from 500 to 600 villages, were displaced. They were either expelled or fled from their homes for fear of being killed, as had actually taken place in a number of villages.}}</ref> Approximately two-thirds of 758,000–866,000 of the [[Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries|Jews expelled or who fled from Arab lands]] after 1948 were absorbed and naturalized by the State of Israel.<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il VI- The Arab Refugees – Introduction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117094828/http://mfa.gov.il/ |date=17 January 2009 }}</ref>

On August 16, 1960, [[Cyprus]] gained its independence from the British Empire. Archbishop [[Makarios III]], a charismatic religious and political leader, was elected its first independent president, and in 1961 it became the 99th member of the [[United Nations]].{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

===Modern states===
{{See also|Economy of the Middle East|List of modern conflicts in the Middle East}}
[[File:The Middle East.ogv|thumb|1963 film about contemporary events in the Middle East]]The modern Middle East was shaped by three things: departure of European powers, the [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|founding of Israel]], and the growing importance of the oil industry. These developments eventually led to increased [[United States foreign policy in the Middle East|U.S. involvement in the region]]. The United States was the ultimate guarantor of the region's stability as well as the dominant force in the oil industry after the 1950s. When revolutions brought radical [[Anti-Western sentiment|anti-Western]] regimes to power in Egypt (1954), Syria (1963), Iraq (1968), and [[Libya]] (1969), the [[Soviet Union]], seeking to open a new arena of the [[Cold War]], allied itself with [[Arab socialism|Arab socialist]] rulers like [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in [[Egypt]] and [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[Iraq]].
These regimes gained popular support with promises to destroy the state of Israel and other "western imperialists", and to bring prosperity to the Arab masses. When the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967 ended with an overwhelming Israeli victory, many viewed the defeat as the failure of Arab socialism. This represents a turning point when "[[Islamic fundamentalism|fundamental]] and [[Islamic terrorism|militant Islam]] began to fill the political vacuum created".<ref name="watson">Watson, Peter (2006). ''Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention, from Fire to Freud''. New York: Harper Perennial. p. 1096. {{ISBN|0-06-093564-2}}.</ref>

The United States, in response, felt obliged to defend its remaining allies, the monarchies of Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iran, and the Persian Gulf emirates, whose methods of rule were often almost as unattractive in western eyes as those of the anti-western regimes. Iran in particular became a key U.S. ally, until a revolution led by the [[Shi'a]] clergy [[Iranian revolution|overthrew the monarchy in 1979]] and established a [[theocracy|theocratic state]] that proved to be far more anti-western than the secular regimes in Iraq or Syria. The list of Arab-Israeli wars includes a great number of major wars such as [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]], [[1956 Suez War]], 1967 [[Six-Day War]], 1967–1970 [[War of Attrition]], 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[1982 Lebanon War]], as well as a number of lesser conflicts of lower intensity.

In [[Cyprus]] between 1955 and 1974, conflict arising between [[Greek Cypriots]] and [[Turkish Cypriots]] led to [[Cypriot intercommunal violence]] and the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]]. The [[Cyprus dispute]] remains unresolved.

In the mid-to-late 1960s, the [[Ba'ath Party|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]] led by [[Michel Aflaq]] and [[Salah al-Din al-Bitar]] took power in both Iraq and Syria. Iraq was first ruled by [[Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr]], but was succeeded by [[Saddam Hussein]] in 1979, and Syria was ruled first by a Military Committee led by [[Salah Jadid]], and later [[Hafez al-Assad]] until 2000, when he was succeeded by his son, [[Bashar al-Assad]].

[[File:Close up of Menahem Begin, Jimmy Carter and Anwar Sadat attending a military exhibition during the Camp David Summit. - NARA - 181142.tif|thumb|[[Anwar Sadat]], [[Jimmy Carter]] and [[Menachem Begin]] concluded a peace treaty in 1978.|276x276px]]In 1979, Egypt under Nasser's successor, [[Anwar Sadat]], concluded a peace treaty with Israel, ending the prospects of a united Arab military front. From the 1970s the Palestinians, led by [[Yasser Arafat]]'s [[Palestine Liberation Organization]], resorted to a prolonged campaign of violence against Israel and against American, Jewish, and western targets generally, as a means of weakening Israeli resolve and undermining western support for Israel. The Palestinians were supported in this, to varying degrees, by the regimes in Syria, Libya, Iran, and Iraq. The high point of this campaign came in the 1975 [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379]] condemning Zionism as a form of racism and the reception given to Arafat by the [[United Nations General Assembly]]. Resolution 3379 was revoked in 1991 by the [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 4686]].

Due to many of the frantic events of the late 1970s in the Middle East it culminated in the [[Iran–Iraq War]] between neighbouring Iran and Iraq. The war, started by Iraq, who invaded Iranian [[Khuzestan]] in 1980 at the behest of the latter's chaotic state of country due to the 1979 Islamic Revolution, eventually turned into a stalemate with hundreds of thousands of dead on both sides.

The fall of the [[Soviet Union]] and the collapse of [[communism]] in the early 1990s had several consequences for the Middle East. It allowed large numbers of [[Soviet Jews]] to emigrate from [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]] to Israel, further strengthening the Jewish state. It cut off the easiest source of credit, armaments, and diplomatic support to the anti-western Arab regimes, weakening their position. It opened up the prospect of cheap oil from Russia, driving down the price of oil and reducing the west's dependence on oil from the Arab states. It discredited the model of development through authoritarian state socialism, which Egypt (under Nasser), Algeria, Syria, and Iraq had followed since the 1960s, leaving these regimes politically and economically stranded. Rulers such as Iraq's Saddam Hussein increasingly relied on [[Arab nationalism]] as a substitute for socialism.

[[File:Saddam_Hussein_1979.jpg|alt=Saddam_Hussein_1979|thumb|253x253px|[[Saddam Hussein]]]]Saddam Hussein led Iraq into a prolonged and [[Iran–Iraq War|costly war with Iran]] from 1980 to 1988, and then into its fateful invasion of [[Kuwait]] in 1990. Kuwait had been part of the Ottoman province of [[Basra]] before 1918, and thus in a sense part of Iraq, even though Iraq had recognized its [[History of Kuwait#Independence and early state-building (1946–89)|independence in 1961]]. In response, the United States formed a coalition of allies with Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Syria, gained [[United Nations|UN]] approval, and evicted Iraq from Kuwait by force in the [[Gulf War]]. President [[George H. W. Bush|George H. W. Bush]] did not, however, attempt to overthrow Saddam Hussein, which the United States later came to regret.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rupok |first=Rifat |url= |title=Asking Questions: The Israeli-Palestinian Puzzle |date=2023-11-10 |publisher=Independently published |year=2023 |isbn=979-8-8672-7847-2 |language=English}}</ref> The Gulf War led to a permanent U.S. military presence in the Persian Gulf, particularly in Saudi Arabia, which offended many Muslims, and was a reason often cited by [[Osama bin Laden]] as justification for the [[September 11 attacks]].

===1990s–present===
[[File:MiddleEast.png|thumb|400px|A map of the Middle East (2003)]]

The worldwide change of governance in Eastern Europe, Latin America, East Asia, and parts of Africa following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] did not occur in the Middle East. In the whole region, only Israel, Turkey and to some extent Lebanon and the Palestinian territories were considered to be democracies. Some countries had legislative bodies, but these were said to have little power. In the [[Persian Gulf states]] the majority of the population could not vote because they were guest workers rather than citizens.

In most Middle Eastern countries, the growth of market economies was said to be limited by political restrictions, corruption, and [[cronyism]], overspending on arms and prestige projects and over-dependence on oil revenues. The successful economies were countries that had oil wealth and low populations, such as [[Qatar]], [[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]], where the ruling emirs allowed some political and social liberalization, but without giving up any of their own power. Lebanon also rebuilt a fairly successful economy after a prolonged [[Lebanese Civil War|civil war]] in the 1980s.

At the beginning of the 21st century, all these factors intensified conflict in the Middle East, which affected the entire world. [[Bill Clinton]]'s failed attempt to broker a peace deal between Israel and Palestine at the [[2000 Camp David Summit|Camp David Summit]] in 2000 led directly to the election of [[Ariel Sharon]] as Prime Minister of Israel and to the [[Second Intifada]], which conducted [[suicide bombing]]s on Israeli civilians. This was the first major outbreak of violence since the [[Oslo Peace Accords]] of 1993.

Many of the [[Mujahideen|Afghan jihadists]], though supposedly none of the Arab volunteers, were funded by the United States under [[Operation Cyclone]] as part of the [[Reagan Doctrine]], one of the longest and most expensive [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] [[covert operations]] ever.<ref name=bergen68>Bergen, Peter, ''Holy War Inc.'', Free Press, (2001), p. 68</ref><ref name="Oily">{{cite magazine |title=The Oily Americans |date=13 May 2003 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,450997-92,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204024027/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,450997-92,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 4, 2008 |magazine=Time |access-date=2008-07-08 |first1=Donald L. |last1=Barlett |first2=James B. |last2=Steele}}</ref>

One of these Arab militants was a wealthy Saudi Arabian named [[Osama bin Laden]]. After fighting against the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviets in Afghanistan]] in the 1980s, he formed the [[al-Qaida]] organization, which was responsible for the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]], the [[USS Cole bombing|USS ''Cole'' bombing]] and the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] on the United States.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} The September 11 attacks led the [[George W. Bush]] administration to [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|invade Afghanistan]] in 2001 to overthrow the [[Taliban]] regime, which had been harboring Bin Laden and al-Qaida. The United States and its allies described this operation as part of a global "[[War on Terror]]".

In 2002, U.S. Defense Secretary [[Donald Rumsfeld]] developed a plan to invade Iraq, remove Saddam from power, and turn Iraq into a democratic state with a free-market economy, which they hoped would serve as a model for the rest of the Middle East. The United States and its principal allies—Britain, Italy, Spain, and Australia—could not secure [[United Nations]] approval for the execution of the numerous UN resolutions, so they launched an invasion of Iraq and deposed Saddam without much difficulty in April 2003.

The advent of a new western army of occupation in a Middle Eastern capital marked a turning point in the history of the region. Despite successful elections (although boycotted by large portions of Iraq's Sunni population) held in January 2005, much of Iraq had all but disintegrated, due to a post-war insurgency which morphed into persistent ethnic violence that the American army was initially unable to quell. Many of Iraq's intellectual and business elite fled the country, and many Iraqi refugees left as a result of the insurgency, further destabilizing the region. A responsive surge in U.S. forces in Iraq was largely successful in controlling the insurgency and stabilizing the country. U.S. forces [[Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq (2007–2011)|withdrew]] from Iraq by December 2011.

By 2005, President George W. Bush's [[Road map for peace]] between Israel and the Palestinians was stalled, although this situation had begun to change with [[Yasser Arafat]]'s death in 2004. In response, Israel moved towards a unilateral solution, pushing ahead with the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]] to protect Israel from Palestinian [[Suicide attack|suicide bombers]] and unilateral withdrawing from [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]]. In 2006 a new conflict erupted between Israel and [[Hezbollah]] Shi'a militia in southern Lebanon, further setting back any "prospects for peace".

In the early 2010s, a [[revolutionary wave]] popularly known as the [[Arab Spring]] brought major protests, uprisings, and revolutions to several Middle Eastern countries, followed by prolonged civil wars in [[Syrian Civil War|Syria]], [[Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017)|Iraq]], [[Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)|Yemen]], and [[Libyan Civil War (2011–present)|Libya]]. In 2014, a terrorist group and self-proclaimed caliphate calling itself the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]] made rapid territorial gains in western Iraq and eastern Syria, prompting [[International military intervention against ISIL|international military intervention]]. At its peak, the group controlled an area containing an estimated 2.8 to 8 million people, 98% of which was lost by December 2017.

== See also ==
* [[Genetic history of the Middle East]]
* [[History of the Mediterranean region]]
* [[List of history journals#Middle East]]
* [[Middle Eastern empires]]
* [[Timeline of Middle Eastern history]]
* The [[1970s energy crisis|oil crises]]
* [[British foreign policy in the Middle East]]
* [[United States foreign policy in the Middle East]]
* [[Near Eastern archaeology]]
'''By country:'''
* [[History of Armenia]]
* [[History of Azerbaijan]]
* [[History of Bahrain]]
* [[History of Cyprus]]
* [[History of Egypt]]
* [[History of Georgia (country)|History of Georgia]]
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[History of Iraq]]
* [[History of Israel]]
* [[History of Jordan]]
* [[History of Kuwait]]
* [[History of Lebanon]]
* [[History of Oman]]
* [[History of Palestine]]
* [[History of Qatar]]
* [[History of Malta]]
* [[History of Saudi Arabia]]
* [[History of Syria]]
* [[History of Turkey]]
* [[History of the United Arab Emirates]]
* [[History of Yemen]]

'''General:'''
* [[History of North Africa]]
* [[History of Asia]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{citation|last=Esposito|first=John L.|title=The Oxford History of Islam|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York City|isbn=978-0-19-510799-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PR7|edition=Illustrated|author-link=John Esposito}}
* {{citation|last=Guzman|first=Gregory|title=Christian Europe and Mongol Asia: First Medieval Intercultural Contact Between East and West|journal=Essays in Medieval Studies|year=1985|volume=2|url=http://www.illinoismedieval.org/EMS/EMSpdf/V2/V2Guzman.pdf}}
* {{citation|last=Hourani|first=Albert|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|year=2013|publisher=Faber and Faber|isbn=978-0-571-30249-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irtb55WDsjMC|edition=Updated|author-link=Albert Hourani}}
* {{citation|last=Stearns|first=Peter N.|year=2007|title=A Brief History of the World|publisher=[[The Teaching Company]]|author-link=Peter Stearns}}
* {{citation |last1=Stearns |first1=Peter N. |author-link1=Peter Stearns |last2=Adas |first2=Michael |author-link2=Michael Adas |last3=Schwartz |first3=Stuart B. |author-link3=Stuart B. Schwartz |last4=Gilbert |first4=Marc Jason |title=World Civilizations: The Global Experience |year=2011 |publisher=Longman |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |isbn=978-0-13-136020-4 |edition=6th}}
* {{citation|last=Wawro|first=Geoffrey|title=Historical Atlas: A Comprehensive History of the World|year=2008|publisher=Millennium House|location=Elanora Heights, NSW, Australia|isbn=978-1-921209-23-9|author-link=Geoffrey Wawro}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* Cheta, Omar Youssef. "The economy by other means: The historiography of capitalism in the modern Middle East." ''History Compass'' (April 2018) 16#4 DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12444
* Cleveland, William L. and Martin Bunton. (2016) ''A History of the Modern Middle East.'' 6th ed. Westview Press.
* Fawaz, Leila Tarazi. ''A Land of Aching Hearts: The Middle East in the Great War'' (2014)
* Fawcett, Louise, ed. ''International relations of the Middle East'' (Oxford University Press, 2013)
* Gause III, F. Gregory. "'Hegemony' Compared: Great Britain and the United States in the Middle East." ''Security Studies'' 28.3 (2019): 565-587. https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2019.1604987
* Goldschmidt, Arthur, and Lawrence Davidson. ''A concise history of the Middle East'' (Westview Press, 1991)
* Issawi, Charles. ''An economic history of the Middle East and North Africa'' (Routledge, 2013) [https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ5TAQAAQBAJ Excerpt and text search]
* Issawi, Charles, ed. ''The Economic History of the Middle East 1800–1914: A Book of Readings'' (1966) [https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo0000unse_o2c3 online]
* Kirk, George Eden. ''A short history of the Middle East: from the rise of Islam to modern times''(Methuen, 1964) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206224/page/n5/mode/2up online]
* {{citation|last=[[Bernard Lewis|Lewis]]|first=Bernard|title=The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years|location=New York|publisher=Scribner|year=1995}}
* Monroe, Elizabeth. '' Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956'' (1963) [https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921121807/https://www.questia.com/library/954023/britain-s-moment-in-the-middle-east-1914-1956 |date=2018-09-21 }}
* {{citation|title=A History of the Middle East|last1=Mansfield|first1=Peter|last2=Pelham|first2=Nicolas|year=2013|edition=4|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-7181-9967-8}}
* {{citation|last=Rogan|first=Eugene|year=2009|title=The Arabs: A History}}
* {{citation|last=Quataert|first=Donald|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1jR39OM_hsC|isbn=978-1-139-44591-7}}
* Vasiliev, Alexey. ''Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin'' (Routledge, 2018).

* [[Robert F. Worth|Worth, Robert F.]], "Syria's Lost Chance" (review of Elizabeth F. Thompson, ''How the West Stole Democracy from the Arabs: the Syrian Arab Congress of 1920 and the Destruction of Its Historic Liberal-Islamic Alliance'', Atlantic Monthly, 466 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVII, no. 15 (8 October 2020), pp. 31–33. Worth writes (p. 33): "Perhaps things would have been different if the Syrians had been left to govern themselves a century ago."
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Wikipedia_-_History_of_the_Middle_East.ogg|date=2008-03-28}}
* [http://www.qdl.qa/en/articles-from-our-experts Articles From Our Experts] – [[Qatar Digital Library]] – an online portal providing access to previously undigitised [[British Library]] archive materials relating to Persian Gulf history and Arabic science
* [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552622 The Middle East : peace and the changing order] from the [[Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]]
* [http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/6308/1/Ancient-Civilizations--Mesopotamia.html Ancient Civilizations Medicine]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131017014421/http://www.aina.org/brief.html Assyrians]
* [http://gulf2000.columbia.edu/images/maps/MidEast_Cultural_Historical_Zones_lg.png Middle East: Primary Cultural and Historical Zones]

{{Middle East}}
{{Middle East topic| History of }}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of The Middle East}}
[[Category:History of West Asia| ]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern studies]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

Abhinandan Varthaman

2024-10-16T13:52:37Z

131.111.5.201:

{{short description|Indian fighter pilot (born 1983)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date = April 2019}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = [[Group captain (India)|Group Captain]]
| name = Abhinandan Varthaman
| honorific_suffix = [[Vir Chakra|VrC]]
| image = Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman in a MiG-21 Trainer aircraft, at Air Force Station Pathankot, Punjab on September 02, 2019 (cropped).jpg
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption = Varthaman in September 2018
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age |1983|06|21}}
| birth_place =  [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| allegiance = {{flag|India|23px}}
| branch = {{air force|India|23px}}
| serviceyears = 2004–present
| serviceyears_label = 
| rank = [[File:Indian IAF OF-5.svg|border|23px]] [[Group captain (India)|Group Captain]]
| rank_label =
| servicenumber = 27981<ref>{{cite news |title=#Abhinandan विंग कमांडर अभिनंदन के बारे में अब तक ये पता है |url=https://www.bbc.com/hindi/india-47389019 |publisher=BBC |access-date=3 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306081317/https://www.bbc.com/hindi/india-47389019 |archive-date=6 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| unit =
| commands =
| battles = {{tree list}}
* [[2019 India–Pakistan standoff]]
** [[2019 Jammu and Kashmir airstrikes]]{{POW}}
{{tree list/end}}
| battles_label =
| awards = [[File:Vir Chakra ribbon bar.svg|32px]] [[Vir Chakra]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Abhinandan to get Vir Chakra on Independence Day: Facts about India's 3rd highest gallantry award |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/abhinandan-to-get-vir-chakra-on-independence-day-facts-about-india-s-3rd-highest-gallantry-award-1580817-2019-08-14 |publisher=[[India Today]] |date=14 August 2019}}</ref>
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[[Group captain (India)|Group Captain]] '''Abhinandan Varthaman''' [[Vir Chakra|VrC]] (born 21 June 1983) is an [[Indian Air Force]] [[fighter pilot]] of [[Mig-21]] Bison plane who on 27 February 2019 scrambled to intercept [[F-16]] & [[JF-17]] of [[Pakistan Air Force]]'s (PAF) that were conducting retaliatory [[2019 Jammu and Kashmir airstrikes|airstrikes]] on [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. He was awarded the [[Vir Chakra]] by the Indian government. He was held captive when his plane was shot down inside Pakistani territory {{Convert|7|km|miles|abbr=in}} from [[Line of Control|LOC]] and repatriated on 1 March 2019.

== Career and personal life ==
Abhinandan Varthaman was born on 21 June 1983 in a [[Tamil Jain]] family.<ref>{{Cite web|last=M|first=Kalyanaraman|date=2019-04-05|title=Abhinandan's folk: Jains who are Tamils but don't eat onions|url=https://thefederal.com/the-eighth-column/abhinandans-folk-jains-who-are-tamils-but-dont-eat-onions/|access-date=2020-12-20|website=The Federal|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=M |first=Kalyanaraman |date=2019-04-05 |title=Abhinandan's folk: Jains who are Tamils but don't eat onions |url=https://thefederal.com/the-eighth-column/abhinandans-folk-jains-who-are-tamils-but-dont-eat-onions/ |access-date=2022-03-31 |website=The Federal |language=en-US}}</ref> Varthaman's family is from [[Thirupanamoor]], a village about {{Convert|19|km|miles|abbr=in}} from [[Kanchipuram]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman trained at IAF, Tambaram |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/280219/wing-commander-abhinandan-varthaman-trained-at-iaf-tambaram.html |work=Deccan Chronicle|date=28 February 2019 |access-date=2 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044727/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/280219/wing-commander-abhinandan-varthaman-trained-at-iaf-tambaram.html |archive-date=6 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> His father Simhakutty Varthaman is retired [[Air marshal|Air Marshal]] (IAF), his wife Tanvi Marwaha is also a retired [[Squadron leader|Squadron Leader]] (IAF) and his mother is a doctor.<ref name="timesnownews.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/mirror-now/in-focus/article/profile-of-a-true-hero-all-you-need-to-know-about-wing-commander-abhinandan-varthaman/374327|title=Pilot Abhinandan Profile, Family, All you need to know about IAF Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman|website=timesnownews.com|access-date=1 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228174934/https://www.timesnownews.com/mirror-now/in-focus/article/profile-of-a-true-hero-all-you-need-to-know-about-wing-commander-abhinandan-varthaman/374327|archive-date=28 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Cheers, Claps For Pilot Abhinandan Varthaman's Parents on Flight To Delhi |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/wing-commander-abhinandan-varthamans-parents-cheered-by-co-passengers-in-plane-as-they-arrive-to-rec-2000985 |publisher=[[NDTV]] |date=1 March 2019 |access-date=1 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301214211/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/wing-commander-abhinandan-varthamans-parents-cheered-by-co-passengers-in-plane-as-they-arrive-to-rec-2000985 |archive-date=1 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Varthaman was educated at [[Sainik School, Amaravathinagar]].<ref name="timesnownews.com" /> He graduated from the [[National Defence Academy]] and was commissioned into the combat (fighter) stream of the IAF as a [[flying officer]] on 19 June 2004.<ref>{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Air Branch) |page=1371 |date=30 September 2006 |url=http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2006/W_39_2011_076.pdf |publisher=[[The Gazette of India]]}}</ref> He was trained at the IAF centres in [[Bathinda]] and [[Halwara]], promoted to [[flight lieutenant]] on 19 June 2006,<ref>{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Air Branch) |page=796 |date=28 June 2008 |url=http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2008/W_26_2009_004.pdf |publisher=[[The Gazette of India]]}}</ref> and to [[squadron leader]] on 8 July 2010.<ref>{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Air Branch) |page=119 |date=4 February 2012 |url=http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2012/W_5_2012_169.pdf |publisher=[[The Gazette of India]]}}</ref> Varthaman was a [[Su-30MKI]] fighter pilot before being assigned to the [[MiG-21|MiG-21 Bison]] squadron.<ref name="auto2">{{cite news|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/mirror-now/in-focus/article/profile-of-a-true-hero-all-you-need-to-know-about-wing-commander-abhinandan-varthaman/374327|title=Profile of a true HERO – All you need to know about Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman|access-date=1 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228174934/https://www.timesnownews.com/mirror-now/in-focus/article/profile-of-a-true-hero-all-you-need-to-know-about-wing-commander-abhinandan-varthaman/374327|archive-date=28 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> He was promoted to [[Wing commander (rank)|wing commander]] on 19 June 2017<ref>{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Air Branch) |page=527 |date=8 February 2020 |url=http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2020/216111.pdf |publisher=[[The Gazette of India]]}}</ref> and to [[Group captain (India)|group captain]] in November 2021.

Varthaman is married and lives in Chennai. He and his wife have two children.<ref name="auto2" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/abhinandan-varthaman-family-legacy-courage-valour-wife-father-1468161-2019-03-01|title=Abhinandan Varthaman carries a legacy of courage, grace, valour|date=1 March 2019|access-date=1 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302024845/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/abhinandan-varthaman-family-legacy-courage-valour-wife-father-1468161-2019-03-01|archive-date=2 March 2019|url-status=live|publisher=[[India Today]]}}</ref>

== Dogfight ==
[[File:Sheeju mig21.JPG|thumb|A [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21|MiG-21]] Bison of the [[Indian Air Force]].]]
On 27 February 2019, Varthaman was flying a [[MiG-21]] as a part of a [[sortie]] that was scrambled to intercept [[2019 Jammu and Kashmir airstrikes|airstrikes in Jammu and Kashmir]] by [[Pakistan Air Force]]. He lost communications with the IAF command and inadvertently crossed into Pakistani airspace during a [[dogfight]] that ensued, during which his aircraft was struck by a missile. Varthaman ejected and safely descended into the village of Horran in [[Azad Kashmir|Pakistan-governed Azad Kashmir]], approximately {{Convert|7|km|miles|abbr=in}} from the [[Line of Control]].<ref name="auto3">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47397418|title=Fighter pilot 'opened fire' before capture|last=Khan|first=M. Ilyas|work=BBC News |date=1 March 2019|access-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301013431/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47397418|archive-date=1 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5k1geCvUMas|title=Abhinandan raised slogans, tried to destroy documents just before being captured in Pak (BBC Hindi)|date=28 February 2019|via=YouTube}}</ref>

Local villagers said Varthaman could be identified as an Indian pilot by the [[Indian flag]] on his [[parachute]].<ref name="auto3" /> Upon landing, Varthaman asked the villagers whether he was in India or Pakistan, to which a boy lied by saying "India".<ref name="auto3" /> Varthaman reportedly chanted "[[Bharat Mata]] ki Jay", to which the locals responded with "[[Pakistan Zindabad]]". Then, he began firing warning shots. The villagers captured and manhandled Varthaman before he was rescued by the [[Pakistan Army]].<ref name="auto">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/01/world/asia/india-pakistan-plane-abhinandan-varthaman-india.html|title=Pakistan Frees Indian Pilot Who Was Beaten by a Mob and Then Served Tea|first1=Jeffrey|last1=Gettleman|authorlink=Jeffrey Gettleman|first2=Suhasini|last2=Raj|work=The New York Times |authorlink2=Suhasini Raj|date=1 March 2019|via=NYTimes.com|access-date=1 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301220828/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/01/world/asia/india-pakistan-plane-abhinandan-varthaman-india.html|archive-date=1 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

Later that day, the [[Indian Ministry of External Affairs]] confirmed an Indian pilot was [[missing in action]] after a MiG-21 Bison fighter aircraft was lost while engaging with Pakistani jets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/india-pak-tensions-live-iaf-wing-commander-missing-after-mig-21-crash-pakistan-claims-he-is-in-their-custody-says-govt-2049727.html|title=India-Pak Tensions LIVE: IAF Wing Commander Missing After MiG-21 Crash, Pakistan Claims He is in Their Custody, Says Govt|date=27 February 2019|website=News18|access-date=28 February 2019}}</ref><ref name="auto3" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Saved from a Pakistani mob, a downed Indian pilot becomes the face of the Kashmir crises|date=27 February 2019|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/pakistan-india-saynotowar-pilot-abhinandan-varthaman-1.5036374|publisher=CBC News|website=cbc.ca|access-date=2 March 2019}}</ref> A statement released by the IAF claimed that before the crash, Varthaman had shot down a PAF [[F-16|Lockheed Martin F-16]].<ref>{{cite web|date=3 March 2019|title='Abhinandan Varthaman is first IAF pilot to down an F-16': Air Chief Marshal S Krishnaswamy|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/abhinandan-varthaman-is-first-iaf-pilot-to-down-an-f-16-air-chief-marshal-s-krishnaswamy/story-jMNbRKI4vJfwWp2vy0x79J.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303120552/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/abhinandan-varthaman-is-first-iaf-pilot-to-down-an-f-16-air-chief-marshal-s-krishnaswamy/story-jMNbRKI4vJfwWp2vy0x79J.html|archive-date=3 March 2019|access-date=3 March 2019|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Enough evidence to show Pak used F16s, 'disinformation' by Pak: Indian Air Force |url=https://www.newslaundry.com/shorts/enough-evidence-to-show-pak-used-f16s-disinformation-by-pak-indian-air-force |access-date=2 March 2019 |work=News Laundry |date=1 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043405/https://www.newslaundry.com/shorts/enough-evidence-to-show-pak-used-f16s-disinformation-by-pak-indian-air-force |archive-date=6 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=28 February 2019 |title=Abhinandan Varthaman's MiG21 locked in Pakistan's F16 |work=Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/f16-shot-down-varthamans-mig21-locked-in-pakistans-f16/articleshow/68193757.cms |url-status=live |access-date=2 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228130414/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/f16-shot-down-varthamans-mig21-locked-in-pakistans-f16/articleshow/68193757.cms |archive-date=28 February 2019}}</ref> At a media briefing on 2 March 2019, nearly two days after the aerial engagement between PAF and IAF, the IAF displayed the parts of [[AMRAAM|AIM-120 AMRAAM]] missiles, which could be used only by the PAF's F-16.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Joshi |first=Sameer |date=2019-08-20 |title=8 pieces of clinching evidence that show how IAF's Abhinandan shot down a Pakistani F-16 |url=https://theprint.in/defence/8-pieces-of-clinching-evidence-that-show-how-iafs-abhinandan-shot-down-a-pakistani-f-16/278752/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US |quote="This radar data proves beyond doubt — that F-16s were operating against India that day — exposing the lies and contradictions of Ghafoor — exposed further by the remains of the AMRAAM missile found in the Nowshera sector by the Indian military. AMRAAM missiles can only be fired by F-16s in the PAF inventory."}}</ref> The IAF also said they had identified the electronic signatures of the aircraft and confirmed that F-16 were used during the skirmish.<ref name=":1" /> As claimed by Indian media, according to an agreement between the US and Pakistan, Pakistan is only allowed to use the F-16 against terrorists.<ref>{{Cite web|last=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=2019-03-09|title=Abhinandan-piloted MiG-21 Bison shot down Pak F-16; have electronic evidence: MEA|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/abhinandan-piloted-mig-21-bison-shot-down-pak-f-16-have-electronic-evidence-mea-1474267-2019-03-09|url-status=live|access-date=2021-05-16|website=India Today|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311121044/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/abhinandan-piloted-mig-21-bison-shot-down-pak-f-16-have-electronic-evidence-mea-1474267-2019-03-09 |archive-date=11 March 2019 }}</ref> However, [[Foreign Policy]] magazine quoting an anonymous U.S. official stated that the agreement did not involve any such terms "limiting the use of the F-16s".<ref name="Seligman">{{Cite web |last=Seligman |first=Lara |date=4 April 2019 |title=Did India Shoot Down a Pakistani Jet? U.S. Count Says No. |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/04/04/did-india-shoot-down-a-pakistani-jet-u-s-count-says-no/ |access-date=2021-01-17 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US}}</ref> Scholarly analysis<ref name=markey-asia-policy-balakot>{{citation|last=Markey|first=Daniel|title=The Strategic Implications of India's Illiberalism and Democratic Erosion|journal=Asia Policy|volume=17|issue=1|pages=77–105|year=2022|publisher=National Bureau of Asian Research|doi=10.1353/asp.2022.0010|s2cid=246816912 |quote=The Modi government’s public mischaracterizations of the February 2019 Balakot airstrike and subsequent air skirmishes, including subsequently debunked claims of a destroyed terrorist camp inside Pakistan and India’s downing of a Pakistani F-16 jet, have already raised questions in the United States about New Delhi’s credibility and communications strategy in the midst of an exceptionally dangerous regional context.}}</ref> and Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Public Relations]] Director General refuted the later claims and said F-16s had not been used in the incident.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://arynews.tv/en/dg-ispr-press-conference-indian-jets/|title=Pakistan army refutes Indian claims of downing F-16; says Pakistan doesn't want war|date=27 February 2019|access-date=3 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228164226/https://arynews.tv/en/dg-ispr-press-conference-indian-jets/|archive-date=28 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The US-based Foreign Policy magazine, quoting two anonymous [[United States Department of Defense|US defence ministry]] officials, reported in April 2019 that an audit didn't find any Pakistani F-16s missing, and that all jets were accounted for.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Seligman|first=Lara|title=Did India Shoot Down a Pakistani Jet? U.S. Count Says No.|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/04/04/did-india-shoot-down-a-pakistani-jet-u-s-count-says-no/|access-date=2021-05-16|website=Foreign Policy|date=4 April 2019 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="WP">{{cite news |last1=Lalwani |first1=Sameer |last2=Tallo |first2=Emily |date=17 April 2019 |title=Did India shoot down a Pakistani F-16 in February? This just became a big deal |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/04/17/did-india-shoot-down-pakistani-f-back-february-this-just-became-big-deal/ |accessdate=18 September 2021 |quote=The controversy flared up when a Foreign Policy article stated that the Pentagon had accounted for all of Pakistan’s F-16 jets... The IAF responded last week by releasing “irrefutable” evidence — including electronic signatures and radio transcripts — that Pakistan lost a fighter jet during the February aerial combat. A number of U.S. and Indian defense analysts called the evidence circumstantial... The Pentagon, like the State Department, has yet to issue a public statement on the F-16 count, but there have been no counter-leaks contradicting the Foreign Policy report.}}</ref> A day later, the [[United States Department of Defense|US defence ministry]] stated it was “not aware” of any investigation that was conducted to ascertain if Pakistan had lost an F-16 in a dogfight with Indian fighter jets on February 27.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-04-06 |title=Pentagon 'not aware' on Pak F-16 count after Feb aerial dogfight with IAF |url=https://www.asianage.com/world/americas/060419/pentagon-not-aware-on-pak-f-16-count-after-feb-aerial-dogfight-with-iaf.html |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=The Asian Age |quote="Washington: The United States defence department on Friday said it was “not aware” of any investigation that was conducted to ascertain if Pakistan had lost an F-16 in a fight with Indian fighter jets on February 27. US-based news publication Foreign Policy had quoted senior but unidentified US defence sources saying that no F-16 was missing. This fact was strongly denied by India which reitereated that the Indian Air Force had indeed shot down an F-16."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=EurAsian Times |date=2019-04-06 |title=Setback To Pakistan, US Says 'Did Not Count' Pakistani F-16 Fighter Jets |url=https://eurasiantimes.com/setback-to-pakistan-us-says-did-not-count-pakistani-f-16-fighter-jets/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Latest Asian, Middle-East, EurAsian, Indian News |language=en-US |quote="The US defence department clearly stated that it had no information on any investigation involving its officials to check the status of F-16 fighter jets delivered to Pakistan. The statement comes a day after a US-based magazine quoted two senior US officials who contradicted India’s claim of having shot down a Pakistani F-16 jet on February 27 during a dogfight along the LoC."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-04-06 |title=Haven't counted Pakistan's F-16s, says Pentagon after US magazine claimed it did |url=https://theprint.in/defence/not-aware-of-probe-into-pakistan-f-16-count-after-dogfight-with-iaf-says-us-defence-dept/217733/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US |quote="The United States defence department on Friday said it was “not aware” of any investigation that was conducted to ascertain if Pakistan had lost an F-16 in a dogfight with Indian fighter jets on February 27, contrary to a report by a news publication that had gone on to say, citing unidentified defence officials, the count revealed none was missing"}}</ref> While the US defence ministry was unaware of the "F-16 count", the [[United States Department of State|US State Department]] distanced itself from the "F-16 count" news report, saying in response to a direct request to confirm or deny it, “As a matter of policy, the Department does not publicly comment on details of government-to-government agreements on end-use monitoring of US-origin defence articles.” and highlighted that “It is important to note that since January 2018, the United States government has suspended security assistance to Pakistan”.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-04-06 |title=Haven't counted Pakistan's F-16s, says Pentagon after US magazine claimed it did |url=https://theprint.in/defence/not-aware-of-probe-into-pakistan-f-16-count-after-dogfight-with-iaf-says-us-defence-dept/217733/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US |quote="The state department distanced itself from the news report saying in response to a direct request to confirm or deny it, “As a matter of policy, the Department does not publicly comment on details of government-to-government agreements on end-use monitoring of US-origin defence articles.”"}}</ref>

==Repatriation==
=== Videos ===
Videos and images released by Pakistani authorities showed Varthaman being rescued from a violent mob by Pakistani soldiers<ref name="auto1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/01/world/asia/india-pakistan-plane-abhinandan-varthaman-india.html|title=Pakistan Frees Indian Pilot Who Was Beaten by a Mob and Then Served Tea|first1=Jeffrey|last1=Gettleman|authorlink1=Jeffrey Gettleman|first2=Suhasini|last2=Raj|newspaper=The New York Times |authorlink2=Suhasini Raj|date=1 March 2019|access-date=1 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301220828/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/01/world/asia/india-pakistan-plane-abhinandan-varthaman-india.html|archive-date=1 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and being interrogated while tied and blindfolded with a bloody face.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto1"/> Other videos showed him receiving first aid and being further interrogated over tea.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/national/news/iaf-pilot-abhinandan-vartman-getting-first-aid-from-pakistan-army-viral-video-6029898.html|title=अभिनंदन के पीओके में गिरने के तुरंत बाद का नया वीडियो, इसमें दिख रहा है कि विंग कमांडर को पकड़ने के बाद कितनी दहशत में थे पाक सैनिक, जल्दबाजी में जमीन पर ही लेटा कर करने लगे खून साफ|first=S.|last=Ashwani|date=4 March 2019|website=Dainik Bhaskar}}</ref><ref name="auto" /><ref name="auto1"/> The media received a mixed reception; some commentators criticised the reports as a "vulgar display" while others praised the intervention of the Pakistani soldiers when Varthaman was in the hands of the mob and was being beaten.<ref name="auto1"/> The release of the videos was suspected of being a violation of the [[Geneva Conventions]] and were deleted by Pakistani authorities after they went [[Viral video|viral]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/experts-say-pakistan-violated-geneva-conventions-by-tweeting-video-of-captured-indian-pilot|title=Pakistan may have violated Geneva Conventions after posting video of captured pilot|first=Louis|last=Casiano|date=27 February 2019|website=Fox News|access-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301151437/https://www.foxnews.com/world/experts-say-pakistan-violated-geneva-conventions-by-tweeting-video-of-captured-indian-pilot|archive-date=1 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Experts gave different opinions about the validity of the Geneva Conventions in this case.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/437668-geneva-convention-experts-differ-over-immunity-to-indian-pilot/|title=Geneva Convention: Experts differ over immunity to Indian pilot|date=28 February 2019|access-date=2 March 2019|publisher=The News International|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228143130/https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/437668-geneva-convention-experts-differ-over-immunity-to-indian-pilot|archive-date=28 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Subsequent development===
[[File:Wagah border.jpg|thumb|Wagah border]]
On 28 February 2019, [[Imran Khan]], the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|prime minister of Pakistan]], announced at a joint sitting of the [[Parliament of Pakistan]], that the government had decided to release Varthaman the next day as a "gesture of peace". If some news sources are to be believed, "India and Pakistan came perilously close to firing missiles at each other on February 27, with Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] deciding to up the ante after the capture of MiG-21 Bison pilot Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman by Pakistan, and [[Research and Analysis Wing]] secretary [[Anil Dhasmana]] communicating to his Pakistan counterpart [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter Services Intelligence]] chief Lieutenant General [[Asim Munir (general)|Asim Munir]] that there would be an escalation in the Indian offensive if the pilot was harmed."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-03-23 |title=India, Pakistan came close to firing missiles at each other on February 27 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-pakistan-came-close-to-firing-missiles-at-each-other-on-february-27/story-rVsBjZ5qmxXMprktzDNqcM.html |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |quote="“I know last night there was a threat there could a missile attack on Pakistan, which later got defused, Khan said in his speech."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://arynews.tv/en/imran-khan-addresses-joint-parliamentary-session/ |title=PM announces release of Indian pilot Abhinandan as 'peace gesture' |date=28 February 2019 |website=Ary News |access-date=2 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301125526/https://arynews.tv/en/imran-khan-addresses-joint-parliamentary-session/ |archive-date=1 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Shah Mehmood Qureshi]], the [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Pakistan)|Foreign Minister of Pakistan]], said his government announced the release of the IAF Wing Commander out of a desire for peace and that there was no compulsion or pressure on Pakistan, as was implied by the Indian media.<ref>{{cite web|last=|date=2 March 2019|title=No compulsion or pressure to release Abhinandan, did it for peace: Qureshi|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1467183/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302152622/https://www.dawn.com/news/1467183|archive-date=2 March 2019|access-date=2 March 2019|website=DAWN}}</ref> However, [[The New York Times]] reported that several outside countries including United States and China had been urging Pakistan to release the Indian pilot to de-escalate the crisis.<ref name="auto" />

Later in October 2020, an opposition leader, [[Ayaz Sadiq]] had claimed in the [[National Assembly of Pakistan]] that Varthaman was released after Foreign Minister Shah Mahmood Qureshi told a meeting of Pakistan's top leaders that India would attack Pakistan if Varthaman weren't released. Ayaz Sadiq faced flak from the Pakistani government and the public for making such statements.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=PTI|date=2020-10-29|title=Pakistan released IAF pilot Wg. Cdr. Abhinandan after India's attack threat, claims PMLN leader|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indian-pilot-wg-cdr-abhinandan-was-released-after-indian-attack-threat-says-pml-n-leader/article32970711.ece|access-date=2021-05-16|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2020-10-31|title=I stand by my stance, have never made irresponsible statements: Ayaz Sadiq|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1587845|url-status=live|access-date=2021-05-16|website=[[Dawn.com]]|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031160750/https://www.dawn.com/news/1587845 |archive-date=31 October 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Pak Opposition MP Says Abhinandan Was Released As Army Chief Feared India's Attack|url=https://thewire.in/south-asia/pakistan-abhinandan-varthaman-qamar-bajwa-balakot|url-status=live|access-date=2021-05-16|website=[[The Wire (India)|The Wire]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101132111/https://thewire.in/south-asia/pakistan-abhinandan-varthaman-qamar-bajwa-balakot |archive-date=1 November 2020 }}</ref>

Varthaman crossed the [[India–Pakistan border]] at [[Wagah]] on 1 March 2019.<ref>{{cite web|last=|date=1 March 2019|title=Captured IAF pilot handed over to officials in Delhi|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1466951|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301165512/https://www.dawn.com/news/1466951|archive-date=1 March 2019|access-date=1 March 2019|website=DAWN.COM}}</ref><ref name="Captured">{{cite news|title=Abhinandan: Captured Indian pilot handed back by Pakistan|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-47412884|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=1 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301173217/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-47412884|archive-date=1 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Gettleman |first1=Jeffrey|authorlink1=Jeffrey Gettleman|last2=Raj |first2=Suhasini|authorlink2=Suhasini Raj|title=Pakistan Frees Indian Pilot Who Was Beaten by a Mob and Then Served Tea |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/01/world/asia/india-pakistan-plane-abhinandan-varthaman-india.html |work=The New York Times|date=1 March 2019 |access-date=1 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301220828/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/01/world/asia/india-pakistan-plane-abhinandan-varthaman-india.html |archive-date=1 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Peri-Hindu">{{Cite news |last=Peri |first=Dinakar |date=14 August 2019 |title=Wing Commander Abhinandan to be awarded Vir Chakra |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/wg-cdr-abhinandan-varthaman-to-be-conferred-vir-chakra/article29090657.ece |access-date=14 August 2019 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= |date=28 February 2019 |title=2 Indian aircraft violating Pakistani airspace shot down; 2 pilots arrested |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1466347 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227094831/https://www.dawn.com/news/1466347 |archive-date=27 February 2019 |access-date=28 February 2019 |website=DAWN.COM}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=27 February 2019 |title=Saved From Pakistani Mob, Downed Indian Pilot Becomes Face of Kashmir Crisis |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2019/02/27/world/asia/27reuters-india-kashmir-pilot-socialmedia.html |url-status=live |access-date=1 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302024524/https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2019/02/27/world/asia/27reuters-india-kashmir-pilot-socialmedia.html |archive-date=2 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1 March 2019 |title=Pakistan hands back captured Indian pilot |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47412884 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302131948/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47412884 |archive-date=2 March 2019 |access-date=4 March 2019 |website=BBC}}</ref> At a rally, the Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] welcomed Varthaman's release, saying the nation was proud of him.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-modi-welcomes-iaf-pilot-abhinandan-says-nation-proud-of-your-exemplary-courage/articleshow/68223927.cms |title=PM Modi welcomes IAF pilot Abhinandan, says 'nation proud of your exemplary courage' |date=1 March 2019 |website=The Times of India |access-date=1 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302104701/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-modi-welcomes-iaf-pilot-abhinandan-says-nation-proud-of-your-exemplary-courage/articleshow/68223927.cms |archive-date=2 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> A demeaning video of Varthaman was released by the PAF to the Pakistani media hours before his release. IAF later said it had been filmed while Varthaman was under duress.<ref>{{cite web|title=Subjected to mental harassment by ISI, says IAF Wing Commander Abhinandan|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/news/subjected-to-mental-harassment-by-isi-says-iaf-wing-commander-abhinandan/videoshow/68239392.cms|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304034526/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/news/subjected-to-mental-harassment-by-isi-says-iaf-wing-commander-abhinandan/videoshow/68239392.cms|archive-date=4 March 2019|access-date=3 March 2019|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Abhinandan's video was recorded in captivity under duress: IAF|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/abhinandans-video-was-recorded-in-captivity-under-duress-iaf/articleshow/68225068.cms|url-status=live|website=The Times of India|date=March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311121044/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/abhinandans-video-was-recorded-in-captivity-under-duress-iaf/articleshow/68225068.cms |archive-date=11 March 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theprint.in/defence/pakistans-propaganda-video-of-indian-pilot-abhinandan-had-at-least-16-cuts/200299/|title=Pakistan's propaganda video of Indian pilot Abhinandan had at least 16 cuts|date=March 2019 |access-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302090835/https://theprint.in/defence/pakistans-propaganda-video-of-indian-pilot-abhinandan-had-at-least-16-cuts/200299/|archive-date=2 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/abhinandan-varthaman-says-went-through-mental-harassment-in-pakistan-report-2001733|title=Abhinandan Varthaman Says He Was Mentally Harassed in Pakistan: Report|website=NDTV.com|access-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302173847/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/abhinandan-varthaman-says-went-through-mental-harassment-in-pakistan-report-2001733|archive-date=2 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> A medical check-up upon his return located multiple bruises and a fractured rib but no 'significant injuries'.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/abhinandan-is-back-but-with-a-rib-fracture-and-some-bruises/articleshow/68232959.cms |title=Abhinandan is back but with a rib fracture and some bruises |last=Gurung |first=Shaurya Karanbir |date=2 March 2019 |website=The Economic Times |access-date=2 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303085448/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/abhinandan-is-back-but-with-a-rib-fracture-and-some-bruises/articleshow/68232959.cms |archive-date=3 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Varthaman said the Pakistani authorities did not physically torture him but subjected him to considerable "mental harassment". Pakistan said he was treated in accordance with the Geneva Conventions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/abhinandan-varthaman-says-went-through-mental-harassment-in-pakistan-report-2001733|title=Abhinandan Varthaman Says He Was Mentally Harassed in Pakistan: Report|website=NDTV.com|access-date=5 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302173847/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/abhinandan-varthaman-says-went-through-mental-harassment-in-pakistan-report-2001733|archive-date=2 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Akhil Bharatiya Digambar Jain Mahasamiti]] chairperson Manidra Jain announced Varthaman would be awarded the ''Bhagwan Mahavir Ahimsa Puraskar'' on 17 April 2019, the date of [[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak|Mahavir Jayanti]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=3 March 2019|title=IAF pilot Abhinandan Varthaman to be awarded with Bhagwan Mahavir Ahimsa Puraskar|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/iaf-pilot-abhinandan-varthaman-to-be-awarded-with-bhagwan-mahavir-ahimsa-puraskar/story-GiK9UnxsuTL9hlqAfA46SM.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306042802/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/iaf-pilot-abhinandan-varthaman-to-be-awarded-with-bhagwan-mahavir-ahimsa-puraskar/story-GiK9UnxsuTL9hlqAfA46SM.html|archive-date=6 March 2019|access-date=5 March 2019|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Indian Air Force promotes Balakot air strike hero Abhinandan Varthaman to Group Captain rank |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/indian-air-force-promotes-balakot-air-strike-hero-abhinandan-varthaman-to-group-captain-rank/articleshow/87509225.cms |access-date=2021-11-03}}</ref> In August that same year, he was presented with the [[Vir Chakra]] gallantry award.<ref name="Peri-Hindu" />

After the government's decision to release Varthaman was announced, a petition was filed before the [[Islamabad High Court]] (IHC) seeking an injunction to stop the process but the court dismissed it on the same day. The petition argued Varthaman must be released only after the cessation of active hostilities, as per the Geneva Conventions, since the Indian pilot “was arrested when he was on a mission against Pakistan”. The petition was rejected by the Islamabad High Court, citing the consensus of the parliamentarians and that "When all the parliamentarians agree at a point...[a] debate over it is unnecessary". In addition the IHC Chief Justice Minallah also stated that the courts do not have the power to intervene in foreign affairs, according to a Supreme Court verdict in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|date=1 March 2019|title=IHC dismisses petition challenging release of Indian pilot|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1920833/1-ihc-dismisses-petition-challenging-release-of-indian-pilot/|access-date=1 March 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gallantry Awards {{!}} Ministry of Defence, Government of India |url=https://www.gallantryawards.gov.in/awardee/4888 |access-date=2021-11-23 |website=www.gallantryawards.gov.in}}</ref>

== Legacy and honors ==
===Moustache style===
[[File:Abhinandan Mustache.png|thumb|''The Abhinandan Cut'' or the ''Varthaman style'', popular in India]]

Varthaman's style of moustache has become popular in India and is widely called the "Abhinandan cut" or the "Varthaman style".<ref name="CNN_moustache">{{cite news|last1=Suri|first1=Manveena|title=Indian pilot returns home a hero and sparks mustache trend|work=CNN|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/03/04/india/india-pilot-moustache-intl/index.html|url-status=live|access-date=4 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304101005/https://edition.cnn.com/2019/03/04/india/india-pilot-moustache-intl/index.html|archive-date=4 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/abhinandans-gunslinger-moustache-evokes-awe-youngsters-rush-to-replicate-style20190303142538/|title=Abhinandan's gunslinger moustache evokes awe, youngsters rush to replicate style|date=3 March 2019|website=[[Asian News International]]}}</ref><ref name="ndtv.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indian-air-force-pilot-abhinandan-varthamans-moustache-catches-up-men-queue-up-outside-salons-2001966|title=Abhinandan Varthaman's Gunslinger Moustache Is All The Rage in India|date=3 March 2019|website=NDTV|others=S Shobana|access-date=11 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/trending/trending-in-india/to-honour-iaf-pilot-abhinandan-varthaman-bengaluru-hairdresser-gives-abhinandan-moustache-for-free-5615218/|title=Bengaluru hairdresser gives 650 men 'Abhinandan' moustaches for free to honour IAF pilot|date=7 March 2019|website=The Indian Express|language=en-IN|access-date=11 March 2019}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=4 March 2019 |agency=[[IANS]] |title=Want to look cool? Beard it like Abhinandan |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/beauty/want-to-look-cool-beard-it-like-abhinandan/articleshow/68251454.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304070155/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/beauty/want-to-look-cool-beard-it-like-abhinandan/articleshow/68251454.cms |archive-date=4 March 2019 |access-date=11 March 2019 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> Actor [[Ranveer Singh]]'s barber, Darshan Yewalekar, has quoted saying that "the beard sported by the IAF pilot will soon be called India's very own Varthaman style."<ref name=":2" />

The style is similar to a combination of [[gunslinger]] moustaches and [[Sideburns|mutton chops]] worn by [[Franz Joseph I of Austria]].<ref name="ndtv.com" /> It resembles the moustache worn by actor [[Suriya]] in the [[Singam (film series)|''Singam'' film series]] and [[Rajinikanth]]'s moustache in [[Petta (film)|''Petta'']] (2019).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/fashion-and-trends/abhinandan-varthaman-s-moustache-may-be-the-next-styling-sensation-in-india/story-SAw62oXo5UI6ZNZo8PsBWK.html|title=Abhinandan Varthaman's moustache may be the next styling sensation in India|date=4 March 2019|website=Hindustan Times|agency=IANS|access-date=11 March 2019}}</ref>

A number of companies used the moustache in their advertisements. Dairy company [[Amul]] produced a video showing a young girl wearing an Abhinandan-shaped [[milk moustache]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/03/04/india/india-pilot-moustache-intl/index.html|title=Indian pilot returns home a hero and sparks mustache trend|last=Suri|first=Manveena|date=4 March 2019|website=CNN|access-date=11 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/buzz/amuls-tributes-abhinandans-mooch-in-new-ad-twitter-says-it-will-be-the-next-fashion-trend-2053863.html|title=Amul Pays Tribute to IAF Pilot Abhinandan's 'Mooch' in New Ad, Twitter Says it Will be Next Fashion Trend|date=3 March 2019|website=News18}}</ref> The advertisement was posted on [[Twitter]] and received more than 170,000 views within 24 hours.<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=3 March 2019|title=Amul Sets Twitter Abuzz With 'Mooch' Video, Pays Tribute to IAF Wing Commander Abhinandan|url=https://www.india.com/buzz/amuls-new-mooch-video-advertisement-paying-tribute-to-iaf-wing-commander-abhinandan-breaks-internet-twitterati-declare-it-as-next-fashion-trend-3593620/|url-status=live|website=[[India.com]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304133755/https://www.india.com/buzz/amuls-new-mooch-video-advertisement-paying-tribute-to-iaf-wing-commander-abhinandan-breaks-internet-twitterati-declare-it-as-next-fashion-trend-3593620/ |archive-date=4 March 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Das|first=Aninda|date=10 March 2019|title=Mooch Appreciated: IAF pilot Abhinandan Varthaman's gunslinger moustache is now a rage on social media|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/the-buzz/article/mooch-appreciated-iaf-pilot-abhinandan-varthamans-gunslinger-moustache-is-now-a-rage-on-social-media/376424|url-status=live|access-date=11 March 2019|website=[[Times Now]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304180743/https://www.timesnownews.com/the-buzz/article/mooch-appreciated-iaf-pilot-abhinandan-varthamans-gunslinger-moustache-is-now-a-rage-on-social-media/376424 |archive-date=4 March 2019 }}</ref> [[Pizza Hut]] also posted a tweet showing the Abhinandan moustache on 3 March 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/trending/trending-in-india/pizza-hut-abhinandan-varthaman-pakistan-balakot-jem-indian-air-force-5610002/|title=Netizens divided over Pizza Hut offering free pizza to anyone named Abhinandan|date=4 March 2019|website=The Indian Express|access-date=11 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/business/pizza-hut-turns-wing-commander-abhinandans-bravery-into-marketing-gimmick-insensitive-and-opportunistic-say-brand-specialists-6200261.html|title=Pizza Hut turns Wing Commander Abhinandan's bravery into marketing gimmick: Insensitive and opportunistic, say brand specialists|last=Nair|first=Sulekha|date=6 March 2019|website=Firstpost|access-date=11 March 2019}}</ref>

=== "The Tea is Fantastic" (internet meme)===
In 2019, after Abhinandhan was captured by Pakistani forces, a video of him taken by a soldier went viral in which he was seen being interrogated while drinking [[Milk Tea|Pakistani tea]]. The interrogator asked him different questions about his health and how he was treated to which he acknowledged the humane treatment by the Pakistani military. The interrogator then asks if he was enjoying his tea, to which Abhinandan replied: "The tea is fantastic". This statement of Varthaman went viral and turned into an [[internet meme]] in the Pakistani online community.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1466413 | title=Video: Wing Commander Abhinandan says Pakistani Army treated him with respect | date=27 February 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2345503/three-years-on-pakistani-twitter-celebrates-a-happy-fantastic-tea-day | title=Three years on, Pakistanis wish Indians a happy tea day | date=27 February 2022 }}</ref>

===Statue===
A statue of Varthaman along with the parts of the [[fuselage]] and [[Empennage|tail]] of his [[Mig-21]] aircraft are on display in a gallery named [[Operation Swift Retort]] at the [[Pakistan Air Force Museum]] in [[Karachi]], Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Statue of Indian pilot Abhinandan installed in Karachi's PAF Museum |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1516292/ |work=Dawn |date=13 November 2019}}</ref>

==Awards and decorations==
{| style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|colspan="4"|[[Image:Vir Chakra ribbon bar.svg|105px]] [[File:Wound Medal-India.svg|105px]] [[File:India General Service Medal 1947.svg|105px]]
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND Samanya Seva medal.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND Special Service Medal Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND Siachen Glacier Medal Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|[[File:IND Sainya Seva Medal Ribbon.svg|105px]]
|-
|[[File:IND High Altitude Medal Ribbon.svg|105px]]
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=75yearmedal.svg|width=106}}
|[[File:IND 20YearsServiceMedalRibbon.svg|105px]]
|[[File:IND 9YearsServiceMedalRibbon.svg|105px]]
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|[[Vir Chakra]]
|colspan="2" align="centre"|[[Wound Medal (India)|Wound Medal]]
|[[General Service Medal 1947|General Service Medal]]
|-
|[[Samanya Seva Medal]]
|[[Special Service Medal (India)|Special Service Medal]]
|[[Siachen Glacier Medal]]
|[[Sainya Seva Medal]]
|-
|[[High Altitude Medal|High Altitude Service Medal]]
|[[75th Independence Anniversary Medal (India)|75th Anniversary Independence Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|20 Years Long Service Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|9 Years Long Service Medal]]
|}

== See also ==
* [[2019 Balakot airstrike]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Varthaman, Abhinandan}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1983 births]]
[[Category:Indian Air Force officers]]
[[Category:Indian military aviators]]
[[Category:Indian prisoners of war]]
[[Category:Prisoners of war held by Pakistan]]
[[Category:Shot-down aviators]]
[[Category:Tamil people]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:National Defence Academy (India) alumni]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Vir Chakra]]
[[Category:Sainik School alumni]]
[[Category:Tamil Jains]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian Jains]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian military personnel]]

Robert Kiyosaki

2024-10-16T13:30:24Z

131.111.5.201:

{{short description|American finance author and investor}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{BLP sources|date=May 2022}}
{{POV|date=May 2022}}
{{Unreferenced category|biography of a living person|cat1=American aviators of Asian descent|cat2=American military personnel of Japanese descent|cat3=Recipients of the Air Medal|cat4=United States Marine Corps officers|cat5=United States Marine Corps personnel of the Vietnam War|cat6=United States Merchant Marine Academy alumni|cat7=United States Naval Aviators|date=March 2024}}
}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Robert Kiyosaki
| image = Robert Kiyosaki by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg
| caption = Kiyosaki in 2023
| birth_name = Robert Toru Kiyosaki
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1947|4|8}}
| birth_place = [[Hilo, Hawaii|Hilo]], [[Territory of Hawaii]], U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = Businessman, author
| education = 
| subject = Personal finance, business investing
| years active = 1973–1994 1997–present
| notableworks = ''[[Rich Dad Poor Dad]]''
| spouse = {{marriage|Kim Meyer|1986|2017|end=div}}
| relatives = Emi Kiyosaki (sister) Beth Kiyosaki (sister) John Kiyosaki (brother)
| module = 
| website = {{URL|www.richdad.com}}
}}
'''Robert Toru Kiyosaki''' (born April 8, 1947) is an American businessman and author, known for the ''[[Rich Dad Poor Dad]]'' series of [[personal finance]] books. He founded the Rich Dad Company, which provides personal finance and business education through books and videos, and Rich Global LLC, which filed for [[bankruptcy]] in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kim |first1=Susanna |date=12 October 2012 |title='Rich Dad, Poor Dad' Author Files for Bankruptcy for His Company |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Business/rich-dad-poor-dad-author-files-bankruptcy/story?id=17463158 |access-date=18 July 2018 |website=ABC News}}</ref>

Kiyosaki was sued in a [[class action]] suit filed by attendees of his seminars,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Olen |first1=Helaine |title=This Legal Dispute Says Everything About the Shadiness of Personal Finance Gurus |url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/moneybox/2016/02/11/robert_kiyosaki_s_ongoing_legal_dispute_says_everything_about_the_shadiness.html |access-date=18 July 2018 |website=[[Slate.com|Slate]] |date=11 February 2016}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=Marketwatch – Rich dad's seminar's deceptive marketplace |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dv6feHB0AE4 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/dv6feHB0AE4| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Company|CBC]]|access-date=13 November 2017|via=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and is the subject of investigative documentaries by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]],<ref name="MarketPlace" /> [[WTAE-TV]]<ref name=":0" /> and [[CBS News]].<ref name="cbs" /> In January 2024, Kiyosaki was more than $1 billion dollars in debt.<ref>{{Cite web |first= |date=2024-01-06 |title='Rich Dad Poor Dad' Author Robert Kiyosaki on His $1.2 Billion Debt: 'If I Go Bust, the Bank Goes Bust' |url=https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/rich-dad-poor-dad-author-171417925.html |access-date=2024-01-09 |website=Yahoo Entertainment |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lang |first=Hannah Erin |date=2024-01-03 |title=Robert Kiyosaki, author of 'Rich Dad Poor Dad,' says he's more than $1 billion in debt — but that's 'not my problem' |url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/this-best-selling-personal-finance-author-says-hes-racked-up-more-than-1-billion-in-debt-67e8d6b0 |access-date=2024-01-09 |website=MarketWatch |language=EN-US}}</ref>

== Early life and family ==
Kiyosaki was born in 1947 in [[Hilo, Hawaii|Hilo]], [[Territory of Hawaii]], into a family of Japanese descent.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2018/01/18/books/rich-dad-poor-dad-author-robert-kiyosaki-appeals-financial-literacy/|title='Rich Dad Poor Dad' author Robert Kiyosaki appeals for financial literacy|first=Mai|last=Yoshikawa|date=January 18, 2018|website=The Japan Times|agency=Kyodo}}</ref> His father, Ralph Kiyosaki, was an educator, Hawaii's superintendent of schools, and a lieutenant governor candidate of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last= Zia |first= Hoyt|date=April 2006 |title=Rich son, poor son |url= https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Rich+son%2c+poor+son.-a0144403343|magazine=[[Hawaii Business]] |location=Hawaii |publisher= |access-date=}}</ref><ref name="moneymag">{{cite magazine |last1=Carbonara |first1= Peter |last2=Caplin|first2=Joan|date=January 1, 2003 |title=Poor Man's Prophet Robert Kiyosaki, author of Rich Dad, Poor Dad says that everything you've been told about money is a lie. Is his vision setting us on the right track--or is it just more financial snake oil? |url= https://money.cnn.com/magazines/moneymag/moneymag_archive/2003/01/01/334706/index.htm|magazine=[[Money (financial website)|Money]]}}</ref> His mother, Marjorie Kiyosaki, was a nurse.

Kiyosaki graduated from [[Hilo High School]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.sacbee.com/news/business/real-estate-news/article263819453.html|website=The Sacramento Bee|title=Investor, author of ‘Rich Dad, Poor Dad’ lists Hawaii home on edge of ocean for $7.35M|last=Caraccio|first=David|date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> from which he was nearly expelled due to poor grades.<ref name="moneymag"/>

== Early career ==
In 1977, Kiyosaki started a company called "Rippers" that marketed nylon and Velcro wallets.<ref name="Youn, Jacy">{{cite web | url=http://www.hawaiibusiness.com/robert-kiyosaki/ | title=Robert Kiyosaki | website=Hawaii Business | access-date=April 22, 2016 | last=Youn |first=Jacy | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923003402/http://www.hawaiibusiness.com/robert-kiyosaki/ | archive-date=September 23, 2016}}</ref> The company eventually went bankrupt, and he took a job as a sales associate for [[Xerox]] until June 1978.<ref name="Youn, Jacy" />

In the 1980s, Kiyosaki became a [[motivational speaker]] in [[San Diego]] who ran a course on [[Erhard Seminars Training]] (EST) techniques called Money and You, which he attended in 1974 from the course's creator, Marshall Thurber. Thurber transferred the business to Kiyosaki and D.C. Cordova in 1984. They expanded the course beyond the U.S., including to Australia.<ref name="moneymag"/> The course at one point had tens of thousands of students internationally.<ref name="Youn, Jacy" /> The business nearly collapsed in Australia in October 1993 after the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]'s [[Four Corners (Australian TV program)|Four Corners]] aired a documentary about emotional abuse in the course of the Money and You program. Kiyosaki said the program was "unfair" considered suing the ABC before deciding against it. He left the business in 1994.<ref name="moneymag"/>

== Financial education career ==

In 1993, Kiyosaki published his first book, ''If You Want to Be Rich and Happy, Don't Go to School''. In his book, he encouraged parents not to send their children to college and instead to enter the [[real estate]] business.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kiyosaki|first1=Robert|title=If You Want to Be Rich & Happy Don't Go to School: Ensuring Lifetime Security for Yourself and Your Children|url=https://archive.org/details/ifyouwanttoberic00kiyo|url-access=registration|date=1 April 1993|publisher=Aslan publications|isbn=978-0-944031-38-4|edition=2}}</ref>

In 1997, Kiyosaki founded Cashflow Technologies, Inc., a [[holding company]] that owns and operates the ''[[Rich Dad Poor Dad|Rich Dad]]'' and ''Cashflow'' brands.<ref name="Youn, Jacy" /><ref name="auto4">{{cite web|url=http://nvsos.gov/sosentitysearch/CorpDetails.aspx?lx8nvq=nXAVB9lnW1D8CQvtuPXg%252bA%253d%253d&nt7=0 |title=Entity Details – Secretary of State, Nevada |website=Nevada Secretary of State |access-date=2014-07-10}}</ref><ref name="auto5">{{cite web |url=http://tess2.uspto.gov/bin/showfield?f=doc&state=4002:hagh71.2.6 |title=Trademark Electronic Search System: RICH DAD |website=[[USPTO]] [[Trademark Electronic Search System]] |access-date=2014-07-10 |archive-date=July 25, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725031104/http://tess2.uspto.gov/bin/showfield?f=doc&state=4002:hagh71.2.6 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Kiyosaki created the Cashflow board and video games to educate adults and children about business and financial concepts.<ref name="Road To Rich Dad CBC">{{cite news|title=Road to rich dad |url=https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1404600019 |access-date=23 November 2020 |website=[[Canadian Broadcasting Company|CBC]]}}</ref>

Kiyosaki settled a lawsuit in 2008 brought by Sharon Lechter, his former business partner, with an undisclosed sum. Lechter said Kiyosaki and his wife had enriched themselves and redirected assets in the business, which the Kiyosakis denied. She sold her stake in Rich Dad Company to them after the settlement and ended the partnership that lasted about 10 years.<ref>{{cite news|archive-date=2008-09-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906224930/http://www.azcentral.com/business/articles/2008/09/04/20080904biz-richdad0904.html?&wired|url=http://www.azcentral.com/business/articles/2008/09/04/20080904biz-richdad0904.html?&wired|url-status=dead|title='Rich Dad' partners settle suit, call it quits|website=The Arizona Republic|last=Harris|first=Craig|date=2008-09-04}}</ref>

== Other businesses ==
Kiyosaki's earlier two businesses (for surfing bags with Velcro fasteners and T-shirts) went bankrupt.<ref>{{cite news|date=1 July 2015 |title=Interview with Robert Kiyosaki |website=[[CNN Money]]}}</ref>

Kiyosaki operates through a number of companies that he owns fully or in part, and through [[franchisee]] arrangements with other companies authorized to use his name for a fee.<ref name="mw2006">{{cite news|last1=Jaffe |first1=Chuck |date=10 February 2006 |title='Teach Me to Trade' seminar is a lesson in futility |url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/teach-me-to-trade-a-lesson-in-futility |access-date=26 November 2018 |website=[[MarketWatch]]}}</ref> This includes Rich Dad LLC, Whitney Information Network, Rich Dad Education and Rich Dad Academy.<ref name="mw2007">{{cite news|last1=Jaffe |first1=Chuck |date=13 July 2017 |title='Rich Dad Academy' a poor choice for investors |url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/rich-dad-academy-a-poor-choice-for-investors |access-date=26 November 2018 |website=[[MarketWatch]]}}</ref> The company's main revenues come from [[franchising|franchisees]] of the Rich Dad seminars that are conducted by independent individuals using Kiyosaki's brand name.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Robert Kiyosaki Net Worth: Exploring the Financial Success of the Rich Dad Poor Dad Author |url=https://www.blinkist.com/magazine/posts/robert-kiyosakis-net-worth}}</ref>

In 2012, Kiyosaki's company, Rich Global LLC, filed for bankruptcy and was ordered to pay $23.7 million to [[The Learning Annex]] and its founder because Kiyosaki had used The Learning Annex for speaking opporunities.<ref name="ABCnews">{{cite news|date=12 October 2012 |title=Robert Kiyosaki files for bankruptcy, again |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Business/rich-dad-poor-dad-author-files-bankruptcy/story?id=17463158 |access-date=13 November 2017 |website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]}}</ref><ref name="Roth 2013">{{cite news|last=Roth |first=Allan |date=2013-01-20 |title=Rich Dad, Poor Dad's bankrupt company |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/rich-dad-poor-dads-bankrupt-company/ |access-date=2020-09-26 |website=[[CBS News]]}}</ref><ref name="NYPost2012">{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017234634/http://www.nypost.com/f/pagesix/rich_dad_bankrupt_dad_UNJgqVDYCEthW1TEAYYwXN|url=http://www.nypost.com/f/pagesix/rich_dad_bankrupt_dad_UNJgqVDYCEthW1TEAYYwXN|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-10-17|date=October 10, 2012|title=Rich ‘Dad,’ bankrupt Dad|website=[[New York Post]]}}</ref> Mike Sullivan, the CEO of Rich Dad Company, one of at least 10 companies through which Kiyosaki conducts business, said Rich Global LLC had been dormant for years. At bankruptcy, the company had nearly $26 million in liabilities and $1.8 million of asset.<ref name="ABCnews"/>

== Business and financial advice ==
{{Main|Rich Dad Poor Dad}}

Kiyosaki has authored more than 26 books including ''Rich Dad Poor Dad'', which has been translated into dozens of languages. As of 2017, nearly 40 million copies of the book had been sold.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shiller |first1=Robert J. |title=‘Gut Feelings’ Are Driving the Markets |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/02/business/gut-feelings-are-driving-the-markets.html |access-date=September 24, 2024 |work=The New York Times |date=January 2, 2020}}</ref> He said his books were an advertisement for his higher-priced seminars.<ref name=":1"/>

Kiyosaki's financial and business teachings claim that [[financial independence]] can be achieved through [[passive income]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Yardney |first1=Michael |title=Do Robert Kiyosaki's "Rich Dad Poor Dad" lessons still apply? Here's what I learned from my interview with him |url=https://propertyupdate.com.au/do-robert-kiyosakis-rich-dad-poor-dad-lessons-still-apply-heres-what-i-learned-from-my-interview-with-him/ |website=Property Update |access-date=5 January 2023 |date=7 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="smartasset">{{cite web |last1=Silva |first1=Derek |title=Robert Kiyosaki - Everything You Need to Know |url=https://smartasset.com/retirement/robert-kiyosaki |website=SmartAsset |access-date=5 January 2023 |language=en |date=21 September 2022}}</ref> He also claims that wealth cannot be achieved from going to school and obtaining a traditional job.<ref name="Chris Schnabel">{{cite web |author=Chris Schnabel |date=December 1, 2015 |title=Robert Kiyosaki: Traditional school is useless |url=http://www.rappler.com/business/personal-finance/114513-robert-kiyosaki-live-manila |access-date=19 January 2016 |publisher=Rappler}}</ref>

He advocates for using what he calls "good debt" as leverage to buy financial assets such as real estate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Robert Kiyosaki Says Good Debt Makes You Richer — Here's How {{!}} Nasdaq |url=https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/robert-kiyosaki-says-good-debt-makes-you-richer-heres-how}}</ref> Additionally, he is a strong proponent of buying gold and silver, often referring to them as "God's money."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold is God's Money, Says Author Kiyosaki |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/2019-10-22/gold-is-god-s-money-says-author-kiyosaki-video |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=www.bloomberg.com |date=2019-10-21}}</ref> In 2006 and 2007, Kiyosaki's Rich Dad seminars continued to promote [[real estate]] as a sound investment, just before their prices [[2000s United States housing bubble|came crashing down]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jaffe |first1=Chuck |title=Stupid Investment of the Week |url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/rich-dad-academy-a-poor-choice-for-investors |website=[[MarketWatch]] |access-date=26 November 2018}}</ref>

In 2010, the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]'s ''[[Marketplace (Canadian TV program)|Marketplace]]'' broadcast a documentary on scams that were being perpetuated by Kiyosaki's company in Canada in the guise of "Rich Dad" seminars.<ref name="MarketPlace">{{cite news|date=January 29, 2010|title=Road to Rich Dad: Who's getting rich off Rich Dad?|work=[[Marketplace (Canadian TV program)|Marketplace]]|publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Company|CBC]]|url=https://gem.cbc.ca/media/marketplace/s37e03|accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> Investments in trailers and trailer parks, which seminar instructors claimed to be evidence of success, were found to be barren and unused land.<ref name="Road To Rich Dad CBC"/>

Also in 2010, Allan Roth of [[CBS News]] documented what occurred when he attended one of Rich Dad's free seminars and dissected some of the tactics employed.<ref name="cbs">{{cite news|title=Rich Dad Education - The Ultimate Emotional Investment |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/rich-dad-education-the-ultimate-emotional-investment/ |access-date=26 November 2018 |website=CBS News |date=4 March 2010}}</ref>

[[WTAE-TV]], the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] television station in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], produced another critical segment about Kiyosaki in 2013.<ref name=":0">{{cite news|title='Rich Dad' author's seminars cost thousands, but not everyone gets rich |url=http://www.wtae.com/article/rich-dad-author-s-seminars-cost-thousands-but-not-everyone-gets-rich/7461146 |access-date=18 July 2018 |website=[[WTAE-TV]] |date=9 May 2013 |first=Paul |last=Van Osdol}}</ref>

Kiyosaki's advice has also been criticized for emphasizing [[anecdote]]s and no concrete advice on how readers should proceed or work.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bizjournals.com/pacific/stories/2003/07/14/story3.html?page=1 | first=Terrence | last=Sing | title=Writer ignores critics of his self-help success | date=July 13, 2003}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Kiyosaki divorced from his first wife when he was 32.<ref name="rich&happy">{{cite book |last1=Kiyosaki |first1=Robert T. |title=If you want to be rich & happy don't go to school |date=1992 |publisher=Excellerated Learning Publishing |isbn=9780646079370}}</ref>{{rp|181}}

Kiyosaki met his second wife and business partner Kimberly "Kim" Kiyosaki (née Meyer) in 1984, and they got married in 1986.<ref name="rich&happy"/>{{rp|114}}<ref name="moneymag"/> They amicably divorced in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Byrne |first=Brendan |date=2024-06-10 |title=Robert Kiyosaki Net Worth: A Comprehensive Overview of The Rich Dad, Poor Dad Author's Wealth |url=https://www.valuewalk.com/net-worth/robert-kiyosaki/ |access-date=2024-06-20 |website=ValueWalk |language=en-US}}</ref>

When asked about his net worth, Kiyosaki claimed to be more than $1 billion in debt.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Rich Dad, Poor Dad' author reveals he's $1 billion in debt—but says going bust would 'not be his problem' |url=https://fortune.com/2024/01/04/robert-kiyosaki-rich-dad-poor-dad-author-debt/ |access-date=2024-06-20 |website=Fortune |language=en}}</ref>

=== Political views ===
Kiyosaki endorsed and supported Republican candidate [[Donald Trump]] for the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 presidential elections]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.jetsetmag.com/executive/why-america-needs-donald-trump | title=Why America Needs Donald Trump | publisher=Jetset Magazine | date=20 October 2015 | access-date=21 November 2015 | author=Kiyosaki, Robert}}</ref> Kiyosaki had previously co-authored two books with Trump.<ref name="Trump Kiyosaki McIver Lechter 2006">{{cite book |last1=Trump |first1=Donald |last2=Kiyosaki |first2=Robert T. |last3=McIver |first3=Meredith |last4=Lechter |first4=Sharon L. |title=Why we want you to be rich : two men, one message |publisher=Rich Press Distributed by Publishers Group West |publication-place=New York Berkeley, CA |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-933914-02-2 |oclc=71305016}}</ref>

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|2}}
* ''[[Rich Dad Poor Dad]] – What the Rich Teach Their Kids About Money – That the Poor and Middle Class Do Not!'' (first published in 1997) Warner Business Books. {{ISBN|0-446-67745-0}}.
* ''Cashflow Quadrant: Rich Dad's Guide to Financial Freedom'' (2000). {{ISBN|0-446-67747-7}}.
* ''Rich Dad's Guide to Investing: What the Rich Invest in, That the Poor and the Middle Class Do Not!'' (2000). {{ISBN|0-446-67746-9}}.
* ''The Business School for People Who Like Helping People'' (March 2001). {{ISBN|99922-67-42-9}} – endorses [[multi-level marketing]]
* ''Rich Dad's Rich Kid, Smart Kid: Giving Your Children a Financial Headstart'' (2001). {{ISBN|0-446-67748-5}}.
* ''Rich Dad's Retire Young, Retire Rich'' (2002). {{ISBN|0-446-67843-0}}.
* ''Rich Dad's Prophecy: Why the Biggest Stock Market Crash in History Is Still Coming… and How You Can Prepare Yourself and Profit from It!'' (2002). Warner Books. {{ISBN|0-641-62241-4}}.
* ''Rich Dad's The Business School: For People Who Like Helping People'' (2003) {{ISBN|979-686-729-X}}.
* ''Rich Dad's Who Took My Money?: Why Slow Investors Lose and Fast Money Wins!'' (2004) {{ISBN|0-446-69182-8}}.
* ''Rich Dad, Poor Dad for Teens: The Secrets About Money – That You Don't Learn in School!'' (2004) {{ISBN|0-446-69321-9}}.
* ''Rich Dad's Before You Quit Your Job: 10 Real-Life Lessons Every Entrepreneur Should Know About Building a Multimillion-Dollar Business'' (2005). {{ISBN|0-446-69637-4}}.
* ''[[Why We Want You to be Rich|Why We Want You to Be Rich: Two Men, One Message]]'' (2006) co-written with Donald Trump {{ISBN|1-933914-02-5}}.
* ''Rich Dad's Increase Your Financial IQ: Get Smarter with Your Money'' (2008). {{ISBN|0-446-50936-1}}.
* ''Rich Dad's Conspiracy of the Rich: The 8 New Rules of Money'' (2009). {{ISBN|0-446-55980-6}}
* ''The Real Book of Real Estate: Real Experts. Real Stories. Real Life.'' (2009) {{ISBN|1-4587-7250-0}}.
* ''An Unfair Advantage: The Power of Financial Education'' (2011). {{ISBN|1-61268-010-0}}.
* ''[[Midas Touch (Trump Kiyosaki book)|Midas Touch: Why Some Entrepreneurs Get Rich And Why Most Don't]]'' (2011), co-written with Donald Trump {{ISBN|1-61268-095-X}}.
* ''Why 'A' Students Work for 'C' Students and Why 'B' Students Work for the Government: Rich Dad's Guide to Financial Education for Parents'' (2013). {{ISBN|978-1-61268-076-7}}.
* ''The Business of the 21st Century'' (2010), co-written with John Fleming and [[Kim Kiyosaki]] {{ISBN|81-8322-260-9}}.
* ''Second Chance: for Your Money, Your Life and Our World'' (2015) {{ISBN|978-1-61268-046-0}}
* ''8 Lessons in Military Leadership for Entrepreneurs: How Military Values and Experience Can Shape Business and Life'' (2015) {{ISBN|978-1-4915-8387-6}}
* ''Why the Rich are Getting Richer: What is Financial Education...Really?'' (2017) {{ISBN|978-1-61268-088-0}}
* ''FAKE: Fake Money, Fake Teachers, Fake Assets: How Lies Are Making the Poor and Middle Class Poorer'' (2019) {{ISBN|978-1-61268-084-2}}
* ''Who Stole My Pension?: How You Can Stop The Looting'' (2020) {{ISBN|978-1-61268-103-0}}
* ''Capitalist Manifesto'' (2021) {{ISBN|978-161268-114-6}}
* ''Ravens: How To Prepare For And Profit From The Turbulent Times Ahead'' (2023) {{ISBN|978-161268-100-9}}
{{refend}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{commons category-inline}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
* {{Official website|http://www.richdad.com}}
* {{IMDb name | id= 3371485 | name= Robert Kiyosaki }}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kiyosaki, Robert}}
[[Category:1947 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century American businesspeople]]
[[Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:21st-century American businesspeople]]
[[Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:American aviators of Asian descent]]
[[Category:American bloggers]]
[[Category:American book publishers (people)]]
[[Category:American business writers]]
[[Category:American chief executives of education-related organizations]]
[[Category:American finance and investment writers]]
[[Category:American financial commentators]]
[[Category:American financiers]]
[[Category:American mass media company founders]]
[[Category:American military personnel of Japanese descent]]
[[Category:American motivational speakers]]
[[Category:American motivational writers]]
[[Category:American online publication editors]]
[[Category:American retail chief executives]]
[[Category:American self-help writers]]
[[Category:American venture capitalists]]
[[Category:American writers of Japanese descent]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Arizona]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Hawaii]]
[[Category:People from Hilo, Hawaii]]
[[Category:Personal finance education]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Air Medal]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps officers]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps personnel of the Vietnam War]]
[[Category:United States Merchant Marine Academy alumni]]
[[Category:United States Naval Aviators]]
[[Category:University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo alumni]]
[[Category:Video game producers]]
[[Category:Writers from Hawaii]]
[[Category:Writers from Phoenix, Arizona]]
[[Category:Writers from Scottsdale, Arizona]]

2024 University of Oxford Chancellor election

2024-10-16T11:44:29Z

131.111.5.201: /* Process */Fixed typo

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox election
| country = United Kingdom
| type = presidential
| flag_image =
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 2003 University of Oxford Chancellor election
| previous_year = 2003
| election_date = October 2024
| next_election =
| next_year = TBA
| image1 = Oxford University Coat Of Arms.svg
| candidate1 =
| party1 =
| colour1 =
| popular_vote1 =
| percentage1 =
| image2 =
| candidate2 =
| party2 =
| popular_vote2 =
| percentage2 =
| image3 =
| candidate3 =
| party3 =
| popular_vote3 =
| percentage3 =
| title = Chancellor
| before_election = [[Chris Patten]]
| after_election = TBA
}}
The '''2024 University of Oxford election for the position of Chancellor''' became necessary upon the resignation of the incumbent [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]], [[Chris Patten]]. Online voting will take place during the third week of the [[Michaelmas term]] of 2024. The electorate consists of approximately 250,000 eligible voters, comprising alumni and staff of the [[University of Oxford]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Election of the next Chancellor {{!}} University of Oxford |url=https://www.ox.ac.uk/about/organisation/university-officers/chancellor/chancellor-election |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.ox.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref> Applications for the role closed on 4 September 2024 and candidacies were announced on 16 October.<ref>University of Oxford, [https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2024-10-16-candidates-running-university-oxford-s-next-chancellor-announced 'Candidates running for University of Oxford’s next Chancellor announced'], 16 October 2024</ref> Candidates reported to have applied include [[Elish Angiolini|Lady Elish Angiolini]], [[William Hague|Baron Hague of Richmond]], [[David Willetts|Baron Willetts]], [[Imran Khan]] (whose name did not appear in the final announcement<ref>{{cite web |title=Candidate statements |url=https://www.ox.ac.uk/about/organisation/university-officers/chancellor/chancellor-election/candidate-statements |publisher=University of Oxford |access-date=16 October 2024}}</ref>), [[Margaret Casely-Hayford]] and [[Peter Mandelson|Baron Mandelson]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wood |first=Poppy |date=2024-08-18 |title=Sarah Everard inquiry lawyer in running to become Oxford chancellor |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/08/18/sarah-everard-lady-angiolini-oxford-chancellor-mandelson/ |access-date=2024-08-20 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Farmer |first=Ben |date=2024-08-26 |title=Imran Khan running to be Oxford chancellor from jail 'to give back' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/08/26/imran-khan-running-oxford-chancellor-jail-give-back/ |access-date=2024-08-27 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jailed Pakistan ex-PM Imran Khan applies to be Oxford chancellor |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/8/19/jailed-pakistan-ex-pm-imran-khan-applies-to-be-oxford-chancellor |access-date=2024-08-27 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref><ref>https://www.oxfordstudent.com/2024/09/09/in-conversation-with-david-willetts/</ref>

==Vacancy==
[[File:Chris Patten Chancellor University of Oxford 20050317.jpg|thumb|110px|Patten in academic dress as Chancellor of the university]]
Patten had been [[2003 University of Oxford Chancellor election|elected]] as [[Chancellor of the University of Oxford|Chancellor]] of the [[University of Oxford]] in March 2003. In February 2024, he announced in a letter to the Vice-Chancellor of the university, [[Irene Tracey]], that he would retire as Chancellor at the end of the academic year, after twenty-one years in post.<ref name=Letter>{{cite web|url=https://www.ox.ac.uk/content/lord-patten-s-letter-retirement-vice-chancellor-professor-irene-tracey |title=Lord Patten's letter of retirement to the Vice-Chancellor, Professor Irene Tracey|publisher= University of Oxford|date=5 February 2024| access-date= 8 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Clarence-Smith |first=Louisa |date=2024-02-05 |title=Lord Patten announces his retirement as Oxford University chancellor ahead of his 80th birthday |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/02/05/lord-patten-retirement-oxford-university-chancellor/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref>

In resigning, Patten quoted from the University of Oxford's statutes of 2002: "the Chancellor shall be elected by Convocation and shall hold office during his or her life or until his or her resignation."<ref name=Letter/>

==Process==
To stand for election, a candidate can simply nominate themselves the University having dropped the previous requirement that at least fifty members of the university's [[Convocation]] provide an endorsement. The University's Registrar in a note to Congregation reported that the Council envisaged that the Chancellor would have the following three qualities:

1. outstanding achievements in their field and the ability to command respect beyond it;

2. a deep appreciation for the University’s research and academic mission, its global community, and its ambition to remain a world class research and teaching university;

3. the ability and willingness to enhance the reputation of the University locally, nationally and abroad.

The election of 2024 will be the first to take place on the Internet. At all previous elections, ballots needed to be cast in person in Oxford.<ref name="DT" /><ref>{{cite news|first=Poppy |last=Littler-Jennings|url=https://cherwell.org/2024/02/19/oxfords-chancellor-elections-to-be-held-online-for-the-first-time/ |title=Oxford's Chancellor elections to be held online for the first time|newspaper=[[Cherwell (newspaper)|Cherwell]]|date= 19 February 2024| access-date= 29 February 2024}}</ref>

Online voting will take place during Third Week of [[Michaelmas term]] (week commencing 28 October 2024). As there are more than ten candidates a modified [[alternative vote]] system will be used, whereby voting occurs in two rounds. Initially voters can rank as many of the candidates as they choose, and lower ranking candidates will be succesively eliminated, with votes transferred to remaining candidates, until only five candidates remain. These five candidates will go forward to a second round, to take place during Sixth Week of Michaelmas Term (week commencing 18 November 2024), which will be held by the alternative vote system, with candidates succesively eliminated until one candidate achieves 50% of the vote. The new Chancellor will be announced during Seventh Week.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Election of the next Chancellor {{!}} University of Oxford |url=https://www.ox.ac.uk/about/organisation/university-officers/chancellor/chancellor-election |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.ox.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref>

==Announced candidacies==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Name
!College
!Previous Chancellorships
|-
|Sidra Aftab
|
|
|-
|Hasanat Ahmad
|
|
|-
|Ayham Ammora
|
|
|-
|[[Elish Angiolini]]
|[[St Hugh's College, Oxford]]
|[[University of West of Scotland]]
|-
|Anwar Baig
|
|
|-
|[[Margaret Casely-Hayford]]
|[[Somerville College, Oxford]]
|[[University of Coventry]]
|-
|Matthew Firth
|
|
|-
|[[William Hague]]
|[[Magdalen College, Oxford]]
|
|-
|[[Simon Kay]]
|[[Christ Church, Oxford]]
|
|-
|[[Peter Mandelson]]
|[[St Catherine's College, Oxford]]
|[[Manchester Metropolitan University]]
|-
|Maxim Parr-Reid
|
|
|-
|[[Jan Royall]]
|[[Somerville College, Oxford]]
|
|-
|Harry Stratton
|
|
|-
|[[David Willetts]]
|[[Christ Church, Oxford]]
|[[University of Leicester]]
|-
|}

On 10 August 2024, it was reported that [[Elish Angiolini|Lady Elish Angiolini]] was running, noting that if successful she would be the first woman Chancellor since the post was founded in 1224.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Moloney |first=Charlie |date=2024-08-19 |title=Sarah Everard inquiry lawyer applies to be Oxford university chancellor |url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/law/article/sarah-everard-inquiry-lawyer-applies-to-be-oxford-university-chancellor-ztvdg0mt0 |access-date=2024-08-19 |website=www.thetimes.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Could Oxford University be about to elect its first female chancellor in role's 800-year history?|date=10 August 2024|first=Adam |last=Boulton |url=https://news.sky.com/story/could-oxford-university-be-about-to-elect-its-first-female-chancellor-in-roles-800-year-history-13193960 |access-date=2024-08-17 |website=Sky News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Wood |first=Poppy |date=2024-08-18 |title=Sarah Everard inquiry lawyer in running to become Oxford chancellor |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/08/18/sarah-everard-lady-angiolini-oxford-chancellor-mandelson/ |access-date=2024-08-18 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref>

[[File:Lady Elish Angiolini KC.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Elish Angiolini|Lady Elish Angiolini]]]]

On 16 August 2024, ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' reported that former UK Foreign Secretary [[William Hague|William Hague, Baron Hague of Richmond]] had applied for the role of Chancellor.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Wood |first1=Poppy |last2=Johnson |first2=George |date=2024-08-16 |title=Lord Hague confirms application to become chancellor of Oxford University |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/08/16/lord-hague-applies-to-be-oxford-university-chancellor/ |access-date=2024-08-17 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref>

[[File:William Hague 2010.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[William Hague]]]]

On 18 August 2024, it was reported that the former Prime Minister of Pakistan [[Imran Khan]] had submitted his nomination papers for the role.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-18 |title=Pakistan's jailed Imran Khan files application to run for Oxford University chancellor |url=https://www.arabnews.pk/node/2567855/pakistan |access-date=2024-08-18 |website=Arab News PK |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-18 |title=Pakistan's jailed ex-PM Khan seeks Oxford University chancellor role |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/pakistan-s-jailed-ex-pm-khan-seeks-oxford-university-chancellor-role-/7747135.html |access-date=2024-08-19 |website=Voice of America |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Imran Ahmed Khan Niazi - UNGA (48784380531) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Imran Khan]]]]

It was also reported by ''[[The Observer]]'' that former UK Government Minister [[Peter Mandelson|Peter Mandelson, Baron Mandelson]] had applied for the role.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Savage |first1=Michael |last2=Haji |first2=Zainab |date=2024-08-17 |title=Labour students make online push for Peter Mandelson as next Oxford chancellor |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/article/2024/aug/17/labour-students-make-online-push-for-peter-mandelson-as-next-oxford-chancellor |access-date=2024-08-19 |work=The Observer |language=en-GB |issn=0029-7712}}</ref>[[File:Peter Mandelson - WEF.jpg|thumb|right|[[Peter Mandelson]]]]

On 26 August, ''[[The Times]]'' reported that Dr [[Margaret Casely-Hayford]] CBE and former Chancellor of Coventry University is seeking to become Oxford's first female Chancellor. <ref>https://www.thetimes.com/uk/education/article/oxfords-outside-bets-for-chancellor-from-anti-woke-reverend-to-hand-surgeon-zm5kd9swm</ref>

On 8 September, [[The Oxford Student]] reported that [[David Willetts|David Willetts, Baron Willetts]], a former Conservative minister for Universities and Higher Education and Visiting Professor at [[King's College, London]], had announced his bid.<ref>https://www.oxfordstudent.com/2024/09/09/in-conversation-with-david-willetts/</ref>

On 26 August, ''[[The Times]]'' reported that Professor [[Simon Kay]] OBE, a plastic surgeon at Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust who performed the UK's first hand transplant, and the rare double hand transplant, is another candidate. <ref>https://www.thetimes.com/uk/education/article/oxfords-outside-bets-for-chancellor-from-anti-woke-reverend-to-hand-surgeon-zm5kd9swm</ref>

On 28 August 2024, ''[[The Times]]'' reported that [[Dominic Grieve]], the former [[Attorney General for England and Wales]] and former [[Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament|Chair of the Intelligence and Security Committee]], had entered the race; Grieve was elected as Conservative MP for [[Beaconsfield (UK Parliament constituency)|Beaconsfield]] but latterly sat as an Independent.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blackburn |first=Jack |date=2024-08-28 |title=Scuba-diving Grieve joins Oxford chancellor race alongside the jailed Khan |url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/scuba-diving-grieve-joins-oxford-chancellor-race-alongside-the-jailed-khan-zjxjvgcn9 |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=www.thetimes.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Attorney General (7418719688).jpg|thumb|right|[[Dominic Grieve]]]]

On 29 August 2024, [[Governor of Edinburgh Castle]], [[Fitzalan Pursuivant Extraordinary]] and journalist [[Major General]] [[Alastair Bruce of Crionaich]] announced on [[Twitter|X]] that he had submitted an application.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bruce |first=Alastair |date=29 August 2024 |title=After 5yrs raising profile of a great Scottish role, as Governor @edinburghcastle, I now seek honour to do same, as Chancellor of Oxford University, promoting university's research & academic mission; its global community & its intent to remain world class in research & teaching |url=https://x.com/AlastairBruce_/status/1829264255377703141}}</ref>

[[File:Alastair Bruce (Edinburgh Castle) 2019.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Alastair Bruce of Crionaich]]]]

On 3 September 2024, [[Jan Royall]] announced her candidacy to be the next chancellor via social media.

On 5 September 2024 Dr Kadira Pethiyagoda announced his candidacy via social media.<ref>https://www.oxfordmail.co.uk/news/24607810.oxford-chancellor-candidate-names-free-speech-priority/</ref> <ref>https://www.brookings.edu/people/kadira-pethiyagoda/</ref> <ref>https://medium.com/@kpethiya/dr-kadira-pethiyagoda-your-voice-as-oxford-chancellor-97dd2512ea35</ref> He called for a debate between the candidates "in the interests of democracy".<ref>https://x.com/OxfordClarion/status/1831712807215050776</ref>

[[File:Pethiyagoda-2.jpg|thumb|right|Dr Kadira Pethiyagoda]]

==Former possible candidates==
On 7 February 2024, ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' reported that the former Conservative minister [[Rory Stewart]], of [[Balliol College, Oxford|Balliol College]], had emerged as front runner in the election with the bookmaker [[William Hill (bookmaker)|William Hill]].<ref name=DT>{{cite news|first=Louisa |last=Clarence-Smith|author2=Dominic Penna|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/02/07/rory-stewart-tipped-as-next-chancellor-of-oxford-university/ |title=Rory Stewart tipped as next chancellor of Oxford University: Former Tory minister emerges as front runner as institution prepares to hold online vote for the largely ceremonial role|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date= 7 February 2024| access-date= 8 February 2024 |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}} {{subscription required}}</ref> By chance, Chris Patten and his two predecessors, [[Harold Macmillan|Harold Macmillan, Earl of Stockton]] and [[Roy Jenkins|Roy Jenkins, Baron Jenkins of Hillhead]], were also Balliol men.<ref>[[Harry Mount]], [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1424675/Patten-ahead-in-race-to-be-Oxfords-new-chancellor.html "Patten ahead in race to be Oxford's new chancellor"], ''The Daily Telegraph'', 15 March 2003, accessed 9 February 2024</ref>

Other potential candidates were reported as former British prime ministers [[Theresa May|Theresa May, Baroness May of Maidenhead]], [[Tony Blair|Sir Tony Blair]], and [[Boris Johnson]]. All of these are members of the University of Oxford,<ref name=EC>{{cite news|first=Ethan |last=Croft|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/londoners-diary/boris-johnson-vs-theresa-may-race-oxford-university-chancellor-rory-stewart-imran-khan-b1137391.html |title=Boris Johnson vs Theresa May? The race for Oxford Chancellor is on: The forthcoming election is the first to be held online|newspaper=[[Evening Standard|The Standard]]|date= 5 February 2024|access-date= 8 February 2024}}</ref><ref name=DT/> although this qualification is not strictly required, and in principle anyone can be nominated.<ref name=DT/> The ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'' subsequently reported that Tony Blair's spokesman said "he was not in the running for the job."<ref name=DT />

On 20 June 2024, Stewart announced via social media that he would not be standing, saying, "There’s been talk of me as a candidate for Oxford Chancellor. There are much better candidates than me for Oxford. I won’t be standing. Good luck to those who are."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-21 |title=Rory Stewart sets record straight amid Oxford Chancellor rumours|first= Charlotte |last=Coles|url=https://www.oxfordmail.co.uk/news/24402009.rory-stewart-will-not-stand-oxford-chancellor-candidate/ |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=Oxford Mail |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Wood |first=Poppy |date=2024-06-21 |title=Rory Stewart will not stand as Oxford chancellor candidate |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/06/21/rory-stewart-will-not-stand-as-oxford-chancellor-candidate/ |access-date=2024-06-21 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref>
==Creation of Chancellor’s Election Committee==
On 22 March 2024, the University announced changes to its regulations governing the election of a new Chancellor, which were to take effect on 5 April 2024. Instead of any candidate being entitled to stand, subject to being nominated by fifty electors, a new Chancellor’s Election Committee will remove nominated candidates from the election process whom it does not consider "suitable".<ref name=Cherwell>{{cite news|first=Éilis |last=Mathur|url=https://cherwell.org/2024/03/22/oxford-university-changes-electoral-process-for-new-chancellor/ |title=Oxford University changes electoral process for new Chancellor|newspaper=[[Cherwell (newspaper)|Cherwell]]|date=22 March 2024|access-date= 24 March 2024}}</ref>

The Committee will decide the criteria for suitability and may disclose what they are. It will "have due regard to the principles of [[Equality and diversity (United Kingdom)|equality and diversity]]".<ref name=Cherwell/><ref name=Gazette/>

If the Committee finds only one candidate suitable, it may declare that person to be elected unopposed or may choose to re-open the nominations.<ref name=Cherwell/>

If in a contested election the voting is tied, the Chairman of the Committee will decide between the candidates with an equal number of votes.<ref name=Cherwell/><ref name=Gazette/>

The members of the Committee are the [[High Steward (academia)|High Steward]], currently [[Robert Reed, Baron Reed of Allermuir|Lord Reed of Allermuir]], who is designated to chair the Committee ''[[ex officio]]''; the Vice-Chancellor, and other "representatives from across the collegiate University and its council".<ref name=Cherwell/> These are: one person appointed by the [[University council|University Council]] from among its external members; two members of the Council appointed by it from among its members; one member of Congregation appointed by the Gardens, Libraries and Museums, University administrative Services, and the Department for continuing Education; one member of Congregation appointed by each of the divisional boards; the early career research staff representative who attends the Council; and the chair of the conference of colleges. The Committee may also co-opt one or two other members.<ref name=Gazette/>

[[Neil O'Brien]] MP, an Oxford graduate and member of [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], commented the same day "A stitch-up in Oxford: with no public discussion the University has decided to move away from democracy when choosing its next Chancellor."<ref>Neil O'Brien MP, [https://twitter.com/NeilDotObrien/status/1771130471826526661 "A stitch-up in Oxford"], [[Twitter]], 22 March 2024</ref><ref>[https://www.neilobrien.co.uk/p/a-stitch-up-in-oxford "A stitch-up in Oxford: Goodbye democracy"], neilobrien.co.uk, 22 March 2024, accessed 8 April 2024</ref> An article in ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' the next day quoted his "stitch-up" comment and also an unnamed [[Don (academia)|college don]] who had told the newspaper he saw the new Committee as an "undemocratic, Politburo-style election approach”. Dr Yuan Zi Zhou, a university lecturer in politics, commented that the changing of the rules "illustrates the control freak tendencies of modern academic managers". The removal of duly nominated candidates was believed to be unprecedented in such elections in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite news|first=Louisa |last=Clarence-Smith|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/03/23/oxford-university-rules-chancellor-new-patten-stitch-up/ |title=Oxford University accused of 'stitch-up' over election of new chancellor|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=23 March 2024| access-date= 24 March 2024}} {{subscription required}}</ref>

On 25 March, the ''[[Evening Standard]]'' quoted an anonymous "senior cabinet minister" as saying: "We can’t have a stitch-up. The next chancellor must be selected by the same democratic process as the last one." It reported that "another senior government source", also anonymous, had commented: "It is all about this performative obsession with equality and diversity."<ref name=AD/> In a statement the University said: {{Blockquote|"The next chancellor will be elected by convocation — the body of university members and alumni — using an online platform. Eligibility will first be checked by the chancellor’s election committee against criteria agreed by council. The committee will be made up of representatives from across the collegiate university and its council."<ref name=AD>{{cite news|first=Anna |last=Davis|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/education/oxford-university-chancellor-vote-lord-patten-b1147402.html |title=Oxford University warned against new chancellor vote 'stitch-up'|newspaper=Evening Standard|date= 25 March 2024|access-date= 25 March 2024}}</ref>}}

On 28 March, a letter from Vice-chancellor [[Irene Tracey]] appeared in ''[[The Times]]'' defending the changes and claiming "democracy is alive and well at Oxford".<ref>[https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/oxford-has-not-gone-woke-insists-vice-chancellor-after-election-row-l7dccgz3d "Oxford has not gone 'woke', insists vice-chancellor after election row"], ''[[The Times]]'', 28 March 2024, accessed 8 April 2024 {{subscription required}}</ref>

On 30 March, ''[[The Sunday Telegraph]]'' claimed to have seen a leaked email showing that the intended purpose of the Committee was "to stop politicians becoming chancellor". [[Damian Green]], the former de facto deputy prime minister and a friend of [[Theresa May]] from their days at the University of Oxford, described the criteria as "a momentous and ill-advised change which at the very least should have been consulted on".<ref>{{cite news|first=Edward |last=Malnick|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/03/30/email-leak-oxford-university-chancellor-politicians-blocked/ |title=Oxford University to stop politicians becoming chancellor, leaked email shows: Institution later 'rows back' on new rule and denies it hoped to ensure its next figurehead would be a woman|newspaper=[[The Sunday Telegraph]]|date=30 March 2024| access-date= 8 April 2024}} {{subscription required}}</ref>

On 15 May, ''[[The Times]]'' reported that "Oxford University has dropped plans to vet the candidates to become its new chancellor after being accused by ministers of an attempted "stitch up" to prevent another white male politician from getting the job...The change is designed to see off a row with senior government ministers, who attacked the proposals as "wokeism gone mad" and said they were designed to install university officials' preferred candidate."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wright |first1=Oliver |title=Oxford University drops plan to vet new chancellor after wokeism row |url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/education/article/oxford-university-drops-plan-to-vet-new-chancellor-after-wokeism-row-z05p0ffnm |access-date=27 July 2024 |work=[[The Times]] |date=15 May 2024}}</ref> In the same paper, the leader article welcomed the U-turn as "a victory for fairness and common sense."<ref>{{cite news |title=The Times view on Oxford's diversity own-goal: Reason Prevails |url=https://www.thetimes.com/comment/the-times-view/article/the-times-view-on-oxfords-diversity-own-goal-reason-prevails-cvxpr36pq |access-date=27 July 2024 |work=[[The Times]] |date=15 May 2024}}</ref>

==Proposed limit to term of office==
Initially, Oxford chancellors were elected for a term of one to three years. Later they were elected for life, starting from [[John Russell (bishop)|John Russell]] in 1483.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hackett |first=M.B. |date=1984 |editor-last=Catto |editor-first=J.I. |title=Early Oxford Schools |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=72 |chapter=The University as a Corporate Body |isbn=0-19-951011-3}}</ref> A further function given to the new Chancellor's Election Committee is to make a recommendation to the University Council to fix a term of office for the Chancellor. This will need to be decided upon by the Council.<ref name=Gazette>''University of Oxford Gazette'', 21 March 2024, [https://gazette.web.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/gazette/documents/media/21_march_2024_-_no_5416.pdf p. 352], accessed 8 April 2024</ref>

The purpose of this change was stated as "to prevent the coincidence of a newly appointed Vice-Chancellor and a new elected Chancellor".<ref>[https://staff.admin.ox.ac.uk/article/chancellor-changes-to-election-process "Chancellor: changes to election process"], ox.ac.uk, 21 March 2024, accessed 8 April 2024</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of chancellors of the University of Oxford]]
*[[2003 University of Oxford Chancellor election]]
*[[1987 University of Oxford Chancellor election]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:University of Oxford Chancellor elections|2024]]
[[Category:2020s in Oxford]]
[[Category:2024 elections in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:2024 in England]]

Ghanaian name

2024-10-10T18:45:15Z

131.111.5.201: /* Examples of Ghanaian day names (mainly in the southern part) */Fixed typo

{{short description|none}} 
{{More footnotes|date=September 2015}}
{{wiktionary|Appendix:Ghanaian given names}}

'''Ghanaian names''' (or personal names in [[Ghana]]) consist of several given names and surnames based on the language of ethnic groups in Ghana: including [[Akan people|Akan]], [[Dagomba people|Mole-Dagombas]], Ga, [[Ewe people|Ewe]] and [[Nzema people|Nzema]]. Frequently, children are given a "day name" which corresponds to the day in the week when they were born. These day names have further meanings concerning the soul and character of the person. Middle names have considerably more variety and can refer to their birth order, twin status, or an ancestor's middle name. These names are also used among Ghanaians living abroad and among Africans living in the diaspora who wish to identify with their ancestral homeland. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the enslaved people from modern day Ghana in the Caribbean were referred to as [[Coromantees]]. Most day names among the Mole-Dagombas are usually given to girls, and few are given to both sexes.

Most [[Ghanaians]] have at least one name from this system, even if they also have an Arabic or western name. Notable figures with day names include Ghana's first president [[Kwame Nkrumah]] and former [[United Nations]] Secretary General [[Kofi Annan]].

==Examples of Ghanaian day names (mainly in the southern part)==
{|class="wikitable"
!!!Male!!Female
|-
!Sunday
| Akwasi, Kwasi, Kwesi, Akwesi, Sisi, Kacely, Koshi, Kosi||Kosiwa, Kwasiwa, Awisi, Akosua, Akasi, Akos, Esi, Awesi, Awan
|-
!Monday
|Kojo, Kwadwo, Jojo, Joojo, Kujoe, Kwadzo, Kodzo||Adzo, Adwoa, Adjoa, Adzoa, Adwoma
|-
!Tuesday
|Kobla, Kwabena, Ebo, Komla, Kwabla, Kabenla, Kobe, Kobi, Kobby, Kobina||Abla, Abena, Abenayo, Abenkwa, Ablamaa, Araba
|-
!Wednesday
|Kaku, Kwaku, Abeiku, Kuuku, Kweku, Keku, Koku||Akuba, Akua, Aku, Kukua, Akuma, Akusea, Ekua
|-
!Thursday
|Yaw, Kwaw, Ekow, Yao||Yawo, Yaa, Yawa, Awo, Yaba
|-
!Friday
|Kofi, Fifi, Fiifi, Yoofi, Kwoi||Afua, Afia, Afi, Efua, Efia, Afmaba
|-
!Saturday
|Kwame, Kwami, Kwafica, Kwamina/Kwamena, Komi, Ato||Ama, Amma, Ami
|}

==Examples of Ghanaian day names (mainly in the northern part)==
(See [[Naming customs of the Dagomba people]].)
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Male
!Female
!Both sexes
|-
!Sunday
| -
|Lahari
| -
|-
!Monday
| -
|Tani
| -
|-
!Tuesday
| -
|Talaata
| -
|-
!Wednesday
| -
|Lariba
|
|-
!Thursday
| -
| -
|Lamisi or Laamihi
|-
!Friday
|Azindoo
|Azima
| -
|-
!Saturday
|Sibidoo
|Sibiri
| -
|}

==References==
* Johan Degen, {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930023517/http://home.wxs.nl/~degenj/ghana1/gh-names.html |date=September 30, 2007 |title=Traditional Ghanaian Names }}
*Kropp Dakubu M.E. (2000). ''Personal Names of the Dagombas''. p. 57. Michigan State University.
* {{cite book|last1=Oppong|first1=Joseph R.|last2=Oppong|first2=Esther D.|title=Ghana|date=2003|publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]]|location=[[New York City]]|isbn=1438105053|pages=53–57|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TZWwKiOqJBUC&pg=PA53|access-date=26 September 2015}}
* {{cite book|last1=Levy|first1=Patricia|last2=Wong|first2=Winnie|title=Ghana|date=2010|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]]|location=[[Singapore]]|isbn=978-0761448471|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/ghana0000levy|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/ghana0000levy/page/99 99]|access-date=26 September 2015}}
* {{cite book|last1=Utley|first1=Ian|title=Ghana - Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture|date=2010|publisher=Kuperard|location=[[London]]|isbn=978-1857336047|edition=Rev. [ed.], 3rd printing.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ma8-AQAAQBAJ}}

==See also==
*[[Akan names]]

{{Names in world cultures}}

[[Category:Culture of Ghana]]
[[Category:Names by country]]

Ulrich Kohlenbach

2024-10-10T09:42:17Z

131.111.5.201: Ernst Zermelo Ring

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{short description|German mathematician}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Ulrich Kohlenbach
| image = Ulrich Kohlenbach.jpg
| image_size = 220px
| caption = Kohlenbach at [[Mathematical Research Institute of Oberwolfach|Oberwolfach]], 2011
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1962|7|27|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Frankfurt am Main]], Germany
| nationality = German
| field = [[Mathematical logic]], [[proof theory]]
| work_institution = [[Technische Universität Darmstadt]]
| alma_mater = [[Goethe University Frankfurt]]
| doctoral_advisor = Horst Luckhardt
| doctoral_students =
| known_for = [[Proof mining]]
| prizes = [[Kurt Gödel Society|Kurt Gödel Research Prize]] (2011), [[Ernst Zermelo]] Ring (2024)
| footnotes =
| module = {{Infobox officeholder | embed = yes
| office1 = [[Association for Symbolic Logic|President of the Association for Symbolic Logic]]
| term_start1 = 2016
| term_end1 = 2018
| predecessor1 = [[Alasdair Urquhart]]
| successor1 = [[Julia F. Knight|Julia Knight]]
| office2 = [[Deutsche Vereinigung für mathematische Logik und für Grundlagenforschung der exakten Wissenschaften|President of the DVMLG]]
| term_start2 = 2008
| term_end2 = 2012
| predecessor2 = [[Peter Koepke]]
| successor2 = [[Benedikt Löwe]]
}}
}}

'''Ulrich Wilhelm Kohlenbach''' (born 27 July 1962 in [[Frankfurt am Main]]) is a German mathematician and professor of [[algebra]] and [[Mathematical logic|logic]] at the [[Technische Universität Darmstadt]]. His research interests lie in the field of [[proof mining]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = Applied Proof Theory: Proof Interpretation and their Use in Mathematics
| isbn=978-3-540-77532-4
| author = U. Kohlenbach
| publisher = Springer Verlag - Springer Monographs in Mathematics
| year = 2008
}}</ref>

Kohlenbach was president of the [[Deutsche Vereinigung für mathematische Logik und für Grundlagenforschung der exakten Wissenschaften|German Association for Mathematical Logic and for Basic Research in the Exact Sciences]] (DVMLG) from 2008 to 2012 and president of the [[Association for Symbolic Logic]] from 2016 to 2018.

== Life ==
He graduated ('Abitur') from [[Lessing-Gymnasium, Frankfurt|Lessing-Gymnasium]] (High School) in 1980 and completed his studies of mathematics, philosophy, and [[linguistics]] with a [[diplom]] from the [[Goethe University Frankfurt]]. During his studies he received a scholarship from the [[Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes]]. At the same university, he received his Ph.D. in 1990 under the supervision of Horst Luckhardt and passed his [[habilitation]] ('venia legendi') in mathematics five years later. During the academic year 1996/1997 he was a visiting assistant professor at the [[University of Michigan]]. In 1997, he became an associate professor at [[Aarhus University]] where he worked until 2004. Kohlenbach is now a full professor at the [[Technische Universität Darmstadt]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.mathematik.tu-darmstadt.de/~kohlenbach/|title=kohlenb|website=www2.mathematik.tu-darmstadt.de|access-date=23 November 2019}}</ref><ref>[https://www2.mathematik.tu-darmstadt.de/~kohlenbach/ncve.pdf Curriculum vitae of Ulrich Wilhelm Kohlenbach]</ref>

He is married to Gabriele Bahl-Kohlenbach with whom he has a daughter.

In 2011, he received the prestigious Kurt Gödel Research Prize of the [[Kurt Gödel Society]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fellowship.logic.at/index.php?2010_results|title=Gödel Fellowships|website=fellowship.logic.at|access-date=31 August 2019}}</ref> He was an invited speaker at the 2018 [[International Congress of Mathematicians]] in Rio de Janeiro. In 2024, he was selected as the first ringbearer of the [[Ernst Zermelo]] Ring.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.dvmlg.de/Zermelo/zermeloring.2024.pdf | title=Ernst-Zermelo-Ring 2024: Prof. Dr. Ulrich Kohlenbach|date=23 August 2024|access-date=27 August 2024}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
* {{Official website|https://www2.mathematik.tu-darmstadt.de/~kohlenbach/|Ulrich Kohlenbach's official website}} at [[Technische Universität Darmstadt]]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kohlenbach, Ulrich Wilhelm}}
[[Category:Mathematical logicians]]
[[Category:1962 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century German mathematicians]]
[[Category:21st-century German mathematicians]]
[[Category:Goethe University Frankfurt alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Technische Universität Darmstadt]]

{{Germany-mathematician-stub}}

German Association for Mathematical Logic and for Basic Research in the Exact Sciences

2024-10-10T09:39:11Z

131.111.5.201: /* Activities */ CL 2024 added / Ernst-Zermelo-Ring added

{{Infobox organization
|name = Deutsche Vereinigung für mathematische Logik und für Grundlagenforschung der exakten Wissenschaften
|image = DVMLG_Logo.jpg
|image_border =
|size =
|alt =
|caption = DVMLG
|map =
|msize =
|malt =
|mcaption =
|abbreviation = DVMLG
|motto =
|formation = {{start date and age|1962}}
|extinction =
|type = [[registered association]] (''eingetragener Verein'')
|status =
|purpose =
|headquarters =
|location =
|region_served = German-speaking countries
|membership =
|language =
|leader_title = Vorsitzende (President)
|leader_name = [[Katrin Tent]]
|main_organ =
|parent_organization = [[International Union of History and Philosophy of Science|DLMPST]]
|affiliations =
|num_staff =
|num_volunteers =
|budget =
|website = [http://www.dvmlg.de/ DVMLG Official website]
|remarks =
}}

The '''German Association for Mathematical Logic and for Basic Research in the Exact Sciences''' (German: Deutsche Vereinigung für mathematische Logik und für Grundlagenforschung der exakten Wissenschaften; DVMLG) is the [[learned society]] representing the interdisciplinary research area of [[Logic (musician)|Logic]]
(within the disciplines of [[Mathematics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Computer Science]], and [[Linguistics]]) in [[German language|German]]-speaking countries. It was founded in 1962 by [[Wilhelm Ackermann]], [[Gisbert Hasenjaeger]], [[Hans Hermes]], Jürgen von Kempski, [[Paul Lorenzen]], Arnold Schmidt, and [[Kurt Schütte]]. Its members are researchers in [[Mathematical Logic]], [[Philosophical Logic]], and [[Theoretical Computer Science]]. Biannually, the DVMLG organises the ''Colloquium Logicum'', an international research conference in logic.<ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.dvmlg.de/
| title = DVMLG Website
| accessdate = 10 July 2020
}}</ref>
The DVMLG forms the National Committee for Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science representing the Ordinary Member [[Germany]] within the
[[International Union of History and Philosophy of Science|Division of Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science and Technology]] (DLMPST).<ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://dlmps.org/pages/members.php
| title = IUHPST/DLMPST Website: Members
| accessdate = 10 July 2020
}}</ref>

==Governance==
The current President of the DVMLG is [[Katrin Tent]] (since 2022). The Board consists of the President and five other members:
[[Matthias Aschenbrenner]] (Vice President; ''stellvertretende Vorsitzende''), Manuel Bodirsky, Leon Horsten, [[Benedikt Löwe]], Heike Mildenberger.

===Past Presidents===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!Name
!Term of office
|-
| '''1st President'''
| Arnold Schmidt
| 1962–1967
|-
| '''2nd President'''
| [[Hans Hermes]]
| 1967–1970
|-
| '''3rd President'''
| [[Arnold Oberschelp]]
| 1970–1976
|-
| '''4th President'''
| Gert H. Müller
| 1976–1981
|-
| '''5th President'''
| [[Michael M. Richter]]
| 1981–1985
|-
| '''6th President'''
| Justus Diller
| 1985
|-
| '''7th President'''
| Klaus Potthoff
| 1985–1990
|-
| '''8th President'''
| Hans-Georg Carstens
| 1990–1992
|-
| '''9th President'''
| Helmut Pfeiffer
| 1992–1996
|-
| '''10th President'''
| Sabine Koppelberg
| 1996–2000
|-
| '''11th President'''
| Jörg Flum
| 2000–2002
|-
| '''12th President'''
| Peter Koepke
| 2002–2008
|-
| '''13th President'''
| [[Ulrich Kohlenbach]]
| 2008–2012
|-
| '''14th President'''
| [[Benedikt Löwe]]
| 2012-2022
|-
| '''15th President'''
| [[Katrin Tent]]
| since 2022
|}

===Past Board members===
The following persons were among the members of the DVMLG Board in the past:<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.dvmlg.de/vorstandsgeschichte.html | title = DVMLG Website: Vorstandsgeschichte | accessdate = 10 July 2020 | archive-date = 28 July 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160728075209/http://www.dvmlg.de/vorstandsgeschichte.html | url-status = dead }}</ref>
[[Wilhelm Ackermann]] (1962),
[[Matthias Aschenbrenner]] (since 2021; Vice President since 2022),
[[Gisbert Hasenjaeger]] (1962–1970),
[[Hans Hermes]] (1962–1972; President 1967–1970),
[[Paul Lorenzen]] (1962–1972),
[[Kurt Schütte]] (1962–1971),
[[Arnold Oberschelp]] (1965–1979; President 1970–1976),
[[Wolfgang Stegmüller]] (1965–1969),
[[Ernst Specker]] (1970–1977),
[[Heinz-Dieter Ebbinghaus]] (1972–1981),
[[Anne Troelstra]] (1977–2000),
[[Michael M. Richter]] (1981–1986; President 1981–1985),
[[Johann Makowsky]] (1998–2010),
[[Ulrich Kohlenbach]] (2006–2012; Vice President 2006–2008; President 2008–2012),
[[Benedikt Löwe]] (seit 2006; Vice President 2008–2012; President 2012-2022),
[[Sy Friedman|Sy David Friedman]] (2012–2014),
[[Katrin Tent]] (since 2012; Vice President 2016-2022; President since 2022).

==Activities==
The DVMLG organises a biannual conference called ''Colloquium Logicum''. Since 2002, there is a ''PhD Colloquium'' organised as part of the ''Colloquium Logicum'' where excellent
doctoral dissertations in logic are presented (based on nominations by the membership of the DVMLG).<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.dvmlg.de/phdcolloquium.html
| title = DVMLG Website: Promotionskolloquium im Rahmen des Colloquium Logicum der DVMLG (PhD Colloquium)
| accessdate = 10 July 2020
}}</ref> Past ''Colloquia Logica'' took place in
[[Kiel]] (1988),
[[Bielefeld]] (1990),
[[Münster]] (1992),
[[Neuseddin]] (1994),
[[Berlin]] (1998),
[[Dresden]] (2000),
[[Münster]] (2002),
[[Heidelberg]] (2004),
[[Bonn]] (2006),
[[Darmstadt]] (2008),<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www2.mathematik.tu-darmstadt.de/fbereiche/logik/events/collogicum/index.html
|website = TU Darmstadt
|title = Colloquium Logicum 2008, Technische Universität Darmstadt, September 10–12, 2008
|access-date = 14 October 2020}};
{{cite web
|url = https://idw-online.de/en/news276857
|website = idw Informationsdienst Wissenschaft
| access-date = 14 October 2020
| date = 9 May 2008
| title = "Colloquium Logicum" - Logik-Tagung an der TU Darmstadt
|author = Jörg Feuck
}}
</ref>
[[Münster]] (2010),
[[Paderborn]] (2012),<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/loewe/CL2012/
|website= Universität Hamburg
|title = Colloquium Logicum 2012, Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum, Paderborn (Germany): 13-15 September 2012
|access-date = 14 October 2020}};
{{cite web
|url = https://www.uni-paderborn.de/en/nachricht/43591/
|title = Colloquium Logicum vom 13. bis 15. September 2012 erstmals in Paderborn - Öffentliche Abendveranstaltung am 14.9.: Theaterstück "Breaking the Code"
| access-date = 10 October 2020
| date = 9 March 2012
|website = Universität Paderborn}};
{{cite web
| title = Alles ganz logisch und völlig exakt. Internationale Tagung zu Turings Geburtstag
| url = https://www.nw.de/lokal/kreis_paderborn/paderborn/7014426_Alles-ganz-logisch-und-voellig-exakt.html
| access-date = 10 October 2020
| date = 6 September 2012
| website = Neue Westfälische}}
</ref>
[[Neubiberg]] (2014),<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://cca-net.de/cl2014/
| title = Colloquium Logicum 2014, 4-6 September 2014, Munich, Germany
|website = Computability & Complexity in Analysis Network
|access-date = 14 October 2020}}
</ref>
[[Hamburg]] (2016),
[[Bayreuth]] (2018),
[[Konstanz]] (2022), and
[[Vienna]] (2024).<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://collog2024.conf.tuwien.ac.at/
| title = Colloquium Logicum 2024
| website = TU Wien
| access-date = 10 October 2024}}</ref>

''Colloquium Logicum 2012'' was part of the [[Germany|German]] activities of the [[Alan Turing Year]], celebrating the centenary of [[Alan Turing]]. As part of these celebrations, the DVMLG organised a theatre tour of the [[University Players Hamburg]] performing [[Hugh Whitemore]]'s play [[Breaking the Code]] in Germany and the [[Netherlands]].<ref>
{{cite web
| url = https://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/loewe/BtC/
| website= Universität Hamburg
| title = University Players on tour, Hugh Whitemore's play "Breaking the Code"
|access-date = 10 October 2020
}};
{{cite web
| title = University Players on Tour: Gegeben wird Breaking the Code von Hugh Whitemore
| url = https://www.auf-dem-campus.de/university-players-on-tour-gegeben-wird-breaking-the-code-von-hugh-whitemore-2378
| website = Auf dem Campus
|access-date = 10 October 2020
| date = 10 September 2012
}};
{{cite web
| title = "Alan Turing Year 2012 / University Players on Tour: "Breaking the Code" – von Hugh Whitemore"
| url = https://www.uni-hamburg.de/en/newsroom/presse/2012/pm70.html
| website = Universität Hamburg
| date = 10 September 2012
| access-date = 14 October 2020}};
{{cite web
| url = https://www.hnf.de/das-hnf/presse/pressemitteilungen/ansicht/artikel/breaking-the-code.html
| website = Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum
| title = Breaking the Code, Theateraufführung im Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum (Press Release)
| date = 14 September 2012
| access-date = 14 October 2020}};
{{cite web
| url= https://magazin.tu-braunschweig.de/pi-post/4083/
|title = Die University Players Hamburg präsentieren ein Theaterstück über den Computerpionier Alan Turing
|date = 17 September 2012
| website = Technische Universität Braunschweig
| access-date= 10 October 2020
}}</ref>
The ''Colloquium Logicum'' in [[Konstanz]] was scheduled for September 2020, but was postponed to for two years due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>
{{cite web
| url= http://www.dvmlg.de/events.html
| title = DVMLG Website: Veranstaltungen der DVMLG
| accessdate = 10 July 2020
}}</ref>

Together with the [[German Mathematical Society]] (DMV), the DVMLG organises the ''Fachgruppe Mathematische Logik'' (Section Mathematical Logic).<ref>
{{cite journal
|last1= Löwe
|first1= Benedikt
|date= 2016
|journal= Mitteilungen der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung
|volume= 24 |issue= 1
|title= Die DMV/DVMLG-Fachgruppe Mathematische Logik
|pages= 8–9
|doi= 10.1515/dmvm-2016-0006
|s2cid= 182977427
|doi-access= free}}</ref>
The DVMLG has a publication agreement with the scientific publishing house [[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] and has been responsible for the scientific management of the journal ''Mathematical Logic Quarterly'' since 2011.<ref>{{cite journal
|last1= Hemmerling
|first1= Armin
|last2 = Löwe
|first2= Benedikt
|last3 = Meer
|first3=Klaus
|last4=Pudlák
|first4= Pavel
|journal= Mathematical Logic Quarterly
|date =2011
|volume= 57 |issue= 1
|title= Editorial
|pages= 4
|doi= 10.1002/malq.201111001
|doi-access=
}}</ref>

Since 2024, the DVMLG awards the [[Ernst Zermelo]] Ring, an honour given every four years to a researcher in the foundations of mathematics who had a sustained influence on the development of the field and is expected to continue to remain active and influential.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.dvmlg.de/zermeloring.html | title=DVMLG Website: Ernst-Zermelo-Ring|access-date=27 August 2024}}</ref> The first ringbearer is [[Ulrich Kohlenbach]], honoured for his systematic development of [[proof mining]].
<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.dvmlg.de/Zermelo/zermeloring.2024.pdf | title=Ernst-Zermelo-Ring 2024: Prof. Dr. Ulrich Kohlenbach|date=23 August 2024|access-date=27 August 2024}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.dvmlg.de/}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1962 establishments in Germany]]
[[Category:Education in Germany]]
[[Category:Learned societies of Germany]]

Oyster

2024-10-08T08:08:16Z

131.111.5.201: /* Religious */

{{Short description|Variety of families of Mollusc}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Paraphyletic group
| fossil_range = {{Fossil Range|252|0}}
| name = Oyster
| image = Crassostrea gigas p1040848.jpg
| image_alt = Pacific oyster from the Marennes-Oléron basin in France
| image_caption = [[Pacific oyster]] from the [[Marennes, Charente-Maritime|Marennes]]-[[Oléron]] basin in France
| auto = yes
| parent = Pteriomorphia
| includes = *[[Anomiidae]] – saddle oysters
* [[Dimyidae]] – dimyarian oysters
* [[Ostreidae]] – true oysters
* [[Placunidae]] – windowpane oysters
* [[Pteriidae]] – feather oysters
* [[Spondylidae]] – spiny oysters
| excludes = All other members of:
* [[Anomioidea]]
* [[Ostreida]]
* [[Ostreoidea]]
* [[Pectinoidea]]
* [[Pterioidea]]
}}
[[File:Oyster dubai.jpg|thumb|Mixed seafood in Dubai; oysters are at the edge of the tray]]
'''Oyster''' is the [[common name]] for a number of different families of [[Seawater|salt-water]] [[bivalve]] [[mollusc]]s that live in [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] or [[Brackish water|brackish]] habitats. In some species, the valves are highly [[Calcification|calcified]], and many are somewhat irregular in shape. Many, but not all oysters, are in the superfamily [[Ostreoidea]].

Some species of oyster are commonly consumed and are regarded as a [[delicacy]] in some localities. Some types of [[pearl oyster]]s are harvested for the [[pearl]] produced within the [[Mantle (mollusc)|mantle]]. Others, such as the translucent [[Windowpane oyster]]s, are harvested for their shells.

==Etymology==
The word ''oyster'' comes from [[Old French]] {{lang|fro|oistre}}, and first appeared in English during the 14th century.<ref>[http://www.celtnet.org.uk/recipes/forme-cury-5.php Oysters in Cynee] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510030403/http://www.celtnet.org.uk/recipes/forme-cury-5.php |date=10 May 2013 }},
Recipe for Oysters in Bread Sauce (Oysters in Cynee) from the 1390 English text, ''The Forme of Cury'', from Celtnet Recipes</ref> The French derived from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|ostrea}}, the feminine form of {{lang|la|ostreum}},<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dostrea ostrea, ostreum],
Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, ''A Latin Dictionary'', on Perseus</ref> which is the [[Latinisation (literature)|latinisation]] of the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|ὄστρεον}} ({{transl|grc|ostreon}}) 'oyster'.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Henry George Liddell | author2= Robert Scott | title= A Greek-English Lexicon | chapter = ὄστρεον| chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=o%29%2Fstreon |via=perseus.tufts.edu
| editor1= Henry Stuart Jones | editor2= Roderick McKenzie
| place= Oxford| publisher= Clarendon Press| date= 1940
}}
</ref> Compare {{lang|grc|ὀστέον}} ({{transl|grc|osteon}}) 'bone'.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Henry George Liddell | author2= Robert Scott | title= A Greek-English Lexicon | chapter =ὀστέον| chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=o)ste/on|via=perseus.tufts.edu
| editor1= Henry Stuart Jones | editor2 =Roderick McKenzie
| place= Oxford| publisher= Clarendon Press| date= 1940
}}</ref>

==Types==

===True oysters===

[[True oyster]]s are members of the family [[Ostreidae]]. This family includes the edible oysters, which mainly belong to the genera ''[[Ostrea]]'', ''[[Crassostrea]]'', ''[[Magallana]]'', and ''[[Saccostrea]]''. Examples include the [[European flat oyster]], [[eastern oyster]], [[Olympia oyster]], [[Pacific oyster]], and the [[Sydney rock oyster]]. Ostreidae evolved in the [[Early Triassic]] [[epoch (geology)|epoch]]: The [[genus]] ''[[Liostrea]]'' grew on the shells of living [[ammonoids]].<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://academic.oup.com/mollus/article/83/3/253/3862014 | doi=10.1093/mollus/eyx018 | title=Geologically oldest oysters were epizoans on Early Triassic ammonoids | year=2017 | last1=Hautmann | first1=Michael | last2=Ware | first2=David | last3=Bucher | first3=Hugo | journal=Journal of Molluscan Studies | volume=83 | issue=3 | pages=253–260 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Pearl oysters===

[[File:Pearl Oysters.jpg|thumb|right|Removing a [[pearl]] from a pearl oyster|alt=Photo of opened oyster in bowl with person using a knife to remove the pearl]]
{{Main|Pearl oyster}}
Almost all shell-bearing mollusks can secrete pearls, yet most are not very valuable. Pearls can form in both saltwater and freshwater environments.

[[Pearl oyster]]s are not closely related to true oysters, being members of a distinct family, the feathered oysters ([[Pteriidae]]). Both [[cultured pearl]]s and [[natural pearl]]s can be extracted from pearl oysters, though other molluscs, such as the freshwater [[mussel]]s, also yield pearls of commercial value.

The largest pearl-bearing oyster is the marine ''Pinctada maxima'', which is roughly the size of a dinner plate. Not all individual oysters produce pearls.

In nature, pearl oysters produce pearls by covering a minute invasive object with [[nacre]]. Over the years, the irritating object is covered with enough layers of nacre to become a pearl. The many different types, colours and shapes of pearls depend on the natural [[pigment]] of the nacre, and the shape of the original irritant.

Pearl farmers can culture a pearl by placing a nucleus, usually a piece of polished mussel shell, inside the oyster. In three to seven years, the oyster can produce a perfect pearl. Since the beginning of the 20th century, when several researchers discovered how to produce artificial pearls, the cultured pearl market has far outgrown the natural pearl market.<ref>{{cite journal |title = A History of the Cultured Pearl Industry
|year = 2013
|publisher = [[BioOne]]
|doi = 10.2108/zsj.30.783
|last1 = Nagai
|first1 = Kiyohito
|journal = Zoological Science
|volume = 30
|issue = 10
|pages = 783–793
|pmid = 24125642
|s2cid = 1429376
|doi-access = free
}}</ref>

===Other types===

A number of bivalve molluscs (other than true oysters and pearl oysters) also have common names that include the word "oyster", usually because they either taste like or look somewhat like true oysters, or because they yield noticeable pearls. Examples include:
* [[Thorny oyster]]s in the genus ''Spondylus''
* Pilgrim oyster, another term for a [[scallop]], in reference to the scallop shell of St. James
* [[Saddle oyster]]s, members of the [[Anomiidae]] family also known as jingle shells
* [[Dimyidae|Dimydarian oysters]], members of the family Dimyidae
* [[Windowpane oyster]]s

<gallery widths="175px" heights="175px">
File:Crassostrea_gigas_p1040847.jpg|[[Pacific oyster]]
File:Ostrea edulis Marennes p1050142.jpg|[[Pacific oyster]], opened
</gallery>

In the [[Philippines]], a local thorny oyster species known as [[Tikod amo]] is a favorite seafood source in the southern part of the country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.worldngayon.com/2011/12/native-oyster-species-in-surigao-del-sur-draws-attention-for-rd/|title=Native oyster species in Surigao del Sur draws attention for R&D {{!}} eVolved|date=2 December 2011|work=eVolved|access-date=12 December 2017|language=en-US}}</ref> Because of its good flavor, it commands high prices.

== Anatomy ==
Oysters breathe primarily via [[gill]]s. In addition to their gills, oysters can exchange gases across their [[Mantle (mollusc)|mantles]], which are lined with many small, thin-walled [[blood vessels]]. A small, three-chambered [[heart]], lying under the [[Adductor muscle (Bivalvia)|adductor muscle]], pumps colorless [[blood]] to all parts of the body. At the same time, two [[kidneys]], located on the underside of the muscle, remove waste products from the blood. Their nervous system includes two pairs of nerve cords and three pairs of [[ganglia]]. There is no evidence that oysters have a brain.

While some oysters have two sexes ([[European oyster]] and [[Olympia oyster]]), their reproductive organs contain both eggs and sperm. Because of this, it is technically possible for an oyster to fertilize its own eggs. The [[gonads]] surround the digestive organs, and are made up of sex cells, branching tubules, and connective tissue.

Once her millions of eggs are fertilized, the female discharges them into the water. The [[larvae]] develop in about six hours and exist suspended in the water column as [[veliger|veliger larvae]] for two to three weeks before settling on a bed and reaching sexual maturity within a year.

== Feeding ==
Oysters are [[filter feeder]]s, drawing water in over their [[gill]]s through the beating of [[cilia]]. Suspended [[plankton]] and non-food particles are trapped in the [[mucus]] of a gill, and from there are transported to the mouth, where they are eaten, digested, and expelled as [[feces]] or [[pseudofeces]] that fall to the bottom and remain out of the water column. Oysters feed most actively at temperatures ranging from the high 60s to the high 70s ({{cvt|68|-|78|F|C|disp=out}}).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wheeler |first=Timothy B. |date=20 May 2020 |title=Pumped-up performance: Oysters' filtering feat overstated |url=https://www.bayjournal.com/news/fisheries/pumped-up-performance-oysters-filtering-feat-overstated/article_bbe67d38-8f09-11ea-a5ab-5fd7465dee21.html |access-date=14 April 2022 |website=Bay Journal |language=en}}</ref> Under ideal laboratory conditions, an oyster can filter up to {{Convert|50|USgal|l||order=flip|abbr=on}} of water per day. Under average conditions, mature oysters filter {{Convert|3|-|12|U.S.gal|l|order=flip|abbr=on}}. [[Chesapeake Bay]]'s once-flourishing oyster population historically filtered excess nutrients from the estuary's entire water volume every three to four days. As of 2008 it was estimated that a complete cycle would take nearly a year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oyster Reefs: Ecological importance |url=http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/pdf/value_of_oysters.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908044948/http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/pdf/value_of_oysters.pdf |archive-date=8 September 2014 |access-date=16 January 2008 |publisher=US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>

== Habitat and behaviour ==
[[File:Oyster reef Hunting Island SC.jpg|thumb|right|Oyster reef at about mid-tide off fishing pier at [[Hunting Island State Park]], South Carolina]]
A group of oysters is commonly called a bed or [[oyster reef]].
[[File:Oyster Dalian.JPG|thumb|Rocks in [[intertidal zone]] covered by oysters, at Bangchuidao Scenic Area, [[Dalian]], [[Liaoning Province]], China]]
As a [[keystone species]], oysters provide [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]] for many marine species.
''Crassostrea'' and ''Saccostrea'' live mainly in the [[intertidal zone]], while ''Ostrea'' is [[subtidal]]. The hard surfaces of oyster shells and the nooks between the shells provide places where a host of small animals can live. Hundreds of animals, such as [[sea anemones]], [[barnacles]], and [[Ischadium recurvum|hooked mussels]], inhabit [[oyster reef]]s. Many of these animals are prey to larger animals, including fish, such as [[striped bass]], [[black drum]] and [[croakers]].

An oyster reef can increase the surface area of a flat bottom 50-fold. An oyster's mature shape often depends on the type of bottom to which it is originally attached, but it always orients itself with its outer, flared shell tilted upward. One valve is cupped and the other is flat.

Oysters usually reach maturity in one year. They are [[protandric]]; during their first year, they spawn as males by releasing [[sperm]] into the water. As they grow over the next two or three years and develop greater energy reserves, they spawn as females by releasing [[egg (biology)|eggs]]. [[Bay oyster]]s usually spawn from the end of June until mid-August. An increase in water temperature prompts a few oysters to spawn. This triggers spawning in the rest, clouding the water with millions of eggs and sperm. A single female oyster can produce up to 100 million eggs annually. The eggs become fertilized in the water and develop into larvae, which eventually find suitable sites, such as another oyster's shell, on which to settle. Attached oyster larvae are called spat. Spat are oysters less than {{convert|25|mm|in|abbr=on|0}} long. Many species of bivalves, oysters included, seem to be stimulated to settle near adult [[conspecific]]s.

[[File:Electric oyster MolluSCAN eye project.jpg|thumb|left|Pacific oyster ''Crassostrea gigas'' equipped with activity electrodes to follow their daily behaviour]]
Oysters filter large amounts of water to feed and breathe (exchange {{O2}} and {{CO2}} with water) but they are not permanently open. They regularly shut their valves to enter a resting state, even when they are permanently submersed. Their behaviour follows very strict circatidal and circadian rhythms according to the relative moon and sun positions. During neap tides, they exhibit much longer closing periods than during the spring tide.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21539422/ | pmid=21539422 | year=2011 | last1=Tran | first1=D. | last2=Nadau | first2=A. | last3=Durrieu | first3=G. | last4=Ciret | first4=P. | last5=Parisot | first5=J. P. | last6=Massabuau | first6=J. C. | title=Field chronobiology of a molluscan bivalve: How the moon and sun cycles interact to drive oyster activity rhythms | journal=Chronobiology International | volume=28 | issue=4 | pages=307–317 | doi=10.3109/07420528.2011.565897 | s2cid=25356955 }}</ref>

Some tropical oysters, such as the [[mangrove oyster]] in the family [[Ostreidae]], grow best on [[mangrove]] roots. Low tide can expose them, making them easy to collect.

The largest oyster-producing body of water in the [[United States]] is the [[Chesapeake Bay]], although these beds have decreased in number due to overfishing and pollution. Other large [[oyster farming]] areas in the US include the bays and estuaries along the coast of the [[Gulf of Mexico]] from [[Apalachicola, Florida]], in the east to [[Galveston, Texas]], in the west. Large beds of edible oysters are also found in Japan and Australia. In 2005, China accounted for 80% of the global oyster harvest.<ref>{{cite web
|
url=http://www.fao.org/figis/servlet/SQServlet?file=/usr/local/tomcat/FI/5.5.23/figis/webapps/figis/temp/hqp_30190.xml&outtype=html
|
title=China harvests almost 4 m tonnes of oyster in 2005
|
access-date=12 July 2008
|
archive-date=26 January 2012
|
archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126052340/http://www.fao.org/figis/servlet/SQServlet?file=/usr/local/tomcat/FI/5.5.23/figis/webapps/figis/temp/hqp_30190.xml&outtype=html
|
url-status=dead
}}</ref> In Europe, France remained the industry leader.

Common oyster predators include [[crab]]s, [[seabird]]s, [[starfish]], and [[human]]s. Some oysters contain crabs, known as [[oyster crab]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Christensen |first1=Aage Møller |last2=McDermott |first2=John J. |title=Life-History and Biology of the Oyster Crab, Pinnotheres ostreum Say |journal=Biological Bulletin |date=April 1958 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=146–179|doi=10.2307/1538845 |jstor=1538845 |s2cid=88045743 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/16401 }}</ref>

==Nutrient cycling==
[[Bivalves]], including oysters, are effective filter feeders and can have large effects on the water columns in which they occur.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid=21558200 | year=2010 | last1=Padilla | first1=D. K. | title=Context-dependent impacts of a non-native ecosystem engineer, the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas | journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology | volume=50 | issue=2 | pages=213–225 | doi=10.1093/icb/icq080 | doi-access=free }}</ref> As filter feeders, oysters remove plankton and organic particles from the water column.<ref name="jud and layman">{{cite web |first1=Zachary |last1=Jud |first2=Craig |last2=Layman |year=2011 |title=Loxahatchee River oyster reef restoration monitoring report: Using baselines derived from long-term monitoring of benthic community structure on natural oyster reefs to assess the outcome of large-scale oyster reef restoration |work=Martin County, Florida |url=https://loxahatchee-qnewmedia.netdna-ssl.com/pdf/FIU_NOAAMonitRpt_2011.pdf |access-date=14 July 2022 |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808180240/https://loxahatchee-qnewmedia.netdna-ssl.com/pdf/FIU_NOAAMonitRpt_2011.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Multiple studies have shown individual oysters are capable of filtering up to {{convert|190|L}} of water per day, and thus oyster reefs can significantly improve water quality and clarity.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/37/6/612/115863 |doi=10.1093/icb/37.6.612 |title=Bacteria, Dissolved Organics and Oxygen Consumption in Salinity Stratified Chesapeake Bay, an Anoxia Paradigm | year=1997 | last1=Jonas | first1=Robert B. | journal=American Zoologist | volume=37 | issue=6 | pages=612–620 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Officer |first1=C.B. |last2=Smayda |first2=T.J. |last3=Mann |first3=R. |year=1982 |title=Benthic Filter Feeding – a Natural Eutrophication Control |journal=[[Marine Ecology Progress Series]] |volume=9 |pages=203–210 |doi=10.3354/meps009203 |bibcode=1982MEPS....9..203O |url=https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/9/m009p203.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1352778 | jstor=1352778 | title=The Trophic Consequences of Oyster Stock Rehabilitation in Chesapeake Bay | last1=Ulanowicz | first1=Robert E. | last2=Tuttle | first2=Jon H. | journal=Estuaries | year=1992 | volume=15 | issue=3 | pages=298–306 | doi=10.2307/1352778 | s2cid=84975440 }}</ref><ref>Newell, R. 2004. Ecosystem Influences of Natural and Cultivated Populations of Suspension-Feeding Bivalve Molluscs: A Review. J. Shellfish Research, 23(1):51-61.</ref> Oysters consume nitrogen-containing compounds ([[nitrate]]s and [[ammonia]]), [[phosphate]]s, plankton, detritus, bacteria, and dissolved organic matter, removing them from the water.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0025315400052589 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-marine-biological-association-of-the-united-kingdom/article/abs/feeding-by-oyster-larvae-the-functional-response-energy-budget-and-a-comparison-with-mussel-larvae/6B4CC491635F66929B33F1F8D164A9D6 |title=Feeding by Oyster Larvae: The Functional Response, Energy Budget and a Comparison with Mussel Larvae |year=1985 |last1=Crisp |first1=D. J. |last2=Yule |first2=A. B. |last3=White |first3=K. N. |journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=759–783 |bibcode=1985JMBUK..65..759C |s2cid=83713773 }}</ref> What is not used for animal growth is then expelled as solid waste pellets, which eventually decompose into the atmosphere as nitrogen.<ref name=econ>{{cite news
|url=http://www.economist.com/world/unitedstates/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12795573
|title=A dozen ocean-cleaners and a pint of Guinness, please
|access-date=26 December 2008
|newspaper=The Economist
|date=18 December 2008}}</ref> In [[Maryland]], the [[Chesapeake Bay Program]] had implemented a plan to use oysters to reduce the amount of nitrogen compounds entering the [[Chesapeake Bay]] by {{convert|8600|MT|ST|abbr=on}} per year by 2010.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.dnr.state.md.us/dnrnews/pressrelease2005/081505.html
|title=Oyster Restoration Projected to Provide Significant Boost to Bay Grasses While Removing Nitrogen Pollution from the Bay
|access-date=26 December 2008
|website=Maryland Department of Natural Resources
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903090534/http://www.dnr.state.md.us/dnrnews/pressrelease2005/081505.html
|archive-date=3 September 2006
}}</ref> Several studies have shown that oysters and [[mussels]] have the capacity to dramatically alter nitrogen levels in estuaries.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/1-4020-3030-4_6 |title=The Comparative Roles of Suspension Feeders in Ecosystems, Vol. 47|year=2005|publisher=Springer|location=Netherlands|pages=93–120|author1=Newell, R. I. E.|author2=Fisher, T. R.|author3=Holyoke, R. R. |author4=Cornwell, J. C.|series=NATO Science Series IV: Earth and Environmental Series |isbn=978-1-4020-3030-7 |edition=NATO Science Series IV: Earth and Environmental Sciences|contribution=Influence of eastern oysters on nitrogen and phosphorus regeneration in the Chesapeake Bay, USA|editor1=Dame, R.|editor2=Olenin, S.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1875-306X(07)80017-7 |author1=Grabowski, J. H.|author2=Petersen, C. H.|title=Ecosystem Engineers – Plants to Protists |chapter=Restoring oyster reefs to recover ecosystem services|series=Theoretical Ecology Series |year=2007|volume=4 |publisher=Elsevier-Academic Press|location=Amsterdam|pages=281–298|doi=10.1016/S1875-306X(07)80017-7 |isbn=978-0-12-373857-8 |edition=Ecosystem Engineers: Concepts, Theory and Applications|editor1=Cuddington, K.|editor2=Byers, J. E.|editor3=Wilson, W.G.|editor4=Hastings, A.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Rose JM, Tedesco M, Wikfors GH, Yarish C |title=International Workshop on Bioextractive Technologies for Nutrient Remediation Summary Report|url=http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/nefsc/publications/|publisher=US Dept Commer, Northeast Fish Sci Cent Ref Doc. 10–19; 12 p. Available from: National Marine Fisheries Service, 166 Water Street, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543-1026|year=2010}}</ref> In the U.S., [[Delaware]] is the only East Coast state without aquaculture, but making aquaculture a state-controlled industry of leasing water by the acre for commercial harvesting of shellfish is being considered.<ref name="Brown">{{cite news|last=Brown|first=Ashton|title='Aquaculture' shellfish harvesting bill moves forward|url=http://delaware.newszap.com/centraldelaware/123124-70/aquaculture-shellfish-harvesting-bill-moves-forward|access-date=11 June 2013|newspaper=Delaware State News|date=10 June 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022225000/http://delaware.newszap.com/centraldelaware/123124-70/aquaculture-shellfish-harvesting-bill-moves-forward|archive-date=22 October 2013}}</ref> Supporters of Delaware's legislation to allow oyster aquaculture cite revenue, job creation, and nutrient cycling benefits. It is estimated that {{convert|1|acre|ha|spell=in}} can produce nearly 750,000 oysters, which could filter between {{convert|57000|to(-)|150000|m3|e6ft3|sigfig=2|abbr=unit}} of water daily.<ref name="Brown"/> Also see [[nutrient pollution]] for an extended explanation of [[Nutrient pollution#Nutrient remediation|nutrient remediation]].

== Ecosystem services ==
As an [[ecosystem engineer]], oysters provide supporting [[ecosystem services]], along with provisioning, regulating and cultural services. Oysters influence [[nutrient cycling]], [[water filtration]], habitat structure, [[biodiversity]], and [[food web]] dynamics.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schulte |first1=David M. |last2=Burke |first2=Russell P. |last3=Lipcius |first3=Romuald N. |year=2009 |title=Unprecedented Restoration of a Native Oyster Metapopulation |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5944 |pages=1124–1128 |bibcode=2009Sci...325.1124S |doi=10.1126/science.1176516 |pmid=19644073 |s2cid=206521248|doi-access=free }}</ref> Oyster reef habitats have been recognized as [[green infrastructure]] for shoreline protection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arkema |first1=Katie K. |last2=Guannel |first2=Greg |last3=Verutes |first3=Gregory |last4=Wood |first4=Spencer A. |last5=Guerry |first5=Anne |last6=Ruckelshaus |first6=Mary |last7=Kareiva |first7=Peter |last8=Lacayo |first8=Martin |last9=Silver |first9=Jessica M. |date=14 July 2013 |title=Coastal habitats shield people and property from sea-level rise and storms |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1944 |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=913–918 |doi=10.1038/nclimate1944 |bibcode=2013NatCC...3..913A |issn=1758-678X}}</ref> Assimilation of nitrogen and phosphorus into shellfish tissues provides an opportunity to remove these nutrients from the water column.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book |last1=Wikfors |first1=Gary H. |title=Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8138-1413-1 |pages=125–133 |chapter=Trophic Interactions Between Phytoplankton and Bivalve Aquaculture |doi=10.1002/9780470960967.ch5 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470960967.ch5}}</ref><ref>Officer, C.B., T.J. Smayda & R. Mann. 1982. Benthic filter feeding, a natural eutrophication control. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 9:203–120.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindahl |first1=Odd |last2=Hart |first2=Rob |last3=Hernroth |first3=Bodil |last4=Kollberg |first4=Sven |last5=Loo |first5=Lars-Ove |last6=Olrog |first6=Lars |last7=Rehnstam-Holm |first7=Ann-Sofi |last8=Svensson |first8=Jonny |last9=Svensson |first9=Susanne |last10=Syversen |first10=Ulf |year=2005 |title=Improving Marine Water Quality by Mussel Farming: A Profitable Solution for Swedish Society |url=https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-34.2.131 |journal=Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=131–138 |doi=10.1579/0044-7447-34.2.131 |pmid=15865310 |bibcode=2005Ambio..34..131L |s2cid=25371433}}</ref> In California's [[Tomales Bay]], native oyster presence is associated with higher species diversity of benthic invertebrates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kimbro |first1=D. L. |last2=Grosholz |first2=E. D. |year=2006 |title=Disturbance influences oyster community richness and evenness, but not diversity |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16995638/ |journal=Ecology |volume=87 |issue=9 |pages=2378–2388 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[2378:diocra]2.0.co;2 |pmid=16995638}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Camara |first1=Mark D. |last2=Vadopalas |first2=Brent |year=2009 |title=Genetic Aspects of Restoring Olympia Oysters and Other Native Bivalves: Balancing the Need for Action, Good Intentions, and the Risks of Making Things Worse |journal=Journal of Shellfish Research |volume=28 |pages=121–145 |doi=10.2983/035.028.0104 |s2cid=12695460}}</ref> As the ecological and economic importance of oyster reefs has become more acknowledged, restoration efforts have increased.<ref name="jud and layman2">{{cite web |last1=Jud |first1=Zachary |last2=Layman |first2=Craig |year=2011 |title=Loxahatchee River oyster reef restoration monitoring report: Using baselines derived from long-term monitoring of benthic community structure on natural oyster reefs to assess the outcome of large-scale oyster reef restoration |url=https://loxahatchee-qnewmedia.netdna-ssl.com/pdf/FIU_NOAAMonitRpt_2011.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808180240/https://loxahatchee-qnewmedia.netdna-ssl.com/pdf/FIU_NOAAMonitRpt_2011.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2022 |access-date=14 July 2022 |work=Martin County, Florida}}</ref>

==Human history==
[[File:Osias Beert the Elder - Dishes with Oysters, Fruit, and Wine - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|''Dishes with Oysters, Fruit, and Wine'', a 1620s painting by [[Osias Beert]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.91389.html |title=Dishes with Oysters, Fruit, and Wine |work=National Gallery of Art |access-date=28 October 2018}}</ref>]]
[[Midden]]s testify to the prehistoric importance of oysters as food, with some middens in [[New South Wales]], Australia, dated at ten thousand years.<ref name="dpi-oyster-industry-in-nsw">{{cite web
|url = http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/aquaculture/publications/oysters/industry/oyster-industry-in-nsw
|title = Oyster industry in NSW
|website = NSW Department of Primary Industries
|publisher = NSW Government
|access-date = 20 December 2015
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151222111017/http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/aquaculture/publications/oysters/industry/oyster-industry-in-nsw
|archive-date = 22 December 2015
}}</ref> They have been cultivated in Japan from at least 2000 BC.<ref name="dpi-oyster-industry-in-nsw" /> In the United Kingdom, the town of [[Whitstable]] is noted for oyster farming from beds on the [[Kentish Flats]] that have been used since [[Roman Britain|Roman]] times. The borough of [[Colchester]] holds an annual [[Oyster Feast]] each October, at which "Colchester Natives" (the native oyster, ''[[Ostrea edulis]]'') are consumed. The United Kingdom hosts several other annual oyster festivals; for example, [[Woburn Oyster Festival]] is held in September. In fact, in Victorian England, it was quite common for people to go to the pub and enjoy their favorite beer with some oysters. They quickly realized that the "rich, sweet, malty stouts" were great with the "briny, creamy oyster". Then brewers found that oyster shells naturally clarify a beer and they started putting crushed oyster shells into their brews. The first known brewery to start this was in 1938 at the Hammerton Brewery in London. That is where the [[oyster stout]] was first started.<ref>{{cite web |title=10 pearls of wisdom about the opulent oyster |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/1RSGcC6vq2N93c52vBqxqfC/10-pearls-of-wisdom-about-the-opulent-oy |website=BBC |access-date=2 December 2021}}</ref>

The [[France|French]] seaside resort of [[Cancale]] in [[Brittany]] is noted for its oysters, which also date from Roman times. [[Sergius Orata]] of the [[Roman Republic]] is considered the first major merchant and cultivator of oysters. Using his considerable knowledge of [[hydraulic]]s, he built a sophisticated cultivation system, including channels and locks, to control the [[tides]]. He was so famous for this, the Romans used to say he could breed oysters on the roof of his house.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Rubicon
|author=Holland, Tom
|year=2003
|publisher=Doubleday
|isbn=978-0-385-50313-6
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/rubicon00tomh
}}</ref>

[[File:Alexander Adriaenssen - Still-Life with Oysters - WGA0035.jpg|thumb|Still-Life with Oysters by [[Alexander Adriaenssen]] ]]

In the early 19th century, oysters were cheap and mainly eaten by the [[working class]]. Throughout the 19th century, [[Oysters in New York City|oyster beds]] in [[New York Harbor]] became the largest source of oysters worldwide. On any day in the late 19th century, six million oysters could be found on barges tied up along the city's waterfront. They were naturally quite popular in [[New York City]], and helped initiate the city's restaurant trade.<ref name="Kurlansky, Mark 2006">{{cite book
|last=Kurlansky |first=Mark
|author-link = Mark Kurlansky
|year=2006
|title=The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell
|publisher=Ballantine Books
|isbn=978-0-345-47638-8
|location=New York
|title-link=The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell
}}</ref> New York's oystermen became skilled cultivators of their beds, which provided employment for hundreds of workers and nutritious food for thousands. Eventually, rising demand exhausted many of the beds. To increase production, they introduced foreign species, which brought disease; [[water pollution|effluent]] and increasing sedimentation from erosion destroyed most of the beds by the early 20th century. Oysters' popularity has put ever-increasing demands on wild oyster stocks.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Clover |first=Charles
|year=2004
|title=The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat
|publisher=Ebury Press
|location=London
|isbn=978-0-09-189780-2
}}</ref> This scarcity increased prices, converting them from their original role as working-class food to their current status as an expensive delicacy.

In Britain, the native species (''[[European flat oyster]]'') has five years to mature and is protected by the people during their May-to-August spawning season. The current market is dominated by the larger [[Pacific oyster]] and [[Rock oyster]] species which are farmed year-round.

===Fishing from the wild===
[[File:Whaleback Shell Midden gully - 20070722 07986.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Whaleback Shell Midden]] in [[Maine]] contains the shells from oysters harvested for food dating from 2200 to 1000 years ago|alt=Photo of woodland stream with oyster shells covering the streambed]]
Oysters are harvested by simply gathering them from their beds. In very shallow waters, they can be gathered by hand or with small [[rake (tool)|rakes]]. In somewhat deeper water, long-handled rakes or oyster [[tongs]] are used to reach the beds. [[Patent tong]]s can be lowered on a line to reach beds that are too deep to reach directly. In all cases, the task is the same: the [[Watermen|oysterman]] scrapes oysters into a pile, and then scoops them up with the rake or tongs.

In some areas, a [[scallop dredge]] is used. This is a toothed bar attached to a chain bag. The dredge is towed through an oyster bed by a boat, picking up the oysters in its path. While dredges collect oysters more quickly, they heavily damage the beds, and their use is highly restricted. Until 1965, [[Maryland]] limited dredging to [[sailboat]]s, and even since then motor boats can be used only on certain days of the week. These regulations prompted the development of specialized [[sailboat]]s (the [[bugeye (boat)|bugeye]] and later the [[skipjack (boat)|skipjack]]) for dredging.

Similar laws were enacted in Connecticut before World War I and lasted until 1969. The laws restricted the harvesting of oysters in state-owned beds to vessels under sail. These laws prompted the construction of the oyster sloop-style vessel to last well into the 20th century. [[Hope (sloop)|''Hope'']] is believed to be the last-built Connecticut oyster sloop, completed in 1948.

Oysters can also be collected by [[underwater diving|divers]].

In any case, when the oysters are collected, they are sorted to eliminate dead animals, bycatch (unwanted catch), and debris. Then they are taken to market, where they are either canned or sold live.

===Cultivation===

[[File:Oyster culture in Belon, France 03.jpg|thumb|left|Oyster culture in [[Riec-sur-Belon]], [[France]]|alt=Oysterman standing in shallow water examining row of oyster cages that stand two feet, or 60 cm, above the water]]
{{Main|Oyster farming}}
Oysters have been cultured since at least the days of the [[Roman Empire]]. The [[Pacific oyster]] (''Magallana gigas'') is presently the most widely grown bivalve around the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/3514/en|title=FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture – Aquatic species|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> Two methods are commonly used, release and bagging. In both cases, oysters are cultivated onshore to the size of spat, when they can attach themselves to a substrate. They may be allowed to mature further to form "seed oysters". In either case, they are then placed in the water to mature. The release technique involves distributing the spat throughout existing oyster beds, allowing them to mature naturally to be collected like wild oysters. Bagging has the cultivator putting spat in racks or bags and keeping them above the bottom. Harvesting involves simply lifting the bags or rack to the surface and removing the mature oysters. The latter method prevents losses to some predators, but is more expensive.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.lamer.lsu.edu/classroom/edonahalfshell/pdf/cycle_info.pdf
|title = Oyster Farming in Louisiana
|publisher = [[Louisiana State University]]
|access-date = 16 January 2008
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071201091053/http://www.lamer.lsu.edu/classroom/edonahalfshell/pdf/cycle_info.pdf
|archive-date = 1 December 2007
}}</ref>

The Pacific oyster has been grown in the outflow of [[mariculture]] ponds. When fish or [[prawn]]s are grown in ponds, it takes typically {{convert|10|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of feed to produce {{convert|1|kg|lb|frac=4|abbr=on}} of product ([[dry-dry]] basis). The other {{convert|9|kg|lb|abbr=on}} goes into the pond and after mineralization, provides food for phytoplankton, which in turn feeds the oyster.

To prevent spawning, sterile oysters are now cultured by crossbreeding [[tetraploid]] and [[diploid]] oysters. The resulting [[triploid]] oyster cannot propagate, which prevents introduced oysters from spreading into unwanted habitats.<ref>{{cite journal
|title= Farming triploid oysters
|author= Nell J. A.
|journal= Aquaculture
|volume=210
|issue= 1–4
|year=2002
|pages= 69–88
|doi=10.1016/S0044-8486(01)00861-4|bibcode= 2002Aquac.210...69N
}}</ref>
[[File:Oyster shells.jpg|thumb|Collected Oyster Shells at Galveston Bay for restoration project by the Galveston Bay Foundation's Oyster Shell Recycling Program.]]

===Restoration and recovery===

{{Main|Oyster reef restoration}}

In many areas, non-native oysters have been introduced in attempts to prop up failing harvests of native varieties. For example, the [[eastern oyster]] (''Crassostrea virginica'') was introduced to California waters in 1875, while the Pacific oyster was introduced there in 1929.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://aqua.ucdavis.edu/dbweb/outreach/aqua/ASAQ-A07.PDF
|title=California Oyster Culture
|publisher=[[University of California, Davis]] Department of Animal Science
|author=Conte, Fred S.
|access-date=16 January 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071201091053/http://aqua.ucdavis.edu/dbweb/outreach/aqua/ASAQ-A07.PDF |archive-date = 1 December 2007}}</ref> Proposals for further such introductions remain controversial.

The Pacific oyster prospered in [[Pendrell Sound]], where the surface water is typically warm enough for spawning in the summer. Over the following years, spat spread out sporadically and populated adjacent areas. Eventually, possibly following adaptation to the local conditions, the Pacific oyster spread up and down the coast and now is the basis of the North American west coast oyster industry. Pendrell Sound is now a reserve that supplies spat for cultivation.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://bcsga.ca/?page_id=110
|title=Shellfish Tenures Locations Map
|access-date=16 January 2008
|archive-date=19 November 2007
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119105404/http://bcsga.ca/?page_id=110
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
Near the mouth of the [[Great Wicomico River]] in the [[Chesapeake Bay]], five-year-old [[artificial reef]]s now harbor more than 180 million native ''[[Crassostrea virginica]]''. That is far lower than in the late 1880s, when the bay's population was in the billions, and watermen harvested about {{convert|910000|m3|e6impbsh|abbr=unit}} annually. The 2009 harvest was less than {{convert|7300|m3|impbsh|abbr=on}}. Researchers claim the keys to the project were:
* using waste oyster shells to elevate the reef floor {{convert|25|-|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} to keep the spat free of bottom sediments
* building larger reefs, ranging up to {{convert|8.1|ha|acre|frac=4|abbr=on}} in size
* disease-resistant broodstock<ref name=ches180>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/04/science/04oyster.html |title= Oysters Are on the Rebound in the Chesapeake Bay |last=Fountain |first=Henry |newspaper=The New York Times |date= 3 August 2009 |access-date=25 August 2009}}</ref>

The "oyster-tecture" movement promotes the use of oyster reefs for water purification and wave attenuation.  An oyster-tecture project has been implemented at Withers Estuary, Withers Swash, South Carolina, by Neil Chambers-led volunteers, at a site where pollution was affecting beach tourism.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://dirt.asla.org/2011/02/24/oyster-tecture-in-action/|title=Oyster-Tecture in Action|date=24 February 2011|work=THE DIRT|access-date=12 December 2017|language=en-US|archive-date=14 April 2013|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414064516/http://dirt.asla.org/2011/02/24/oyster-tecture-in-action/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Currently, for the installation cost of $3000, roughly 4.8 million liters of water are being filtered daily. In New Jersey, however, the Department of Environmental Protection refused to allow oysters as a filtering system in Sandy Hook Bay and the Raritan Bay, citing worries that commercial shellfish growers would be at risk and that members of the public might disregard warnings and consume tainted oysters. New Jersey Baykeepers responded by changing their strategy for utilizing oysters to clean up the waterway, by collaborating with Naval Weapons Station Earle. The Navy station is under 24/7 security and therefore eliminates any [[poaching]] and associated human health risk.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nynjbaykeeper.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=61&Itemid=68|title=NY/NJ Baykeeper {{!}} Protect, Preserve, Restore|website=www.nynjbaykeeper.org|language=en-US|access-date=12 December 2017}}</ref> Oyster-tecture projects have been proposed to protect coastal cities, such as New York, from the threat of rising sea levels due to climate change.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.scapestudio.com/projects/oyster-tecture/|title=Oyster-tecture – SCAPE|work=SCAPE|access-date=12 December 2017|language=en-US}}</ref> Additionally [[Oyster reef restoration]] has shown to increase the population of oyster beds within the oceans while also conserving the biolife within the oyster reefs.

===Human impact===

The accidental or intentional [[Introduced species|introduction of species]] by humans has the potential to negatively impact native oyster populations. For example, non-native species in [[Tomales Bay]] have resulted in the loss of half of California's [[Olympia oyster]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 August 2009 |title=Invasive Species Threaten Critical Habitats, Oyster Among Victims |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/07/090717121426.htm |access-date=1 November 2017 |website=ScienceDaily}}</ref> Oyster reefs occupy a small fraction of their distribution prior to mass harvesting during the last three centuries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kirby |first=Michael Xavier |date=23 August 2004 |title=Fishing down the coast: Historical expansion and collapse of oyster fisheries along continental margins |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=101 |issue=35 |pages=13096–13099 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0405150101 |pmid=15326294 |pmc=516522 |bibcode=2004PNAS..10113096K |issn=0027-8424 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In October 2017, it was reported that [[Marine pollution#Underwater noise|underwater noise pollution]] can affect oysters as they close their shells when exposed to low [[Audio frequency|frequencies]] of sounds in [[experimental]] conditions. Oysters rely on hearing waves and currents to regulate their [[circadian rhythm]]s, and perception of weather events—such as [[rain]]—may induce [[Spawn (biology)#Molluscs|spawning]]. [[Cargo ship]]s, [[pile driver]]s, and explosions conducted underwater produce low frequencies that may be detected by oysters.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Quenqua |first=Douglas |date=25 October 2017 |title=Yes, Oysters Can 'Hear.' They Probably Wish We'd Clam Up. |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/25/science/oysters-noise-pollution.html |access-date=1 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025214027/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/25/science/oysters-noise-pollution.html |archive-date=25 October 2017}}</ref>

Environmental stressors as a result of [[global change]] are also negatively impacting oysters around the world, with many impacts affecting molecular, physiological, and behavioral processes in species including [[Pacific oyster|''Magallana gigas.'']]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ducker |first1=James |last2=Falkenberg |first2=Laura J. |date=2020 |title=How the Pacific Oyster Responds to Ocean Acidification: Development and Application of a Meta-Analysis Based Adverse Outcome Pathway |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |language=English |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2020.597441 |issn=2296-7745 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Shell recycling===
Recycled oyster shells can help restore oyster reefs to provide marine life habitat that reduces flooding, and protects shorelines from storms.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/us-news/climate-environment/climate-save-ocean-recycled-oyster-shells-1fff9d54|title=The 'Save the Oceans' Tax Break: Recycling Oyster Shells|first=Kailyn Rhone | Photographs by Tess Mayer for The Wall Street|last=Journal|newspaper=WSJ }}</ref> Shell-recycling non-profits retrieve shells from restaurants, wash and dry them, and set them in the sun for up to a year to kill bacteria. Some states encourage shell recycling by offering tax incentives.<ref name="auto"/>

==As food==
[[File:European Flat Oyster.jpg|thumb|Freshly shucked European flat oyster]]
[[Jonathan Swift]] is quoted as having said, "He was a bold man that first ate an oyster".<ref>''Polite Conversations'', 1738, cited e.g. in {{cite journal
|title=Oyster Heaven
|journal=Wilmington Magazine
|date=24 November 2004
|url=http://www.starnewsonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20041124%2FMAGAZINE53%2F41129007%2F-1%2Fmagazine50&template=printart
|access-date=16 January 2008
|archive-date=28 September 2007
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928081020/http://www.starnewsonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20041124%2FMAGAZINE53%2F41129007%2F-1%2Fmagazine50&template=printart
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> Evidence of oyster consumption goes back into prehistory, evidenced by [[Midden#Shells|oyster middens]] found worldwide. Oysters were an important food source in all coastal areas where they could be found, and oyster [[fishery|fisheries]] were an important industry where they were plentiful. Overfishing and pressure from diseases and pollution have sharply reduced supplies, but they remain a popular treat celebrated in [[oyster festival]]s in many cities and towns.

It was once assumed that oysters were only safe to eat in months with the letter 'r' in their English and French names. This myth is based in truth, in that in the Northern Hemisphere, oysters are much more likely to spoil in the warmer months of May, June, July, and August.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/faq/fishfaq5b.html |title=Nefsc Fish Faq |publisher=Nefsc.noaa.gov |date=16 June 2011 |access-date=16 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004080442/http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/faq/fishfaq5b.html |archive-date=4 October 2011 }}</ref> In recent years{{Citation needed|reason=How recent? News articles citations needed|date=January 2024}}, pathogens such as ''[[Vibrio parahaemolyticus]]'' have caused outbreaks in several harvesting areas of the eastern United States during the summer months, lending further credence to this belief.

===Dishes===
Oysters can be eaten on the half shell, raw, [[Smoking (food)|smoked]], [[Boiling|boiled]], [[Baking|baked]], [[Frying|fried]], [[Roasting|roasted]], [[stew]]ed, [[canning|canned]], [[Pickling|pickled]], [[Steaming|steamed]], or [[Grilling|broiled]], or used in a variety of drinks. Eating can be as simple as opening the shell and eating the contents, including juice. [[Butter]] and [[edible salt|salt]] are often added. Poached oysters can be served on toast with a cream [[roux]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Creamed Oysters and Leeks On Toast |publisher=Food and Wine |url=https://www.foodandwine.com/recipes/creamed-oysters-and-leeks-toast |access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref> In the case of [[Oysters Rockefeller]], preparation can be very elaborate. They are sometimes served on edible seaweed, such as [[brown algae]].

Care should be taken when consuming oysters. They may be eaten raw, with no dressing or with [[lemon]] juice, [[vinegar]] (most commonly [[shallot]] vinegar), or [[cocktail sauce]]. Upscale restaurants pair raw oysters with [[mignonette sauce]], which consists primarily of fresh chopped [[shallot]], mixed [[Black pepper|pepper]]corn, dry [[white wine]] and lemon juice or [[sherry vinegar]]. Raw oysters have complex flavors that vary among varieties and regions: salty, briny, buttery, metallic or fruity. The texture is soft and fleshy. North American varieties include [[Kumamoto]] and [[Yaquina Bay]] from Oregon, [[Duxbury]] and [[Wellfleet, Massachusetts|Wellfleet]] from Massachusetts, [[Malpeque Bay, Prince Edward Island|Malpeque]] from [[Prince Edward Island]], Canada, [[Blue Point, New York|Blue Point]] from Long Island, New York, [[Pemaquid, Maine|Pemaquid]] from [[Maine]], [[Rappahannock River]] and [[James River]] from Virginia, [[Chesapeake Bay|Chesapeake]] from Maryland and [[Cape May]] from New Jersey. Variations in water salinity, alkalinity, and mineral and nutritional content influence their flavor.

<gallery mode="packed" widths="150px" heights="150px">
File:Smoked oysters in can - Massachusetts.jpg|Smoked oysters
File:Chargrilled oysters.jpg|Chargrilled oysters
File:Six steamed oysters on the half shell.jpg|Steamed Eastern oysters on the half shell
File:Virginia Beach-Catch31 Restaurant - Oysters Rockefeller.jpg|[[Oysters Rockefeller]]
File:Food (43644131025).jpg|[[Taiwan|Taiwanese]] [[oyster misua]]
File:FriedOyster.JPG|[[Oyster omelette]] from [[Singapore]]. Also common in [[Malaysia]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Fried Oyster|url=http://www.bestmalaysianfood.com/fried-oyster/|website=Best Malaysian Food Guide|access-date=24 July 2015|archive-date=25 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150725011318/http://www.bestmalaysianfood.com/fried-oyster/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and throughout [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Taiwan]]
File:"Fine de Claire" raw oysters.jpg|Raw "Fine de Claire" oysters at [[Market of San Miguel|Mercado de San Miguel]] in [[Madrid]]
File:Cutlet Oysters in Hong Kong Japanese Restaurant.jpg|Japanese ''[[kaki furai]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/radio/cooking/20200228.html|title=Let's Cook Japanese – Kaki Furai (Oysters Deep-Fried in Breadcrumbs)|date=2020-02-28|access-date=2021-08-21|website=NHK World-Japan|publisher=[[NHK]]}}</ref>
File:20200718 163109 Oyster dish, TaiBei ChuanQi Reastaurant Qingdao anagoria.jpg|Chinese oysters with garlic and peppers
</gallery>

===Nutrition===
Oysters are an excellent source of [[zinc]], [[iron]], [[calcium]], and [[selenium]], as well as [[vitamin A]] and [[vitamin B12|vitamin B12]]. Oysters are low in [[food energy]]; one dozen raw oysters provides only {{convert|110|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts/finfish-and-shellfish-products/4189/2 |title=Nutrition Facts and Analysis for Mollusks, oyster, eastern, wild, raw |publisher=Nutritiondata.com |access-date=16 August 2011}}</ref> They are rich in protein (approximately 9 g in 100 g of Pacific oysters).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://recipeofhealth.com/nutrition-calories/oyster-pacific-3753rb |title=Calories in pacific Oyster |publisher=Recipeofhealth.com |date=28 March 2015}}</ref> Two oysters ({{convert|28|g|oz|0|abbr=off|disp=or}}) provide the [[Reference Daily Intake]] of zinc and vitamin B12.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nutritioncalculator.net/compare?food=337923+135419+2 |title=Nutrients for 2 oyster, NFS, raw (28 g) Oysters, raw |publisher=nutritioncalculator.net |access-date=22 March 2020 |archive-date=22 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322124340/https://nutritioncalculator.net/compare%3Ffood%3D337923%2B135419%2B2 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Traditionally, oysters are considered to be an [[aphrodisiac]], partially because they resemble female sex organs.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Stott
|first = Rebecca
|year = 2004
|url = {{google books |plainurl=y |id=3qx2ELi_ro}}
|title = Oyster
|publisher = The University of Chicago Press
|access-date = 16 January 2008
|isbn = 978-1-86189-221-8
}}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> A team of American and Italian researchers analyzed bivalves and found they were rich in amino acids that trigger increased levels of [[sex hormone]]s.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.smh.com.au/articles/2005/03/23/1111525227607.html | work=The Sydney Morning Herald | title=Pearly wisdom: oysters are an aphrodisiac | date=24 March 2005}}</ref> Their high [[zinc]] content aids the production of testosterone.<ref name="Kurlansky, Mark 2006"/>

===Shucking oysters===
[[File:Couteau à huitre - coté.jpg|thumb|Special knives for opening live oysters, such as this one, have short and stout blades.]]
Opening oysters, referred to as "oyster-shucking", requires skill. The preferred method is to use a special knife (called an [[oyster knife]], a variant of a [[shucking knife]]), with a short and thick blade about {{convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long.

While different methods are used to open an oyster (which sometimes depend on the type), the following is one commonly accepted oyster-shucking method.
* Insert the blade, with moderate force and vibration if necessary, at the hinge between the two valves.
* Twist the blade until there is a slight pop.
* Slide the blade upward to cut the adductor muscle which holds the shell closed.

Inexperienced shuckers can apply too much force, which can result in injury if the blade slips. Heavy gloves, sometimes sold as [[oyster glove]]s, are recommended; apart from the knife, the shell itself can be razor-sharp. Professional shuckers require fewer than three seconds to open the shell.<ref name="Kurlansky, Mark 2006"/>

If the oyster has a particularly soft shell, the knife can be inserted instead in the "sidedoor", about halfway along one side where the oyster lips widen with a slight indentation.

Oyster-shucking has become a competitive sport; competitions are staged around the world.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mateer |first1=Noelle |title=Competitive Oyster Shucking Is Real, Decadent, And China's Best Party |url=https://deadspin.com/competitive-oyster-shucking-is-real-decadent-and-chin-1838038792 |access-date=24 September 2022 |work=[[Deadspin]] |date=11 September 2019 |language=en-us}}</ref> The Guinness World Oyster Opening Championship was held annually in September at the [[Galway International Oyster Festival]], in [[Galway]], Ireland until 2010.<ref name="Independent2010">{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/music/clodagh-gets-a-real-taste-of-the-festival-atmosphere-26684390.html|title=Clodagh gets a real taste of the festival atmosphere|date=27 September 2010|access-date=18 September 2021|website=[[Irish Independent]]|last=Melia|first=Paul}}</ref> Since 2011, "Guinness" has been dropped from the title.<ref name="GIOF_world">Comparison of archived title of the game:
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.galwayoysterfest.com/guinness-oyster-opening-championship.html|title=Guinness World Oyster Opening Championship|access-date=18 September 2021|website=Galway Oyster Festival|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923225022/http://www.galwayoysterfest.com/guinness-oyster-opening-championship.html|archive-date=23 September 2010|url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.galwayoysterfest.com/guinness-oyster-opening-championship.html|title=Bollinger World Oyster Opening Championship – Craobhchomórtas Domhanda Oscailt Oisrí|access-date=18 September 2021|website=Galway Oyster Festival|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017000323/http://www.galwayoysterfest.com/guinness-oyster-opening-championship.html|archive-date=17 October 2011|url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.galwayoysterfest.com/guinness-oyster-opening-championship.html|title=World Oyster Opening Championship – Craobhchomórtas Domhanda Oscailt Oisrí|access-date=18 September 2021|website=Galway Oyster Festival|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221222715/http://www.galwayoysterfestival.com/en/Irish-Food-Festival-festival-schedule-galway-oyster-festival-food-festival-galway-ireland-irish-oysters/oyster-olympics-oyster-opening-championship.html|archive-date=21 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Food safety and storage===
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2020}}

Unlike most shellfish, oysters can have a fairly long shelf life of up to four weeks. However, their taste becomes less pleasant as they age. Fresh oysters must be alive just before consumption or cooking.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/raw-oysters-still-alive_n_592582f3e4b0ec129d31130b?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAN1Qwcq5YAxeC2vCtI6h3MYWrFZsLRea7pQ5IF1xkki-5KutvD3zeZYD6rgEr84iP1mZsCSh3St-1ZYKvB9tQDL354Je7m-PPLPPSIKp4pWVFaWegWWeF2zGnVwh4-RO07U9Evep4CoSQDNotxPHR4-k191Z3PJiFpu8opkz6U6B|title=Raw Oysters Are Alive Until You Eat Them, In Case You Didn't Know|last=Thomson|first=Julie|date=25 May 2017|website=HuffPost}}</ref>

Cooked oysters that do not open are generally assumed to be previously dead and therefore unsafe.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://safeoysters.uga.edu/consumers/cooking.html |title=Safely Cooking Oysters and Other Molluscan Shellfish |publisher=SafeOysters.org |date=9 March 2009 |access-date=13 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615144635/http://safeoysters.uga.edu/consumers/cooking.html |archive-date=15 June 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> There is only one criterion: the oyster must be capable of tightly closing its shell.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} Open oysters should be tapped on the shell; a live oyster will close up and is safe to eat.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} Oysters which are open and unresponsive are dead and must be discarded. Some dead oysters, or oyster shells which are full of sand, may be closed. These make a distinctive noise when tapped, and are known as "clackers".

Oysters can contain harmful [[bacteria]]. Oysters are filter feeders, so will naturally concentrate anything present in the surrounding water. Oysters from the [[Gulf Coast]] of the United States, for example, contain high bacterial loads of human pathogens in the warm months, most notably ''[[Vibrio vulnificus]]'' and ''[[Vibrio parahaemolyticus]]''. In these cases, the main danger is for [[immunocompromised]] individuals, who are unable to fight off infection and can succumb to [[sepsis]], leading to death. ''Vibrio vulnificus'' is the most deadly seafood-borne [[pathogen]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=M. K.|last2=Oliver|first2=J. D.|date=1 May 2009|title=Vibrio vulnificus: Disease and Pathogenesis|journal=Infection and Immunity|language=en|volume=77|issue=5|pages=1723–1733|doi=10.1128/IAI.01046-08|issn=0019-9567|pmc=2681776|pmid=19255188}}</ref>

====Depuration====
[[File:Oysters in depuration tank (8535757902).jpg|thumb|left|Oysters in a [[depuration]] tank]]
[[Depuration]] of oysters is a common industry practice and widely researched in the scientific community but is not commonly known by end consumers. The main objective of seafood depuration is to remove fecal contamination in seafood before being sold to end consumers. Oyster depuration is useful since they are generally eaten raw and in many countries, the requirement to process is government-regulated or mandatory. The [[United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) formally recognizes depuration and has published detailed documents on the process,<ref>{{cite report |title=Bivalve Depuration: fundamental and practical aspects. |work=[[United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] |id=Fisheries Technical paper No. 511 |location=Rome |year=2008 |url=https://www.fao.org/3/i0201e/i0201e.pdf |isbn=978-92-5-106006-3 }}</ref> whereas the [[Codex Alimentarius]], encourages the application of seafood depuration.<ref>(Code of Practice for fish and fishery products (first edition) Rome 2009. WHO and FAO {{ISBN|978-92-5-105914-2}})</ref>

Oyster depuration begins after the harvest of oysters from farmed locations. The oysters are transported and placed into tanks pumped with clean water for periods of 48 to 72 hours. The holding temperatures and salinity vary according to species. The seawater that the oysters were originally farmed in does not remain in the oyster, since the water used for depuration must be fully sterilized, plus the depuration facility would not necessarily be located near the farming location.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956713513000406 | doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.01.025 | title=Impact of water salinity and types of oysters on depuration for reducing Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) | year=2013 | last1=Phuvasate | first1=Sureerat | last2=Su | first2=Yi-Cheng | journal=Food Control | volume=32 | issue=2 | pages=569–573 }}</ref> Depuration of oysters can remove moderate levels of contamination of most bacterial indicators and pathogens. Well-known contaminants include ''[[Vibrio parahaemolyticus]]'', a temperature-sensitive bacterium found in seawater animals, and ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', a bacterium found in coastal waters near highly populated cities having sewage systems discharging waste nearby, or in the presence of agricultural discharges.{{cn|date=July 2022}} Depuration expands beyond oysters into many shellfish and other related products, especially in seafood that is known to come from potentially polluted areas; depurated seafood is effectively a product cleansed from inside-out to make it safe for human consumption.

===Cultural aspects===
====Religious====
{{see also|Food and drink prohibitions#Crustaceans and other seafood|List of halal and kosher fish}}
As shellfish, consumption of oyster is forbidden by [[Jewish dietary law]]. Similarly, in [[Islam]], [[Jaʽfari jurisprudence|Jaʽafari]] [[Shia Islam|Shia]] and [[Hanafi]] [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Islamic dietary law|dietary jurisprudence]] prohibit consuming bivalves, including oysters, as it is ''[[makruh]]'' (highly disliked).

==Diseases==
Oysters are subject to various diseases which can reduce harvests and severely deplete local populations. Disease control focuses on containing infections and breeding resistant strains, and is the subject of much ongoing research.
* "Dermo" is caused by a [[protozoa]]n [[parasite]] (''[[Perkinsus marinus]]''). It is a prevalent [[pathogen]], causes massive mortality, and poses a significant economic threat to the oyster industry. The disease is not a direct threat to humans consuming infected oysters.<ref name="ct.gov">{{cite web
|url=http://www.ct.gov/doag/cwp/view.asp?a=1369&q=259180
|title=Oyster Diseases
|publisher=Connecticut Department of Agriculture
|access-date=16 January 2008}}</ref> Dermo first appeared in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] in the 1950s, and until 1978 was believed to be caused by a [[fungus]]. While it is most serious in warmer waters, it has gradually spread up the east coast of the United States.<ref name="chesapeakebay.net">{{cite web
|url = http://www.chesapeakebay.net/oysterdiseases.aspx?menuitem=19507
|title = MSX/Dermo
|publisher = Chesapeake Bay Program
|access-date = 5 April 2009
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090301021004/http://www.chesapeakebay.net/oysterdiseases.aspx?menuitem=19507
|archive-date = 1 March 2009
}}</ref>
* Multinucleated sphere X (MSX) is caused by the protozoan ''[[Haplosporidium nelsoni]]'', generally seen as a multinucleated ''[[Plasmodium]]''. It is infectious and causes heavy mortality in the [[eastern oyster]]; survivors, however, develop resistance and can help propagate resistant populations. MSX is associated with high salinity and water temperatures.<ref name="ct.gov"/> MSX was first noted in [[Delaware Bay]] in 1957, and is now found all up and down the East Coast of the United States. Evidence suggests it was brought to the US when ''[[Crassostrea gigas]]'', Pacific oyster variety, was introduced to Delaware Bay.<ref name="chesapeakebay.net"/>
* Denman Island disease causes visible yellow/green pustules on the body and adductor muscles of oysters. This disease mainly affects Pacific oysters (''[[Crassostrea gigas]]''). The disease was first described in 1960 near [[Denman Island]] off the eastern aspect of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. It was found that the causative agent of these lesions are associated with amitochondriate protistan microcells, which were later identified as ''[[Mikrocytida|Mikrocytos mackini]].''

Some oysters also harbor bacterial species which can cause human disease; of importance is ''[[Vibrio vulnificus]]'', which causes [[gastroenteritis]], which is usually self-limiting, and [[cellulitis]]. Cellulitis can be severe and rapidly spreading, requiring antibiotics, medical care, and in some severe cases amputation. It is usually acquired when the contents of the oyster come in contact with a cut skin lesion, as when shucking an oyster.

==See also==
{{cookbook|Oyster}}
{{portal|Food}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Angels on horseback]] (classic recipe)
* [[Auckland oyster]]
* [[European flat oyster]]
* [[Bluff oyster]]
* [[Eastern oyster]]
* [[Delicacy#Risks And Harm Associated with Delicacies|List of delicacies]]
* [[List of smoked foods]]
* ''[[Ostrea angasi]]'' (Australian southern mud or native flat oyster)
* [[Oyster omelette]]
* [[Oyster pirate]]
* [[Oyster sauce]]
* [[Oysters Kirkpatrick]] (classic recipe and minor English literary character)
* [[Oysters Queensland]] (classic recipe made from Tasmanian Gold Oysters and Tasmanian Black Truffle)
* [[Red tide]]
* [[Rolled oyster]]
* [[San Leandro Oyster Beds]]
* [[Sydney rock oyster]]
* [[Tabby concrete]]
}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{commons|Oyster}}
{{wikiquote|Oysters}}
{{wiktionary|oyster}}
* [http://www.molluscan-eye.com molluSCAN-eye - Online biomonitoring project hosted by the University of Bordeaux and the CNRS] A website devoted to the online study of molluscan bivalve behavior around the world, including oysters
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110613083931/http://www.worldofboats.org/boats/view/sunny_south/117 World of Boats (EISCA) Collection ~ Fal Oyster Boat, Sunny South]
* [http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Assets/Photo_albums/Eleven/pages/Oysters1.html Oysters grown on trestles in Ireland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517105216/http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Assets/Photo_albums/Eleven/pages/Oysters1.html |date=17 May 2008 }}
* [http://www.essex-family-history.co.uk/oysters.htm Oyster farming in the Rivers Crouch, Roach and Blackwater of Eastern Essex] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703191344/http://www.essex-family-history.co.uk/oysters.htm |date=3 July 2009 }}
* {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Oyster|short=x}}

{{Oysters}}
{{commercial molluscs}}
{{commercial fish topics}}
{{Edible molluscs}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ostreida]]
[[Category:Dishes involving the consumption of live animals]]
[[Category:Symbols of Mississippi]]
[[Category:Oysters| ]]
[[Category:Smoked food]]
[[Category:Mollusc common names]]
[[Category:Aphrodisiac foods]]

Maze runner

2024-09-13T01:12:36Z

131.111.5.201: Undid revision 1244793124 by Pok3MyCactus (talk)

{{Short description|Routing method in electronic design}}
{{About|the electronic design routing method|other uses}}
{{Refimprove|date=December 2006}}

In [[electronic design automation]], '''maze runner''' is a connection [[Routing (electronic design automation)|routing]] method that represents the entire routing space as a grid. Parts of this grid are blocked by components, specialised areas, or already present wiring. The grid size corresponds to the wiring pitch of the area. The goal is to find a chain of grid cells that go from point A to point B.

A maze runner may use the [[Lee algorithm]]. It uses a [[wave propagation]] style (a wave are all cells that can be reached in n steps) throughout the routing space. The wave stops when the target is reached, and the path is determined by backtracking through the cells.

== See also ==
*[[Autorouter]]

== References ==
*{{Citation |author-last=Lee |author-first=C. Y. |title=An Algorithm for Path Connections and Its Applications |journal=IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers |volume=EC-10 |issue=2 |pages=346–365 |date=1961 |doi=10.1109/TEC.1961.5219222}}. One of the first descriptions of a maze router.

[[Category:Electronic engineering]]
[[Category:Electronic design automation]]
[[Category:Electronics optimization]]

{{electronics-stub}}

Advance care planning

2024-08-29T12:58:08Z

131.111.5.201: /* Advance Decisions to Refuse Treatment (United Kingdom) */

{{Short description|Planning about a patient's future health care}}
{{Globalize|article|Australia|date=August 2014}}
'''Advance care planning''' is a process that enables individuals with decisional mental capacity to make plans about their future [[healthcare|health care]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Rietjens |first=Judith |display-authors=et al |date=September 2017 |title=Definition and recommendations for advance care planning: an international consensus supported by the European Association for Palliative Care |url=https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lanonc/PIIS1470-2045(17)30582-X.pdf |journal=The Lancet |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=E543–E551|doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(17)30582-X |pmid=28884703 }}</ref> Advance care plans provide direction to healthcare professionals when a person is not in a position to make and/or communicate their own healthcare choices. Advance care planning is applicable to [[Adult#Legal adulthood|adults]] at all stages of life.<ref name="Framework">{{cite web | title = A National Framework for Advance Care Directives | publisher = Australian Health Ministers' Advisory Council | date = September 2011 | url = http://www.ahmac.gov.au/cms_documents/AdvanceCareDirectives2011.pdf | access-date = 17 December 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140126141041/http://www.ahmac.gov.au/cms_documents/AdvanceCareDirectives2011.pdf | archive-date = 26 January 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Participation in advance care planning has been shown to reduce stress and anxiety for patients and their families, and lead to improvements in end of life care.<ref name="Detering">{{cite journal | vauthors = Detering KM, Hancock AD, Reade MC, Silvester W | title = The impact of advance care planning on end of life care in elderly patients: randomised controlled trial | journal = BMJ | volume = 340 | pages = c1345 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20332506 | pmc = 2844949 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.c1345 | publisher = BMJ Publishing Group Ltd }}</ref> Older adults are more directly concerned as they may experience a situation where advance care planning can be useful. However, a minority use them. A research conducted in Switzerland with people aged 71 to 80 showed that better knowledge on advance care planning dispositions could improve the perception older people have of them. Communication on dispositions should take into account individual knowledge levels and address commonly enunciated barriers that seem to diminish with increased knowledge.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cattagni Kleiner A, Santos-Eggimann B, Fustinoni S, Dürst AV, Haunreiter K, Rubli-Truchard E, Seematter-Bagnoud L | title = Advance care planning dispositions: the relationship between knowledge and perception | journal = BMC Geriatrics | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | page = 118 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 31014271 | pmc = 6480869 | doi = 10.1186/s12877-019-1113-3 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The main components of advance care planning include the nomination of a [[substitute decision maker]], and the completion of an [[advance health care directive|advance care directive]].

==Background==
Advance care planning may have relevance for [[Adult#Legal adulthood|adults]] at any stage of life.<ref name=Framework /> Advance care planning typically involves a conversation between people, their families and carers and those looking after them about their future wishes and priorities for care.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold Standard Framework - Advance Care Planning |url=https://www.goldstandardsframework.org.uk/advance-care-planning |access-date=2024-08-19 |website=www.goldstandardsframework.org.uk |language=en}}</ref> However, notions of advance care planning vary internationally.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simón |first=P. |date=2011-06-01 |title=Use of advance care planning – a European perspective |url=https://spcare.bmj.com/content/1/1/75.4 |journal=BMJ Supportive & Palliative Care |language=en |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=75–76 |doi=10.1136/bmjspcare-2011-000053.35 |issn=2045-435X}}</ref> Advance care planning aims to allow people to live well, and when death approaches, die in accordance with their personal values.<ref>{{cite web | title = Respecting Patient Choices | publisher = Advance Care Planning Australia | url = http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-everyone/respecting-patient-choices/ | access-date = 18 December 2013 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140126230831/http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-everyone/respecting-patient-choices/| archive-date =2014-01-26}}</ref> Advance care planning is only applicable when the individual cannot make and/or communicate decisions about what they want in relation to their healthcare.<ref>{{cite web | title = Competence and Capacity | publisher = Advance Care Planning Australia | url = http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-professionals/competence-and-capacity/ | access-date = 18 December 2013 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140126230946/http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-professionals/competence-and-capacity/| archive-date =2014-01-26}}</ref> If advance care planning has occurred, patients who have lost capacity or the ability to communicate or both, are able to continue to have a say in their medical care.<ref>{{cite web | title = The benefits of advance care planning | publisher = Advance Care Planning Australia | url = http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-everyone/the-benefits-of-advance-care-planning/ | access-date = 16 December 2013
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140126230838/http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-everyone/the-benefits-of-advance-care-planning/| archive-date =2014-01-26}}</ref> This has been shown to improve end of life care, and provide improved outcomes for both patients and their surviving relatives.<ref name=Detering />

While applicable to all stages of life, it is particularly applicable to [[perioperative]] planning and [[end-of-life care]] decision making, since approximately 1 in 4 people lose decision making capacity when approaching the end of their life.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aslakson RA, Schuster AL, Reardon J, Lynch T, Suarez-Cuervo C, Miller JA, Moldovan R, Johnston F, Anton B, Weiss M, Bridges JF | display-authors = 6 | title = Promoting perioperative advance care planning: a systematic review of advance care planning decision aids | journal = Journal of Comparative Effectiveness Research | volume = 4 | issue = 6 | pages = 615–50 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26346494 | doi = 10.2217/cer.15.43 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Silveira MJ, Kim SY, Langa KM | title = Advance directives and outcomes of surrogate decision making before death | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 362 | issue = 13 | pages = 1211–8 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20357283 | pmc = 2880881 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMsa0907901 | publisher = Massachusetts Medical Society }}</ref> Results of a systematic review indicate there are several [[Prognosis|prognostic indicators]] to help identify patients who may benefit from advance care planning discussions while still in the [[primary care]] setting.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim P, Daly JM, Berry-Stoelzle MA, Schmidt ME, Michaels LC, Dorr DA, Levy BT | title = Prognostic Indices for Advance Care Planning in Primary Care: A Scoping Review | journal = Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 322–338 | date = 2020-03-01 | pmid = 32179616 | pmc = 7772823 | doi = 10.3122/jabfm.2020.02.190173 }}</ref>

Although ACP is potentially appropriate for nearly all adult patients, given the realities of a busy practice, it would be useful to have a system for identifying patients with a more limited prognosis.

Federal and state [[legislation]] in the [[United States|US]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Winzelberg GS, Hanson LC, Tulsky JA | title = Beyond autonomy: diversifying end-of-life decision-making approaches to serve patients and families | journal = Journal of the American Geriatrics Society | volume = 53 | issue = 6 | pages = 1046–50 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 15935032 | doi = 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53317.x | publisher = American Geriatrics Society | s2cid = 13297057 }}</ref> [[Australia]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cartwright CM, Parker MH | title = Advance care planning and end of life decision making | journal = Australian Family Physician | volume = 33 | issue = 10 | pages = 815–9 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15532156 | publisher = Royal Australian College of General Practitioners }}</ref> [[Canada]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dyingwithdignity.ca/learn/patient-rights.php |title=Your rights and choices as a patient |date=2011 |access-date=9 October 2014 |publisher=Dying with Dignity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011155133/http://www.dyingwithdignity.ca/learn/patient-rights.php |archive-date=11 October 2014 }}</ref> and the [[United Kingdom|UK]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mullick A, Martin J, Sallnow L | title = An introduction to advance care planning in practice | journal = BMJ | volume = 347 | pages = f6064 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 24144870 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.f6064 | publisher = BMJ Publishing Group Ltd | s2cid = 29973911 }}</ref> supports the right of [[patient]]s to refuse unwanted medical treatments. People can also express their preferences through written advance directives or by advising their appointed substitute decision maker about their wishes for when they are unable to make or communicate these decisions/wishes themselves.

Increasingly digital approaches are emerging to support the documentation and sharing of advance care planning information, with the majority of approaches using electronic health record systems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Çevik |first1=Hüsna Sarıca |last2=Muente |first2=Catharina |last3=Muehlensiepen |first3=Felix |last4=Birtwistle |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Pachanov |first5=Alexander |last6=Pieper |first6=Dawid |last7=Allsop |first7=Matthew J. |date=2024-05-03 |title=Systems for electronic documentation and sharing of advance care planning preferences: a scoping review |journal=Progress in Palliative Care |language=en |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=149–159 |doi=10.1080/09699260.2024.2339106 |issn=0969-9260 |pmc=11145469 |pmid=38831759}}</ref> Whilst different approaches are emerging, there has been low uptake of digital advance care planning in countries including the UK.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Birtwistle |first1=Jacqueline |last2=Millares-Martin |first2=Pablo |last3=Evans |first3=Catherine J. |last4=Foy |first4=Robbie |last5=Relton |first5=Samuel |last6=Richards |first6=Suzanne |last7=Sleeman |first7=Katherine E. |last8=Twiddy |first8=Maureen |last9=Bennett |first9=Michael I. |last10=Allsop |first10=Matthew J. |date=2022-10-14 |title=Mapping and characterising electronic palliative care coordination systems and their intended impact: A national survey of end-of-life care commissioners |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=17 |issue=10 |pages=e0275991 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0275991 |doi-access=free |pmid=36240254 |pmc=9565729 |bibcode=2022PLoSO..1775991B |issn=1932-6203}}</ref> Reasons for low uptake have been associated with implementation challenges experienced by health professionals, including interoperability challenges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Andy |last2=Birtwistle |first2=Jacqueline |last3=Evans |first3=Catherine J. |last4=Sleeman |first4=Katherine E. |last5=Richards |first5=Suzanne |last6=Foy |first6=Robbie |last7=Martin |first7=Pablo Millares |last8=Carder |first8=Paul |last9=Allsop |first9=Matthew J. |last10=Twiddy |first10=Maureen |date=2024-08-16 |title=Factors Influencing the Implementation of Digital Advance Care Planning: Qualitative Interview Study |url=https://www.jmir.org/2024/1/e50217 |journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research |language=EN |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=e50217 |doi=10.2196/50217|doi-access=free |pmid=39151167 }}</ref> There is increasing recognition of the need for patients to have access to their own digital advance care plan to verify information stored about their care preferences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Birtwistle |first1=Jacqueline |last2=Allsop |first2=Matthew J |last3=Bradshaw |first3=Andy |last4=Millares Martin |first4=Pablo |last5=Sleeman |first5=Katherine E |last6=Twiddy |first6=Maureen |last7=Evans |first7=Catherine J |date=July 2024 |title=Views of patients with progressive illness and carers about the role of digital advance care planning systems to record and share information: A qualitative study |journal=Palliative Medicine |language=en |volume=38 |issue=7 |pages=711–724 |doi=10.1177/02692163241255511 |issn=0269-2163 |pmc=11290031 |pmid=38813756}}</ref>

==Components==
There are two methods by which the communication of an individual's preferences can be known. These are:
# the appointment of a substitute decision maker, and
# the completion of an advance care directive or similar document.
Findings from a systematic review suggest the value and importance that various types of decision aids have for patients to use and help clarify their goals.<ref name=":0" />

===Substitute decision maker===
{{Main|Surrogate decision-maker}}

A [[substitute decision maker]] makes decisions on behalf of an individual only when that individual does not have the [[legal capacity|capacity]] to make/communicate decisions for themselves.<ref name=choosing>{{cite web | title = Choosing someone to speak for you | publisher = Advance Care Planning Australia | url = http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/create-a-care-plan/choosing-someone-to-speak-for-you/ | date = 19 December 2013 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140126231016/http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/create-a-care-plan/choosing-someone-to-speak-for-you/| archive-date =2014-01-26}}</ref>

There are a number of methods by which a substitute decision maker can be identified. The ideal method is the appointment of a person using a statutory document. In the absence of a [[statute|statutory]] document the substitute decision maker may be a "person responsible" as listed in order of authority in legislation.<ref name=choosing />

A substitute decision maker can be chosen by an individual following completion of relevant paperwork, can be assigned to the person by law in the absence of a chosen substitute decision maker (e.g. family member or [[carer]]), or can be appointed for the person (e.g. [[legal guardian|guardian]] appointed by a guardianship tribunal).<ref>{{cite web | title = Substitute Decision Maker | publisher = Advance Care Planning Australia | url = http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-professionals/substitute-decision-maker/ | access-date = 18 December 2013 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140126230950/http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-professionals/substitute-decision-maker/| archive-date =2014-01-26}}</ref>

Substitute decision makers make decisions based on the principles of either [[substituted judgement]] or [[surrogate decision-maker#best interests standard|best interests]].<ref name=Framework /> Substituted judgement is when the substitute decision maker arrives at a decision based on the best approximation of what they believe the person would want. This decision should be informed by both the known wishes of the person and the best available healthcare advice.<ref>{{cite web |title=Substitute Decision-Makers: End-of-Life Decision-Making when the Patient is Incapable |publisher=Caring to the end of life - Princess Margaret Hospital University Health Network |url= http://www.caringtotheend.ca/body.php?id=508&cc=1 |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140726130543/http://www.caringtotheend.ca/body.php?id=508 |archive-date=2014-07-26 }}</ref> Best interests decision making requires the substitute decision maker to focus on the patient's best interests.

Many, but not all, jurisdictions have legislation supporting the appointment of a substitute decision maker through a [[statute|statutory]] document. They have different names depending on the jurisdiction:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |Jurisdiction !! Substitute Decision Maker Type
|-
| rowspan="8" | Australia || Australian Capital Territory || Enduring Power of Attorney <ref>{{cite web | title = Enduring Power of Attorney | publisher = Public Advocate of the ACT | date = 20 July 2011 | url = http://www.publicadvocate.act.gov.au/enduring_power_of_attorney | access-date = 17 December 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| New South Wales || Enduring Guardian <ref>{{cite web | title = Enduring Guardianship | publisher = New South Wales Government, Guardian Tribunal | date = 7 August 2012 | url = http://www.gt.nsw.gov.au/gt/gt_tribunalworks/gt_enduringguardianship.html | access-date = 17 December 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| Northern Territory || N/A
|-
| Queensland || Enduring Power of Attorney <ref>{{cite web | title = Enduring Power of Attorney
| publisher = Queensland Government | date = 22 February 2013 | url = http://www.justice.qld.gov.au/justice-services/guardianship/power-of-attorney/enduring-power-of-attorney | access-date = 17 December 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| South Australia || Medical Power of Attorney <ref>{{cite web | title = Medical Power of Attorney and Anticipatory Direction | publisher = Government of South Australia, SA Health | date = 12 October 2013 | url = http://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/Public+Content/SA+Health+Internet/Health+topics/Legal+matters/Medical+Power+of+Attorney+and+Anticipatory+Direction | access-date = 17 December 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| Tasmania || Enduring Guardian <ref>{{cite web | title = Enduring guardianship | publisher = Tasmanian Government, Guardianship and Administration Board | date = 30 July 2013 | url = http://www.guardianship.tas.gov.au/about_us#aboutusEG | access-date = 17 December 2013 }}</ref>

|-
| Victoria || Medical Treatment Decision Maker <ref>{{cite web|title=Medical Treatment Decision Makers|url=https://www.publicadvocate.vic.gov.au/medical-treatment/medical-treatment-decision-makers|access-date=4 October 2021|website=Office of the Public Advocate Victoria}}</ref>
|-
| Western Australia || Enduring Power of Guardianship <ref>{{cite web | title = Enduring Power of Giardianship (EPG) | publisher = Government of Western Australia, Office of the Public Advocate | url = http://www.publicadvocate.wa.gov.au/E/enduring_power_of_guardianship.aspx | access-date = 18 December 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| colspan="2"| United Kingdom || Lasting power of attorney - health and welfare <ref>{{cite web
| title = Lasting power of attorney | publisher = GOV.UK | date = 8 November 2013 | url = https://www.gov.uk/power-of-attorney | access-date = 17 December 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| colspan="2"| United States || [[Health care proxy]]
|-
| rowspan="13" | Canada || Newfoundland and Labrador || Substitute decision maker <ref>{{cite web|title=It's your decision: how to make an advance health care directive |publisher=NF&L Government, Department of Health and Community Services and Department of Justice |url=http://www.advancecareplanning.ca/media/52141/ahcd_booklet.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130418075833/http://www.advancecareplanning.ca/media/52141/ahcd_booklet.pdf |archive-date=18 April 2013 |access-date=9 Oct 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| Nova Scotia || Delegate Decision maker <ref>{{cite web
| title = Personal directives in Nova Scotia | publisher = novascotia.ca | url = https://novascotia.ca/just/pda/_docs/PersonalDirectiveLongForm0311.pdf | access-date = 9 Oct 2014}}</ref>
|-
| New Brunswick || Power of Attorney for personal care <ref>{{cite web | title = Wills and estate planning | publisher = Public Legal education and information service of New Brunswick | url = http://www.legal-info-legale.nb.ca/en/powers_of_attorney#Personal | access-date = 9 Oct 2014}}</ref>
|-
| Prince Edward Island || Health Care Proxy <ref>{{cite web | title = Health Care Directives | publisher = Community legal information association of PEI | url = http://www.cliapei.ca/sitefiles/File/publications/PLA9.pdf | access-date = 9 Oct 2014}}</ref>
|-
| Quebec || Mandatary <ref>{{cite web | title = My mandate in case of incapacity | publisher = Curateur Public Quebec | url = http://www.curateur.gouv.qc.ca/cura/en/outils/publications/mon_mandat.html | access-date = 9 Oct 2014}}</ref>
|-
| Ontario || Power of Attorney for Personal Care <ref>{{cite web | title = Power of Attorney for Personal Care | publisher = Community Legal Education Ontario | url = http://www.cleo.on.ca/en/publications/power | access-date = 9 Oct 2014}}</ref>
|-
| Manitoba || Health Care Proxy <ref>{{cite web | title = Health Care Directive | publisher = gov.mb.ca | url = https://www.gov.mb.ca/health/livingwill.html | access-date = 9 Oct 2014}}</ref>
|-
| Saskatchewan || Health Care Proxy <ref>{{cite web|title=The Health Care Directives and Substitute Health Care Decision Makers Act |publisher=justice.gov.sk.ca |url=http://www.justice.gov.sk.ca/Health-Care-Directives-and-Substitute-Health-Care-Decision-Makers-Act |access-date=9 Oct 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015153032/http://www.justice.gov.sk.ca/Health-Care-Directives-and-Substitute-Health-Care-Decision-Makers-Act |archive-date=2014-10-15 }}</ref>
|-
| Alberta || Healthcare Agent <ref>{{cite web | title = Understanding Personal Directives | publisher = Government of Alberta | url = http://humanservices.alberta.ca/documents/opg-personal-directives-publication-opg1646.pdf | access-date = 9 Oct 2014}}</ref>
|-
| British Columbia || Temporary Substitute Decision Maker <ref>{{cite web | title = Health Care (Consent) and Care Facility (Admission) Act | publisher = BC laws.ca | url = http://www.bclaws.ca/EPLibraries/bclaws_new/document/ID/freeside/00_96181_01#section17 | access-date = 9 Oct 2014}}</ref>
|-
| Yukon Territory || Health Care Proxy <ref>{{cite web|title=Advance Directives |publisher=Yukon Health Guide |url=http://www.hss.gov.yk.ca/advance_directives.php |access-date=9 Oct 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130519093523/http://www.hss.gov.yk.ca/advance_directives.php |archive-date=2013-05-19 }}</ref>
|-
| Northwest Territories || Health Care Agent <ref>{{cite web | title = Personal Directives | publisher = NWT Health and Social services | url = http://www.hss.gov.nt.ca/sites/default/files/personal_directives_act.pdf | access-date = 9 Oct 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141015194352/http://www.hss.gov.nt.ca/sites/default/files/personal_directives_act.pdf | archive-date = 15 October 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| Nunavut || N/A
|}

===Advance care directives===
{{Main|Advance health care directive}}

An [[advance care directive]] is a document detailing an individual's health care preferences. This may include personal values and life goals, describe circumstances the person would find unacceptable, identify preferences relating to specific medical interventions, or a combination of these.<ref name=Framework />

Advance care directives may be written on specifically designed forms, but can also take the form of a written letter or statement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Advance Care Planning |publisher=NSW Office for Ageing, NSW Trustee and Guardian and NSW Public Guardian |url= http://www.planningaheadtools.com.au/advance-care-planning/for-individuals-families-and-carers/ |access-date=18 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215053115/http://www.planningaheadtools.com.au/advance-care-planning/for-individuals-families-and-carers/ |archive-date=15 December 2013 }}</ref> Inclusion of a doctor in the completion of an advance care directive will assist in ensuring that an individual's wishes are clear and written in a manner that is easy for substitute decision makers and/or medical staff to interpret and follow them in the future. Having a [[physician]] witness the document will reinforce this by showing future medical staff that the document contains information about informed decisions due to the assistance of a physician.<ref>{{cite web | title = Writing down your wishes | publisher = Advance Care Planning Australia | url = http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/create-a-care-plan/writing-down-your-wishes/ | access-date = 18 December 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140126231020/http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/create-a-care-plan/writing-down-your-wishes/ | archive-date = 26 January 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

=== Advance Decisions to Refuse Treatment (United Kingdom) ===
Some countries do not use the term 'directive', due to advance statements and/or advance care plans not usually having the legal standing to enforce a directive (for instance, a patient cannot ''direct'' a doctor to give him a specific treatment at a later time-point i.e. when she/he loses decisional capacity). In the United Kingdom, Advance Decisions, or Advance Decisions to Refuse Treatment (short: 'ADRT') have a legal standing under the UK [[Mental Capacity Act 2005|Mental Capacity Act]] (2005). They can be written down and signed by patients. Such an ADRT must be specific about the treatment that is being refused and the circumstances in which the refusal will apply. To be valid, the person must have been competent and understood the decision when they signed the ADRT. Where the patient's advance decision relates to a refusal of potentially life-saving or life prolonging treatment, this must be recorded in writing and witnessed. Any advance refusal is legally binding, providing that the patient is an adult, the patient was competent and properly informed when reaching the prior decision. It is clearly applicable to the present circumstances and there is no reason to believe that the patient has changed their mind. If an advance decision does not meet these criteria but appears to set out a clear indication of the patient's wishes, it will not be legally binding but should be taken into consideration in determining the patient's best interests. An [https://executive.nhs.wales/networks/programmes/peolc/documents/wales-adrt-e-form-v1-pdf/ example] of an ADRT is the national form and guidance published by [[NHS Wales]]<nowiki/>on their Advance and Future Care Planning site.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2022 |title=Advance and Future Care Plans |url=https://executive.nhs.wales/networks/programmes/peolc/professionals/advance-and-future-care-plans/ |access-date=12 January 2024 |website=NHS Wales Executive}}</ref>

In the UK advance decisions are recognised to be an ethically complex topic and an area of ongoing research and debate <ref>{{cite journal| volume = 45| issue = 3| pages = 204–208| vauthors = Gillett G | title = Advance decisions in dementia: when the past conflicts with the present| journal = J Med Ethics| access-date = 29 August 2024| year = 2019| url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29986905/}}</ref>.

== Benefits ==

=== Advance care planning for adults with heart failure ===
The latest evidence indicates that advance care planning (ACP) may help to increase documentation by medical staff regarding discussions with participants, and improve an individual's depression.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nishikawa Y, Hiroyama N, Fukahori H, Ota E, Mizuno A, Miyashita M, Yoneoka D, Kwong JS | display-authors = 6 | title = Advance care planning for adults with heart failure | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2020 | pages = CD013022 | date = February 2020 | issue = 2 | pmid = 32104908 | pmc = 7045766 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD013022.pub2 | collaboration = Cochrane Heart Group }}</ref> This involves discussing an individual's future care plan in consideration of the individual's preferences and values. The findings are however, based on low-quality evidence as there is a need for further evidence from large studies to fully explore the effects of ACP for older adults.<ref name=":6" />

== Definition, future care planning and mental capacity ==
'''Advance care planning''' was defined by an international white paper as involving individuals ''with'' decisional mental capacity at the outset, being able to be fully involved in plans and discussions about their [[healthcare|health care]].<ref name=":1" /> This has led to some countries in the [[United Kingdom]] using 'Future Care Planning' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rietjens |display-authors=etal |first=Judith |date=18 February 2021 |title=Advance Care Planning: the future |journal=BMJ Supportive & Palliative Care |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=89–91 |doi=10.1136/bmjspcare-2020-002304|pmid=32414786 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 January 2024 |title=NHS Scotland: Future Care Planning |url=https://www.nhsinform.scot/care-support-and-rights/decisions-about-care/future-care-planning/ |access-date=11 February 2024 |website=NHS Inform Scotland}}</ref> as an umbrella term, to include both advance care planning for those with capacity, and a planning for those with diminished or absent mental capacity (Best Interests decision making as defined by the UK Mental Capacity Act). Professor [[Mark Taubert]], a palliative care consultant who is lead for Advance & Future Care Planning in Wales, published a position paper on this in 2022,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taubert |display-authors=etal |first=Mark |date=1 February 2022 |title=Advance and Future Care Planning: strategic approaches in Wales |journal=BMJ Supportive & Palliative Care |volume=14 |pages=e608–e612 |doi=10.1136/bmjspcare-2021-003498 |doi-access=free|pmid=35105552 }}</ref> and NHS Scotland has also adopted Future Care Planning as an umbrella term, under which Advance Care Planning or Anticipatory Care planning are only a part-component.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Health law in the United States]]
[[Category:Health law in the United Kingdom]]

Advance healthcare directive

2024-08-29T12:57:51Z

131.111.5.201: /* Background */

{{Short description|Legal document}}
{{Wills, trusts, estates}}

An '''advance healthcare directive''', also known as '''living will''', '''personal directive''', '''advance directive''', '''medical directive''' or '''advance decision''', is a legal document in which a person specifies what actions should be taken for their health if they are no longer able to make decisions for themselves because of illness or incapacity. In the U.S. it has a legal status in itself, whereas in some countries it is legally persuasive without being a legal document.

A living will is one form of advance directive, leaving instructions for treatment. Another form is a specific type of [[power of attorney]] or [[health care proxy]], in which the person authorizes someone (an agent) to make decisions on their behalf when they are incapacitated. People are often encouraged to complete both documents to provide comprehensive guidance regarding their care, although they may be combined into a single form. An example of combination documents includes the [[Five Wishes]] in the United States. The term ''living will'' is also the commonly recognised vernacular in many countries, especially the U.K.<ref>Docker, C. ''Advance Directives/Living Wills'' in: McLean S.A.M., "Contemporary Issues in Law, Medicine and Ethics," Dartmouth 1996</ref> The legality of [[consent|advance consent]] for advance healthcare directives depends on [[jurisdiction]].<ref name="b306">{{cite journal | last=Oliver | first=Jill | last2=Petropanagos | first2=Angel | last3=Chidwick | first3=Paula | title=Final consent, advance consent and alleviating suffering in frail adults requesting MAiD | journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal | volume=194 | issue=18 | date=9 May 2022 | issn=0820-3946 | pmid=35534025 | pmc=9259404 | doi=10.1503/cmaj.81239 | pages=E652–E652}}</ref>

==Background==
Advance directives were created in response to the increasing sophistication and prevalence of medical technology.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Childress J | year = 1989 | title = Dying Patients. Who's in Control? | journal = Law, Medicine and Health Care| volume = 17 | issue = 3| pages = 227–228 | doi = 10.1111/j.1748-720x.1989.tb01099.x | s2cid = 57182781 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Choice in Dying (now: Partnership in Caring). ''Choice in Dying: an historical perspective.'' CID 1035-30th Street, N.W. Washington, DC. 2007</ref> Numerous studies have documented critical deficits in the medical care of the dying; it has been found to be unnecessarily prolonged,<ref>Callahan, D. ''Setting Limits'' Simon & Schuster. 1983</ref> painful,<ref>{{cite journal | year = 1995 | title = A controlled trial to improve care for seriously ill hospitalized patients: the Study to Understand Prognoses and Preferences for Outcomes and Risks of Treatments (SUPPORT) | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 274 | issue = 20| pages = 1591–1598 | doi = 10.1001/jama.1995.03530200027032 }}</ref> expensive,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lubitz J, Riley GF | year = 1993 | title = Trends in Medicare payments in the last year of life | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 328 | issue = 15| pages = 1092–1096 | doi = 10.1056/nejm199304153281506 | pmid = 8455667 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Scitovsky A.A. | year = 1994 | title = The High Cost of Dying, Revisited | journal = Milbank Quarterly | volume = 72 | issue = 4| pages = 561–591 | doi = 10.2307/3350356 | jstor = 3350356 | pmid = 7997219 }}</ref> and emotionally burdensome to both patients and their families.<ref>{{cite journal | year = 1991 | title = Guidelines for the Appropriate Use of Do-Not-Resuscitate Orders. Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 265 | issue = 14| pages = 1868–1871 | doi = 10.1001/jama.265.14.1868 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = McGrath RB | year = 1987 | title = In-house Cardiopulmonary resuscitation -- after a quarter of a century | journal = Annals of Emergency Medicine | volume = 16 | issue = 12| pages = 1365–1368 | doi = 10.1016/s0196-0644(87)80420-1 | pmid = 3318591 }}</ref>

Advance decisions continue to be recognised as an ethically complex topic and an area of ongoing research and debate <ref>{{cite journal| volume = 45| issue = 3| pages = 204–208| vauthors = Gillett G | title = Advance decisions in dementia: when the past conflicts with the present| journal = J Med Ethics| access-date = 29 August 2024| year = 2019| url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29986905/}}</ref>.

==Living will==
[[Image:Refusal of treatment form.jpg|thumb|left|Refusal of treatment form]]
The living will is the oldest form of advance directive. It was first proposed by an [[Illinois]] attorney, [[Luis Kutner]], in a speech to the Euthanasia Society of America in 1967<ref>Benzenhöfer, U, Hack-Molitor, G (2009). Luis Kutner and the development of the advance directive (living will). Frankfurt (Main). [http://publikationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/34515].</ref> and published in a law journal in 1969.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kutner|first1=Luis|title=Due Process of Euthanasia: The Living Will, a Proposal|journal=Indiana Law Journal|date=1969|volume=44|issue=4|pages=534–554|url=https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ilj/vol44/iss4/2/|access-date=22 March 2018}}</ref> Kutner drew from existing estate law, by which an individual can control property affairs after death (i.e., when no longer available to speak for himself or herself) and devised a way for an individual to express their health care desires when no longer able to express current healthcare wishes. Because this form of "will" was to be used while an individual was still alive (but no longer able to make decisions), it was dubbed the "living will".<ref>{{cite journal | author = Alexander G.J. | year = 1991 | title = Time for a new law on health care advance directives | journal = Hastings Center Law Journal | volume = 42 | issue = 3| pages = 755–778 }}</ref> The U.S. [[Patient Self-Determination Act]] (PSDA)<ref>Patient Self-Determination Act U.S.C.A. 1395cc & 1396a, 4206-4207, 4751, Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990, P.L:.b 101-508 (101ST Cong. 2nd Sess. Nov. 5, 1990) (West Supp., 1991).</ref> went into effect in December 1991 and required healthcare providers (primarily hospitals, nursing homes, and home health agencies) to give patients information about their rights to make advance directives under state law.<ref>Docker, C. Advance Directives/Living Wills in: McLean S.A.M., Contemporary Issues in Law, Medicine and Ethics," Dartmouth 1996:182.</ref>

A living will usually provides specific directives about the course of treatment healthcare providers and caregivers are to follow. In some cases a living will may forbid the use of various kinds of burdensome medical treatment. It may also be used to express wishes about the use or foregoing of food and water, if supplied via tubes or other medical devices. The living will is used only if the individual has become unable to give informed consent or refusal due to incapacity. A living will can be very specific or very general. An example of a statement sometimes found in a living will is: "If I suffer an incurable, irreversible illness, disease, or condition and my attending physician determines that my condition is terminal, I direct that life-sustaining measures that would serve only to prolong my dying be withheld or discontinued."

More specific living wills may include information regarding an individual's desire for such services such as analgesia (pain relief), antibiotics, hydration, feeding, and the use of ventilators or cardiopulmonary resuscitation. However, studies have also shown that adults are more likely to complete these documents if they are written in everyday language and less focused on technical treatments.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tokar |first=Steve |url=http://pub.ucsf.edu/today/cache/feature/200710312.html |title=Patients Prefer Simplified Advance Directive over Standard Form - UCSF Today |publisher=Pub.ucsf.edu |access-date=2010-06-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207185025/http://pub.ucsf.edu/today/cache/feature/200710312.html |archive-date=2009-02-07 }}</ref>

However, by the late 1980s, public advocacy groups became aware that many people remained unaware of advance directives<ref>{{cite journal | author = Damato AN | year = 1993 | title = Advance Directives for the Elderly: A Survey | journal = New Jersey Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3| pages = 215–220 | pmid = 8446299 }}</ref> and even fewer actually completed them.<ref>Anthony, J. Your aging parents: document their wishes. ''American Health.'' May 1995. pp. 58-61, 109.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cugliari A, Miller T, Sobal J | year = 1995 | title = Factors promoting completion of advance directives in the hospital | doi = 10.1001/archinte.155.17.1893 | journal = Archives of Internal Medicine | volume = 155 | issue = 9| pages = 1893–1898 | pmid = 7677556 }}</ref> In part, this was seen as a failure of health care providers and medical organizations to promote and support the use of these documents.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Johnston SC | year = 1995 | title = The discussion about advance directives: patient and physician opinions regarding when and how it should be conducted | journal = Archives of Internal Medicine | volume = 155 | issue = 10| pages = 1025–1030 | doi=10.1001/archinte.155.10.1025| pmid = 7748044 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The public's response was to press for further legislative support. The most recent result was the Patient Self-Determination Act of 1990,<ref>''Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1990'' [including amendments commonly known as The Patient Self-Determination Act]. Sections 4206 and 4751, P.L. 101-508. Introduced as S. 1766 by Senators Danforth and Moynihan, and HR 5067 by Congressman Sander Levin. Signed by the President on November 5, 1990; effective beginning December 1, 1991.</ref> which attempted to address this awareness problem by requiring health care institutions to better promote and support the use of advance directives.<ref name="American Bar Association 1991"/><ref>''Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1990''.</ref>

Living wills proved to be very popular, and by 2007, 41% of Americans had completed a living will.<ref>Charmaine Jones, With living wills gaining in popularity, push grows for more extensive directive, ''Crain's Cleveland Business,'' August 20, 2007.</ref> In response to public needs, state legislatures soon passed laws in support of living wills in virtually every state in the union.<ref name="American Bar Association 1991">American Bar Association. ''Patient Self-Determination Act: State Law Guide.'' American Bar Association Commission on Legal Problems of The Elder. August 1991.</ref>

However, as living wills began to be better recognized, key deficits were soon discovered. Most living wills tended to be limited in scope<ref name="Annas, GJ 1210">{{cite journal | author = Annas GJ | year = 1991 | title = The Health Care Proxy and the Living Will | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 324 | issue = 17| pages = 1210–1213 | doi=10.1056/nejm199104253241711| pmid = 2011167 | url = https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/1297 }}</ref> and often failed to fully address presenting problems and needs.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Hashimoto DM | year = 1983 | title = A structural analysis of the physician-patient relationship in no-code decision-making | url =https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6845&context=ylj | journal = Yale Law Journal | volume = 93 | issue = 2| pages = 362–383 | doi=10.2307/796311| jstor = 796311 | pmid = 11658880 }}</ref><ref>Hastings Center. ''Guidelines on the Termination of Life-Sustaining Treatment and the Care of the Dying: a report by the Hastings Center.'' [[Briarcliff Manor, NY]]: Indiana University Press. 1987.</ref> Further, many individuals wrote out their wishes in ways that might conflict with quality medical practice.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Campbell ML | year = 1995 | title = Interpretation of an ambiguous advance directive | journal = Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 226–235 | doi=10.1097/00003465-199509000-00001| pmid = 7656765 }}</ref> Ultimately, it was determined that a living will alone might be insufficient to address many important health care decisions. This led to the development of what some have called "second generation" advance directives<ref name="Annas, GJ 1210"/> – the "health care proxy appointment" or "medical power of attorney."

Living wills also reflect a moment in time, and may therefore need regular updating to ensure that the correct course of action can be chosen.

==Healthcare proxy==
{{Main|Health care proxy|Power of attorney}}

Power of attorney statutes have existed in the United States since the days of "[[common law]]" (i.e., laws brought from England to the United States during the colonial period). These early powers of attorney allowed an individual to name someone to act in their stead. Drawing upon these laws, "durable powers of attorney for health care" and "healthcare proxy appointment" documents were created and codified in law, allowing an individual to appoint someone to make healthcare decisions in their behalf if they should ever be rendered incapable of making their wishes known.<ref name="AmericanBarAsso.1991">American Bar Association. ''Patient Self-Determination Act: State Law Guide.'' American Bar Association Commission on Legal Problems of the Elderly. August 1991.</ref> People will normally benefit from having both a durable power of attorney and a healthcare proxy.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal |last1=Brett |first1=AS |title=Limitations of listing specific medical interventions in advance directives. |journal=JAMA |date=14 August 1991 |volume=266 |issue=6 |pages=825–8 |doi=10.1001/jama.1991.03470060087032 |pmid=1865521}}</ref><ref name="Silverman, H 1031">{{cite journal |last1=Silverman |first1=HJ |last2=Vinicky |first2=JK |last3=Gasner |first3=MR |title=Advance directives: implications for critical care. |journal=Critical Care Medicine |date=July 1992 |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=1027–31 |doi=10.1097/00003246-199207000-00021 |pmid=1617972|s2cid=7025389 }}</ref>

A healthcare proxy document appoints a person, the proxy, who can make decisions on behalf of the granting individual in the event of incapacity. The appointed healthcare proxy has, in essence, the same rights to request or refuse treatment that the individual would have if still capable of making and communicating health care decisions.<ref name="AmericanBarAsso.1991"/>
The appointed representative is authorized to make real-time decisions in actual circumstances, as opposed to advance decisions framed in hypothetical situations, as might be recorded in a living will. The healthcare proxy was rapidly accepted within the U.S. and authorizing legislation was soon enacted in most states.<ref name="AmericanBarAsso.1991"/>

One problem with a conventional healthcare proxy is that it may not be possible for the appointed proxy to determine what care choices the individual would have made if still capable, as healthcare proxies may be too vague for meaningful interpretation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=High |first1=Dallas M. |title=All in the Family: Extended Autonomy and Expectations in Surrogate Health Care Decision-Making1 |journal=The Gerontologist |date=1 June 1988 |volume=28 |issue=Suppl |pages=46–51 |doi=10.1093/geront/28.Suppl.46|pmid=3139501 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cohen-Mansfield |first1=J |last2=Rabinovich |first2=BA |last3=Lipson |first3=S |last4=Fein |first4=A |last5=Gerber |first5=B |last6=Weisman |first6=S |last7=Pawlson |first7=LG |title=The decision to execute a durable power of attorney for health care and preferences regarding the utilization of life-sustaining treatments in nursing home residents. |journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |date=February 1991 |volume=151 |issue=2 |pages=289–94 |doi=10.1001/archinte.1991.00400020053012 |pmid=1992956}}</ref> While a study comparing next-of-kin decisions on behalf of an incapacitated person, (who later recovered) found that these surrogates chose correctly 68% of the time overall.<ref name=ArchInternMed.2006>{{cite journal|title=The Accuracy of Surrogate Decision Makers: A Systematic Review|journal=Archives of Internal Medicine|quote=Conclusions Patient-designated and next-of-kin surrogates incorrectly predict patients' end-of-life treatment preferences in one third of cases.|doi=10.1001/archinte.166.5.493|pmid=16534034|volume=166|issue=5|pages=493–7|year=2006|last1=Shalowitz|first1=David I.|last2=Garrett-Mayer|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Wendler|first3=David|doi-access=}}</ref>

===Values-based directives===

One alternative to a conventional healthcare proxy is the '''values history''', a "two-part advance directive instrument that elicits patient values about terminal medical care and therapy-specific directives."<ref>[[David John Doukas|Doukas DJ]], McCullough LB, "Assessing the Values History of the Aged Patient Regarding Critical and Chronic Care," in The Handbook of Geriatric Assessment. Eds. Gallo JJ, Reichel W, Andersen LM, Rockville, MD: Aspen Press, 1988:111-124.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Doukas DJ, McCullough LB | author-link = David John Doukas | year = 1991 | title = The values history: the evaluation of the patient's values and advance directives | journal = Journal of Family Practice | volume = 32 | issue = 2| pages = 145–53 | pmid = 1990042 }}</ref> The goal of this advance directive is to move away from a focus on specific treatments and medical procedures to a focus on patient values and personal goals.<ref>Lambert P, Gibson, JM, Nathanson, P. The Values History: An Innovation in Surrogate Medical Decision-Making, Med. & Health Care, 202-212 (1990)</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |title=Values History |url=https://www.hospicefed.org/page/valueshistory |website=HPCFM |publisher=Hospice & Palliative Care Federation of Massachusetts |access-date=23 November 2021}}</ref>
Studies suggest that values regarding financial and psychological burden are strong motivators in not wanting a broad array of end-of-life therapies.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Eisendrath S, Jonsen A | year = 1983 | title = The living will – help or hindrance? | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 249 | issue = 15| pages = 2054–58 | doi=10.1001/jama.249.15.2054| pmid = 6834595 }}</ref>

Another alternative to a conventional healthcare proxy is the '''medical directive''',<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Emanuel LL, Emanuel E | year = 1989 | title = The medical directive: A new comprehensive advance care document | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 261 | issue = 22| pages = 3288–93 | doi=10.1001/jama.261.22.3288 | pmid = 2636851}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sachs GA, Cassell CK | year = 1990 | title = The medical directive | doi= 10.1001/jama.267.16.2229 | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 267 | issue = 16| pages = 2229–33 }}</ref> a document that describes six case scenarios for advance medical decision-making. The scenarios are each associated with a roster of commonly considered medical procedures and interventions, allowing the individual to decide in advance which treatments are wanted or not wanted under the circumstances.

A study conducted to address concerns that a non-statutory advance directive might leave an incapacitated person with a document that may not be honored found that they are generally accepted.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Wolf SM | year = 1991 | title = Honoring broader directives | journal = Hastings Center Report | volume = 21 | issue = 5| pages = S8–S9 | doi=10.2307/3562902| jstor = 3562902 }}</ref>

===Psychiatric advance directives===
A '''psychiatric advance directive''' (PAD), also known as a mental health advance directive, is a written document that describes what a person wants to happen if at some time in the future they are judged to have a [[mental disorder]] in such a way that they are deemed unable to decide for themselves or to communicate effectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=About PADs |url=https://nrc-pad.org/ |website=NRC•PAD |publisher=National Resource Center on Psychiatric Advance Directives |access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref>

A PAD can inform others about what treatment they want or do not want from [[psychiatrists]] or other [[mental health professionals]], and it can identify a person to whom they have given the authority to make decisions on their behalf. A mental health advance directive is one kind of [[advance health care directive]].

====Legal foundations====

Psychiatric advance directives are legal documents used by persons currently enjoying legal capacity to declare their preferences and instructions for future [[mental health]] treatment, or to appoint a surrogate decision maker through Health Care [[Power of Attorney]] (HCPA), in advance of being targeted by coercive mental health laws, during which they may be stripped of legal capacity to make decisions.<ref>"Advance Directives for Mental Health Treatment" Debra S. Srebnik and John Q. La Fond Psychiatric Services, Volume 50, Number 7: 919 - 925, July 1999</ref>

In the United States, although 25 states have now passed legislation in the past decade establishing authority for PADs, there is relatively little public information available to address growing interest in these legal documents.<ref>"Law and Psychiatry: Psychiatric Advance Directives and the Treatment of Committed Patients" [[Paul S. Appelbaum]], Psychiatric Services, Volume 55, Number 7: 751 - 763, July 2004</ref> The [[Joint Commission]] on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) requires behavioral health facilities to ask patients if they have PADs.

====Clinical benefits====

A NIH-funded study conducted by researchers at [[Duke University]] has shown that creating a PAD with a trained facilitator increases therapeutic alliance with clinicians, enhances involuntary patients' treatment satisfaction and perceived autonomy, and improves treatment decision-making capacity among people labeled with severe mental illness.<ref>"Facilitated Psychiatric Advance Directives: A Randomized Trial of an Intervention to Foster Advance Treatment Planning Among Persons with Severe Mental Illness" Jeffrey W. Swanson, Marvin S. Swartz, Eric B. Elbogen, Richard A. Van Dorn, Joelle Ferron, H. Ryan Wagner, Barbara J. McCauley, [[Mimi Kim]]. American Journal of Psychiatry, Volume 163, Number 11: 1943-1951, November 2006</ref>

PADs also provide a transportable document—increasingly accessible through electronic directories—to convey information about a detainee's treatment history, including medical disorders, emergency contact information, and medication side effects. Clinicians often have limited information about citizens detained and labeled as psychiatric patients who present or are coercively presented and labeled as in crisis. A PAD may help clinicians gain prompt access to relevant information about individual cases and thus improve the quality of clinical decision-making, and enhance patient safety and long-term [[autonomy]].

====Barriers====

National surveys in the United States indicate that although approximately 70% of people targeted by coercive psychiatry laws would want a PAD if offered assistance in completing one, less than 10% have actually completed a PAD.<ref>"Psychiatric Advance Directives Among Public Mental Health Consumers in Five U.S. Cities: Prevalence, Demand, and Correlates" Jeffrey W. Swanson, Marvin S. Swartz, Joelle Feron, Eric B. Elbogen, and Richard Van Dorn. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, Volume 34, Number 1, 2006</ref>

In a survey conducted of 600 [[psychiatrists]], [[psychologists]], and [[social workers]] showed that the vast majority thought advance care planning for crises would help improve patients' overall mental health care.<ref>"Clinical Decision Making and Views About Psychiatric Advance Directives" Eric B. Elbogen, Marvin S. Swartz, Richard Van Dorn, Jeffrey W. Swanson, Mimi Kim, and Anna Scheyett Psychiatric Services, Volume 57, Number 3: 350-355, March 2006</ref> Further, the more clinicians knew about PAD laws, the more favorable were their attitudes toward these practices. For instance, while most [[psychiatrists]], [[social workers]], and [[psychologists]] surveyed believed PADs would be helpful to people detained and targeted for forced drugging and electroshock when labeled with severe [[mental illnesses]], clinicians with more legal knowledge about PAD laws were more likely to endorse PADs as a beneficial part of patients' treatment planning.

Many clinicians reported not knowing enough about how PADs work and specifically indicated they lacked resources to readily help patients fill out PADs or to help their clients develop crisis plans.

==Worldwide==

===Australia===
The laws regarding advance directives, powers of attorney, and enduring guardianships vary from state to state. In Queensland, for example, the concept of an advance health directive is defined in the ''[[Power of attorney|Powers of attorney]] act of 1998'' and ''Guardianship and Administration act of 2000''.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Rothschild |first1= Alan |editor1-first= Dieter |editor1-last= Birnbacher |editor2-first= Edgar |editor2-last= Dahl |title= Giving Death a Helping Hand: Physician-Assisted Suicide and Public Policy. An International Perspective |series= International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine |volume= 38 |date= 5 Feb 2008 |publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781402064951 |page= 104 |chapter= Physician-Assisted Death. An Australian Perspective}}</ref> Tasmania has no specific legislation concerning advance healthcare directives.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-professionals/the-law-of-advance-care-planning |title=The law of Advance Care Planning | Advance Care Planning |access-date=2017-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204171033/http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-professionals/the-law-of-advance-care-planning |archive-date=2017-02-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Advance Care Planning (ACP) has been gaining prominence in Australia for its role in enhancing a patient's autonomy and as an important component of good end-of-life care.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rhee|first1=Joel J.|last2=Zwar|first2=Nicholas A.|last3=Kemp|first3=Lynn A.|date=2012-02-24|title=Uptake and implementation of Advance Care Planning in Australia: findings of key informant interviews|url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/ah/AH11019|journal=Australian Health Review|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=98–104|doi=10.1071/AH11019|pmid=22513028|issn=1449-8944|hdl=1959.4/unsworks_13380|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

===Canada===
[[Health Canada]] – [[Canada]]'s federal health agency – has acknowledged the need for a greater investment in [[Palliative care|palliative]] and [[hospice]] care as the country faces a rapidly growing population of elderly and terminally ill citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/minist/speeches-discours/_2014/2014_03_06-eng.php |title=Health Canada- Minister's speeches |publisher=Health Canada.ca |date=2014-02-06 |access-date=2014-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129081757/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/minist/speeches-discours/_2014/2014_03_06-eng.php |archive-date=2014-11-29 }}</ref>

Much of the current focus in Canada is on [[advance care planning]] which involves encouraging individuals to reflect on and express their wishes for future care, including end-of-life care, before they become terminally ill or incapable of making decisions for themselves. A number of publicly funded initiatives exist to promote advance care planning and to encourage people to appoint "[[Surrogate decision-maker|substitute decision makers]]" who make medical decisions and can give or withhold consent for medical procedures according to the patient's pre-expressed wishes when the patient becomes incapable of doing so themselves<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chpca.net/about-us.aspx |title=Canadian Hospice Palliative Care Association |publisher= CHPCA.net |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hpcintegration.ca/about-us.aspx |title=The Way Forward |publisher= HPC integration.ca |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thecarenet.ca/about-us |title=The Carenet |publisher= The Carenet.ca |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://pallium.ca/about-us/ |title=Pallium Canada |publisher=Pallium.ca |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219081109/http://pallium.ca/about-us/ |archive-date=2014-12-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2008, The Advance Care Planning in Canada: A National Framework and Implementation Project was founded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.advancecareplanning.ca/about-advance-care-planning/national-framework-for-acp.aspx |title=National Framework for advance care planning |publisher=SpeakUp |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128195532/http://www.advancecareplanning.ca/about-advance-care-planning/national-framework-for-acp.aspx |archive-date=2014-11-28 }}</ref> The goal was to engage healthcare professionals and educate patients
about the importance of advance care planning and [[End-of-life care|end of life care]].

Polling indicates that 96% of Canadians think that having a conversation with a loved one about planning for the end of life is important. However, the same polls show that only about 13% have actually done so, or have created an advance care plan for themselves.
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hpcintegration.ca/media/56049/TWF%20double%20survey%20infographic%201pg.pdf |title=The Way Forward: an Integrated Approach to Palliative Care |publisher= HPC integration |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref>

A 2014 Ipsos Reid Survey<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hpcintegration.ca/media/55755/CHPCA_The%20Way%20Forward%20Survey_Final%20Report_August2014.pdf |title=The Way Forward- moving towards an integrated palliative approach to care: survey of GP/FPs and nurses in primary care |publisher= Ipsos Reid |date=August 2014 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref> reveals that only about a third of Canadian doctors and nurses working in primary care feel comfortable discussing end of life issues with their patients. End-of-life issues in Canada have recently been highlighted due to the ongoing related debate about [[Euthanasia in Canada|physician-assisted death in Canada]]. Former Federal Health Minister Rona Ambrose (July 15, 2013 to November 4, 2015) has stated: "I think the starting point for me is that we still don't have the best elderly care and palliative care yet… So let's talk about making sure we have the best end-of-life care before we start talking about assisted suicide and euthanasia."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/rona-ambrose-says-canada-needs-better-palliative-care-1.2764813 |title=Rona Ambrose says Canada needs better palliative care |publisher= CBC |date=2014-09-15 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref>

===European Union===
''Country reports on advance directives''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethik.uzh.ch/dam/jcr:00000000-14d5-886d-ffff-fffff1488f30/Country_Reports_AD.pdf |title=Country reports on advance directives, 100 pages |publisher=University of Zurich |access-date=2017-02-11}}</ref> is a 2008 paper summarizing advance health care legislation on each country in the European Union with a shorter summary for the U.S.; a 2009 paper also provides a European overview.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/457880 |title= Advance Health Care Directives: Towards a Coordinated European Policy?|journal=European Journal of Health Law|last1= Andorno|first1= Roberto|year= 2009|volume= 16|issue= 3|pages= 207–27|doi= 10.1163/157180909x453053|pmid= 19788001}}</ref>

====England and Wales====
In [[England and Wales]], people may make an advance directive or appoint a [[healthcare proxy#UK legal situation|proxy]] under the [[Mental Capacity Act 2005]]. This is only for an advance refusal of treatment for when the person lacks mental capacity; to be legally binding, the advance decision must be specific about the treatment that is being refused and the circumstances in which the refusal will apply. To be valid, the person must have been competent and must have understood the decision when they signed the directive. Where the patient's advance decision relates to a refusal of life-prolonging treatment this must be recorded in writing and witnessed. Any advance refusal is legally binding providing that the patient is an adult, the patient was competent and properly informed when reaching the decision, it is clearly applicable to the present circumstances and there is no reason to believe that the patient has changed their mind. If an advance decision does not meet these criteria but appears to set out a clear indication of the patient's wishes, it will not be legally binding but should be taken into consideration in determining the patient's best interests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bma.org.uk/-/media/files/pdfs/practical%20advice%20at%20work/ethics/consenttoolkit_card9.pdf |title= BMA guidance|website=bma.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Johnston |first=Carolyn |author2=Liddle, Jane|year=2007|title=The Mental Capacity Act 2005: a new framework for healthcare decision making|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics |volume=33|issue= 2|pages=94–97|url= |doi=10.1136/jme.2006.016972| pmid = 17264196 |pmc=2598235 }}</ref> In June 2010, the Wealth Management Solicitors, Moore Blatch, announced that research showed demand for Living Wills had trebled in the two years previous, indicating the rising level of people concerned about the way in which their terminal illness will be managed.<ref>{{cite web |author=LONDON (June 10, 2010) |url=http://www.jlns.com/legal-wire/2010/06/10/demand-living-wills-trebles-last-two-years |title=Demand for Living Wills trebles in the last two years |publisher=JLNS |date=2010-06-10 |access-date=2010-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717033050/http://www.jlns.com/legal-wire/2010/06/10/demand-living-wills-trebles-last-two-years |archive-date=17 July 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> According to the British Government, every adult with mental capacity has the right to agree to or refuse medical treatment.<ref>For the official guidance to doctors, see: [https://web.archive.org/web/20110809173247/http://www.gmc-uk.org/static/documents/content/End_of_life.pdf "Treatment and care towards the end of life: good practice in decision making"]. [[General Medical Council]], 2010. Although addressed to doctors, the guidance may also provide helpful information to patients and the public; see, [http://www.gmc-uk.org/guidance/ethical_guidance/end_of_life_about_this_guidance.asp]. Retrieved 2011-01-05.</ref> To make their advance wishes clear, people can use a living will, which can include general statements about wishes, which are not legally binding, and specific refusals of treatment called "advance decisions" or "advance directives".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/governmentcitizensandrights/death/preparation/dg_10029429 |title=How to make a living will : Directgov - Government, citizens and rights |publisher=Direct.gov.uk |access-date=2010-06-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718011240/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/Death/Preparation/DG_10029429 |archive-date=2009-07-18 }}</ref>

====Germany====
On 18 June 2009 the [[Bundestag]] passed a law on advance directives, applicable since 1 September 2009. Such law, based on the principle of the right of self-determination, provides for the assistance of a [[fiduciary]] and of the physician.

====Italy====
On 14 December 2017, [[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Italian Senate]] officially approved a law on advance healthcare directive that came into force on 31 January 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.normattiva.it/uri-res/N2Ls?urn:nir:stato:legge:2017-12-22;219|title=*** NORMATTIVA ***|website=www.normattiva.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://proversi.it/discussioni/pro-contro/176-biotestamento| title=Biotestamento. Favorevole o contrario?|website=ProVersi.it|date=19 February 2018}}</ref>

Controversy over end-of-life care emerged in Italy in 2006, when a terminally ill patient suffering from muscular dystrophy, Piergiorgio Welby, petitioned the courts for removal of his respirator. Debated in Parliament, no decision was reached. A doctor eventually honored Welby's wishes by removing the respirator under sedation.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fisher|first1=Ian|title=Euthanasia Advocate in Italy Dies|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/21/world/europe/22italycnd.html|access-date=23 November 2017|newspaper=New York Times|date=21 December 2006}}</ref> The physician was initially charged for violating Italy's laws against euthanasia, but was later cleared. Further debate ensued after the father of a 38-year-old woman, Eluana Englaro, petitioned the courts for permission to withdraw feeding tubes to allow her to die. Englaro had been in a coma for 17 years, following a car accident. After petitioning the courts for 10 years, authorization was granted and Englaro died in February 2009.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Owen|first1=Richard|title='Right to die' coma woman Eluana Englaro dies|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/right-to-die-coma-woman-eluana-englaro-dies-mlm26hzjgq5|access-date=23 November 2017|newspaper=The Times|date=10 February 2009}}</ref> In May 2008, apparently as a result of the recent Court of Cassation's holding in the case of Englaro, a guardianship judge in Modena, Italy used relatively new legislation<ref>Law No. 6 of January 9, 2004</ref> to work around the lack of the advance directive legislation. The new law permitted a judicially appointed guardian ("amministratore di sostegno") to make decisions for an individual. Faced with a 70-year-old woman with end-stage Lou Gehrig's Disease who was petitioning the court (with the support of her family) to prevent any later use of a respirator, the judge appointed her husband as guardian with the specific duty to refuse any tracheotomy and/or respirator use if/when the patient became unable to refuse such treatment herself.<ref>Decree of Dr. Guido Stanziani, Guardianship Judge of the Tribunal of Modena, 13 May 2008.</ref>

===Japan===
Advance healthcare directives are not legally recognized in Japan. According to a 2017 survey by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW), 66% of surveyed individuals supported the idea of such directives, but only 8.1% had prepared their own. The private organization Nihon Songenshi Kyōkai (Japan Society for Dying with Dignity) offers members a semi-standardized "living will" (ribingu uiru) form that is registered with the organization, though it holds no legal weight.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Deciding one's own death in advance: Biopower, living wills, and resistance to a legislation of death with dignity in Japan|journal=Contemporary Japan |date=2020 |volume=32 |issue=1|pages = 63–82|doi = 10.1080/18692729.2020.1714279|last1 = Spoden|first1 = Celia|s2cid=212897004 }}</ref>
===Korea===
Advance healthcare directives are legally recognized in Korea since 2016, when the Act on Decisions on Life-Sustaining Treatment for Patients in Hospice and Palliative Care was implemented in Korea, providing a broad framework for end-of-life decision-making. <ref>{{cite journal |title=Nurse roles in the advance directive system in Korea |journal=International Nursing Review|date= 2022|volume=69 | issue=2| pages = 159–166 |doi = 10.1111/inr.12683 |last1=Hwang |first1=Hyeyoung |last2=Kim |first2=Claire Junga |pmid=34115378 |s2cid=235404005 }}</ref>

===Nigeria===
Advance healthcare directives is yet to be legalised in Nigeria, and patient’s “written directives” for determining their preferences, tradition still dominates in Nigeria and the most african country. <ref>{{cite journal|author=Ojedoyin, O. E. |author2=Jegede, A. S. | title=A quantitative study of nurses perception to advance directive in selected private and public secondary healthcare facilities in Ibadan|journal=BMC Medical Ethics|date= 2022|volume=23 | issue=1| pages = 87 |doi = 10.1186/s12910-022-00825-5 |doi-access=free |pmid=36008832 |pmc=9404628 }}</ref>

===Israel===
In 2005, the [[Knesset]] passed a law allowing people to write advanced care directives. Right to refuse care is only recognized if the patient is considered [[terminally ill]] and their life expectancy is less than six months.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shvartzman |first1=Pesach |last2=Reuven |first2=Yonatan |last3=Halperin |first3=Mordechai |last4=Menahem |first4=Sasson |title=Advance Directives—The Israeli Experience |journal=Journal of Pain and Symptom Management |date=June 2015 |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=1097–1101 |doi=10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2014.12.009|pmid=25637243 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Switzerland===
In [[Switzerland]], there are several organizations which take care of registering [[patient decree]]s, forms which are signed by the patients declaring that in case of permanent loss of judgement (e.g., inability to communicate or severe brain damage) all means of prolonging life shall be stopped. Family members and these organizations also keep proxies which entitle their holder to enforce such patient decrees. Establishing such decrees is relatively uncomplicated.

In 2013 a law concerning advanced healthcare directives has been voted. Every adult with testamentary capacity can redact a legal binding document declaring a will in the event of loss of judgement. They may also designate a natural person to discuss medical procedures with the attending doctor and make decisions on their behalf if they are longer capable of judgment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.admin.ch/opc/en/classified-compilation/19070042/index.html|title = Fedlex}}</ref>

===United States===
Aggressive medical intervention leaves nearly two million Americans confined to nursing homes,<ref>Wilkkes, JL. Nursing Home Nightmares. ''USAToday.'' August 20, 1996. 11A.</ref> and over 1.4 million Americans remain so [[medically frail]] as to survive only through the use of feeding tubes.<ref name="US Congress 1987">US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. ''Life-Sustaining Technologies and the Elderly.'' OTA-BA-306. Washington, DC: US Gov't Printing Office. July, 1987.</ref> Of U.S. deaths, about a third occur in health care facilities.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=A third of Americans die in hospitals, study finds |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-death-usa/a-third-of-americans-die-in-hospitals-study-finds-idUSTRE5A34N220091104 |work=Reuters |date=4 November 2009 |access-date=10 March 2021}}</ref> As many as 30,000 persons are kept alive in comatose and permanently vegetative states.<ref name="US Congress 1987"/><ref>{{cite journal | author = American | year = 1995 | title = Practice Parameters: Assessment and Management of Patients in the Persistent Vegetative State: Summary Statement | journal = Neurology | volume = 45 | issue = 5| pages = 1015–1018 | doi = 10.1212/wnl.45.5.1015 | pmid = 7746375 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Cost burdens to individuals and families are considerable. A national study found that: "In 20% of cases, a family member had to quit work", 31% lost "all or most savings" (even though 96% had insurance), and "20% reported loss of [their] major source of income".<ref>Covinsky, KE; Goldman, L; Cook, EF; etal. The impact of serious illness on patient's families. ''Journal of the American Medical Association.'' 1994;272(23):1839-1844.</ref> Yet, studies indicate that 70-95% of people would rather refuse aggressive medical treatment than have their lives medically prolonged in incompetent or other poor prognosis states.<ref>Heap, MJ; etal. Elderly patients' preferences concerning life support treatment. ''Anaesthesia.'' 1993;48:1027-1033.</ref><ref>Patrick, DL; etal. Measuring preferences for health states worse than death. ''Medical Decision-Making.'' 1994;14:9-19.</ref>

As more and more Americans experienced the burdens and diminishing benefits of invasive and aggressive medical treatment in poor prognosis states – either directly (themselves) or through a loved one – pressure began to mount to devise ways to avoid the suffering and costs associated with treatments one did not want in personally untenable situations.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The first formal response was the living will.

In the United States, all states recognize some form of living wills or the designation of a [[health care proxy]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Living Wills, Health Care Proxies, & Advance Health Care Directives|url=http://www.americanbar.org/groups/real_property_trust_estate/resources/estate_planning/living_wills_health_care_proxies_advance_health_care_directives.html|website=ABA|publisher=American Bar Association|access-date=8 May 2017}}</ref> The term ''living will'' is not officially recognized under California law, but an advance health care directive or durable power of attorney may be used for the same purpose as a living will.<ref>{{cite web|title=Do I Need a Will?|url=http://www.calbar.ca.gov/Public/Free-Legal-Information/Legal-Guides/Do-I-Need-a-Will|website=State Bar of California|access-date=23 November 2017}}</ref>

In Pennsylvania on November 30, 2006, Governor Edward Rendell signed into law Act 169, that provides a comprehensive statutory framework governing advance health care directives and health care decision-making for incompetent patients.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pamedsoc.org/MainMenuCategories/Government/LawsAffectingPhysicians/AdvanceDirectives/Act169facts.aspx |title=Facts on Act 169 (Advance Directives) - Pennsylvania Medical Society |publisher=Pamedsoc.org |access-date=2010-06-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507102752/http://www.pamedsoc.org/MainMenuCategories/Government/LawsAffectingPhysicians/AdvanceDirectives/Act169facts.aspx |archive-date=2011-05-07 }}</ref> As a result, health care organizations make available a "Combined Living Will & Health Care Power of Attorney Example Form from Pennsylvania Act 169 of 2006."

Several states offer living will "registries" where citizens can file their living will so that they are more easily and readily accessible by doctors and other health care providers. However, in recent years some of these registries, such as the one run by the Washington State Department of Health, have been shuttered by the state government because of low enrollment, lack of funds, or both.<ref>{{cite news|title=Washington state ends living will registry |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2015478485_apwalivingwillregistry.html |access-date=2011-07-24 |newspaper=The Seattle Times |date=July 1, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927115714/http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2015478485_apwalivingwillregistry.html |archive-date=September 27, 2013 }}</ref>

On July 28, 2009, [[Barack Obama]] became the first United States President to announce publicly that he had a living will, and to encourage others to do the same. He told an [[AARP]] town meeting, "So I actually think it's a good idea to have a living will. I'd encourage everybody to get one. I have one; Michelle has one. And we hope we don't have to use it for a long time, but I think it's something that is sensible."<ref>Conolly, Ceci. "Obama takes personal approach in AARP speech," ''The Washington Post'', July 29, 2009.</ref> The announcement followed controversy surrounding proposed health care legislation that included language that would permit the payment of doctors under Medicare to counsel patients regarding living wills, sometimes referred to as the "infamous" page 425.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/28/AR2009072801444.html President Obama Holds a Tele-Townhall Meeting on Health Care with AARP Members], CQ Transcriptions, July 28, 2009.</ref> Shortly afterwards, bioethicist [[Jacob M. Appel|Jacob Appel]] issued a call to make living wills mandatory.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Appel Jacob M | year = 2010| title = When Any Answer is a Good Answer: A Mandated Choice Model for Advance Directives | journal = Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics | volume = 19 | issue = 3| pages = 417–422 | doi=10.1017/s0963180110000253| pmid = 20507692| s2cid = 28350033}}</ref>

===India===

[[Supreme Court of India]] on March 9, 2018, permitted living wills and withholding and withdrawing life sustaining treatments. The country's apex court held that the right to a dignified life extends up to the point of having a dignified death.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/death-with-dignity/article23009854.ece|title=Death with dignity: on SC's verdict on euthanasia and living wills|date=10 March 2018|via=www.thehindu.com|newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Engage with Grace]]
*[[My body, my choice]]
*[[Ordinary and extraordinary care]]
*[[Do not resuscitate]]

==References==
{{Reflist|32em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.voluntadesanticipadas.com/course/view.php?id=111 Collaboratory on Advance Directives]. [[Andalusian School of Public Health]]. Spain.
* [http://www.nrc-pad.org National Resource Center on Psychiatric Advance Directives (U.S.)]
* [https://www.bma.org.uk/media/1850/bma-best-interests-toolkit-2019.pdf Best interests decision-making for adults who lack capacity], toolkit for medical professionals from the British Medical Association.
* [https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/end-of-life-care/advance-statement/ Patient guidance on advance directives (U.K.)]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Euthanasia]]
[[Category:Health informatics]]
[[Category:Health law]]
[[Category:Legal documents]]
[[Category:Power of attorney]]
[[Category:Legal aspects of death]]

Advance healthcare directive

2024-08-29T12:56:35Z

131.111.5.201: /* Background */

{{Short description|Legal document}}
{{Wills, trusts, estates}}

An '''advance healthcare directive''', also known as '''living will''', '''personal directive''', '''advance directive''', '''medical directive''' or '''advance decision''', is a legal document in which a person specifies what actions should be taken for their health if they are no longer able to make decisions for themselves because of illness or incapacity. In the U.S. it has a legal status in itself, whereas in some countries it is legally persuasive without being a legal document.

A living will is one form of advance directive, leaving instructions for treatment. Another form is a specific type of [[power of attorney]] or [[health care proxy]], in which the person authorizes someone (an agent) to make decisions on their behalf when they are incapacitated. People are often encouraged to complete both documents to provide comprehensive guidance regarding their care, although they may be combined into a single form. An example of combination documents includes the [[Five Wishes]] in the United States. The term ''living will'' is also the commonly recognised vernacular in many countries, especially the U.K.<ref>Docker, C. ''Advance Directives/Living Wills'' in: McLean S.A.M., "Contemporary Issues in Law, Medicine and Ethics," Dartmouth 1996</ref> The legality of [[consent|advance consent]] for advance healthcare directives depends on [[jurisdiction]].<ref name="b306">{{cite journal | last=Oliver | first=Jill | last2=Petropanagos | first2=Angel | last3=Chidwick | first3=Paula | title=Final consent, advance consent and alleviating suffering in frail adults requesting MAiD | journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal | volume=194 | issue=18 | date=9 May 2022 | issn=0820-3946 | pmid=35534025 | pmc=9259404 | doi=10.1503/cmaj.81239 | pages=E652–E652}}</ref>

==Background==
Advance directives were created in response to the increasing sophistication and prevalence of medical technology.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Childress J | year = 1989 | title = Dying Patients. Who's in Control? | journal = Law, Medicine and Health Care| volume = 17 | issue = 3| pages = 227–228 | doi = 10.1111/j.1748-720x.1989.tb01099.x | s2cid = 57182781 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Choice in Dying (now: Partnership in Caring). ''Choice in Dying: an historical perspective.'' CID 1035-30th Street, N.W. Washington, DC. 2007</ref> Numerous studies have documented critical deficits in the medical care of the dying; it has been found to be unnecessarily prolonged,<ref>Callahan, D. ''Setting Limits'' Simon & Schuster. 1983</ref> painful,<ref>{{cite journal | year = 1995 | title = A controlled trial to improve care for seriously ill hospitalized patients: the Study to Understand Prognoses and Preferences for Outcomes and Risks of Treatments (SUPPORT) | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 274 | issue = 20| pages = 1591–1598 | doi = 10.1001/jama.1995.03530200027032 }}</ref> expensive,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lubitz J, Riley GF | year = 1993 | title = Trends in Medicare payments in the last year of life | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 328 | issue = 15| pages = 1092–1096 | doi = 10.1056/nejm199304153281506 | pmid = 8455667 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Scitovsky A.A. | year = 1994 | title = The High Cost of Dying, Revisited | journal = Milbank Quarterly | volume = 72 | issue = 4| pages = 561–591 | doi = 10.2307/3350356 | jstor = 3350356 | pmid = 7997219 }}</ref> and emotionally burdensome to both patients and their families.<ref>{{cite journal | year = 1991 | title = Guidelines for the Appropriate Use of Do-Not-Resuscitate Orders. Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 265 | issue = 14| pages = 1868–1871 | doi = 10.1001/jama.265.14.1868 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = McGrath RB | year = 1987 | title = In-house Cardiopulmonary resuscitation -- after a quarter of a century | journal = Annals of Emergency Medicine | volume = 16 | issue = 12| pages = 1365–1368 | doi = 10.1016/s0196-0644(87)80420-1 | pmid = 3318591 }}</ref> Advance decisions are recognised to be an ethically complex topic and an area of ongoing research and debate <ref>{{cite journal| volume = 45| issue = 3| pages = 204–208| vauthors = Gillett G | title = Advance decisions in dementia: when the past conflicts with the present| journal = J Med Ethics| access-date = 29 August 2024| year = 2019| url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29986905/}}</ref>.

==Living will==
[[Image:Refusal of treatment form.jpg|thumb|left|Refusal of treatment form]]
The living will is the oldest form of advance directive. It was first proposed by an [[Illinois]] attorney, [[Luis Kutner]], in a speech to the Euthanasia Society of America in 1967<ref>Benzenhöfer, U, Hack-Molitor, G (2009). Luis Kutner and the development of the advance directive (living will). Frankfurt (Main). [http://publikationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/34515].</ref> and published in a law journal in 1969.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kutner|first1=Luis|title=Due Process of Euthanasia: The Living Will, a Proposal|journal=Indiana Law Journal|date=1969|volume=44|issue=4|pages=534–554|url=https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ilj/vol44/iss4/2/|access-date=22 March 2018}}</ref> Kutner drew from existing estate law, by which an individual can control property affairs after death (i.e., when no longer available to speak for himself or herself) and devised a way for an individual to express their health care desires when no longer able to express current healthcare wishes. Because this form of "will" was to be used while an individual was still alive (but no longer able to make decisions), it was dubbed the "living will".<ref>{{cite journal | author = Alexander G.J. | year = 1991 | title = Time for a new law on health care advance directives | journal = Hastings Center Law Journal | volume = 42 | issue = 3| pages = 755–778 }}</ref> The U.S. [[Patient Self-Determination Act]] (PSDA)<ref>Patient Self-Determination Act U.S.C.A. 1395cc & 1396a, 4206-4207, 4751, Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990, P.L:.b 101-508 (101ST Cong. 2nd Sess. Nov. 5, 1990) (West Supp., 1991).</ref> went into effect in December 1991 and required healthcare providers (primarily hospitals, nursing homes, and home health agencies) to give patients information about their rights to make advance directives under state law.<ref>Docker, C. Advance Directives/Living Wills in: McLean S.A.M., Contemporary Issues in Law, Medicine and Ethics," Dartmouth 1996:182.</ref>

A living will usually provides specific directives about the course of treatment healthcare providers and caregivers are to follow. In some cases a living will may forbid the use of various kinds of burdensome medical treatment. It may also be used to express wishes about the use or foregoing of food and water, if supplied via tubes or other medical devices. The living will is used only if the individual has become unable to give informed consent or refusal due to incapacity. A living will can be very specific or very general. An example of a statement sometimes found in a living will is: "If I suffer an incurable, irreversible illness, disease, or condition and my attending physician determines that my condition is terminal, I direct that life-sustaining measures that would serve only to prolong my dying be withheld or discontinued."

More specific living wills may include information regarding an individual's desire for such services such as analgesia (pain relief), antibiotics, hydration, feeding, and the use of ventilators or cardiopulmonary resuscitation. However, studies have also shown that adults are more likely to complete these documents if they are written in everyday language and less focused on technical treatments.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tokar |first=Steve |url=http://pub.ucsf.edu/today/cache/feature/200710312.html |title=Patients Prefer Simplified Advance Directive over Standard Form - UCSF Today |publisher=Pub.ucsf.edu |access-date=2010-06-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207185025/http://pub.ucsf.edu/today/cache/feature/200710312.html |archive-date=2009-02-07 }}</ref>

However, by the late 1980s, public advocacy groups became aware that many people remained unaware of advance directives<ref>{{cite journal | author = Damato AN | year = 1993 | title = Advance Directives for the Elderly: A Survey | journal = New Jersey Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3| pages = 215–220 | pmid = 8446299 }}</ref> and even fewer actually completed them.<ref>Anthony, J. Your aging parents: document their wishes. ''American Health.'' May 1995. pp. 58-61, 109.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cugliari A, Miller T, Sobal J | year = 1995 | title = Factors promoting completion of advance directives in the hospital | doi = 10.1001/archinte.155.17.1893 | journal = Archives of Internal Medicine | volume = 155 | issue = 9| pages = 1893–1898 | pmid = 7677556 }}</ref> In part, this was seen as a failure of health care providers and medical organizations to promote and support the use of these documents.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Johnston SC | year = 1995 | title = The discussion about advance directives: patient and physician opinions regarding when and how it should be conducted | journal = Archives of Internal Medicine | volume = 155 | issue = 10| pages = 1025–1030 | doi=10.1001/archinte.155.10.1025| pmid = 7748044 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The public's response was to press for further legislative support. The most recent result was the Patient Self-Determination Act of 1990,<ref>''Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1990'' [including amendments commonly known as The Patient Self-Determination Act]. Sections 4206 and 4751, P.L. 101-508. Introduced as S. 1766 by Senators Danforth and Moynihan, and HR 5067 by Congressman Sander Levin. Signed by the President on November 5, 1990; effective beginning December 1, 1991.</ref> which attempted to address this awareness problem by requiring health care institutions to better promote and support the use of advance directives.<ref name="American Bar Association 1991"/><ref>''Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1990''.</ref>

Living wills proved to be very popular, and by 2007, 41% of Americans had completed a living will.<ref>Charmaine Jones, With living wills gaining in popularity, push grows for more extensive directive, ''Crain's Cleveland Business,'' August 20, 2007.</ref> In response to public needs, state legislatures soon passed laws in support of living wills in virtually every state in the union.<ref name="American Bar Association 1991">American Bar Association. ''Patient Self-Determination Act: State Law Guide.'' American Bar Association Commission on Legal Problems of The Elder. August 1991.</ref>

However, as living wills began to be better recognized, key deficits were soon discovered. Most living wills tended to be limited in scope<ref name="Annas, GJ 1210">{{cite journal | author = Annas GJ | year = 1991 | title = The Health Care Proxy and the Living Will | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 324 | issue = 17| pages = 1210–1213 | doi=10.1056/nejm199104253241711| pmid = 2011167 | url = https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/1297 }}</ref> and often failed to fully address presenting problems and needs.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Hashimoto DM | year = 1983 | title = A structural analysis of the physician-patient relationship in no-code decision-making | url =https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6845&context=ylj | journal = Yale Law Journal | volume = 93 | issue = 2| pages = 362–383 | doi=10.2307/796311| jstor = 796311 | pmid = 11658880 }}</ref><ref>Hastings Center. ''Guidelines on the Termination of Life-Sustaining Treatment and the Care of the Dying: a report by the Hastings Center.'' [[Briarcliff Manor, NY]]: Indiana University Press. 1987.</ref> Further, many individuals wrote out their wishes in ways that might conflict with quality medical practice.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Campbell ML | year = 1995 | title = Interpretation of an ambiguous advance directive | journal = Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 226–235 | doi=10.1097/00003465-199509000-00001| pmid = 7656765 }}</ref> Ultimately, it was determined that a living will alone might be insufficient to address many important health care decisions. This led to the development of what some have called "second generation" advance directives<ref name="Annas, GJ 1210"/> – the "health care proxy appointment" or "medical power of attorney."

Living wills also reflect a moment in time, and may therefore need regular updating to ensure that the correct course of action can be chosen.

==Healthcare proxy==
{{Main|Health care proxy|Power of attorney}}

Power of attorney statutes have existed in the United States since the days of "[[common law]]" (i.e., laws brought from England to the United States during the colonial period). These early powers of attorney allowed an individual to name someone to act in their stead. Drawing upon these laws, "durable powers of attorney for health care" and "healthcare proxy appointment" documents were created and codified in law, allowing an individual to appoint someone to make healthcare decisions in their behalf if they should ever be rendered incapable of making their wishes known.<ref name="AmericanBarAsso.1991">American Bar Association. ''Patient Self-Determination Act: State Law Guide.'' American Bar Association Commission on Legal Problems of the Elderly. August 1991.</ref> People will normally benefit from having both a durable power of attorney and a healthcare proxy.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal |last1=Brett |first1=AS |title=Limitations of listing specific medical interventions in advance directives. |journal=JAMA |date=14 August 1991 |volume=266 |issue=6 |pages=825–8 |doi=10.1001/jama.1991.03470060087032 |pmid=1865521}}</ref><ref name="Silverman, H 1031">{{cite journal |last1=Silverman |first1=HJ |last2=Vinicky |first2=JK |last3=Gasner |first3=MR |title=Advance directives: implications for critical care. |journal=Critical Care Medicine |date=July 1992 |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=1027–31 |doi=10.1097/00003246-199207000-00021 |pmid=1617972|s2cid=7025389 }}</ref>

A healthcare proxy document appoints a person, the proxy, who can make decisions on behalf of the granting individual in the event of incapacity. The appointed healthcare proxy has, in essence, the same rights to request or refuse treatment that the individual would have if still capable of making and communicating health care decisions.<ref name="AmericanBarAsso.1991"/>
The appointed representative is authorized to make real-time decisions in actual circumstances, as opposed to advance decisions framed in hypothetical situations, as might be recorded in a living will. The healthcare proxy was rapidly accepted within the U.S. and authorizing legislation was soon enacted in most states.<ref name="AmericanBarAsso.1991"/>

One problem with a conventional healthcare proxy is that it may not be possible for the appointed proxy to determine what care choices the individual would have made if still capable, as healthcare proxies may be too vague for meaningful interpretation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=High |first1=Dallas M. |title=All in the Family: Extended Autonomy and Expectations in Surrogate Health Care Decision-Making1 |journal=The Gerontologist |date=1 June 1988 |volume=28 |issue=Suppl |pages=46–51 |doi=10.1093/geront/28.Suppl.46|pmid=3139501 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cohen-Mansfield |first1=J |last2=Rabinovich |first2=BA |last3=Lipson |first3=S |last4=Fein |first4=A |last5=Gerber |first5=B |last6=Weisman |first6=S |last7=Pawlson |first7=LG |title=The decision to execute a durable power of attorney for health care and preferences regarding the utilization of life-sustaining treatments in nursing home residents. |journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |date=February 1991 |volume=151 |issue=2 |pages=289–94 |doi=10.1001/archinte.1991.00400020053012 |pmid=1992956}}</ref> While a study comparing next-of-kin decisions on behalf of an incapacitated person, (who later recovered) found that these surrogates chose correctly 68% of the time overall.<ref name=ArchInternMed.2006>{{cite journal|title=The Accuracy of Surrogate Decision Makers: A Systematic Review|journal=Archives of Internal Medicine|quote=Conclusions Patient-designated and next-of-kin surrogates incorrectly predict patients' end-of-life treatment preferences in one third of cases.|doi=10.1001/archinte.166.5.493|pmid=16534034|volume=166|issue=5|pages=493–7|year=2006|last1=Shalowitz|first1=David I.|last2=Garrett-Mayer|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Wendler|first3=David|doi-access=}}</ref>

===Values-based directives===

One alternative to a conventional healthcare proxy is the '''values history''', a "two-part advance directive instrument that elicits patient values about terminal medical care and therapy-specific directives."<ref>[[David John Doukas|Doukas DJ]], McCullough LB, "Assessing the Values History of the Aged Patient Regarding Critical and Chronic Care," in The Handbook of Geriatric Assessment. Eds. Gallo JJ, Reichel W, Andersen LM, Rockville, MD: Aspen Press, 1988:111-124.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Doukas DJ, McCullough LB | author-link = David John Doukas | year = 1991 | title = The values history: the evaluation of the patient's values and advance directives | journal = Journal of Family Practice | volume = 32 | issue = 2| pages = 145–53 | pmid = 1990042 }}</ref> The goal of this advance directive is to move away from a focus on specific treatments and medical procedures to a focus on patient values and personal goals.<ref>Lambert P, Gibson, JM, Nathanson, P. The Values History: An Innovation in Surrogate Medical Decision-Making, Med. & Health Care, 202-212 (1990)</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |title=Values History |url=https://www.hospicefed.org/page/valueshistory |website=HPCFM |publisher=Hospice & Palliative Care Federation of Massachusetts |access-date=23 November 2021}}</ref>
Studies suggest that values regarding financial and psychological burden are strong motivators in not wanting a broad array of end-of-life therapies.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Eisendrath S, Jonsen A | year = 1983 | title = The living will – help or hindrance? | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 249 | issue = 15| pages = 2054–58 | doi=10.1001/jama.249.15.2054| pmid = 6834595 }}</ref>

Another alternative to a conventional healthcare proxy is the '''medical directive''',<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Emanuel LL, Emanuel E | year = 1989 | title = The medical directive: A new comprehensive advance care document | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 261 | issue = 22| pages = 3288–93 | doi=10.1001/jama.261.22.3288 | pmid = 2636851}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sachs GA, Cassell CK | year = 1990 | title = The medical directive | doi= 10.1001/jama.267.16.2229 | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 267 | issue = 16| pages = 2229–33 }}</ref> a document that describes six case scenarios for advance medical decision-making. The scenarios are each associated with a roster of commonly considered medical procedures and interventions, allowing the individual to decide in advance which treatments are wanted or not wanted under the circumstances.

A study conducted to address concerns that a non-statutory advance directive might leave an incapacitated person with a document that may not be honored found that they are generally accepted.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Wolf SM | year = 1991 | title = Honoring broader directives | journal = Hastings Center Report | volume = 21 | issue = 5| pages = S8–S9 | doi=10.2307/3562902| jstor = 3562902 }}</ref>

===Psychiatric advance directives===
A '''psychiatric advance directive''' (PAD), also known as a mental health advance directive, is a written document that describes what a person wants to happen if at some time in the future they are judged to have a [[mental disorder]] in such a way that they are deemed unable to decide for themselves or to communicate effectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=About PADs |url=https://nrc-pad.org/ |website=NRC•PAD |publisher=National Resource Center on Psychiatric Advance Directives |access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref>

A PAD can inform others about what treatment they want or do not want from [[psychiatrists]] or other [[mental health professionals]], and it can identify a person to whom they have given the authority to make decisions on their behalf. A mental health advance directive is one kind of [[advance health care directive]].

====Legal foundations====

Psychiatric advance directives are legal documents used by persons currently enjoying legal capacity to declare their preferences and instructions for future [[mental health]] treatment, or to appoint a surrogate decision maker through Health Care [[Power of Attorney]] (HCPA), in advance of being targeted by coercive mental health laws, during which they may be stripped of legal capacity to make decisions.<ref>"Advance Directives for Mental Health Treatment" Debra S. Srebnik and John Q. La Fond Psychiatric Services, Volume 50, Number 7: 919 - 925, July 1999</ref>

In the United States, although 25 states have now passed legislation in the past decade establishing authority for PADs, there is relatively little public information available to address growing interest in these legal documents.<ref>"Law and Psychiatry: Psychiatric Advance Directives and the Treatment of Committed Patients" [[Paul S. Appelbaum]], Psychiatric Services, Volume 55, Number 7: 751 - 763, July 2004</ref> The [[Joint Commission]] on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) requires behavioral health facilities to ask patients if they have PADs.

====Clinical benefits====

A NIH-funded study conducted by researchers at [[Duke University]] has shown that creating a PAD with a trained facilitator increases therapeutic alliance with clinicians, enhances involuntary patients' treatment satisfaction and perceived autonomy, and improves treatment decision-making capacity among people labeled with severe mental illness.<ref>"Facilitated Psychiatric Advance Directives: A Randomized Trial of an Intervention to Foster Advance Treatment Planning Among Persons with Severe Mental Illness" Jeffrey W. Swanson, Marvin S. Swartz, Eric B. Elbogen, Richard A. Van Dorn, Joelle Ferron, H. Ryan Wagner, Barbara J. McCauley, [[Mimi Kim]]. American Journal of Psychiatry, Volume 163, Number 11: 1943-1951, November 2006</ref>

PADs also provide a transportable document—increasingly accessible through electronic directories—to convey information about a detainee's treatment history, including medical disorders, emergency contact information, and medication side effects. Clinicians often have limited information about citizens detained and labeled as psychiatric patients who present or are coercively presented and labeled as in crisis. A PAD may help clinicians gain prompt access to relevant information about individual cases and thus improve the quality of clinical decision-making, and enhance patient safety and long-term [[autonomy]].

====Barriers====

National surveys in the United States indicate that although approximately 70% of people targeted by coercive psychiatry laws would want a PAD if offered assistance in completing one, less than 10% have actually completed a PAD.<ref>"Psychiatric Advance Directives Among Public Mental Health Consumers in Five U.S. Cities: Prevalence, Demand, and Correlates" Jeffrey W. Swanson, Marvin S. Swartz, Joelle Feron, Eric B. Elbogen, and Richard Van Dorn. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, Volume 34, Number 1, 2006</ref>

In a survey conducted of 600 [[psychiatrists]], [[psychologists]], and [[social workers]] showed that the vast majority thought advance care planning for crises would help improve patients' overall mental health care.<ref>"Clinical Decision Making and Views About Psychiatric Advance Directives" Eric B. Elbogen, Marvin S. Swartz, Richard Van Dorn, Jeffrey W. Swanson, Mimi Kim, and Anna Scheyett Psychiatric Services, Volume 57, Number 3: 350-355, March 2006</ref> Further, the more clinicians knew about PAD laws, the more favorable were their attitudes toward these practices. For instance, while most [[psychiatrists]], [[social workers]], and [[psychologists]] surveyed believed PADs would be helpful to people detained and targeted for forced drugging and electroshock when labeled with severe [[mental illnesses]], clinicians with more legal knowledge about PAD laws were more likely to endorse PADs as a beneficial part of patients' treatment planning.

Many clinicians reported not knowing enough about how PADs work and specifically indicated they lacked resources to readily help patients fill out PADs or to help their clients develop crisis plans.

==Worldwide==

===Australia===
The laws regarding advance directives, powers of attorney, and enduring guardianships vary from state to state. In Queensland, for example, the concept of an advance health directive is defined in the ''[[Power of attorney|Powers of attorney]] act of 1998'' and ''Guardianship and Administration act of 2000''.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Rothschild |first1= Alan |editor1-first= Dieter |editor1-last= Birnbacher |editor2-first= Edgar |editor2-last= Dahl |title= Giving Death a Helping Hand: Physician-Assisted Suicide and Public Policy. An International Perspective |series= International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine |volume= 38 |date= 5 Feb 2008 |publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781402064951 |page= 104 |chapter= Physician-Assisted Death. An Australian Perspective}}</ref> Tasmania has no specific legislation concerning advance healthcare directives.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-professionals/the-law-of-advance-care-planning |title=The law of Advance Care Planning | Advance Care Planning |access-date=2017-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204171033/http://advancecareplanning.org.au/advance-care-planning/for-professionals/the-law-of-advance-care-planning |archive-date=2017-02-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Advance Care Planning (ACP) has been gaining prominence in Australia for its role in enhancing a patient's autonomy and as an important component of good end-of-life care.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rhee|first1=Joel J.|last2=Zwar|first2=Nicholas A.|last3=Kemp|first3=Lynn A.|date=2012-02-24|title=Uptake and implementation of Advance Care Planning in Australia: findings of key informant interviews|url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/ah/AH11019|journal=Australian Health Review|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=98–104|doi=10.1071/AH11019|pmid=22513028|issn=1449-8944|hdl=1959.4/unsworks_13380|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

===Canada===
[[Health Canada]] – [[Canada]]'s federal health agency – has acknowledged the need for a greater investment in [[Palliative care|palliative]] and [[hospice]] care as the country faces a rapidly growing population of elderly and terminally ill citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/minist/speeches-discours/_2014/2014_03_06-eng.php |title=Health Canada- Minister's speeches |publisher=Health Canada.ca |date=2014-02-06 |access-date=2014-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129081757/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/minist/speeches-discours/_2014/2014_03_06-eng.php |archive-date=2014-11-29 }}</ref>

Much of the current focus in Canada is on [[advance care planning]] which involves encouraging individuals to reflect on and express their wishes for future care, including end-of-life care, before they become terminally ill or incapable of making decisions for themselves. A number of publicly funded initiatives exist to promote advance care planning and to encourage people to appoint "[[Surrogate decision-maker|substitute decision makers]]" who make medical decisions and can give or withhold consent for medical procedures according to the patient's pre-expressed wishes when the patient becomes incapable of doing so themselves<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chpca.net/about-us.aspx |title=Canadian Hospice Palliative Care Association |publisher= CHPCA.net |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hpcintegration.ca/about-us.aspx |title=The Way Forward |publisher= HPC integration.ca |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thecarenet.ca/about-us |title=The Carenet |publisher= The Carenet.ca |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://pallium.ca/about-us/ |title=Pallium Canada |publisher=Pallium.ca |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219081109/http://pallium.ca/about-us/ |archive-date=2014-12-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2008, The Advance Care Planning in Canada: A National Framework and Implementation Project was founded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.advancecareplanning.ca/about-advance-care-planning/national-framework-for-acp.aspx |title=National Framework for advance care planning |publisher=SpeakUp |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128195532/http://www.advancecareplanning.ca/about-advance-care-planning/national-framework-for-acp.aspx |archive-date=2014-11-28 }}</ref> The goal was to engage healthcare professionals and educate patients
about the importance of advance care planning and [[End-of-life care|end of life care]].

Polling indicates that 96% of Canadians think that having a conversation with a loved one about planning for the end of life is important. However, the same polls show that only about 13% have actually done so, or have created an advance care plan for themselves.
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hpcintegration.ca/media/56049/TWF%20double%20survey%20infographic%201pg.pdf |title=The Way Forward: an Integrated Approach to Palliative Care |publisher= HPC integration |date=2014 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref>

A 2014 Ipsos Reid Survey<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hpcintegration.ca/media/55755/CHPCA_The%20Way%20Forward%20Survey_Final%20Report_August2014.pdf |title=The Way Forward- moving towards an integrated palliative approach to care: survey of GP/FPs and nurses in primary care |publisher= Ipsos Reid |date=August 2014 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref> reveals that only about a third of Canadian doctors and nurses working in primary care feel comfortable discussing end of life issues with their patients. End-of-life issues in Canada have recently been highlighted due to the ongoing related debate about [[Euthanasia in Canada|physician-assisted death in Canada]]. Former Federal Health Minister Rona Ambrose (July 15, 2013 to November 4, 2015) has stated: "I think the starting point for me is that we still don't have the best elderly care and palliative care yet… So let's talk about making sure we have the best end-of-life care before we start talking about assisted suicide and euthanasia."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/rona-ambrose-says-canada-needs-better-palliative-care-1.2764813 |title=Rona Ambrose says Canada needs better palliative care |publisher= CBC |date=2014-09-15 |access-date=2014-11-18}}</ref>

===European Union===
''Country reports on advance directives''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethik.uzh.ch/dam/jcr:00000000-14d5-886d-ffff-fffff1488f30/Country_Reports_AD.pdf |title=Country reports on advance directives, 100 pages |publisher=University of Zurich |access-date=2017-02-11}}</ref> is a 2008 paper summarizing advance health care legislation on each country in the European Union with a shorter summary for the U.S.; a 2009 paper also provides a European overview.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/457880 |title= Advance Health Care Directives: Towards a Coordinated European Policy?|journal=European Journal of Health Law|last1= Andorno|first1= Roberto|year= 2009|volume= 16|issue= 3|pages= 207–27|doi= 10.1163/157180909x453053|pmid= 19788001}}</ref>

====England and Wales====
In [[England and Wales]], people may make an advance directive or appoint a [[healthcare proxy#UK legal situation|proxy]] under the [[Mental Capacity Act 2005]]. This is only for an advance refusal of treatment for when the person lacks mental capacity; to be legally binding, the advance decision must be specific about the treatment that is being refused and the circumstances in which the refusal will apply. To be valid, the person must have been competent and must have understood the decision when they signed the directive. Where the patient's advance decision relates to a refusal of life-prolonging treatment this must be recorded in writing and witnessed. Any advance refusal is legally binding providing that the patient is an adult, the patient was competent and properly informed when reaching the decision, it is clearly applicable to the present circumstances and there is no reason to believe that the patient has changed their mind. If an advance decision does not meet these criteria but appears to set out a clear indication of the patient's wishes, it will not be legally binding but should be taken into consideration in determining the patient's best interests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bma.org.uk/-/media/files/pdfs/practical%20advice%20at%20work/ethics/consenttoolkit_card9.pdf |title= BMA guidance|website=bma.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Johnston |first=Carolyn |author2=Liddle, Jane|year=2007|title=The Mental Capacity Act 2005: a new framework for healthcare decision making|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics |volume=33|issue= 2|pages=94–97|url= |doi=10.1136/jme.2006.016972| pmid = 17264196 |pmc=2598235 }}</ref> In June 2010, the Wealth Management Solicitors, Moore Blatch, announced that research showed demand for Living Wills had trebled in the two years previous, indicating the rising level of people concerned about the way in which their terminal illness will be managed.<ref>{{cite web |author=LONDON (June 10, 2010) |url=http://www.jlns.com/legal-wire/2010/06/10/demand-living-wills-trebles-last-two-years |title=Demand for Living Wills trebles in the last two years |publisher=JLNS |date=2010-06-10 |access-date=2010-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717033050/http://www.jlns.com/legal-wire/2010/06/10/demand-living-wills-trebles-last-two-years |archive-date=17 July 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> According to the British Government, every adult with mental capacity has the right to agree to or refuse medical treatment.<ref>For the official guidance to doctors, see: [https://web.archive.org/web/20110809173247/http://www.gmc-uk.org/static/documents/content/End_of_life.pdf "Treatment and care towards the end of life: good practice in decision making"]. [[General Medical Council]], 2010. Although addressed to doctors, the guidance may also provide helpful information to patients and the public; see, [http://www.gmc-uk.org/guidance/ethical_guidance/end_of_life_about_this_guidance.asp]. Retrieved 2011-01-05.</ref> To make their advance wishes clear, people can use a living will, which can include general statements about wishes, which are not legally binding, and specific refusals of treatment called "advance decisions" or "advance directives".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/governmentcitizensandrights/death/preparation/dg_10029429 |title=How to make a living will : Directgov - Government, citizens and rights |publisher=Direct.gov.uk |access-date=2010-06-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718011240/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/Death/Preparation/DG_10029429 |archive-date=2009-07-18 }}</ref>

====Germany====
On 18 June 2009 the [[Bundestag]] passed a law on advance directives, applicable since 1 September 2009. Such law, based on the principle of the right of self-determination, provides for the assistance of a [[fiduciary]] and of the physician.

====Italy====
On 14 December 2017, [[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Italian Senate]] officially approved a law on advance healthcare directive that came into force on 31 January 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.normattiva.it/uri-res/N2Ls?urn:nir:stato:legge:2017-12-22;219|title=*** NORMATTIVA ***|website=www.normattiva.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://proversi.it/discussioni/pro-contro/176-biotestamento| title=Biotestamento. Favorevole o contrario?|website=ProVersi.it|date=19 February 2018}}</ref>

Controversy over end-of-life care emerged in Italy in 2006, when a terminally ill patient suffering from muscular dystrophy, Piergiorgio Welby, petitioned the courts for removal of his respirator. Debated in Parliament, no decision was reached. A doctor eventually honored Welby's wishes by removing the respirator under sedation.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fisher|first1=Ian|title=Euthanasia Advocate in Italy Dies|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/21/world/europe/22italycnd.html|access-date=23 November 2017|newspaper=New York Times|date=21 December 2006}}</ref> The physician was initially charged for violating Italy's laws against euthanasia, but was later cleared. Further debate ensued after the father of a 38-year-old woman, Eluana Englaro, petitioned the courts for permission to withdraw feeding tubes to allow her to die. Englaro had been in a coma for 17 years, following a car accident. After petitioning the courts for 10 years, authorization was granted and Englaro died in February 2009.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Owen|first1=Richard|title='Right to die' coma woman Eluana Englaro dies|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/right-to-die-coma-woman-eluana-englaro-dies-mlm26hzjgq5|access-date=23 November 2017|newspaper=The Times|date=10 February 2009}}</ref> In May 2008, apparently as a result of the recent Court of Cassation's holding in the case of Englaro, a guardianship judge in Modena, Italy used relatively new legislation<ref>Law No. 6 of January 9, 2004</ref> to work around the lack of the advance directive legislation. The new law permitted a judicially appointed guardian ("amministratore di sostegno") to make decisions for an individual. Faced with a 70-year-old woman with end-stage Lou Gehrig's Disease who was petitioning the court (with the support of her family) to prevent any later use of a respirator, the judge appointed her husband as guardian with the specific duty to refuse any tracheotomy and/or respirator use if/when the patient became unable to refuse such treatment herself.<ref>Decree of Dr. Guido Stanziani, Guardianship Judge of the Tribunal of Modena, 13 May 2008.</ref>

===Japan===
Advance healthcare directives are not legally recognized in Japan. According to a 2017 survey by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW), 66% of surveyed individuals supported the idea of such directives, but only 8.1% had prepared their own. The private organization Nihon Songenshi Kyōkai (Japan Society for Dying with Dignity) offers members a semi-standardized "living will" (ribingu uiru) form that is registered with the organization, though it holds no legal weight.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Deciding one's own death in advance: Biopower, living wills, and resistance to a legislation of death with dignity in Japan|journal=Contemporary Japan |date=2020 |volume=32 |issue=1|pages = 63–82|doi = 10.1080/18692729.2020.1714279|last1 = Spoden|first1 = Celia|s2cid=212897004 }}</ref>
===Korea===
Advance healthcare directives are legally recognized in Korea since 2016, when the Act on Decisions on Life-Sustaining Treatment for Patients in Hospice and Palliative Care was implemented in Korea, providing a broad framework for end-of-life decision-making. <ref>{{cite journal |title=Nurse roles in the advance directive system in Korea |journal=International Nursing Review|date= 2022|volume=69 | issue=2| pages = 159–166 |doi = 10.1111/inr.12683 |last1=Hwang |first1=Hyeyoung |last2=Kim |first2=Claire Junga |pmid=34115378 |s2cid=235404005 }}</ref>

===Nigeria===
Advance healthcare directives is yet to be legalised in Nigeria, and patient’s “written directives” for determining their preferences, tradition still dominates in Nigeria and the most african country. <ref>{{cite journal|author=Ojedoyin, O. E. |author2=Jegede, A. S. | title=A quantitative study of nurses perception to advance directive in selected private and public secondary healthcare facilities in Ibadan|journal=BMC Medical Ethics|date= 2022|volume=23 | issue=1| pages = 87 |doi = 10.1186/s12910-022-00825-5 |doi-access=free |pmid=36008832 |pmc=9404628 }}</ref>

===Israel===
In 2005, the [[Knesset]] passed a law allowing people to write advanced care directives. Right to refuse care is only recognized if the patient is considered [[terminally ill]] and their life expectancy is less than six months.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shvartzman |first1=Pesach |last2=Reuven |first2=Yonatan |last3=Halperin |first3=Mordechai |last4=Menahem |first4=Sasson |title=Advance Directives—The Israeli Experience |journal=Journal of Pain and Symptom Management |date=June 2015 |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=1097–1101 |doi=10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2014.12.009|pmid=25637243 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Switzerland===
In [[Switzerland]], there are several organizations which take care of registering [[patient decree]]s, forms which are signed by the patients declaring that in case of permanent loss of judgement (e.g., inability to communicate or severe brain damage) all means of prolonging life shall be stopped. Family members and these organizations also keep proxies which entitle their holder to enforce such patient decrees. Establishing such decrees is relatively uncomplicated.

In 2013 a law concerning advanced healthcare directives has been voted. Every adult with testamentary capacity can redact a legal binding document declaring a will in the event of loss of judgement. They may also designate a natural person to discuss medical procedures with the attending doctor and make decisions on their behalf if they are longer capable of judgment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.admin.ch/opc/en/classified-compilation/19070042/index.html|title = Fedlex}}</ref>

===United States===
Aggressive medical intervention leaves nearly two million Americans confined to nursing homes,<ref>Wilkkes, JL. Nursing Home Nightmares. ''USAToday.'' August 20, 1996. 11A.</ref> and over 1.4 million Americans remain so [[medically frail]] as to survive only through the use of feeding tubes.<ref name="US Congress 1987">US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. ''Life-Sustaining Technologies and the Elderly.'' OTA-BA-306. Washington, DC: US Gov't Printing Office. July, 1987.</ref> Of U.S. deaths, about a third occur in health care facilities.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=A third of Americans die in hospitals, study finds |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-death-usa/a-third-of-americans-die-in-hospitals-study-finds-idUSTRE5A34N220091104 |work=Reuters |date=4 November 2009 |access-date=10 March 2021}}</ref> As many as 30,000 persons are kept alive in comatose and permanently vegetative states.<ref name="US Congress 1987"/><ref>{{cite journal | author = American | year = 1995 | title = Practice Parameters: Assessment and Management of Patients in the Persistent Vegetative State: Summary Statement | journal = Neurology | volume = 45 | issue = 5| pages = 1015–1018 | doi = 10.1212/wnl.45.5.1015 | pmid = 7746375 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Cost burdens to individuals and families are considerable. A national study found that: "In 20% of cases, a family member had to quit work", 31% lost "all or most savings" (even though 96% had insurance), and "20% reported loss of [their] major source of income".<ref>Covinsky, KE; Goldman, L; Cook, EF; etal. The impact of serious illness on patient's families. ''Journal of the American Medical Association.'' 1994;272(23):1839-1844.</ref> Yet, studies indicate that 70-95% of people would rather refuse aggressive medical treatment than have their lives medically prolonged in incompetent or other poor prognosis states.<ref>Heap, MJ; etal. Elderly patients' preferences concerning life support treatment. ''Anaesthesia.'' 1993;48:1027-1033.</ref><ref>Patrick, DL; etal. Measuring preferences for health states worse than death. ''Medical Decision-Making.'' 1994;14:9-19.</ref>

As more and more Americans experienced the burdens and diminishing benefits of invasive and aggressive medical treatment in poor prognosis states – either directly (themselves) or through a loved one – pressure began to mount to devise ways to avoid the suffering and costs associated with treatments one did not want in personally untenable situations.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The first formal response was the living will.

In the United States, all states recognize some form of living wills or the designation of a [[health care proxy]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Living Wills, Health Care Proxies, & Advance Health Care Directives|url=http://www.americanbar.org/groups/real_property_trust_estate/resources/estate_planning/living_wills_health_care_proxies_advance_health_care_directives.html|website=ABA|publisher=American Bar Association|access-date=8 May 2017}}</ref> The term ''living will'' is not officially recognized under California law, but an advance health care directive or durable power of attorney may be used for the same purpose as a living will.<ref>{{cite web|title=Do I Need a Will?|url=http://www.calbar.ca.gov/Public/Free-Legal-Information/Legal-Guides/Do-I-Need-a-Will|website=State Bar of California|access-date=23 November 2017}}</ref>

In Pennsylvania on November 30, 2006, Governor Edward Rendell signed into law Act 169, that provides a comprehensive statutory framework governing advance health care directives and health care decision-making for incompetent patients.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pamedsoc.org/MainMenuCategories/Government/LawsAffectingPhysicians/AdvanceDirectives/Act169facts.aspx |title=Facts on Act 169 (Advance Directives) - Pennsylvania Medical Society |publisher=Pamedsoc.org |access-date=2010-06-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507102752/http://www.pamedsoc.org/MainMenuCategories/Government/LawsAffectingPhysicians/AdvanceDirectives/Act169facts.aspx |archive-date=2011-05-07 }}</ref> As a result, health care organizations make available a "Combined Living Will & Health Care Power of Attorney Example Form from Pennsylvania Act 169 of 2006."

Several states offer living will "registries" where citizens can file their living will so that they are more easily and readily accessible by doctors and other health care providers. However, in recent years some of these registries, such as the one run by the Washington State Department of Health, have been shuttered by the state government because of low enrollment, lack of funds, or both.<ref>{{cite news|title=Washington state ends living will registry |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2015478485_apwalivingwillregistry.html |access-date=2011-07-24 |newspaper=The Seattle Times |date=July 1, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927115714/http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2015478485_apwalivingwillregistry.html |archive-date=September 27, 2013 }}</ref>

On July 28, 2009, [[Barack Obama]] became the first United States President to announce publicly that he had a living will, and to encourage others to do the same. He told an [[AARP]] town meeting, "So I actually think it's a good idea to have a living will. I'd encourage everybody to get one. I have one; Michelle has one. And we hope we don't have to use it for a long time, but I think it's something that is sensible."<ref>Conolly, Ceci. "Obama takes personal approach in AARP speech," ''The Washington Post'', July 29, 2009.</ref> The announcement followed controversy surrounding proposed health care legislation that included language that would permit the payment of doctors under Medicare to counsel patients regarding living wills, sometimes referred to as the "infamous" page 425.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/28/AR2009072801444.html President Obama Holds a Tele-Townhall Meeting on Health Care with AARP Members], CQ Transcriptions, July 28, 2009.</ref> Shortly afterwards, bioethicist [[Jacob M. Appel|Jacob Appel]] issued a call to make living wills mandatory.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Appel Jacob M | year = 2010| title = When Any Answer is a Good Answer: A Mandated Choice Model for Advance Directives | journal = Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics | volume = 19 | issue = 3| pages = 417–422 | doi=10.1017/s0963180110000253| pmid = 20507692| s2cid = 28350033}}</ref>

===India===

[[Supreme Court of India]] on March 9, 2018, permitted living wills and withholding and withdrawing life sustaining treatments. The country's apex court held that the right to a dignified life extends up to the point of having a dignified death.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/death-with-dignity/article23009854.ece|title=Death with dignity: on SC's verdict on euthanasia and living wills|date=10 March 2018|via=www.thehindu.com|newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Engage with Grace]]
*[[My body, my choice]]
*[[Ordinary and extraordinary care]]
*[[Do not resuscitate]]

==References==
{{Reflist|32em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.voluntadesanticipadas.com/course/view.php?id=111 Collaboratory on Advance Directives]. [[Andalusian School of Public Health]]. Spain.
* [http://www.nrc-pad.org National Resource Center on Psychiatric Advance Directives (U.S.)]
* [https://www.bma.org.uk/media/1850/bma-best-interests-toolkit-2019.pdf Best interests decision-making for adults who lack capacity], toolkit for medical professionals from the British Medical Association.
* [https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/end-of-life-care/advance-statement/ Patient guidance on advance directives (U.K.)]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Euthanasia]]
[[Category:Health informatics]]
[[Category:Health law]]
[[Category:Legal documents]]
[[Category:Power of attorney]]
[[Category:Legal aspects of death]]

Conditions comorbid to autism

2024-08-29T12:51:58Z

131.111.5.201: /* Schizoid personality disorder */

{{Short description|Medical conditions more common in autistic people}}
{{Update|date=July 2023|reason=The article's text does not yet reflect that since DSM-5 (2013) and ICD-11 (2022) there is one unified Autism Spectrum Disorder diagnosis}}

[[Autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) is a [[neurodevelopmental disorder]] that begins in early childhood, persists throughout adulthood, and affects two crucial areas of development: social communication and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior.<ref name="DSM-5-TR">{{cite book|title= Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, (DSM-5) |year= 2013|publisher=American Psychiatric Association|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> There are many '''conditions [[comorbid]] to autism spectrum disorder''' such as [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] and [[epilepsy]].

In medicine, [[comorbidity]] is the presence of one or more additional conditions co-occurring with the primary one, or the effect of such additional disorders. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendelian]] (single-gene) condition, [[chromosome abnormality]], or other genetic syndrome,<ref name=Folstein>{{cite journal | vauthors = Folstein SE, Rosen-Sheidley B | title = Genetics of autism: complex aetiology for a heterogeneous disorder | journal = Nature Reviews. Genetics | volume = 2 | issue = 12 | pages = 943–955 | date = December 2001 | pmid = 11733747 | doi = 10.1038/35103559 | s2cid = 9331084 }}</ref> a category referred to as [[syndromic autism]]. ASD is associated with several [[genetic disorder]]s,<ref name=Zafeiriou>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zafeiriou DI, Ververi A, Vargiami E | title = Childhood autism and associated comorbidities | journal = Brain & Development | volume = 29 | issue = 5 | pages = 257–272 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17084999 | doi = 10.1016/j.braindev.2006.09.003 | type = Review | s2cid = 16386209 }}</ref> perhaps due to an overlap in genetic causes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/news/science-news/2013/five-major-mental-disorders-share-genetic-roots.shtml |title=Overlap Blurs Diagnostic Categories – NIH-funded Study | vauthors = Cuthbert B |date=March 1, 2013 |publisher=NIMH |access-date=May 26, 2015 |quote=National Institutes of Health-funded researchers discovered that people with disorders traditionally thought to be distinct – autism, ADHD, bipolar disorder, major depression and schizophrenia – were more likely to have suspect genetic variation at the same four chromosomal sites. These included risk versions of two genes that regulate the flow of calcium into cells. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510014204/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/news/science-news/2013/five-major-mental-disorders-share-genetic-roots.shtml |archive-date=May 10, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:Overlapping clinical phenotypes in genes associated with monogenic forms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), dystonia, epilepsy and schizophrenia.svg|thumb|[[Euler diagram]] showing overlapping [[Clinical phenotype|clinical phenotypes]] in genes associated with [[monogenic disease|monogenic forms]] of [[autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD), [[dystonia]], [[epilepsy]] and [[schizophrenia]]:
{{legend|#007fff|Genes associated with epilepsy}}
{{legend|#007f7f|Genes associated with schizophrenia}}
{{legend|#d4aaff|Genes associated with autism spectrum disorder}}
{{legend|#ff0000|Genes associated with dystonia}}]]

Distinguishing between ASD and other diagnoses can be challenging because the traits of ASD often overlap with symptoms of other disorders and the characteristics of ASD make traditional diagnostic procedures difficult.<ref name=IntHandbook>{{cite book|editor1=Johnny L. Matson |editor2=Peter Sturmey |title=International Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders|url=https://archive.org/details/internationalhan00mats |url-access=limited |year=2011|publisher=Springer|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/internationalhan00mats/page/n78 53]–74}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Underwood L, McCarthy J, Tsakanikos E | title = Mental health of adults with autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disability | journal = Current Opinion in Psychiatry | volume = 23 | issue = 5 | pages = 421–426 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20613532 | doi = 10.1097/YCO.0b013e32833cfc18 | type = Review | s2cid = 13735841 }}</ref>

==Comorbid conditions==

===Abnormal folate metabolism===
Several lines of evidence indicate abnormalities of folate metabolism in ASD. These abnormalities can lead to a decrease in 5-methyltetrahydrofolate production, alter the production of folate metabolites and reduce folate transport across the blood-brain barrier and in neurons. The most significant abnormalities of folate metabolism associated with ASD may be autoantibodies to the alpha folate receptor (FRα). These autoantibodies have been associated with [[cerebral folate deficiency]]. Autoantibodies can bind to FRα and greatly impair its function.

In 2013, one study reported that 60% and 44% of 93 children with ASD were positive for FRα-blocking and binding autoantibodies, respectively. This high rate of anti-FRα autoantibody positivity was confirmed by Ramaekers et al. who compared 75 children with ASD to 30 non-autistic "controls". These controls were children who had a developmental delay, but did not have ASD. FRα-blocking autoantibodies were positive in 47% of children with ASD, but only in 3% of children without ASD.

Many children with ASD and [[cerebral folate deficiency]] have marked improvements in their clinical status when taking folinic acid.

A series of five children with [[cerebral folate deficiency]] and low functioning autism with neurological deficits found a complete reduction of ASD symptoms with the use of folinic acid in a child and substantial improvements in communication in two other children.<ref name=pmid25019065/>

===Abnormal redox metabolism===
An imbalance in glutathione-dependent redox metabolism has been shown to be associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}} Glutathione synthesis and intracellular redox balance are related to folate metabolism and methylation, metabolic pathways that have also been shown to be abnormal in ASD. Together, these metabolic abnormalities define a distinct endophenotype of TSA closely associated with genetic, epigenetic and mitochondrial abnormalities, as well as environmental factors related to ASD. Glutathione is involved in neuroprotection against oxidative stress and neuroinflammation by improving the antioxidant stress system.

In autistic children, studies have shown that glutathione metabolism can be improved:{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

* Subcutaneously by injection of [[methylcobalamin]] (a form of B12).
* Oral [[folinic acid]].
* A vitamin and mineral supplement that includes antioxidants, [[coenzyme Q10]] and [[B vitamins|vitamins B]].
* [[Tetrahydrobiopterin]].

Interestingly, recent DBPC studies have shown that [[Acetylcysteine|N-acetyl-1-cysteine]], a glutathione precursor supplement, is effective in improving the symptoms and behaviors associated with ASD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee TM, Lee KM, Lee CY, Lee HC, Tam KW, Loh EW | title = Effectiveness of ''N''-acetylcysteine in autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | journal = The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 55 | issue = 2 | pages = 196–206 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 32900213 | doi = 10.1177/0004867420952540 | s2cid = 221569908 }}</ref> However, glutathione was not measured in these studies.

Small, medium and large DPBC trials and open small and medium-sized clinical trials demonstrate that new treatments for children with ASD for oxidative stress are associated with improvements in baseline symptoms of ASD, sleep, gastrointestinal symptoms, hyperactivity, seizures and parental impression, sensory and motor symptoms. These new treatments include N-acetyl-l-cysteine, methylcobalamin with and without oral folinic acid, vitamin C, and a vitamin and mineral supplement that includes antioxidants, enzyme Q10, and B vitamins.

Several other treatments that have antioxidant properties, including carnosine, have also been reported to significantly improve ASD behaviors, suggesting that treatment of oxidative stress could be beneficial for children with ASD. Many antioxidants can also help improve mitochondrial function, suggesting that clinical improvements with antioxidants could occur through a reduction in oxidative stress and / or an improvement in mitochondrial function.

Some of these treatments can have frequent serious side effects ([[bronchospasm]], etc. ...).<ref name=pmid25019065/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ghanizadeh A, Akhondzadeh S, Hormozi M, Makarem A, Abotorabi-Zarchi M, Firoozabadi A | title = Glutathione-related factors and oxidative stress in autism, a review | journal = Current Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 19 | issue = 23 | pages = 4000–4005 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22708999 | doi = 10.2174/092986712802002572 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/sfx/nac-side-effects.html|title=NAC Side Effects: Common, Severe, Long Term|access-date=2019-05-06|archive-date=2019-05-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507000059/https://www.drugs.com/sfx/nac-side-effects.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Anxiety===
[[Anxiety disorder]]s are common among children and adults with ASD. Symptoms are likely affected by age, level of cognitive functioning, degree of social impairment, and ASD-specific difficulties. Many anxiety disorders, such as [[social anxiety disorder]] and [[generalized anxiety disorder]], are not commonly diagnosed in people with ASD because such symptoms are better explained by ASD itself, and it is often difficult to tell whether symptoms such as compulsive checking are part of ASD or a co-occurring anxiety problem. The prevalence of anxiety disorders in children with ASD has been reported to be anywhere between 11% and 84%; the wide range is likely due to differences in the ways the studies were conducted.<ref name="White SW, Oswald D, Ollendick T, Scahill L 2009 216–29">{{cite journal | vauthors = White SW, Oswald D, Ollendick T, Scahill L | title = Anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 216–229 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19223098 | pmc = 2692135 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.01.003 }}</ref>

A [[systematic review]] summarized available evidence on interventions to reduce anxiety in school children with autism spectrum disorder. Of the 24 studies reviewed, 22 used a [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) approach. The review found that CBT was moderately to highly effective at reducing anxiety in school children with autism spectrum disorder, but that effects varied depending on whether they were reported by clinicians, parents or self-reported. Treatments involving parents and one-on-one compared to group treatments were more effective.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hillman K, Dix K, Ahmed K, Lietz P, Trevitt J, O'Grady E, Uljarević M, Vivanti G, Hedley D | display-authors = 6 | title = Interventions for anxiety in mainstream school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review | journal = Campbell Systematic Reviews | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = e1086 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 37131419 | pmc = 8356281 | doi = 10.1002/cl2.1086 | s2cid = 218953088 }}</ref>

===Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder===
The diagnosis manual [[DSM-IV]] did not allow the co-diagnosis of ASD and [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD). However, following years of clinical research, the most recent edition of the DSM ([[DSM-5]]) in 2013 removed this prohibition of co-morbidity. Thus, individuals with autism spectrum disorder may also have a diagnosis of ADHD, with the modifiers of a predominantly inattentive, hyperactive, combined, or not otherwise specified presentation. Clinically significant symptoms of these two conditions commonly co-occur, and children with both sets of symptoms may respond poorly to standard ADHD treatments. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder may benefit from additional types of medications.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reiersen AM, Todd RD | title = Co-occurrence of ADHD and autism spectrum disorders: phenomenology and treatment | journal = Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 657–669 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18416666 | doi = 10.1586/14737175.8.4.657 | s2cid = 1582890 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/ADHD%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf DSM 5 ADHD Fact Sheet] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811064504/http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/ADHD%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |date=August 11, 2015 }}
</ref> The term 'AuDHD' is sometimes used for those with both autism and ADHD.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Newberry |first1=Laura |title=Autism and ADHD often go hand-in-hand. What's it like to have 'AuDHD'? |url=https://www.latimes.com/california/newsletter/2023-04-25/adhd-and-autism-group-therapy |website=Los Angeles Times |date=25 April 2023 |access-date=18 February 2024 |archive-date=2024-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240405234700/https://www.latimes.com/california/newsletter/2023-04-25/adhd-and-autism-group-therapy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=AuDHD (Autism + ADHD) Resources |url=https://neurodivergentcounselling.ca/resources/audhd-resources/ |website=Neurodivergent Counselling Services |date=3 October 2021 |access-date=18 February 2024 |archive-date=18 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240218124852/https://neurodivergentcounselling.ca/resources/audhd-resources/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Bipolar disorder===
[[Bipolar disorder]], or manic-depression, is itself often claimed to be comorbid with a number of conditions, including autism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McElroy SL | title = Diagnosing and treating comorbid (complicated) bipolar disorder | journal = The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry | volume = 65 | issue = Suppl 15 | pages = 35–44 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15554795 }}</ref> Autism includes some symptoms commonly found in mood and anxiety disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Towbin KE, Pradella A, Gorrindo T, Pine DS, Leibenluft E | title = Autism spectrum traits in children with mood and anxiety disorders | journal = Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 452–464 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 16092910 | doi = 10.1089/cap.2005.15.452 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1235253 | type = Submitted manuscript | access-date = 2018-09-11 | archive-date = 2020-08-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200818105220/https://zenodo.org/record/1235253 | url-status = live }}</ref>

===Bowel disease===
Gastrointestinal symptoms are a common comorbidity in patients with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), even though the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. The most common gastrointestinal symptoms reported by proprietary tool developed and administered by Mayer, Padua, & Tillisch (2014) are abdominal pain, constipation, diarrhea and bloating, reported in at least 25 percent of participants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mayer EA, Padua D, Tillisch K | title = Altered brain-gut axis in autism: comorbidity or causative mechanisms? | journal = BioEssays | volume = 36 | issue = 10 | pages = 933–939 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25145752 | doi = 10.1002/bies.201400075 | s2cid = 4608380 }}</ref> Carbohydrate digestion and transport is impaired in individuals with autism spectrum disorder, which is thought to be attributed to functional disturbances that cause increased intestinal permeability, deficient enzyme activity of disaccharides, increased secretin-induced pancreatico-biliary secretion, and abnormal fecal flora Clostridia taxa.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams BL, Hornig M, Buie T, Bauman ML, Cho Paik M, Wick I, Bennett A, Jabado O, Hirschberg DL, Lipkin WI | display-authors = 6 | title = Impaired carbohydrate digestion and transport and mucosal dysbiosis in the intestines of children with autism and gastrointestinal disturbances | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 6 | issue = 9 | pages = e24585 | date = 2011 | pmid = 21949732 | pmc = 3174969 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0024585 | bibcode = 2011PLoSO...624585W | doi-access = free }}</ref> Altered gastrointestinal function accompanied by pain may induce feeding issues and increase perceived negative behaviors, including [[self injury]], in individuals with autism.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.focusforhealth.org/common-gi-disorders-in-autism | title = Common GI Disorders in Autism | website = Focus For Health | access-date = 2020-09-06 | archive-date = 2020-12-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201205215616/https://www.focusforhealth.org/common-gi-disorders-in-autism/ | url-status = dead }}</ref>

===Brain fog===
Brain fog is a constellation of symptoms that include reduced cognition, inability to concentrate and multitask, as well as loss of short and long-term memory. Brain fog can be present in patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Its prevalence, however, remains unknown.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Theoharides TC, Stewart JM, Hatziagelaki E, Kolaitis G | title = Brain "fog," inflammation and obesity: key aspects of neuropsychiatric disorders improved by luteolin | journal = Frontiers in Neuroscience | volume = 9 | pages = 225 | year = 2015 | pmid = 26190965 | pmc = 4490655 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2015.00225 | s2cid = 10407088 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== Depression ===
[[Major depressive disorder]] has been shown by several studies to be one of the most common comorbid conditions in those with ASD,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stewart ME, Barnard L, Pearson J, Hasan R, O'Brien G | title = Presentation of depression in autism and Asperger syndrome: a review | journal = Autism | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 103–116 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16522713 | doi = 10.1177/1362361306062013 | s2cid = 12014511 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ghaziuddin M, Ghaziuddin N, Greden J | title = Depression in persons with autism: implications for research and clinical care | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 32 | issue = 4 | pages = 299–306 | date = August 2002 | pmid = 12199134 | doi = 10.1023/A:1016330802348 | publisher = Kluwer Academic Publishers-Plenum Publishers | hdl = 2027.42/44620 | s2cid = 38817077 | eissn = 1573-3432 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> and is thought to develop and occur more in high-functioning individuals during adolescence, when the individual develops greater insight into their differences from others.<ref name="MashBarkley2003" /> In addition, the presentation of depression in ASDs can depend on the level of cognitive functioning in the individual, with lower functioning children displaying more behavioral issues and higher functioning children displaying more traditional depressive symptoms.<ref name="IntHandbook" />

===Developmental coordination disorder (dyspraxia)===
The initial accounts of [[Asperger syndrome]]<ref name=McPartland/> and other diagnostic schemes<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ehlers S, Gillberg C | title = The epidemiology of Asperger syndrome. A total population study | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 34 | issue = 8 | pages = 1327–1350 | date = November 1993 | pmid = 8294522 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb02094.x }} {{cite web|url=http://asperger.org/Publications/Ehlers_and_Gillberg_Article.asp |title=Truncated version |access-date=2008-06-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719235125/http://www.asperger.org/Publications/Ehlers_and_Gillberg_Article.asp |archive-date=2008-07-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> include descriptions of [[developmental coordination disorder]]. Children with ASD may be delayed in acquiring motor skills that require motor dexterity, such as bicycle riding or opening a jar, and may appear awkward or "uncomfortable in their own skin". They may be poorly coordinated, or have an odd or bouncy gait or posture, [[Dysgraphia|poor handwriting, other hand/dexterity impairments]], or problems with visual-motor integration, visual-perceptual skills, and conceptual learning.<ref name=McPartland/><ref name=Klin>{{cite journal | vauthors = Klin A | title = [Autism and Asperger syndrome: an overview] | journal = Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria | volume = 28 | issue = suppl 1 | pages = S3-11 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16791390 | doi = 10.1590/S1516-44462006000500002 | doi-access = free }}</ref> They may show problems with [[proprioception]] (sensation of body position) on measures of [[developmental coordination disorder]], balance, [[tandem gait]], and finger-thumb apposition.<ref name=McPartland>{{cite journal | vauthors = McPartland J, Klin A | title = Asperger's syndrome | journal = Adolescent Medicine Clinics | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 771–88; abstract xiii | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17030291 | doi = 10.1016/j.admecli.2006.06.010 | doi-broken-date = 31 January 2024 }}</ref>

===Epilepsy===
ASD is also associated with [[epilepsy]], with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of language disorder.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tuchman R, Rapin I | title = Epilepsy in autism | journal = The Lancet. Neurology | volume = 1 | issue = 6 | pages = 352–358 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12849396 | doi = 10.1016/S1474-4422(02)00160-6 | s2cid = 34012901 }}</ref> One in four autistic children develops [[seizure]]s, often starting either in early childhood or adolescence.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/a-parents-guide-to-autism-spectrum-disorder/index.shtml | title=A Parent's Guide to Autism Spectrum Disorder | publisher=[[National Institute of Mental Health]] | access-date=17 October 2013 | archive-date=23 February 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223233600/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/a-parents-guide-to-autism-spectrum-disorder/index.shtml | url-status=live }}</ref> Seizures, caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain, can produce a temporary loss of consciousness (a "blackout"), a body convulsion, unusual movements, or staring spells. Sometimes a contributing factor is a lack of sleep or a high fever. An [[Electroencephalogram|EEG]] can help confirm the seizure's presence. Typically, onset of epilepsy occurs before age five or during puberty,<ref name=Canitano>{{cite journal | vauthors = Canitano R | title = Epilepsy in autism spectrum disorders | journal = European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 61–66 | date = February 2007 | pmid = 16932856 | doi = 10.1007/s00787-006-0563-2 | type = Review | s2cid = 23831292 }}</ref> and is more common in females and individuals who also have a comorbid [[intellectual disability]].

===Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder===
[[Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder]] or FASD is a common disorder that can mimic the signs of ASD.<ref name="Overlapping Behavioral Characteristics of FASD's & Related Mental Health Diagnosis">{{cite web |title=Overlapping Behavioral Characteristics of FASD's & Related Mental Health Diagnosis |url=http://i1.wp.com/www.fasdfamilies.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/overlapping-characteristics-sources1.jpg?resize=791%2C1024 |website=www.fasdfamilies.com |publisher=Cathy Bruer-Thompson |access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref> Although results from studies are mixed, it is estimated that 2.6% of children with an FASD have an ASD as well, a rate almost two times higher than that reported in the general US population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lange |first1=Shannon |last2=Rehm |first2=Jürgen |last3=Anagnostou |first3=Evdokia |last4=Popova |first4=Svetlana |title=Prevalence of externalizing disorders and Autism Spectrum Disorders among children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Biochemistry and Cell Biology |date=April 2018 |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=241–251 |doi=10.1139/bcb-2017-0014 |pmid=35741677 |pmc=9221419 }}</ref>

===Fragile X syndrome===
[[Fragile X syndrome]] is the most common inherited form of [[intellectual disability]]. It was so named because one part of the X chromosome has a defective piece that appears pinched and fragile when under a microscope. Fragile X syndrome affects about two to five percent of people with ASD.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.fragilex.org/fragile-x-associated-disorders/fragile-x-syndrome/autism-and-fragile-x-syndrome/ | title=Autism and Fragile X Syndrome | website=National Fragile X Foundation | access-date=3 November 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903171329/https://fragilex.org/fragile-x-associated-disorders/fragile-x-syndrome/autism-and-fragile-x-syndrome/ | archive-date=3 September 2015 | url-status=dead }}</ref> If one child has Fragile X, there is a 50% chance that boys born to the same parents will have Fragile X (see [[Mendelian genetics]]). Other members of the family who may be contemplating having a child may also wish to be checked for the syndrome.

===Gender dysphoria===
{{main|Autism and LGBT identities#Autism and gender identity}}
[[Gender dysphoria]] is a diagnosis given to [[transgender]] people who experience discomfort related to their gender identity.<ref name="DSM-5 fact sheet">{{cite web|title=Gender Dysphoria|publisher=[[American Psychiatric Publishing]]|access-date=April 13, 2016|url=http://www.dsm5.org/documents/gender%20dysphoria%20fact%20sheet.pdf|archive-date=November 20, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120125100/http://www.dsm5.org/documents/gender%20dysphoria%20fact%20sheet.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Autistic people are more likely to experience gender dysphoria.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Lauden K |title=Gender Identity Issues Linked to Autism, ADHD|publisher=MedScape|access-date=May 8, 2016|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/822077|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118040828/https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/822077|archive-date=January 18, 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Glidden D, Bouman WP, Jones BA, Arcelus J | title = Gender Dysphoria and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review of the Literature | journal = Sexual Medicine Reviews | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–14 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 27872002 | doi = 10.1016/j.sxmr.2015.10.003 | s2cid = 3454600 | url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/9620366 | access-date = 2023-08-20 | archive-date = 2023-11-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231103124238/https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Gender_dysphoria_and_autism_spectrum_disorder_a_systematic_review_of_the_literature/9620366 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="de VriesNoens2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = de Vries AL, Noens IL, Cohen-Kettenis PT, van Berckelaer-Onnes IA, Doreleijers TA | title = Autism spectrum disorders in gender dysphoric children and adolescents | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 40 | issue = 8 | pages = 930–936 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 20094764 | pmc = 2904453 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-010-0935-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Around 20% of gender identity clinic-assessed individuals reported characteristics of ASD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Van Der Miesen AI, Hurley H, De Vries AL | title = Gender dysphoria and autism spectrum disorder: A narrative review | journal = International Review of Psychiatry | volume = 28 | issue = 1 | pages = 70–80 | date = 2016-01-02 | pmid = 26753812 | doi = 10.3109/09540261.2015.1111199 | s2cid = 20918937 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Hypermobility spectrum disorder and Ehlers–Danlos syndromes===
Studies have confirmed a link between hereditary connective tissue disorders such as [[Ehlers–Danlos syndromes|Ehlers-Danlos syndromes (EDS)]] and [[Hypermobility spectrum disorder|hypermobility spectrum disorder (HSD)]] with autism, as a comorbidity and a co-occurrence within the same families.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Casanova EL, Baeza-Velasco C, Buchanan CB, Casanova MF | title = The Relationship between Autism and Ehlers-Danlos Syndromes/Hypermobility Spectrum Disorders | journal = Journal of Personalized Medicine | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 260 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33271870 | pmc = 7711487 | doi = 10.3390/jpm10040260 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cederlöf M, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P, Almqvist C, Serlachius E, Ludvigsson JF | title = Nationwide population-based cohort study of psychiatric disorders in individuals with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome or hypermobility syndrome and their siblings | journal = BMC Psychiatry | volume = 16 | pages = 207 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27377649 | pmc = 4932739 | doi = 10.1186/s12888-016-0922-6 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Intellectual disability===
The fraction of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%. This wide variation illustrates the difficulty of assessing intelligence in autistic individuals.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Learning in autism |vauthors=Dawson M, Mottron L, Gernsbacher MA |title=Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference |volume=2 |pages=759–772 |editor=Byrne JH (-in-chief), Roediger HL III (vol.) |publisher=Academic Press |year=2008 |doi=10.1016/B978-012370509-9.00152-2 |isbn=978-0-12-370504-4 |chapter-url=http://gernsbacherlab.org/wp-content/uploads/papers/1/Dawson_AutisticLearning.pdf |access-date=2013-02-16 |archive-date=2018-04-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413012927/http://www.gernsbacherlab.org/wp-content/uploads/papers/1/Dawson_AutisticLearning.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, a 2001 British study of 26 autistic children found only about 30% with intelligence in the normal range ([[IQ]] above 70), 50% with a mild to moderate intellectual disability, and about 20% with a severe to profound intellectual disability (IQ below 35). For ASD other than autism the association is much weaker: the same study reported typical levels of intelligence in about 94% of 53 children with [[PDD-NOS]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E | title = Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children | journal = JAMA | volume = 285 | issue = 24 | pages = 3093–3099 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11427137 | doi = 10.1001/jama.285.24.3093 }}</ref> Estimates are that 40–69% of individuals with ASD have some degree of an intellectual disability,<ref name=MashBarkley2003>{{cite book|vauthors=Mash EJ, Barkley RA |title=Child Psychopathology|url=https://archive.org/details/childpsychopatho00mash_735 |url-access=limited |year=2003|publisher=The Guilford Press|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/childpsychopatho00mash_735/page/n421 409]–454|isbn=9781572306097}}</ref> with females more likely to be in severe range of an intellectual disability. [[Learning disabilities]] are also highly comorbid in individuals with an ASD. Approximately 25–75% of individuals with an ASD also have some degree of learning disability,<ref name="Obrien & Pearson">{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Brien G, Pearson J | title = Autism and learning disability | journal = Autism | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 125–140 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15165430 | doi = 10.1177/1362361304042718 | type = Review | s2cid = 17372893 }}</ref> although the types of learning disability vary depending on the specific strengths and weaknesses of the individual.

A 2006 review questioned the common assumption that most children with autism have an intellectual disability.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Edelson MG |year=2006 |title=Are the majority of children with autism mentally retarded? a systematic evaluation of the data |journal=Focus Autism Other Dev Disabl |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=66–83 |url=http://www.willamette.edu/dept/comm/reprint/edelson/ |access-date=2007-04-15 |doi=10.1177/10883576060210020301 |s2cid=219975805 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704201502/http://www.willamette.edu/dept/comm/reprint/edelson/ |archive-date=2007-07-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is possible that the association between an intellectual disability and autism is not because they usually have common causes, but because the presence of both makes it more likely that both will be diagnosed.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Skuse DH | title = Rethinking the nature of genetic vulnerability to autistic spectrum disorders | journal = Trends in Genetics | volume = 23 | issue = 8 | pages = 387–395 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17630015 | doi = 10.1016/j.tig.2007.06.003 }}</ref>

The CDC states that based on information from 11 reporting states 46% of people with autism have above 85 IQ.<ref>{{Cite web| url=https://www.cdc.gov/features/dsautismdata/| title=Diseases & Conditions | Features | CDC| date=2018-04-04| access-date=2017-09-09| archive-date=2017-11-19| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119060937/https://www.cdc.gov/features/dsautismdata/| url-status=live}}</ref>

===Mitochondrial diseases===
The central player in bioenergetics is the [[mitochondrion]]. Mitochondria produce about 90% of cellular energy, regulate cellular redox status, produce ROS, maintain Ca2+ homeostasis, synthesize and degrade high-energy biochemical intermediates, and regulate cell death through activation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mtPTP). When they fail, less and less energy is generated within the cell. Cell injury and even cell death follow. If this process is repeated throughout the body, whole organ systems begin to fail.

[[Mitochondrial disease]]s are a heterogeneous group of disorders that can affect multiple organs with varying severity. Symptoms may be acute or chronic with intermittent decompensation. Neurological manifestations include [[encephalopathy]], [[stroke]], cognitive regression, [[seizure]]s, [[cardiovascular disease|cardiopathies]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Siasos G, Tsigkou V, Kosmopoulos M, Theodosiadis D, Simantiris S, Tagkou NM, Tsimpiktsioglou A, Stampouloglou PK, Oikonomou E, Mourouzis K, Philippou A, Vavuranakis M, Stefanadis C, Tousoulis D, Papavassiliou AG | display-authors = 6 | title = Mitochondria and cardiovascular diseases-from pathophysiology to treatment | journal = Annals of Translational Medicine | volume = 6 | issue = 12 | pages = 256 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 30069458 | pmc = 6046286 | doi = 10.21037/atm.2018.06.21 | doi-access = free }}</ref> (cardiac conduction defects, [[hypertensive heart disease]], [[cardiomyopathy]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = El-Hattab AW, Scaglia F | title = Mitochondrial Cardiomyopathies | journal = Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine | volume = 3 | pages = 25 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27504452 | pmc = 4958622 | doi = 10.3389/fcvm.2016.00025 | doi-access = free }}</ref> etc...), [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], [[Visual impairment|visual]] and [[hearing loss]], [[organ failure]], [[neuropathic pain]] and [[peripheral neuropathy]].

The prevalence estimates of mitochondrial disease and dysfunction across studies ranging from about 5 to 80%. This may be, in part, due to the unclear distinction between mitochondrial disease and dysfunction. Mitochondrial diseases are difficult to diagnose and have become better known and detected. Studies indicating the highest rates of mitochondrial diagnosis are usually the most recent.<ref name=pmid25019065>{{cite journal | vauthors = Frye RE, Rossignol DA | title = Treatments for biomedical abnormalities associated with autism spectrum disorder | journal = Frontiers in Pediatrics | volume = 2 | pages = 66 | year = 2014 | pmid = 25019065 | pmc = 4073259 | doi = 10.3389/fped.2014.00066 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Some drugs are toxic to mitochondria. These can trigger or aggravate dysfunctions or mitochondrial diseases.

* Antiepileptics :
Valproic acid (also used in various other indications) and phenytoin are the most toxic. Phenobarbital, carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, ethosuximide, zonisamide, topiramate, gabapentin and vigabatrin are also.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Finsterer J, Zarrouk Mahjoub S | title = Mitochondrial toxicity of antiepileptic drugs and their tolerability in mitochondrial disorders | journal = Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 71–79 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22149023 | doi = 10.1517/17425255.2012.644535 | s2cid = 12147144 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mithal DS, Kurz JE | title = Anticonvulsant Medications in Mitochondrial Disease | journal = Pediatric Neurology Briefs | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 9 | date = November 2017 | pmid = 29184381 | pmc = 5681459 | doi = 10.15844/pedneurbriefs-31-3-3 }}</ref>

* Other types of drugs :
Corticosteroids (such as cortisone), isotretinoin (Accutane) and other vitamin A derivatives, barbiturates, certain antibiotics, propofol, volatile anesthetics, non-depolarizing muscle relaxants, some local anesthetics, statins, fibrates, glitazones, beta blockers, biguanides, amiodarone, some chemotherapies, some neuroleptics, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and various other drugs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Finsterer J, Segall L | title = Drugs interfering with mitochondrial disorders | journal = Drug and Chemical Toxicology | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 138–151 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 19839725 | doi = 10.3109/01480540903207076 | s2cid = 15913362 }}</ref><ref name=pmid26078802/>

=== Neurofibromatosis type I ===
ASD is also associated with [[Neurofibromatosis type I]] (NF-1).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-06-08|title=Neurofibromatosis type 1 - Symptoms|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/neurofibromatosis-type-1/symptoms/|access-date=2020-09-21|website=nhs.uk|language=en|archive-date=2015-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925015544/http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Neurofibromatosis/Pages/Symptoms.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> NF-1 is a complex multi-system human disorder caused by the mutation of a gene on [[chromosome 17]] that is responsible for production of a protein, called [[neurofibromin 1]], which is needed for normal function in many human cell types. NF-1 causes tumors along the nervous system which can grow anywhere on the body. NF-1 is one of the most common genetic disorders and is not limited to any person's race or sex. NF-1 is an [[autosomal dominant]] disorder, which means that mutation or deletion of one copy (or allele) of the NF-1 gene is sufficient for the development of NF-1, although presentation varies widely and is often different even between relatives affected by NF-1.

===Neuroinflammation and immune disorders===
The role of the [[immune system]] and neuroinflammation in the development of autism is controversial. Until recently, there was scant evidence supporting immune hypotheses, but research into the role of immune response and neuroinflammation may have important clinical and therapeutic implications. The exact role of heightened immune response in the [[central nervous system]] (CNS) of patients with autism is uncertain, but may be a primary factor in triggering and sustaining many of the comorbid conditions associated with autism. Recent studies indicate the presence of heightened neuroimmune activity in both the brain tissue and the [[cerebrospinal fluid]] of patients with autism, supporting the view that heightened immune response may be an essential factor in the onset of autistic symptoms.<ref name="pmid16401547">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pardo CA, Vargas DL, Zimmerman AW | title = Immunity, neuroglia and neuroinflammation in autism | journal = International Review of Psychiatry | volume = 17 | issue = 6 | pages = 485–495 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16401547 | doi = 10.1080/02646830500381930 | s2cid = 849995 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.504.8397 }}</ref> A 2013 review also found evidence of microglial activation and increased [[cytokine]] production in postmortem brain samples from people with autism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gesundheit B, Rosenzweig JP, Naor D, Lerer B, Zachor DA, Procházka V, Melamed M, Kristt DA, Steinberg A, Shulman C, Hwang P, Koren G, Walfisch A, Passweg JR, Snowden JA, Tamouza R, Leboyer M, Farge-Bancel D, Ashwood P | display-authors = 6 | title = Immunological and autoimmune considerations of Autism Spectrum Disorders | journal = Journal of Autoimmunity | volume = 44 | pages = 1–7 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23867105 | doi = 10.1016/j.jaut.2013.05.005 }}</ref>

===Neuropathies===
The prevalence of [[Peripheral Neuropathies|peripheral neuropathies]] would be significantly increased in ASD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Frye RE, Rossignol DA | title = Mitochondrial dysfunction can connect the diverse medical symptoms associated with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatric Research | volume = 69 | issue = 5 Pt 2 | pages = 41R–47R | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21289536 | pmc = 3179978 | doi = 10.1203/PDR.0b013e318212f16b }}</ref> Peripheral neuropathies may be asymptomatic. Peripheral neuropathy is a common manifestation of mitochondrial diseases<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Luigetti M, Sauchelli D, Primiano G, Cuccagna C, Bernardo D, Lo Monaco M, Servidei S | title = Peripheral neuropathy is a common manifestation of mitochondrial diseases: a single-centre experience | journal = European Journal of Neurology | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | pages = 1020–1027 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 26822221 | doi = 10.1111/ene.12954 | s2cid = 3914392 }}</ref> and [[polyneuropathies]] would be relatively common.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Luigetti M, Primiano G, Cuccagna C, Bernardo D, Sauchelli D, Vollono C, Servidei S | title = Small fibre neuropathy in mitochondrial diseases explored with sudoscan | journal = Clinical Neurophysiology | volume = 129 | issue = 8 | pages = 1618–1623 | date = August 2018 | pmid = 29890373 | doi = 10.1016/j.clinph.2018.04.755 | s2cid = 48364519 }}</ref> [[Neuropathies]] could also be caused by other features of ASD.

===Neurotransmitter anomalies===
{{Empty section|date=May 2023}}

===Nonverbal learning disorder===
{{see also|Nonverbal learning disorder}}
{{Empty section|date=July 2023}}

=== Obsessive–compulsive disorder ===
[[Obsessive–compulsive disorder]] is characterized by recurrent obsessive thoughts or compulsive acts. About 30% of individuals with autism spectrum disorders also have OCD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Russell AJ, Jassi A, Fullana MA, Mack H, Johnston K, Heyman I, Murphy DG, Mataix-Cols D | display-authors = 6 | title = Cognitive behavior therapy for comorbid obsessive-compulsive disorder in high-functioning autism spectrum disorders: a randomized controlled trial | journal = Depression and Anxiety | volume = 30 | issue = 8 | pages = 697–708 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23389964 | doi = 10.1002/da.22053 | s2cid = 13587266 | url = https://purehost.bath.ac.uk/ws/files/84038359/Accepted_version.pdf | access-date = 2023-08-20 | archive-date = 2023-09-08 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230908095154/https://purehost.bath.ac.uk/ws/files/84038359/Accepted_version.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>

=== Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder ===
[[Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder]] (OCPD) is a [[Cluster C|cluster c personality disorder]] characterized by a general pattern of excessive concern with orderliness, [[Perfectionism (psychology)|perfectionism]], attention to details, mental and interpersonal [[Control (psychology)|control]] and a need for control over one's environment which interferes with personal [[Flexibility (personality)|flexibility]], [[openness to experience]] and [[efficiency]] as well as interfering with relationships.

There are considerable similarities and overlap between [[Autism]] and OCPD,<ref name="Gillberg&Billstedt2000">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gillberg C, Billstedt E | title = Autism and Asperger syndrome: coexistence with other clinical disorders | journal = Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica | volume = 102 | issue = 5 | pages = 321–330 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 11098802 | doi = 10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.102005321.x | s2cid = 40070782 }}</ref> such as list-making, inflexible adherence to rules and obsessive aspects of routines, though the latter may be distinguished from OCPD especially regarding [[Affect (psychology)|affective]] behaviors, bad social skills, difficulties with [[Theory of mind#Autism|theory of mind]] and intense intellectual interests e.g. an ability to recall every aspect of a hobby.<ref name="Fitzgerald2001a">{{Cite journal| vauthors = Fitzgerald M, Corvin A |date=2001-07-01|title=Diagnosis and differential diagnosis of Asperger syndrome|journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment|volume=7|issue=4|pages=310–318|doi=10.1192/apt.7.4.310|issn=1355-5146|doi-access=free}}</ref> A 2009 study involving adult [[Autism spectrum|autistic]] people found that 40% of those diagnosed with Autism met the diagnostic requirements for a [[Comorbidity#Mental health|co-morbid]] OCPD diagnosis.<ref name="Hofvander2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hofvander B, Delorme R, Chaste P, Nydén A, Wentz E, Ståhlberg O, Herbrecht E, Stopin A, Anckarsäter H, Gillberg C, Råstam M, Leboyer M | display-authors = 6 | title = Psychiatric and psychosocial problems in adults with normal-intelligence autism spectrum disorders | journal = BMC Psychiatry | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 35 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19515234 | pmc = 2705351 | doi = 10.1186/1471-244x-9-35 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== Psychosis and schizophrenia ===
{{See also|Social construction of schizophrenia#Science of schizophrenia and comorbid conditions|l1=Schizophrenia and comorbid conditions}}
[[Childhood schizophrenia|Childhood-onset schizophrenia]] is preceded by childhood autistic spectrum disorders in almost half of cases, and an increasing number of similarities are being discovered between the two disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rapoport J, Chavez A, Greenstein D, Addington A, Gogtay N | title = Autism spectrum disorders and childhood-onset schizophrenia: clinical and biological contributions to a relation revisited | journal = Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 48 | issue = 1 | pages = 10–18 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19218893 | pmc = 2664646 | doi = 10.1097/CHI.0b013e31818b1c63 }}</ref>

Studies have also found that the presence of [[psychosis]] in adulthood is significantly higher in those with autism spectrum disorders, especially those with [[Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified|PDD-NOS]], than in the general population.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mouridsen SE, Rich B, Isager T | title = Psychiatric disorders in adults diagnosed as children with atypical autism. A case control study | journal = Journal of Neural Transmission | volume = 115 | issue = 1 | pages = 135–138 | date = 2008 | pmid = 17768593 | doi = 10.1007/s00702-007-0798-1 | s2cid = 34532555 }}</ref> This psychosis generally occurs in an unusual way, with most individuals with ASD experiencing a highly atypical collection of symptoms. Recent studies have also found that the core ASD symptoms also generally present in a slightly different way during the childhood of the individuals that will later become psychotic, long before the actual psychosis develops.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Larson FV, Wagner AP, Jones PB, Tantam D, Lai MC, Baron-Cohen S, Holland AJ | title = Psychosis in autism: comparison of the features of both conditions in a dually affected cohort | journal = The British Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 210 | issue = 4 | pages = 269–275 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 27979819 | pmc = 5376719 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.bp.116.187682 }}</ref>

===Reduced NMDA‐receptor function===
Reduced NMDA receptor function has been linked to reduced social interactions, locomotor hyperactivity, self-injury, prepulse inhibition (PPI) deficits, and sensory hypersensitivity, among others. Results suggest that NMDA dysregulation could contribute to core ASD symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gandal MJ, Anderson RL, Billingslea EN, Carlson GC, Roberts TP, Siegel SJ | title = Mice with reduced NMDA receptor expression: more consistent with autism than schizophrenia? | journal = Genes, Brain and Behavior | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 740–750 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22726567 | pmc = 3808979 | doi = 10.1111/j.1601-183X.2012.00816.x }}</ref>

=== Schizoid personality disorder ===
[[Schizoid personality disorder]] (SPD) is a [[personality disorder]] characterized by a [[Asociality|lack of interest in social relationships]], a tendency towards a solitary or sheltered lifestyle, secretiveness, emotional coldness, detachment and [[apathy]]. Other associated features include [[stilted speech]], a [[Anhedonia|lack of deriving enjoyment]] from most, if not all, activities, feeling as though one is an "observer" rather than a participant in life, an inability to tolerate emotional expectations of others, apparent indifference when praised or criticised, a degree of [[asexuality]] and idiosyncratic moral or political beliefs.<ref name="Akhtar">{{cite journal | vauthors = Akhtar S | title = Schizoid personality disorder: a synthesis of developmental, dynamic, and descriptive features | journal = American Journal of Psychotherapy | volume = 41 | issue = 4 | pages = 499–518 | date = October 1987 | pmid = 3324773 | doi = 10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1987.41.4.499 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bU0eAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 | access-date = 2017-02-10 | url-status = live | isbn = 9781461627685 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170731160223/https://books.google.de/books?id=bU0eAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 | archive-date = 2017-07-31 }}</ref> Symptoms typically start in late childhood or adolescence.<ref name="Medline">{{cite web|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000920.htm|title=Schizoid Personality Disorder|work=[[MedlinePlus]]|date=2014|publisher=National Library of Medicine|access-date=2019-08-21|archive-date=2016-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705124629/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000920.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Several studies have reported an overlap, confusion or comorbidity with the [[autism spectrum disorder]] [[Asperger syndrome]].<ref name="Tantam_1988">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tantam D | title = Lifelong eccentricity and social isolation. II: Asperger's syndrome or schizoid personality disorder? | journal = The British Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 153 | pages = 783–791 | date = December 1988 | pmid = 3256377 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.153.6.783 | s2cid = 39433805 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Integrated Treatment for Co-Occurring Disorders: Personality Disorders and Addiction| vauthors = Ekleberry SC |publisher=Routledge|year=2008|isbn=978-0789036933|pages=31–32|chapter=Cluster A - Schizoid Personality Disorder and Substance Use Disorders|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5HY1xcfjEcC&pg=PA31}}</ref><ref name="Lugnegård_2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lugnegård T, Hallerbäck MU, Gillberg C | title = Personality disorders and autism spectrum disorders: what are the connections? | journal = Comprehensive Psychiatry | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 333–340 | date = May 2012 | pmid = 21821235 | doi = 10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.05.014 }}</ref> Asperger syndrome was at one time called "[[schizoid disorder of childhood]]". [[Eugen Bleuler]] coined the term "autism" to describe withdrawal to an internal fantasy, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuhn R | title = Eugen Bleuler's concepts of psychopathology | journal = History of Psychiatry | volume = 15 | issue = 59 Pt 3 | pages = 361–366 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15386868 | doi = 10.1177/0957154X04044603 | s2cid = 5317716 }} The quote is a translation of Bleuler's 1910 original.</ref>

In a 2012 study of a sample of 54 young adults with Asperger syndrome, it was found that 26% of them also met criteria for SPD, the highest comorbidity out of any personality disorder in the sample (the other comorbidities were 19% for [[obsessive–compulsive personality disorder]], 13% for [[avoidant personality disorder]] and one female with [[schizotypal personality disorder]]). Additionally, twice as many men with Asperger syndrome met criteria for SPD than women. While 41% of the whole sample were unemployed with no occupation, this rose to 62% for the Asperger's and SPD comorbid group.<ref name="Lugnegård_2012" />

Although the cause for this comorbidity is not yet certain, genetic evidence for a spectrum between [[cluster A personality disorders]]/[[schizophrenia]] and autism spectrum disorders has been found.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crespi B, Badcock C | title = Psychosis and autism as diametrical disorders of the social brain | journal = The Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 241–261 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18578904 | doi = 10.1017/S0140525X08004214 | url = http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/21571/1/Psychosis%20and%20autism%20as%20diametrical%20disorders%20of%20the%20social%20brain%20%28LSERO%29.pdf | access-date = 2019-11-29 | archive-date = 2020-04-12 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200412200311/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/21571/1/Psychosis%20and%20autism%20as%20diametrical%20disorders%20of%20the%20social%20brain%20%28LSERO%29.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crespi B, Stead P, Elliot M | title = Evolution in health and medicine Sackler colloquium: Comparative genomics of autism and schizophrenia | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = 1736–1741 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 19955444 | pmc = 2868282 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0906080106 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.1736C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ciaramidaro A, Bölte S, Schlitt S, Hainz D, Poustka F, Weber B, Bara BG, Freitag C, Walter H | display-authors = 6 | title = Schizophrenia and autism as contrasting minds: neural evidence for the hypo-hyper-intentionality hypothesis | journal = Schizophrenia Bulletin | volume = 41 | issue = 1 | pages = 171–179 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25210055 | pmc = 4266299 | doi = 10.1093/schbul/sbu124 }}</ref><ref name=":0" group="note">See [[Imprinted brain hypothesis]], [[Causes of schizophrenia#Genetic candidates|Causes of schizophrenia]], [[DUF1220]]</ref> [[Digby Tantam|Tantam]] suggested that Asperger syndrome may confer an increased risk of developing SPD.<ref name="Tantam_1988" />

In the same 2012 study, it was noted that the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]] may complicate diagnosis of SPD by requiring the exclusion of a [[pervasive developmental disorder]] (PDD) before establishing a diagnosis of SPD. The study found that social interaction, stereotyped behaviours and specific interests were more severe in the individuals with Asperger syndrome also fulfilling SPD criteria, against the notion that social interaction skills are unimpaired in SPD. The authors believe that a substantial subgroup of people with autism spectrum disorder or PDD have clear "schizoid traits" and correspond largely to the "loners" in [[Lorna Wing|Lorna Wing's]] classification ''The autism spectrum'' ([[The Lancet|Lancet]] 1997), described by [[Sula Wolff]].<ref name="Lugnegård_2012" />

Comorbidities with other personality disorders are thought to exist and are an area of ongoing research<ref>{{cite journal| volume = 57| issue = 2| pages = 181–196| vauthors = Gillett G, Leaves L, Patel A, Prisecaru A, Spain D, Happe F | title = The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder traits and diagnosis in adults and young people with personality disorders: A systematic review| journal = Aust N Z J Psychiatry| access-date = 29 August 2024| year = 2023| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9896258/}}</ref>.

===Sensory problems===
{{further|Sensory processing disorder}}
Unusual responses to [[Stimulus (physiology)|sensory stimuli]] are more common and prominent in individuals with autism, and sensory abnormalities are commonly recognized as diagnostic criteria in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), as reported in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V); although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers SJ, Ozonoff S | title = Annotation: what do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? A critical review of the empirical evidence | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 46 | issue = 12 | pages = 1255–1268 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16313426 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01431.x }}</ref> [[Sensory processing disorder]] is comorbid with ASD, with comorbidity rates of 42–88%.<ref name=Baranek2002>{{cite journal | vauthors = Baranek GT | title = Efficacy of sensory and motor interventions for children with autism | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 32 | issue = 5 | pages = 397–422 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12463517 | doi = 10.1023/A:1020541906063 | type = Review | s2cid = 16449130 }}</ref> With or without meeting the standards of SPD; about 90% of ASD individuals have some type of atypical sensory experiences, described as both hyper- and hypo-reactivity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Balasco L, Provenzano G, Bozzi Y | title = Sensory Abnormalities in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Focus on the Tactile Domain, From Genetic Mouse Models to the Clinic | journal = Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume = 10 | pages = 1016 | date = 28 January 2020 | pmid = 32047448 | pmc = 6997554 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.01016 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The prevalence of reported "unusual sensory ''behaviors"'' that effect functioning in everyday life is also higher; ranging from 45 to 95% depending on factors such as age, IQ and the control group used.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kojovic N, Ben Hadid L, Franchini M, Schaer M | title = Sensory Processing Issues and Their Association with Social Difficulties in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders | journal = Journal of Clinical Medicine | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | page = 1508 | date = September 2019 | pmid = 31547076 | pmc = 6833094 | doi = 10.3390/jcm8101508 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Perez Repetto L, Jasmin E, Fombonne E, Gisel E, Couture M | title = Longitudinal Study of Sensory Features in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder | journal = Autism Research and Treatment | volume = 2017 | pages = 1934701 | date = 27 August 2017 | pmid = 28932599 | pmc = 5592014 | doi = 10.1155/2017/1934701 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Several studies have reported associated motor problems that include [[poor muscle tone]], [[Developmental coordination disorder|poor motor planning]], and [[toe walking]]; ASD is not associated with severe motor disturbances.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ming X, Brimacombe M, Wagner GC | title = Prevalence of motor impairment in autism spectrum disorders | journal = Brain & Development | volume = 29 | issue = 9 | pages = 565–570 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17467940 | doi = 10.1016/j.braindev.2007.03.002 | s2cid = 9648682 }}</ref>

Many with ASD often find it uncomfortable to sit or stand in a way which neurotypical people will find ordinary, and may stand in an awkward position, such as with both feet together, supinating, sitting cross-legged or with one foot on top of the other or simply having an awkward gait. However, despite evidently occurring more often in people with ASD, all evidence is anecdotal and unresearched at this point. It has been observed by some psychologists that there is commonality to the way in which these 'awkward' positions may manifest.<ref>{{citation |author=Carry Terra |title=Adults on the Spectrum: These are your Feet on Asperger's}} http://www.aspiestrategy.com/2013/02/adults-on-spectrum-these-are-your-feet.html?m=1 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923123840/http://www.aspiestrategy.com/2013/02/adults-on-spectrum-these-are-your-feet.html?m=1 |date=2016-09-23 }}</ref>

===Sleep disorders===
Sleep disorders are commonly reported by parents of individuals with ASDs, including late sleep onset, early morning awakening, and poor sleep maintenance;<ref name=Canitano /> sleep disturbances are present in 53–78% of individuals with ASD.<ref name=Malow2012>{{cite journal | vauthors = Malow BA, Byars K, Johnson K, Weiss S, Bernal P, Goldman SE, Panzer R, Coury DL, Glaze DG | display-authors = 6 | title = A practice pathway for the identification, evaluation, and management of insomnia in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 130 | issue = Suppl 2 | pages = S106–S124 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 23118242 | pmc = 9923883 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2012-0900I | s2cid = 15066964 }}</ref> Unlike general pediatric [[insomnia]], which has its roots in behavior, sleep disorders in individuals with ASD are comorbid with other neurobiological, medical, and psychiatric issues.<ref name="Malow2012"/>

If not addressed, severe sleep disorders can exacerbate ASD behaviors such as [[self-injury]];<ref>{{cite web|title=Poor sleep in children with autism associated with problematic behavior during the day|url=http://www.truthlyapp.com/truths/495-poor-sleep-in-children-with-autism-associated-with-problematic-behavior-during-the-day|website=Truthly|access-date=5 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205231729/http://www.truthlyapp.com/truths/495-poor-sleep-in-children-with-autism-associated-with-problematic-behavior-during-the-day|archive-date=5 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> however, there are no [[Food and Drug Administration]]-approved pharmacological treatments for pediatric insomnia at this time.<ref name=Johnson2008>{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnson KP, Malow BA | title = Assessment and pharmacologic treatment of sleep disturbance in autism | journal = Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 773–85, viii | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18775369 | doi = 10.1016/j.chc.2008.06.006 }}</ref>

Studies have found abnormalities in the physiology of melatonin and circadian rhythm in people with autism spectrum disorders (ASD).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wu |first=Zhou-yue |date=October 2020 |title=Autism spectrum disorder (ASD): Disturbance of the melatonin system and its implications |journal=Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy |volume=130|doi=10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110496 |pmid=32682113 |doi-access=free }}</ref> These physiological abnormalities include lower concentrations of melatonin or melatonin metabolites in ASDs compared to controls.<ref name=pmid26052041/> Some evidence suggests that [[melatonin]] supplements improve sleep patterns in children with autism but robust, high-quality studies are overall lacking.<ref>{{cite web|title=Melatonin supplementation associated with improved sleep and behavior in children with autism|url=http://www.truthlyapp.com/truths/496-melatonin-supplementation-associated-with-improved-sleep-and-behavior-in-children-with-autism|website=Truthly|access-date=5 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205230007/http://www.truthlyapp.com/truths/496-melatonin-supplementation-associated-with-improved-sleep-and-behavior-in-children-with-autism|archive-date=5 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=More Evidence that Melatonin Eases Autism-Associated Insomnia|url=http://www.autismspeaks.org/science/science-news/more-evidence-melatonin-eases-autism-associated-insomnia|website=Autism Speaks|access-date=5 February 2015|archive-date=5 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205234816/http://www.autismspeaks.org/science/science-news/more-evidence-melatonin-eases-autism-associated-insomnia|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Strabismus===
According to several studies, there is a high prevalence of [[strabismus]] in autistic individuals, with rates 3–10 times that of the general population.<ref>{{Cite medRxiv | vauthors = Williams ZJ |title=Prevalence of Strabismus in Individuals on the Autism Spectrum: A Meta-analysis |year=2021 |medrxiv=10.1101/2021.07.13.21260452v1}}</ref>

===Tinnitus===
According to one study, 35% of people who are autistic would be affected by [[tinnitus]], which is much higher than in the general population.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Danesh AA, Lang D, Kaf W, Andreassen WD, Scott J, Eshraghi AA | title = Tinnitus and hyperacusis in autism spectrum disorders with emphasis on high functioning individuals diagnosed with Asperger's Syndrome | journal = International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology | volume = 79 | issue = 10 | pages = 1683–1688 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26243502 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijporl.2015.07.024 }}</ref>

===Tourette syndrome===
The prevalence of [[Tourette syndrome]] among individuals who are autistic is estimated to be 6.5%, higher than the 2% to 3% prevalence for the general population. Several hypotheses for this association have been advanced, including common genetic factors and [[dopamine]], [[glutamate]] or [[serotonin]] abnormalities.<ref name=Zafeiriou/>

===Tuberous sclerosis===
[[Tuberous sclerosis]] is a rare genetic disorder that causes benign [[tumor]]s to grow in the brain as well as in other vital organs. It has a consistently strong association with the autism spectrum. One to four percent of autistic people also have tuberous sclerosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Smalley SL | title = Autism and tuberous sclerosis | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 28 | issue = 5 | pages = 407–414 | date = October 1998 | pmid = 9813776 | doi = 10.1023/A:1026052421693 | s2cid = 36023695 }}</ref> Studies have reported that between 25% and 61% of individuals with tuberous sclerosis meet the diagnostic criteria for autism with an even higher proportion showing features of a broader [[pervasive developmental disorder]].<ref name="autism-prevalence">{{cite journal | vauthors = Harrison JE, Bolton PF | title = Annotation: tuberous sclerosis | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 38 | issue = 6 | pages = 603–614 | date = September 1997 | pmid = 9315970 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01687.x }}</ref>

=== Turner syndrome ===
[[Turner syndrome]] is an [[intersex]] condition wherein a person is born [[Phenotype|phenotypically]] female but with only one X chromosome or with X/XX [[Mosaic (genetics)|mosaicism]] instead of XX or XY chromosomes. One study found that 23% of girls with Turner syndrome who were included met criteria for a diagnosis of an autism spectrum disorder and the majority had "significant social communication difficulties."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wolstencroft J, Mandy W, Skuse D | title = Mental health and neurodevelopment in children and adolescents with Turner syndrome | journal = Women's Health | volume = 18 | pages = 17455057221133635 | date = December 6, 2022 | pmid = 36472167 | pmc = 9730007 | doi = 10.1177/17455057221133635 }}</ref>

===Vitamin deficiencies===
{{Expand section|date=November 2018}}
Vitamin deficiencies are more common in autism spectrum disorders than in the general population.

* ''Vitamin D'' : Vitamin D deficiency was concerned in a German study 78% of hospitalized autistic population. 52% of the entire ASD group in the study was severely deficient, which is much higher than in the general population.<ref name="Vitamin D Deficiency in Adult Patie">{{cite journal | vauthors = Endres D, Dersch R, Stich O, Buchwald A, Perlov E, Feige B, Maier S, Riedel A, van Elst LT | display-authors = 6 | title = Vitamin D Deficiency in Adult Patients with Schizophreniform and Autism Spectrum Syndromes: A One-Year Cohort Study at a German Tertiary Care Hospital | journal = Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume = 7 | pages = 168 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27766084 | pmc = 5052261 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00168 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Other studies also show a higher rate of vitamin D deficiencies in ASDs.<ref name="Vitamin D Deficiency in Adult Patie"/>
* ''Vitamin B12'' : The researchers found that, overall, B12 levels in the brain tissue of autistic children were three times lower than those of the brain tissue of children not affected by ASD. This lower-than-normal B12 profile persisted throughout life in the brain tissues of patients with autism. These deficiencies are not visible by conventional blood sampling.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.autismspeaks.org/science/science-news/study-vitamin-b12-levels-low-brains-affected-autism-or-schizophrenia | title=Science Blog | Autism Speaks | access-date=2018-12-20 | archive-date=2018-08-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805052509/https://www.autismspeaks.org/science/science-news/study-vitamin-b12-levels-low-brains-affected-autism-or-schizophrenia | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang Y, Hodgson NW, Trivedi MS, Abdolmaleky HM, Fournier M, Cuenod M, Do KQ, Deth RC | display-authors = 6 | title = Decreased Brain Levels of Vitamin B12 in Aging, Autism and Schizophrenia | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = e0146797 | year = 2016 | pmid = 26799654 | pmc = 4723262 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0146797 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1146797Z }}</ref> As for the classic deficiency of vitamin B12, it would affect up to 40% of the population, its prevalence has not yet been studied in autism spectrum disorders. Vitamin B12 deficiency is one of the most serious.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/research-news/2000/b12-deficiency-may-be-more-widespread-than-thought/ | title=B12 Deficiency May be More Widespread Than Thought : USDA ARS | access-date=2018-12-20 | archive-date=2016-08-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804120552/http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2000/000802.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* ''Vitamin B9'' (folic acid) : Studies have been conducted regarding folic acid supplementation in autism in children. "The results showed that folic acid supplementation significantly improved certain symptoms of autism such as sociability, verbal / preverbal cognitive language, receptive language, and emotional expression and communication. In addition, this treatment improved the concentrations of folic acid, homocysteine and redox metabolism of standardized glutathione. "<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sun C, Zou M, Zhao D, Xia W, Wu L | title = Efficacy of Folic Acid Supplementation in Autistic Children Participating in Structured Teaching: An Open-Label Trial | journal = Nutrients | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = 337 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 27338456 | pmc = 4924178 | doi = 10.3390/nu8060337 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Frye RE, Slattery J, Delhey L, Furgerson B, Strickland T, Tippett M, Sailey A, Wynne R, Rose S, Melnyk S, Jill James S, Sequeira JM, Quadros EV | display-authors = 6 | title = Folinic acid improves verbal communication in children with autism and language impairment: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial | journal = Molecular Psychiatry | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 247–256 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 27752075 | pmc = 5794882 | doi = 10.1038/mp.2016.168 }}</ref>
* ''Vitamin A'' : Vitamin A can induce mitochondrial dysfunction. According to a non-specific study on ASD: "Vitamin A and its derivatives, retinoids, are micronutrients necessary for the human diet in order to maintain several cellular functions of human development in adulthood as well as during aging (...) Although it is either an essential micronutrient, used in clinical applications, vitamin A has several toxic effects on the redox environment and mitochondrial function. A decline in the quality of life and an increase in the mortality rate among users of vitamin A supplements have been reported. Although the exact mechanism by which vitamin A causes its deleterious effects is not yet clear (...) Vitamin A and its derivatives, retinoids , disrupt mitochondrial function by a mechanism that is not fully understood."<ref name=pmid26078802>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Oliveira MR | title = Vitamin A and Retinoids as Mitochondrial Toxicants | journal = Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity | volume = 2015 | pages = 140267 | year = 2015 | pmid = 26078802 | pmc = 4452429 | doi = 10.1155/2015/140267 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* ''Zinc'' : Zinc deficiency incidence rates in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 43.5%, 28.1% and 3.3% for boys and at 52.5%, 28.7% and 3.5% among girls.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yasuda H, Tsutsui T | title = Assessment of infantile mineral imbalances in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 10 | issue = 11 | pages = 6027–6043 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 24284360 | pmc = 3863885 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph10116027 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* ''Magnesium'' : Incidence rates of magnesium deficiency in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 27%, 17.1% and 4.2% for boys and at 22.9%, 12.7% and 4.3% among girls.
* ''Calcium'' : Incidence rates of calcium deficiency in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 years and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 10.4%, 6.1% and 0.4% for boys and at 3.4%, 1.7% and 0.9% among girls.

It has been found that special diets that are inappropriate for children with ASD usually result in excessive amounts of certain nutrients and persistent vitamin deficiencies.<ref name=pmid26052041>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stewart PA, Hyman SL, Schmidt BL, Macklin EA, Reynolds A, Johnson CR, James SJ, Manning-Courtney P | display-authors = 6 | title = Dietary Supplementation in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Common, Insufficient, and Excessive | journal = Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics | volume = 115 | issue = 8 | pages = 1237–1248 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26052041 | doi = 10.1016/j.jand.2015.03.026 }}</ref>

===Other mental disorders===
[[Phobia]]s and other [[Psychopathology|psychopathological]] disorders have often been described along with ASD but this has not been assessed systematically.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Matson JL, Nebel-Schwalm MS | title = Comorbid psychopathology with autism spectrum disorder in children: an overview | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | pages = 341–352 | year = 2007 | pmid = 16765022 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2005.12.004 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.697.4938 }}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Pervasive developmental disorders}}

[[Category:Autism]]

Diagnosis of autism

2024-08-29T12:50:07Z

131.111.5.201: /* Challenges */

{{Short description|Diagnosis based on behavior}} 
{{Multiple issues|{{Cleanup rewrite|date=June 2023|Contains long lists and long sections that have grown over time and could be presented more concisely.}}
{{Missing information|article|diagnosis of adults, diagnosis of girls and women, differential diagnoses, self-diagnosis|date=June 2023}}}}The '''diagnosis of autism''' is based on a person's reported and directly observed behavior.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Baird G, Cass H, Slonims V |date=August 2003 |title=Diagnosis of autism |journal=BMJ |volume=327 |issue=7413 |pages=488–493 |doi=10.1136/bmj.327.7413.488 |pmc=188387 |pmid=12946972}}</ref> There are no known [[Biomarker|biomarkers]] for [[autism spectrum conditions]] that allow for a conclusive diagnosis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lord |first1=Catherine |author-link=Catherine Lord (psychologist) |last2=Charman |first2=Tony |last3=Havdahl |first3=Alexandra |last4=Carbone |first4=Paul |last5=Anagnostou |first5=Evdokia |last6=Boyd |first6=Brian |last7=Carr |first7=Themba |last8=de Vries |first8=Petrus J |last9=Dissanayake |first9=Cheryl |author-link9=Cheryl Dissanayake |last10=Divan |first10=Gauri |last11=Freitag |first11=Christine M |last12=Gotelli |first12=Marina M |last13=Kasari |first13=Connie |last14=Knapp |first14=Martin |last15=Mundy |first15=Peter |date=2022 |title=The Lancet Commission on the future of care and clinical research in autism |journal=[[The Lancet]] |language=en |volume=399 |issue=10321 |pages=271–334 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01541-5 |pmid=34883054 |s2cid=244917920|hdl=11250/2975811 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In most cases, [[diagnostic criteria]] codified in the [[World Health Organization|World Health Organization's]] ''[[International Classification of Diseases]]'' (ICD) or the [[American Psychiatric Association|American Psychiatric Association's]] ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM) are used. These reference manuals are regularly updated based on advances in research, systematic evaluation of [[clinical experience]], and [[Health care|healthcare]] considerations. Currently, the [[DSM-5]] published in 2013 and the [[ICD-10]] that came into effect in 1994 are used, with the latter in the process of being replaced by the [[ICD-11]] that came into effect in 2022 and is now implemented by [[healthcare systems]] across the world. Which autism spectrum diagnoses can be made and which criteria are used depends on the local healthcare system's regulations.

According to the [[DSM-5-TR]] (2022), in order to receive a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder, one must present with "persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction" and "restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities."<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5-TR |publisher=American Psychiatric Association Publishing |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-89042-575-6 |edition=Fifth edition, text revision. |location=Washington, DC |chapter=Section 2: Neurodevelopmental Disorders |type=Print}}</ref> These behaviors must begin in early childhood and affect one's ability to perform everyday tasks. Furthermore, the symptoms must not be fully explainable by [[Intellectual disability|intellectual developmental disorder]] or [[global developmental delay]].

== Challenges ==
[[File:Autism_diagnostic_process.png|thumb|Process for screening and diagnosing ASD; M-CHAT is Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers; (+) is positive test result; (-) is negative test result]]There are several factors that make autism spectrum disorder difficult to diagnose. First off, there are no standardized imaging, molecular or genetic tests that can be used to diagnose ASD.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=31 March 2022 |title=Screening and Diagnosis {{!}} Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) {{!}} NCBDDD |url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/screening.html |access-date=12 September 2022 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref> Additionally, there is a lot of variety in how ASD affects individuals. The behavioral manifestations of ASD depend on one's developmental stage, age of presentation, current support, and individual variability.<ref name="Volkmar 1999">{{cite journal | vauthors = Volkmar F, Cook EH, Pomeroy J, Realmuto G, Tanguay P | title = Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children, adolescents, and adults with autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Working Group on Quality Issues | journal = Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 38 | issue = 12 Suppl | pages = 32S–54S | date = December 1999 | pmid = 10624084 | doi = 10.1016/s0890-8567(99)80003-3 }}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Lastly, there are multiple conditions that may present similarly to autism spectrum disorder, including [[intellectual disability]], [[Hearing loss|hearing impairment]], a [[specific language impairment]]<ref name="Dover2007" /> such as [[Landau–Kleffner syndrome]],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mantovani JF |date=May 2000 |title=Autistic regression and Landau-Kleffner syndrome: progress or confusion? |journal=Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=349–353 |doi=10.1017/S0012162200210621 |pmid=10855658}}</ref> [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]], [[anxiety disorder]], [[Psychosis|psychotic disorders]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Constantino JN, Charman T | title = Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder: reconciling the syndrome, its diverse origins, and variation in expression | journal = The Lancet. Neurology | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 279–91 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26497771 | doi = 10.1016/s1474-4422(15)00151-9 | s2cid = 206162618 | url = https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/ws/files/49746512/Constantino_Charman_post_print_Lancet_Neurology.pdf }}</ref> and personality disorders<ref>{{cite journal| volume = 57| issue = 2| pages = 181–196| vauthors = Gillett G, Leaves L, Patel A, Prisecaru A, Spain D, Happe F | title = The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder traits and diagnosis in adults and young people with personality disorders: A systematic review| journal = Aust N Z J Psychiatry| access-date = 29 August 2024| year = 2023| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9896258/}}</ref>. Furthermore, the presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as [[Major depressive disorder|depression]]<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Matson JL, Neal D |year=2009 |title=Cormorbidity: diagnosing comorbid psychiatric conditions |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1403043 |journal=Psychiatric Times |volume=26 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403062215/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1403043 |archive-date=3 April 2013}}</ref> and personality disorders<ref>{{cite journal| volume = 57| issue = 2| pages = 181–196| vauthors = Gillett G, Leaves L, Patel A, Prisecaru A, Spain D, Happe F | title = The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder traits and diagnosis in adults and young people with personality disorders: A systematic review| journal = Aust N Z J Psychiatry| access-date = 29 August 2024| year = 2023| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9896258/}}</ref>.Diagnosing will be much harder in adults, since most people with ASD who reach adulthood undiagnosed, learn diverse (and often intense) masking techniques which make external diagnosis almost impossible.

== DSM-5-TR criteria ==
The DSM-5-TR criteria lists 5 criteria (with examples) which include 2 groups of criteria (the first two):<ref name=":1"/>
* Persistent impairments in social communication and interaction, characterized by difficulties in social-emotional exchange, nonverbal communication, and forming or understanding relationships.
* Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least two of the following: repetitive actions or speech, strict adherence to routines, intense fixations, and unusual sensory responses.
* Symptoms must be evident early in development, though they may only become noticeable when social demands exceed abilities or may be masked by learned coping strategies later in life.
* Symptoms cause significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of current functioning.
* The symptoms are not better explained by intellectual developmental disorder or global developmental delay.

== Diagnostic process ==
Ideally the diagnosis of ASD should be given by a team of clinicians (e.g. pediatricians, child psychiatrists, child neurologists) based on information provided from the affected individual, caregivers, other medical professionals and from direct observation.<ref name="Simms 2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Simms MD | title = When Autistic Behavior Suggests a Disease Other than Classic Autism | journal = Pediatric Clinics of North America | volume = 64 | issue = 1 | pages = 127–138 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 27894440 | doi = 10.1016/j.pcl.2016.08.009 }}</ref> Evaluation of a child or adult for autism spectrum disorder typically starts with a [[Pediatrics|pediatrician]] or [[primary care physician]] taking a developmental history and performing a physical exam. If warranted, the physician may refer the individual to an ASD specialist who will observe and assess cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated [[Disease|medical conditions]].<ref name="Dover2007" /> A pediatric [[neuropsychologist]] is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions.<ref name="Kanne 2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kanne SM, Randolph JK, Farmer JE |date=December 2008 |title=Diagnostic and assessment findings: a bridge to academic planning for children with autism spectrum disorders |journal=Neuropsychology Review |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=367–384 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9072-z |pmid=18855144 |s2cid=21108225}}</ref> Further workup may be performed after someone is diagnosed with ASD. This may include a [[clinical genetics]] evaluation particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause.<ref name="Caronna">{{cite journal |vauthors=Caronna EB, Milunsky JM, Tager-Flusberg H |date=June 2008 |title=Autism spectrum disorders: clinical and research frontiers |journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood |volume=93 |issue=6 |pages=518–523 |doi=10.1136/adc.2006.115337 |pmid=18305076 |s2cid=18761374}}</ref> Although up to 40% of ASD cases may be linked to genetic causes,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schaefer GB, Mendelsohn NJ |date=January 2008 |title=Genetics evaluation for the etiologic diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Genetics in Medicine |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=4–12 |doi=10.1097/GIM.0b013e31815efdd7 |pmid=18197051 |doi-access=free |s2cid=4468548}}</ref> it is not currently recommended to perform complete genetic testing on every individual who is diagnosed with ASD. Consensus guidelines for genetic testing in patients with ASD in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and [[fragile X]] testing.<ref name="Caronna" /> [[Metabolic]] and [[neuroimaging]] tests are also not routinely performed for diagnosis of ASD.<ref name="Caronna" />

The age at which ASD is diagnosed varies. Sometimes ASD can be diagnosed as early as 18 months, however, diagnosis of ASD before the age of two years may not be reliable.<ref name=":2" /> Diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life. For example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later.<ref name="Land2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Landa RJ |date=March 2008 |title=Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders in the first 3 years of life |journal=Nature Clinical Practice. Neurology |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=138–147 |doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0731 |pmid=18253102 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, age of diagnosis may depend on the severity of ASD, with more severe forms of ASD more likely to be diagnosed at an earlier age.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mandell DS, Novak MM, Zubritsky CD |date=December 2005 |title=Factors associated with age of diagnosis among children with autism spectrum disorders |journal=Pediatrics |volume=116 |issue=6 |pages=1480–1486 |doi=10.1542/peds.2005-0185 |pmc=2861294 |pmid=16322174}}</ref> Issues with access to healthcare such as cost of appointments or delays in making appointments often lead to delays in the diagnosis of ASD.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Shattuck PT, Grosse SD |year=2007 |title=Issues related to the diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=129–135 |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20143 |pmid=17563895}}</ref> In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice.<ref name="Dover2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dover CJ, Le Couteur A |date=June 2007 |title=How to diagnose autism |journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=540–545 |doi=10.1136/adc.2005.086280 |pmc=2066173 |pmid=17515625}}</ref> Lack of access to appropriate medical care, broadening diagnostic criteria and increased awareness surrounding ASD in recent years has resulted in an increased number of individuals receiving a diagnosis of ASD as adults. Diagnosis of ASD in adults poses unique challenges because it still relies on an accurate developmental history and because autistic adults sometimes learn coping strategies, known as [[Autistic masking|"masking" or "camouflaging"]], which may make it more difficult to obtain a diagnosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang Y, Arnold SR, Foley KR, Trollor JN | title = Diagnosis of autism in adulthood: A scoping review | journal = Autism | volume = 24 | issue = 6 | pages = 1311–1327 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32106698 | doi = 10.1177/1362361320903128 | s2cid = 211556350 | hdl = 1959.4/unsworks_67142 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite web |title=6A02 Autism spectrum disorder. |url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/437815624 |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics |quote=Some individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder are capable of functioning adequately by making an exceptional effort to compensate for their symptoms during childhood, adolescence or adulthood. Such sustained effort, which may be more typical of affected females, can have a deleterious impact on mental health and well-being.}}</ref>

The presentation and diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder may vary based on sex and gender identity. Most studies that have investigated the impact of gender on presentation and diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder have not differentiated between the impact of sex versus gender.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lai MC, Szatmari P | title = Sex and gender impacts on the behavioural presentation and recognition of autism | journal = Current Opinion in Psychiatry | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 117–123 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 31815760 | doi = 10.1097/YCO.0000000000000575 | s2cid = 209164138 }}</ref> There is some evidence that autistic women and girls tend to show less repetitive behavior and may engage in more camouflaging than autistic males.<ref name="Lockwood Estrin 2020" /> Camouflaging may include making oneself perform normative facial expressions and eye contact.<ref name="pmid28527095">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hull L, Petrides KV, Allison C, Smith P, Baron-Cohen S, Lai MC, Mandy W | title = "Putting on My Best Normal": Social Camouflaging in Adults with Autism Spectrum Conditions | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 47 | issue = 8 | pages = 2519–2534 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 28527095 | pmc = 5509825 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 }}</ref> Differences in behavioral presentation and gender-stereotypes may make it more challenging to diagnose autism spectrum disorder in a timely manner in females.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="Lockwood Estrin 2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lockwood Estrin G, Milner V, Spain D, Happé F, Colvert E | title = Barriers to Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis for Young Women and Girls: a Systematic Review | journal = Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 454–470 | date = 29 October 2020 | pmid = 34868805 | pmc = 8604819 | doi = 10.1007/s40489-020-00225-8 | publisher = Springer Science and Business Media LLC }}</ref> A notable percentage of autistic females may be misdiagnosed, diagnosed after a considerable delay, or not diagnosed at all.<ref name="Lockwood Estrin 2020" />

Considering the unique challenges in diagnosing ASD using behavioral and observational assessment, specific US practice parameters for its [[Evidence-based assessment|assessment]] were published by the American Academy of Neurology in the year 2000,<ref name="Filipek">{{cite journal | vauthors = Filipek PA, Accardo PJ, Ashwal S, Baranek GT, Cook EH, Dawson G, Gordon B, Gravel JS, Johnson CP, Kallen RJ, Levy SE, Minshew NJ, Ozonoff S, Prizant BM, Rapin I, Rogers SJ, Stone WL, Teplin SW, Tuchman RF, Volkmar FR | display-authors = 6 | title = Practice parameter: screening and diagnosis of autism: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Child Neurology Society | journal = Neurology | volume = 55 | issue = 4 | pages = 468–79 | date = August 2000 | pmid = 10953176 | doi = 10.1212/wnl.55.4.468 | doi-access = free }}</ref> the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry in 1999,<ref name="Volkmar 1999" /> and a consensus panel with representation from various professional societies in 1999.<ref name="Filipek" /> The practice parameters outlined by these societies include an initial screening of children by general practitioners (i.e., "Level 1 screening") and for children who fail the initial screening, a comprehensive diagnostic assessment by experienced clinicians (i.e. "Level 2 evaluation"). Furthermore, it has been suggested that assessments of children with suspected ASD be evaluated within a developmental framework, include multiple informants (e.g., parents and teachers) from diverse contexts (e.g., home and school), and employ a multidisciplinary team of professionals (e.g., clinical psychologists, [[Neuropsychology|neuropsychologists]], and psychiatrists).<ref name="Ozonoff 2005" />

{{As of|2019}}, psychologists wait until a child showed initial evidence of ASD tendencies, then administer various psychological assessment tools to assess for ASD.<ref name="Ozonoff 2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ozonoff S, Goodlin-Jones BL, Solomon M | s2cid = 14322690 | title = Evidence-based assessment of autism spectrum disorders in children and adolescents | journal = Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 523–40 | date = September 2005 | pmid = 16083393 | doi = 10.1207/s15374424jccp3403_8 | url = http://webmedia.unmc.edu/mmi/mathews/4_Autism-%20evidence-based%20assessment.pdf|publisher = Taylor & Francis| issn = 1537-4416 | access-date = 3 September 2019 | archive-date = 18 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210418013915/http://webmedia.unmc.edu/mmi/mathews/4_Autism-%20evidence-based%20assessment.pdf }}</ref> Among these measurements, the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) are considered the "gold standards" for assessing autistic children.<ref name="Corsello 2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Corsello C, Hus V, Pickles A, Risi S, Cook EH, Leventhal BL, Lord C | title = Between a ROC and a hard place: decision making and making decisions about using the SCQ | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines |issn = 0021-9630 | eissn = 1469-7610 | oclc = 01307942| volume = 48 | issue = 9 | pages = 932–40 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17714378 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01762.x | hdl = 2027.42/74877 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Huerta 2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Huerta M, Lord C | title = Diagnostic evaluation of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatric Clinics of North America | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 103–11, xi | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22284796 | pmc = 3269006 | doi = 10.1016/j.pcl.2011.10.018 }}</ref> The ADI-R is a semi-structured parent interview that probes for symptoms of autism by evaluating a child's current behavior and developmental history. The ADOS is a semi-structured interactive evaluation of ASD symptoms that is used to measure social and communication abilities by eliciting several opportunities for spontaneous behaviors (e.g., eye contact) in standardized context. Various other questionnaires (e.g., The [[Childhood Autism Rating Scale]], [[Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist]]) and tests of cognitive functioning (e.g., The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) are typically included in an ASD assessment battery. The diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders (DISCO) may also be used.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kan CC, Buitelaar JK, van der Gaag RJ |date=June 2008 |title=Autismespectrumstoornissen bij volwassenen |trans-title=Autism spectrum disorders in adults |journal=Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde |volume=152 |issue=24 |pages=1365–1369 |pmid=18664213 |language=nl}}</ref>

== Screening ==
About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's atypical behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months.<ref name="Land2008" /> If a child does not meet any of the following milestones, it "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the [child's] long-term outcome."<ref name="Filipek" />

* No response to name (or [[Eye contact|gazing with direct eye contact]]) by 6 months.<ref name="CDCearlywarningsigns">{{cite web |date=18 August 2016 |title=Autism case training part 1: A closer look – key developmental milestones |url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/autism/case-modules/early-warning-signs/03-closer-look.html#tabs-1-1 |access-date=5 August 2019 |publisher=CDC.gov}}</ref>
* No [[babbling]] by 12 months.
* No [[Gesture|gesturing]] (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months.
* No single words by 16 months.
* No two-word (spontaneous, not just [[Echolalia|echolalic]]) phrases by 24 months.
* Loss of any language or social skills, at any age.

The Japanese practice is to [[Screening (medicine)|screen]] all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective.<ref name="Levy 2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Levy SE, Mandell DS, Schultz RT |date=November 2009 |title=Autism |journal=Lancet |volume=374 |issue=9701 |pages=1627–1638 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61376-3 |pmc=2863325 |pmid=19819542}}{{Erratum|https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(11)61666-8/fulltext|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61666-8|checked=yes}}</ref>{{Clarify|reason=Effective in what sense? At detecting ASD, at resulting in improved outcomes, at having a good false positive:false negative ratio, or something else?|date=May 2022}} The UK National Screening Committee does not recommend universal ASD screening in young children. Their main concerns includes higher chances of misdiagnosis at younger ages and lack of evidence of effectiveness of early interventions.<ref name="Siu 2016" /> There is no consensus between professional and expert bodies in the US on screening for autism in children younger than 3 years.{{r|US screening|r=For example:
* US Preventive Services Task Force does not recommend universal screen of young children for autism due to poor evidence of benefits of this screening when parents and clinicians have no concerns about ASD. The major concern is a false-positive diagnosis that would burden a family with very time-consuming and financially demanding treatment interventions when it is not truly required. The Task Force also did not find any robust studies showing effectiveness of behavioral therapies in reducing ASD symptom severity.<ref name="Siu 2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Siu AL, Bibbins-Domingo K, Grossman DC, Baumann LC, Davidson KW, Ebell M, García FA, Gillman M, Herzstein J, Kemper AR, Krist AH, Kurth AE, Owens DK, Phillips WR, Phipps MG, Pignone MP | display-authors = 6 | title = Screening for Autism Spectrum Disorder in Young Children: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement | journal = JAMA | volume = 315 | issue = 7 | pages = 691–696 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26881372 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2016.0018 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* American Academy of Pediatrics recommends ASD screening of all children between the ages if 18 and 24 months.<ref name="Siu 2016" /> The AAP also recommends that children who screen positive for ASD be referred to treatment services without waiting for a comprehensive diagnostic workup<ref name="Blumberg 2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnson CP, Myers SM | title = Identification and evaluation of children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 120 | issue = 5 | pages = 1183–1215 | date = November 2007 | pmid = 17967920 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-2361 | publisher = American Academy of Pediatrics | s2cid = 218028 }}, cited in {{cite journal | vauthors = Blumberg SJ, Zablotsky B, Avila RM, Colpe LJ, Pringle BA, Kogan MD | title = Diagnosis lost: Differences between children who had and who currently have an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis | journal = Autism | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 783–795 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 26489772 | pmc = 4838550 | doi = 10.1177/1362361315607724 }}</ref>
* The American Academy of Family Physicians did not find sufficient evidence of benefit of universal early screening for ASD<ref name="Siu 2016" />
* The American Academy of Neurology and Child Neurology Society recommends general routine screening for delayed or abnormal development in children followed by screening for ASD only if indicated by the general developmental screening<ref name="Siu 2016" />
* The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry recommend routinely screening autism symptoms in young children<ref name="Siu 2016" />
}}

Screening tools include the [[Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers]] (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor, the [[Checklist for Autism in Toddlers]] (CHAT), on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low [[Sensitivity and specificity|sensitivity]] (many false-negatives) but good [[Sensitivity and specificity|specificity]] (few false-positives).<ref name="Land2008" /> It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wetherby AM, Brosnan-Maddox S, Peace V, Newton L |date=September 2008 |title=Validation of the Infant-Toddler Checklist as a broadband screener for autism spectrum disorders from 9 to 24 months of age |journal=Autism |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=487–511 |doi=10.1177/1362361308094501 |pmc=2663025 |pmid=18805944}}</ref> Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wallis KE, Pinto-Martin J |date=May 2008 |title=The challenge of screening for autism spectrum disorder in a culturally diverse society |journal=Acta Paediatrica |volume=97 |issue=5 |pages=539–540 |doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00720.x |pmid=18373717 |s2cid=39744269}}</ref> Although [[Genetic testing|genetic screening]] for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and [[dysmorphic feature]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lintas C, Persico AM |date=January 2009 |title=Autistic phenotypes and genetic testing: state-of-the-art for the clinical geneticist |journal=Journal of Medical Genetics |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1136/jmg.2008.060871 |pmc=2603481 |pmid=18728070}}</ref>

== Misdiagnosis ==
There is a significant level of misdiagnosis of autism in neurodevelopmentally typical children; 18–37% of children diagnosed with ASD eventually lose their diagnosis. This high rate of lost diagnosis cannot be accounted for by successful ASD treatment alone. The most common reason parents reported as the cause of lost ASD diagnosis was new information about the child (73.5%), such as a replacement diagnosis. Other reasons included a diagnosis given so the child could receive ASD treatment (24.2%), ASD treatment success or maturation (21%), and parents disagreeing with the initial diagnosis (1.9%).<ref name="Blumberg 2016" />{{primary source inline|date=March 2021}}

Many of the children who were later found not to meet ASD diagnosis criteria then received diagnosis for another developmental disorder. Most common was ADHD, but other diagnoses included sensory disorders, anxiety, personality disorder, or learning disability.<ref name="Blumberg 2016" />{{primary source inline|date=March 2021}} Neurodevelopment and psychiatric disorders that are commonly misdiagnosed as ASD include [[specific language impairment]], [[Social (pragmatic) communication disorder|social communication disorder]], anxiety disorder, [[reactive attachment disorder]], cognitive impairment, visual impairment, hearing loss and normal behavioral variation.<ref>{{cite web | title = Conditions That May Look Like Autism, but Aren't | publisher = WebMD | url = https://www.webmd.com/brain/autism/autism-similar-conditions | access-date = 10 May 2020}}</ref> Some behavioral variations that resemble autistic traits are repetitive behaviors, sensitivity to change in daily routines, focused interests, and toe-walking. These are considered normal behavioral variations when they do not cause impaired function. Boys are more likely to exhibit repetitive behaviors especially when excited, tired, bored, or stressed. Some ways of distinguishing typical behavioral variations from autistic behaviors are the ability of the child to suppress these behaviors and the absence of these behaviors during sleep.<ref name="Simms 2017" />
== See also ==
* [[Autism-spectrum quotient]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Pervasive developmental disorders}}
{{Autism resources}}
[[Category:Autism| ]]
[[Category:Developmental psychology]]
[[Category:Learning disabilities]]

Borderline personality disorder

2024-08-29T12:45:53Z

131.111.5.201: /* Gender */

{{Short description|Personality disorder of emotional instability}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Borderline personality disorder
| image = File:Despair Edvard Munch 1894.jpeg
| image_size =
| alt = This is a painting featuring a figure standing on a bridge, gazing down, seemingly lost in thought. The background consists of a dramatic, swirling sky with striking red, yellow, and blue colors. The figure is dressed in dark clothing, and their posture and the expression on their face convey a sense of melancholy or introspection. The contrast between the vibrant sky and the subdued figure adds to the emotional impact of the scene. The artwork has an expressive, somewhat abstract style, characteristic of Edvard Munch's work.
| caption = ''Despair'' by [[Edvard Munch]] (1894), who is presumed to have had borderline personality disorder<ref>{{cite book|title=Edvard Munch: The Life of a Person with Borderline Personality as Seen Through His Art|trans-title=Edvard Munch, et livsløb af en grænsepersonlighed forstået gennem hans billeder|isbn=978-87-983524-1-9| vauthors = Aarkrog T |year=1990|publisher=Lundbeck Pharma A/S|location=Danmark}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wylie HW | title = Edvard Munch | journal = The American Imago; A Psychoanalytic Journal for the Arts and Sciences | volume = 37 | issue = 4 | pages = 413–443 | year = 1980 | pmid = 7008567 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/26303797 | publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | jstor = 26303797 | access-date = 10 August 2021 | archive-date = 10 August 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210810104208/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26303797 | url-status = live }}</ref>
| field = [[Psychiatry]], [[clinical psychology]]
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|title={{pad}}|{{plainlist|
* Emotionally unstable personality disorder – impulsive or borderline type<ref name=Maj2005>{{cite book | vauthors = Cloninger RC | veditors = Maj M, Akiskal HS, Mezzich JE |chapter=Antisocial Personality Disorder: A Review |title=Personality disorders |date=2005 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-470-09036-7 |page=126 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fgwbCW7OQMC&pg=PA126 |access-date=5 June 2020 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232038/https://books.google.com/books?id=9fgwbCW7OQMC&pg=PA126 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Emotional intensity disorder<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Blom JD |title=A Dictionary of Hallucinations |date=2010|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4419-1223-7|page=74|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KJtQptBcZloC&pg=PA74|access-date=5 June 2020|archive-date=4 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232039/https://books.google.com/books?id=KJtQptBcZloC&pg=PA74|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Hysteria]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-07204-000|vauthors=Bollas C|title=Hysteria|publisher=Taylor & Francis|collaboration=American Psychological Association|edition=1st|date=2000|accessdate=December 14, 2022|archive-date=15 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215023801/https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-07204-000|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Hysteric personality – Hysteroid<ref name=NLM>{{cite journal | vauthors = Novais F, Araújo A, Godinho P | title = Historical roots of histrionic personality disorder | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 6 | issue = 1463 | pages = 1463 | date = 25 September 2015 | pmid = 26441812 | pmc = 4585318 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01463 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* [[Negative affectivity]]/[[neuroticism]]<ref name=ICD11>{{cite web|title=ICD-11 - ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f953246526|access-date=6 October 2021|publisher=World Health Organization|archive-date=1 August 2018|archive-url=https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f953246526|url-status=live}}</ref>
}} }}
| symptoms = Unstable [[interpersonal relationships|relationships]], distorted [[self-image|sense of self]], and intense [[affect (psychology)|emotions]]; [[impulsivity]]; recurrent suicidal and [[self-harm]]ing behavior; fear of [[abandonment (emotional)|abandonment]]; chronic feelings of [[emptiness]]; inappropriate [[anger]]; [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]]<ref name=NIH2016/><ref name="DSM53"/>
| complications = Suicide, self-harm<ref name=NIH2016/>
| onset = Early adulthood<ref name="DSM53"/>
| duration = Long term<ref name=NIH2016/>
| causes = Genetic, neurobiologic, psychosocial<ref name="Caspi McClay Moffitt Mill 2002 pp. 851–854">{{cite journal | last1=Caspi | first1=Avshalom | last2=McClay | first2=Joseph | last3=Moffitt | first3=Terrie E. | last4=Mill | first4=Jonathan | last5=Martin | first5=Judy | last6=Craig | first6=Ian W. | last7=Taylor | first7=Alan | last8=Poulton | first8=Richie | title=Role of Genotype in the Cycle of Violence in Maltreated Children | journal=Science | volume=297 | issue=5582 | date=2002-08-02 | issn=0036-8075 | doi=10.1126/science.1072290 | pages=851–854| pmid=12161658 | bibcode=2002Sci...297..851C }}</ref>
| risks =
| diagnosis = Based on reported symptoms<ref name=NIH2016/>
| differential = See [[#Differential diagnosis and comorbidity|§ Differential diagnosis]]
| prevention =
| treatment = [[Behaviour therapy]]<ref name=NIH2016/>
| medication =
| prognosis = Improves over time,<ref name="DSM53"/> remission occurs in 45% of patients over a wide range of follow-up periods<ref name="Skodol Siever Livesley Gunderson 2002 pp. 951–963">{{cite journal | last1=Skodol | first1=Andrew E | last2=Siever | first2=Larry J | last3=Livesley | first3=W.John | last4=Gunderson | first4=John G | last5=Pfohl | first5=Bruce | last6=Widiger | first6=Thomas A | title=The borderline diagnosis II: biology, genetics, and clinical course | journal=Biological Psychiatry | volume=51 | issue=12 | date=2002 | doi=10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01325-2 | pages=951–963| pmid=12062878 }}</ref><ref name="Skodol Bender Pagano Shea 2007 pp. 1102–1108">{{cite journal | last1=Skodol | first1=Andrew E. | last2=Bender | first2=Donna S. | last3=Pagano | first3=Maria E. | last4=Shea | first4=M. Tracie | last5=Yen | first5=Shirley | last6=Sanislow | first6=Charles A. | last7=Grilo | first7=Carlos M. | last8=Daversa | first8=Maria T. | last9=Stout | first9=Robert L. | last10=Zanarini | first10=Mary C. | last11=McGlashan | first11=Thomas H. | last12=Gunderson | first12=John G. | title=Positive Childhood Experiences: Resilience and Recovery From Personality Disorder in Early Adulthood | journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry | volume=68 | issue=7 | date=2007-07-15 | issn=0160-6689 | pmid=17685749 | pmc=2705622 | doi=10.4088/JCP.v68n0719 | pages=1102–1108}}</ref><ref name="Zanarini Frankenburg Hennen Reich 2006 pp. 827–832">{{cite journal | last1=Zanarini | first1=Mary C. | last2=Frankenburg | first2=Frances R. | last3=Hennen | first3=John | last4=Reich | first4=D. Bradford | last5=Silk | first5=Kenneth R. | title=Prediction of the 10-Year Course of Borderline Personality Disorder | journal=American Journal of Psychiatry | volume=163 | issue=5 | date=2006 | issn=0002-953X | doi=10.1176/ajp.2006.163.5.827 | pages=827–832| pmid=16648323 }}</ref><ref name="Zanarini Frankenburg Reich Fitzmaurice 2010 pp. 663–667">{{cite journal | last1=Zanarini | first1=Mary C. | last2=Frankenburg | first2=Frances R. | last3=Reich | first3=D. Bradford | last4=Fitzmaurice | first4=Garrett | title=Time to Attainment of Recovery From Borderline Personality Disorder and Stability of Recovery: A 10-year Prospective Follow-Up Study | journal=American Journal of Psychiatry | volume=167 | issue=6 | date=2010 | issn=0002-953X | pmid=20395399 | pmc=3203735 | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081130 | pages=663–667}}</ref><ref name="Zanarini Frankenburg Reich Fitzmaurice 2012 pp. 476–483">{{cite journal | last1=Zanarini | first1=Mary C. | last2=Frankenburg | first2=Frances R. | last3=Reich | first3=D. Bradford | last4=Fitzmaurice | first4=Garrett | title=Attainment and Stability of Sustained Symptomatic Remission and Recovery Among Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder and Axis II Comparison Subjects: A 16-Year Prospective Follow-Up Study | journal=American Journal of Psychiatry | volume=169 | issue=5 | date=2012 | issn=0002-953X | pmid=22737693 | pmc=3509999 | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11101550 | pages=476–483}}</ref>
| frequency = 5.9% ([[lifetime prevalence]])<ref name=NIH2016/>
| deaths =
}}
{{Personality disorders sidebar}}

'''Borderline personality disorder''' ('''BPD'''), also known as '''emotionally unstable personality disorder''' ('''EUPD'''),<ref name="NICEGuidelines20092">{{cite book |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK55415/ |title=Borderline personality disorder NICE Clinical Guidelines, No. 78 |date=2009 |publisher=British Psychological Society |access-date=11 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112031402/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK55415/ |archive-date=12 November 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> is a [[personality disorder]] characterized by a pervasive, long-term pattern of significant [[interpersonal relationship]] instability, a distorted [[sense of self]], and intense [[emotional response]]s.<ref name="DSM53">{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2013|pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/645 645, 663–6]}}</ref><ref name="NIH20163">{{cite web |title=Borderline Personality Disorder |url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322130612/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml |archive-date=22 March 2016 |access-date=16 March 2016 |website=NIMH}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chapman AL | title = Borderline personality disorder and emotion dysregulation | journal = Development and Psychopathology | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 1143–1156 | date = August 2019 | pmid = 31169118 | doi = 10.1017/S0954579419000658 | url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0954579419000658/type/journal_article | url-status = live | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | s2cid = 174813414 | access-date = 5 April 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232023/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/abs/borderline-personality-disorder-and-emotion-dysregulation/EA2CB1C041307A34392F49279C107987 | archive-date = 4 December 2020 | url-access = subscription }}</ref> People diagnosed with BPD frequently exhibit [[self-harm]]ing behaviours and engage in risky activities, primarily due to [[Emotional dysregulation|challenges regulating emotional states]] to a healthy, stable baseline.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bozzatello P, Rocca P, Baldassarri L, Bosia M, Bellino S | title = The Role of Trauma in Early Onset Borderline Personality Disorder: A Biopsychosocial Perspective | journal = Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume = 12 | pages = 721361 | date = 23 September 2021 | pmid = 34630181 | pmc = 8495240 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.721361 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cattane N, Rossi R, Lanfredi M, Cattaneo A | title = Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: exploring the affected biological systems and mechanisms | journal = BMC Psychiatry | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 221 | date = June 2017 | pmid = 28619017 | pmc = 5472954 | doi = 10.1186/s12888-017-1383-2 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=December 2017 |title=Borderline Personality Disorder |url=https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml |access-date=25 February 2021 |publisher=The National Institute of Mental Health |quote=Other signs or symptoms may include: [...] Impulsive and often dangerous behaviors [...] Self-harming behavior [...]. Borderline personality disorder is also associated with a significantly higher rate of self-harm and suicidal behavior than the general public. |archive-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329213453/http://nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Symptoms such as [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]] (a feeling of [[Emotional detachment|detachment]] from reality), a pervasive sense of emptiness, and an acute fear of [[Abandonment (emotional)|abandonment]] are prevalent among those affected.<ref name="NIH20163" />

The onset of BPD symptoms can be triggered by events that others might perceive as normal,<ref name="NIH20163" /> with the disorder typically manifesting in early adulthood and persisting across diverse contexts.<ref name="DSM53" /> BPD is often [[Comorbidity|comorbid]] with [[substance use disorders]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Helle AC, Watts AL, Trull TJ, Sher KJ | title = Alcohol Use Disorder and Antisocial and Borderline Personality Disorders | journal = Alcohol Research: Current Reviews| volume = 40 | issue = 1 | pages = arcr.v40.1.05 |year = 2019 | pmid = 31886107 | pmc = 6927749 | doi = 10.35946/arcr.v40.1.05 }}</ref> [[depressive disorders]], and [[eating disorder]]s.<ref name="NIH20163" /> BPD is associated with a substantial risk of suicide;<ref name="DSM53" /><ref name="NIH20163" /> an estimated 8 to 10 percent of people with BPD die by suicide, with males affected at twice the rate of females.<ref name="Kreisman J, Strauss H 2004">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/sometimesiactcra00jero |title=Sometimes I Act Crazy. Living With Borderline Personality Disorder |vauthors=Kreisman J, Strauss H |publisher=Wiley & Sons |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-22286-6 |url-access=registration |page=206}}</ref> Despite its severity, BPD faces significant stigmatization in both media portrayals and the psychiatric field, potentially leading to its underdiagnosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aviram RB, Brodsky BS, Stanley B | title = Borderline personality disorder, stigma, and treatment implications | journal = Harvard Review of Psychiatry | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 249–256 |year = 2006 | pmid = 16990170 | doi = 10.1080/10673220600975121 | s2cid = 23923078 }}</ref>

The causes of BPD are unclear and complex, implicating genetic, neurological, and psychosocial conditions in its development.<ref name=NIH2016/><ref name=CP2013>{{cite book|title=Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Borderline Personality Disorder | publisher=National Health and Medical Research Council|year=2013|isbn=978-1-86496-564-3|location=Melbourne|pages=40–41|quote=In addition to the evidence identified by the systematic review, the Committee also considered a recent narrative review of studies that have evaluated biological and environmental factors as potential risk factors for BPD (including prospective studies of children and adolescents, and studies of young people with BPD)}}</ref> A [[genetic predisposition]] is evident, with the disorder significantly more common in people with a family history of BPD, particularly immediate relatives.<ref name=NIH2016>{{cite web|url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml|title=Borderline Personality Disorder|website=NIMH|access-date=16 March 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322130612/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml|archive-date=22 March 2016}}</ref> Psychosocial factors, particularly [[adverse childhood experiences]], have been proposed.<ref name=Lei2011/> Neurologically, the underlying mechanism appears to involve the frontolimbic neuronal network of the [[limbic system]].<ref name=Lei2011>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leichsenring F, Leibing E, Kruse J, New AS, Leweke F | title = Borderline personality disorder | journal = [[Lancet (journal)|Lancet]] | volume = 377 | issue = 9759 | pages = 74–84 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21195251 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(10)61422-5 | s2cid = 17051114 }}</ref> The American ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM) classifies BPD as a [[Personality disorder#Cluster B (emotional or erratic disorders)|cluster B]] [[personality disorder]], alongside [[antisocial personality disorder|antisocial]], [[histrionic personality disorder|histrionic]], and [[narcissistic personality disorder]]s.<ref name="DSM53"/> There is a small risk of [[misdiagnosis]], with BPD most commonly confused with a [[mood disorder]], [[substance use disorders|substance use disorder]], or other mental health disorders.<ref name="DSM53"/>

Therapeutic interventions for BPD predominantly involve [[psychotherapy]], with [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) or [[dialectical behavior therapy]] (DBT) the most effective modalities.<ref name="NIH2016" /> This psychotherapy can occur one-on-one or in a [[group therapy|group]].<ref name="NIH2016" /> Although [[pharmacotherapy]] cannot cure BPD, it may be employed to mitigate associated symptoms,<ref name="NIH2016" /> with [[quetiapine]] and [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]] (SSRI) antidepressants commonly prescribed even though their efficacy is unclear. A 2020 meta-analysis found the use of medications was still unsupported by evidence.<ref name="stofferswinterling20" /> In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessitated, even if for only short periods.<ref name="NIH2016" />

BPD has a [[point prevalence]] of 1.6% and a [[lifetime prevalence]] of 5.9% of the global population,<ref name="DSM53" /><ref name="NIH2016" /><ref name="Wolters Kluwer">{{Cite book |url=https://uptodate.com/ |title=UpToDate |publisher=[[Wolters Kluwer]] |chapter=Borderline personality disorder: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, course, assessment, and diagnosis |access-date=13 March 2024 |chapter-url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/borderline-personality-disorder-epidemiology-pathogenesis-clinical-features-course-assessment-and-diagnosis |url-access=subscription |archive-date=6 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106134307/http://uptodate.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nimh.nih.gov">{{cite web|title=NIMH " Personality Disorders|url=https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/personality-disorders|access-date=20 May 2021|website=nimh.nih.gov|archive-date=18 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618193929/https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/personality-disorders|url-status=live}}</ref> with a higher [[incidence rate]] among women compared to men in the clinical setting of up to three times.<ref name="DSM53" /><ref name="Wolters Kluwer" /> Despite the high utilization of healthcare resources by people with BPD,<ref name="Bourke_2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bourke J, Murphy A, Flynn D, Kells M, Joyce M, Hurley J | title = Borderline personality disorder: resource utilisation costs in Ireland | journal = Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 169–176 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34465404 | doi = 10.1017/ipm.2018.30 | hdl-access = free | hdl = 10468/7005 }}</ref> up to half may show significant improvement over a ten-year period with appropriate treatment.<ref name="DSM53" /> The name of the disorder, particularly the suitability of the term ''borderline'', is a subject of ongoing debate. Initially, the term reflected historical ideas of ''borderline insanity'' and later described patients on the border between [[neurosis]] and [[psychosis]]. These interpretations are now regarded as outdated and clinically imprecise.<ref name="NIH2016" /><ref name=":14">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gunderson JG | title = Borderline personality disorder: ontogeny of a diagnosis | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 166 | issue = 5 | pages = 530–539 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19411380 | pmc = 3145201 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.08121825 }}</ref>
{{TOC limit}}

== Signs and symptoms ==
[[File:BPD 1.png|thumb|One of the symptoms of BPD is an intense fear of emotional abandonment.]]

Borderline personality disorder, as outlined in the [[DSM-5]], manifests through nine distinct [[symptoms]], with a [[diagnosis]] requiring at least five of the following criteria to be met:

# Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined [[Abandonment (emotional)|emotional abandonment]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fertuck EA, Fischer S, Beeney J |date=December 2018 |title=Social Cognition and Borderline Personality Disorder: Splitting and Trust Impairment Findings |journal=The Psychiatric Clinics of North America |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=613–632 |doi=10.1016/j.psc.2018.07.003 |pmid=30447728 |s2cid=53948600}}</ref>
# Unstable and chaotic interpersonal relationships, often characterized by a pattern of alternating between extremes of [[idealization and devaluation]], also known as '[[Splitting (psychology)|splitting]]'.
# A markedly [[Identity disturbance|disturbed sense of identity]] and distorted [[self-image]].<ref name="NIH2016" />
# [[Impulsive (behavior)|Impulsive]] or reckless behaviors, including uncontrollable spending, unsafe sexual practices, substance use disorder, reckless driving, and [[binge eating]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Diagnostic criteria for 301.83 Borderline Personality Disorder – Behavenet |url=https://behavenet.com/diagnostic-criteria-30183-borderline-personality-disorder |access-date=23 March 2019 |website=behavenet.com |archive-date=28 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328215426/https://behavenet.com/diagnostic-criteria-30183-borderline-personality-disorder |url-status=live }}</ref>
# Recurrent [[suicidal ideation]] or behaviors involving self-harm.
# Rapidly shifting intense [[emotional dysregulation]].
# Chronic feelings of [[emptiness]].
# Inappropriate, intense anger that can be difficult to control.
# Transient, stress-related [[paranoid ideation]] or severe [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociative]] symptoms.

The distinguishing characteristics of BPD include a pervasive pattern of instability in one's interpersonal relationships and in one's self-image, with frequent oscillation between extremes of idealization and devaluation of others, alongside fluctuating moods and difficulty regulating intense emotional reactions. Dangerous or impulsive behaviors are commonly associated with BPD.

Additional symptoms may encompass uncertainty about one's [[Identity (social science)|identity]], [[values]], [[morals]], and [[belief]]s; experiencing paranoid thoughts under stress; episodes of [[depersonalization]]; and, in moderate to severe cases, stress-induced breaks with reality or episodes of [[psychosis]]. It is also common for individuals with BPD to have [[Comorbidity|comorbid conditions]] such as [[Depressive disorder|depressive]] or [[bipolar disorders]], [[substance use disorders]], [[eating disorders]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), and [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD).<ref name="DSM-5 Task Force_2013">{{cite book |author=((DSM-5 Task Force)) |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/863153409 |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders : DSM-5 |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-89042-554-1 |oclc=863153409 |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232019/https://www.worldcat.org/title/diagnostic-and-statistical-manual-of-mental-disorders-dsm-5/oclc/863153409 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Mood and affect===
{{Further|Emotional dysregulation}}
Individuals with BPD exhibit emotional dysregulation. Emotional dysregulation is characterized by an inability in flexibly responding to and managing [[emotional state]]s, resulting in intense and prolonged emotional reactions that deviate from [[social norms]], given the nature of the environmental stimuli encountered. Such reactions not only deviate from accepted social norms but also surpass what is informally deemed appropriate or proportional to the encountered stimuli.<ref>Austin and Highnet, 2017{{full citation needed|date=October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=43}}</ref><ref name="Manning_364">{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=36}}</ref><ref name=":023">{{Cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=Ryan W. |last2=Trull |first2=Timothy J. |date=January 2013 |title=Components of Emotion Dysregulation in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Review |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=335 |doi=10.1007/s11920-012-0335-2 |pmid=23250816 |pmc=3973423 |issn=1523-3812}}</ref>

A core characteristic of BPD is ''affective instability'', which manifests as rapid and frequent shifts in [[Mood (psychology)|mood]] of high [[Affect (psychology)|affect]] intensity and rapid onset of [[emotion]]s, triggered by environmental stimuli. The return to a stable emotional state is notably delayed, exacerbating the challenge of achieving emotional equilibrium. This instability is further intensified by an acute sensitivity to [[Social cue|psychosocial cues]], leading to significant challenges in managing emotions effectively.<ref>{{cite book |title=Abnormal Psychology |vauthors=Hooley J, Butcher JM, Nock MK |date=2017 |publisher=[[Pearson Education]] |isbn=978-0-13-385205-9 |edition=17th |location=London, England |page=359}}</ref><ref name="Linehan_45">{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dick |first1=Alexandra M. |last2=Suvak |first2=Michael K. |date=July 2018 |title=Borderline personality disorder affective instability: What you know impacts how you feel. |journal=Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=369–378 |doi=10.1037/per0000280 |issn=1949-2723 |pmc=6033624 |pmid=29461071}}</ref>

As the first component of emotional dysregulation, individuals with BPD are shown to have increased [[emotional sensitivity]], especially towards negative mood states such as fear, anger, sadness, rejection, criticism, isolation, and perceived failure.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=Ryan W. |last2=Trull |first2=Timothy J. |date=January 2013 |title=Components of Emotion Dysregulation in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Review |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=335 |doi=10.1007/s11920-012-0335-2 |pmid=23250816 |pmc=3973423 |issn=1523-3812}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Stiglmayr CE, Grathwol T, Linehan MM, Ihorst G, Fahrenberg J, Bohus M |date=May 2005 |title=Aversive tension in patients with borderline personality disorder: a computer-based controlled field study |journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica |volume=111 |issue=5 |pages=372–9 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0447.2004.00466.x |pmid=15819731 |s2cid=30951552}}</ref> This increased sensitivity results in an intensified response to environmental cues, including the emotions of others.<ref name=":0" /> Studies have identified a [[negativity bias]] in those with BPD, showing a predisposition towards recognizing and reacting more strongly to negative emotions in others, along with an [[attentional bias]] towards processing negatively-[[Valence (psychology)|valenced]] stimuli.<ref name=":0" /> Without effective [[coping mechanisms]], individuals might resort to self-harm, or suicidal behaviors to manage or escape from these intense negative emotions.<ref name = reasons_NSSI /><ref name=":0" /> While conscious of the exaggerated nature of their emotional responses, individuals with BPD face challenges in regulating these emotions. To mitigate further distress, there may be an unconscious suppression of emotional awareness, which paradoxically hinders the recognition of situations requiring intervention.<ref name=Linehan_45 />

A second component of emotional dysregulation in BPD is high levels of [[negative affectivity]], stemming directly from the individual's emotional sensitivity to negative emotions. This negative affectivity causes emotional reactions that diverge from [[Social norm|socially accepted norms]], in ways that are disproportionate to the environmental stimuli presented.<ref name=":0" /> Those with BPD are relatively unable to tolerate the distress that is encountered in daily life, and they are prone to engage in maladaptive strategies to try to reduce the distress experienced. Maladaptive coping strategies include [[Rumination (psychology)|rumination]], [[thought suppression]], [[experiential avoidance]], [[emotional isolation]], as well as impulsive and self-injurious behaviours.<ref name=":0" />

American psychologist [[Marsha Linehan]] highlights that while the sensitivity, intensity, and duration of emotional experiences in individuals with BPD can have positive outcomes, such as exceptional enthusiasm, idealism, and capacity for joy and love, it also predisposes them to be overwhelmed by negative emotions.<ref name="Linehan_45" /><ref name="Linehan_44">{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=44}}</ref> This includes experiencing profound [[grief]] instead of mere sadness, intense shame instead of mild embarrassment, rage rather than annoyance, and panic over nervousness.<ref name="Linehan_44" /> Research indicates that individuals with BPD endure chronic and substantial emotional suffering.<ref name="DSM-5 Task Force_2013" />

Emotional dysregulation is a significant feature of BPD, yet Fitzpatrick et al. (2022) suggest that such dysregulation may also be observed in other disorders, like [[generalized anxiety disorder]] (GAD). Nonetheless, their findings imply that individuals with BPD particularly struggle with disengaging from negative emotions and achieving emotional equilibrium.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fitzpatrick S, Varma S, Kuo JR |date=September 2022 |title=Is borderline personality disorder really an emotion dysregulation disorder and, if so, how? A comprehensive experimental paradigm |journal=Psychological Medicine |volume=52 |issue=12 |pages=2319–2331 |doi=10.1017/S0033291720004225 |pmid=33198829 |s2cid=226988308}}</ref>

[[Euphoria]], or transient intense joy, can occur in those with BPD, but they are more commonly afflicted by [[dysphoria]] (a profound state of unease or dissatisfaction), depression, and pervasive distress. Zanarini et al. identify four types of dysphoria characteristic of BPD: intense emotional states, destructiveness or self-destructiveness, feelings of fragmentation or identity loss, and perceptions of [[victimization]].<ref name="dysphoria">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, DeLuca CJ, Hennen J, Khera GS, Gunderson JG |year=1998 |title=The pain of being borderline: dysphoric states specific to borderline personality disorder |journal=Harvard Review of Psychiatry |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=201–7 |doi=10.3109/10673229809000330 |pmid=10370445 |s2cid=10093822}}</ref> A diagnosis of BPD is closely linked with experiencing feelings of betrayal, lack of control, and self-harm.<ref name="dysphoria" />

Moreover, emotional [[lability]], indicating variability or fluctuations in emotional states, is frequent among those with BPD. Although emotional lability may imply rapid alternations between depression and elation, [[mood swing]]s in BPD are more commonly between anger and anxiety or depression and anxiety.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Koenigsberg HW, Harvey PD, Mitropoulou V, Schmeidler J, New AS, Goodman M, Silverman JM, Serby M, Schopick F, Siever LJ |date=May 2002 |title=Characterizing affective instability in borderline personality disorder |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=159 |issue=5 |pages=784–8 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.159.5.784 |pmid=11986132}}</ref>

===Interpersonal relationships===
Interpersonal relationships are significantly impacted in individuals with BPD, characterized by a heightened sensitivity to the behavior and actions of others. Individuals with BPD can be very conscious of and susceptible to their perceived or real treatment by others. Individuals may experience profound happiness and gratitude for perceived kindness, yet feel intense sadness or anger towards perceived criticism or harm.<ref name="cogemo">{{cite journal | vauthors = Arntz A | title = Introduction to special issue: cognition and emotion in borderline personality disorder | journal = Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 167–72 | date = September 2005 | pmid = 16018875 | doi = 10.1016/j.jbtep.2005.06.001 }}</ref> A notable feature of BPD is the tendency to engage in [[idealization and devaluation]] of others – that is to idealize and subsequently devalue others – oscillating between extreme admiration and profound mistrust or dislike.<ref>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=146}}</ref> This pattern, referred to as "[[Splitting (psychology)|splitting]]," can significantly influence the dynamics of interpersonal relationships.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Is BPD: Symptoms |url=http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/understading-bpd/ |access-date=31 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210110927/http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/understading-bpd/ |archive-date=10 February 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Robinson">{{cite book | vauthors = Robinson DJ | title = Disordered Personalities| publisher = Rapid Psychler Press| year = 2005| pages =255–310| isbn = 978-1-894328-09-8}}</ref> In addition to this external "[[Splitting (psychology)|splitting]]," patients with BPD typically have internal splitting, i.e. vacillation between considering oneself a good person who has been mistreated (in which case anger predominates) and a bad person whose life has no value (in which case self-destructive or even suicidal behavior may occur). This splitting is also evident in black-and-white or all-or-nothing dichotomous thinking.<ref name="Gund2011" />

Despite a strong desire for intimacy, individuals with BPD may exhibit insecure, avoidant, ambivalent, or fearfully preoccupied [[Attachment theory#Attachment patterns|attachment styles]] in relationships, complicating their interactions and connections with others.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy KN, Meehan KB, Weber M, Reynoso J, Clarkin JF | title = Attachment and borderline personality disorder: implications for psychotherapy | journal = Psychopathology | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 64–74 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15802944 | doi = 10.1159/000084813 | s2cid = 10203453 }}</ref> Family members, including parents of adults with BPD, may find themselves in a cycle of being overly involved in the individual's life at times and, at other times, significantly detached,<ref name="parents">{{cite journal | vauthors = Allen DM, Farmer RG | title = Family relationships of adults with borderline personality disorder | journal = Comprehensive Psychiatry | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 43–51 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8770526 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-440X(96)90050-4 }}</ref> contributing to a sense of alienation within the family unit.<ref name="Gund2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gunderson JG | title = Clinical practice. Borderline personality disorder | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 364 | issue = 21 | pages = 2037–2042 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21612472 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMcp1007358 | hdl = 10150/631040 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

[[Personality disorders]], including BPD, are associated with an increased incidence of [[chronic stress]] and conflict, reduced satisfaction in romantic partnerships, [[domestic abuse]], and [[unintended pregnancies]].<ref name="Daley SE, Burge D, Hammen C 2000 451–60">{{cite journal | vauthors = Daley SE, Burge D, Hammen C | title = Borderline personality disorder symptoms as predictors of 4-year romantic relationship dysfunction in young women: addressing issues of specificity | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 109 | issue = 3 | pages = 451–460 | date = August 2000 | pmid = 11016115 | doi = 10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.451 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.588.6902 }}</ref> Research indicates variability in relationship patterns among individuals with BPD. A portion of these individuals may transition rapidly between relationships, a pattern metaphorically described as "butterfly-like," characterized by fleeting and transient interactions and "fluttering" in and out of relationships.<ref name="Ryan_2007">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Ryan K, Shean G |date=2007-01-01 |title=Patterns of interpersonal behaviors and borderline personality characteristics |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=193–200 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2006.06.010 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref> Conversely, a subgroup, referred to as "attached," tends to establish fewer but more intense and dependent relationships. These connections often form rapidly, evolving into deeply intertwined and tumultuous bonds,<ref name="Ryan_2007" /> indicating a more pronounced dependence on these interpersonal ties compared to those without BPD.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Jackson MH, Westbrook LF |title=Borderline Personality Disorder: New Research |publisher=Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60876-540-9 |pages=137–146 |language=en}}</ref>

===Behavior===
Behavioral patterns associated with BPD frequently involve impulsive actions, which may manifest as substance use disorders, binge eating, unprotected sexual encounters, self-injury among other self-harming practices.<ref name=Manning_18/> These behaviors are a response to the intense emotional distress experienced by individuals with BPD, serving as an immediate but temporary alleviation of their [[emotional pain]].<ref name=Manning_18/> However, such actions typically result in feelings of shame and guilt, contributing to a recurrent cycle.<ref name=Manning_18>{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=18}}</ref> This cycle typically begins with emotional discomfort, followed by impulsive behavior aimed at mitigating this discomfort, only to lead to shame and guilt, which in turn exacerbates the emotional pain.<ref name=Manning_18/> This escalation of emotional pain then intensifies the [[Compulsive behavior|compulsion]] towards impulsive behavior as a form of relief, creating a vicious cycle. Over time, these impulsive responses can become an automatic mechanism for coping with emotional pain.<ref name=Manning_18/>

===Self-harm and suicide===

Self-harm and suicidal behaviors are core diagnostic criteria for BPD as outlined in the DSM-5.<ref name="DSM53" /> Between 50% and 80% of individuals diagnosed with BPD engage in self-harm, with [[cutting]] being the most common method.<ref name="Ou2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Oumaya M, Friedman S, Pham A, Abou Abdallah T, Guelfi JD, Rouillon F | title = [Borderline personality disorder, self-mutilation and suicide: literature review] | language = fr | journal = L'Encéphale | volume = 34 | issue = 5 | pages = 452–8 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 19068333 | doi = 10.1016/j.encep.2007.10.007 }}</ref> Other methods, such as bruising, burning, head banging, or biting, are also prevalent.<ref name="Ou2008" /> It is hypothesized that individuals with BPD might experience a sense of emotional relief following acts of self-harm.<ref name="DucasseCourtet2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ducasse D, Courtet P, Olié E | title = Physical and social pains in borderline disorder and neuroanatomical correlates: a systematic review | journal = Current Psychiatry Reports | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 443 | date = May 2014 | pmid = 24633938 | doi = 10.1007/s11920-014-0443-2 | s2cid = 25918270 }}</ref>

Estimates of the lifetime risk of death by suicide among individuals with BPD range between 3% and 10%, varying with the method of investigation.<ref name="pmid31142033">{{cite journal |vauthors=Paris J |year=2019 |title=Suicidality in Borderline Personality Disorder. |journal=Medicina (Kaunas) |volume=55 |issue=6 |page=223 |doi=10.3390/medicina55060223 |pmc=6632023 |pmid=31142033 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Gund2011" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Borderline Personality Disorder: A Clinical Guide |vauthors=Gunderson JG, Links PS |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-58562-335-8 |edition=2nd |page=9}}</ref> There is evidence that a significant proportion of males who die by suicide may have undiagnosed BPD.<ref name="Paris J 2008 21–22">{{cite book | vauthors = Paris J |title=Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. A Guide to Evidence-Based Practice | year=2008 | publisher=The Guilford Press | pages=21–22}}</ref>

The motivations behind self-harm and [[suicide attempts]] among individuals with BPD are reported to differ.<ref name="reasons_NSSI">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown MZ, Comtois KA, Linehan MM | s2cid = 4649933 | title = Reasons for suicide attempts and nonsuicidal self-injury in women with borderline personality disorder | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 111 | issue = 1 | pages = 198–202 | date = February 2002 | pmid = 11866174 | doi = 10.1037/0021-843X.111.1.198 }}</ref> Nearly 70% of individuals with BPD engage in self-harm without the intention of ending their lives. Motivations for self-harm include expressing anger, self-punishment, inducing normal feelings or feelings of normality in response to dissociative episodes, and distraction from emotional distress or challenging situations.<ref name="reasons_NSSI" /> Conversely, true suicide attempts by individuals with BPD frequently are motivated by the notion that others will be better off in their absence.<ref name="reasons_NSSI" />

===Sense of self and self-concept===
Individuals diagnosed with BPD frequently experience significant difficulties in maintaining a stable [[self-concept]]. This instability manifests as uncertainty in personal [[values]], [[belief]]s, [[preference]]s, and interests.<ref name=Manning_23/> They may also express confusion regarding their aspirations and objectives in terms of relationships and career paths. Such indeterminacy leads to feelings of emptiness and a profound sense of disorientation regarding their own [[Identity (social science)|identity]].<ref name=Manning_23/> Moreover, their [[Self-perception theory|self-perception]] can fluctuate dramatically over short periods, oscillating between positive and negative evaluations. Consequently, individuals with BPD might adopt their sense of self based on their surroundings or the people they interact with, resulting in a chameleon-like adaptation of identity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Biskin RS, Paris J | title = Diagnosing borderline personality disorder | journal = CMAJ | volume = 184 | issue = 16 | pages = 1789–1794 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22988153 | pmc = 3494330 | doi = 10.1503/cmaj.090618 }}</ref>

===Dissociation and cognitive challenges===
The heightened emotional states experienced by individuals with BPD can impede their ability to concentrate and cognitively function.<ref name=Manning_23>{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=23}}</ref> Additionally, individuals with BPD may frequently [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociate]], which can be regarded as a mild to severe disconnection from physical and emotional experiences.<ref name=Manning_24>{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=24}}</ref> Observers may notice signs of dissociation in individuals with BPD through diminished expressiveness in their face or voice, or through an apparent disconnection and insensitivity to emotional cues or stimuli.<ref name=Manning_24/>

Dissociation typically arises in response to distressing occurrences or reminders of past trauma, acting as a psychological [[defense mechanism]] by diverting attention from the current stressor or by blocking it out entirely. This process, believed to shield the individual from the anticipated overwhelming negative emotions and undesired impulses that the current emotional situation might provoke, is rooted in avoidance of intense emotional pain based on past experiences. While this mechanism may offer temporary emotional respite, it can foster unhealthy coping strategies and inadvertently dull positive emotions, thereby obstructing the individual's access to crucial emotional insights. These insights are essential for informed, healthy decision-making in everyday life.<ref name=Manning_24/>

=== Psychotic symptoms ===
BPD is predominantly characterized as a disorder involving emotional dysregulation, yet psychotic symptoms frequently occur in individuals with BPD, with prevalence estimates ranging between 21% and 54%.<ref name="Schroeder_2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schroeder K, Fisher HL, Schäfer I | title = Psychotic symptoms in patients with borderline personality disorder: prevalence and clinical management | journal = Current Opinion in Psychiatry | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 113–9 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 23168909 | doi = 10.1097/YCO.0b013e32835a2ae7 | s2cid = 25546693 | doi-access = free }}</ref> These manifestations have historically been labeled as "pseudo-psychotic" or "psychotic-like", implying a differentiation from symptoms observed in primary [[psychotic disorders]]. Studies conducted in the 2010s suggest a closer similarity between psychotic symptoms in BPD and those in recognized psychotic disorders than previously understood.<ref name="Schroeder_2013" /><ref name="Niemantsverdriet_2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Niemantsverdriet MB, Slotema CW, Blom JD, Franken IH, Hoek HW, Sommer IE, van der Gaag M | title = Hallucinations in borderline personality disorder: Prevalence, characteristics and associations with comorbid symptoms and disorders | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 13920 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 29066713 | pmc = 5654997 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-017-13108-6 | bibcode = 2017NatSR...713920N }}</ref> The distinction of pseudo-psychosis has faced criticism for its weak [[construct validity]] and the potential to diminish the perceived severity of these symptoms, potentially hindering accurate diagnosis and effective treatment. Consequently, there are suggestions from some in the research community to categorize these symptoms as genuine psychosis, advocating for the abolishment of the distinction between pseudo-psychosis and true psychosis.<ref name="Schroeder_2013" /><ref name="Slotema_2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Slotema CW, Blom JD, Niemantsverdriet MB, Sommer IE | title = Auditory Verbal Hallucinations in Borderline Personality Disorder and the Efficacy of Antipsychotics: A Systematic Review | journal = Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume = 9 | pages = 347 | date = 31 July 2018 | pmid = 30108529 | pmc = 6079212 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00347 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The DSM-5 identifies transient paranoia, exacerbated by stress, as a symptom of BPD.<ref name="DSM53"/> Research has identified the presence of both [[hallucination]]s and [[delusions]] in individuals with BPD who do not possess an alternate diagnosis that would better explain these symptoms.<ref name="Niemantsverdriet_2017" /> Further, [[Interpretative phenomenological analysis|phenomenological analysis]] indicates that [[auditory verbal hallucinations]] in BPD patients are indistinguishable from those observed in [[schizophrenia]].<ref name="Niemantsverdriet_2017" /><ref name="Slotema_2018" /> This has led to suggestions of a potential shared [[etiological]] basis for hallucinations across BPD and other disorders, including psychotic and [[affective disorder]]s.<ref name="Niemantsverdriet_2017" />

===Disability and employment===
Individuals diagnosed with BPD often possess the capability to engage in employment, provided they secure positions that align with their skill sets and the severity of their condition remains manageable. In certain cases, BPD may be recognized as a [[disability]] within the workplace, particularly if the condition's severity results in behaviors that undermine relationships, involve engagement in risky activities, or manifest as intense anger, thereby inhibiting the individual's ability to perform their job role effectively.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Arvig TJ | title = Borderline personality disorder and disability | journal = AAOHN Journal | volume = 59 | issue = 4 | pages = 158–60 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21462898 | doi = 10.1177/216507991105900401| doi-access = free }}</ref> The [[United States Social Security Administration]] officially recognizes BPD as a form of disability, enabling those significantly affected to apply for [[disability benefits]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Disability Evaluation Under Social Security. 12.00 Mental Disorders - Adult |url=https://www.ssa.gov/disability/professionals/bluebook/12.00-MentalDisorders-Adult.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723101142/https://www.ssa.gov/disability/professionals/bluebook/12.00-MentalDisorders-Adult.htm |archive-date=July 23, 2023 |access-date=July 23, 2023 |website=[[Social Security Administration]]}}</ref>

==Causes==

The [[etiology]], or causes, of BPD is multifaceted, with no consensus on a singular cause.<ref name="mayo">{{cite web| url = http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/borderline-personality-disorder/DS00442/DSECTION=3| title = Borderline personality disorder| publisher = Mayo Clinic| access-date = 15 May 2008| url-status=live| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080430112844/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/borderline-personality-disorder/DS00442/DSECTION%3D3| archive-date = 30 April 2008| df = dmy-all}}</ref> BPD may share a connection with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD).<ref name="BPD & PTSD">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gunderson JG, Sabo AN | title = The phenomenological and conceptual interface between borderline personality disorder and PTSD | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 150 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–27 | date = January 1993 | pmid = 8417576 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.150.1.19 }}</ref> While childhood trauma is a recognized contributing factor, the roles of congenital brain abnormalities, genetics, [[neurobiology]], and non-traumatic environmental factors remain subjects of ongoing investigation.<ref name="mayo" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR |year=1997 |title=Pathways to the development of borderline personality disorder |journal=Journal of Personality Disorders |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=93–104 |doi=10.1521/pedi.1997.11.1.93 |pmid=9113824 |s2cid=20669909}}</ref>

===Genetics and heritability===
Compared to other major psychiatric conditions, the exploration of genetic underpinnings in BPD remains novel.<ref name="pmid29032046">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bassir Nia A, Eveleth MC, Gabbay JM, Hassan YJ, Zhang B, Perez-Rodriguez MM | title = Past, present, and future of genetic research in borderline personality disorder | journal = Current Opinion in Psychology | volume = 21 | issue = | pages = 60–68 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29032046 | pmc = 5847441 | doi = 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.09.002 }}</ref> Estimates suggest the [[heritability]] of BPD ranges from 37% to 69%,<ref name="Her2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gunderson JG, Zanarini MC, Choi-Kain LW, Mitchell KS, Jang KL, Hudson JI|date=August 2011|title=Family Study of Borderline Personality Disorder and Its Sectors of Psychopathology|journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association|volume=68|issue=7|pages=753–762|doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.65|pmid=3150490|pmc=3150490}}</ref> indicating that [[human genetic variation]]s account for a substantial portion of the risk for BPD within the population. [[Twin study|Twin studies]], which often form the basis of these estimates, may overestimate the perceived influence of genetics due to the shared environment of twins, potentially skewing results.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Torgersen S | title = Genetics of patients with borderline personality disorder | journal = The Psychiatric Clinics of North America | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–9 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10729927 | doi = 10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70139-8 }}</ref>

Despite these methodological considerations, certain studies propose that personality disorders are significantly shaped by genetics, more so than many [[Axis I disorders]], such as depression and eating disorders, and even surpassing the genetic impact on broad [[personality traits]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Torgersen S, Lygren S, Oien PA, Skre I, Onstad S, Edvardsen J, Tambs K, Kringlen E | title = A twin study of personality disorders | journal = Comprehensive Psychiatry | volume = 41 | issue = 6 | pages = 416–425 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11086146 | doi = 10.1053/comp.2000.16560 }}</ref> Notably, BPD ranks as the third most heritable among ten surveyed personality disorders.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

Research involving twin and sibling studies has shown a genetic component to traits associated with BPD, such as impulsive aggression; with the genetic contribution to behavior from [[serotonin]]-related genes appearing to be modest.<ref name="neurotrauma">{{cite journal | vauthors = Goodman M, New A, Siever L | title = Trauma, genes, and the neurobiology of personality disorders | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1032 | issue = 1 | pages = 104–116 | date = December 2004 | pmid = 15677398 | doi = 10.1196/annals.1314.008 | bibcode = 2004NYASA1032..104G | s2cid = 26270818 }}</ref>

A study conducted by Trull et al. in the Netherlands, which included 711 sibling pairs and 561 parents, aimed to identify [[genetic marker]]s associated with BPD.<ref name="Possible Genetic Causes">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/12/081216114100.htm|title=Possible Genetic Causes Of Borderline Personality Disorder Identified|publisher=sciencedaily.com|date=20 December 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501161311/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/12/081216114100.htm|archive-date=1 May 2014}}</ref> This research identified a linkage to genetic markers on [[chromosome 9]] as relevant to BPD characteristics,<ref name="Possible Genetic Causes" /> underscoring a significant genetic contribution to the [[Variability (statistics)|variability]] observed in BPD features.<ref name="Possible Genetic Causes" /> Prior findings from this group indicated that 42% of BPD feature variability could be attributed to genetics, with the remaining 58% owing to environmental factors.<ref name="Possible Genetic Causes" />

Among specific genetic variants under scrutiny {{as of|2012|lc=y}}, the [[DRD4 7-repeat polymorphism]] (of the [[Dopamine receptor D4|dopamine receptor D4]]) located on [[chromosome 11]] has been linked to disorganized attachment, and in conjunction with the 10/10-repeat genotype of the [[dopamine transporter]] (DAT), it has been associated with issues with [[inhibitory control]], both of which are characteristic of BPD.<ref name="Brain Structure and Function">{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Neill A, Frodl T | title = Brain structure and function in borderline personality disorder | journal = Brain Structure & Function | volume = 217 | issue = 4 | pages = 767–782 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22252376 | doi = 10.1007/s00429-012-0379-4 | s2cid = 17970001 }}</ref> Additionally, potential links to [[chromosome 5]] are being explored, further emphasizing the complex genetic landscape influencing BPD development and manifestation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lubke GH, Laurin C, Amin N, Hottenga JJ, Willemsen G, van Grootheest G, Abdellaoui A, Karssen LC, Oostra BA, van Duijn CM, Penninx BW, Boomsma DI | title = Genome-wide analyses of borderline personality features | journal = Molecular Psychiatry | volume = 19 | issue = 8 | pages = 923–929 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 23979607 | pmc = 3872258 | doi = 10.1038/mp.2013.109 }}</ref>

===Psychosocial factors===

====Adverse childhood experiences====
Studies based on [[empiricism]] have established a strong [[correlation]] between [[adverse childhood experiences]] such as [[child abuse]], particularly [[child sexual abuse]], and the onset of BPD later in life.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cohen P |date=September 2008 |title=Child development and personality disorder |journal=The Psychiatric Clinics of North America |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=477–493, vii |doi=10.1016/j.psc.2008.03.005 |pmid=18638647}}</ref><ref name="Herman91">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/traumarecovery00herm_0 |title=Trauma and recovery |vauthors=Herman JL |publisher=Basic Books |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-465-08730-3 |location=New York}}</ref><ref name="AxisOne/AxisTwo" /> Reports from individuals diagnosed with BPD frequently include narratives of extensive abuse and neglect during early childhood, though [[causality]] remains a subject of ongoing investigation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ball JS, Links PS | title = Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: evidence for a causal relationship | journal = Current Psychiatry Reports | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 63–68 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19187711 | doi = 10.1007/s11920-009-0010-4 | s2cid = 20566309 }}</ref> These individuals are significantly more prone to recount experiences of verbal, emotional, physical, or sexual abuse by caregivers,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/borderline-personality-disorder/basics/risk-factors/con-20023204|title=Borderline personality disorder: Understanding this challenging mental illness|work=Mayo Clinic|access-date=5 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830054834/http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/borderline-personality-disorder/basics/risk-factors/con-20023204|archive-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> alongside a notable frequency of [[incest]] and loss of caregivers in early childhood.<ref name="failchild">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Reich DB, Marino MF, Lewis RE, Williams AA, Khera GS | title = Biparental failure in the childhood experiences of borderline patients | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 264–273 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11019749 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.2000.14.3.264 }}</ref>

Moreover, there have been consistent accounts of caregivers [[Emotional validation|invalidating]] the individuals' emotions and thoughts, neglecting physical care, failing to provide necessary protection, and exhibiting emotional withdrawal and inconsistency.<ref name="failchild" /> Specifically, female individuals with BPD reporting past neglect or abuse by caregivers have a heightened likelihood of encountering sexual abuse from individuals outside their immediate family circle.<ref name="failchild" />

The enduring impact of chronic maltreatment and difficulties in forming [[secure attachment]]s during childhood has been hypothesized to potentially contribute to the development of BPD.<ref name="Dozier-1999">{{cite book | vauthors = Dozier M, Stovall-McClough KC, Albus KE |year=1999 |chapter=Attachment and psychopathology in adulthood | veditors = Cassidy J, Shaver PR |title=Handbook of attachment |pages=497–519 |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]]}}</ref> From a [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] perspective, [[Otto Kernberg]] has posited that the child's failure to navigate the developmental challenge of differentiating self from others, or as Kernberg terms it achieve the developmental task of [[Otto F. Kernberg#First developmental task: psychic clarification of self and other|psychic clarification of self and other]], and failure to overcome the internal divisions caused by [[Splitting (psychology)|splitting]] may predispose that child to BPD.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kernberg OF |title=Borderline conditions and pathological narcissism |publisher=J. Aronson |location=Northvale, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-87668-762-8 |year=1985 }}{{Page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref>

==== Invalidating environment ====
[[Marsha Linehan]]'s biosocial developmental theory posits that BPD arises from the interaction between a child's inherent emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment. Emotional vulnerability is thought to be influenced by biological and genetic factors that shape the child's temperament. Traditional biomedical constructions of BPD often focus solely on biological factors. Though these factors certainly play a role in the development of borderline personality disorder, they do not provide a complete picture. A biosocial approach considers the interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental stressors, such as childhood trauma, invalidating environments, and social relationships, in shaping the course of the disorder. <ref>. Crowell SE, Beauchaine TP, and Linehan MM (2009) ‘A Biosocial Developmental Model of Borderline Personality: Elaborating and Extending Linehan’s Theory’, Psychological Bulletin, 135(3):495-510, https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0015616. </ref>

Invalidating environments are characterized by the neglect, ridicule, dismissal, or discouragement of a child's emotions and needs, and may also encompass experiences of trauma and abuse. <ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crowell SE, Beauchaine TP, Linehan MM | title = A biosocial developmental model of borderline personality: Elaborating and extending Linehan's theory | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 135 | issue = 3 | pages = 495–510 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19379027 | pmc = 2696274 | doi = 10.1037/a0015616 }}</ref>
Invalidation from caregivers, peers, or authority figures can lead individuals with borderline personality disorder to doubt the legitimacy of their feelings and experiences. This can exacerbate their emotional dysregulation and contribute to a cycle of invalidation, distress, and maladaptive coping strategies. When emotions are consistently dismissed or criticized, individuals with BPD may resort to destructive behaviors such as self-harm, substance abuse, or impulsive actions to cope with their distress, further perpetuating the negative stigma attached to those who suffer from borderline personality disorder.<ref>. Dixon-Gordon KL, Peters JR, Fertuck EA, Yen S (2017) ‘Emotional Processes in Borderline Personality Disorder: An Update for Clinical Practice’, Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 27(4):425-438. doi: 10.1037/int0000044. </ref>

==== Clinical and Cultural Perspectives ====
Anthropologist Rebecca Lester raises two perspectives that BPD can be viewed: a clinical perspective where BPD is a “dysfunction of personality”,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lester |first=Rebecca J |date=February 2013 |title=Lessons from the borderline: Anthropology, psychiatry, and the risks of being human |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959353512467969 |journal=Feminism & Psychology |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=70–77 |doi=10.1177/0959353512467969 |issn=0959-3535}}</ref> and an academic perspective that views BPD as a “mechanism of social regulation”.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lester |first=Rebecca J |date=February 2013 |title=Lessons from the borderline: Anthropology, psychiatry, and the risks of being human |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959353512467969 |journal=Feminism & Psychology |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=70–77 |doi=10.1177/0959353512467969 |issn=0959-3535}}</ref> Lester provides the perspective that BPD as a disorder of relationships and communication; that a person with BPD lacks the communication skills and knowledge to interact effectively with others within their society and culture given their life experience. Lester provides the metaphor of the particle-wave duality in quantum physics when dealing with the distinction between cultural and clinical perspectives of BPD. Like the particle-wave-duality, when asking particle-like questions you will get particle-like answers; and if you ask wave-like questions you will get wave-like answers. Lester argues the same applies to BPD; if you ask culturally based questions about the presence of BPD you will get culturally based answers, if you ask clinical personality-based questions it will reinforce personality-based perspectives. Lester advised both perspectives are valid and should work in tandem to provide a greater understanding of BPD culturally and for the individual.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lester |first=Rebecca J |date=February 2013 |title=Lessons from the borderline: Anthropology, psychiatry, and the risks of being human |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959353512467969 |journal=Feminism & Psychology |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=70–77 |doi=10.1177/0959353512467969 |issn=0959-3535}}</ref>

In this light, Lester argues the high diagnosis of women than men with BPD goes towards arguing feminist claims. A higher diagnosis BPD in women would be expected in cultures where females are victimised. In this view BPD is seen as a cultural phenomenon. This is understandable when BPD behaviours are viewed as learnt behaviours as a consequence of their experience surviving environments that reinforce worthlessness and their rejection. To Lester these survival techniques evidence humans “resilience, adaptation, creativity”. Behaviours associated with BPD is therefore an inherently human response.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lester |first=Rebecca J |date=February 2013 |title=Lessons from the borderline: Anthropology, psychiatry, and the risks of being human |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959353512467969 |journal=Feminism & Psychology |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=70–77 |doi=10.1177/0959353512467969 |issn=0959-3535}}</ref>

===Brain and neurobiologic factors===

Research employing [[structural neuroimaging]] techniques, such as [[voxel-based morphometry]], has reported variations in individuals diagnosed with BPD in specific [[brain regions]] that have been associated with the [[psychopathology]] of BPD. Notably, reductions in volume enclosed have been observed in the [[hippocampus]], [[orbitofrontal cortex]], [[anterior cingulate cortex]], and [[amygdala]], among others, which are crucial for [[emotional self-regulation]] and [[stress management]].<ref name="Brain Structure and Function" />

In addition to structural imaging, a subset of studies utilizing [[magnetic resonance spectroscopy]] has investigated the neurometabolic profile within these affected regions. These investigations have focused on the concentrations of various neurometabolites, including [[N-acetylaspartate|''N''-acetylaspartate]], [[creatine]], compounds related to [[glutamate]], and compounds containing [[choline]]. These studies aim to show the biochemical alterations that may underlie the symptomatology observed in BPD, offering insights into BPD's neurobiological basis.<ref name="Brain Structure and Function" />

==== Neurological patterns ====
Research into BPD has identified that the propensity for experiencing intense negative emotions, a trait known as [[negative affectivity]], serves as a more potent predictor of BPD symptoms than the history of childhood sexual abuse alone.<ref name="Rosenthal">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenthal MZ, Cheavens JS, Lejuez CW, Lynch TR |date=September 2005 |title=Thought suppression mediates the relationship between negative affect and borderline personality disorder symptoms |journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy |volume=43 |issue=9 |pages=1173–1185 |doi=10.1016/j.brat.2004.08.006 |pmid=16005704}}</ref> This correlation, alongside observed variations in brain structure and the presence of BPD in individuals without traumatic histories,<ref name="Gratz2007">{{harvnb|Chapman|Gratz|2007|page=52}}</ref> delineates BPD from disorders such as PTSD that are frequently co-morbid. Consequently, investigations into BPD encompass both developmental and traumatic origins.

Research has shown changes in two [[brain circuits]] implicated in the emotional dysregulation characteristic of BPD: firstly, an escalation in activity within brain circuits associated with experiencing severe emotional pain, and secondly, a decreased activation within circuits tasked with the regulation or suppression of these intense emotions. These dysfunctional activations predominantly occur within the [[limbic system]], though individual variances necessitate further neuroimaging research to explore these patterns in detail.<ref name="Ruocco, Anthony C.; Amirthavasagam, Sathya, Choi-Kain, Lois W.; McMain, Shelley F. 2013 153–160">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ruocco AC, Amirthavasagam S, Choi-Kain LW, McMain SF | title = Neural correlates of negative emotionality in borderline personality disorder: an activation-likelihood-estimation meta-analysis | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 73 | issue = 2 | pages = 153–160 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 22906520 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.07.014 | s2cid = 8381799 }}</ref>

Contrary to earlier findings, individuals with BPD exhibit decreased amygdala activation in response to heightened negative emotional stimuli compared to control groups. John Krystal, the editor of ''[[Biological Psychiatry (journal)|Biological Psychiatry]]'', commented on these findings, suggesting they contribute to understanding the innate neurological predisposition of individuals with BPD to lead emotionally turbulent lives, which are not inherently negative or unproductive.<ref name="Ruocco, Anthony C.; Amirthavasagam, Sathya, Choi-Kain, Lois W.; McMain, Shelley F. 2013 153–160" /> This emotional volatility is consistently linked to disparities in several brain regions, emphasizing the neurobiological underpinnings of BPD.<ref name="Koenigsberg">{{cite journal | vauthors = Koenigsberg HW, Siever LJ, Lee H, Pizzarello S, New AS, Goodman M, Cheng H, Flory J, Prohovnik I | title = Neural correlates of emotion processing in borderline personality disorder | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 172 | issue = 3 | pages = 192–199 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19394205 | pmc = 4153735 | doi = 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2008.07.010 | quote = BPD patients demonstrated greater differences in activation than controls, when viewing negative pictures compared with rest, in the amygdala, fusiform gyrus, primary visual areas, superior temporal gyrus (STG), and premotor areas, while healthy controls showed greater differences than BPD patients in the insula, middle temporal gyrus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. }}</ref>

===Mediating and moderating factors===

====Executive function and social rejection sensitivity====
High sensitivity to [[social rejection]] is linked to more severe symptoms of BPD, with [[executive function]] playing a mediating role.<ref name="Executive_function">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ayduk O, Zayas V, Downey G, Cole AB, Shoda Y, Mischel W|author-link6=Walter Mischel | title = Rejection Sensitivity and Executive Control: Joint predictors of Borderline Personality features | journal = Journal of Research in Personality | volume = 42 | issue = 1 | pages = 151–168 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18496604 | pmc = 2390893 | doi = 10.1016/j.jrp.2007.04.002 }}</ref> Executive function—encompassing [[planning]], [[working memory]], [[attentional control]], and [[problem-solving]]—moderates how rejection sensitivity influences BPD symptoms. Studies demonstrate that individuals with lower executive function exhibit a stronger correlation between rejection sensitivity and BPD symptoms.<ref name="Executive_function"/> Conversely, higher executive function may mitigate the impact of rejection sensitivity, potentially offering protection against BPD symptoms.<ref name="Executive_function"/> Additionally, deficiencies in working memory are associated with increased impulsivity in individuals with BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lazzaretti M, Morandotti N, Sala M, Isola M, Frangou S, De Vidovich G, Marraffini E, Gambini F, Barale F, Zappoli F, Caverzasi E, Brambilla P | title = Impaired working memory and normal sustained attention in borderline personality disorder | journal = Acta Neuropsychiatrica | volume = 24 | issue = 6 | pages = 349–355 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 25287177 | doi = 10.1111/j.1601-5215.2011.00630.x | s2cid = 34486508 }}</ref>

====Family environment====
The family environment significantly influences the development of BPD, acting as a mediator for the effects of child sexual abuse. An unstable family environment increases the risk of developing BPD, while a stable environment can provide a protective buffer against the disorder. This dynamic suggests the critical role of familial stability in mitigating or exacerbating the risk of BPD.<ref name="Bradley">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bradley R, Jenei J, Westen D | title = Etiology of borderline personality disorder: disentangling the contributions of intercorrelated antecedents | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 193 | issue = 1 | pages = 24–31 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15674131 | doi = 10.1097/01.nmd.0000149215.88020.7c | s2cid = 21168862 }}</ref>

==Diagnosis==
The clinical diagnosis of BPD can be made through a [[psychiatric assessment]] conducted by a [[mental health professional]], ideally a [[psychiatrist]] or [[psychologist]]. This comprehensive assessment integrates various sources of information to confirm the diagnosis, encompassing the patient's self-reported [[clinical history]], observations made by the clinician during interviews, and corroborative details obtained from family members, friends, and medical records. It is crucial to thoroughly assess patients for co-morbid mental health conditions, substance use disorders, suicidal ideation, and any self-harming behaviors.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.uptodate.com/ |title=UpToDate |publisher=[[Wolters Kluwer]] |veditors=Post TW |chapter=Borderline personality disorder: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, course, assessment, and diagnosis |access-date=11 March 2023 |chapter-url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/borderline-personality-disorder-epidemiology-pathogenesis-clinical-features-course-assessment-and-diagnosis |url-access=subscription |archive-date=6 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106134307/http://uptodate.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

An effective approach involves presenting the criteria of the disorder to the individual and inquiring if they perceive these criteria as reflective of their experiences. Involving individuals in the diagnostic process may enhance their acceptance of the diagnosis. Despite the stigma associated with BPD and previous notions of its untreatability, disclosing the diagnosis to individuals is generally beneficial. It provides them with validation and directs them to appropriate treatment options.<ref name="Gund2011" />

The [[psychological evaluation]] for BPD typically explores the onset and intensity of symptoms and their impact on the individual's [[quality of life]]. Critical areas of focus include suicidal thoughts, self-harm behaviors, and any thoughts of harming others.<ref name="Mayo_Clinic_Diagnosis">{{cite web|title=Personality Disorders: Tests and Diagnosis|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/personality-disorders/DS00562/DSECTION=tests-and-diagnosis|publisher=Mayo Clinic|access-date=13 June 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606185940/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/personality-disorders/DS00562/DSECTION%3Dtests-and-diagnosis|archive-date=6 June 2013}}</ref> The diagnosis relies on both the individual's self-reported symptoms and the clinician's observations.<ref name="Mayo_Clinic_Diagnosis" /> To exclude other potential causes of the symptoms, additional assessments may include a [[physical examination]] and [[blood test]]s, to exclude thyroid disorders or substance use disorders.<ref name="Mayo_Clinic_Diagnosis" /> The [[International Classification of Diseases]] (ICD-10) categorizes the condition as ''emotionally unstable personality disorder'', with diagnostic criteria similar to those in the ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition]]'' (DSM-5), where the disorder's name remains unchanged from previous editions.<ref name="DSM53" />

=== ''DSM-5'' diagnostic criteria ===

The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition'' (DSM-5) has eliminated the multiaxial diagnostic system, integrating all disorders, including personality disorders, into Section II of the manual. For a diagnosis of BPD, an individual must meet five out of nine specified diagnostic criteria.<ref name="DSM-5-borderine personality disorders" /> The DSM-5 characterizes BPD as a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, affect, and a significant propensity towards impulsive behavior.<ref name="DSM-5-borderine personality disorders">{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2013|pages=663–8}}</ref> Moreover, the DSM-5 introduces alternative diagnostic criteria for BPD in Section III, titled "Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders". These criteria are rooted in trait research and necessitate the identification of at least four out of seven maladaptive traits.<ref name="DSM-5-borderline-alternative">{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2013|pages=766–7}}</ref> Marsha Linehan highlights the diagnostic challenges faced by mental health professionals in using the DSM criteria due to the broad range of behaviors they encompass.<ref name="Manning_13">{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=13}}</ref> To mitigate these challenges, Linehan categorizes BPD symptoms into five principal areas of dysregulation: emotions, behavior, interpersonal relationships, sense of self, and cognition.<ref name="Manning_13" />

===International Classification of Disease (ICD) diagnostic criteria===

==== ICD-11 diagnostic criteria ====
{{See also|ICD-11#Personality disorder|label 1=ICD-11 § Personality disorder}}
The [[World Health Organization]]'s [[ICD-11]] completely restructured its personality disorder section. It classifies BPD as ''Personality disorder'', ({{ICD11|6D10}}) ''Borderline pattern'', ({{ICD11|6D11.5}}). The borderline pattern specifier is defined as a personality disturbance marked by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, as well as impulsivity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics |url=https://icd.who.int/browse/2024-01/mms/en#2006821354 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314103223/https://icd.who.int/browse/2024-01/mms/en#2006821354 |archive-date=14 March 2024 |access-date=2024-03-11 |website=icd.who.int}}</ref>

{{quote
|text = Diagnosis require meeting five or more out of nine specific criteria:
* Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment.
* A pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships, which may be characterized by vacillations between idealization and devaluation, typically associated with both strong desire for and fear of closeness and intimacy.
* Identity disturbance, manifested in markedly and persistently unstable self-image or sense of self.
* A tendency to act rashly in states of high negative affect, leading to potentially self-damaging behaviours (e.g., risky sexual behaviour, reckless driving, excessive alcohol or substance use, binge eating).
* Recurrent episodes of self-harm (e.g., suicide attempts or gestures, self-mutilation).
* Emotional instability due to marked reactivity of mood. Fluctuations of mood may be triggered either internally (e.g., by one's own thoughts) or by external events. As a consequence, the individual experiences intense dysphoric mood states, which typically last for a few hours but may last for up to several days.
* Chronic feelings of emptiness.
* Inappropriate intense anger or difficulty controlling anger manifested in frequent displays of temper (e.g., yelling or screaming, throwing or breaking things, getting into physical fights).
* Transient dissociative symptoms or psychotic-like features (e.g., brief hallucinations, paranoia) in situations of high affective arousal.

Other manifestations of Borderline pattern, not all of which may be present in a given individual at a given time, include the following:
* A view of the self as inadequate, bad, guilty, disgusting, and contemptible.
* An experience of the self as profoundly different and isolated from other people; a painful sense of alienation and pervasive loneliness.
* Proneness to rejection hypersensitivity; problems in establishing and maintaining consistent and appropriate levels of trust in interpersonal relationships; frequent misinterpretation of social signals.
}}

==== ICD-10 diagnostic criteria ====
The [[ICD-10]] (version 2019) identified a condition akin to BPD it termed ''Emotionally unstable personality disorder'' (EUPD) ({{ICD10|F|60|3|f|60}}). This classification described EUPD as a personality disorder with a marked propensity for impulsive behavior without considering potential consequences. Individual with EUPD had noticeably erratic and fluctuating moods and are prone to sudden emotional outbursts, struggling to regulate these rapid shifts in emotion. Conflict and confrontational behavior are common, especially in situations where impulsive actions are criticized or hindered.

The ICD-10 recognizes two subtypes of this disorder: the ''impulsive type'', characterized mainly by emotional dysregulation and impulsivity, and the ''borderline type'', which additionally includes disturbances in self-perception, goals, and personal preferences. Those with the ''borderline subtype'' also experience a persistent feeling of emptiness, unstable and chaotic interpersonal relationships, and a predisposition towards self-harming behaviors, encompassing both suicidal ideations and suicide attempts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICD-10 Version:2019 |url=https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#F60.3 |access-date=2024-03-11 |website=icd.who.int |archive-date=31 March 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200331004754/https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en%23/U07.1#F60.3 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Millon's subtypes===
Psychologist [[Theodore Millon]] proposed four subtypes of BPD, where individuals with BPD would exhibit none, one, or multiple subtypes. The discouraged subtype is characterized by traits such as avoidance, dependency, and internalized anger and emotions. Individuals belonging to this subtype tend to exhibit impulsivity alongside compliance, loyalty, and humility. They often feel vulnerable and perpetually at risk, experiencing emotions such as hopelessness, depression, and a sense of helplessness and powerlessness.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Duică L, Antonescu E, Totan M, Boța G, Silișteanu SC |date=January 2022 |title=Borderline Personality Disorder "Discouraged Type": A Case Report |journal=Medicina |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=162 |doi=10.3390/medicina58020162 |pmc=8874928 |pmid=35208485 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The petulant type is characterized by negativism, impatience, restlessness, stubbornness, defiance, angriness, pessimism, and resentment. Individuals of this type tend to feel slighted and disillusioned with ease. The impulsive type is characterized by being captivating, unstable, superficial, erratic, distractible, frenetic, and seductive. When they fear loss, they become agitated, gloomy, and irritable, potentially leading to suicidal thoughts or actions. The self-destructive type is inward-turning, self-punishing, angry, conforming, and displays deferential and ingratiating behaviors. Their behavior tends to deteriorate over time, becoming increasingly high-strung and moody, and they may also be at risk for suicide.<ref name="Millon">{{cite book |title=Personality Disorders in Modern Life |vauthors=Millon T |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-23734-1 |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |page=4}}</ref>

===Misdiagnosis===
{{Main|Misdiagnosis of borderline personality disorder}}
Individuals with BPD are subject to [[misdiagnosis]] due to various factors, notably the overlap (comorbidity) of BPD symptoms with those of other disorders such as depression, PTSD, and bipolar disorder.<ref name="Chanen">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chanen AM, Thompson KN | title = Prescribing and borderline personality disorder | journal = Australian Prescriber | volume = 39 | issue = 2 | pages = 49–53 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 27340322 | pmc = 4917638 | doi = 10.18773/austprescr.2016.019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Meaney R, Hasking P, Reupert A | title = Borderline Personality Disorder Symptoms in College Students: The Complex Interplay between Alexithymia, Emotional Dysregulation and Rumination | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = e0157294 |year = 2016 | pmid = 27348858 | pmc = 4922551 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0157294 | bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1157294M | doi-access = free }}</ref> Misdiagnosis of BPD can lead to a range of adverse consequences. Diagnosis plays a crucial role in informing healthcare professionals about the patient's mental health status, guiding treatment strategies, and facilitating accurate reporting of successful interventions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sartorius |first=Norman |date=2015 |title=Why do we need a diagnosis? Maybe a syndrome is enough? |journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=6–7 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2015.17.1/nsartorius |pmc=4421902 |pmid=25987858}}</ref> Consequently, misdiagnosis may deprive individuals of access to suitable psychiatric medications or evidence-based psychological interventions tailored to their specific disorders.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Paris |first1=Joel |last2=Black |first2=Donald W. |date=2015 |title=Borderline Personality Disorder and Bipolar Disorder |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/nmd.0000000000000225 |journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease |volume=203 |issue=1 |pages=3–7 |doi=10.1097/nmd.0000000000000225 |issn=0022-3018 |pmid=25536097 |s2cid=2825326|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Critics of the BPD diagnosis contend that it is indistinguishable from negative affectivity upon undergoing regression and factor analyses. They maintain that the diagnosis of BPD does not provide additional insight beyond what is captured by other diagnoses, positing that it may be redundant or potentially misleading.<ref name=FG>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gutiérrez F, Aluja A, Ruiz Rodríguez J, Peri JM, Gárriz M, Garcia LF, Sorrel MA, Sureda B, Vall G, Ferrer M, Calvo N | title = Borderline, where are you? A psychometric approach to the personality domains in the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11) | journal = Personality Disorders | date = June 2022 | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 355–359 | pmid = 35737563 | doi = 10.1037/per0000592 | s2cid = 249805748 | hdl = 2445/206520 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

===Adolescence and prodrome===
The onset of BPD symptoms typically occurs during adolescence or early adulthood, with possible early signs in childhood.<ref>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=49}}</ref> Predictive symptoms in adolescents include [[body image]] issues, extreme sensitivity to rejection, behavioral challenges, [[non-suicidal self-injury]], seeking exclusive relationships, and profound shame.<ref name="Gund2011" /> Although many adolescents exhibit these symptoms without developing BPD, those who do are significantly more likely to develop the disorder and potentially face long-term social challenges.<ref name="Gund2011" />

BPD is recognized as a stable and valid diagnosis during adolescence, supported by the DSM-5 and ICD-11.<ref name="Miller_2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Miller AL, Muehlenkamp JJ, Jacobson CM |date=July 2008 |title=Fact or fiction: diagnosing borderline personality disorder in adolescents |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2008.02.004 |url-status=live |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=969–81 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2008.02.004 |pmid=18358579 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232033/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272735808000299?via%3Dihub |archive-date=4 December 2020 |access-date=23 September 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK)_2009">{{cite book |author=National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK) |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK55399/ |title=Young People With Borderline Personality Disorder |date=2009 |publisher=British Psychological Society |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232017/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK55399/ |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kaess_2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kaess M, Brunner R, Chanen A |date=October 2014 |title=Borderline personality disorder in adolescence |url=https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-pdf/134/4/782/1098814/peds_2013-3677.pdf |journal=Pediatrics |volume=134 |issue=4 |pages=782–93 |doi=10.1542/peds.2013-3677 |pmid=25246626 |s2cid=8274933 |access-date=23 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="Biskin_2015">{{cite journal |vauthors=Biskin RS |date=July 2015 |title=The Lifetime Course of Borderline Personality Disorder |journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=60 |issue=7 |pages=303–8 |doi=10.1177/070674371506000702 |pmc=4500179 |pmid=26175388}}</ref> Early detection and treatment of BPD in young individuals are emphasized in national guidelines across various countries, including the US, Australia, the UK, Spain, and Switzerland, highlighting the importance of early intervention.<ref name="Kaess_2014" /><ref>{{cite book |last=National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia) |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/948783298 |title=Clinical practice guideline for the management of borderline personality disorder |date=2013 |publisher=National Health and Medical Research Council |isbn=978-1-86496-564-3 |oclc=948783298 |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232022/https://www.worldcat.org/title/clinical-practice-guideline-for-the-management-of-borderline-personality-disorder/oclc/948783298 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=28 January 2009 |title=Overview {{!}} Borderline personality disorder: recognition and management {{!}} Guidance {{!}} NICE |url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg78 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011171334/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG78 |archive-date=11 October 2019 |access-date=23 September 2020 |website=www.nice.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Grupo de Trabajo de la Guía de Práctica Clínica sobre Trastorno Límite de la Personalidad |date=June 2011 |title=Guía de práctica clínica sobre trastorno límite de la personalidad |url=https://scientiasalut.gencat.cat/handle/11351/810 |url-status=live |journal=Scientia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232022/https://scientiasalut.gencat.cat/handle/11351/810 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |access-date=23 September 2020}}</ref>

Historically, diagnosing BPD during adolescence was met with caution,<ref name="Kaess_2014" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Treatment of Personality Disorders |vauthors=de Vito E, Ladame F, Orlandini A |date=1999 |publisher=Springer US |isbn=978-1-4419-3326-3 |veditors=Derksen J, Maffei C, Groen H |place=Boston, MA |pages=77–95 |chapter=Adolescence and Personality Disorders |doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-6876-3_7 |access-date=23 September 2020 |chapter-url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4757-6876-3_7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232040/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4757-6876-3_7 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Guilé JM, Boissel L, Alaux-Cantin S, de La Rivière SG |date=23 November 2018 |title=Borderline personality disorder in adolescents: prevalence, diagnosis, and treatment strategies |journal=Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics |volume=9 |pages=199–210 |doi=10.2147/ahmt.s156565 |pmc=6257363 |pmid=30538595 |doi-access=free}}</ref> due to concerns about the accuracy of diagnosing young individuals,<ref>{{cite book |last=American Psychiatric Association. Work Group on Borderline Personality Disorder. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/606593046 |title=Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder |date=2001 |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |oclc=606593046 |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232020/https://www.worldcat.org/title/practice-guideline-for-the-treatment-of-patients-with-borderline-personality-disorder/oclc/606593046 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=World Health Organization |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/476159430 |title=The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders : Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. |date=1992 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-068283-2 |oclc=476159430 |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232022/https://www.worldcat.org/title/icd-10-classification-of-mental-and-behavioural-disorders-clinical-descriptions-and-diagnostic-guidelines/oclc/476159430 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> the potential misinterpretation of normal adolescent behaviors, stigma, and the stability of personality during this developmental stage.<ref name="Kaess_2014" /> Despite these challenges, research has confirmed the validity and clinical utility of the BPD diagnosis in adolescents,<ref name="Miller_2008" /><ref name="National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK)_2009" /><ref name="Kaess_2014" /><ref name="Biskin_2015" /> though misconceptions persist among mental health care professionals,<ref name="Baltzersen_2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baltzersen ÅL |date=August 2020 |title=Moving forward: closing the gap between research and practice for young people with BPD |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=37 |pages=77–81 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.008 |pmid=32916475 |s2cid=221636857 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Boylan K |date=August 2018 |title=Diagnosing BPD in Adolescents: More good than harm |journal=Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=155–156 |pmc=6054283 |pmid=30038651}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Laurenssen EM, Hutsebaut J, Feenstra DJ, Van Busschbach JJ, Luyten P |date=February 2013 |title=Diagnosis of personality disorders in adolescents: a study among psychologists |journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=3 |doi=10.1186/1753-2000-7-3 |pmc=3583803 |pmid=23398887 |doi-access=free}}</ref> contributing to clinical reluctance in diagnosing and a key barrier to the provision of effective treatment BPD in this population.<ref name="Baltzersen_2020" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chanen AM |date=August 2015 |title=Borderline Personality Disorder in Young People: Are We There Yet? |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jclp.22205 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology |volume=71 |issue=8 |pages=778–91 |doi=10.1002/jclp.22205 |pmid=26192914 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232036/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jclp.22205 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |access-date=23 September 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Koehne K, Hamilton B, Sands N, Humphreys C |date=January 2013 |title=Working around a contested diagnosis: borderline personality disorder in adolescence |journal=Health |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=37–56 |doi=10.1177/1363459312447253 |pmid=22674745 |s2cid=1674596}}</ref>

A diagnosis of BPD in adolescence can indicate the persistence of the disorder into adulthood,<ref name="DSM-IV-TR">{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2000}}{{Page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref><ref name="Netherton">{{cite book | vauthors = Netherton SD, Holmes D, Walker CE |year=1999 |title=Child and Adolescent Psychological Disorders: Comprehensive Textbook |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press}}{{Page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref> with outcomes varying among individuals. Some maintain a stable diagnosis over time, while others may not consistently meet the diagnostic criteria.<ref name="Fact_or_Fiction">{{cite journal | vauthors = Miller AL, Muehlenkamp JJ, Jacobson CM | title = Fact or fiction: diagnosing borderline personality disorder in adolescents | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 28 | issue = 6 | pages = 969–981 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18358579 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2008.02.004 }}</ref> Early diagnosis facilitates the development of effective treatment plans,<ref name="DSM-IV-TR" /><ref name="Netherton" /> including family therapy, to support adolescents with BPD.<ref>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=98}}</ref>

===Differential diagnosis and comorbidity===
Lifetime [[Comorbidity|co-occurring]] (comorbid) conditions are prevalent among individuals diagnosed with BPD. Individuals with BPD exhibit higher rates of comorbidity compared to those diagnosed with other personality disorders. These comorbidities include [[mood disorders]] (such as [[major depressive disorder]] and [[bipolar disorder]]), [[anxiety disorder]]s (including [[panic disorder]], [[social anxiety disorder]], and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD)), other personality disorders (notably [[Schizotypal personality disorder|schizotypal]], [[Antisocial personality disorder|antisocial]], and [[dependent personality disorder]]), substance use disorder, [[eating disorders]] ([[anorexia nervosa]] and [[bulimia nervosa]]), [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD),<ref name="PM">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrer M, Andión O, Matalí J, Valero S, Navarro JA, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Torrubia R, Casas M | title = Comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in borderline patients defines an impulsive subtype of borderline personality disorder | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 24 | issue = 6 | pages = 812–822 | date = December 2010 | pmid = 21158602 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.2010.24.6.812 }}{{primary source inline|date=May 2013}}</ref> [[somatic symptom disorder]], and the [[dissociative disorders]].<ref name="comorbidity">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Dubo ED, Sickel AE, Trikha A, Levin A, Reynolds V | title = Axis I comorbidity of borderline personality disorder | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 155 | issue = 12 | pages = 1733–1739 | date = December 1998 | pmid = 9842784 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.155.12.1733 }}</ref> It is advised that a personality disorder diagnosis should be made cautiously during untreated mood episodes or disorders unless a comprehensive lifetime history supports the existence of a personality disorder.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vieta E | title = Bipolar II Disorder: Frequent, Valid, and Reliable | journal = Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie | volume = 64 | issue = 8 | pages = 541–543 | date = August 2019 | pmid = 31340672 | pmc = 6681515 | doi = 10.1177/0706743719855040 }}</ref>

====Comorbid Axis I disorders====
{| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center"
|-
|+Gender variations in lifetime prevalence of comorbid Axis I disorders among individuals diagnosed with BPD: A comparative study between 2008<ref name="Grant_2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grant BF, Chou SP, Goldstein RB, Huang B, Stinson FS, Saha TD, Smith SM, Dawson DA, Pulay AJ, Pickering RP, Ruan WJ |date=April 2008 |title=Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV borderline personality disorder: results from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions |journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=533–545 |doi=10.4088/JCP.v69n0404 |pmc=2676679 |pmid=18426259}}</ref> and 1998<ref name="comorbidity2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Dubo ED, Sickel AE, Trikha A, Levin A, Reynolds V |date=December 1998 |title=Axis I comorbidity of borderline personality disorder |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=155 |issue=12 |pages=1733–1739 |doi=10.1176/ajp.155.12.1733 |pmid=9842784}}</ref>
|-
! Axis I diagnosis !! Overall (%) !! Male (%) !! Female (%)
|-
! Mood disorders !! 75.0 !! 68.7 !! 80.2
|-
|[[Major depressive disorder]] || 32.1 || 27.2 || 36.1
|-
|[[Dysthymia]] || {{0}}9.7 || {{0}}7.1 || 11.9
|-
|[[Bipolar I disorder]] || 31.8 || 30.6 || 32.7
|-
|[[Bipolar II disorder]] || {{0}}7.7 || {{0}}6.7 || {{0}}8.5
|-
! Anxiety disorders !! 74.2 !! 66.1 !! 81.1
|-
|[[Panic disorder]] with [[agoraphobia]] || 11.5 || {{0}}7.7 || 14.6
|-
|Panic disorder without agoraphobia || 18.8 || 16.2 || 20.9
|-
|[[Social phobia]] || 29.3 || 25.2 || 32.7
|-
|[[Specific phobia]] || 37.5 || 26.6 || 46.6
|-
|[[post-traumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] || 39.2 || 29.5 || 47.2
|-
|[[Generalized anxiety disorder]] || 35.1 || 27.3 || 41.6
|-
|[[Obsessive–compulsive disorder]]** || 15.6 || – || –
|-
! Substance use disorders !! 72.9 !! 80.9 !! 66.2
|-
|Any [[alcohol use disorder]] || 57.3 || 71.2 || 45.6
|-
|Any non-alcohol [[substance use disorder]] || 36.2 || 44.0 || 29.8
|-
! Eating disorders** !! 53.0 !! 20.5 !! 62.2
|-
|[[Anorexia nervosa]]** || 20.8 || {{0}}7 * || 25 *
|-
|[[Bulimia nervosa]]** || 25.6 || 10 * || 30 *
|-
|[[Eating disorder not otherwise specified]]** || 26.1 || 10.8 || 30.4
|-
! Somatoform disorders** !! 10.3 !! 10 * !! 10 *
|-
|[[Somatization disorder]]** || {{0}}4.2 || – || –
|-
|[[Hypochondriasis]]** || {{0}}4.7 || – || –
|-
|[[psychogenic pain|Somatoform pain disorder]]** || {{0}}4.2 || – || –
|-
! [[Psychotic disorders]]** !! {{0}}1.3 !! {{0}}1 * !! {{0}}1 *
|-
| Colspan="4" | * Approximate values ** Values from 1998 study<ref name = comorbidity /> – Value not provided by from both studies
|}
A 2008 study stated that 75% of individuals with BPD at some point meet criteria for mood disorders, notably major depression and bipolar I, with a similar percentage for anxiety disorders.<ref name="Grant_2008" /> The same study stated that 73% of individuals with BPD meet criteria for substance use disorders, and about 40% for PTSD.<ref name="Grant_2008"/> This challenges the notion that BPD and PTSD are identical, as less than half of those with BPD exhibit PTSD symptoms in their lifetime.<ref name=comorbidity /> The study also noted significant gender differences in comorbidity among individuals with BPD: a higher proportion of males meet criteria for substance use disorders, whereas females are more likely to have PTSD and eating disorders.<ref name="comorbidity" /><ref name="Grant_2008" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gregory RJ | date = November 2006 |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/clinical-challenges-co-occurring-borderline-personality-and-substance-use-disorders |title=Clinical Challenges in Co-occurring Borderline Personality and Substance Use Disorders |journal=Psychiatric Times | series = Psychiatric Times Vol 23 No 13 | volume = 23 | issue = 13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921063228/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/clinical-challenges-co-occurring-borderline-personality-and-substance-use-disorders |archive-date=21 September 2013 }}</ref> Additionally, 38% of individuals with BPD were found to meet criteria for ADHD,<ref name="PM" /> and 15% for [[autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) in separate studies,<ref name="Ryden2008">{{cite journal| volume = 5| issue = 1| pages = 22–30| vauthors = Rydén G, Rydén E, Hetta J | title = Borderline personality disorder and autism spectrum disorder in females: A cross-sectional study| journal = Clinical Neuropsychiatry| access-date = 7 February 2013| year = 2008| url = http://www.clinicalneuropsychiatry.org/pdf/04_ryden_hetta.pdf| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055225/http://www.clinicalneuropsychiatry.org/pdf/04_ryden_hetta.pdf| archive-date = 21 September 2013| df = dmy-all}}</ref> highlighting the risk of misdiagnosis due to "lower expressions" of BPD or a complex pattern of comorbidity that might obscure the underlying personality disorder. Systematic review evidence has identified that a "substantial proportion" of patients with a BPD diagnosis may have presentations in keeping with ASD, and that this may be "especially prevalent among women, suggesting possible diagnostic bias" <ref>{{cite journal| volume = 57| issue = 2| pages = 181–196| vauthors = Gillett G, Leaves L, Patel A, Prisecaru A, Spain D, Happe F | title = The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder traits and diagnosis in adults and young people with personality disorders: A systematic review| journal = Aust N Z J Psychiatry| access-date = 29 August 2024| year = 2023| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9896258/}}</ref>. This complexity in diagnosis underscores the importance of comprehensive assessment in identifying BPD.<ref name="comorbidity" />

====Mood disorders====
Seventy-five percent (75%) of individuals with BPD concurrently experience mood disorders, notably major depressive disorder (MDD) or bipolar disorder (BD),<ref name="Robinson"/> complicating diagnostic clarity due to overlapping symptoms.<ref name=":16">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bolton S, Gunderson JG |date=September 1996 |title=Distinguishing borderline personality disorder from bipolar disorder: differential diagnosis and implications |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=153 |issue=9 |pages=1202–1207 |doi=10.1176/ajp.153.9.1202 |pmid=8780426}}</ref><ref name="APAguide">{{cite journal |author=American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines |date=October 2001 |title=Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder. American Psychiatric Association |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=158 |issue=10 Suppl |pages=1–52 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.158.1.1 |pmid=11665545 |s2cid=20392111}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Differential Diagnosis of Borderline Personality Disorder |url=http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/diffdx.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040509181831/http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/diffdx.htm |archive-date=9 May 2004 |work=BPD Today}}</ref> Distinguishing BPD from BD is particularly challenging, as behaviors part of diagnostic criteria for both BPD and BD may emerge during depressive or [[manic episodes]] in BD. However, these behaviours are likely subside as mood normalises in BD to [[Euthymia (medicine)|euthymia]], but typically are pervasive in BPD.<ref name="Chapman_87">{{harvnb|Chapman|Gratz|2007|page=87}}</ref> Thus, diagnosis should ideally be deferred until after the mood has stabilised.<ref name="BPD_vs_BD">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/manicdepressivei00good/page/108 |title=Manic-depressive illness |vauthors=Jamison KR, Goodwin FJ |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-19-503934-4 |location=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/manicdepressivei00good/page/108 108]}}</ref>

Differences between BPD and BD mood swings include their duration, with BD episodes typically lasting for at least two weeks at a time, in contrast to the rapid and transient mood shifts seen in BPD.<ref name="Chapman_87" /><ref name="BPD_vs_BD" /><ref name="Chapman_88" /> Additionally, BD mood changes are generally unresponsive to environmental stimuli, whereas BPD moods are. For example, a positive event might alleviate a depressive mood in BPD, responsiveness not observed in BD.<ref name="BPD_vs_BD" /> Furthermore, the [[euphoria]] in BPD lacks the [[racing thoughts]] and reduced need for sleep characteristic of BD,<ref name="BPD_vs_BD" /> though sleep disturbances have been noted in BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Selby EA | title = Chronic sleep disturbances and borderline personality disorder symptoms | journal = Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology | volume = 81 | issue = 5 | pages = 941–947 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23731205 | pmc = 4129646 | doi = 10.1037/a0033201 }}</ref>

An exception would be individuals with rapid-cycling BD, who can be a challenge to differentiate from the affective lability of individuals with BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mackinnon DF, Pies R | title = Affective instability as rapid cycling: theoretical and clinical implications for borderline personality and bipolar spectrum disorders | journal = Bipolar Disorders | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–14 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16411976 | doi = 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2006.00283.x | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Chapman_88">{{harvnb|Chapman|Gratz|2007|page=88}}</ref><ref name="Chapman_87" />

Historically, BPD was considered a milder form of BD,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Akiskal HS, Yerevanian BI, Davis GC, King D, Lemmi H | title = The nosologic status of borderline personality: clinical and polysomnographic study | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 142 | issue = 2 | pages = 192–198 | date = February 1985 | pmid = 3970243 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.142.2.192 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gunderson JG, Elliott GR | title = The interface between borderline personality disorder and affective disorder | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 142 | issue = 3 | pages = 277–788 | date = March 1985 | pmid = 2857532 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.142.3.277 }}</ref> or part of the bipolar spectrum. However, distinctions in phenomenology, family history, disease progression, and treatment responses refute a singular underlying mechanism for both conditions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Paris J | title = Borderline or bipolar? Distinguishing borderline personality disorder from bipolar spectrum disorders | journal = Harvard Review of Psychiatry | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 140–145 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15371068 | doi = 10.1080/10673220490472373 | s2cid = 39354034 }}</ref> Research indicates only a modest association between BPD and BD, challenging the notion of a close spectrum relationship.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Jamison KR, Goodwin FJ |title=Manic-depressive illness |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1990 |page=[https://archive.org/details/manicdepressivei00good/page/336 336] |isbn=978-0-19-503934-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/manicdepressivei00good/page/336 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Benazzi F | title = Borderline personality-bipolar spectrum relationship | journal = Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 68–74 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16019119 | doi = 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.06.010 | s2cid = 1358610 }}</ref>

====Premenstrual dysphoric disorder====
BPD is a psychiatric condition distinguishable from [[premenstrual dysphoric disorder]] (PMDD), despite some symptom overlap. BPD affects individuals persistently across all stages of the menstrual cycle, unlike PMDD, which is confined to the [[luteal phase]] and ends with [[menstruation]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rapkin AJ, Berman SM, London ED | title = The Cerebellum and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder | journal = AIMS Neuroscience | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 120–141 |year = 2014 | pmid = 28275721 | pmc = 5338637 | doi = 10.3934/Neuroscience.2014.2.120 }}</ref><ref name="Grady-Weliky">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grady-Weliky TA |date=January 2003 |title=Clinical practice. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=348 |issue=5 |pages=433–8 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp012067 |pmid=12556546}}</ref> While PMDD, affecting 3–8% of women,<ref name="Rapkin">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rapkin AJ, Lewis EI | title = Treatment of premenstrual dysphoric disorder | journal = Women's Health | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 537–56 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 24161307 | doi = 10.2217/whe.13.62 | doi-access = free }}</ref> includes mood swings, irritability, and anxiety tied to the [[menstrual cycle]], BPD presents a broader, constant emotional and behavioral challenge irrespective of hormonal changes.

====Comorbid Axis II disorders====
{| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center"
|-
|+Lifetime percentage prevalence of comorbid Axis II disorders among individuals with BPD in 2008<ref name="Grant_2008"/>
|-
! Axis II diagnosis !! Overall (%) !! Male (%) !! Female (%)
|-
! Any cluster A !! 50.4 !! 49.5 !! 51.1
|-
| [[Paranoid personality disorder|Paranoid]] || 21.3 || 16.5 || 25.4
|-
| [[Schizoid personality disorder|Schizoid]] || 12.4 || 11.1 || 13.5
|-
| [[Schizotypal personality disorder|Schizotypal]] || 36.7 || 38.9 || 34.9
|-
! Any other cluster B !! 49.2 !! 57.8 !! 42.1
|-
| [[Antisocial personality disorder|Antisocial]] || 13.7 || 19.4 || 9.0
|-
| [[Histrionic personality disorder|Histrionic]] || 10.3 || 10.3 || 10.3
|-
| [[Narcissistic personality disorder|Narcissistic]] || 38.9 || 47.0 || 32.2
|-
! Any cluster C !! 29.9 !! 27.0 !! 32.3
|-
| [[Avoidant personality disorder|Avoidant]] || 13.4 || 10.8 || 15.6
|-
| [[Dependent personality disorder|Dependent]] || 3.1 || 2.6 || 3.5
|-
| [[Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder|Obsessive–compulsive]] || 22.7 || 21.7 || 23.6
|-
|}
Approximately 74% of individuals with BPD also fulfill criteria for another [[Axis II (psychiatry)|Axis II]] personality disorder during their lifetime, according to research conducted in 2008.<ref name="Grant_2008" /> The most prevalent co-occurring disorders are from Cluster A (paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders), affecting about half of those with BPD, with schizotypal personality disorder alone impacting one-third of individuals. Being part of Cluster B, BPD patients also commonly share characteristics with other Cluster B disorders (antisocial, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders), with nearly half of individuals with BPD showing signs of these conditions, and narcissistic personality disorder affecting roughly one-third.<ref name="Grant_2008" /> Cluster C disorders (avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders) have the least comorbidity with BPD, with just under a third of individuals with BPD meeting the criteria for a Cluster C disorder.<ref name="Grant_2008" />

==Management==
{{Main|Management of borderline personality disorder}}
The main approach to managing BPD is through [[psychotherapy]], tailored to the individual's specific needs rather than applying a one-size-fits-all model based on the diagnosis alone.<ref name =Lei2011/> While medications do not directly treat BPD, they are beneficial in managing comorbid conditions like depression and anxiety.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG78/NiceGuidance/pdf/English |title=CG78 Borderline personality disorder (BPD): NICE guideline |publisher=Nice.org.uk |date=28 January 2009 |access-date=12 August 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411104754/http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG78/NiceGuidance/pdf/English |archive-date=11 April 2009 }}</ref> Evidence states short-term hospitalization does not offer advantages over community care in terms of enhancing outcomes or in the long-term prevention of suicidal behavior among individuals with BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Paris J | s2cid = 28921269 | title = Is hospitalization useful for suicidal patients with borderline personality disorder? | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 240–247 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15237044 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.18.3.240.35443 }}</ref>

===Psychotherapy===
[[File:Dialectical Behavior Therapy Cycle EN.jpg|thumb|right|The stages used in [[dialectical behavior therapy]]]]Long-term, consistent psychotherapy stands as the preferred method for treating BPD and engagement in any therapeutic approach tends to surpass the absence of treatment, particularly in diminishing self-harm impulses.<ref name="BPD_therapies">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC | title = Psychotherapy of borderline personality disorder | journal = Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica | volume = 120 | issue = 5 | pages = 373–377 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19807718 | pmc = 3876885 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01448.x }}</ref> Among the effective psychotherapeutic approaches, dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) and [[psychodynamic]] therapies have shown efficacy, although improvements may require extensive time, often years of dedicated effort.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cristea IA, Gentili C, Cotet CD, Palomba D, Barbui C, Cuijpers P | title = Efficacy of Psychotherapies for Borderline Personality Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal = JAMA Psychiatry | volume = 74 | issue = 4 | pages = 319–328 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28249086 | doi = 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.4287 | hdl = 1871.1/845f5460-273e-4150-b79d-159f37aa36a0 | s2cid = 30118081 | url = https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/845f5460-273e-4150-b79d-159f37aa36a0 | access-date = 12 December 2019 | archive-date = 4 December 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232025/https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/efficacy-of-psychotherapy-for-borderline-personality-disorder-a-s | url-status = live | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

Available treatments for BPD include [[dynamic deconstructive psychotherapy]] (DDP),<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Gabbard GO | date = 2014 | title = Psychodynamic psychiatry in clinical practice | edition = 5th | publisher = American Psychiatric Publishing | location = Washington, D.C. | pages = 445–448 }}</ref> [[mentalization-based treatment]] (MBT), transference-focused psychotherapy, dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), general psychiatric management, and [[Schema therapy|schema-focused therapy]].<ref name="Gund2011" /><ref name="Choi-Kain_2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Choi-Kain LW, Finch EF, Masland SR, Jenkins JA, Unruh BT | title = What Works in the Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder | journal = Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–30 |year = 2017 | pmid = 28331780 | pmc = 5340835 | doi = 10.1007/s40473-017-0103-z }}</ref> The effectiveness of these therapies does not significantly vary between more intensive and less intensive approaches.<ref name="LinksShah2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Links PS, Shah R, Eynan R | title = Psychotherapy for Borderline Personality Disorder: Progress and Remaining Challenges | journal = Current Psychiatry Reports | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | page = 16 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 28271272 | doi = 10.1007/s11920-017-0766-x | s2cid = 1076175 }}</ref>

[[Transference focused psychotherapy|Transference-focused psychotherapy]] is designed to mitigate absolutist thinking by encouraging individuals to express their interpretations of social interactions and their emotions, thereby fostering more nuanced and flexible categorizations.<ref name="Bliss_2014">{{cite journal| vauthors = Bliss S, McCardle M |date=1 March 2014|title=An Exploration of Common Elements in Dialectical Behavior Therapy, Mentalization Based Treatment and Transference Focused Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder|journal=Clinical Social Work Journal|volume=42|issue=1|pages=61–69|doi=10.1007/s10615-013-0456-z|s2cid=145079695|issn=0091-1674}}</ref> [[Dialectical behavior therapy]] (DBT), on the other hand, focuses on developing skills in four main areas: interpersonal communication, distress tolerance, emotional regulation, and mindfulness, aiming to equip individuals with BPD with tools to manage intense emotions and improve interpersonal relationships.<ref name="Bliss_2014" /><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Livesay WJ|chapter=Understanding Borderline Personality Disorder|title=Integrated Modular Treatment for Borderline Personality Disorder|year=2017|pages=29–38|place=Cambridge, England|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/9781107298613.004|isbn=978-1-107-29861-3|url=https://zenodo.org/record/4384573|access-date=14 March 2024|archive-date=25 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201225055919/https://zenodo.org/record/4384573|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Choi-Kain_2017" />

[[Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) targets the modification of behaviors and beliefs through problem identification related to BPD, showing efficacy in reducing anxiety, mood symptoms, suicidal ideation, and self-harming actions.<ref name="NIH2016" />

[[Mentalization-based treatment|Mentalization-based therapy]] and transference-focused psychotherapy draw from [[psychodynamic]] principles, while DBT is rooted in cognitive-behavioral principles and [[mindfulness]].<ref name="BPD_therapies" /> General psychiatric management integrates key aspects from these treatments and is seen as more accessible and less resource-intensive.<ref name="Gund2011" /> Studies suggest DBT and MBT may be particularly effective, with ongoing research into developing abbreviated forms of these therapies to enhance accessibility and reduce both financial and resource burdens on patients and providers.<ref name="DBT_vs_therapyByExperts">{{cite journal | vauthors = Linehan MM, Comtois KA, Murray AM, Brown MZ, Gallop RJ, Heard HL, Korslund KE, Tutek DA, Reynolds SK, Lindenboim N | title = Two-year randomized controlled trial and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal behaviors and borderline personality disorder | journal = Archives of General Psychiatry | volume = 63 | issue = 7 | pages = 757–766 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16818865 | doi = 10.1001/archpsyc.63.7.757 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="DBT_and_Mentalization">{{cite journal | vauthors = Paris J | title = Effectiveness of different psychotherapy approaches in the treatment of borderline personality disorder | journal = Current Psychiatry Reports | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 56–60 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20425311 | doi = 10.1007/s11920-009-0083-0 | s2cid = 19038884 }}</ref><ref name="BPD_therapies" />

[[Schema therapy|Schema-focused therapy]] considers [[List of maladaptive schemas|early maladaptive schemas]], conceptualized as organized patterns that recur throughout life in response to memories, emotions, bodily sensations, and cognitions associated with unmet childhood needs. When activated by events in the patient's life, they manifest as schema modes associated with responses such as feelings of abandonment, anger, impulsivity, self-punitiveness, or avoidance and emptiness. Schema therapy attempts to modify early maladaptive schemas and their modes with a variety of cognitive, experiential, and behavioral techniques such as cognitive restructuring, mental imagery, and behavioral experiments. It also seeks to remove some of the stigma associated with BPD by explaining to clients that most people have maladaptive schemas and modes, but that in BPD, the schemas tend to be more extreme, while the modes shift more frequently. In schema therapy, the [[therapeutic alliance]] is based on the concept of limited reparenting: it does not only facilitate treatment, but is an integral part of it as the therapist seeks to model a healthy relationship that counteracts some of the instability, rejection, and deprivation often experienced early in life by BPD patients while helping them develop similarly healthy relationships in their broader personal lives.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Young |first1=Jeffrey E |title=Schema Therapy: A Practitioner's Guide |last2=Klosko |first2=Janet S |last3=Weishaar |first3=Marjorie E |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=9781593853723 |location=New York |pages=306–372 |chapter=Schema Therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder}}</ref>

Additionally, [[mindfulness meditation]] has been associated with positive structural changes in the brain and improvements in BPD symptoms, with some participants in mindfulness-based interventions no longer meeting the diagnostic criteria for BPD after treatment.<ref name="Mindfulness_neuroscience">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tang YY, Posner MI | title = Special issue on mindfulness neuroscience | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–3 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 22956677 | pmc = 3541496 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nss104 }}</ref><ref name="Mindfulness_mechanisms">{{cite journal | vauthors = Posner MI, Tang YY, Lynch G | title = Mechanisms of white matter change induced by meditation training | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 5 | issue = 1220 | page = 1220 |year = 2014 | pmid = 25386155 | pmc = 4209813 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01220 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Mindfulness_therapies">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chafos VH, Economou P |date=October 2014 |title=Beyond borderline personality disorder: the mindful brain |journal=Social Work |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=297–302 |doi=10.1093/sw/swu030 |pmid=25365830 |s2cid=14256504}}</ref><ref name="Mindfulness_BPD">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sachse S, Keville S, Feigenbaum J |date=June 2011 |title=A feasibility study of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for individuals with borderline personality disorder |journal=Psychology and Psychotherapy |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=184–200 |doi=10.1348/147608310X516387 |pmid=22903856}}</ref>

===Medications===
A 2010 [[Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] review found that no medications were effective for the core symptoms of BPD, such as chronic feelings of emptiness, identity disturbances, and fears of abandonment. Some medications might impact isolated symptoms of BPD or those of comorbid conditions.<ref name="Stoffers">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stoffers J, Völlm BA, Rücker G, Timmer A, Huband N, Lieb K | title = Pharmacological interventions for borderline personality disorder | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 6 | page = CD005653 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20556762 | pmc = 4169794 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD005653.pub2 }}</ref> Later reviews in 2017 and 2020 confirmed these findings, with the latter noting a decline in research into medications for BPD treatment and mostly negative results.<ref name="Drugs2017rev">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hancock-Johnson E, Griffiths C, Picchioni M | title = A Focused Systematic Review of Pharmacological Treatment for Borderline Personality Disorder | journal = CNS Drugs | volume = 31 | issue = 5 | pages = 345–356 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28353141 | doi = 10.1007/s40263-017-0425-0 | s2cid = 207486732 }}</ref> [[Quetiapine]] showed some benefits for BPD severity, psychosocial impairment, aggression, and manic symptoms at doses of 150 mg/day to 300 mg/day. Despite the lack of evidence, [[SSRIs]] are still frequently prescribed for BPD.<ref name="stofferswinterling20">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stoffers-Winterling J, Storebø OJ, Lieb K |year=2020 |title=Pharmacotherapy for Borderline Personality Disorder: an Update of Published, Unpublished and Ongoing Studies |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11920-020-01164-1.pdf |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |volume=22 |issue=37 |page=37 |doi=10.1007/s11920-020-01164-1 |pmc=7275094 |pmid=32504127 |doi-access=free |access-date=30 May 2021 |archive-date=4 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504162542/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11920-020-01164-1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Specific medications have shown varied effectiveness on BPD symptoms: [[haloperidol]] and [[flupenthixol]] for anger and suicidal behavior reduction; [[aripiprazole]] for decreased impulsivity and interpersonal problems;<ref name=Stoffers/> and [[olanzapine]] and quetiapine for reducing affective instability, anger, and anxiety, though olanzapine showed less benefit for suicidal ideation than a placebo.<ref name="Stoffers" /><ref name="Drugs2017rev" /> Mood stabilizers like [[valproate]] and [[topiramate]] showed some improvements in depression, impulsivity, and anger, but the effect of [[carbamazepine]] was not significant. Of the [[antidepressant]]s, [[amitriptyline]] may reduce depression, but [[mianserin]], [[fluoxetine]], [[fluvoxamine]], and [[phenelzine]] sulfate showed no effect. [[Omega-3 fatty acid]] may ameliorate suicidality and improve depression. {{as of|2017}}, trials with these medications had not been replicated and the effect of long-term use had not been assessed.<ref name="Stoffers" /><ref name="Drugs2017rev" /> [[Lamotrigine]]<ref name="stofferswinterling20" /> and other medications like IV ketamine<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Purohith AN, Chatorikar SA, Nagaraj AK, Soman S |date = December 2021 |title=Ketamine for non-suicidal self-harm in borderline personality disorder with co-morbid recurrent depression: A case report |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders Reports |volume=6 |pages=100280 |doi=10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100280 |issn=2666-9153|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen KS, Dwivedi Y, Shelton RC |date=October 2022 |title=The effect of IV ketamine in patients with major depressive disorder and elevated features of borderline personality disorder |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |volume=315 |pages=13–16 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2022.07.054 |pmid=35905793 |s2cid=251117957 |doi-access=free}}</ref> for unresponsive depression require further research for their effects on BPD.

Given the weak evidence and potential for serious side effects, the UK [[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]] (NICE) recommends against using drugs specifically for BPD or its associated behaviors and symptoms. Medications may be considered for treating comorbid conditions within a broader treatment plan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/12125/42900/42900.pdf|publisher=UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) |title=2009 clinical guideline for the treatment and management of BPD|access-date=6 September 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618094650/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/12125/42900/42900.pdf|archive-date=18 June 2012}}</ref> Reviews suggest minimizing the use of medications for BPD to very low doses and short durations, emphasizing the need for careful evaluation and management of drug treatment in BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crawford MJ, Sanatinia R, Barrett B, Cunningham G, Dale O, Ganguli P, Lawrence-Smith G, Leeson V, Lemonsky F, Lykomitrou G, Montgomery AA, Morriss R, Munjiza J, Paton C, Skorodzien I, Singh V, Tan W, Tyrer P, Reilly JG | title = The Clinical Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of Lamotrigine in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 175 | issue = 8 | pages = 756–764 | date = August 2018 | pmid = 29621901 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17091006 | s2cid = 4588378 | doi-access = free | hdl = 10044/1/57265 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cattarinussi G, Delvecchio G, Prunas C, Moltrasio C, Brambilla P | title = Effects of pharmacological treatments on emotional tasks in borderline personality disorder: A review of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies | journal = Journal of Affective Disorders | volume = 288 | pages = 50–57 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 33839558 | doi = 10.1016/j.jad.2021.03.088 | s2cid = 233211413 }}</ref>

===Health care services===
The disparity between those benefiting from treatment and those receiving it, known as the "treatment gap," arises from several factors. These include reluctance to seek treatment, healthcare providers' underdiagnosis, and limited availability and accessibility to advanced treatments.<ref name="BPD Article">{{cite news| vauthors = Johnson RS |title=Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder|url=http://bpdfamily.com/content/treatment-borderline-personality-disorder|publisher=[[BPDFamily.com]]|date=26 July 2014|access-date=5 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714183908/http://bpdfamily.com/content/treatment-borderline-personality-disorder|archive-date=14 July 2014}}</ref> Furthermore, establishing clear pathways to services and medical care remains a challenge, complicating access to treatment for individuals with BPD. Despite efforts, many healthcare providers lack the training or resources to address severe BPD effectively, an issue acknowledged by both affected individuals and medical professionals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Friesen L, Gaine G, Klaver E, Burback L, Agyapong V | title = Key stakeholders' experiences and expectations of the care system for individuals affected by borderline personality disorder: An interpretative phenomenological analysis towards co-production of care | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 17 | issue = 9 | pages = e0274197 | date = 2022-09-22 | pmid = 36137103 | pmc = 9499299 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0274197 | bibcode = 2022PLoSO..1774197F | doi-access = free }}</ref>

In the context of psychiatric hospitalizations, individuals with BPD constitute approximately 20% of admissions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Khera GS, Bleichmar J | title = Treatment histories of borderline inpatients | journal = Comprehensive Psychiatry | volume = 42 | issue = 2 | pages = 144–150 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11244151 | doi = 10.1053/comp.2001.19749 }}</ref> While many engage in outpatient treatment consistently over several years, reliance on more restrictive and expensive treatment options, such as inpatient admission, tends to decrease over time.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Hennen J, Silk KR | title = Mental health service utilization by borderline personality disorder patients and Axis II comparison subjects followed prospectively for 6 years | journal = The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry | volume = 65 | issue = 1 | pages = 28–36 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14744165 | doi = 10.4088/JCP.v65n0105 }}</ref>

Service experiences vary among individuals with BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fallon P | title = Travelling through the system: the lived experience of people with borderline personality disorder in contact with psychiatric services | journal = Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 393–401 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12887630 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2850.2003.00617.x }}</ref> Assessing suicide risk poses a challenge for clinicians, with patients underestimating the lethality of self-harm behaviors. The suicide risk among people with BPD is significantly higher than that of the general population, characterized by a history of multiple suicide attempts during crises.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Links PS, Bergmans Y, Warwar SH |date=1 July 2004 |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/assessing-suicide-risk-patients-borderline-personality-disorder |title=Assessing Suicide Risk in Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder |journal=Psychiatric Times |series=Psychiatric Times Vol 21 No 8 |volume=21 |issue=8 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821210809/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/assessing-suicide-risk-patients-borderline-personality-disorder |archive-date=21 August 2013 }}</ref> Notably, about half of all individuals who commit suicide are diagnosed with a personality disorder, with BPD being the most common association.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lieb K, Zanarini MC, Schmahl C, Linehan MM, Bohus M | title = Borderline personality disorder | journal = Lancet | volume = 364 | issue = 9432 | pages = 453–461 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15288745 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16770-6 | s2cid = 54280127 }}</ref>

In 2014, following the death by suicide of a patient with BPD, the [[National Health Service]] (NHS) in England faced criticism from a coroner for the lack of commissioned services to support individuals with BPD. It was stated that 45% of female patients were diagnosed with BPD, yet there was no provision or prioritization for therapeutic psychological services. At that time, England had only 60 specialized inpatient beds for BPD patients, all located in London or the northeast region.<ref>{{cite news|title=National leaders warned over lack of services for personality disorders|url=https://www.hsj.co.uk/mersey-care-nhs-trust/national-leaders-warned-over-lack-of-services-for-personality-disorders/7020669.article|access-date=22 December 2017|work=Health Service Journal|date=29 September 2017|archive-date=23 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223102152/https://www.hsj.co.uk/mersey-care-nhs-trust/national-leaders-warned-over-lack-of-services-for-personality-disorders/7020669.article|url-status=live}}{{subscription required|s}}</ref>

==Prognosis==
With treatment, the majority of people with BPD can find relief from distressing symptoms and achieve [[Remission (medicine)|remission]], defined as a consistent relief from symptoms for at least two years.<ref name="longitudinal_remission">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Hennen J, Silk KR | title = The longitudinal course of borderline psychopathology: 6-year prospective follow-up of the phenomenology of borderline personality disorder | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 160 | issue = 2 | pages = 274–283 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12562573 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.274 }}</ref><ref name=PToverview/> A [[longitudinal study]] tracking the symptoms of people with BPD found that 34.5% achieved remission within two years from the beginning of the study. Within four years, 49.4% had achieved remission, and within six years, 68.6% had achieved remission. By the end of the study, 73.5% of participants were found to be in remission.<ref name=longitudinal_remission /> Moreover, of those who achieved recovery from symptoms, only 5.9% experienced recurrences. A later study found that ten years from baseline (during a hospitalization), 86% of patients had sustained a stable recovery from symptoms.<ref name="Treatment">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Reich DB, Fitzmaurice G | title = Time to attainment of recovery from borderline personality disorder and stability of recovery: A 10-year prospective follow-up study | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 167 | issue = 6 | pages = 663–667 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20395399 | pmc = 3203735 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081130}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|title=Long-Term Study of Borderline Personality Disorder Shows Importance of Measuring Real-World Outcomes |url= http://www.mclean.harvard.edu/news/press/current.php?kw=long-term-study-borderline-personality-disorder-shows-importance-measuring&id=153 |date=15 April 2010 |location=Arlington, Virginia |publisher=[[McLean Hospital]] |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=8 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130608092738/http://www.mclean.harvard.edu/news/press/current.php?kw=long-term-study-borderline-personality-disorder-shows-importance-measuring&id=153 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Patient personality can play an important role during the therapeutic process, leading to better clinical outcomes. Recent research has shown that BPD patients undergoing dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) exhibit better clinical outcomes correlated with higher levels of the trait of agreeableness in the patient, compared to patients either low in agreeableness or not being treated with DBT. This association was mediated through the strength of a working alliance between patient and therapist; that is, more agreeable patients developed stronger working alliances with their therapists, which in turn, led to better clinical outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hirsh JB, Quilty LC, Bagby RM, McMain SF | s2cid = 33621688 | title = The relationship between agreeableness and the development of the working alliance in patients with borderline personality disorder | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 616–627 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22867511 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.2012.26.4.616 }}</ref>

In addition to recovering from distressing symptoms, people with BPD can also achieve high levels of [[psychosocial]] functioning. A longitudinal study tracking the social and work abilities of participants with BPD found that six years after diagnosis, 56% of participants had good function in work and social environments, compared to 26% of participants when they were first diagnosed. Vocational achievement was generally more limited, even compared to those with other personality disorders. However, those whose symptoms had remitted were significantly more likely to have good relationships with a romantic partner and at least one parent, good performance at work and school, a sustained work and school history, and good psychosocial functioning overall.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Hennen J, Reich DB, Silk KR | title = Psychosocial functioning of borderline patients and axis II comparison subjects followed prospectively for six years | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–29 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15899718 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.19.1.19.62178 }}</ref>

==Epidemiology==
BPD has a [[point prevalence]] of 1.6%<ref name="PToverview" /> and a [[lifetime prevalence]] of 5.9% of the global population.<ref name="Grant_2008" /><ref name="DSM53" /><ref name="NIH2016" /><ref name="Wolters Kluwer" /><ref name="nimh.nih.gov" /> Within clinical settings, the occurrence of BPD is 6.4% among urban primary care patients,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gross R, Olfson M, Gameroff M, Shea S, Feder A, Fuentes M, Lantigua R, Weissman MM | title = Borderline personality disorder in primary care | journal = Archives of Internal Medicine | volume = 162 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–60 | date = January 2002 | pmid = 11784220 | doi = 10.1001/archinte.162.1.53 }}</ref> 9.3% among psychiatric [[outpatients]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zimmerman M, Rothschild L, Chelminski I | title = The prevalence of DSM-IV personality disorders in psychiatric outpatients | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 162 | issue = 10 | pages = 1911–1918 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16199838 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.10.1911 }}</ref> and approximately 20% among psychiatric [[inpatients]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) }}</ref> Despite the high utilization of healthcare resources by individuals with BPD,<ref name="Bourke_2018" /> up to half may show significant improvement over a ten-year period with appropriate treatment.<ref name="DSM53" />

Regarding gender distribution, women are diagnosed with BPD three times more frequently than men in clinical environments.<ref name="DSM53" /><ref name="Wolters Kluwer" /> Nonetheless, [[epidemiological research]] in the United States indicates no significant gender difference in the lifetime prevalence of BPD within the general population.<ref name="Lenzenweger_2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lenzenweger MF, Lane MC, Loranger AW, Kessler RC |date=September 2007 |title=DSM-IV personality disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=62 |issue=6 |pages=553–564 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.09.019 |pmc=2044500 |pmid=17217923}}</ref><ref name="Grant_2008" /> This finding implies that women with BPD may be more inclined to seek treatment compared to men. Studies examining BPD patients have found no significant differences in the rates of childhood trauma and levels of current psychosocial functioning between genders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnson DM, Shea MT, Yen S, Battle CL, Zlotnick C, Sanislow CA, Grilo CM, Skodol AE, Bender DS, McGlashan TH, Gunderson JG, Zanarini MC | title = Gender differences in borderline personality disorder: findings from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study | journal = Comprehensive Psychiatry | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 284–292 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12923706 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-440X(03)00090-7 | url = https://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1033&context=charles_sanislow | citeseerx = 10.1.1.644.9832 }}</ref> The relationship between BPD and ethnicity continues to be ambiguous, with divergent findings reported in the United States.<ref name="Wolters Kluwer" /> The overall prevalence of BPD in the U.S. prison population is thought to be 17%.<ref name="BPD_fact_sheet">{{cite web |year=2013 |title=BPD Fact Sheet |url=http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/understading-bpd/bpd-fact-sheet/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104231941/http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/understading-bpd/bpd-fact-sheet/ |archive-date=4 January 2013 |publisher=National Educational Alliance for Borderline Personality Disorder}}</ref> These high numbers may be related to the high frequency of substance use and [[substance use disorders]] among people with BPD, which is estimated at 38%.<ref name="BPD_fact_sheet" />

==History==
[[File:Edvard Munch - Salomé.jpg|thumb|Devaluation in [[Edvard Munch]]'s ''Salome'' (1903). Idealization and devaluation of others in personal relations is a common trait in BPD. The painter Edvard Munch depicted his new friend, the violinist [[Eva Mudocci]], in both ways within days. First as "a woman seen by a man in love", then as "a bloodthirsty and [[Human cannibalism|cannibalistic]] [[Salome]]".<ref name="Ed1990">{{cite book|title=Edvard Munch : the life of a person with borderline personality as seen through his art|date=1990|publisher=Lundbeck Pharma A/S|location=[Danmark]|isbn=978-87-983524-1-9|pages=34–35}}</ref> In modern times, Munch has been diagnosed as having had BPD.<ref>{{cite book | author-link = James F. Masterson | vauthors = Masterson JF | title = Search for the Real Self. Unmasking The Personality Disorders Of Our Age | chapter = Chapter 12: The Creative Solution: Sartre, Munch, and Wolfe | pages = 208–230, especially 212–213 | publisher = Simon and Schuster | location = New York | date = 1988 | isbn = 978-1-4516-6891-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Aarkrog T | title = Edvard Munch: the life of a person with borderline personality as seen through his art | publisher = Lundbeck Pharma A/S | location = Denmark | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-87-983524-1-9 }}</ref>]]
The coexistence of intense, divergent moods within an individual was recognized by [[Homer]], [[Hippocrates]], and [[Aretaeus of Cappadocia|Aretaeus]], the latter describing the vacillating presence of impulsive anger, [[melancholia]], and [[mania]] within a single person. The concept was revived by Swiss physician Théophile Bonet in 1684 who, using the term ''folie maniaco-mélancolique'',<ref>{{Harvnb|Millon|Grossman|Meagher|2004|p=172}}</ref> described the phenomenon of unstable moods that followed an unpredictable course. Other writers noted the same pattern, including the American psychiatrist Charles H. Hughes in 1884 and J. C. Rosse in 1890, who called the disorder "borderline insanity".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hughes CH |year=1884 |title=Borderline psychiatric records – prodromal symptoms of psychical impairments |journal=Alienists & Neurology |volume=5 |pages=85–90 |oclc=773814725 }}</ref> In 1921, [[Emil Kraepelin]] identified an "excitable personality" that closely parallels the borderline features outlined in the current concept of BPD.<ref name="millon">{{Harvnb|Millon|1996|pp= 645–690}}</ref>

The idea that there were forms of disorder that were neither psychotic nor simply neurotic began to be discussed in psychoanalytic circles in the 1930s.<ref name="David W Jones history of borderline">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jones DW |title=A history of borderline: disorder at the heart of psychiatry |journal=Journal of Psychosocial Studies |date=1 August 2023 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=117–134 |doi=10.1332/147867323X16871713092130 |s2cid=259893398 |url=https://oro.open.ac.uk/90946/1/90946.pdf |access-date=25 September 2023 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The first formal definition of borderline disorder is widely acknowledged to have been written by [[Adolph Stern]] in 1938.<ref name="stern">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stern A |year= 1938 |title= Psychoanalytic investigation of and therapy in the borderline group of neuroses |journal= Psychoanalytic Quarterly |volume= 7 |issue= 4 |pages= 467–489 |doi= 10.1080/21674086.1938.11925367 }}</ref><ref name="alberto">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stefana A |year= 2015 |title= Adolph Stern, father of term 'borderline personality' |journal= Minerva Psichiatrica |volume= 56 |issue=2 |pages= 95 }}</ref> He described a group of patients who he felt to be on the ''borderline'' between [[neurosis]] and [[psychosis]], who very often came from family backgrounds marked by trauma. He argued that such patients would often need more active support than that provided by classical psychoanalytic techniques.

The 1960s and 1970s saw a shift from thinking of the condition as [[Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia|borderline schizophrenia]] to thinking of it as a borderline affective disorder (mood disorder), on the fringes of bipolar disorder, [[cyclothymia]], and [[dysthymia]]. In the [[DSM-II]], stressing the intensity and variability of moods, it was called [[cyclothymic personality]] (affective personality).<ref name="DSM-IV-TR"/> While the term "borderline" was evolving to refer to a distinct category of disorder, psychoanalysts such as [[Otto Kernberg]] were using it to refer to a broad [[Spectrum disorder|spectrum]] of issues, describing an intermediate level of personality organization<ref name="millon"/> between neurosis and psychosis.<ref name="pmid3898174">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aronson TA | title = Historical perspectives on the borderline concept: a review and critique | journal = Psychiatry | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | pages = 209–222 | date = August 1985 | pmid = 3898174 | doi = 10.1080/00332747.1985.11024282 }}</ref>

After standardized criteria were developed<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gunderson JG, Kolb JE, Austin V | title = The diagnostic interview for borderline patients | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 138 | issue = 7 | pages = 896–903 | date = July 1981 | pmid = 7258348 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.138.7.896 }}</ref> to distinguish it from mood disorders and other Axis I disorders, BPD became a personality disorder diagnosis in 1980 with the publication of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-III]].<ref name="PToverview">{{cite web | vauthors = Oldham JM | date = July 2004 |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/borderline-personality-disorder-overview-0 |title=Borderline Personality Disorder: An Overview |work=Psychiatric Times |volume=XXI |issue=8 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021180803/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/borderline-personality-disorder-overview-0 |archive-date=21 October 2013 }}</ref> The diagnosis was distinguished from sub-syndromal schizophrenia, which was termed "schizotypal personality disorder".<ref name=pmid3898174/> The DSM-IV Axis II Work Group of the American Psychiatric Association finally decided on the name "borderline personality disorder", which is still in use by the DSM-5.<ref name="DSM53"/> However, the term "borderline" has been described as uniquely inadequate for describing the symptoms characteristic of this disorder.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Stone MH |year=2005 |chapter=Borderline Personality Disorder: History of the Concept | veditors = Zanarini MC |title=Borderline personality disorder |pages=1–18 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0-8247-2928-8}}</ref>

===Etymology===
Earlier versions of the DSM—before the multiaxial diagnosis system—classified most people with mental health problems into two categories: the [[Psychosis|psychotics]] and the [[Neurosis|neurotics]]. Clinicians noted a certain class of neurotics who, when in crisis, appeared to straddle the borderline into psychosis.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Moll T |title=Mental Health Primer |isbn=978-1-7205-1057-4 |page=43|date=29 May 2018 |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform }}</ref> The term "borderline personality disorder" was coined in American psychiatry in the 1960s. It became the preferred term over a number of competing names, such as "emotionally unstable character disorder" and "borderline schizophrenia" during the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Psychopharmacology Bulletin |date=1966 |publisher=The Clearinghouse |page=555 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kOnSecueiYC&pg=PA555 |access-date=5 June 2020 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232024/https://books.google.com/books?id=_kOnSecueiYC&pg=PA555 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Spitzer RL, Endicott J, Gibbon M | title = Crossing the border into borderline personality and borderline schizophrenia. The development of criteria | journal = Archives of General Psychiatry | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–24 | date = January 1979 | pmid = 760694 | doi = 10.1001/archpsyc.1979.01780010023001 }}</ref> Borderline personality disorder was included in DSM-III (1980) despite not being universally recognized as a valid diagnosis.<ref>Harold Merskey, ''Psychiatric Illness: Diagnosis, Management and Treatment for General Practitioners and Students'', Baillière Tindall (1980), p. 415. "Borderline personality disorder is a very controversial and confusing American term, best avoided.</ref>

==Controversies==

===Credibility and validity of testimony===
The credibility of individuals with personality disorders has been questioned at least since the 1960s.<ref name="Goodwin">{{cite book| vauthors = Goodwin J | veditors = Kluft RP |title=Childhood antecedents of multiple personality|date=1985|publisher=American Psychiatric Press|isbn=978-0-88048-082-6|chapter=Chapter 1: Credibility problems in multiple personality disorder patients and abused children|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/childhoodanteced00kluf|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/childhoodanteced00kluf}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Two concerns are the incidence of [[dissociation (psychology)|dissociation episodes]] among people with BPD and the belief that lying is not uncommon in those diagnosed with the condition.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dike CC, Baranoski M, Griffith EE | title = Pathological lying revisited | journal = The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | pages = 342–349 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16186198 | url = https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=43902f103c5ab7f664c1fdfe6b2bcb7743f9bcdb | access-date = 10 January 2023 | archive-date = 10 January 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230110160409/https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=43902f103c5ab7f664c1fdfe6b2bcb7743f9bcdb | url-status = live }}</ref>

====Dissociation====
Researchers disagree about whether dissociation, or a sense of [[emotional detachment]] and physical experiences, impacts the ability of people with BPD to recall the specifics of past events. A 1999 study reported that the specificity of [[autobiographical memory]] was decreased in BPD patients.<ref name="Startup">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones B, Heard H, Startup M, Swales M, Williams JM, Jones RS | title = Autobiographical memory and dissociation in borderline personality disorder | journal = Psychological Medicine | volume = 29 | issue = 6 | pages = 1397–1404 | date = November 1999 | pmid = 10616945 | doi = 10.1017/S0033291799001208 | s2cid = 19211244 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The researchers found that decreased ability to recall specifics was correlated with patients' levels of dissociation, which 'may help them to avoid [[episodic memory|episodic]] information that would evoke acutely negative [[affect (psychology)|affect]]'.<ref name = "Startup" />

====Lying as a feature====
Some theorists argue that patients with BPD often lie. However, others write that they have rarely seen lying among patients with BPD in clinical practice.<ref name="Linehan 1993, p.17">{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=17}}</ref>

===Gender===
{{seealso|Gender differences in suicide}}

In a clinic, up to 80% of patients are women, but this might not necessarily reflect the gender distribution in the entire population.<ref>{{cite book |title=Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder: A Guide to Evidence-Based Practice |vauthors=Paris J |publisher=The Guilford Press |year=2008 |page=21}}</ref> According to Joel Paris, the primary reason for gender disparities in clinical settings is that women are more likely to develop symptoms that prompt them to seek help. Statistics indicate that twice as many women as men in the community experience depression. Conversely, men more frequently meet criteria for [[substance use disorder]] and [[psychopathy]], but tend not to seek treatment as often. Other researchers have suggested that differences in gender preponderance of BPD may emerge due to men being more likely than women to be diagnosed with other overlapping conditions, such as ASD <ref>{{cite journal| volume = 57| issue = 2| pages = 181–196| vauthors = Gillett G, Leaves L, Patel A, Prisecaru A, Spain D, Happe F | title = The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder traits and diagnosis in adults and young people with personality disorders: A systematic review| journal = Aust N Z J Psychiatry| access-date = 29 August 2024| year = 2023| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9896258/}}</ref>.

Additionally, men and women with similar symptoms may manifest them differently. Men often exhibit behaviors such as increased alcohol consumption and criminal activity, while women may internalize anger, leading to conditions like depression and self-harm, such as cutting or overdosing. Hence, the gender gap observed in [[antisocial personality disorder]] and borderline personality disorder, which may share similar underlying pathologies but present different symptoms influenced by gender. In a study examining completed suicides among individuals aged 18 to 35, 30% of the suicides were attributed to people with BPD, with a majority being men and almost none receiving treatment. Similar findings were reported in another study.<ref name="Paris J 2008 21–22" />

In short, men are less likely to seek or accept appropriate treatment, more likely to be treated for symptoms of BPD such as substance use rather than BPD itself (the symptoms of BPD and ASPD possibly deriving from a similar underlying etiology); more likely to wind up in the correctional system due to criminal behavior; and, more likely to commit suicide prior to diagnosis.

Among men diagnosed with BPD there is also evidence of a higher suicide rate: "men are more than twice as likely as women—18 percent versus 8 percent"—to die by suicide.<ref name="Kreisman J, Strauss H 2004 206">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/sometimesiactcra00jero |title=Sometimes I Act Crazy. Living With Borderline Personality Disorder |vauthors=Kreisman J, Strauss H |publisher=Wiley & Sons |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-22286-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sometimesiactcra00jero/page/206 206] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

There are also sex differences in borderline personality disorder.<ref name="Sansone_2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sansone RA, Sansone LA | title = Gender patterns in borderline personality disorder | journal = Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 16–20 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21686143 | pmc = 3115767 }}</ref> Men with BPD are more likely to recreationally use substances, have explosive temper, high levels of [[novelty seeking]] and have (especially) antisocial, [[Narcissism|narcissistic]], passive-aggressive or sadistic personality traits (male BPD being characterised by antisocial overtones<ref name="Sansone_2011" />). Women with BPD are more likely to have eating disorders, mood disorders, anxiety and post-traumatic stress.<ref name="Sansone_2011" />

===Manipulative behavior===
{{undue weight section|date=June 2023|to=a single source's interpretation of manipulative behavior as unintentional, implying that this correctly describes all people with BPD}}

[[Manipulation (psychology)|Manipulative behavior]] to obtain nurturance is considered by the [[diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders#DSM-IV-TR (2000)|DSM-IV-TR]] and many mental health professionals to be a defining characteristic of borderline personality disorder.<ref>{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2000|page=705}}</ref> In one research study, 88% of therapists reported that they have experienced manipulation attempts from patient(s).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mandal E, Kocur D |date=2013 |title=Psychological masculinity, femininity and tactics of manipulation in patients with borderline personality disorder |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259344581 |journal=Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy |language=en |issue=1 |pages=45–53 |issn=2083-828X |access-date=14 March 2024 |archive-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314152609/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259344581_Psychological_masculinity_femininity_and_tactics_of_manipulation_in_patients_with_borderline_personality_disorder |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Marsha Linehan]] has argued that doing so relies upon the assumption that people with BPD who communicate intense pain, or who engage in self-harm and suicidal behavior, do so with the intention of influencing the behavior of others.<ref name = Linehanp14>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=14}}</ref> The impact of such behavior on others—often an intense emotional reaction in concerned friends, family members, and therapists—is thus assumed to have been the person's intention.<ref name = Linehanp14/>

According to Linehan, their frequent expressions of intense pain, self-harming, or suicidal behavior may instead represent a method of mood regulation or an escape mechanism from situations that feel unbearable, however, making their assumed manipulative behavior an involuntary and unintentional response.<ref>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=15}}</ref>

One paper identified possible reasons for manipulation in BPD: identifying others feelings and reactions, a regulatory function due to insecurity, to communicate ones emotions and connect to others, or to feel as if one is in control, or to allow them to be "liberated" from relationships or commitments.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schmidt P |date=2021-12-01 |title=Crossing the Lines: Manipulation, Social Impairment, and a Challenging Emotional Life |url=https://journals.openedition.org/phenomenology/312#tocto2n1 |journal=Phenomenology and Mind |language=en |issue=21 |pages=62–72 |doi=10.17454/pam-2105 |issn=2280-7853 |access-date=14 March 2024 |archive-date=5 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240305210156/https://journals.openedition.org/phenomenology/312#tocto2n1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Stigma===
The features of BPD include: emotional instability, intense and unstable interpersonal relationships, a need for intimacy, and a fear of rejection. As a result, people with BPD often evoke intense emotions in those around them. Pejorative terms to describe people with BPD, such as "difficult", "treatment resistant", "manipulative", "demanding", and "[[attention seeking]]", are often used and may become a [[self-fulfilling prophecy]], as negative treatment of these individuals may trigger further self-destructive behavior.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aviram RB, Brodsky BS, Stanley B | title = Borderline personality disorder, stigma, and treatment implications | journal = Harvard Review of Psychiatry | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 249–256 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16990170 | doi = 10.1080/10673220600975121 | s2cid = 23923078 }}</ref>

Since BPD can be a stigmatizing diagnosis even within the mental health community, some survivors of childhood abuse who are diagnosed with BPD are re-traumatized by the negative responses they receive from healthcare providers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nehls N | title = Borderline personality disorder: gender stereotypes, stigma, and limited system of care | journal = Issues in Mental Health Nursing | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 97–112 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9601307 | doi = 10.1080/016128498249105 }}{{subscription required}}</ref> One camp{{Who|date=June 2023}} argues that it would be better to diagnose these men or women with post-traumatic stress disorder, as this would acknowledge the impact of abuse on their behavior.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} Critics of the PTSD diagnosis argue that it medicalizes abuse rather than addressing the root causes in society.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Becker D | title = When she was bad: borderline personality disorder in a posttraumatic age | journal = The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry | volume = 70 | issue = 4 | pages = 422–432 | date = October 2000 | pmid = 11086521 | doi = 10.1037/h0087769 }}</ref> Regardless, a diagnosis of PTSD does not encompass all aspects of the disorder (see [[#Brain abnormalities|brain abnormalities]] and [[#Terminology|terminology]]).

====Physical violence====
The stigma surrounding borderline personality disorder includes the belief that people with BPD are prone to violence toward others.<ref name=Chapman_31>{{harvnb|Chapman|Gratz|2007|page=31}}</ref> While movies and visual media often sensationalize people with BPD by portraying them as violent, the majority of researchers agree that people with BPD are unlikely to physically harm others.<ref name="Chapman_31"/> Although people with BPD often struggle with experiences of intense anger, a defining characteristic of BPD is that they direct it inward toward themselves.<ref name=Chapman_32>{{harvnb|Chapman|Gratz|2007|page=32}}</ref>

One 2020 study found that BPD is individually associated with psychological, physical and sexual forms of intimate partner violence (IPV), especially amongst men.<ref name=MunroMartin>{{cite journal | vauthors = Munro OE, Sellbom M | title = Elucidating the relationship between borderline personality disorder and intimate partner violence | journal = Personality and Mental Health | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 284–303 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32162499 | doi = 10.1002/pmh.1480 | s2cid = 212677723 | hdl = 10523/10488 }}</ref> In terms of the AMPD trait facets, hostility (negative affectivity), suspiciousness (negative affectivity) and risk taking (disinhibition) were most strongly associated with IPV perpetration for the total sample.<ref name=MunroMartin/>

In addition, adults with BPD have often experienced abuse in childhood, so many people with BPD adopt a "no-tolerance" policy toward expressions of anger of any kind.<ref name=Chapman_32/> Their extreme aversion to violence can cause many people with BPD to overcompensate and experience difficulties being assertive and expressing their needs.<ref name=Chapman_32/> This is one reason why people with BPD often choose to harm themselves over potentially causing harm to others.<ref name=Chapman_32/><ref name=reasons_NSSI /><ref name="Chapman_31"/>

====Mental health care providers====

People with BPD are considered to be among the most challenging groups of patients to work with in therapy, requiring a high level of skill and training for the psychiatrists, therapists, and nurses involved in their treatment.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hinshelwood RD | author-link=R. D. Hinshelwood | title = The difficult patient. The role of 'scientific psychiatry' in understanding patients with chronic schizophrenia or severe personality disorder | journal = The British Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 174 | issue = 3 | pages = 187–190 | date = March 1999 | pmid = 10448440 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.174.3.187 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A majority of psychiatric staff report finding individuals with BPD moderately to extremely difficult to work with and more difficult than other client groups.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cleary M, Siegfried N, Walter G | title = Experience, knowledge and attitudes of mental health staff regarding clients with a borderline personality disorder | journal = International Journal of Mental Health Nursing | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 186–191 | date = September 2002 | pmid = 12510596 | doi = 10.1046/j.1440-0979.2002.00246.x }}</ref> This largely negative view of BPD can result in people with BPD being terminated from treatment early, being provided harmful treatment, not being informed of their diagnosis of BPD, or being misdiagnosed.<ref name="Campbell_2020">{{cite journal| vauthors = Campbell K, Clarke KA, Massey D, Lakeman R |date=19 May 2020|title=Borderline Personality Disorder: To diagnose or not to diagnose? That is the question |journal=International Journal of Mental Health Nursing|volume=29|issue=5|pages=972–981|doi=10.1111/inm.12737|pmid=32426937|s2cid=218690798|issn=1445-8330}}</ref> With healthcare providers contributing to the stigma of a BPD diagnosis, seeking treatment can often result in the perpetuation of BPD features.<ref name="Campbell_2020" /> Efforts are ongoing to improve public and staff attitudes toward people with BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Deans C, Meocevic E | title = Attitudes of registered psychiatric nurses towards patients diagnosed with borderline personality disorder | journal = Contemporary Nurse | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 43–49 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16594881 | doi = 10.5172/conu.2006.21.1.43 | s2cid = 20500743 | hdl = 1959.17/66356 | url = https://researchonline.federation.edu.au/vital/access/services/Download/vital:236/DS1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Krawitz R | title = Borderline personality disorder: attitudinal change following training | journal = The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 38 | issue = 7 | pages = 554–559 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15255829 | doi = 10.1111/j.1440-1614.2004.01409.x }}</ref>

In psychoanalytic theory, the [[Stigma (sociological theory)|stigmatization]] among mental health care providers may be thought to reflect [[countertransference]] (when a therapist projects his or her own feelings on to a client). This inadvertent countertransference can give rise to inappropriate clinical responses, including excessive use of medication, inappropriate mothering, and punitive use of limit setting and interpretation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vaillant GE | title = The beginning of wisdom is never calling a patient a borderline; or, the clinical management of immature defenses in the treatment of individuals with personality disorders | journal = The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 117–134 | year = 1992 | pmid = 22700090 | pmc = 3330289 }}</ref>

Some clients feel the diagnosis is helpful, allowing them to understand that they are not alone and to connect with others with BPD who have developed helpful coping mechanisms. However, others experience the term "borderline personality disorder" as a [[pejorative]] [[labeling theory|label]] rather than an informative diagnosis. They report concerns that their self-destructive behavior is incorrectly perceived as manipulative and that the stigma surrounding this disorder limits their access to health care.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nehls N | title = Borderline personality disorder: the voice of patients | journal = Research in Nursing & Health | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 285–293 | date = August 1999 | pmid = 10435546 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1098-240X(199908)22:4<285::AID-NUR3>3.0.CO;2-R }}</ref> Indeed, mental health professionals frequently refuse to provide services to those who have received a BPD diagnosis.<ref name=Manning_ix>{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=ix}}</ref>

===Terminology===
Because of concerns around stigma, and because of a move away from the original theoretical basis for the term (see [[#History|history]]), there is ongoing debate about renaming borderline personality disorder. While some clinicians agree with the current name, others argue that it should be changed,<ref name="borderlinepersonalitytoday.com">{{cite news| vauthors = Bogod E |title=Borderline Personality Disorder Label Creates Stigma |url=http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/label.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502181810/http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/label.htm |archive-date=2 May 2015 }}</ref> since many who are labelled with borderline personality disorder find the name unhelpful, stigmatizing, or inaccurate.<ref name="borderlinepersonalitytoday.com"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tara4bpd.org/dyn/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=12 |title=Understanding Borderline Personality Disorder |publisher=Treatment and Research Advancements Association for Personality Disorder |year=2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526035257/http://www.tara4bpd.org/dyn/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=12 |archive-date=26 May 2013 }}</ref> Valerie Porr, president of Treatment and Research Advancement Association for Personality Disorders states that "the name BPD is confusing, imparts no relevant or descriptive information, and reinforces existing stigma".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tara4bpd.org/dyn/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=32&Itemid=35 |title=How Advocacy is Bringing Borderline Personality Disorder into the Light | vauthors = Porr V |year=2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020191907/http://www.tara4bpd.org/dyn/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=32&Itemid=35 |archive-date=20 October 2014 }}</ref>

Alternative suggestions for names include ''emotional regulation disorder'' or ''[[emotional dysregulation]] disorder''. ''Impulse disorder'' and ''interpersonal regulatory disorder'' are other valid alternatives, according to [[John G. Gunderson]] of [[McLean Hospital]] in the United States.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Gunderson JG, Hoffman PD |title=Understanding and Treating Borderline Personality Disorder A Guide for Professionals and Families |url=https://archive.org/details/understandingtre00john |url-access=registration |location=Arlington, Virginia |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing |year=2005|isbn=978-1-58562-135-4 }}{{Page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref> Another term suggested by psychiatrist Carolyn Quadrio is ''post traumatic personality disorganization'' (PTPD), reflecting the condition's status as (often) both a form of chronic post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as well as a personality disorder.<ref name="AxisOne/AxisTwo">{{cite journal |vauthors=Quadrio C |date=December 2005 |title=Axis One/Axis Two: A disordered borderline |journal=Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry |volume=39 |pages=A97–A153 |doi=10.1111/j.1440-1614.2005.01674_39_s1.x |url=http://med.unsw.edu.au/publication/axis-oneaxis-two-disordered-borderline |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130705153948/http://med.unsw.edu.au/publication/axis-oneaxis-two-disordered-borderline |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 July 2013 |access-date=5 July 2013 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, although many with BPD do have traumatic histories, some do not report any kind of traumatic event, which suggests that BPD is not necessarily a trauma spectrum disorder.<ref name="Gratz2007" />

The Treatment and Research Advancements National Association for Personality Disorders (TARA-APD) campaigned unsuccessfully to change the name and designation of BPD in DSM-5, published in May 2013, in which the name "borderline personality disorder" remains unchanged and it is not considered a trauma- and stressor-related disorder.<ref name="DSM-5-borderline-663">{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2013|pages=663–666}}</ref>

==Society and culture==

=== Literature ===
In literature, characters believed to exhibit signs of BPD include Catherine in ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' (1847), Smerdyakov in ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' (1880), and Harry Haller in ''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'' (1927).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Morris P |date=1 April 2013 |title=The Depiction of Trauma and its Effect on Character Development in the Brontë Fiction |journal=Brontë Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=157–168 |doi=10.1179/1474893213Z.00000000062 |s2cid=192230439}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ohi SI |date=26 October 2019 |title=Personality Disorder of Character Smerdyakov in Novel the Brother Karamazov Bu [sic] Fyodor Dostovesky (Translated by Constance Clara Garnett) |url=https://repository.ung.ac.id/skripsi/show/321412044/personality-disorder-of-character-smerdyakov-in-novel-the-brother-karamazov-bu-fyodor-dostovesky-translated-by-constance-clara-garnett.html |url-status=live |journal=Skripsi |volume=1 |issue=321412044 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213123501/https://repository.ung.ac.id/skripsi/show/321412044/personality-disorder-of-character-smerdyakov-in-novel-the-brother-karamazov-bu-fyodor-dostovesky-translated-by-constance-clara-garnett.html |archive-date=13 February 2023 |access-date=22 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXa0uEkiNbQC&q=borderline+personality+disorder+%22steppenwolf%22&pg=PA74 |title=Transpersonal Psychotherapy |vauthors=Wellings N, McCormick EW |date=1 January 2000 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4129-0802-3 |access-date=22 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314152701/https://books.google.com/books?id=RXa0uEkiNbQC&q=borderline+personality+disorder+%22steppenwolf%22&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q=borderline%20personality%20disorder%20%22steppenwolf%22&f=false |archive-date=14 March 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Film ===
Films have also attempted to portray BPD, with characters in ''[[Margot at the Wedding]]'' (2007), ''[[Mr. Nobody (film)|Mr. Nobody]]'' (2009), ''[[Cracks (film)|Cracks]]'' (2009),<ref name="RobinsonFG">{{cite book |title=The Field Guide to Personality Disorders |vauthors=Robinson DJ |publisher=Rapid Psychler Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-9680324-6-6 |page=113}}</ref> ''[[Truth (2013 film)|Truth]]'' (2013), ''[[Wounded (2013 film)|Wounded]] (2013)'', ''[[Welcome to Me]]'' (2014),<ref>{{cite news |date=7 May 2015 |title=Kristen Wiig earns awkward laughs and silence in 'Welcome to Me' |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/kristen-wiig-earns-awkward-laughs-and-silence-in-welcome-to-me/2015/05/06/c26d9b78-ef6d-11e4-8abc-d6aa3bad79dd_story.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604082145/http://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/kristen-wiig-earns-awkward-laughs-and-silence-in-welcome-to-me/2015/05/06/c26d9b78-ef6d-11e4-8abc-d6aa3bad79dd_story.html |archive-date=4 June 2015 |access-date=3 June 2015 |newspaper=The Washington Post |vauthors=O'Sullivan M}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=11 September 2014 |title=Toronto Film Review: 'Welcome to Me': Kristen Wiig plays a woman with borderline personality disorder in this startlingly inspired comedy from Shira Piven |url=https://variety.com/2014/film/festivals/toronto-film-review-welcome-to-me-1201304067/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617215603/http://variety.com/2014/film/festivals/toronto-film-review-welcome-to-me-1201304067/ |archive-date=17 June 2015 |access-date=3 June 2015 |newspaper=Variety |vauthors=Chang J}}</ref> and ''[[Tamasha (2015 film)|Tamasha]]'' (2015)<ref>{{cite web |date=9 November 2021 |title=Use Your Movie Time To Get Help With Mental Health Issues |url=https://www.femina.in/wellness/mental-health/use-your-movie-time-to-get-help-with-mental-health-issues-211072.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121130338/https://www.femina.in/wellness/mental-health/use-your-movie-time-to-get-help-with-mental-health-issues-211072.html |archive-date=21 January 2022 |access-date=21 January 2022 |website=[[Femina (India)]] |vauthors=Setia S}}</ref> all suggested to show traits of the disorder. The behavior of Theresa Dunn in ''[[Looking for Mr. Goodbar (novel)|Looking for Mr. Goodbar]]'' (1975) is consistent with BPD, as suggested by Robert O. Friedel.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Early Sea Changes in Borderline Personality Disorder |url=http://www.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=By_Illness&template=%2FContentManagement%2FContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=43145 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417050113/http://www.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=By_Illness&template=%2FContentManagement%2FContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=43145 |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 April 2009 |access-date=17 April 2009|journal=Current Psychiatry Reports|year= 2006|volume= 8|issue = 1|pages=1–4| vauthors = Friedel RO |doi = 10.1007/s11920-006-0071-6|pmid = 16513034|s2cid = 27719611|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Films like ''[[Play Misty for Me]]'' (1971)<ref name="Robinson_2003">{{cite book |title=Reel Psychiatry: Movie Portrayals of Psychiatric Conditions |vauthors=Robinson DJ |publisher=Rapid Psychler Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-894328-07-4 |location=Port Huron, Michigan |page=234}}</ref> and ''[[Girl, Interrupted (film)|Girl, Interrupted]]'' (1999, based on the [[Girl, Interrupted|memoir of the same name]]) suggest emotional instability characteristic of BPD,<ref>{{cite book |title=Movies and Mental Illness: Using Films to Understand Psychopathology |vauthors=Wedding D, Boyd MA, Niemiec RM |year=2005 |publisher=Hogrefe |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-88937-292-4 |page=59}}</ref> while ''[[Single White Female]]'' (1992) highlights aspects such as identity disturbance and fear of abandonment.<ref name="Robinson_2003" />{{rp|235}} Clementine in ''[[Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind]]'' (2004) is noted to show classic BPD behavior,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Alberini CM |date=29 October 2010|title=Long-term Memories: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly|journal=Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science|volume=2010|page=21|issn=1524-6205|pmc=3574792|pmid=23447766}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Young SD |date=14 March 2012|title=Psychology at the Movies |doi=10.1002/9781119941149|isbn=978-1-119-94114-9}}</ref> and [[Carey Mulligan]]'s portrayal in ''[[Shame (2011 film)|Shame]]'' (2011) is praised for its accuracy regarding BPD characteristics by psychiatrists.<ref name="Art of Psychiatry Shame review">{{cite news | vauthors = Seltzer A |title=''Shame'' and ''A Dangerous Method'' reviews |url= http://www.artofpsychiatry.co.uk/shame-and-a-dangerous-method-reviews/ |newspaper=The Art of Psychiatry |date=16 April 2012 |access-date=13 January 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116164632/http://www.artofpsychiatry.co.uk/shame-and-a-dangerous-method-reviews/ |archive-date=16 January 2017 }}</ref>

Psychiatrists have even analyzed characters such as Kylo Ren and Anakin Skywalker/[[Darth Vader]] from the ''[[Star Wars]]'' films, noting that they meet several diagnostic criteria for BPD.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Kelly E |date=21 November 2017|title=Crazy Ex-Girlfriend is the best depiction of mental health on television today|url=http://metro.co.uk/2017/11/21/crazy-ex-girlfriend-is-the-best-depiction-of-mental-health-on-television-today-7097094/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201033347/http://metro.co.uk/2017/11/21/crazy-ex-girlfriend-is-the-best-depiction-of-mental-health-on-television-today-7097094/|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=30 January 2018|website=Metro}}</ref>

=== Television ===
Television series like ''[[Crazy Ex-Girlfriend (TV series)|Crazy Ex-Girlfriend]]'' (2015), ''[[That '70s Show]]'' (2006), and the miniseries ''[[Maniac (miniseries)|Maniac]]'' (2018) depict characters with BPD.<ref>{{cite news|date=26 September 2018|title=Netflix's 'Maniac' Is A Trippy Ride with a Lot To Say About Mental Illness|website=Bustle|url=https://www.bustle.com/p/how-netflixs-maniac-uses-mental-illness-to-interrogate-what-it-means-to-be-normal-12019062|url-status=live|access-date=1 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302024650/https://www.bustle.com/p/how-netflixs-maniac-uses-mental-illness-to-interrogate-what-it-means-to-be-normal-12019062|archive-date=2 March 2019|vauthors=Patton R}}</ref> Traits of BPD and narcissistic personality disorders are observed in characters like [[Cersei Lannister|Cersei]] and [[Jaime Lannister]] from ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' (1996) and its TV adaptation ''[[Game of Thrones]]'' (2011).<ref>{{cite news|publisher=MTV News|title=A Therapist Explains Why Everyone on 'Game of Thrones' Has Serious Issues: Westeros is Basically A Living, Breathing Manual for Mental Illness|date=30 April 2015|vauthors=Rosenfield K|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/2146368/game-of-thrones-mental-illness/|access-date=13 May 2019|archive-date=13 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513175836/http://www.mtv.com/news/2146368/game-of-thrones-mental-illness/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In ''[[The Sopranos]]'' (1999), [[Livia Soprano]] is diagnosed with BPD,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Lavery D |title=This Thing of Ours: Investigating the Sopranos |date=2002 |publisher=Wallflower Press |page=118}}</ref> and even the portrayal of [[Bruce Wayne]]/Batman in the show ''[[Titans (2018 TV series)|Titans]]'' (2018) is said to include aspects of the disorder.<ref>{{cite web |title=Titans Gives Bruce Wayne a Psychological Diagnosis |date=26 August 2021 |url=https://www.cbr.com/titans-bruce-wayne-borderline-personality-disorder/ |access-date=9 August 2022 |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809095534/https://www.cbr.com/titans-bruce-wayne-borderline-personality-disorder/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The animated series ''[[BoJack Horseman|Bojack Horseman]]'' (2014) also features a main character with symptoms of BPD.<ref>{{cite web |last=Alvernaz |first=Adam |date=2019-01-29 |title=The Depressing Themes Hiding in Bojack Horseman's Closet |url=https://www.highlandernews.org/34540/depressing-themes-hiding-bojack-horsemans-closet/ |access-date=2024-01-04 |website=Highlander |language=en-US |archive-date=4 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104230452/https://www.highlandernews.org/34540/depressing-themes-hiding-bojack-horsemans-closet/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Awareness ===
Awareness of BPD has been growing, with the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] declaring May as Borderline Personality Disorder Awareness Month in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/awareness/awareness-files/background.shtml |title= BPD Awareness Month – Congressional History |work= BPD Today |publisher= Mental Health Today |access-date= 1 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110708083602/http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/awareness/awareness-files/background.shtml |archive-date= 8 July 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Public figures like South Korean singer-songwriter [[Lee Sunmi]] have opened up about their personal experiences with the disorder, bringing further attention to its impact on individuals' lives.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Kim E|date=16 December 2020|title=선미 고백한 '경계선 인격장애' 뭐길래?|trans-title=What is the 'borderline personality disorder' that Sunmi confessed to?|language=Korean|url=https://entertain.naver.com/ranking/read?oid=082&aid=0001052070|publisher=[[Naver TV]]|access-date=16 December 2020|archive-date=6 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206162916/https://entertain.naver.com/ranking/read?oid=082&aid=0001052070|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{clear}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Psychology}}
* [[Affective empathy]]
* [[Hysteria]]
* [[Pseudohallucination]]
* [[Obsessive love disorder]]

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== General bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |author=American Psychiatric Association |author-link=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |title-link=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-89042-025-6 |edition=4th}}
* {{cite book |author=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |title-link=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-89042-555-8 |edition=5th}}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Chapman AL, Gratz KL |year=2007 |title=The Borderline Personality Disorder Survival Guide: Everything You Need to Know About Living with BPD |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=978-1-57224-507-5}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Linehan MM, Comtois KA, Murray AM, Brown MZ, Gallop RJ, Heard HL, Korslund KE, Tutek DA, Reynolds SK, Lindenboim N |author-link1=Marsha M. Linehan |date=July 2006 |title=Two-year randomized controlled trial and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal behaviors and borderline personality disorder |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |volume=63 |issue=7 |pages=757–66 |pmid=16818865 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.63.7.757 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Linehan M |author-link=Marsha M. Linehan |year=1993 |title=Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=978-0-89862-183-9}}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Manning S |year=2011 |title=Loving Someone with Borderline Personality Disorder |publisher=The Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-59385-607-6}}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Millon T |author-link=Theodore Millon |year=1996 |title=Disorders of Personality: DSM-IV-TM and Beyond |location=New York |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-471-01186-6}}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Millon T |author-link=Theodore Millon |year=2004 |title=Personality Disorders in Modern Life |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-32355-6}}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Millon T, Grossman S, Meagher SE |author-link1=Theodore Millon |year=2004 |title=Masters of the mind: exploring the story of mental illness from ancient times to the new millennium |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-471-46985-8}}
* {{cite web |vauthors=Millon T |author-link=Theodore Millon |year=2006 |title=Personality Subtypes |url=http://millon.net/taxonomy/summary.htm |access-date=1 November 2010 |archive-date=4 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104162306/http://www.millon.net/taxonomy/summary.htm |url-status=dead |website=Institute for Advanced Studies in Personology and Psychopathology|publisher=Dicandrien, Inc. }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Borderline personality disorder}}
* {{curlie|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Personality/Borderline/}}
* {{cite web|url= http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml |publisher= [[National Institute of Mental Health]] |title= Borderline personality disorder}}
* [https://www.bpdfamily.com/content/borderline-personality-disorder APA DSM 5 Definition of Borderline personality disorder]
* [https://div12.org/psychological-treatments/disorders/borderline-personality-disorder/ APA Division 12 treatment page for Borderline personality disorder]
* [https://icd.who.int/browse10/2016/en#/F60.3 ICD-10 definition of EUPD by the World Health Organization]
* [https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/borderline-personality-disorder/overview/ NHS]
* {{cite web |url=https://borderlinesupport.org.uk |title=Borderline Support UK}}

{{Medical condition classification and resources
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|60|3|f|60}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|301.83}}
| MeshID = D001883
| ICDO =
| OMIM =
| OMIM_mult =
| MedlinePlus = 000935
| eMedicineSubj = article
| eMedicineTopic = 913575
| eMedicine_mult =
| SNOMED CT = 20010003
|ICD11={{ICD11|6D11.5}}}}
{{Borderline personality disorder}}
{{ICD-10 personality disorders}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Borderline personality disorder}}
[[Category:Borderline personality disorder| ]]
[[Category:Cluster B personality disorders]]
[[Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate]]
[[Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate]]
[[Category:Women and psychology]]

Borderline personality disorder

2024-08-29T12:40:35Z

131.111.5.201: /* Comorbid Axis I disorders */

{{Short description|Personality disorder of emotional instability}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Borderline personality disorder
| image = File:Despair Edvard Munch 1894.jpeg
| image_size =
| alt = This is a painting featuring a figure standing on a bridge, gazing down, seemingly lost in thought. The background consists of a dramatic, swirling sky with striking red, yellow, and blue colors. The figure is dressed in dark clothing, and their posture and the expression on their face convey a sense of melancholy or introspection. The contrast between the vibrant sky and the subdued figure adds to the emotional impact of the scene. The artwork has an expressive, somewhat abstract style, characteristic of Edvard Munch's work.
| caption = ''Despair'' by [[Edvard Munch]] (1894), who is presumed to have had borderline personality disorder<ref>{{cite book|title=Edvard Munch: The Life of a Person with Borderline Personality as Seen Through His Art|trans-title=Edvard Munch, et livsløb af en grænsepersonlighed forstået gennem hans billeder|isbn=978-87-983524-1-9| vauthors = Aarkrog T |year=1990|publisher=Lundbeck Pharma A/S|location=Danmark}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wylie HW | title = Edvard Munch | journal = The American Imago; A Psychoanalytic Journal for the Arts and Sciences | volume = 37 | issue = 4 | pages = 413–443 | year = 1980 | pmid = 7008567 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/26303797 | publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | jstor = 26303797 | access-date = 10 August 2021 | archive-date = 10 August 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210810104208/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26303797 | url-status = live }}</ref>
| field = [[Psychiatry]], [[clinical psychology]]
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|title={{pad}}|{{plainlist|
* Emotionally unstable personality disorder – impulsive or borderline type<ref name=Maj2005>{{cite book | vauthors = Cloninger RC | veditors = Maj M, Akiskal HS, Mezzich JE |chapter=Antisocial Personality Disorder: A Review |title=Personality disorders |date=2005 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-470-09036-7 |page=126 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fgwbCW7OQMC&pg=PA126 |access-date=5 June 2020 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232038/https://books.google.com/books?id=9fgwbCW7OQMC&pg=PA126 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Emotional intensity disorder<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Blom JD |title=A Dictionary of Hallucinations |date=2010|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4419-1223-7|page=74|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KJtQptBcZloC&pg=PA74|access-date=5 June 2020|archive-date=4 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232039/https://books.google.com/books?id=KJtQptBcZloC&pg=PA74|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Hysteria]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-07204-000|vauthors=Bollas C|title=Hysteria|publisher=Taylor & Francis|collaboration=American Psychological Association|edition=1st|date=2000|accessdate=December 14, 2022|archive-date=15 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215023801/https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-07204-000|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Hysteric personality – Hysteroid<ref name=NLM>{{cite journal | vauthors = Novais F, Araújo A, Godinho P | title = Historical roots of histrionic personality disorder | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 6 | issue = 1463 | pages = 1463 | date = 25 September 2015 | pmid = 26441812 | pmc = 4585318 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01463 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* [[Negative affectivity]]/[[neuroticism]]<ref name=ICD11>{{cite web|title=ICD-11 - ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f953246526|access-date=6 October 2021|publisher=World Health Organization|archive-date=1 August 2018|archive-url=https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f953246526|url-status=live}}</ref>
}} }}
| symptoms = Unstable [[interpersonal relationships|relationships]], distorted [[self-image|sense of self]], and intense [[affect (psychology)|emotions]]; [[impulsivity]]; recurrent suicidal and [[self-harm]]ing behavior; fear of [[abandonment (emotional)|abandonment]]; chronic feelings of [[emptiness]]; inappropriate [[anger]]; [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]]<ref name=NIH2016/><ref name="DSM53"/>
| complications = Suicide, self-harm<ref name=NIH2016/>
| onset = Early adulthood<ref name="DSM53"/>
| duration = Long term<ref name=NIH2016/>
| causes = Genetic, neurobiologic, psychosocial<ref name="Caspi McClay Moffitt Mill 2002 pp. 851–854">{{cite journal | last1=Caspi | first1=Avshalom | last2=McClay | first2=Joseph | last3=Moffitt | first3=Terrie E. | last4=Mill | first4=Jonathan | last5=Martin | first5=Judy | last6=Craig | first6=Ian W. | last7=Taylor | first7=Alan | last8=Poulton | first8=Richie | title=Role of Genotype in the Cycle of Violence in Maltreated Children | journal=Science | volume=297 | issue=5582 | date=2002-08-02 | issn=0036-8075 | doi=10.1126/science.1072290 | pages=851–854| pmid=12161658 | bibcode=2002Sci...297..851C }}</ref>
| risks =
| diagnosis = Based on reported symptoms<ref name=NIH2016/>
| differential = See [[#Differential diagnosis and comorbidity|§ Differential diagnosis]]
| prevention =
| treatment = [[Behaviour therapy]]<ref name=NIH2016/>
| medication =
| prognosis = Improves over time,<ref name="DSM53"/> remission occurs in 45% of patients over a wide range of follow-up periods<ref name="Skodol Siever Livesley Gunderson 2002 pp. 951–963">{{cite journal | last1=Skodol | first1=Andrew E | last2=Siever | first2=Larry J | last3=Livesley | first3=W.John | last4=Gunderson | first4=John G | last5=Pfohl | first5=Bruce | last6=Widiger | first6=Thomas A | title=The borderline diagnosis II: biology, genetics, and clinical course | journal=Biological Psychiatry | volume=51 | issue=12 | date=2002 | doi=10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01325-2 | pages=951–963| pmid=12062878 }}</ref><ref name="Skodol Bender Pagano Shea 2007 pp. 1102–1108">{{cite journal | last1=Skodol | first1=Andrew E. | last2=Bender | first2=Donna S. | last3=Pagano | first3=Maria E. | last4=Shea | first4=M. Tracie | last5=Yen | first5=Shirley | last6=Sanislow | first6=Charles A. | last7=Grilo | first7=Carlos M. | last8=Daversa | first8=Maria T. | last9=Stout | first9=Robert L. | last10=Zanarini | first10=Mary C. | last11=McGlashan | first11=Thomas H. | last12=Gunderson | first12=John G. | title=Positive Childhood Experiences: Resilience and Recovery From Personality Disorder in Early Adulthood | journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry | volume=68 | issue=7 | date=2007-07-15 | issn=0160-6689 | pmid=17685749 | pmc=2705622 | doi=10.4088/JCP.v68n0719 | pages=1102–1108}}</ref><ref name="Zanarini Frankenburg Hennen Reich 2006 pp. 827–832">{{cite journal | last1=Zanarini | first1=Mary C. | last2=Frankenburg | first2=Frances R. | last3=Hennen | first3=John | last4=Reich | first4=D. Bradford | last5=Silk | first5=Kenneth R. | title=Prediction of the 10-Year Course of Borderline Personality Disorder | journal=American Journal of Psychiatry | volume=163 | issue=5 | date=2006 | issn=0002-953X | doi=10.1176/ajp.2006.163.5.827 | pages=827–832| pmid=16648323 }}</ref><ref name="Zanarini Frankenburg Reich Fitzmaurice 2010 pp. 663–667">{{cite journal | last1=Zanarini | first1=Mary C. | last2=Frankenburg | first2=Frances R. | last3=Reich | first3=D. Bradford | last4=Fitzmaurice | first4=Garrett | title=Time to Attainment of Recovery From Borderline Personality Disorder and Stability of Recovery: A 10-year Prospective Follow-Up Study | journal=American Journal of Psychiatry | volume=167 | issue=6 | date=2010 | issn=0002-953X | pmid=20395399 | pmc=3203735 | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081130 | pages=663–667}}</ref><ref name="Zanarini Frankenburg Reich Fitzmaurice 2012 pp. 476–483">{{cite journal | last1=Zanarini | first1=Mary C. | last2=Frankenburg | first2=Frances R. | last3=Reich | first3=D. Bradford | last4=Fitzmaurice | first4=Garrett | title=Attainment and Stability of Sustained Symptomatic Remission and Recovery Among Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder and Axis II Comparison Subjects: A 16-Year Prospective Follow-Up Study | journal=American Journal of Psychiatry | volume=169 | issue=5 | date=2012 | issn=0002-953X | pmid=22737693 | pmc=3509999 | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11101550 | pages=476–483}}</ref>
| frequency = 5.9% ([[lifetime prevalence]])<ref name=NIH2016/>
| deaths =
}}
{{Personality disorders sidebar}}

'''Borderline personality disorder''' ('''BPD'''), also known as '''emotionally unstable personality disorder''' ('''EUPD'''),<ref name="NICEGuidelines20092">{{cite book |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK55415/ |title=Borderline personality disorder NICE Clinical Guidelines, No. 78 |date=2009 |publisher=British Psychological Society |access-date=11 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112031402/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK55415/ |archive-date=12 November 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> is a [[personality disorder]] characterized by a pervasive, long-term pattern of significant [[interpersonal relationship]] instability, a distorted [[sense of self]], and intense [[emotional response]]s.<ref name="DSM53">{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2013|pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/645 645, 663–6]}}</ref><ref name="NIH20163">{{cite web |title=Borderline Personality Disorder |url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322130612/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml |archive-date=22 March 2016 |access-date=16 March 2016 |website=NIMH}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chapman AL | title = Borderline personality disorder and emotion dysregulation | journal = Development and Psychopathology | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 1143–1156 | date = August 2019 | pmid = 31169118 | doi = 10.1017/S0954579419000658 | url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0954579419000658/type/journal_article | url-status = live | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | s2cid = 174813414 | access-date = 5 April 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232023/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/abs/borderline-personality-disorder-and-emotion-dysregulation/EA2CB1C041307A34392F49279C107987 | archive-date = 4 December 2020 | url-access = subscription }}</ref> People diagnosed with BPD frequently exhibit [[self-harm]]ing behaviours and engage in risky activities, primarily due to [[Emotional dysregulation|challenges regulating emotional states]] to a healthy, stable baseline.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bozzatello P, Rocca P, Baldassarri L, Bosia M, Bellino S | title = The Role of Trauma in Early Onset Borderline Personality Disorder: A Biopsychosocial Perspective | journal = Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume = 12 | pages = 721361 | date = 23 September 2021 | pmid = 34630181 | pmc = 8495240 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.721361 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cattane N, Rossi R, Lanfredi M, Cattaneo A | title = Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: exploring the affected biological systems and mechanisms | journal = BMC Psychiatry | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 221 | date = June 2017 | pmid = 28619017 | pmc = 5472954 | doi = 10.1186/s12888-017-1383-2 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=December 2017 |title=Borderline Personality Disorder |url=https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml |access-date=25 February 2021 |publisher=The National Institute of Mental Health |quote=Other signs or symptoms may include: [...] Impulsive and often dangerous behaviors [...] Self-harming behavior [...]. Borderline personality disorder is also associated with a significantly higher rate of self-harm and suicidal behavior than the general public. |archive-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329213453/http://nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Symptoms such as [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]] (a feeling of [[Emotional detachment|detachment]] from reality), a pervasive sense of emptiness, and an acute fear of [[Abandonment (emotional)|abandonment]] are prevalent among those affected.<ref name="NIH20163" />

The onset of BPD symptoms can be triggered by events that others might perceive as normal,<ref name="NIH20163" /> with the disorder typically manifesting in early adulthood and persisting across diverse contexts.<ref name="DSM53" /> BPD is often [[Comorbidity|comorbid]] with [[substance use disorders]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Helle AC, Watts AL, Trull TJ, Sher KJ | title = Alcohol Use Disorder and Antisocial and Borderline Personality Disorders | journal = Alcohol Research: Current Reviews| volume = 40 | issue = 1 | pages = arcr.v40.1.05 |year = 2019 | pmid = 31886107 | pmc = 6927749 | doi = 10.35946/arcr.v40.1.05 }}</ref> [[depressive disorders]], and [[eating disorder]]s.<ref name="NIH20163" /> BPD is associated with a substantial risk of suicide;<ref name="DSM53" /><ref name="NIH20163" /> an estimated 8 to 10 percent of people with BPD die by suicide, with males affected at twice the rate of females.<ref name="Kreisman J, Strauss H 2004">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/sometimesiactcra00jero |title=Sometimes I Act Crazy. Living With Borderline Personality Disorder |vauthors=Kreisman J, Strauss H |publisher=Wiley & Sons |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-22286-6 |url-access=registration |page=206}}</ref> Despite its severity, BPD faces significant stigmatization in both media portrayals and the psychiatric field, potentially leading to its underdiagnosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aviram RB, Brodsky BS, Stanley B | title = Borderline personality disorder, stigma, and treatment implications | journal = Harvard Review of Psychiatry | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 249–256 |year = 2006 | pmid = 16990170 | doi = 10.1080/10673220600975121 | s2cid = 23923078 }}</ref>

The causes of BPD are unclear and complex, implicating genetic, neurological, and psychosocial conditions in its development.<ref name=NIH2016/><ref name=CP2013>{{cite book|title=Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Borderline Personality Disorder | publisher=National Health and Medical Research Council|year=2013|isbn=978-1-86496-564-3|location=Melbourne|pages=40–41|quote=In addition to the evidence identified by the systematic review, the Committee also considered a recent narrative review of studies that have evaluated biological and environmental factors as potential risk factors for BPD (including prospective studies of children and adolescents, and studies of young people with BPD)}}</ref> A [[genetic predisposition]] is evident, with the disorder significantly more common in people with a family history of BPD, particularly immediate relatives.<ref name=NIH2016>{{cite web|url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml|title=Borderline Personality Disorder|website=NIMH|access-date=16 March 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322130612/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml|archive-date=22 March 2016}}</ref> Psychosocial factors, particularly [[adverse childhood experiences]], have been proposed.<ref name=Lei2011/> Neurologically, the underlying mechanism appears to involve the frontolimbic neuronal network of the [[limbic system]].<ref name=Lei2011>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leichsenring F, Leibing E, Kruse J, New AS, Leweke F | title = Borderline personality disorder | journal = [[Lancet (journal)|Lancet]] | volume = 377 | issue = 9759 | pages = 74–84 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21195251 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(10)61422-5 | s2cid = 17051114 }}</ref> The American ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM) classifies BPD as a [[Personality disorder#Cluster B (emotional or erratic disorders)|cluster B]] [[personality disorder]], alongside [[antisocial personality disorder|antisocial]], [[histrionic personality disorder|histrionic]], and [[narcissistic personality disorder]]s.<ref name="DSM53"/> There is a small risk of [[misdiagnosis]], with BPD most commonly confused with a [[mood disorder]], [[substance use disorders|substance use disorder]], or other mental health disorders.<ref name="DSM53"/>

Therapeutic interventions for BPD predominantly involve [[psychotherapy]], with [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) or [[dialectical behavior therapy]] (DBT) the most effective modalities.<ref name="NIH2016" /> This psychotherapy can occur one-on-one or in a [[group therapy|group]].<ref name="NIH2016" /> Although [[pharmacotherapy]] cannot cure BPD, it may be employed to mitigate associated symptoms,<ref name="NIH2016" /> with [[quetiapine]] and [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]] (SSRI) antidepressants commonly prescribed even though their efficacy is unclear. A 2020 meta-analysis found the use of medications was still unsupported by evidence.<ref name="stofferswinterling20" /> In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessitated, even if for only short periods.<ref name="NIH2016" />

BPD has a [[point prevalence]] of 1.6% and a [[lifetime prevalence]] of 5.9% of the global population,<ref name="DSM53" /><ref name="NIH2016" /><ref name="Wolters Kluwer">{{Cite book |url=https://uptodate.com/ |title=UpToDate |publisher=[[Wolters Kluwer]] |chapter=Borderline personality disorder: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, course, assessment, and diagnosis |access-date=13 March 2024 |chapter-url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/borderline-personality-disorder-epidemiology-pathogenesis-clinical-features-course-assessment-and-diagnosis |url-access=subscription |archive-date=6 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106134307/http://uptodate.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nimh.nih.gov">{{cite web|title=NIMH " Personality Disorders|url=https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/personality-disorders|access-date=20 May 2021|website=nimh.nih.gov|archive-date=18 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618193929/https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/personality-disorders|url-status=live}}</ref> with a higher [[incidence rate]] among women compared to men in the clinical setting of up to three times.<ref name="DSM53" /><ref name="Wolters Kluwer" /> Despite the high utilization of healthcare resources by people with BPD,<ref name="Bourke_2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bourke J, Murphy A, Flynn D, Kells M, Joyce M, Hurley J | title = Borderline personality disorder: resource utilisation costs in Ireland | journal = Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 169–176 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34465404 | doi = 10.1017/ipm.2018.30 | hdl-access = free | hdl = 10468/7005 }}</ref> up to half may show significant improvement over a ten-year period with appropriate treatment.<ref name="DSM53" /> The name of the disorder, particularly the suitability of the term ''borderline'', is a subject of ongoing debate. Initially, the term reflected historical ideas of ''borderline insanity'' and later described patients on the border between [[neurosis]] and [[psychosis]]. These interpretations are now regarded as outdated and clinically imprecise.<ref name="NIH2016" /><ref name=":14">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gunderson JG | title = Borderline personality disorder: ontogeny of a diagnosis | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 166 | issue = 5 | pages = 530–539 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19411380 | pmc = 3145201 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.08121825 }}</ref>
{{TOC limit}}

== Signs and symptoms ==
[[File:BPD 1.png|thumb|One of the symptoms of BPD is an intense fear of emotional abandonment.]]

Borderline personality disorder, as outlined in the [[DSM-5]], manifests through nine distinct [[symptoms]], with a [[diagnosis]] requiring at least five of the following criteria to be met:

# Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined [[Abandonment (emotional)|emotional abandonment]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fertuck EA, Fischer S, Beeney J |date=December 2018 |title=Social Cognition and Borderline Personality Disorder: Splitting and Trust Impairment Findings |journal=The Psychiatric Clinics of North America |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=613–632 |doi=10.1016/j.psc.2018.07.003 |pmid=30447728 |s2cid=53948600}}</ref>
# Unstable and chaotic interpersonal relationships, often characterized by a pattern of alternating between extremes of [[idealization and devaluation]], also known as '[[Splitting (psychology)|splitting]]'.
# A markedly [[Identity disturbance|disturbed sense of identity]] and distorted [[self-image]].<ref name="NIH2016" />
# [[Impulsive (behavior)|Impulsive]] or reckless behaviors, including uncontrollable spending, unsafe sexual practices, substance use disorder, reckless driving, and [[binge eating]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Diagnostic criteria for 301.83 Borderline Personality Disorder – Behavenet |url=https://behavenet.com/diagnostic-criteria-30183-borderline-personality-disorder |access-date=23 March 2019 |website=behavenet.com |archive-date=28 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328215426/https://behavenet.com/diagnostic-criteria-30183-borderline-personality-disorder |url-status=live }}</ref>
# Recurrent [[suicidal ideation]] or behaviors involving self-harm.
# Rapidly shifting intense [[emotional dysregulation]].
# Chronic feelings of [[emptiness]].
# Inappropriate, intense anger that can be difficult to control.
# Transient, stress-related [[paranoid ideation]] or severe [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociative]] symptoms.

The distinguishing characteristics of BPD include a pervasive pattern of instability in one's interpersonal relationships and in one's self-image, with frequent oscillation between extremes of idealization and devaluation of others, alongside fluctuating moods and difficulty regulating intense emotional reactions. Dangerous or impulsive behaviors are commonly associated with BPD.

Additional symptoms may encompass uncertainty about one's [[Identity (social science)|identity]], [[values]], [[morals]], and [[belief]]s; experiencing paranoid thoughts under stress; episodes of [[depersonalization]]; and, in moderate to severe cases, stress-induced breaks with reality or episodes of [[psychosis]]. It is also common for individuals with BPD to have [[Comorbidity|comorbid conditions]] such as [[Depressive disorder|depressive]] or [[bipolar disorders]], [[substance use disorders]], [[eating disorders]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), and [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD).<ref name="DSM-5 Task Force_2013">{{cite book |author=((DSM-5 Task Force)) |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/863153409 |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders : DSM-5 |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-89042-554-1 |oclc=863153409 |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232019/https://www.worldcat.org/title/diagnostic-and-statistical-manual-of-mental-disorders-dsm-5/oclc/863153409 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Mood and affect===
{{Further|Emotional dysregulation}}
Individuals with BPD exhibit emotional dysregulation. Emotional dysregulation is characterized by an inability in flexibly responding to and managing [[emotional state]]s, resulting in intense and prolonged emotional reactions that deviate from [[social norms]], given the nature of the environmental stimuli encountered. Such reactions not only deviate from accepted social norms but also surpass what is informally deemed appropriate or proportional to the encountered stimuli.<ref>Austin and Highnet, 2017{{full citation needed|date=October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=43}}</ref><ref name="Manning_364">{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=36}}</ref><ref name=":023">{{Cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=Ryan W. |last2=Trull |first2=Timothy J. |date=January 2013 |title=Components of Emotion Dysregulation in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Review |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=335 |doi=10.1007/s11920-012-0335-2 |pmid=23250816 |pmc=3973423 |issn=1523-3812}}</ref>

A core characteristic of BPD is ''affective instability'', which manifests as rapid and frequent shifts in [[Mood (psychology)|mood]] of high [[Affect (psychology)|affect]] intensity and rapid onset of [[emotion]]s, triggered by environmental stimuli. The return to a stable emotional state is notably delayed, exacerbating the challenge of achieving emotional equilibrium. This instability is further intensified by an acute sensitivity to [[Social cue|psychosocial cues]], leading to significant challenges in managing emotions effectively.<ref>{{cite book |title=Abnormal Psychology |vauthors=Hooley J, Butcher JM, Nock MK |date=2017 |publisher=[[Pearson Education]] |isbn=978-0-13-385205-9 |edition=17th |location=London, England |page=359}}</ref><ref name="Linehan_45">{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dick |first1=Alexandra M. |last2=Suvak |first2=Michael K. |date=July 2018 |title=Borderline personality disorder affective instability: What you know impacts how you feel. |journal=Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=369–378 |doi=10.1037/per0000280 |issn=1949-2723 |pmc=6033624 |pmid=29461071}}</ref>

As the first component of emotional dysregulation, individuals with BPD are shown to have increased [[emotional sensitivity]], especially towards negative mood states such as fear, anger, sadness, rejection, criticism, isolation, and perceived failure.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=Ryan W. |last2=Trull |first2=Timothy J. |date=January 2013 |title=Components of Emotion Dysregulation in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Review |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=335 |doi=10.1007/s11920-012-0335-2 |pmid=23250816 |pmc=3973423 |issn=1523-3812}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Stiglmayr CE, Grathwol T, Linehan MM, Ihorst G, Fahrenberg J, Bohus M |date=May 2005 |title=Aversive tension in patients with borderline personality disorder: a computer-based controlled field study |journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica |volume=111 |issue=5 |pages=372–9 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0447.2004.00466.x |pmid=15819731 |s2cid=30951552}}</ref> This increased sensitivity results in an intensified response to environmental cues, including the emotions of others.<ref name=":0" /> Studies have identified a [[negativity bias]] in those with BPD, showing a predisposition towards recognizing and reacting more strongly to negative emotions in others, along with an [[attentional bias]] towards processing negatively-[[Valence (psychology)|valenced]] stimuli.<ref name=":0" /> Without effective [[coping mechanisms]], individuals might resort to self-harm, or suicidal behaviors to manage or escape from these intense negative emotions.<ref name = reasons_NSSI /><ref name=":0" /> While conscious of the exaggerated nature of their emotional responses, individuals with BPD face challenges in regulating these emotions. To mitigate further distress, there may be an unconscious suppression of emotional awareness, which paradoxically hinders the recognition of situations requiring intervention.<ref name=Linehan_45 />

A second component of emotional dysregulation in BPD is high levels of [[negative affectivity]], stemming directly from the individual's emotional sensitivity to negative emotions. This negative affectivity causes emotional reactions that diverge from [[Social norm|socially accepted norms]], in ways that are disproportionate to the environmental stimuli presented.<ref name=":0" /> Those with BPD are relatively unable to tolerate the distress that is encountered in daily life, and they are prone to engage in maladaptive strategies to try to reduce the distress experienced. Maladaptive coping strategies include [[Rumination (psychology)|rumination]], [[thought suppression]], [[experiential avoidance]], [[emotional isolation]], as well as impulsive and self-injurious behaviours.<ref name=":0" />

American psychologist [[Marsha Linehan]] highlights that while the sensitivity, intensity, and duration of emotional experiences in individuals with BPD can have positive outcomes, such as exceptional enthusiasm, idealism, and capacity for joy and love, it also predisposes them to be overwhelmed by negative emotions.<ref name="Linehan_45" /><ref name="Linehan_44">{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=44}}</ref> This includes experiencing profound [[grief]] instead of mere sadness, intense shame instead of mild embarrassment, rage rather than annoyance, and panic over nervousness.<ref name="Linehan_44" /> Research indicates that individuals with BPD endure chronic and substantial emotional suffering.<ref name="DSM-5 Task Force_2013" />

Emotional dysregulation is a significant feature of BPD, yet Fitzpatrick et al. (2022) suggest that such dysregulation may also be observed in other disorders, like [[generalized anxiety disorder]] (GAD). Nonetheless, their findings imply that individuals with BPD particularly struggle with disengaging from negative emotions and achieving emotional equilibrium.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fitzpatrick S, Varma S, Kuo JR |date=September 2022 |title=Is borderline personality disorder really an emotion dysregulation disorder and, if so, how? A comprehensive experimental paradigm |journal=Psychological Medicine |volume=52 |issue=12 |pages=2319–2331 |doi=10.1017/S0033291720004225 |pmid=33198829 |s2cid=226988308}}</ref>

[[Euphoria]], or transient intense joy, can occur in those with BPD, but they are more commonly afflicted by [[dysphoria]] (a profound state of unease or dissatisfaction), depression, and pervasive distress. Zanarini et al. identify four types of dysphoria characteristic of BPD: intense emotional states, destructiveness or self-destructiveness, feelings of fragmentation or identity loss, and perceptions of [[victimization]].<ref name="dysphoria">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, DeLuca CJ, Hennen J, Khera GS, Gunderson JG |year=1998 |title=The pain of being borderline: dysphoric states specific to borderline personality disorder |journal=Harvard Review of Psychiatry |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=201–7 |doi=10.3109/10673229809000330 |pmid=10370445 |s2cid=10093822}}</ref> A diagnosis of BPD is closely linked with experiencing feelings of betrayal, lack of control, and self-harm.<ref name="dysphoria" />

Moreover, emotional [[lability]], indicating variability or fluctuations in emotional states, is frequent among those with BPD. Although emotional lability may imply rapid alternations between depression and elation, [[mood swing]]s in BPD are more commonly between anger and anxiety or depression and anxiety.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Koenigsberg HW, Harvey PD, Mitropoulou V, Schmeidler J, New AS, Goodman M, Silverman JM, Serby M, Schopick F, Siever LJ |date=May 2002 |title=Characterizing affective instability in borderline personality disorder |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=159 |issue=5 |pages=784–8 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.159.5.784 |pmid=11986132}}</ref>

===Interpersonal relationships===
Interpersonal relationships are significantly impacted in individuals with BPD, characterized by a heightened sensitivity to the behavior and actions of others. Individuals with BPD can be very conscious of and susceptible to their perceived or real treatment by others. Individuals may experience profound happiness and gratitude for perceived kindness, yet feel intense sadness or anger towards perceived criticism or harm.<ref name="cogemo">{{cite journal | vauthors = Arntz A | title = Introduction to special issue: cognition and emotion in borderline personality disorder | journal = Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 167–72 | date = September 2005 | pmid = 16018875 | doi = 10.1016/j.jbtep.2005.06.001 }}</ref> A notable feature of BPD is the tendency to engage in [[idealization and devaluation]] of others – that is to idealize and subsequently devalue others – oscillating between extreme admiration and profound mistrust or dislike.<ref>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=146}}</ref> This pattern, referred to as "[[Splitting (psychology)|splitting]]," can significantly influence the dynamics of interpersonal relationships.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Is BPD: Symptoms |url=http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/understading-bpd/ |access-date=31 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210110927/http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/understading-bpd/ |archive-date=10 February 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Robinson">{{cite book | vauthors = Robinson DJ | title = Disordered Personalities| publisher = Rapid Psychler Press| year = 2005| pages =255–310| isbn = 978-1-894328-09-8}}</ref> In addition to this external "[[Splitting (psychology)|splitting]]," patients with BPD typically have internal splitting, i.e. vacillation between considering oneself a good person who has been mistreated (in which case anger predominates) and a bad person whose life has no value (in which case self-destructive or even suicidal behavior may occur). This splitting is also evident in black-and-white or all-or-nothing dichotomous thinking.<ref name="Gund2011" />

Despite a strong desire for intimacy, individuals with BPD may exhibit insecure, avoidant, ambivalent, or fearfully preoccupied [[Attachment theory#Attachment patterns|attachment styles]] in relationships, complicating their interactions and connections with others.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy KN, Meehan KB, Weber M, Reynoso J, Clarkin JF | title = Attachment and borderline personality disorder: implications for psychotherapy | journal = Psychopathology | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 64–74 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15802944 | doi = 10.1159/000084813 | s2cid = 10203453 }}</ref> Family members, including parents of adults with BPD, may find themselves in a cycle of being overly involved in the individual's life at times and, at other times, significantly detached,<ref name="parents">{{cite journal | vauthors = Allen DM, Farmer RG | title = Family relationships of adults with borderline personality disorder | journal = Comprehensive Psychiatry | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 43–51 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8770526 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-440X(96)90050-4 }}</ref> contributing to a sense of alienation within the family unit.<ref name="Gund2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gunderson JG | title = Clinical practice. Borderline personality disorder | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 364 | issue = 21 | pages = 2037–2042 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21612472 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMcp1007358 | hdl = 10150/631040 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

[[Personality disorders]], including BPD, are associated with an increased incidence of [[chronic stress]] and conflict, reduced satisfaction in romantic partnerships, [[domestic abuse]], and [[unintended pregnancies]].<ref name="Daley SE, Burge D, Hammen C 2000 451–60">{{cite journal | vauthors = Daley SE, Burge D, Hammen C | title = Borderline personality disorder symptoms as predictors of 4-year romantic relationship dysfunction in young women: addressing issues of specificity | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 109 | issue = 3 | pages = 451–460 | date = August 2000 | pmid = 11016115 | doi = 10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.451 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.588.6902 }}</ref> Research indicates variability in relationship patterns among individuals with BPD. A portion of these individuals may transition rapidly between relationships, a pattern metaphorically described as "butterfly-like," characterized by fleeting and transient interactions and "fluttering" in and out of relationships.<ref name="Ryan_2007">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Ryan K, Shean G |date=2007-01-01 |title=Patterns of interpersonal behaviors and borderline personality characteristics |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=193–200 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2006.06.010 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref> Conversely, a subgroup, referred to as "attached," tends to establish fewer but more intense and dependent relationships. These connections often form rapidly, evolving into deeply intertwined and tumultuous bonds,<ref name="Ryan_2007" /> indicating a more pronounced dependence on these interpersonal ties compared to those without BPD.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Jackson MH, Westbrook LF |title=Borderline Personality Disorder: New Research |publisher=Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60876-540-9 |pages=137–146 |language=en}}</ref>

===Behavior===
Behavioral patterns associated with BPD frequently involve impulsive actions, which may manifest as substance use disorders, binge eating, unprotected sexual encounters, self-injury among other self-harming practices.<ref name=Manning_18/> These behaviors are a response to the intense emotional distress experienced by individuals with BPD, serving as an immediate but temporary alleviation of their [[emotional pain]].<ref name=Manning_18/> However, such actions typically result in feelings of shame and guilt, contributing to a recurrent cycle.<ref name=Manning_18>{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=18}}</ref> This cycle typically begins with emotional discomfort, followed by impulsive behavior aimed at mitigating this discomfort, only to lead to shame and guilt, which in turn exacerbates the emotional pain.<ref name=Manning_18/> This escalation of emotional pain then intensifies the [[Compulsive behavior|compulsion]] towards impulsive behavior as a form of relief, creating a vicious cycle. Over time, these impulsive responses can become an automatic mechanism for coping with emotional pain.<ref name=Manning_18/>

===Self-harm and suicide===

Self-harm and suicidal behaviors are core diagnostic criteria for BPD as outlined in the DSM-5.<ref name="DSM53" /> Between 50% and 80% of individuals diagnosed with BPD engage in self-harm, with [[cutting]] being the most common method.<ref name="Ou2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Oumaya M, Friedman S, Pham A, Abou Abdallah T, Guelfi JD, Rouillon F | title = [Borderline personality disorder, self-mutilation and suicide: literature review] | language = fr | journal = L'Encéphale | volume = 34 | issue = 5 | pages = 452–8 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 19068333 | doi = 10.1016/j.encep.2007.10.007 }}</ref> Other methods, such as bruising, burning, head banging, or biting, are also prevalent.<ref name="Ou2008" /> It is hypothesized that individuals with BPD might experience a sense of emotional relief following acts of self-harm.<ref name="DucasseCourtet2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ducasse D, Courtet P, Olié E | title = Physical and social pains in borderline disorder and neuroanatomical correlates: a systematic review | journal = Current Psychiatry Reports | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 443 | date = May 2014 | pmid = 24633938 | doi = 10.1007/s11920-014-0443-2 | s2cid = 25918270 }}</ref>

Estimates of the lifetime risk of death by suicide among individuals with BPD range between 3% and 10%, varying with the method of investigation.<ref name="pmid31142033">{{cite journal |vauthors=Paris J |year=2019 |title=Suicidality in Borderline Personality Disorder. |journal=Medicina (Kaunas) |volume=55 |issue=6 |page=223 |doi=10.3390/medicina55060223 |pmc=6632023 |pmid=31142033 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Gund2011" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Borderline Personality Disorder: A Clinical Guide |vauthors=Gunderson JG, Links PS |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-58562-335-8 |edition=2nd |page=9}}</ref> There is evidence that a significant proportion of males who die by suicide may have undiagnosed BPD.<ref name="Paris J 2008 21–22">{{cite book | vauthors = Paris J |title=Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. A Guide to Evidence-Based Practice | year=2008 | publisher=The Guilford Press | pages=21–22}}</ref>

The motivations behind self-harm and [[suicide attempts]] among individuals with BPD are reported to differ.<ref name="reasons_NSSI">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown MZ, Comtois KA, Linehan MM | s2cid = 4649933 | title = Reasons for suicide attempts and nonsuicidal self-injury in women with borderline personality disorder | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 111 | issue = 1 | pages = 198–202 | date = February 2002 | pmid = 11866174 | doi = 10.1037/0021-843X.111.1.198 }}</ref> Nearly 70% of individuals with BPD engage in self-harm without the intention of ending their lives. Motivations for self-harm include expressing anger, self-punishment, inducing normal feelings or feelings of normality in response to dissociative episodes, and distraction from emotional distress or challenging situations.<ref name="reasons_NSSI" /> Conversely, true suicide attempts by individuals with BPD frequently are motivated by the notion that others will be better off in their absence.<ref name="reasons_NSSI" />

===Sense of self and self-concept===
Individuals diagnosed with BPD frequently experience significant difficulties in maintaining a stable [[self-concept]]. This instability manifests as uncertainty in personal [[values]], [[belief]]s, [[preference]]s, and interests.<ref name=Manning_23/> They may also express confusion regarding their aspirations and objectives in terms of relationships and career paths. Such indeterminacy leads to feelings of emptiness and a profound sense of disorientation regarding their own [[Identity (social science)|identity]].<ref name=Manning_23/> Moreover, their [[Self-perception theory|self-perception]] can fluctuate dramatically over short periods, oscillating between positive and negative evaluations. Consequently, individuals with BPD might adopt their sense of self based on their surroundings or the people they interact with, resulting in a chameleon-like adaptation of identity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Biskin RS, Paris J | title = Diagnosing borderline personality disorder | journal = CMAJ | volume = 184 | issue = 16 | pages = 1789–1794 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22988153 | pmc = 3494330 | doi = 10.1503/cmaj.090618 }}</ref>

===Dissociation and cognitive challenges===
The heightened emotional states experienced by individuals with BPD can impede their ability to concentrate and cognitively function.<ref name=Manning_23>{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=23}}</ref> Additionally, individuals with BPD may frequently [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociate]], which can be regarded as a mild to severe disconnection from physical and emotional experiences.<ref name=Manning_24>{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=24}}</ref> Observers may notice signs of dissociation in individuals with BPD through diminished expressiveness in their face or voice, or through an apparent disconnection and insensitivity to emotional cues or stimuli.<ref name=Manning_24/>

Dissociation typically arises in response to distressing occurrences or reminders of past trauma, acting as a psychological [[defense mechanism]] by diverting attention from the current stressor or by blocking it out entirely. This process, believed to shield the individual from the anticipated overwhelming negative emotions and undesired impulses that the current emotional situation might provoke, is rooted in avoidance of intense emotional pain based on past experiences. While this mechanism may offer temporary emotional respite, it can foster unhealthy coping strategies and inadvertently dull positive emotions, thereby obstructing the individual's access to crucial emotional insights. These insights are essential for informed, healthy decision-making in everyday life.<ref name=Manning_24/>

=== Psychotic symptoms ===
BPD is predominantly characterized as a disorder involving emotional dysregulation, yet psychotic symptoms frequently occur in individuals with BPD, with prevalence estimates ranging between 21% and 54%.<ref name="Schroeder_2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schroeder K, Fisher HL, Schäfer I | title = Psychotic symptoms in patients with borderline personality disorder: prevalence and clinical management | journal = Current Opinion in Psychiatry | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 113–9 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 23168909 | doi = 10.1097/YCO.0b013e32835a2ae7 | s2cid = 25546693 | doi-access = free }}</ref> These manifestations have historically been labeled as "pseudo-psychotic" or "psychotic-like", implying a differentiation from symptoms observed in primary [[psychotic disorders]]. Studies conducted in the 2010s suggest a closer similarity between psychotic symptoms in BPD and those in recognized psychotic disorders than previously understood.<ref name="Schroeder_2013" /><ref name="Niemantsverdriet_2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Niemantsverdriet MB, Slotema CW, Blom JD, Franken IH, Hoek HW, Sommer IE, van der Gaag M | title = Hallucinations in borderline personality disorder: Prevalence, characteristics and associations with comorbid symptoms and disorders | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 13920 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 29066713 | pmc = 5654997 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-017-13108-6 | bibcode = 2017NatSR...713920N }}</ref> The distinction of pseudo-psychosis has faced criticism for its weak [[construct validity]] and the potential to diminish the perceived severity of these symptoms, potentially hindering accurate diagnosis and effective treatment. Consequently, there are suggestions from some in the research community to categorize these symptoms as genuine psychosis, advocating for the abolishment of the distinction between pseudo-psychosis and true psychosis.<ref name="Schroeder_2013" /><ref name="Slotema_2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Slotema CW, Blom JD, Niemantsverdriet MB, Sommer IE | title = Auditory Verbal Hallucinations in Borderline Personality Disorder and the Efficacy of Antipsychotics: A Systematic Review | journal = Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume = 9 | pages = 347 | date = 31 July 2018 | pmid = 30108529 | pmc = 6079212 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00347 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The DSM-5 identifies transient paranoia, exacerbated by stress, as a symptom of BPD.<ref name="DSM53"/> Research has identified the presence of both [[hallucination]]s and [[delusions]] in individuals with BPD who do not possess an alternate diagnosis that would better explain these symptoms.<ref name="Niemantsverdriet_2017" /> Further, [[Interpretative phenomenological analysis|phenomenological analysis]] indicates that [[auditory verbal hallucinations]] in BPD patients are indistinguishable from those observed in [[schizophrenia]].<ref name="Niemantsverdriet_2017" /><ref name="Slotema_2018" /> This has led to suggestions of a potential shared [[etiological]] basis for hallucinations across BPD and other disorders, including psychotic and [[affective disorder]]s.<ref name="Niemantsverdriet_2017" />

===Disability and employment===
Individuals diagnosed with BPD often possess the capability to engage in employment, provided they secure positions that align with their skill sets and the severity of their condition remains manageable. In certain cases, BPD may be recognized as a [[disability]] within the workplace, particularly if the condition's severity results in behaviors that undermine relationships, involve engagement in risky activities, or manifest as intense anger, thereby inhibiting the individual's ability to perform their job role effectively.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Arvig TJ | title = Borderline personality disorder and disability | journal = AAOHN Journal | volume = 59 | issue = 4 | pages = 158–60 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21462898 | doi = 10.1177/216507991105900401| doi-access = free }}</ref> The [[United States Social Security Administration]] officially recognizes BPD as a form of disability, enabling those significantly affected to apply for [[disability benefits]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Disability Evaluation Under Social Security. 12.00 Mental Disorders - Adult |url=https://www.ssa.gov/disability/professionals/bluebook/12.00-MentalDisorders-Adult.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723101142/https://www.ssa.gov/disability/professionals/bluebook/12.00-MentalDisorders-Adult.htm |archive-date=July 23, 2023 |access-date=July 23, 2023 |website=[[Social Security Administration]]}}</ref>

==Causes==

The [[etiology]], or causes, of BPD is multifaceted, with no consensus on a singular cause.<ref name="mayo">{{cite web| url = http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/borderline-personality-disorder/DS00442/DSECTION=3| title = Borderline personality disorder| publisher = Mayo Clinic| access-date = 15 May 2008| url-status=live| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080430112844/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/borderline-personality-disorder/DS00442/DSECTION%3D3| archive-date = 30 April 2008| df = dmy-all}}</ref> BPD may share a connection with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD).<ref name="BPD & PTSD">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gunderson JG, Sabo AN | title = The phenomenological and conceptual interface between borderline personality disorder and PTSD | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 150 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–27 | date = January 1993 | pmid = 8417576 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.150.1.19 }}</ref> While childhood trauma is a recognized contributing factor, the roles of congenital brain abnormalities, genetics, [[neurobiology]], and non-traumatic environmental factors remain subjects of ongoing investigation.<ref name="mayo" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR |year=1997 |title=Pathways to the development of borderline personality disorder |journal=Journal of Personality Disorders |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=93–104 |doi=10.1521/pedi.1997.11.1.93 |pmid=9113824 |s2cid=20669909}}</ref>

===Genetics and heritability===
Compared to other major psychiatric conditions, the exploration of genetic underpinnings in BPD remains novel.<ref name="pmid29032046">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bassir Nia A, Eveleth MC, Gabbay JM, Hassan YJ, Zhang B, Perez-Rodriguez MM | title = Past, present, and future of genetic research in borderline personality disorder | journal = Current Opinion in Psychology | volume = 21 | issue = | pages = 60–68 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29032046 | pmc = 5847441 | doi = 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.09.002 }}</ref> Estimates suggest the [[heritability]] of BPD ranges from 37% to 69%,<ref name="Her2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gunderson JG, Zanarini MC, Choi-Kain LW, Mitchell KS, Jang KL, Hudson JI|date=August 2011|title=Family Study of Borderline Personality Disorder and Its Sectors of Psychopathology|journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association|volume=68|issue=7|pages=753–762|doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.65|pmid=3150490|pmc=3150490}}</ref> indicating that [[human genetic variation]]s account for a substantial portion of the risk for BPD within the population. [[Twin study|Twin studies]], which often form the basis of these estimates, may overestimate the perceived influence of genetics due to the shared environment of twins, potentially skewing results.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Torgersen S | title = Genetics of patients with borderline personality disorder | journal = The Psychiatric Clinics of North America | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–9 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10729927 | doi = 10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70139-8 }}</ref>

Despite these methodological considerations, certain studies propose that personality disorders are significantly shaped by genetics, more so than many [[Axis I disorders]], such as depression and eating disorders, and even surpassing the genetic impact on broad [[personality traits]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Torgersen S, Lygren S, Oien PA, Skre I, Onstad S, Edvardsen J, Tambs K, Kringlen E | title = A twin study of personality disorders | journal = Comprehensive Psychiatry | volume = 41 | issue = 6 | pages = 416–425 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11086146 | doi = 10.1053/comp.2000.16560 }}</ref> Notably, BPD ranks as the third most heritable among ten surveyed personality disorders.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

Research involving twin and sibling studies has shown a genetic component to traits associated with BPD, such as impulsive aggression; with the genetic contribution to behavior from [[serotonin]]-related genes appearing to be modest.<ref name="neurotrauma">{{cite journal | vauthors = Goodman M, New A, Siever L | title = Trauma, genes, and the neurobiology of personality disorders | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1032 | issue = 1 | pages = 104–116 | date = December 2004 | pmid = 15677398 | doi = 10.1196/annals.1314.008 | bibcode = 2004NYASA1032..104G | s2cid = 26270818 }}</ref>

A study conducted by Trull et al. in the Netherlands, which included 711 sibling pairs and 561 parents, aimed to identify [[genetic marker]]s associated with BPD.<ref name="Possible Genetic Causes">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/12/081216114100.htm|title=Possible Genetic Causes Of Borderline Personality Disorder Identified|publisher=sciencedaily.com|date=20 December 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501161311/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/12/081216114100.htm|archive-date=1 May 2014}}</ref> This research identified a linkage to genetic markers on [[chromosome 9]] as relevant to BPD characteristics,<ref name="Possible Genetic Causes" /> underscoring a significant genetic contribution to the [[Variability (statistics)|variability]] observed in BPD features.<ref name="Possible Genetic Causes" /> Prior findings from this group indicated that 42% of BPD feature variability could be attributed to genetics, with the remaining 58% owing to environmental factors.<ref name="Possible Genetic Causes" />

Among specific genetic variants under scrutiny {{as of|2012|lc=y}}, the [[DRD4 7-repeat polymorphism]] (of the [[Dopamine receptor D4|dopamine receptor D4]]) located on [[chromosome 11]] has been linked to disorganized attachment, and in conjunction with the 10/10-repeat genotype of the [[dopamine transporter]] (DAT), it has been associated with issues with [[inhibitory control]], both of which are characteristic of BPD.<ref name="Brain Structure and Function">{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Neill A, Frodl T | title = Brain structure and function in borderline personality disorder | journal = Brain Structure & Function | volume = 217 | issue = 4 | pages = 767–782 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22252376 | doi = 10.1007/s00429-012-0379-4 | s2cid = 17970001 }}</ref> Additionally, potential links to [[chromosome 5]] are being explored, further emphasizing the complex genetic landscape influencing BPD development and manifestation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lubke GH, Laurin C, Amin N, Hottenga JJ, Willemsen G, van Grootheest G, Abdellaoui A, Karssen LC, Oostra BA, van Duijn CM, Penninx BW, Boomsma DI | title = Genome-wide analyses of borderline personality features | journal = Molecular Psychiatry | volume = 19 | issue = 8 | pages = 923–929 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 23979607 | pmc = 3872258 | doi = 10.1038/mp.2013.109 }}</ref>

===Psychosocial factors===

====Adverse childhood experiences====
Studies based on [[empiricism]] have established a strong [[correlation]] between [[adverse childhood experiences]] such as [[child abuse]], particularly [[child sexual abuse]], and the onset of BPD later in life.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cohen P |date=September 2008 |title=Child development and personality disorder |journal=The Psychiatric Clinics of North America |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=477–493, vii |doi=10.1016/j.psc.2008.03.005 |pmid=18638647}}</ref><ref name="Herman91">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/traumarecovery00herm_0 |title=Trauma and recovery |vauthors=Herman JL |publisher=Basic Books |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-465-08730-3 |location=New York}}</ref><ref name="AxisOne/AxisTwo" /> Reports from individuals diagnosed with BPD frequently include narratives of extensive abuse and neglect during early childhood, though [[causality]] remains a subject of ongoing investigation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ball JS, Links PS | title = Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: evidence for a causal relationship | journal = Current Psychiatry Reports | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 63–68 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19187711 | doi = 10.1007/s11920-009-0010-4 | s2cid = 20566309 }}</ref> These individuals are significantly more prone to recount experiences of verbal, emotional, physical, or sexual abuse by caregivers,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/borderline-personality-disorder/basics/risk-factors/con-20023204|title=Borderline personality disorder: Understanding this challenging mental illness|work=Mayo Clinic|access-date=5 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830054834/http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/borderline-personality-disorder/basics/risk-factors/con-20023204|archive-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> alongside a notable frequency of [[incest]] and loss of caregivers in early childhood.<ref name="failchild">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Reich DB, Marino MF, Lewis RE, Williams AA, Khera GS | title = Biparental failure in the childhood experiences of borderline patients | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 264–273 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11019749 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.2000.14.3.264 }}</ref>

Moreover, there have been consistent accounts of caregivers [[Emotional validation|invalidating]] the individuals' emotions and thoughts, neglecting physical care, failing to provide necessary protection, and exhibiting emotional withdrawal and inconsistency.<ref name="failchild" /> Specifically, female individuals with BPD reporting past neglect or abuse by caregivers have a heightened likelihood of encountering sexual abuse from individuals outside their immediate family circle.<ref name="failchild" />

The enduring impact of chronic maltreatment and difficulties in forming [[secure attachment]]s during childhood has been hypothesized to potentially contribute to the development of BPD.<ref name="Dozier-1999">{{cite book | vauthors = Dozier M, Stovall-McClough KC, Albus KE |year=1999 |chapter=Attachment and psychopathology in adulthood | veditors = Cassidy J, Shaver PR |title=Handbook of attachment |pages=497–519 |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]]}}</ref> From a [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] perspective, [[Otto Kernberg]] has posited that the child's failure to navigate the developmental challenge of differentiating self from others, or as Kernberg terms it achieve the developmental task of [[Otto F. Kernberg#First developmental task: psychic clarification of self and other|psychic clarification of self and other]], and failure to overcome the internal divisions caused by [[Splitting (psychology)|splitting]] may predispose that child to BPD.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kernberg OF |title=Borderline conditions and pathological narcissism |publisher=J. Aronson |location=Northvale, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-87668-762-8 |year=1985 }}{{Page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref>

==== Invalidating environment ====
[[Marsha Linehan]]'s biosocial developmental theory posits that BPD arises from the interaction between a child's inherent emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment. Emotional vulnerability is thought to be influenced by biological and genetic factors that shape the child's temperament. Traditional biomedical constructions of BPD often focus solely on biological factors. Though these factors certainly play a role in the development of borderline personality disorder, they do not provide a complete picture. A biosocial approach considers the interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental stressors, such as childhood trauma, invalidating environments, and social relationships, in shaping the course of the disorder. <ref>. Crowell SE, Beauchaine TP, and Linehan MM (2009) ‘A Biosocial Developmental Model of Borderline Personality: Elaborating and Extending Linehan’s Theory’, Psychological Bulletin, 135(3):495-510, https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0015616. </ref>

Invalidating environments are characterized by the neglect, ridicule, dismissal, or discouragement of a child's emotions and needs, and may also encompass experiences of trauma and abuse. <ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crowell SE, Beauchaine TP, Linehan MM | title = A biosocial developmental model of borderline personality: Elaborating and extending Linehan's theory | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 135 | issue = 3 | pages = 495–510 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19379027 | pmc = 2696274 | doi = 10.1037/a0015616 }}</ref>
Invalidation from caregivers, peers, or authority figures can lead individuals with borderline personality disorder to doubt the legitimacy of their feelings and experiences. This can exacerbate their emotional dysregulation and contribute to a cycle of invalidation, distress, and maladaptive coping strategies. When emotions are consistently dismissed or criticized, individuals with BPD may resort to destructive behaviors such as self-harm, substance abuse, or impulsive actions to cope with their distress, further perpetuating the negative stigma attached to those who suffer from borderline personality disorder.<ref>. Dixon-Gordon KL, Peters JR, Fertuck EA, Yen S (2017) ‘Emotional Processes in Borderline Personality Disorder: An Update for Clinical Practice’, Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 27(4):425-438. doi: 10.1037/int0000044. </ref>

==== Clinical and Cultural Perspectives ====
Anthropologist Rebecca Lester raises two perspectives that BPD can be viewed: a clinical perspective where BPD is a “dysfunction of personality”,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lester |first=Rebecca J |date=February 2013 |title=Lessons from the borderline: Anthropology, psychiatry, and the risks of being human |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959353512467969 |journal=Feminism & Psychology |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=70–77 |doi=10.1177/0959353512467969 |issn=0959-3535}}</ref> and an academic perspective that views BPD as a “mechanism of social regulation”.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lester |first=Rebecca J |date=February 2013 |title=Lessons from the borderline: Anthropology, psychiatry, and the risks of being human |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959353512467969 |journal=Feminism & Psychology |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=70–77 |doi=10.1177/0959353512467969 |issn=0959-3535}}</ref> Lester provides the perspective that BPD as a disorder of relationships and communication; that a person with BPD lacks the communication skills and knowledge to interact effectively with others within their society and culture given their life experience. Lester provides the metaphor of the particle-wave duality in quantum physics when dealing with the distinction between cultural and clinical perspectives of BPD. Like the particle-wave-duality, when asking particle-like questions you will get particle-like answers; and if you ask wave-like questions you will get wave-like answers. Lester argues the same applies to BPD; if you ask culturally based questions about the presence of BPD you will get culturally based answers, if you ask clinical personality-based questions it will reinforce personality-based perspectives. Lester advised both perspectives are valid and should work in tandem to provide a greater understanding of BPD culturally and for the individual.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lester |first=Rebecca J |date=February 2013 |title=Lessons from the borderline: Anthropology, psychiatry, and the risks of being human |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959353512467969 |journal=Feminism & Psychology |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=70–77 |doi=10.1177/0959353512467969 |issn=0959-3535}}</ref>

In this light, Lester argues the high diagnosis of women than men with BPD goes towards arguing feminist claims. A higher diagnosis BPD in women would be expected in cultures where females are victimised. In this view BPD is seen as a cultural phenomenon. This is understandable when BPD behaviours are viewed as learnt behaviours as a consequence of their experience surviving environments that reinforce worthlessness and their rejection. To Lester these survival techniques evidence humans “resilience, adaptation, creativity”. Behaviours associated with BPD is therefore an inherently human response.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lester |first=Rebecca J |date=February 2013 |title=Lessons from the borderline: Anthropology, psychiatry, and the risks of being human |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959353512467969 |journal=Feminism & Psychology |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=70–77 |doi=10.1177/0959353512467969 |issn=0959-3535}}</ref>

===Brain and neurobiologic factors===

Research employing [[structural neuroimaging]] techniques, such as [[voxel-based morphometry]], has reported variations in individuals diagnosed with BPD in specific [[brain regions]] that have been associated with the [[psychopathology]] of BPD. Notably, reductions in volume enclosed have been observed in the [[hippocampus]], [[orbitofrontal cortex]], [[anterior cingulate cortex]], and [[amygdala]], among others, which are crucial for [[emotional self-regulation]] and [[stress management]].<ref name="Brain Structure and Function" />

In addition to structural imaging, a subset of studies utilizing [[magnetic resonance spectroscopy]] has investigated the neurometabolic profile within these affected regions. These investigations have focused on the concentrations of various neurometabolites, including [[N-acetylaspartate|''N''-acetylaspartate]], [[creatine]], compounds related to [[glutamate]], and compounds containing [[choline]]. These studies aim to show the biochemical alterations that may underlie the symptomatology observed in BPD, offering insights into BPD's neurobiological basis.<ref name="Brain Structure and Function" />

==== Neurological patterns ====
Research into BPD has identified that the propensity for experiencing intense negative emotions, a trait known as [[negative affectivity]], serves as a more potent predictor of BPD symptoms than the history of childhood sexual abuse alone.<ref name="Rosenthal">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenthal MZ, Cheavens JS, Lejuez CW, Lynch TR |date=September 2005 |title=Thought suppression mediates the relationship between negative affect and borderline personality disorder symptoms |journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy |volume=43 |issue=9 |pages=1173–1185 |doi=10.1016/j.brat.2004.08.006 |pmid=16005704}}</ref> This correlation, alongside observed variations in brain structure and the presence of BPD in individuals without traumatic histories,<ref name="Gratz2007">{{harvnb|Chapman|Gratz|2007|page=52}}</ref> delineates BPD from disorders such as PTSD that are frequently co-morbid. Consequently, investigations into BPD encompass both developmental and traumatic origins.

Research has shown changes in two [[brain circuits]] implicated in the emotional dysregulation characteristic of BPD: firstly, an escalation in activity within brain circuits associated with experiencing severe emotional pain, and secondly, a decreased activation within circuits tasked with the regulation or suppression of these intense emotions. These dysfunctional activations predominantly occur within the [[limbic system]], though individual variances necessitate further neuroimaging research to explore these patterns in detail.<ref name="Ruocco, Anthony C.; Amirthavasagam, Sathya, Choi-Kain, Lois W.; McMain, Shelley F. 2013 153–160">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ruocco AC, Amirthavasagam S, Choi-Kain LW, McMain SF | title = Neural correlates of negative emotionality in borderline personality disorder: an activation-likelihood-estimation meta-analysis | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 73 | issue = 2 | pages = 153–160 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 22906520 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.07.014 | s2cid = 8381799 }}</ref>

Contrary to earlier findings, individuals with BPD exhibit decreased amygdala activation in response to heightened negative emotional stimuli compared to control groups. John Krystal, the editor of ''[[Biological Psychiatry (journal)|Biological Psychiatry]]'', commented on these findings, suggesting they contribute to understanding the innate neurological predisposition of individuals with BPD to lead emotionally turbulent lives, which are not inherently negative or unproductive.<ref name="Ruocco, Anthony C.; Amirthavasagam, Sathya, Choi-Kain, Lois W.; McMain, Shelley F. 2013 153–160" /> This emotional volatility is consistently linked to disparities in several brain regions, emphasizing the neurobiological underpinnings of BPD.<ref name="Koenigsberg">{{cite journal | vauthors = Koenigsberg HW, Siever LJ, Lee H, Pizzarello S, New AS, Goodman M, Cheng H, Flory J, Prohovnik I | title = Neural correlates of emotion processing in borderline personality disorder | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 172 | issue = 3 | pages = 192–199 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19394205 | pmc = 4153735 | doi = 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2008.07.010 | quote = BPD patients demonstrated greater differences in activation than controls, when viewing negative pictures compared with rest, in the amygdala, fusiform gyrus, primary visual areas, superior temporal gyrus (STG), and premotor areas, while healthy controls showed greater differences than BPD patients in the insula, middle temporal gyrus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. }}</ref>

===Mediating and moderating factors===

====Executive function and social rejection sensitivity====
High sensitivity to [[social rejection]] is linked to more severe symptoms of BPD, with [[executive function]] playing a mediating role.<ref name="Executive_function">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ayduk O, Zayas V, Downey G, Cole AB, Shoda Y, Mischel W|author-link6=Walter Mischel | title = Rejection Sensitivity and Executive Control: Joint predictors of Borderline Personality features | journal = Journal of Research in Personality | volume = 42 | issue = 1 | pages = 151–168 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18496604 | pmc = 2390893 | doi = 10.1016/j.jrp.2007.04.002 }}</ref> Executive function—encompassing [[planning]], [[working memory]], [[attentional control]], and [[problem-solving]]—moderates how rejection sensitivity influences BPD symptoms. Studies demonstrate that individuals with lower executive function exhibit a stronger correlation between rejection sensitivity and BPD symptoms.<ref name="Executive_function"/> Conversely, higher executive function may mitigate the impact of rejection sensitivity, potentially offering protection against BPD symptoms.<ref name="Executive_function"/> Additionally, deficiencies in working memory are associated with increased impulsivity in individuals with BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lazzaretti M, Morandotti N, Sala M, Isola M, Frangou S, De Vidovich G, Marraffini E, Gambini F, Barale F, Zappoli F, Caverzasi E, Brambilla P | title = Impaired working memory and normal sustained attention in borderline personality disorder | journal = Acta Neuropsychiatrica | volume = 24 | issue = 6 | pages = 349–355 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 25287177 | doi = 10.1111/j.1601-5215.2011.00630.x | s2cid = 34486508 }}</ref>

====Family environment====
The family environment significantly influences the development of BPD, acting as a mediator for the effects of child sexual abuse. An unstable family environment increases the risk of developing BPD, while a stable environment can provide a protective buffer against the disorder. This dynamic suggests the critical role of familial stability in mitigating or exacerbating the risk of BPD.<ref name="Bradley">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bradley R, Jenei J, Westen D | title = Etiology of borderline personality disorder: disentangling the contributions of intercorrelated antecedents | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 193 | issue = 1 | pages = 24–31 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15674131 | doi = 10.1097/01.nmd.0000149215.88020.7c | s2cid = 21168862 }}</ref>

==Diagnosis==
The clinical diagnosis of BPD can be made through a [[psychiatric assessment]] conducted by a [[mental health professional]], ideally a [[psychiatrist]] or [[psychologist]]. This comprehensive assessment integrates various sources of information to confirm the diagnosis, encompassing the patient's self-reported [[clinical history]], observations made by the clinician during interviews, and corroborative details obtained from family members, friends, and medical records. It is crucial to thoroughly assess patients for co-morbid mental health conditions, substance use disorders, suicidal ideation, and any self-harming behaviors.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.uptodate.com/ |title=UpToDate |publisher=[[Wolters Kluwer]] |veditors=Post TW |chapter=Borderline personality disorder: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, course, assessment, and diagnosis |access-date=11 March 2023 |chapter-url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/borderline-personality-disorder-epidemiology-pathogenesis-clinical-features-course-assessment-and-diagnosis |url-access=subscription |archive-date=6 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106134307/http://uptodate.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

An effective approach involves presenting the criteria of the disorder to the individual and inquiring if they perceive these criteria as reflective of their experiences. Involving individuals in the diagnostic process may enhance their acceptance of the diagnosis. Despite the stigma associated with BPD and previous notions of its untreatability, disclosing the diagnosis to individuals is generally beneficial. It provides them with validation and directs them to appropriate treatment options.<ref name="Gund2011" />

The [[psychological evaluation]] for BPD typically explores the onset and intensity of symptoms and their impact on the individual's [[quality of life]]. Critical areas of focus include suicidal thoughts, self-harm behaviors, and any thoughts of harming others.<ref name="Mayo_Clinic_Diagnosis">{{cite web|title=Personality Disorders: Tests and Diagnosis|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/personality-disorders/DS00562/DSECTION=tests-and-diagnosis|publisher=Mayo Clinic|access-date=13 June 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606185940/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/personality-disorders/DS00562/DSECTION%3Dtests-and-diagnosis|archive-date=6 June 2013}}</ref> The diagnosis relies on both the individual's self-reported symptoms and the clinician's observations.<ref name="Mayo_Clinic_Diagnosis" /> To exclude other potential causes of the symptoms, additional assessments may include a [[physical examination]] and [[blood test]]s, to exclude thyroid disorders or substance use disorders.<ref name="Mayo_Clinic_Diagnosis" /> The [[International Classification of Diseases]] (ICD-10) categorizes the condition as ''emotionally unstable personality disorder'', with diagnostic criteria similar to those in the ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition]]'' (DSM-5), where the disorder's name remains unchanged from previous editions.<ref name="DSM53" />

=== ''DSM-5'' diagnostic criteria ===

The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition'' (DSM-5) has eliminated the multiaxial diagnostic system, integrating all disorders, including personality disorders, into Section II of the manual. For a diagnosis of BPD, an individual must meet five out of nine specified diagnostic criteria.<ref name="DSM-5-borderine personality disorders" /> The DSM-5 characterizes BPD as a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, affect, and a significant propensity towards impulsive behavior.<ref name="DSM-5-borderine personality disorders">{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2013|pages=663–8}}</ref> Moreover, the DSM-5 introduces alternative diagnostic criteria for BPD in Section III, titled "Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders". These criteria are rooted in trait research and necessitate the identification of at least four out of seven maladaptive traits.<ref name="DSM-5-borderline-alternative">{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2013|pages=766–7}}</ref> Marsha Linehan highlights the diagnostic challenges faced by mental health professionals in using the DSM criteria due to the broad range of behaviors they encompass.<ref name="Manning_13">{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=13}}</ref> To mitigate these challenges, Linehan categorizes BPD symptoms into five principal areas of dysregulation: emotions, behavior, interpersonal relationships, sense of self, and cognition.<ref name="Manning_13" />

===International Classification of Disease (ICD) diagnostic criteria===

==== ICD-11 diagnostic criteria ====
{{See also|ICD-11#Personality disorder|label 1=ICD-11 § Personality disorder}}
The [[World Health Organization]]'s [[ICD-11]] completely restructured its personality disorder section. It classifies BPD as ''Personality disorder'', ({{ICD11|6D10}}) ''Borderline pattern'', ({{ICD11|6D11.5}}). The borderline pattern specifier is defined as a personality disturbance marked by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, as well as impulsivity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics |url=https://icd.who.int/browse/2024-01/mms/en#2006821354 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314103223/https://icd.who.int/browse/2024-01/mms/en#2006821354 |archive-date=14 March 2024 |access-date=2024-03-11 |website=icd.who.int}}</ref>

{{quote
|text = Diagnosis require meeting five or more out of nine specific criteria:
* Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment.
* A pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships, which may be characterized by vacillations between idealization and devaluation, typically associated with both strong desire for and fear of closeness and intimacy.
* Identity disturbance, manifested in markedly and persistently unstable self-image or sense of self.
* A tendency to act rashly in states of high negative affect, leading to potentially self-damaging behaviours (e.g., risky sexual behaviour, reckless driving, excessive alcohol or substance use, binge eating).
* Recurrent episodes of self-harm (e.g., suicide attempts or gestures, self-mutilation).
* Emotional instability due to marked reactivity of mood. Fluctuations of mood may be triggered either internally (e.g., by one's own thoughts) or by external events. As a consequence, the individual experiences intense dysphoric mood states, which typically last for a few hours but may last for up to several days.
* Chronic feelings of emptiness.
* Inappropriate intense anger or difficulty controlling anger manifested in frequent displays of temper (e.g., yelling or screaming, throwing or breaking things, getting into physical fights).
* Transient dissociative symptoms or psychotic-like features (e.g., brief hallucinations, paranoia) in situations of high affective arousal.

Other manifestations of Borderline pattern, not all of which may be present in a given individual at a given time, include the following:
* A view of the self as inadequate, bad, guilty, disgusting, and contemptible.
* An experience of the self as profoundly different and isolated from other people; a painful sense of alienation and pervasive loneliness.
* Proneness to rejection hypersensitivity; problems in establishing and maintaining consistent and appropriate levels of trust in interpersonal relationships; frequent misinterpretation of social signals.
}}

==== ICD-10 diagnostic criteria ====
The [[ICD-10]] (version 2019) identified a condition akin to BPD it termed ''Emotionally unstable personality disorder'' (EUPD) ({{ICD10|F|60|3|f|60}}). This classification described EUPD as a personality disorder with a marked propensity for impulsive behavior without considering potential consequences. Individual with EUPD had noticeably erratic and fluctuating moods and are prone to sudden emotional outbursts, struggling to regulate these rapid shifts in emotion. Conflict and confrontational behavior are common, especially in situations where impulsive actions are criticized or hindered.

The ICD-10 recognizes two subtypes of this disorder: the ''impulsive type'', characterized mainly by emotional dysregulation and impulsivity, and the ''borderline type'', which additionally includes disturbances in self-perception, goals, and personal preferences. Those with the ''borderline subtype'' also experience a persistent feeling of emptiness, unstable and chaotic interpersonal relationships, and a predisposition towards self-harming behaviors, encompassing both suicidal ideations and suicide attempts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICD-10 Version:2019 |url=https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#F60.3 |access-date=2024-03-11 |website=icd.who.int |archive-date=31 March 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200331004754/https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en%23/U07.1#F60.3 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Millon's subtypes===
Psychologist [[Theodore Millon]] proposed four subtypes of BPD, where individuals with BPD would exhibit none, one, or multiple subtypes. The discouraged subtype is characterized by traits such as avoidance, dependency, and internalized anger and emotions. Individuals belonging to this subtype tend to exhibit impulsivity alongside compliance, loyalty, and humility. They often feel vulnerable and perpetually at risk, experiencing emotions such as hopelessness, depression, and a sense of helplessness and powerlessness.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Duică L, Antonescu E, Totan M, Boța G, Silișteanu SC |date=January 2022 |title=Borderline Personality Disorder "Discouraged Type": A Case Report |journal=Medicina |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=162 |doi=10.3390/medicina58020162 |pmc=8874928 |pmid=35208485 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The petulant type is characterized by negativism, impatience, restlessness, stubbornness, defiance, angriness, pessimism, and resentment. Individuals of this type tend to feel slighted and disillusioned with ease. The impulsive type is characterized by being captivating, unstable, superficial, erratic, distractible, frenetic, and seductive. When they fear loss, they become agitated, gloomy, and irritable, potentially leading to suicidal thoughts or actions. The self-destructive type is inward-turning, self-punishing, angry, conforming, and displays deferential and ingratiating behaviors. Their behavior tends to deteriorate over time, becoming increasingly high-strung and moody, and they may also be at risk for suicide.<ref name="Millon">{{cite book |title=Personality Disorders in Modern Life |vauthors=Millon T |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-23734-1 |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |page=4}}</ref>

===Misdiagnosis===
{{Main|Misdiagnosis of borderline personality disorder}}
Individuals with BPD are subject to [[misdiagnosis]] due to various factors, notably the overlap (comorbidity) of BPD symptoms with those of other disorders such as depression, PTSD, and bipolar disorder.<ref name="Chanen">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chanen AM, Thompson KN | title = Prescribing and borderline personality disorder | journal = Australian Prescriber | volume = 39 | issue = 2 | pages = 49–53 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 27340322 | pmc = 4917638 | doi = 10.18773/austprescr.2016.019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Meaney R, Hasking P, Reupert A | title = Borderline Personality Disorder Symptoms in College Students: The Complex Interplay between Alexithymia, Emotional Dysregulation and Rumination | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = e0157294 |year = 2016 | pmid = 27348858 | pmc = 4922551 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0157294 | bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1157294M | doi-access = free }}</ref> Misdiagnosis of BPD can lead to a range of adverse consequences. Diagnosis plays a crucial role in informing healthcare professionals about the patient's mental health status, guiding treatment strategies, and facilitating accurate reporting of successful interventions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sartorius |first=Norman |date=2015 |title=Why do we need a diagnosis? Maybe a syndrome is enough? |journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=6–7 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2015.17.1/nsartorius |pmc=4421902 |pmid=25987858}}</ref> Consequently, misdiagnosis may deprive individuals of access to suitable psychiatric medications or evidence-based psychological interventions tailored to their specific disorders.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Paris |first1=Joel |last2=Black |first2=Donald W. |date=2015 |title=Borderline Personality Disorder and Bipolar Disorder |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/nmd.0000000000000225 |journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease |volume=203 |issue=1 |pages=3–7 |doi=10.1097/nmd.0000000000000225 |issn=0022-3018 |pmid=25536097 |s2cid=2825326|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Critics of the BPD diagnosis contend that it is indistinguishable from negative affectivity upon undergoing regression and factor analyses. They maintain that the diagnosis of BPD does not provide additional insight beyond what is captured by other diagnoses, positing that it may be redundant or potentially misleading.<ref name=FG>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gutiérrez F, Aluja A, Ruiz Rodríguez J, Peri JM, Gárriz M, Garcia LF, Sorrel MA, Sureda B, Vall G, Ferrer M, Calvo N | title = Borderline, where are you? A psychometric approach to the personality domains in the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11) | journal = Personality Disorders | date = June 2022 | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 355–359 | pmid = 35737563 | doi = 10.1037/per0000592 | s2cid = 249805748 | hdl = 2445/206520 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

===Adolescence and prodrome===
The onset of BPD symptoms typically occurs during adolescence or early adulthood, with possible early signs in childhood.<ref>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=49}}</ref> Predictive symptoms in adolescents include [[body image]] issues, extreme sensitivity to rejection, behavioral challenges, [[non-suicidal self-injury]], seeking exclusive relationships, and profound shame.<ref name="Gund2011" /> Although many adolescents exhibit these symptoms without developing BPD, those who do are significantly more likely to develop the disorder and potentially face long-term social challenges.<ref name="Gund2011" />

BPD is recognized as a stable and valid diagnosis during adolescence, supported by the DSM-5 and ICD-11.<ref name="Miller_2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Miller AL, Muehlenkamp JJ, Jacobson CM |date=July 2008 |title=Fact or fiction: diagnosing borderline personality disorder in adolescents |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2008.02.004 |url-status=live |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=969–81 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2008.02.004 |pmid=18358579 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232033/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272735808000299?via%3Dihub |archive-date=4 December 2020 |access-date=23 September 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK)_2009">{{cite book |author=National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK) |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK55399/ |title=Young People With Borderline Personality Disorder |date=2009 |publisher=British Psychological Society |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232017/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK55399/ |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kaess_2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kaess M, Brunner R, Chanen A |date=October 2014 |title=Borderline personality disorder in adolescence |url=https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-pdf/134/4/782/1098814/peds_2013-3677.pdf |journal=Pediatrics |volume=134 |issue=4 |pages=782–93 |doi=10.1542/peds.2013-3677 |pmid=25246626 |s2cid=8274933 |access-date=23 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="Biskin_2015">{{cite journal |vauthors=Biskin RS |date=July 2015 |title=The Lifetime Course of Borderline Personality Disorder |journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=60 |issue=7 |pages=303–8 |doi=10.1177/070674371506000702 |pmc=4500179 |pmid=26175388}}</ref> Early detection and treatment of BPD in young individuals are emphasized in national guidelines across various countries, including the US, Australia, the UK, Spain, and Switzerland, highlighting the importance of early intervention.<ref name="Kaess_2014" /><ref>{{cite book |last=National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia) |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/948783298 |title=Clinical practice guideline for the management of borderline personality disorder |date=2013 |publisher=National Health and Medical Research Council |isbn=978-1-86496-564-3 |oclc=948783298 |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232022/https://www.worldcat.org/title/clinical-practice-guideline-for-the-management-of-borderline-personality-disorder/oclc/948783298 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=28 January 2009 |title=Overview {{!}} Borderline personality disorder: recognition and management {{!}} Guidance {{!}} NICE |url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg78 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011171334/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG78 |archive-date=11 October 2019 |access-date=23 September 2020 |website=www.nice.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Grupo de Trabajo de la Guía de Práctica Clínica sobre Trastorno Límite de la Personalidad |date=June 2011 |title=Guía de práctica clínica sobre trastorno límite de la personalidad |url=https://scientiasalut.gencat.cat/handle/11351/810 |url-status=live |journal=Scientia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232022/https://scientiasalut.gencat.cat/handle/11351/810 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |access-date=23 September 2020}}</ref>

Historically, diagnosing BPD during adolescence was met with caution,<ref name="Kaess_2014" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Treatment of Personality Disorders |vauthors=de Vito E, Ladame F, Orlandini A |date=1999 |publisher=Springer US |isbn=978-1-4419-3326-3 |veditors=Derksen J, Maffei C, Groen H |place=Boston, MA |pages=77–95 |chapter=Adolescence and Personality Disorders |doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-6876-3_7 |access-date=23 September 2020 |chapter-url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4757-6876-3_7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232040/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4757-6876-3_7 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Guilé JM, Boissel L, Alaux-Cantin S, de La Rivière SG |date=23 November 2018 |title=Borderline personality disorder in adolescents: prevalence, diagnosis, and treatment strategies |journal=Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics |volume=9 |pages=199–210 |doi=10.2147/ahmt.s156565 |pmc=6257363 |pmid=30538595 |doi-access=free}}</ref> due to concerns about the accuracy of diagnosing young individuals,<ref>{{cite book |last=American Psychiatric Association. Work Group on Borderline Personality Disorder. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/606593046 |title=Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder |date=2001 |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |oclc=606593046 |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232020/https://www.worldcat.org/title/practice-guideline-for-the-treatment-of-patients-with-borderline-personality-disorder/oclc/606593046 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=World Health Organization |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/476159430 |title=The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders : Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. |date=1992 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-068283-2 |oclc=476159430 |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232022/https://www.worldcat.org/title/icd-10-classification-of-mental-and-behavioural-disorders-clinical-descriptions-and-diagnostic-guidelines/oclc/476159430 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> the potential misinterpretation of normal adolescent behaviors, stigma, and the stability of personality during this developmental stage.<ref name="Kaess_2014" /> Despite these challenges, research has confirmed the validity and clinical utility of the BPD diagnosis in adolescents,<ref name="Miller_2008" /><ref name="National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK)_2009" /><ref name="Kaess_2014" /><ref name="Biskin_2015" /> though misconceptions persist among mental health care professionals,<ref name="Baltzersen_2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baltzersen ÅL |date=August 2020 |title=Moving forward: closing the gap between research and practice for young people with BPD |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=37 |pages=77–81 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.008 |pmid=32916475 |s2cid=221636857 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Boylan K |date=August 2018 |title=Diagnosing BPD in Adolescents: More good than harm |journal=Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=155–156 |pmc=6054283 |pmid=30038651}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Laurenssen EM, Hutsebaut J, Feenstra DJ, Van Busschbach JJ, Luyten P |date=February 2013 |title=Diagnosis of personality disorders in adolescents: a study among psychologists |journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=3 |doi=10.1186/1753-2000-7-3 |pmc=3583803 |pmid=23398887 |doi-access=free}}</ref> contributing to clinical reluctance in diagnosing and a key barrier to the provision of effective treatment BPD in this population.<ref name="Baltzersen_2020" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chanen AM |date=August 2015 |title=Borderline Personality Disorder in Young People: Are We There Yet? |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jclp.22205 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology |volume=71 |issue=8 |pages=778–91 |doi=10.1002/jclp.22205 |pmid=26192914 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232036/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jclp.22205 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |access-date=23 September 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Koehne K, Hamilton B, Sands N, Humphreys C |date=January 2013 |title=Working around a contested diagnosis: borderline personality disorder in adolescence |journal=Health |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=37–56 |doi=10.1177/1363459312447253 |pmid=22674745 |s2cid=1674596}}</ref>

A diagnosis of BPD in adolescence can indicate the persistence of the disorder into adulthood,<ref name="DSM-IV-TR">{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2000}}{{Page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref><ref name="Netherton">{{cite book | vauthors = Netherton SD, Holmes D, Walker CE |year=1999 |title=Child and Adolescent Psychological Disorders: Comprehensive Textbook |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press}}{{Page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref> with outcomes varying among individuals. Some maintain a stable diagnosis over time, while others may not consistently meet the diagnostic criteria.<ref name="Fact_or_Fiction">{{cite journal | vauthors = Miller AL, Muehlenkamp JJ, Jacobson CM | title = Fact or fiction: diagnosing borderline personality disorder in adolescents | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 28 | issue = 6 | pages = 969–981 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18358579 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2008.02.004 }}</ref> Early diagnosis facilitates the development of effective treatment plans,<ref name="DSM-IV-TR" /><ref name="Netherton" /> including family therapy, to support adolescents with BPD.<ref>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=98}}</ref>

===Differential diagnosis and comorbidity===
Lifetime [[Comorbidity|co-occurring]] (comorbid) conditions are prevalent among individuals diagnosed with BPD. Individuals with BPD exhibit higher rates of comorbidity compared to those diagnosed with other personality disorders. These comorbidities include [[mood disorders]] (such as [[major depressive disorder]] and [[bipolar disorder]]), [[anxiety disorder]]s (including [[panic disorder]], [[social anxiety disorder]], and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD)), other personality disorders (notably [[Schizotypal personality disorder|schizotypal]], [[Antisocial personality disorder|antisocial]], and [[dependent personality disorder]]), substance use disorder, [[eating disorders]] ([[anorexia nervosa]] and [[bulimia nervosa]]), [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD),<ref name="PM">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrer M, Andión O, Matalí J, Valero S, Navarro JA, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Torrubia R, Casas M | title = Comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in borderline patients defines an impulsive subtype of borderline personality disorder | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 24 | issue = 6 | pages = 812–822 | date = December 2010 | pmid = 21158602 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.2010.24.6.812 }}{{primary source inline|date=May 2013}}</ref> [[somatic symptom disorder]], and the [[dissociative disorders]].<ref name="comorbidity">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Dubo ED, Sickel AE, Trikha A, Levin A, Reynolds V | title = Axis I comorbidity of borderline personality disorder | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 155 | issue = 12 | pages = 1733–1739 | date = December 1998 | pmid = 9842784 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.155.12.1733 }}</ref> It is advised that a personality disorder diagnosis should be made cautiously during untreated mood episodes or disorders unless a comprehensive lifetime history supports the existence of a personality disorder.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vieta E | title = Bipolar II Disorder: Frequent, Valid, and Reliable | journal = Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie | volume = 64 | issue = 8 | pages = 541–543 | date = August 2019 | pmid = 31340672 | pmc = 6681515 | doi = 10.1177/0706743719855040 }}</ref>

====Comorbid Axis I disorders====
{| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center"
|-
|+Gender variations in lifetime prevalence of comorbid Axis I disorders among individuals diagnosed with BPD: A comparative study between 2008<ref name="Grant_2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grant BF, Chou SP, Goldstein RB, Huang B, Stinson FS, Saha TD, Smith SM, Dawson DA, Pulay AJ, Pickering RP, Ruan WJ |date=April 2008 |title=Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV borderline personality disorder: results from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions |journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=533–545 |doi=10.4088/JCP.v69n0404 |pmc=2676679 |pmid=18426259}}</ref> and 1998<ref name="comorbidity2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Dubo ED, Sickel AE, Trikha A, Levin A, Reynolds V |date=December 1998 |title=Axis I comorbidity of borderline personality disorder |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=155 |issue=12 |pages=1733–1739 |doi=10.1176/ajp.155.12.1733 |pmid=9842784}}</ref>
|-
! Axis I diagnosis !! Overall (%) !! Male (%) !! Female (%)
|-
! Mood disorders !! 75.0 !! 68.7 !! 80.2
|-
|[[Major depressive disorder]] || 32.1 || 27.2 || 36.1
|-
|[[Dysthymia]] || {{0}}9.7 || {{0}}7.1 || 11.9
|-
|[[Bipolar I disorder]] || 31.8 || 30.6 || 32.7
|-
|[[Bipolar II disorder]] || {{0}}7.7 || {{0}}6.7 || {{0}}8.5
|-
! Anxiety disorders !! 74.2 !! 66.1 !! 81.1
|-
|[[Panic disorder]] with [[agoraphobia]] || 11.5 || {{0}}7.7 || 14.6
|-
|Panic disorder without agoraphobia || 18.8 || 16.2 || 20.9
|-
|[[Social phobia]] || 29.3 || 25.2 || 32.7
|-
|[[Specific phobia]] || 37.5 || 26.6 || 46.6
|-
|[[post-traumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] || 39.2 || 29.5 || 47.2
|-
|[[Generalized anxiety disorder]] || 35.1 || 27.3 || 41.6
|-
|[[Obsessive–compulsive disorder]]** || 15.6 || – || –
|-
! Substance use disorders !! 72.9 !! 80.9 !! 66.2
|-
|Any [[alcohol use disorder]] || 57.3 || 71.2 || 45.6
|-
|Any non-alcohol [[substance use disorder]] || 36.2 || 44.0 || 29.8
|-
! Eating disorders** !! 53.0 !! 20.5 !! 62.2
|-
|[[Anorexia nervosa]]** || 20.8 || {{0}}7 * || 25 *
|-
|[[Bulimia nervosa]]** || 25.6 || 10 * || 30 *
|-
|[[Eating disorder not otherwise specified]]** || 26.1 || 10.8 || 30.4
|-
! Somatoform disorders** !! 10.3 !! 10 * !! 10 *
|-
|[[Somatization disorder]]** || {{0}}4.2 || – || –
|-
|[[Hypochondriasis]]** || {{0}}4.7 || – || –
|-
|[[psychogenic pain|Somatoform pain disorder]]** || {{0}}4.2 || – || –
|-
! [[Psychotic disorders]]** !! {{0}}1.3 !! {{0}}1 * !! {{0}}1 *
|-
| Colspan="4" | * Approximate values ** Values from 1998 study<ref name = comorbidity /> – Value not provided by from both studies
|}
A 2008 study stated that 75% of individuals with BPD at some point meet criteria for mood disorders, notably major depression and bipolar I, with a similar percentage for anxiety disorders.<ref name="Grant_2008" /> The same study stated that 73% of individuals with BPD meet criteria for substance use disorders, and about 40% for PTSD.<ref name="Grant_2008"/> This challenges the notion that BPD and PTSD are identical, as less than half of those with BPD exhibit PTSD symptoms in their lifetime.<ref name=comorbidity /> The study also noted significant gender differences in comorbidity among individuals with BPD: a higher proportion of males meet criteria for substance use disorders, whereas females are more likely to have PTSD and eating disorders.<ref name="comorbidity" /><ref name="Grant_2008" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gregory RJ | date = November 2006 |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/clinical-challenges-co-occurring-borderline-personality-and-substance-use-disorders |title=Clinical Challenges in Co-occurring Borderline Personality and Substance Use Disorders |journal=Psychiatric Times | series = Psychiatric Times Vol 23 No 13 | volume = 23 | issue = 13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921063228/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/clinical-challenges-co-occurring-borderline-personality-and-substance-use-disorders |archive-date=21 September 2013 }}</ref> Additionally, 38% of individuals with BPD were found to meet criteria for ADHD,<ref name="PM" /> and 15% for [[autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) in separate studies,<ref name="Ryden2008">{{cite journal| volume = 5| issue = 1| pages = 22–30| vauthors = Rydén G, Rydén E, Hetta J | title = Borderline personality disorder and autism spectrum disorder in females: A cross-sectional study| journal = Clinical Neuropsychiatry| access-date = 7 February 2013| year = 2008| url = http://www.clinicalneuropsychiatry.org/pdf/04_ryden_hetta.pdf| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055225/http://www.clinicalneuropsychiatry.org/pdf/04_ryden_hetta.pdf| archive-date = 21 September 2013| df = dmy-all}}</ref> highlighting the risk of misdiagnosis due to "lower expressions" of BPD or a complex pattern of comorbidity that might obscure the underlying personality disorder. Systematic review evidence has identified that a "substantial proportion" of patients with a BPD diagnosis may have presentations in keeping with ASD, and that this may be "especially prevalent among women, suggesting possible diagnostic bias" <ref>{{cite journal| volume = 57| issue = 2| pages = 181–196| vauthors = Gillett G, Leaves L, Patel A, Prisecaru A, Spain D, Happe F | title = The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder traits and diagnosis in adults and young people with personality disorders: A systematic review| journal = Aust N Z J Psychiatry| access-date = 29 August 2024| year = 2023| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9896258/}}</ref>. This complexity in diagnosis underscores the importance of comprehensive assessment in identifying BPD.<ref name="comorbidity" />

====Mood disorders====
Seventy-five percent (75%) of individuals with BPD concurrently experience mood disorders, notably major depressive disorder (MDD) or bipolar disorder (BD),<ref name="Robinson"/> complicating diagnostic clarity due to overlapping symptoms.<ref name=":16">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bolton S, Gunderson JG |date=September 1996 |title=Distinguishing borderline personality disorder from bipolar disorder: differential diagnosis and implications |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=153 |issue=9 |pages=1202–1207 |doi=10.1176/ajp.153.9.1202 |pmid=8780426}}</ref><ref name="APAguide">{{cite journal |author=American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines |date=October 2001 |title=Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder. American Psychiatric Association |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=158 |issue=10 Suppl |pages=1–52 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.158.1.1 |pmid=11665545 |s2cid=20392111}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Differential Diagnosis of Borderline Personality Disorder |url=http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/diffdx.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040509181831/http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/diffdx.htm |archive-date=9 May 2004 |work=BPD Today}}</ref> Distinguishing BPD from BD is particularly challenging, as behaviors part of diagnostic criteria for both BPD and BD may emerge during depressive or [[manic episodes]] in BD. However, these behaviours are likely subside as mood normalises in BD to [[Euthymia (medicine)|euthymia]], but typically are pervasive in BPD.<ref name="Chapman_87">{{harvnb|Chapman|Gratz|2007|page=87}}</ref> Thus, diagnosis should ideally be deferred until after the mood has stabilised.<ref name="BPD_vs_BD">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/manicdepressivei00good/page/108 |title=Manic-depressive illness |vauthors=Jamison KR, Goodwin FJ |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-19-503934-4 |location=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/manicdepressivei00good/page/108 108]}}</ref>

Differences between BPD and BD mood swings include their duration, with BD episodes typically lasting for at least two weeks at a time, in contrast to the rapid and transient mood shifts seen in BPD.<ref name="Chapman_87" /><ref name="BPD_vs_BD" /><ref name="Chapman_88" /> Additionally, BD mood changes are generally unresponsive to environmental stimuli, whereas BPD moods are. For example, a positive event might alleviate a depressive mood in BPD, responsiveness not observed in BD.<ref name="BPD_vs_BD" /> Furthermore, the [[euphoria]] in BPD lacks the [[racing thoughts]] and reduced need for sleep characteristic of BD,<ref name="BPD_vs_BD" /> though sleep disturbances have been noted in BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Selby EA | title = Chronic sleep disturbances and borderline personality disorder symptoms | journal = Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology | volume = 81 | issue = 5 | pages = 941–947 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23731205 | pmc = 4129646 | doi = 10.1037/a0033201 }}</ref>

An exception would be individuals with rapid-cycling BD, who can be a challenge to differentiate from the affective lability of individuals with BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mackinnon DF, Pies R | title = Affective instability as rapid cycling: theoretical and clinical implications for borderline personality and bipolar spectrum disorders | journal = Bipolar Disorders | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–14 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16411976 | doi = 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2006.00283.x | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Chapman_88">{{harvnb|Chapman|Gratz|2007|page=88}}</ref><ref name="Chapman_87" />

Historically, BPD was considered a milder form of BD,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Akiskal HS, Yerevanian BI, Davis GC, King D, Lemmi H | title = The nosologic status of borderline personality: clinical and polysomnographic study | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 142 | issue = 2 | pages = 192–198 | date = February 1985 | pmid = 3970243 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.142.2.192 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gunderson JG, Elliott GR | title = The interface between borderline personality disorder and affective disorder | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 142 | issue = 3 | pages = 277–788 | date = March 1985 | pmid = 2857532 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.142.3.277 }}</ref> or part of the bipolar spectrum. However, distinctions in phenomenology, family history, disease progression, and treatment responses refute a singular underlying mechanism for both conditions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Paris J | title = Borderline or bipolar? Distinguishing borderline personality disorder from bipolar spectrum disorders | journal = Harvard Review of Psychiatry | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 140–145 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15371068 | doi = 10.1080/10673220490472373 | s2cid = 39354034 }}</ref> Research indicates only a modest association between BPD and BD, challenging the notion of a close spectrum relationship.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Jamison KR, Goodwin FJ |title=Manic-depressive illness |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1990 |page=[https://archive.org/details/manicdepressivei00good/page/336 336] |isbn=978-0-19-503934-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/manicdepressivei00good/page/336 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Benazzi F | title = Borderline personality-bipolar spectrum relationship | journal = Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 68–74 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16019119 | doi = 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.06.010 | s2cid = 1358610 }}</ref>

====Premenstrual dysphoric disorder====
BPD is a psychiatric condition distinguishable from [[premenstrual dysphoric disorder]] (PMDD), despite some symptom overlap. BPD affects individuals persistently across all stages of the menstrual cycle, unlike PMDD, which is confined to the [[luteal phase]] and ends with [[menstruation]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rapkin AJ, Berman SM, London ED | title = The Cerebellum and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder | journal = AIMS Neuroscience | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 120–141 |year = 2014 | pmid = 28275721 | pmc = 5338637 | doi = 10.3934/Neuroscience.2014.2.120 }}</ref><ref name="Grady-Weliky">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grady-Weliky TA |date=January 2003 |title=Clinical practice. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=348 |issue=5 |pages=433–8 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp012067 |pmid=12556546}}</ref> While PMDD, affecting 3–8% of women,<ref name="Rapkin">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rapkin AJ, Lewis EI | title = Treatment of premenstrual dysphoric disorder | journal = Women's Health | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 537–56 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 24161307 | doi = 10.2217/whe.13.62 | doi-access = free }}</ref> includes mood swings, irritability, and anxiety tied to the [[menstrual cycle]], BPD presents a broader, constant emotional and behavioral challenge irrespective of hormonal changes.

====Comorbid Axis II disorders====
{| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center"
|-
|+Lifetime percentage prevalence of comorbid Axis II disorders among individuals with BPD in 2008<ref name="Grant_2008"/>
|-
! Axis II diagnosis !! Overall (%) !! Male (%) !! Female (%)
|-
! Any cluster A !! 50.4 !! 49.5 !! 51.1
|-
| [[Paranoid personality disorder|Paranoid]] || 21.3 || 16.5 || 25.4
|-
| [[Schizoid personality disorder|Schizoid]] || 12.4 || 11.1 || 13.5
|-
| [[Schizotypal personality disorder|Schizotypal]] || 36.7 || 38.9 || 34.9
|-
! Any other cluster B !! 49.2 !! 57.8 !! 42.1
|-
| [[Antisocial personality disorder|Antisocial]] || 13.7 || 19.4 || 9.0
|-
| [[Histrionic personality disorder|Histrionic]] || 10.3 || 10.3 || 10.3
|-
| [[Narcissistic personality disorder|Narcissistic]] || 38.9 || 47.0 || 32.2
|-
! Any cluster C !! 29.9 !! 27.0 !! 32.3
|-
| [[Avoidant personality disorder|Avoidant]] || 13.4 || 10.8 || 15.6
|-
| [[Dependent personality disorder|Dependent]] || 3.1 || 2.6 || 3.5
|-
| [[Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder|Obsessive–compulsive]] || 22.7 || 21.7 || 23.6
|-
|}
Approximately 74% of individuals with BPD also fulfill criteria for another [[Axis II (psychiatry)|Axis II]] personality disorder during their lifetime, according to research conducted in 2008.<ref name="Grant_2008" /> The most prevalent co-occurring disorders are from Cluster A (paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders), affecting about half of those with BPD, with schizotypal personality disorder alone impacting one-third of individuals. Being part of Cluster B, BPD patients also commonly share characteristics with other Cluster B disorders (antisocial, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders), with nearly half of individuals with BPD showing signs of these conditions, and narcissistic personality disorder affecting roughly one-third.<ref name="Grant_2008" /> Cluster C disorders (avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders) have the least comorbidity with BPD, with just under a third of individuals with BPD meeting the criteria for a Cluster C disorder.<ref name="Grant_2008" />

==Management==
{{Main|Management of borderline personality disorder}}
The main approach to managing BPD is through [[psychotherapy]], tailored to the individual's specific needs rather than applying a one-size-fits-all model based on the diagnosis alone.<ref name =Lei2011/> While medications do not directly treat BPD, they are beneficial in managing comorbid conditions like depression and anxiety.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG78/NiceGuidance/pdf/English |title=CG78 Borderline personality disorder (BPD): NICE guideline |publisher=Nice.org.uk |date=28 January 2009 |access-date=12 August 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411104754/http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG78/NiceGuidance/pdf/English |archive-date=11 April 2009 }}</ref> Evidence states short-term hospitalization does not offer advantages over community care in terms of enhancing outcomes or in the long-term prevention of suicidal behavior among individuals with BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Paris J | s2cid = 28921269 | title = Is hospitalization useful for suicidal patients with borderline personality disorder? | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 240–247 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15237044 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.18.3.240.35443 }}</ref>

===Psychotherapy===
[[File:Dialectical Behavior Therapy Cycle EN.jpg|thumb|right|The stages used in [[dialectical behavior therapy]]]]Long-term, consistent psychotherapy stands as the preferred method for treating BPD and engagement in any therapeutic approach tends to surpass the absence of treatment, particularly in diminishing self-harm impulses.<ref name="BPD_therapies">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC | title = Psychotherapy of borderline personality disorder | journal = Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica | volume = 120 | issue = 5 | pages = 373–377 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19807718 | pmc = 3876885 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01448.x }}</ref> Among the effective psychotherapeutic approaches, dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) and [[psychodynamic]] therapies have shown efficacy, although improvements may require extensive time, often years of dedicated effort.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cristea IA, Gentili C, Cotet CD, Palomba D, Barbui C, Cuijpers P | title = Efficacy of Psychotherapies for Borderline Personality Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal = JAMA Psychiatry | volume = 74 | issue = 4 | pages = 319–328 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28249086 | doi = 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.4287 | hdl = 1871.1/845f5460-273e-4150-b79d-159f37aa36a0 | s2cid = 30118081 | url = https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/845f5460-273e-4150-b79d-159f37aa36a0 | access-date = 12 December 2019 | archive-date = 4 December 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232025/https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/efficacy-of-psychotherapy-for-borderline-personality-disorder-a-s | url-status = live | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

Available treatments for BPD include [[dynamic deconstructive psychotherapy]] (DDP),<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Gabbard GO | date = 2014 | title = Psychodynamic psychiatry in clinical practice | edition = 5th | publisher = American Psychiatric Publishing | location = Washington, D.C. | pages = 445–448 }}</ref> [[mentalization-based treatment]] (MBT), transference-focused psychotherapy, dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), general psychiatric management, and [[Schema therapy|schema-focused therapy]].<ref name="Gund2011" /><ref name="Choi-Kain_2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Choi-Kain LW, Finch EF, Masland SR, Jenkins JA, Unruh BT | title = What Works in the Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder | journal = Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–30 |year = 2017 | pmid = 28331780 | pmc = 5340835 | doi = 10.1007/s40473-017-0103-z }}</ref> The effectiveness of these therapies does not significantly vary between more intensive and less intensive approaches.<ref name="LinksShah2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Links PS, Shah R, Eynan R | title = Psychotherapy for Borderline Personality Disorder: Progress and Remaining Challenges | journal = Current Psychiatry Reports | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | page = 16 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 28271272 | doi = 10.1007/s11920-017-0766-x | s2cid = 1076175 }}</ref>

[[Transference focused psychotherapy|Transference-focused psychotherapy]] is designed to mitigate absolutist thinking by encouraging individuals to express their interpretations of social interactions and their emotions, thereby fostering more nuanced and flexible categorizations.<ref name="Bliss_2014">{{cite journal| vauthors = Bliss S, McCardle M |date=1 March 2014|title=An Exploration of Common Elements in Dialectical Behavior Therapy, Mentalization Based Treatment and Transference Focused Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder|journal=Clinical Social Work Journal|volume=42|issue=1|pages=61–69|doi=10.1007/s10615-013-0456-z|s2cid=145079695|issn=0091-1674}}</ref> [[Dialectical behavior therapy]] (DBT), on the other hand, focuses on developing skills in four main areas: interpersonal communication, distress tolerance, emotional regulation, and mindfulness, aiming to equip individuals with BPD with tools to manage intense emotions and improve interpersonal relationships.<ref name="Bliss_2014" /><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Livesay WJ|chapter=Understanding Borderline Personality Disorder|title=Integrated Modular Treatment for Borderline Personality Disorder|year=2017|pages=29–38|place=Cambridge, England|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/9781107298613.004|isbn=978-1-107-29861-3|url=https://zenodo.org/record/4384573|access-date=14 March 2024|archive-date=25 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201225055919/https://zenodo.org/record/4384573|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Choi-Kain_2017" />

[[Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) targets the modification of behaviors and beliefs through problem identification related to BPD, showing efficacy in reducing anxiety, mood symptoms, suicidal ideation, and self-harming actions.<ref name="NIH2016" />

[[Mentalization-based treatment|Mentalization-based therapy]] and transference-focused psychotherapy draw from [[psychodynamic]] principles, while DBT is rooted in cognitive-behavioral principles and [[mindfulness]].<ref name="BPD_therapies" /> General psychiatric management integrates key aspects from these treatments and is seen as more accessible and less resource-intensive.<ref name="Gund2011" /> Studies suggest DBT and MBT may be particularly effective, with ongoing research into developing abbreviated forms of these therapies to enhance accessibility and reduce both financial and resource burdens on patients and providers.<ref name="DBT_vs_therapyByExperts">{{cite journal | vauthors = Linehan MM, Comtois KA, Murray AM, Brown MZ, Gallop RJ, Heard HL, Korslund KE, Tutek DA, Reynolds SK, Lindenboim N | title = Two-year randomized controlled trial and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal behaviors and borderline personality disorder | journal = Archives of General Psychiatry | volume = 63 | issue = 7 | pages = 757–766 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16818865 | doi = 10.1001/archpsyc.63.7.757 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="DBT_and_Mentalization">{{cite journal | vauthors = Paris J | title = Effectiveness of different psychotherapy approaches in the treatment of borderline personality disorder | journal = Current Psychiatry Reports | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 56–60 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20425311 | doi = 10.1007/s11920-009-0083-0 | s2cid = 19038884 }}</ref><ref name="BPD_therapies" />

[[Schema therapy|Schema-focused therapy]] considers [[List of maladaptive schemas|early maladaptive schemas]], conceptualized as organized patterns that recur throughout life in response to memories, emotions, bodily sensations, and cognitions associated with unmet childhood needs. When activated by events in the patient's life, they manifest as schema modes associated with responses such as feelings of abandonment, anger, impulsivity, self-punitiveness, or avoidance and emptiness. Schema therapy attempts to modify early maladaptive schemas and their modes with a variety of cognitive, experiential, and behavioral techniques such as cognitive restructuring, mental imagery, and behavioral experiments. It also seeks to remove some of the stigma associated with BPD by explaining to clients that most people have maladaptive schemas and modes, but that in BPD, the schemas tend to be more extreme, while the modes shift more frequently. In schema therapy, the [[therapeutic alliance]] is based on the concept of limited reparenting: it does not only facilitate treatment, but is an integral part of it as the therapist seeks to model a healthy relationship that counteracts some of the instability, rejection, and deprivation often experienced early in life by BPD patients while helping them develop similarly healthy relationships in their broader personal lives.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Young |first1=Jeffrey E |title=Schema Therapy: A Practitioner's Guide |last2=Klosko |first2=Janet S |last3=Weishaar |first3=Marjorie E |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=9781593853723 |location=New York |pages=306–372 |chapter=Schema Therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder}}</ref>

Additionally, [[mindfulness meditation]] has been associated with positive structural changes in the brain and improvements in BPD symptoms, with some participants in mindfulness-based interventions no longer meeting the diagnostic criteria for BPD after treatment.<ref name="Mindfulness_neuroscience">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tang YY, Posner MI | title = Special issue on mindfulness neuroscience | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–3 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 22956677 | pmc = 3541496 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nss104 }}</ref><ref name="Mindfulness_mechanisms">{{cite journal | vauthors = Posner MI, Tang YY, Lynch G | title = Mechanisms of white matter change induced by meditation training | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 5 | issue = 1220 | page = 1220 |year = 2014 | pmid = 25386155 | pmc = 4209813 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01220 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Mindfulness_therapies">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chafos VH, Economou P |date=October 2014 |title=Beyond borderline personality disorder: the mindful brain |journal=Social Work |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=297–302 |doi=10.1093/sw/swu030 |pmid=25365830 |s2cid=14256504}}</ref><ref name="Mindfulness_BPD">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sachse S, Keville S, Feigenbaum J |date=June 2011 |title=A feasibility study of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for individuals with borderline personality disorder |journal=Psychology and Psychotherapy |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=184–200 |doi=10.1348/147608310X516387 |pmid=22903856}}</ref>

===Medications===
A 2010 [[Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] review found that no medications were effective for the core symptoms of BPD, such as chronic feelings of emptiness, identity disturbances, and fears of abandonment. Some medications might impact isolated symptoms of BPD or those of comorbid conditions.<ref name="Stoffers">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stoffers J, Völlm BA, Rücker G, Timmer A, Huband N, Lieb K | title = Pharmacological interventions for borderline personality disorder | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 6 | page = CD005653 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20556762 | pmc = 4169794 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD005653.pub2 }}</ref> Later reviews in 2017 and 2020 confirmed these findings, with the latter noting a decline in research into medications for BPD treatment and mostly negative results.<ref name="Drugs2017rev">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hancock-Johnson E, Griffiths C, Picchioni M | title = A Focused Systematic Review of Pharmacological Treatment for Borderline Personality Disorder | journal = CNS Drugs | volume = 31 | issue = 5 | pages = 345–356 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28353141 | doi = 10.1007/s40263-017-0425-0 | s2cid = 207486732 }}</ref> [[Quetiapine]] showed some benefits for BPD severity, psychosocial impairment, aggression, and manic symptoms at doses of 150 mg/day to 300 mg/day. Despite the lack of evidence, [[SSRIs]] are still frequently prescribed for BPD.<ref name="stofferswinterling20">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stoffers-Winterling J, Storebø OJ, Lieb K |year=2020 |title=Pharmacotherapy for Borderline Personality Disorder: an Update of Published, Unpublished and Ongoing Studies |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11920-020-01164-1.pdf |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |volume=22 |issue=37 |page=37 |doi=10.1007/s11920-020-01164-1 |pmc=7275094 |pmid=32504127 |doi-access=free |access-date=30 May 2021 |archive-date=4 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504162542/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11920-020-01164-1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Specific medications have shown varied effectiveness on BPD symptoms: [[haloperidol]] and [[flupenthixol]] for anger and suicidal behavior reduction; [[aripiprazole]] for decreased impulsivity and interpersonal problems;<ref name=Stoffers/> and [[olanzapine]] and quetiapine for reducing affective instability, anger, and anxiety, though olanzapine showed less benefit for suicidal ideation than a placebo.<ref name="Stoffers" /><ref name="Drugs2017rev" /> Mood stabilizers like [[valproate]] and [[topiramate]] showed some improvements in depression, impulsivity, and anger, but the effect of [[carbamazepine]] was not significant. Of the [[antidepressant]]s, [[amitriptyline]] may reduce depression, but [[mianserin]], [[fluoxetine]], [[fluvoxamine]], and [[phenelzine]] sulfate showed no effect. [[Omega-3 fatty acid]] may ameliorate suicidality and improve depression. {{as of|2017}}, trials with these medications had not been replicated and the effect of long-term use had not been assessed.<ref name="Stoffers" /><ref name="Drugs2017rev" /> [[Lamotrigine]]<ref name="stofferswinterling20" /> and other medications like IV ketamine<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Purohith AN, Chatorikar SA, Nagaraj AK, Soman S |date = December 2021 |title=Ketamine for non-suicidal self-harm in borderline personality disorder with co-morbid recurrent depression: A case report |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders Reports |volume=6 |pages=100280 |doi=10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100280 |issn=2666-9153|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen KS, Dwivedi Y, Shelton RC |date=October 2022 |title=The effect of IV ketamine in patients with major depressive disorder and elevated features of borderline personality disorder |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |volume=315 |pages=13–16 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2022.07.054 |pmid=35905793 |s2cid=251117957 |doi-access=free}}</ref> for unresponsive depression require further research for their effects on BPD.

Given the weak evidence and potential for serious side effects, the UK [[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]] (NICE) recommends against using drugs specifically for BPD or its associated behaviors and symptoms. Medications may be considered for treating comorbid conditions within a broader treatment plan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/12125/42900/42900.pdf|publisher=UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) |title=2009 clinical guideline for the treatment and management of BPD|access-date=6 September 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618094650/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/12125/42900/42900.pdf|archive-date=18 June 2012}}</ref> Reviews suggest minimizing the use of medications for BPD to very low doses and short durations, emphasizing the need for careful evaluation and management of drug treatment in BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crawford MJ, Sanatinia R, Barrett B, Cunningham G, Dale O, Ganguli P, Lawrence-Smith G, Leeson V, Lemonsky F, Lykomitrou G, Montgomery AA, Morriss R, Munjiza J, Paton C, Skorodzien I, Singh V, Tan W, Tyrer P, Reilly JG | title = The Clinical Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of Lamotrigine in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 175 | issue = 8 | pages = 756–764 | date = August 2018 | pmid = 29621901 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17091006 | s2cid = 4588378 | doi-access = free | hdl = 10044/1/57265 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cattarinussi G, Delvecchio G, Prunas C, Moltrasio C, Brambilla P | title = Effects of pharmacological treatments on emotional tasks in borderline personality disorder: A review of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies | journal = Journal of Affective Disorders | volume = 288 | pages = 50–57 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 33839558 | doi = 10.1016/j.jad.2021.03.088 | s2cid = 233211413 }}</ref>

===Health care services===
The disparity between those benefiting from treatment and those receiving it, known as the "treatment gap," arises from several factors. These include reluctance to seek treatment, healthcare providers' underdiagnosis, and limited availability and accessibility to advanced treatments.<ref name="BPD Article">{{cite news| vauthors = Johnson RS |title=Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder|url=http://bpdfamily.com/content/treatment-borderline-personality-disorder|publisher=[[BPDFamily.com]]|date=26 July 2014|access-date=5 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714183908/http://bpdfamily.com/content/treatment-borderline-personality-disorder|archive-date=14 July 2014}}</ref> Furthermore, establishing clear pathways to services and medical care remains a challenge, complicating access to treatment for individuals with BPD. Despite efforts, many healthcare providers lack the training or resources to address severe BPD effectively, an issue acknowledged by both affected individuals and medical professionals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Friesen L, Gaine G, Klaver E, Burback L, Agyapong V | title = Key stakeholders' experiences and expectations of the care system for individuals affected by borderline personality disorder: An interpretative phenomenological analysis towards co-production of care | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 17 | issue = 9 | pages = e0274197 | date = 2022-09-22 | pmid = 36137103 | pmc = 9499299 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0274197 | bibcode = 2022PLoSO..1774197F | doi-access = free }}</ref>

In the context of psychiatric hospitalizations, individuals with BPD constitute approximately 20% of admissions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Khera GS, Bleichmar J | title = Treatment histories of borderline inpatients | journal = Comprehensive Psychiatry | volume = 42 | issue = 2 | pages = 144–150 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11244151 | doi = 10.1053/comp.2001.19749 }}</ref> While many engage in outpatient treatment consistently over several years, reliance on more restrictive and expensive treatment options, such as inpatient admission, tends to decrease over time.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Hennen J, Silk KR | title = Mental health service utilization by borderline personality disorder patients and Axis II comparison subjects followed prospectively for 6 years | journal = The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry | volume = 65 | issue = 1 | pages = 28–36 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14744165 | doi = 10.4088/JCP.v65n0105 }}</ref>

Service experiences vary among individuals with BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fallon P | title = Travelling through the system: the lived experience of people with borderline personality disorder in contact with psychiatric services | journal = Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 393–401 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12887630 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2850.2003.00617.x }}</ref> Assessing suicide risk poses a challenge for clinicians, with patients underestimating the lethality of self-harm behaviors. The suicide risk among people with BPD is significantly higher than that of the general population, characterized by a history of multiple suicide attempts during crises.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Links PS, Bergmans Y, Warwar SH |date=1 July 2004 |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/assessing-suicide-risk-patients-borderline-personality-disorder |title=Assessing Suicide Risk in Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder |journal=Psychiatric Times |series=Psychiatric Times Vol 21 No 8 |volume=21 |issue=8 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821210809/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/assessing-suicide-risk-patients-borderline-personality-disorder |archive-date=21 August 2013 }}</ref> Notably, about half of all individuals who commit suicide are diagnosed with a personality disorder, with BPD being the most common association.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lieb K, Zanarini MC, Schmahl C, Linehan MM, Bohus M | title = Borderline personality disorder | journal = Lancet | volume = 364 | issue = 9432 | pages = 453–461 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15288745 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16770-6 | s2cid = 54280127 }}</ref>

In 2014, following the death by suicide of a patient with BPD, the [[National Health Service]] (NHS) in England faced criticism from a coroner for the lack of commissioned services to support individuals with BPD. It was stated that 45% of female patients were diagnosed with BPD, yet there was no provision or prioritization for therapeutic psychological services. At that time, England had only 60 specialized inpatient beds for BPD patients, all located in London or the northeast region.<ref>{{cite news|title=National leaders warned over lack of services for personality disorders|url=https://www.hsj.co.uk/mersey-care-nhs-trust/national-leaders-warned-over-lack-of-services-for-personality-disorders/7020669.article|access-date=22 December 2017|work=Health Service Journal|date=29 September 2017|archive-date=23 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223102152/https://www.hsj.co.uk/mersey-care-nhs-trust/national-leaders-warned-over-lack-of-services-for-personality-disorders/7020669.article|url-status=live}}{{subscription required|s}}</ref>

==Prognosis==
With treatment, the majority of people with BPD can find relief from distressing symptoms and achieve [[Remission (medicine)|remission]], defined as a consistent relief from symptoms for at least two years.<ref name="longitudinal_remission">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Hennen J, Silk KR | title = The longitudinal course of borderline psychopathology: 6-year prospective follow-up of the phenomenology of borderline personality disorder | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 160 | issue = 2 | pages = 274–283 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12562573 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.274 }}</ref><ref name=PToverview/> A [[longitudinal study]] tracking the symptoms of people with BPD found that 34.5% achieved remission within two years from the beginning of the study. Within four years, 49.4% had achieved remission, and within six years, 68.6% had achieved remission. By the end of the study, 73.5% of participants were found to be in remission.<ref name=longitudinal_remission /> Moreover, of those who achieved recovery from symptoms, only 5.9% experienced recurrences. A later study found that ten years from baseline (during a hospitalization), 86% of patients had sustained a stable recovery from symptoms.<ref name="Treatment">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Reich DB, Fitzmaurice G | title = Time to attainment of recovery from borderline personality disorder and stability of recovery: A 10-year prospective follow-up study | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 167 | issue = 6 | pages = 663–667 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20395399 | pmc = 3203735 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081130}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|title=Long-Term Study of Borderline Personality Disorder Shows Importance of Measuring Real-World Outcomes |url= http://www.mclean.harvard.edu/news/press/current.php?kw=long-term-study-borderline-personality-disorder-shows-importance-measuring&id=153 |date=15 April 2010 |location=Arlington, Virginia |publisher=[[McLean Hospital]] |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=8 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130608092738/http://www.mclean.harvard.edu/news/press/current.php?kw=long-term-study-borderline-personality-disorder-shows-importance-measuring&id=153 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Patient personality can play an important role during the therapeutic process, leading to better clinical outcomes. Recent research has shown that BPD patients undergoing dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) exhibit better clinical outcomes correlated with higher levels of the trait of agreeableness in the patient, compared to patients either low in agreeableness or not being treated with DBT. This association was mediated through the strength of a working alliance between patient and therapist; that is, more agreeable patients developed stronger working alliances with their therapists, which in turn, led to better clinical outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hirsh JB, Quilty LC, Bagby RM, McMain SF | s2cid = 33621688 | title = The relationship between agreeableness and the development of the working alliance in patients with borderline personality disorder | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 616–627 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22867511 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.2012.26.4.616 }}</ref>

In addition to recovering from distressing symptoms, people with BPD can also achieve high levels of [[psychosocial]] functioning. A longitudinal study tracking the social and work abilities of participants with BPD found that six years after diagnosis, 56% of participants had good function in work and social environments, compared to 26% of participants when they were first diagnosed. Vocational achievement was generally more limited, even compared to those with other personality disorders. However, those whose symptoms had remitted were significantly more likely to have good relationships with a romantic partner and at least one parent, good performance at work and school, a sustained work and school history, and good psychosocial functioning overall.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Hennen J, Reich DB, Silk KR | title = Psychosocial functioning of borderline patients and axis II comparison subjects followed prospectively for six years | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–29 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15899718 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.19.1.19.62178 }}</ref>

==Epidemiology==
BPD has a [[point prevalence]] of 1.6%<ref name="PToverview" /> and a [[lifetime prevalence]] of 5.9% of the global population.<ref name="Grant_2008" /><ref name="DSM53" /><ref name="NIH2016" /><ref name="Wolters Kluwer" /><ref name="nimh.nih.gov" /> Within clinical settings, the occurrence of BPD is 6.4% among urban primary care patients,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gross R, Olfson M, Gameroff M, Shea S, Feder A, Fuentes M, Lantigua R, Weissman MM | title = Borderline personality disorder in primary care | journal = Archives of Internal Medicine | volume = 162 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–60 | date = January 2002 | pmid = 11784220 | doi = 10.1001/archinte.162.1.53 }}</ref> 9.3% among psychiatric [[outpatients]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zimmerman M, Rothschild L, Chelminski I | title = The prevalence of DSM-IV personality disorders in psychiatric outpatients | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 162 | issue = 10 | pages = 1911–1918 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16199838 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.10.1911 }}</ref> and approximately 20% among psychiatric [[inpatients]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) }}</ref> Despite the high utilization of healthcare resources by individuals with BPD,<ref name="Bourke_2018" /> up to half may show significant improvement over a ten-year period with appropriate treatment.<ref name="DSM53" />

Regarding gender distribution, women are diagnosed with BPD three times more frequently than men in clinical environments.<ref name="DSM53" /><ref name="Wolters Kluwer" /> Nonetheless, [[epidemiological research]] in the United States indicates no significant gender difference in the lifetime prevalence of BPD within the general population.<ref name="Lenzenweger_2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lenzenweger MF, Lane MC, Loranger AW, Kessler RC |date=September 2007 |title=DSM-IV personality disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=62 |issue=6 |pages=553–564 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.09.019 |pmc=2044500 |pmid=17217923}}</ref><ref name="Grant_2008" /> This finding implies that women with BPD may be more inclined to seek treatment compared to men. Studies examining BPD patients have found no significant differences in the rates of childhood trauma and levels of current psychosocial functioning between genders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnson DM, Shea MT, Yen S, Battle CL, Zlotnick C, Sanislow CA, Grilo CM, Skodol AE, Bender DS, McGlashan TH, Gunderson JG, Zanarini MC | title = Gender differences in borderline personality disorder: findings from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study | journal = Comprehensive Psychiatry | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 284–292 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12923706 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-440X(03)00090-7 | url = https://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1033&context=charles_sanislow | citeseerx = 10.1.1.644.9832 }}</ref> The relationship between BPD and ethnicity continues to be ambiguous, with divergent findings reported in the United States.<ref name="Wolters Kluwer" /> The overall prevalence of BPD in the U.S. prison population is thought to be 17%.<ref name="BPD_fact_sheet">{{cite web |year=2013 |title=BPD Fact Sheet |url=http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/understading-bpd/bpd-fact-sheet/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104231941/http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/understading-bpd/bpd-fact-sheet/ |archive-date=4 January 2013 |publisher=National Educational Alliance for Borderline Personality Disorder}}</ref> These high numbers may be related to the high frequency of substance use and [[substance use disorders]] among people with BPD, which is estimated at 38%.<ref name="BPD_fact_sheet" />

==History==
[[File:Edvard Munch - Salomé.jpg|thumb|Devaluation in [[Edvard Munch]]'s ''Salome'' (1903). Idealization and devaluation of others in personal relations is a common trait in BPD. The painter Edvard Munch depicted his new friend, the violinist [[Eva Mudocci]], in both ways within days. First as "a woman seen by a man in love", then as "a bloodthirsty and [[Human cannibalism|cannibalistic]] [[Salome]]".<ref name="Ed1990">{{cite book|title=Edvard Munch : the life of a person with borderline personality as seen through his art|date=1990|publisher=Lundbeck Pharma A/S|location=[Danmark]|isbn=978-87-983524-1-9|pages=34–35}}</ref> In modern times, Munch has been diagnosed as having had BPD.<ref>{{cite book | author-link = James F. Masterson | vauthors = Masterson JF | title = Search for the Real Self. Unmasking The Personality Disorders Of Our Age | chapter = Chapter 12: The Creative Solution: Sartre, Munch, and Wolfe | pages = 208–230, especially 212–213 | publisher = Simon and Schuster | location = New York | date = 1988 | isbn = 978-1-4516-6891-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Aarkrog T | title = Edvard Munch: the life of a person with borderline personality as seen through his art | publisher = Lundbeck Pharma A/S | location = Denmark | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-87-983524-1-9 }}</ref>]]
The coexistence of intense, divergent moods within an individual was recognized by [[Homer]], [[Hippocrates]], and [[Aretaeus of Cappadocia|Aretaeus]], the latter describing the vacillating presence of impulsive anger, [[melancholia]], and [[mania]] within a single person. The concept was revived by Swiss physician Théophile Bonet in 1684 who, using the term ''folie maniaco-mélancolique'',<ref>{{Harvnb|Millon|Grossman|Meagher|2004|p=172}}</ref> described the phenomenon of unstable moods that followed an unpredictable course. Other writers noted the same pattern, including the American psychiatrist Charles H. Hughes in 1884 and J. C. Rosse in 1890, who called the disorder "borderline insanity".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hughes CH |year=1884 |title=Borderline psychiatric records – prodromal symptoms of psychical impairments |journal=Alienists & Neurology |volume=5 |pages=85–90 |oclc=773814725 }}</ref> In 1921, [[Emil Kraepelin]] identified an "excitable personality" that closely parallels the borderline features outlined in the current concept of BPD.<ref name="millon">{{Harvnb|Millon|1996|pp= 645–690}}</ref>

The idea that there were forms of disorder that were neither psychotic nor simply neurotic began to be discussed in psychoanalytic circles in the 1930s.<ref name="David W Jones history of borderline">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jones DW |title=A history of borderline: disorder at the heart of psychiatry |journal=Journal of Psychosocial Studies |date=1 August 2023 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=117–134 |doi=10.1332/147867323X16871713092130 |s2cid=259893398 |url=https://oro.open.ac.uk/90946/1/90946.pdf |access-date=25 September 2023 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The first formal definition of borderline disorder is widely acknowledged to have been written by [[Adolph Stern]] in 1938.<ref name="stern">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stern A |year= 1938 |title= Psychoanalytic investigation of and therapy in the borderline group of neuroses |journal= Psychoanalytic Quarterly |volume= 7 |issue= 4 |pages= 467–489 |doi= 10.1080/21674086.1938.11925367 }}</ref><ref name="alberto">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stefana A |year= 2015 |title= Adolph Stern, father of term 'borderline personality' |journal= Minerva Psichiatrica |volume= 56 |issue=2 |pages= 95 }}</ref> He described a group of patients who he felt to be on the ''borderline'' between [[neurosis]] and [[psychosis]], who very often came from family backgrounds marked by trauma. He argued that such patients would often need more active support than that provided by classical psychoanalytic techniques.

The 1960s and 1970s saw a shift from thinking of the condition as [[Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia|borderline schizophrenia]] to thinking of it as a borderline affective disorder (mood disorder), on the fringes of bipolar disorder, [[cyclothymia]], and [[dysthymia]]. In the [[DSM-II]], stressing the intensity and variability of moods, it was called [[cyclothymic personality]] (affective personality).<ref name="DSM-IV-TR"/> While the term "borderline" was evolving to refer to a distinct category of disorder, psychoanalysts such as [[Otto Kernberg]] were using it to refer to a broad [[Spectrum disorder|spectrum]] of issues, describing an intermediate level of personality organization<ref name="millon"/> between neurosis and psychosis.<ref name="pmid3898174">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aronson TA | title = Historical perspectives on the borderline concept: a review and critique | journal = Psychiatry | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | pages = 209–222 | date = August 1985 | pmid = 3898174 | doi = 10.1080/00332747.1985.11024282 }}</ref>

After standardized criteria were developed<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gunderson JG, Kolb JE, Austin V | title = The diagnostic interview for borderline patients | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 138 | issue = 7 | pages = 896–903 | date = July 1981 | pmid = 7258348 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.138.7.896 }}</ref> to distinguish it from mood disorders and other Axis I disorders, BPD became a personality disorder diagnosis in 1980 with the publication of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-III]].<ref name="PToverview">{{cite web | vauthors = Oldham JM | date = July 2004 |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/borderline-personality-disorder-overview-0 |title=Borderline Personality Disorder: An Overview |work=Psychiatric Times |volume=XXI |issue=8 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021180803/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/borderline-personality-disorder-overview-0 |archive-date=21 October 2013 }}</ref> The diagnosis was distinguished from sub-syndromal schizophrenia, which was termed "schizotypal personality disorder".<ref name=pmid3898174/> The DSM-IV Axis II Work Group of the American Psychiatric Association finally decided on the name "borderline personality disorder", which is still in use by the DSM-5.<ref name="DSM53"/> However, the term "borderline" has been described as uniquely inadequate for describing the symptoms characteristic of this disorder.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Stone MH |year=2005 |chapter=Borderline Personality Disorder: History of the Concept | veditors = Zanarini MC |title=Borderline personality disorder |pages=1–18 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0-8247-2928-8}}</ref>

===Etymology===
Earlier versions of the DSM—before the multiaxial diagnosis system—classified most people with mental health problems into two categories: the [[Psychosis|psychotics]] and the [[Neurosis|neurotics]]. Clinicians noted a certain class of neurotics who, when in crisis, appeared to straddle the borderline into psychosis.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Moll T |title=Mental Health Primer |isbn=978-1-7205-1057-4 |page=43|date=29 May 2018 |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform }}</ref> The term "borderline personality disorder" was coined in American psychiatry in the 1960s. It became the preferred term over a number of competing names, such as "emotionally unstable character disorder" and "borderline schizophrenia" during the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Psychopharmacology Bulletin |date=1966 |publisher=The Clearinghouse |page=555 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kOnSecueiYC&pg=PA555 |access-date=5 June 2020 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204232024/https://books.google.com/books?id=_kOnSecueiYC&pg=PA555 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Spitzer RL, Endicott J, Gibbon M | title = Crossing the border into borderline personality and borderline schizophrenia. The development of criteria | journal = Archives of General Psychiatry | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–24 | date = January 1979 | pmid = 760694 | doi = 10.1001/archpsyc.1979.01780010023001 }}</ref> Borderline personality disorder was included in DSM-III (1980) despite not being universally recognized as a valid diagnosis.<ref>Harold Merskey, ''Psychiatric Illness: Diagnosis, Management and Treatment for General Practitioners and Students'', Baillière Tindall (1980), p. 415. "Borderline personality disorder is a very controversial and confusing American term, best avoided.</ref>

==Controversies==

===Credibility and validity of testimony===
The credibility of individuals with personality disorders has been questioned at least since the 1960s.<ref name="Goodwin">{{cite book| vauthors = Goodwin J | veditors = Kluft RP |title=Childhood antecedents of multiple personality|date=1985|publisher=American Psychiatric Press|isbn=978-0-88048-082-6|chapter=Chapter 1: Credibility problems in multiple personality disorder patients and abused children|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/childhoodanteced00kluf|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/childhoodanteced00kluf}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Two concerns are the incidence of [[dissociation (psychology)|dissociation episodes]] among people with BPD and the belief that lying is not uncommon in those diagnosed with the condition.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dike CC, Baranoski M, Griffith EE | title = Pathological lying revisited | journal = The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | pages = 342–349 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16186198 | url = https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=43902f103c5ab7f664c1fdfe6b2bcb7743f9bcdb | access-date = 10 January 2023 | archive-date = 10 January 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230110160409/https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=43902f103c5ab7f664c1fdfe6b2bcb7743f9bcdb | url-status = live }}</ref>

====Dissociation====
Researchers disagree about whether dissociation, or a sense of [[emotional detachment]] and physical experiences, impacts the ability of people with BPD to recall the specifics of past events. A 1999 study reported that the specificity of [[autobiographical memory]] was decreased in BPD patients.<ref name="Startup">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones B, Heard H, Startup M, Swales M, Williams JM, Jones RS | title = Autobiographical memory and dissociation in borderline personality disorder | journal = Psychological Medicine | volume = 29 | issue = 6 | pages = 1397–1404 | date = November 1999 | pmid = 10616945 | doi = 10.1017/S0033291799001208 | s2cid = 19211244 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The researchers found that decreased ability to recall specifics was correlated with patients' levels of dissociation, which 'may help them to avoid [[episodic memory|episodic]] information that would evoke acutely negative [[affect (psychology)|affect]]'.<ref name = "Startup" />

====Lying as a feature====
Some theorists argue that patients with BPD often lie. However, others write that they have rarely seen lying among patients with BPD in clinical practice.<ref name="Linehan 1993, p.17">{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=17}}</ref>

===Gender===
{{seealso|Gender differences in suicide}}

In a clinic, up to 80% of patients are women, but this might not necessarily reflect the gender distribution in the entire population.<ref>{{cite book |title=Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder: A Guide to Evidence-Based Practice |vauthors=Paris J |publisher=The Guilford Press |year=2008 |page=21}}</ref> According to Joel Paris, the primary reason for gender disparities in clinical settings is that women are more likely to develop symptoms that prompt them to seek help. Statistics indicate that twice as many women as men in the community experience depression. Conversely, men more frequently meet criteria for [[substance use disorder]] and [[psychopathy]], but tend not to seek treatment as often. Additionally, men and women with similar symptoms may manifest them differently. Men often exhibit behaviors such as increased alcohol consumption and criminal activity, while women may internalize anger, leading to conditions like depression and self-harm, such as cutting or overdosing. Hence, the gender gap observed in [[antisocial personality disorder]] and borderline personality disorder, which may share similar underlying pathologies but present different symptoms influenced by gender. In a study examining completed suicides among individuals aged 18 to 35, 30% of the suicides were attributed to people with BPD, with a majority being men and almost none receiving treatment. Similar findings were reported in another study.<ref name="Paris J 2008 21–22" />

In short, men are less likely to seek or accept appropriate treatment, more likely to be treated for symptoms of BPD such as substance use rather than BPD itself (the symptoms of BPD and ASPD possibly deriving from a similar underlying etiology); more likely to wind up in the correctional system due to criminal behavior; and, more likely to commit suicide prior to diagnosis.

Among men diagnosed with BPD there is also evidence of a higher suicide rate: "men are more than twice as likely as women—18 percent versus 8 percent"—to die by suicide.<ref name="Kreisman J, Strauss H 2004 206">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/sometimesiactcra00jero |title=Sometimes I Act Crazy. Living With Borderline Personality Disorder |vauthors=Kreisman J, Strauss H |publisher=Wiley & Sons |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-22286-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sometimesiactcra00jero/page/206 206] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

There are also sex differences in borderline personality disorder.<ref name="Sansone_2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sansone RA, Sansone LA | title = Gender patterns in borderline personality disorder | journal = Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 16–20 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21686143 | pmc = 3115767 }}</ref> Men with BPD are more likely to recreationally use substances, have explosive temper, high levels of [[novelty seeking]] and have (especially) antisocial, [[Narcissism|narcissistic]], passive-aggressive or sadistic personality traits (male BPD being characterised by antisocial overtones<ref name="Sansone_2011" />). Women with BPD are more likely to have eating disorders, mood disorders, anxiety and post-traumatic stress.<ref name="Sansone_2011" />

===Manipulative behavior===
{{undue weight section|date=June 2023|to=a single source's interpretation of manipulative behavior as unintentional, implying that this correctly describes all people with BPD}}

[[Manipulation (psychology)|Manipulative behavior]] to obtain nurturance is considered by the [[diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders#DSM-IV-TR (2000)|DSM-IV-TR]] and many mental health professionals to be a defining characteristic of borderline personality disorder.<ref>{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2000|page=705}}</ref> In one research study, 88% of therapists reported that they have experienced manipulation attempts from patient(s).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mandal E, Kocur D |date=2013 |title=Psychological masculinity, femininity and tactics of manipulation in patients with borderline personality disorder |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259344581 |journal=Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy |language=en |issue=1 |pages=45–53 |issn=2083-828X |access-date=14 March 2024 |archive-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314152609/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259344581_Psychological_masculinity_femininity_and_tactics_of_manipulation_in_patients_with_borderline_personality_disorder |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Marsha Linehan]] has argued that doing so relies upon the assumption that people with BPD who communicate intense pain, or who engage in self-harm and suicidal behavior, do so with the intention of influencing the behavior of others.<ref name = Linehanp14>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=14}}</ref> The impact of such behavior on others—often an intense emotional reaction in concerned friends, family members, and therapists—is thus assumed to have been the person's intention.<ref name = Linehanp14/>

According to Linehan, their frequent expressions of intense pain, self-harming, or suicidal behavior may instead represent a method of mood regulation or an escape mechanism from situations that feel unbearable, however, making their assumed manipulative behavior an involuntary and unintentional response.<ref>{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=15}}</ref>

One paper identified possible reasons for manipulation in BPD: identifying others feelings and reactions, a regulatory function due to insecurity, to communicate ones emotions and connect to others, or to feel as if one is in control, or to allow them to be "liberated" from relationships or commitments.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schmidt P |date=2021-12-01 |title=Crossing the Lines: Manipulation, Social Impairment, and a Challenging Emotional Life |url=https://journals.openedition.org/phenomenology/312#tocto2n1 |journal=Phenomenology and Mind |language=en |issue=21 |pages=62–72 |doi=10.17454/pam-2105 |issn=2280-7853 |access-date=14 March 2024 |archive-date=5 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240305210156/https://journals.openedition.org/phenomenology/312#tocto2n1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Stigma===
The features of BPD include: emotional instability, intense and unstable interpersonal relationships, a need for intimacy, and a fear of rejection. As a result, people with BPD often evoke intense emotions in those around them. Pejorative terms to describe people with BPD, such as "difficult", "treatment resistant", "manipulative", "demanding", and "[[attention seeking]]", are often used and may become a [[self-fulfilling prophecy]], as negative treatment of these individuals may trigger further self-destructive behavior.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aviram RB, Brodsky BS, Stanley B | title = Borderline personality disorder, stigma, and treatment implications | journal = Harvard Review of Psychiatry | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 249–256 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16990170 | doi = 10.1080/10673220600975121 | s2cid = 23923078 }}</ref>

Since BPD can be a stigmatizing diagnosis even within the mental health community, some survivors of childhood abuse who are diagnosed with BPD are re-traumatized by the negative responses they receive from healthcare providers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nehls N | title = Borderline personality disorder: gender stereotypes, stigma, and limited system of care | journal = Issues in Mental Health Nursing | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 97–112 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9601307 | doi = 10.1080/016128498249105 }}{{subscription required}}</ref> One camp{{Who|date=June 2023}} argues that it would be better to diagnose these men or women with post-traumatic stress disorder, as this would acknowledge the impact of abuse on their behavior.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} Critics of the PTSD diagnosis argue that it medicalizes abuse rather than addressing the root causes in society.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Becker D | title = When she was bad: borderline personality disorder in a posttraumatic age | journal = The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry | volume = 70 | issue = 4 | pages = 422–432 | date = October 2000 | pmid = 11086521 | doi = 10.1037/h0087769 }}</ref> Regardless, a diagnosis of PTSD does not encompass all aspects of the disorder (see [[#Brain abnormalities|brain abnormalities]] and [[#Terminology|terminology]]).

====Physical violence====
The stigma surrounding borderline personality disorder includes the belief that people with BPD are prone to violence toward others.<ref name=Chapman_31>{{harvnb|Chapman|Gratz|2007|page=31}}</ref> While movies and visual media often sensationalize people with BPD by portraying them as violent, the majority of researchers agree that people with BPD are unlikely to physically harm others.<ref name="Chapman_31"/> Although people with BPD often struggle with experiences of intense anger, a defining characteristic of BPD is that they direct it inward toward themselves.<ref name=Chapman_32>{{harvnb|Chapman|Gratz|2007|page=32}}</ref>

One 2020 study found that BPD is individually associated with psychological, physical and sexual forms of intimate partner violence (IPV), especially amongst men.<ref name=MunroMartin>{{cite journal | vauthors = Munro OE, Sellbom M | title = Elucidating the relationship between borderline personality disorder and intimate partner violence | journal = Personality and Mental Health | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 284–303 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32162499 | doi = 10.1002/pmh.1480 | s2cid = 212677723 | hdl = 10523/10488 }}</ref> In terms of the AMPD trait facets, hostility (negative affectivity), suspiciousness (negative affectivity) and risk taking (disinhibition) were most strongly associated with IPV perpetration for the total sample.<ref name=MunroMartin/>

In addition, adults with BPD have often experienced abuse in childhood, so many people with BPD adopt a "no-tolerance" policy toward expressions of anger of any kind.<ref name=Chapman_32/> Their extreme aversion to violence can cause many people with BPD to overcompensate and experience difficulties being assertive and expressing their needs.<ref name=Chapman_32/> This is one reason why people with BPD often choose to harm themselves over potentially causing harm to others.<ref name=Chapman_32/><ref name=reasons_NSSI /><ref name="Chapman_31"/>

====Mental health care providers====

People with BPD are considered to be among the most challenging groups of patients to work with in therapy, requiring a high level of skill and training for the psychiatrists, therapists, and nurses involved in their treatment.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hinshelwood RD | author-link=R. D. Hinshelwood | title = The difficult patient. The role of 'scientific psychiatry' in understanding patients with chronic schizophrenia or severe personality disorder | journal = The British Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 174 | issue = 3 | pages = 187–190 | date = March 1999 | pmid = 10448440 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.174.3.187 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A majority of psychiatric staff report finding individuals with BPD moderately to extremely difficult to work with and more difficult than other client groups.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cleary M, Siegfried N, Walter G | title = Experience, knowledge and attitudes of mental health staff regarding clients with a borderline personality disorder | journal = International Journal of Mental Health Nursing | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 186–191 | date = September 2002 | pmid = 12510596 | doi = 10.1046/j.1440-0979.2002.00246.x }}</ref> This largely negative view of BPD can result in people with BPD being terminated from treatment early, being provided harmful treatment, not being informed of their diagnosis of BPD, or being misdiagnosed.<ref name="Campbell_2020">{{cite journal| vauthors = Campbell K, Clarke KA, Massey D, Lakeman R |date=19 May 2020|title=Borderline Personality Disorder: To diagnose or not to diagnose? That is the question |journal=International Journal of Mental Health Nursing|volume=29|issue=5|pages=972–981|doi=10.1111/inm.12737|pmid=32426937|s2cid=218690798|issn=1445-8330}}</ref> With healthcare providers contributing to the stigma of a BPD diagnosis, seeking treatment can often result in the perpetuation of BPD features.<ref name="Campbell_2020" /> Efforts are ongoing to improve public and staff attitudes toward people with BPD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Deans C, Meocevic E | title = Attitudes of registered psychiatric nurses towards patients diagnosed with borderline personality disorder | journal = Contemporary Nurse | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 43–49 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16594881 | doi = 10.5172/conu.2006.21.1.43 | s2cid = 20500743 | hdl = 1959.17/66356 | url = https://researchonline.federation.edu.au/vital/access/services/Download/vital:236/DS1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Krawitz R | title = Borderline personality disorder: attitudinal change following training | journal = The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 38 | issue = 7 | pages = 554–559 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15255829 | doi = 10.1111/j.1440-1614.2004.01409.x }}</ref>

In psychoanalytic theory, the [[Stigma (sociological theory)|stigmatization]] among mental health care providers may be thought to reflect [[countertransference]] (when a therapist projects his or her own feelings on to a client). This inadvertent countertransference can give rise to inappropriate clinical responses, including excessive use of medication, inappropriate mothering, and punitive use of limit setting and interpretation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vaillant GE | title = The beginning of wisdom is never calling a patient a borderline; or, the clinical management of immature defenses in the treatment of individuals with personality disorders | journal = The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 117–134 | year = 1992 | pmid = 22700090 | pmc = 3330289 }}</ref>

Some clients feel the diagnosis is helpful, allowing them to understand that they are not alone and to connect with others with BPD who have developed helpful coping mechanisms. However, others experience the term "borderline personality disorder" as a [[pejorative]] [[labeling theory|label]] rather than an informative diagnosis. They report concerns that their self-destructive behavior is incorrectly perceived as manipulative and that the stigma surrounding this disorder limits their access to health care.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nehls N | title = Borderline personality disorder: the voice of patients | journal = Research in Nursing & Health | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 285–293 | date = August 1999 | pmid = 10435546 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1098-240X(199908)22:4<285::AID-NUR3>3.0.CO;2-R }}</ref> Indeed, mental health professionals frequently refuse to provide services to those who have received a BPD diagnosis.<ref name=Manning_ix>{{harvnb|Manning|2011|page=ix}}</ref>

===Terminology===
Because of concerns around stigma, and because of a move away from the original theoretical basis for the term (see [[#History|history]]), there is ongoing debate about renaming borderline personality disorder. While some clinicians agree with the current name, others argue that it should be changed,<ref name="borderlinepersonalitytoday.com">{{cite news| vauthors = Bogod E |title=Borderline Personality Disorder Label Creates Stigma |url=http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/label.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502181810/http://www.borderlinepersonalitytoday.com/main/label.htm |archive-date=2 May 2015 }}</ref> since many who are labelled with borderline personality disorder find the name unhelpful, stigmatizing, or inaccurate.<ref name="borderlinepersonalitytoday.com"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tara4bpd.org/dyn/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=12 |title=Understanding Borderline Personality Disorder |publisher=Treatment and Research Advancements Association for Personality Disorder |year=2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526035257/http://www.tara4bpd.org/dyn/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=12 |archive-date=26 May 2013 }}</ref> Valerie Porr, president of Treatment and Research Advancement Association for Personality Disorders states that "the name BPD is confusing, imparts no relevant or descriptive information, and reinforces existing stigma".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tara4bpd.org/dyn/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=32&Itemid=35 |title=How Advocacy is Bringing Borderline Personality Disorder into the Light | vauthors = Porr V |year=2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020191907/http://www.tara4bpd.org/dyn/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=32&Itemid=35 |archive-date=20 October 2014 }}</ref>

Alternative suggestions for names include ''emotional regulation disorder'' or ''[[emotional dysregulation]] disorder''. ''Impulse disorder'' and ''interpersonal regulatory disorder'' are other valid alternatives, according to [[John G. Gunderson]] of [[McLean Hospital]] in the United States.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Gunderson JG, Hoffman PD |title=Understanding and Treating Borderline Personality Disorder A Guide for Professionals and Families |url=https://archive.org/details/understandingtre00john |url-access=registration |location=Arlington, Virginia |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing |year=2005|isbn=978-1-58562-135-4 }}{{Page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref> Another term suggested by psychiatrist Carolyn Quadrio is ''post traumatic personality disorganization'' (PTPD), reflecting the condition's status as (often) both a form of chronic post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as well as a personality disorder.<ref name="AxisOne/AxisTwo">{{cite journal |vauthors=Quadrio C |date=December 2005 |title=Axis One/Axis Two: A disordered borderline |journal=Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry |volume=39 |pages=A97–A153 |doi=10.1111/j.1440-1614.2005.01674_39_s1.x |url=http://med.unsw.edu.au/publication/axis-oneaxis-two-disordered-borderline |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130705153948/http://med.unsw.edu.au/publication/axis-oneaxis-two-disordered-borderline |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 July 2013 |access-date=5 July 2013 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, although many with BPD do have traumatic histories, some do not report any kind of traumatic event, which suggests that BPD is not necessarily a trauma spectrum disorder.<ref name="Gratz2007" />

The Treatment and Research Advancements National Association for Personality Disorders (TARA-APD) campaigned unsuccessfully to change the name and designation of BPD in DSM-5, published in May 2013, in which the name "borderline personality disorder" remains unchanged and it is not considered a trauma- and stressor-related disorder.<ref name="DSM-5-borderline-663">{{harvnb|American Psychiatric Association|2013|pages=663–666}}</ref>

==Society and culture==

=== Literature ===
In literature, characters believed to exhibit signs of BPD include Catherine in ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' (1847), Smerdyakov in ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' (1880), and Harry Haller in ''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'' (1927).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Morris P |date=1 April 2013 |title=The Depiction of Trauma and its Effect on Character Development in the Brontë Fiction |journal=Brontë Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=157–168 |doi=10.1179/1474893213Z.00000000062 |s2cid=192230439}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ohi SI |date=26 October 2019 |title=Personality Disorder of Character Smerdyakov in Novel the Brother Karamazov Bu [sic] Fyodor Dostovesky (Translated by Constance Clara Garnett) |url=https://repository.ung.ac.id/skripsi/show/321412044/personality-disorder-of-character-smerdyakov-in-novel-the-brother-karamazov-bu-fyodor-dostovesky-translated-by-constance-clara-garnett.html |url-status=live |journal=Skripsi |volume=1 |issue=321412044 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213123501/https://repository.ung.ac.id/skripsi/show/321412044/personality-disorder-of-character-smerdyakov-in-novel-the-brother-karamazov-bu-fyodor-dostovesky-translated-by-constance-clara-garnett.html |archive-date=13 February 2023 |access-date=22 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXa0uEkiNbQC&q=borderline+personality+disorder+%22steppenwolf%22&pg=PA74 |title=Transpersonal Psychotherapy |vauthors=Wellings N, McCormick EW |date=1 January 2000 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4129-0802-3 |access-date=22 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314152701/https://books.google.com/books?id=RXa0uEkiNbQC&q=borderline+personality+disorder+%22steppenwolf%22&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q=borderline%20personality%20disorder%20%22steppenwolf%22&f=false |archive-date=14 March 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Film ===
Films have also attempted to portray BPD, with characters in ''[[Margot at the Wedding]]'' (2007), ''[[Mr. Nobody (film)|Mr. Nobody]]'' (2009), ''[[Cracks (film)|Cracks]]'' (2009),<ref name="RobinsonFG">{{cite book |title=The Field Guide to Personality Disorders |vauthors=Robinson DJ |publisher=Rapid Psychler Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-9680324-6-6 |page=113}}</ref> ''[[Truth (2013 film)|Truth]]'' (2013), ''[[Wounded (2013 film)|Wounded]] (2013)'', ''[[Welcome to Me]]'' (2014),<ref>{{cite news |date=7 May 2015 |title=Kristen Wiig earns awkward laughs and silence in 'Welcome to Me' |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/kristen-wiig-earns-awkward-laughs-and-silence-in-welcome-to-me/2015/05/06/c26d9b78-ef6d-11e4-8abc-d6aa3bad79dd_story.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604082145/http://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/kristen-wiig-earns-awkward-laughs-and-silence-in-welcome-to-me/2015/05/06/c26d9b78-ef6d-11e4-8abc-d6aa3bad79dd_story.html |archive-date=4 June 2015 |access-date=3 June 2015 |newspaper=The Washington Post |vauthors=O'Sullivan M}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=11 September 2014 |title=Toronto Film Review: 'Welcome to Me': Kristen Wiig plays a woman with borderline personality disorder in this startlingly inspired comedy from Shira Piven |url=https://variety.com/2014/film/festivals/toronto-film-review-welcome-to-me-1201304067/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617215603/http://variety.com/2014/film/festivals/toronto-film-review-welcome-to-me-1201304067/ |archive-date=17 June 2015 |access-date=3 June 2015 |newspaper=Variety |vauthors=Chang J}}</ref> and ''[[Tamasha (2015 film)|Tamasha]]'' (2015)<ref>{{cite web |date=9 November 2021 |title=Use Your Movie Time To Get Help With Mental Health Issues |url=https://www.femina.in/wellness/mental-health/use-your-movie-time-to-get-help-with-mental-health-issues-211072.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121130338/https://www.femina.in/wellness/mental-health/use-your-movie-time-to-get-help-with-mental-health-issues-211072.html |archive-date=21 January 2022 |access-date=21 January 2022 |website=[[Femina (India)]] |vauthors=Setia S}}</ref> all suggested to show traits of the disorder. The behavior of Theresa Dunn in ''[[Looking for Mr. Goodbar (novel)|Looking for Mr. Goodbar]]'' (1975) is consistent with BPD, as suggested by Robert O. Friedel.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Early Sea Changes in Borderline Personality Disorder |url=http://www.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=By_Illness&template=%2FContentManagement%2FContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=43145 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417050113/http://www.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=By_Illness&template=%2FContentManagement%2FContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=43145 |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 April 2009 |access-date=17 April 2009|journal=Current Psychiatry Reports|year= 2006|volume= 8|issue = 1|pages=1–4| vauthors = Friedel RO |doi = 10.1007/s11920-006-0071-6|pmid = 16513034|s2cid = 27719611|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Films like ''[[Play Misty for Me]]'' (1971)<ref name="Robinson_2003">{{cite book |title=Reel Psychiatry: Movie Portrayals of Psychiatric Conditions |vauthors=Robinson DJ |publisher=Rapid Psychler Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-894328-07-4 |location=Port Huron, Michigan |page=234}}</ref> and ''[[Girl, Interrupted (film)|Girl, Interrupted]]'' (1999, based on the [[Girl, Interrupted|memoir of the same name]]) suggest emotional instability characteristic of BPD,<ref>{{cite book |title=Movies and Mental Illness: Using Films to Understand Psychopathology |vauthors=Wedding D, Boyd MA, Niemiec RM |year=2005 |publisher=Hogrefe |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-88937-292-4 |page=59}}</ref> while ''[[Single White Female]]'' (1992) highlights aspects such as identity disturbance and fear of abandonment.<ref name="Robinson_2003" />{{rp|235}} Clementine in ''[[Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind]]'' (2004) is noted to show classic BPD behavior,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Alberini CM |date=29 October 2010|title=Long-term Memories: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly|journal=Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science|volume=2010|page=21|issn=1524-6205|pmc=3574792|pmid=23447766}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Young SD |date=14 March 2012|title=Psychology at the Movies |doi=10.1002/9781119941149|isbn=978-1-119-94114-9}}</ref> and [[Carey Mulligan]]'s portrayal in ''[[Shame (2011 film)|Shame]]'' (2011) is praised for its accuracy regarding BPD characteristics by psychiatrists.<ref name="Art of Psychiatry Shame review">{{cite news | vauthors = Seltzer A |title=''Shame'' and ''A Dangerous Method'' reviews |url= http://www.artofpsychiatry.co.uk/shame-and-a-dangerous-method-reviews/ |newspaper=The Art of Psychiatry |date=16 April 2012 |access-date=13 January 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116164632/http://www.artofpsychiatry.co.uk/shame-and-a-dangerous-method-reviews/ |archive-date=16 January 2017 }}</ref>

Psychiatrists have even analyzed characters such as Kylo Ren and Anakin Skywalker/[[Darth Vader]] from the ''[[Star Wars]]'' films, noting that they meet several diagnostic criteria for BPD.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Kelly E |date=21 November 2017|title=Crazy Ex-Girlfriend is the best depiction of mental health on television today|url=http://metro.co.uk/2017/11/21/crazy-ex-girlfriend-is-the-best-depiction-of-mental-health-on-television-today-7097094/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201033347/http://metro.co.uk/2017/11/21/crazy-ex-girlfriend-is-the-best-depiction-of-mental-health-on-television-today-7097094/|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=30 January 2018|website=Metro}}</ref>

=== Television ===
Television series like ''[[Crazy Ex-Girlfriend (TV series)|Crazy Ex-Girlfriend]]'' (2015), ''[[That '70s Show]]'' (2006), and the miniseries ''[[Maniac (miniseries)|Maniac]]'' (2018) depict characters with BPD.<ref>{{cite news|date=26 September 2018|title=Netflix's 'Maniac' Is A Trippy Ride with a Lot To Say About Mental Illness|website=Bustle|url=https://www.bustle.com/p/how-netflixs-maniac-uses-mental-illness-to-interrogate-what-it-means-to-be-normal-12019062|url-status=live|access-date=1 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302024650/https://www.bustle.com/p/how-netflixs-maniac-uses-mental-illness-to-interrogate-what-it-means-to-be-normal-12019062|archive-date=2 March 2019|vauthors=Patton R}}</ref> Traits of BPD and narcissistic personality disorders are observed in characters like [[Cersei Lannister|Cersei]] and [[Jaime Lannister]] from ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' (1996) and its TV adaptation ''[[Game of Thrones]]'' (2011).<ref>{{cite news|publisher=MTV News|title=A Therapist Explains Why Everyone on 'Game of Thrones' Has Serious Issues: Westeros is Basically A Living, Breathing Manual for Mental Illness|date=30 April 2015|vauthors=Rosenfield K|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/2146368/game-of-thrones-mental-illness/|access-date=13 May 2019|archive-date=13 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513175836/http://www.mtv.com/news/2146368/game-of-thrones-mental-illness/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In ''[[The Sopranos]]'' (1999), [[Livia Soprano]] is diagnosed with BPD,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Lavery D |title=This Thing of Ours: Investigating the Sopranos |date=2002 |publisher=Wallflower Press |page=118}}</ref> and even the portrayal of [[Bruce Wayne]]/Batman in the show ''[[Titans (2018 TV series)|Titans]]'' (2018) is said to include aspects of the disorder.<ref>{{cite web |title=Titans Gives Bruce Wayne a Psychological Diagnosis |date=26 August 2021 |url=https://www.cbr.com/titans-bruce-wayne-borderline-personality-disorder/ |access-date=9 August 2022 |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809095534/https://www.cbr.com/titans-bruce-wayne-borderline-personality-disorder/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The animated series ''[[BoJack Horseman|Bojack Horseman]]'' (2014) also features a main character with symptoms of BPD.<ref>{{cite web |last=Alvernaz |first=Adam |date=2019-01-29 |title=The Depressing Themes Hiding in Bojack Horseman's Closet |url=https://www.highlandernews.org/34540/depressing-themes-hiding-bojack-horsemans-closet/ |access-date=2024-01-04 |website=Highlander |language=en-US |archive-date=4 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104230452/https://www.highlandernews.org/34540/depressing-themes-hiding-bojack-horsemans-closet/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Awareness ===
Awareness of BPD has been growing, with the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] declaring May as Borderline Personality Disorder Awareness Month in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/awareness/awareness-files/background.shtml |title= BPD Awareness Month – Congressional History |work= BPD Today |publisher= Mental Health Today |access-date= 1 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110708083602/http://www.borderlinepersonalitydisorder.com/awareness/awareness-files/background.shtml |archive-date= 8 July 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Public figures like South Korean singer-songwriter [[Lee Sunmi]] have opened up about their personal experiences with the disorder, bringing further attention to its impact on individuals' lives.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Kim E|date=16 December 2020|title=선미 고백한 '경계선 인격장애' 뭐길래?|trans-title=What is the 'borderline personality disorder' that Sunmi confessed to?|language=Korean|url=https://entertain.naver.com/ranking/read?oid=082&aid=0001052070|publisher=[[Naver TV]]|access-date=16 December 2020|archive-date=6 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206162916/https://entertain.naver.com/ranking/read?oid=082&aid=0001052070|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{clear}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Psychology}}
* [[Affective empathy]]
* [[Hysteria]]
* [[Pseudohallucination]]
* [[Obsessive love disorder]]

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== General bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |author=American Psychiatric Association |author-link=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |title-link=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-89042-025-6 |edition=4th}}
* {{cite book |author=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |title-link=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-89042-555-8 |edition=5th}}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Chapman AL, Gratz KL |year=2007 |title=The Borderline Personality Disorder Survival Guide: Everything You Need to Know About Living with BPD |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=978-1-57224-507-5}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Linehan MM, Comtois KA, Murray AM, Brown MZ, Gallop RJ, Heard HL, Korslund KE, Tutek DA, Reynolds SK, Lindenboim N |author-link1=Marsha M. Linehan |date=July 2006 |title=Two-year randomized controlled trial and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal behaviors and borderline personality disorder |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |volume=63 |issue=7 |pages=757–66 |pmid=16818865 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.63.7.757 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Linehan M |author-link=Marsha M. Linehan |year=1993 |title=Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=978-0-89862-183-9}}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Manning S |year=2011 |title=Loving Someone with Borderline Personality Disorder |publisher=The Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-59385-607-6}}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Millon T |author-link=Theodore Millon |year=1996 |title=Disorders of Personality: DSM-IV-TM and Beyond |location=New York |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-471-01186-6}}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Millon T |author-link=Theodore Millon |year=2004 |title=Personality Disorders in Modern Life |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-32355-6}}
* {{cite book |vauthors=Millon T, Grossman S, Meagher SE |author-link1=Theodore Millon |year=2004 |title=Masters of the mind: exploring the story of mental illness from ancient times to the new millennium |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-471-46985-8}}
* {{cite web |vauthors=Millon T |author-link=Theodore Millon |year=2006 |title=Personality Subtypes |url=http://millon.net/taxonomy/summary.htm |access-date=1 November 2010 |archive-date=4 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104162306/http://www.millon.net/taxonomy/summary.htm |url-status=dead |website=Institute for Advanced Studies in Personology and Psychopathology|publisher=Dicandrien, Inc. }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Borderline personality disorder}}
* {{curlie|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Personality/Borderline/}}
* {{cite web|url= http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/borderline-personality-disorder/index.shtml |publisher= [[National Institute of Mental Health]] |title= Borderline personality disorder}}
* [https://www.bpdfamily.com/content/borderline-personality-disorder APA DSM 5 Definition of Borderline personality disorder]
* [https://div12.org/psychological-treatments/disorders/borderline-personality-disorder/ APA Division 12 treatment page for Borderline personality disorder]
* [https://icd.who.int/browse10/2016/en#/F60.3 ICD-10 definition of EUPD by the World Health Organization]
* [https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/borderline-personality-disorder/overview/ NHS]
* {{cite web |url=https://borderlinesupport.org.uk |title=Borderline Support UK}}

{{Medical condition classification and resources
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|60|3|f|60}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|301.83}}
| MeshID = D001883
| ICDO =
| OMIM =
| OMIM_mult =
| MedlinePlus = 000935
| eMedicineSubj = article
| eMedicineTopic = 913575
| eMedicine_mult =
| SNOMED CT = 20010003
|ICD11={{ICD11|6D11.5}}}}
{{Borderline personality disorder}}
{{ICD-10 personality disorders}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Borderline personality disorder}}
[[Category:Borderline personality disorder| ]]
[[Category:Cluster B personality disorders]]
[[Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate]]
[[Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate]]
[[Category:Women and psychology]]

Talk:Garnier integrable system

2024-08-13T12:42:43Z

131.111.5.201: /* Notation in "Schlesinger equations" Section */ new section

{{WikiProject banner shell|class=Start|
{{WikiProject Mathematics }}
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== This page should be renamed as something like "The Garnier integrable system" ==

This system was discovered in:

Garnier (1919) Sur une classe de systèmes différentiels abéliens déduits de la théorie des équations linéaires, (Rendiconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo 43, pp.155-191).

by taking the "Painlevé simplification" or "autonomous limit" of the Schlesinger system.

Several of the key ideas of Garnier’s paper were rediscovered as an offshoot of soliton theory, before Garnier’s work was rediscovered and widely disseminated, around 1980.

E.g. there is a section on it in the well-known paper of Flaschka-Newell on isomonodromy (Comm. Math. Phys. 76 (1980), 65-116), and it is mentioned in Dubrovin’s 1981 paper on theta functions, the 1980 Krichever-Novikov review ( Russian Math. Surveys 35:6 (1980), 53-79 ) and in the footnote p.156 of the 1980 paper of Jimbo-Miwa-Mori-Sato.

D.V. Chudnovsky wrote a paper on it (Let. Nuovo Cimento 26 (14) 1979), and M. Gaudin cited that in his 1983 book (La fonction d’onde de Bethe), having discovered the quantum version in 1976. [[User:Akira the east wind|Akira the east wind]] ([[User talk:Akira the east wind|talk]]) 15:57, 23 March 2023 (UTC)

== Notation in "Schlesinger equations" Section ==

It is not clear what the square brackets in [A_i, A_j] mean. The A_i are complex vector valued, so I assume [.,.] is some sort of Lie Bracket. However this is not stated in the article. This should be clarified, and if there is an explicit form for [.,.] then this should be stated. [[Special:Contributions/131.111.5.201|131.111.5.201]] ([[User talk:131.111.5.201|talk]]) 12:42, 13 August 2024 (UTC)

Qom

2024-08-12T18:40:42Z

131.111.5.201: /* Hawzah 'Ilmiyya Qom (Qom Seminary) */

{{Short description|City in Qom province, Iran}}

{{Redirect|Qum}}{{for multi|the administrative divisions|Qom province|and|Qom County|other places with the same name|Qom (disambiguation)}}

{{cite check|date=February 2017}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Qom
| native_name = {{lang|fa|قم}}
| official_name = {{longitem|style=font-size:105%;|{{nobold|{{lang|fa|کلانشهر قم}}}} · Qom Metropolis}}
| other_name =
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo4a = Qom_panorama.jpg
| photo2a = Maghabere Gonbade Sabz مقابر گنبد سبز از بناهای تاریخی شهر قم.jpg
| photo2b = IMG 0193 Qom.jpg
| photo3a = عکس از مدرسه علمیه معصومیه شهر قم.jpg
| photo3b = Jamkaran Mosque مسجد جمکران قم 15.jpg
| photo1a = The image of Hazrat Masoumeh's shrine.jpg
| spacing = 1
| color_border = white
| color = white
| size = 250
| foot_montage =
}}
| image_caption = '''Top:''' [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]], '''Second Row:''' ''Left:'' Bagh-e Gonbad-e Sabz ''Right:'' Grand Timcheh of Qom, '''Third Row:''' ''Left:'' Feyziyeh Madrasas ''Right:'' Qom [[Jamkaran Mosque]], '''Bottom:''' Panoramic view of downtown Qom
| image_flag = Flag of Qom.gif
| image_seal =
| seal_alt =
| pushpin_map = Iran
| mapsize =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[Iran]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces of Iran|Province]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Qom province|Qom]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Counties of Iran|County]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Qom County|Qom]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Bakhsh|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Central District (Qom County)|Central]]
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = [[Kian Rafezi]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_footnotes =
| population_as_of = 2016
| population_total = 1201158<ref name="2016 census"/>
| population_metro = 1260000 <ref>{{cite web|language=en-us|website=citypopulation.de|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913144137/http://citypopulation.de/world/Agglomerations.html|url=http://citypopulation.de/world/Agglomerations.html|archive-date=2018-09-13|title=Major Agglomerations of the World – Population Statistics and Maps|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref>
| population_est =
| population_est_as_of =
| population_blank1_title = Population Rank in Iran
| population_blank1 = [[List of Iran cities by population|7th]]
| population_density_km2 = auto
| timezone = [[Iran Standard Time|IRST]]
| utc_offset = +3:30
| coordinates = {{coord|34|38|24|N|50|52|35|E|dim:6km|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite map |author=((OpenStreetMap contributors)) |url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/?mlat=34.64&mlon=50.876389&zoom=13#map=13/34.6400/50.8764 |website=[[OpenStreetMap]] |title=Qom, Qom County |date=13 May 2023 |access-date=13 May 2023 |lang=fa}}</ref>
| elevation_m = 936
| blank_name = [[Köppen climate classification|Climate]]
| blank_info = [[Desert climate#Hot desert climates|BWh]]
| website = {{URL|https://qom.ir}}
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 37100
| area_code = (+98) [[List of dialling codes in Iran|025]]
}}

'''Qom''' ({{lang-fa|قم}}; {{IPA-fa|ɢom||Qom.ogg}}){{efn|Also known as '''Ghom''', '''Ghum''', or '''Qum'''}} is a city in the [[Central District (Qom County)|Central District]] of [[Qom County]], [[Qom province|Qom]] province, [[Iran]], serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district.<ref name="Tehran Province Structure">{{cite web |title = Approval of the organization and chain of citizenship of the elements and units of the national divisions of Tehran province centered on the city of Tehran |language = fa |website = Islamic Parliament Research Center |url = https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/113026 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141130203728/https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/113026 |last = Habibi |first = Hassan |archive-date = 30 November 2014 |date = 12 September 1990 |publisher = Ministry of Interior, Political-Defense Commission of the Government Board |access-date = 16 December 2023}}</ref> It is the seventh largest metropolis<ref>[https://www.amar.org.ir/news/ID/2928/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B4-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%DB%8C%DA%A9-%DA%86%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85-%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA-%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A7-%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C-%D9%85%DB%8C-%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%86%D8%AF The metropolises of Iran] amar.org.ir Retrieved 19 Oct 2018</ref> and also the seventh largest city in Iran.<ref>[https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-biggest-cities-in-iran.html The largest cities in Iran] worldatlas.com Retrieved 21 Oct 2018</ref> The city is {{convert|140|km|abbr=on}} to the south of [[Tehran]],<ref>[https://www.yjc.ir/fa/news/4784646/%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85-%D8%A2%D8%A8-%D9%88-%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%82%D9%85 The province Qom] yjc.ir Retrieved 21 Oct 2018</ref> and on the banks of the [[Qom (River)|Qom River]].

Qom is considered holy in [[Shia Islam|Shi'a]] [[Islam]], as it is the site of the [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine|shrine]] of [[Fatimah bint Musa]], sister of Imam [[Ali al-Rida|Ali ibn Musa Rida]]<ref>[https://www.tasnimnews.com/fa/news/1392/06/16/134932/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C-%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87-%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%B1%D8%AA-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D9%87-%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%A2%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AA-%D8%AA%D8%A7-%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%AA The biography of Hazrat Ma'sumeh] tasnimnews.com Retrieved 4 October 2018.</ref> (Persian: ''Imam Reza''; 789–816). The city is the largest center for Shi'a scholarship in the world, and is a significant destination of pilgrimage, with around twenty million pilgrims visiting the city every year, the majority being Iranians but also other Shi'a Muslims from all around the world.<ref>Alex Shams (6 December 2018), [https://www.dawn.com/news/1449825 "On Persian pilgrimages, Pakistanis and Indians reconnect with Iran"], ''Dawn News''. Retrieved 9 March 2019.</ref>

Qom has developed into a lively industrial center owing in part to its proximity to Tehran. It is a regional center for the distribution of [[petroleum]] and petroleum products, and a [[natural gas]] pipeline from [[Bandar Anzali]] and Tehran and a crude oil pipeline from Tehran run through Qom to the [[Abadan]] [[Abadan Refinery|refinery]] on the [[Persian Gulf]]. Qom gained additional prosperity when oil was discovered at [[Sarajeh, Qom|Sarajeh]] near the city in 1956 and a large refinery was built between Qom and Tehran.

==Etymology==
Some researchers have considered the word "Kom" (in the ancient name of Komidan (Komiran)) to mean "city" and believe that there is a lexical connection between the words "Komiran", "Shemiran (near Tehran)", "Tehran", "Chamran (in Saveh areas)" and "Iran", and they considered the old name of Qom to be "Komiran" (in the meaning of "Iran city").<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://qompajoohi.ir/%f0%9f%92%a0-%d9%86%d8%b8%d8%b1%db%8c-%d8%a8%d9%87-%da%af%d8%b0%d8%b4%d8%aa%d9%87-%d8%aa%d8%a7%d8%b1%db%8c%d8%ae%db%8c-%d9%82%d9%85/|title=💠 نظری به گذشته تاریخی قم | بنیاد قم پژوهی|accessdate=10 April 2024}}</ref>

==History==
{{Moresources | section|date=May 2024}}
{{see also|Timeline of Qom}}
[[File:Azam Mosque.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Azam Mosque in Qom]]
The present town of Qom in Central Iran dates back to ancient times. Its pre-Islamic history can be partially documented, although the earlier epochs remain unclear. Excavations at [[Tepe Sialk]] indicate that the region had been settled since ancient times (Ghirshman and Vanden Berghe), and more recent surveys have revealed traces of large, inhabited places south of Qom, dating from the 4th and 1st millennium BC. While nothing is known about the area from [[Elamite]], [[Medes]], and [[Achaemenid]] times, there are significant archeological remains from the [[Seleucid]] and [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] epochs, of which the ruins of [[Khor Abad|Khurha]] (about {{convert|70|km|mi|0|disp=or}} southwest of Qom) are the most famous and important remnants. Their dating and function have instigated long and controversial debates and interpretations, for they have been interpreted and explained variously as the remains of a [[Sasanian]] temple, or of a [[Seleucid]] Dionysian temple, or of a Parthian complex. Its true function is still a matter of dispute, but the contributions by [[Wolfram Kleiss]] point to a Parthian palace that served as a station on the nearby highway and was used until Sasanian times.<ref>Kleiss, 1973, p. 181; idem, 1981, pp. 66–67; idem, 1985, pp. 173–79</ref>

The recently published results of the excavations carried out in 1955 by Iranian archeologists have, however, revived the old thesis of a Seleucid religious building.<ref>Hakemi, pp. 16, 22, 26, 28, 35, 39</ref> Besides Khurha, which is already mentioned as [[Khor Abad]] at Qomi in the 9th century, the region has turned up a few other remnants from this epoch, including the four Parthian heads found near Qom, now kept in the [[National Museum of Iran]] in Tehran.<ref>Ghirshman, 1962, pl. 52; Hakemi, pp. 13–14 and pl. 3</ref> Qomi names Parthian personalities as founders of villages in the Qom area.<ref>Qomi, pp. 65, 82, 84–86</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=February 2017}} The possible mention of Qom in the form of [[Greek language|Greek]] names in two ancient geographical works (the Tabula Peutingera and Ptolemy's geographical tables) remains doubtful.
[[File:13 Chardin Qom.jpg|thumb|View Of Qom city in a painting in 1723 AD]]

The Sasanian epoch offers many archeological findings and remnants, besides the fact that various sources mention Qom. The most interesting building from an archeological point of view is the Qalʿa-ye Doḵtar in Qom itself, which was long thought to have served religious purposes, while more recent research points to an administrative use.<ref>Schippmann, pp. 416–21</ref> The wider surroundings of Qom also contain numerous traces from palaces, religious, military and administrative buildings.<ref>for a summary, see Drechsler, pp. 44–46</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=February 2017}} Some of these are mentioned by Qomi, who also names many more fire temples in the urban area of present Qom and its region, of which no archeological traces are left although the location of one fire temple can probably be equated with today's Masjed-e Emām in the city.<ref>Qomi, pp. 22–23, 32, 37, 61, 62, 69–71, 74, 77, 82, 90, 137–38</ref> According to Qomi, the most important fire temple of the area stood in the nearby village of [[Dizijan]].<ref>Qomi, pp. 88–89</ref>

Tāriḵ-e Qom and some other sources also speak of genuine historical figures of the Sasanian epoch in connection with Qom and its region. They shed new light on the time of the seizure of power by the first Sasanian king [[Ardashir I]], who fought his decisive battles near Qom,<ref>Qomi, pp. 70–71; Nehāyat al-erab, p. 179; Widengren, pp. 271, 743–45</ref> and the collapse of the Sasanian empire, which is extensively reported by Ebn Aʿṯam Kufi and the Nehāyat al-Erab and names a certain Šērzād as the satrap of the region.<ref>Ebn Aʿṯam, I, p. 201, II, pp. 31, 33, 58/59; Nehāyat al-Erab, pp. 383, 388</ref> The existence of an urban settlement in the Sasanian epoch is furthermore verified by Middle Persian sources (literary sources, inscriptions, and seals) that mention in the time of [[Shapur I]] and Kawād I the names Godmān/Gomān and Ērān Win(n)ārd Kawād, both of which could be identified as Qom.<ref>Frye, 1956, p. 320; idem, 1975, p. 11; Gyselen, pp. 28, 73–74</ref> Altogether one can assume that Qom functioned as a small administrative unit throughout the whole Sasanian era. Probably the urban structure of the Sasanian settlement of Qom can be compared with the type of city of [[Ctesiphon]] (Or. Madāʾen) and consisted of several villages and little towns with Abaraštejān, Mamajjān and Jamkarān as the bigger settlements that were loosely connected by defense installations.<ref>Drechsler, pp. 57–60</ref>

It is difficult to decipher the actual process of the [[Arab]] conquest of Qom from the extant [[Arabic]] sources. According to Balāḏori, the first tentative conquest of Qom took place in 23/644 by [[Abu Musa Ashaari]] after a few days of fighting (although Abu Musa's route through Western [[Persia]], as narrated by Balāḏori, appears somewhat confusing). It remains unclear who the defenders of Qom were; probably fleeing Sasanian nobles and local soldiers returning from the great battles against the Arabs formed the core of the resistance. The area remained largely untouched for 60 years after the initial conquest and was probably administered from [[Isfahan]].<ref>Balāḏori, pp. 312–14; Drechsler, pp. 69–74</ref>

The first permanent settlement of Arab settlers in Qom took place during the revolts of [[Mukhtar al-Thaqafi]] and Moṭarref b. Moḡira b. Šaʿba in 66–77/685–96, when small groups of refugees moved there and Qom itself was affected by the fighting between the [[Umayyad]] state power and the rebels<ref>Qomi, p. 38; Ṭabari, II, p. 992</ref>

The decisive step for the later urban development of Qom occurred when a group of [[Banu Ash'ar|Ashaari Arabs]] came to the area. These Ashaaries originated in [[Yemen]] and the first important figure among them was the first conqueror of the area of Qom, the above-mentioned Abu Musa Ashaari. ʿAbd-Allāh b. Saʿd and Aḥwaṣ b. Saʿd were grandsons of [[Abu Musa Ashaari|Abi Musa's]] nephew and led the group of Ashaaries that emigrated from [[Kufa]] to the region of Qom. It is not exactly clear why they migrated, but it might have also been a general opposition to the Umayyad dynasty. A central element was the early contact with the leading local [[Zoroastrian]] [[Persian people|Persian]] noble Yazdanfadar.<ref>Qomi, pp. 242–50, 258–65, 284–91; Drechsler, pp. 78–91</ref>

As the Arabs required a great deal of pasture for their large herds of cattle and were much wealthier than the local Persians, they slowly started to buy land and take over more villages. The decisive step for controlling the area was the elimination of the local Persian noble class that took place after the death of Yazdanfadar in 733.<ref>Qomi, pp. 48–49, 242, 244, 250, 253–57, 260, 262–63</ref>
[[File:Fatima-Masuma-HS2.JPG|thumb|The [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] in Qom]]

Although a few names of governors and their tax assessments are known from the time after the administrative independence, the death of [[Fātimah bint Mūsā]], the sister of the eighth Imam of Shias [[Ali al-Ridha]] in the city in 201/816–17 proved to be of great importance for the later history of Qom. Fātimah bint Mūsā died while following her brother to [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], a region in northern Iran. The place of her entombment developed from 869–70 into a building that was transformed over time into today's magnificent and economically important sanctuary.<ref>Qomi, pp. 31, 101–02, 164, 213–14; Ebn Bābuya, II, p. 271; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi 1976, I, p. 18; Drechsler, pp. 124–31</ref>

In 825–26, a major rebellion against the tax regulations of the caliphate broke out in Qom. It was caused by the refusal of the caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]] to lower the yearly tax assessment as he had done in Ray. The revolt was led by an Ashaari named Yahya ibn Emran, maintaining that taxes should not be paid to an unlawful ruler. Yahya was killed by troops sent by the caliph and the citizens were severely punished; the taxes were raised from 2 million to 7 million dirhams. Two years later the taxes were again raised by 700,000 dirham by the Ashaari governor Ali ibn Isa, who was subsequently deposed because he was strongly rejected by the inhabitants of Qom. But in 833 Ali returned to the post of governor (wali) and forcefully collected tax debts that were laid upon him by the caliph. He destroyed parts of Qom and handed over a wanted rebel to caliphal authorities under Al-Moʿtasem. Between 839–42 two contradicting tax assessments were carried out under turbulent circumstances which amounted to a sum of 5 million dirhams. The names of those involved have survived.<ref>Qomi, pp. 35, 102–04, 156–57, 163–64; Ṭabari, III, pp. 1092–93, 1102, 1106, 1111; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1983, p. 166; Drechsler, pp. 132–39</ref>
[[File:Deire Gachin Caravansarai - Sasanian dating - Iran. Qom Province - Dayr-e Gachin 01.jpg|thumb|Deire Gachin Caravansarai]]
The move of a Hadith transmitter from Kufa to Qom, which took place probably in the middle of the 9th century, indicates the increased importance of Qom as a center of Shia learning. At about the same time another military attack on the city occurred in 254/868, when Mofleḥ, the [[Turkey|Turkish]] officer of the caliph Al-Mostaʿin, executed some of its inhabitants because of the city's refusal to pay taxes. Mofleḥ became governor of Qom and lasted in that position for at least five years. During his governorship important [[Alids]] moved to Qom and there are references to close contacts between the representative of the 11th Shia's Imam, [[Hassan al-Askari]], in Qom and other Qomis. The representative Aḥmad b. Esḥāq was at the same time administrator of the Fāṭema sanctuary and the agent (wakil) responsible for the pensions of the Alids.<ref>Najāši, pp. 12, 262; Qomi, pp. 35, 156–57, 163–64, 211–12, 215; Ṭabari, III, p. 1697; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1983, p. 166; Drechsler, pp. 140–45</ref>

The first Friday mosque in Qom was built in 878–79 on the site of a fire temple, although there are also confusing reports concerning a possible earlier Friday mosque.<ref>Qomi, pp. 26, 37–38; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1976, II, pp. 115–16; Drechsler, pp. 146–48</ref> In 881–82 Qom was occupied by the Turkish military leader Edgu Tegin (Arabic: Yadkutakin b. Asātakin or Aḏkutakin), who tried to collect the tax arrears for seven years which partially ruined the guarantors (some of whom are known) of these taxes. At about the same time the early orthodox Shias achieved their victory in the town. In 893–94, at the latest, all extremists (ḡolāt) were driven out of town by the leading Shia shaikh of Qom, Aḥmad b. Moḥammed b. Isa Ashaari. Probably one year later, in 1895, the famous Islamic mystic Ḥosayn b. Manṣur Ḥallaj stayed in Qom, where he was arrested.<ref>Ṭabari, III, p. 2024, tr. XXXVII, p. 78; Qomi, pp. 35, 157–58, 163, 215; Najāši, pp. 33, 132; Ṭusi, pp. 20, 25, 247–48; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1993, pp. 34–35, 37; Drechsler, pp. 148–54</ref>

From 895–96 onwards the history of Qom was connected with a family of Turkish military leaders from the army of the caliph [[Al-Mu'tadid]], including the governor Berun (Birun). In the same year, Berun destroyed a big and probably still active fire temple located on the territory of the evolving city and probably opposite today's sanctuary of Fātimah bint Mūsā. In these unstable political times, Qom was visited by the vizier of Al-Moʿtazed, Obayd-Allah ibn Solayman, and two tax assessments were organized.<ref>Qomi, pp. 89–90, 104–06, 125, 128, 133–34, 156, 163–64; Ebn al-Faqih, p. 247; Drechsler, pp. 154–60</ref> An administrative peculiarity of Qom was put to an end at about the same time, to wit the independent appointment of judges through the Arab inhabitants of Qom until the time of al-Moktafi, which, together with the dispatch of a joint Arab-Persian delegation to the vizier Ḥamid ibn Abbas indicate the end of the elevated position of the Arabs in Qom. The period of the governor Abbas ibn Amr Ganawi (292–96/904–09) is remarkable for the presence of non-Twelver Shias in Qom and the establishment of the office of the jahbaḏ (financial officer) as the tax broker for the city, which fostered local self-determination.<ref>Qomi, pp. 17, 35–36, 149–53, 225, 229; Drechsler, pp. 160–64</ref>

In 909 Hosayn ibn Hamdan ibn Hamdun was appointed governor of Qom and Kāšān by the caliph Al-Moqtader and had to assist the caliph's army against the [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarids in Fars]]. Altogether he stayed in power only for two years before he had to return to Baghdad.<ref>Ṭabari, III, p. 2284, tr., XXXVIII, pp. 197–98; Drechsler, pp. 164–66</ref> In the years 301/913–14 to 315/927, the people of Qom had, besides another tax assessment (meanwhile the eighth), a caliphal intervention that resulted in the appointment of a governor to stabilize the administrative grip over the region. This move caused more unrest and affected the balance of power in an area that was disputed between the powers of the time (Daylamites, Samanids). Beginning in 316/928 Qom fell into the sphere of interest of Daylami warlords and was relieved from the direct authority of the caliph, although it changed hands several times between 928 and 943. The Daylamites brutally exploited the city through harsh taxes. With the firm establishment of [[Buyid dynasty|Buyids]] control from 340/951–52 on, the political circumstances were less troubled than before, although the economic situation deteriorated.<ref>Qomi, pp. 99–100, 105–06, 142–44, 164–65, 217–18; Ebn al-Aṯir, VIII, pp. 102–04, 162, 196, 290, 388–89; Drechsler, pp. 166–81</ref>

No outstanding events are reported for the relatively stable political period until 988–89, but Qom seems to have been isolated inside Persia because of its Shia creed. At the same time, the Fatima sanctuary was enlarged and the number of sayyeds residing in Qom reached a considerable number. In 373/984, Qom and its environs were impacted {{clarify|date=May 2024}} by the revolt of the [[Kurds|Kurdish]] Moḥammad Barzikāni against the [[Buyid]] Fakr-Al-Dawla.<ref>Qomi, pp. 214, 219–220; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1971, p. 117; idem, 1976, I, p. 18; Drechsler, pp. 181–91</ref>

The population amounted to 50,000 inhabitants at the most and consisted of [[Persians]] and [[Arabs]] who had adopted the Persian of the time<ref>Ebn Ḥawqal, p. 362; Drechsler, p. 198, n. 956</ref> as their language and many social customs from the Persians, whose proportion was probably smaller than the Arabs. The [[Kurds]] lived in the countryside to the west. The [[Twelver Shia]] constituted the great majority of the population and many important Shia scholars of the time came from Qom or lived there. As many as 331 male Alids lived in Qom in 988–89, and they produced a good number of community leaders and there is also mention of one prominent female ʿAlid besides Fātimah bint Mūsā. These Alids descended from the Imams and were supported by pensions.

Apart from the Shia mainstream, other Shia sects existed in the city and one can also assume the presence of [[Sunni islam|Sunnies]]. Ḏemmis, or followers of other revealed religions ([[Jews]], [[Christians]], and [[Zoroastrian]]s) must have lived in the city, too, as the payment of poll tax (jezya) indicates, although their number can only be very roughly estimated at a few thousand at the end of the 9th century and must have shrunk drastically in the 10th century. The majority of these non-Muslims were Zoroastrians, who made their living mostly as farmers. Jews must have lived in Qom as well, but information on them is scant. It is striking that the formerly dominant Ashaaries had lost their leading positions by the end of the 10th century. This points at a new social situation that allowed assimilated Persians to join the local establishment.<ref>Qomi, pp. 18, 32, 44–46, 108, 123, 125, 128, 191–241; Ebn al-Faqih, p. 209; Ebn Ḥawqal, pp. 315, 342; Ṭusi, pp. 42, 75–76, 93; Najāši, p. 276; Biruni, p. 228; Ebn Saʿd, VII, p. 382; Samʿāni, X, p. 486; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1971, pp. 121–25; 136–37; Drechsler, pp. 198–207</ref>

The city's topography in the 10th century still reflected the evolutionary merging of the original six villages; these were still separated by fields. The town center was located in the village of Mamajjān, which was connected to other parts of the city on the other side of the river by four bridges. There were about eight squares whose function is not clear and three mosques within the city. There is almost no information about madrasas. The sanctuary must have still been quite small as only two cupolas are mentioned. A bazaar and bathhouses must have existed, too, as well as certain administrative buildings (prison, mint). Five bigger and eight smaller roads indicate good traffic connections, which were supported by at least three or maybe even nine city gates.<ref>Qomi, pp. 23, 26–27, 32, 35–40, 42, 60, 167, 214, 216; Saʿidniā, pp. 151–53, 155–56, 158–59; Drechsler, pp. 194–98</ref>

Qom was then in a difficult economic and social position. Many houses inside the city as well as bridges and mills were ruined, and the roads and agriculture were suffering from an insecure situation. This has to be attributed to difficult social circumstances and excessive taxation.<ref>Qomi, pp. 13, 27, 36–37, 53–56; Drechsler, pp. 192–93</ref> The water supply seems to have been satisfactory and the Ashaaries seem to have undertaken continuous renovation works on the irrigation channels between 733 and 900. The Ašʿaris were also the proprietors of the water rights, which were safeguarded in the water authority (divān-e āb) that regulated the water shares. The system made the Ašʿaris the wealthiest inhabitants of Qom and stayed in place until 347/958–59 when they were expropriated by the Buyids, which consequently brought about a decline in the whole system of irrigation. Although there were attempts at restoration in 371/981–82, only three of originally twenty-one channels had flowing water which meant enough drinking water was supplied for the population, but the available amount could not have been adequate for agricultural purposes.<ref>Yaʿqubi, pp. 273–74; Qomi, pp. 40–46; 48–53, 244; Lambton, 1989, pp. 156–59; Drechsler, pp. 243–52</ref>
[[File:The_Grand_Teemcheh.jpg|thumb|Grand Timcheh.]]
Altogether the state of cultivation in Qom seems to have resembled that of the other regions of Persia, although the thirty different crops and plants are only indirectly mentioned in connection with the tax assessments. The soil is reported to have good quality and produced big quantities of food. Little is known about animal husbandry in the region, but the considerable number of fifty-one mills existed, of which a fifth was in decay. Legends speak of mineral deposits and mines of [[silver]], [[iron]], [[gold]] and [[lead]], while Kurds seem to have produced salt from a lake nearby (see [[Namak Lake|Qom Lake]]). The production of chairs, textiles, and saddle equipment indicates craftsmanship.<ref>Qomi, pp. 48, 53–56, 76–77, 87–88, 107–08, 112–13, 119–22, 167, 174–76, 244, 251; Ebn Ḥawqal, p. 342; Ebn al-Faqih; pp. 50, 265; Moqaddasi, pp. 396, 470; Spuler, pp. 387–90, 392–94; 405–06, 408; Drechsler, pp. 253–58</ref>

The city's taxation has to be distinguished between the more proper rule of the [[Abbasid]] tax bureaucracy and the time of the [[Deylamid dynasty|Deylamid]] warlords where rules were bent arbitrarily. A stunning diversity of taxes is known (often meant to serve the Abbasid bureaucracy and the Deylamid and Buyid war machinery) but the [[Karaj]] (land tax), which was composed of many different separate sums, was the most important single tax existing in Qom at least since post-Sasanian times. Within the known 18 tax figures ranging over 160 years there are great differences and the tax figures vary from 8 million to 2 million dirhams with a mean value at around 3 million. In taxation Qom always followed the solar calendar with its own local variation, starting from the death of the Sasanian [[Yazdegerd III]]. A highly differentiated tax administration existed and is known in great detail; 24 tax collectors (ʿommāl) are listed from 189/804–05 to 371/981–82 plus two jahabaḏa who acted as mediators after the attempt to enforce collective responsibility by the taxpayers had failed. The information in the Tāriḵ-e Qom on taxation also mention by name 21 tax districts (rasātiq) in the region with 900 villages.<ref>Qomi, pp. 28–29, 31, 34, 38–39, 42, 56–59, 101–90, 242, 253, 262; Balāḏori, p. 314; Yaʿqubi, p. 274; Ebn al-Faqih, pp. 264–65; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1983, pp. 28, 40–41; Lambton, 1969, pp. 41–45; Drechsler, pp. 258–73, 285–306</ref>

Little is known about the time until the period of [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuki]] dominance. In 387/997, Qom became involved in internal Buyid quarrels and was subsequently unsuccessfully besieged. In 418/1027–28, Qom fell under the rule of Šahryuš from the [[Kakuyids|Kakuyid]] dynasty and a few years later (1030–40) it became part of the [[Ghaznavid]] domain. The Seljuki did not occupy Qom at once but left the town and Jebāl in Kakuyid hands for ten years. From 442/1050–51 on, the city was under [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuk]] rule and nothing is known about its fate until 487/1094. Afterwards the growing instability of the Seljuk empire involved Qom in the power struggles between the competing Seljuk factions in Jebāl and the city changed hands many times. The most stable period seems to have been the 14 years (513–27/1119–33) when Qom lay in Sanjar's sphere of power and witnessed the construction of a second Friday mosque.<ref>Ebn al-Aṯir, IX, pp. 204, 357–58, 429–30, X, pp. 289, 332–33, 551, XI, p. 237; ʿAbd-al-Jalil Qazvini, pp. 167–68; Bayhaqi, pp. 422–33; Mostawfi, pp. 833, 841; Bosworth, 1968, pp. 38, 106–110, 120, 125, 135; Drechsler, pp. 208–19</ref>

Qom enjoyed relative prosperity in its economy in the Seljuk period. The rigidly [[Sunni]] Seljuks seem to have practiced a pragmatic policy and one of the main sources of this time (ʿAbd-al-Jalil Qazvini) speaks of good relations between the famous vizier [[Nizam al-Mulk]] and Seljuk sultans on the one hand, and members of the local nobility on the other. Sultans reportedly visited the sanctuary (although no specific sultan is mentioned by name) and in general no religiously motivated punitive action against Qom is known to have taken place. Under Seljuk rule a considerable number of religious buildings were erected. At least ten madrasas are known by name. Two Friday mosques seem to have existed in Seljuk times: the old one was renovated and a new one, located outside of the town area, was built in 528/1133–34 by the order of Sultan Togrel II (''Persian:'' {{lang|fa|سلطان طغرل دوم}}). Qom must have expanded during this period, but precise reasons for its prosperity are not known. A family of Ḥosaynid Alids was influential and provided a number of community leaders. Another important Shia family was that of the Daʿwidār (''Persian:'' {{lang|fa|دعوی‌دار}}), whose members were judges (''Arabic:'' {{lang|ar|قاضی}}) in town, which indicates the transformation of Qom from a town governed by the Sunnis to a completely [[Shai]] domain.<ref>ʿAbd-al-Jalil Qazvini, pp. 47, 51, 163–64, 182, 191, 220–21, 229–30, 280, 430, 437, 494, 643; Abu'l-Rajāʾ Qomi, pp. 105–06, 262; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1971, pp. 5, 130, 138–39, 165–67; idem, 1976, I, p. 20, II, pp. 109–10, 217–18; Drechsler, pp. 220–28</ref>

The following epochs of the [[Eldiguzids]] and [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khawrazmshahs]] lasted for almost 30 years and brought different systems of rule in quick succession. The two noteworthy events of this period are the execution of ʿEzz-al-Din Yaḥyā, the naqib of the Shias, by the Tekesh in 592/1196 and the work on the tiles of the sanctuary (probably in 605–13/1208–17), which indicate a certain economic prosperity at a time of unstable political conditions. From 614/1217–18 until the Mongol attack, Qom remained under [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm]].<ref>Ebn al-Aṯir, X, p. 118, XII, p. 317; Abu'l-Rajāʾ Qomi, p. 262; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1971, pp. 132–33; Drechsler, pp. 228–31</ref>

The [[Mongol]] invasion led to the total destruction of Qom by the armies of the Mongol generals, Jebe and Sübedei, in 621/1224 and left the city in ruins for at least twenty years, when the sources (Jovayni) tell of the levying of taxes. Twenty years later, reconstruction and repair works, probably sponsored by some wealthy inhabitants, were being done on the mausoleums of Shia saints in the city, which contradict those sources, such as Ḥamd-Allāh Mostawfi, that describe Qom as a ruined and depopulated city throughout the [[Ilkhanid]] period. Besides, the fact that the Ilkhanid vizier Šams-al-Din Jovayni took refuge in the Fātimah bint Mūsā sanctuary in 683/1284, indicates that the city must have experienced at least a modest comeback. The city walls were probably rebuilt and, moreover, four graves of saints are known to have been constructed between 720/1301 and 1365. Additionally, some fine tiles are known from this period. Nothing is known about the irrigation systems of the town, but nearby a dam was built in the Ilkhanid period and the local administration must have functioned again, as the name of a judge shows. The agricultural situation is described as flourishing with a variety of cultivated plants and a good supply of water, and legends indicate the use of deposits of mineral resources. Information exists concerning taxes for the post-Mongolian period. Qom paid 40,000 dinars, but more remarkable is the fact that some of the surrounding rural districts paid as much as Qom or even more, which suggests that the whole administrative structure of districts had also changed.<ref>Ebn al-Aṯir, XII, p. 419; Rašid al-Din Fażl-Allāh, 1957, p. 63; Jovayni, pp. 538, 542; Ḥamd-Allāh Mostawfi, 1919, pp. 67–68, 71–73; Boyle, pp. 311, 331, 337, 368–69, 496, 541; Spuler, 1955, pp. 30–31, 41, 82–83; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1976, II, p. 35, 43, 67, 78; Survey of Persian Art, IV, pp. 1684–86; Drechsler, pp. 232–41, 308–12</ref>

In the late 14th century, the city was plundered by [[Tamerlane]] and the inhabitants were massacred. Qom gained special attention and gradually developed due to its religious shrine during the Saffavid dynasty. By 1503, Qom became one of the important centers of theology in relation to Shia Islam and became a significant religious pilgrimage site and pivot.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}

The city suffered heavy damage again during the Afghan invasions, resulting in consequent severe economic hardships. Qom further sustained damage during the reign of [[Nader Shah]] and the conflicts between the two households of [[Zand dynasty|Zandieh]] and [[Qajar dynasty|Qajariyeh]] in order to gain power over Iran. Finally in 1793 Qom came under the control of [[Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar]]. On being victorious over his enemies, the Qajar [[Sultan]] [[Fath Ali Shah]] was responsible for the repairs done on the sepulchre and Holy Shrine of Hæzræt Mæ'sume, as he had made such a vow.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

The city of Qom began another era of prosperity in the Qajar era. After Russian forces entered [[Karaj]] in 1915, many of the inhabitants of Tehran moved to Qom due to reasons of proximity, and the transfer of the capital from Tehran to Qom was even discussed. But the British and Russians defeated prospects of the plan by putting [[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] under political pressure.

As a center of religious learning Qom fell into decline for about a century from 1820 to 1920 but had a resurgence when Shaykh [[Abdul Karim Haeri Yazdi]] accepted an invitation to move from Sultanabad (now called [[Arak, Iran]]), where he had been teaching, to Qom.<ref>Momen, Moojan, ''An Introduction to Shi'i Islam'', Yale University Press, 1985, p. 247</ref>

In 1964–65, before his exile from Iran, the [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] led his opposition to the [[Pahlavi dynasty]] from Qom. On 19 February 2020, the [[Iranian Students News Agency]] reported that the first two cases of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Iran]] were detected in Qom.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2020/02/19/world/middleeast/ap-ml-china-outbreak-iran.html|website=New York Times|title=Iran Reports Its First 2 Cases of the New Coronavirus|date=19 February 2020|access-date=10 April 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200219152859/https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2020/02/19/world/middleeast/ap-ml-china-outbreak-iran.html|archive-date=19 February 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Demographics==
===Population===
{{Historical populations|percentages = pagr |1986| 543,139|1991|681,253|1996|777,677|2006|959,116 |2011|1,074,036|align=right|footnote=source:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.citypopulation.de/en/iran/cities/|title=Iran: Provinces, Major Cities & Towns - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information|website=www.citypopulation.de|accessdate=10 April 2024}}</ref>|2016|1,201,158}}

At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 957,496 in 241,827 households.<ref name="2006 census">{{cite web | title = Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006) | page = 25 | language = fa | publisher = The Statistical Center of Iran | website = AMAR | url = http://www.amar.org.ir/DesktopModules/FTPManager/upload/upload2360/newjkh/newjkh/25.xls | access-date = 25 September 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110920083730/http://www.amar.org.ir/DesktopModules/FTPManager/upload/upload2360/newjkh/newjkh/25.xls | format = Excel | archive-date = 20 September 2011}}</ref> The following census in 2011 counted 1,074,036 people in 299,752 households.<ref name="2011 census">{{cite web | title = Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1390 (2011) | page = 25 | language = fa | publisher = The Statistical Center of Iran | website = Syracuse University | url = https://irandataportal.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/Qom.xls | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230120002334/https://irandataportal.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/Qom.xls | archive-date = 20 January 2023 | access-date = 19 December 2022 | format = Excel}}</ref> The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 1,201,158 people in 356,976 households.<ref name="2016 census">{{cite web | title = Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1395 (2016) | page = 25 | language = fa | publisher = The Statistical Center of Iran | website = AMAR | url = https://www.amar.org.ir/Portals/0/census/1395/results/abadi/CN95_HouseholdPopulationVillage_25.xlsx | access-date = 19 December 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210111121233/https://www.amar.org.ir/Portals/0/census/1395/results/abadi/CN95_HouseholdPopulationVillage_25.xlsx | format = Excel | archive-date = 11 January 2021}}</ref>

==Geography==
Qom, the capital of Qom province, is located 125 kilometers south of Tehran, on a low plain. The shrine of Fatimeh Masumeh, the sister of [[Imam Reza]], is located in this city, which is considered by [[Shia|Shiʿa Muslim]]s holy. The city is located in the boundary of the central desert of Iran (''Kavir-e Markazi''). At the 2011 census its population was 1,074,036,<ref name="IranCensus2006|25">{{IranCensus2006|25}}</ref> comprising 545,704 males and 528,332 females.

Qom is a focal center of the [[Shia Islam|Shiʿah]].<ref>[http://www.irna.ir/qom/fa/News/81744195 The holy city of Qom is the pole of Shia world] irna.ir Retrieved 10 Oct 2018</ref><ref>[http://aghigh.ir/fa/news/82930/%D9%82%D9%85-%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AF-%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%AA%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B9-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AF Qom should be the capital of Shia world] aghigh.ir Retrieved 10 Oct 2018</ref> Since the revolution, the clerical population has risen from around 25,000 to more than 45,000 and the non-clerical population has more than tripled to about 700,000. Substantial sums of money in the form of alms and Islamic taxes flow into Qom to the ten ''[[Marja']]-e taqlid'' or "Source to be Followed" that reside there.<ref name="Bellaiguep.24">Christopher de Bellaigue, ''The Struggle for Iran'', New York Review of Books, 2007, p. 24</ref> The number of seminary schools in Qom is now over fifty, and the number of research institutes and libraries somewhere near two hundred and fifty.<ref name="Bellaiguep.24"/>

Its theological center and the [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] are prominent features of Qom.<ref>[http://www.islamquest.net/en/archive/question/fa6564 When does the history of the holy shrine of Lady Ma'sumah start from?] islamquest.net Retrieved 10 Oct 2018</ref><ref>[http://iqna.ir/fa/news/3733201/%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B4-%D9%82%D9%85-%D9%88-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87-%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%B1%D8%AA-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D9%87%D8%B3-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%B8%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C The role of Qom and Hazrat Ma'sumah's court in the appearance of Islamic republic] iqna.ir Retrieved 10 Oct 2018</ref> Another very popular religious site of pilgrimage formerly outside the city of Qom but now more of a suburb is called [[Jamkaran]]. Qom's proximity to Tehran has allowed the clerical establishment easy access to monitor the affairs and decisions of state. Many Grand Ayatollahs possess offices in both Tehran and Qom; many people simply commute between the two cities as they are only {{convert|156|km|mi|0|disp=or}} apart. Southeast of Qom is the ancient city of [[Kashan]]. Directly south of Qom lie the towns of [[Delijan]], [[Mahallat]], Naraq, [[Pardisan City]], Kahak, and [[Jasb]]. The surrounding area to the west of Qom is populated by [[Tafresh]], [[Saveh]], and [[Ashtian]] and Jafarieh. [[Arak, Iran|Arak]] city (Industrial Capital of Iran) is in the southwest of Qom.
[[File:Qom_panorama.jpg|1000px|center|View Of Southwestern Qom]]

===Climate===
Qom has a [[hot desert climate]] bordering a [[cold desert climate]] based on [[Köppen climate classification]] (''BWh'' bordering on ''BWk'') and has an [[arid climate]] based on [[Trewartha climate classification]] (''BW''), with low annual rainfall due to remoteness from the sea and being situated in the vicinity of the [[subtropical anticyclone]] aloft. Summer weather is very hot and essentially rainless, whilst in winter weather can vary from warm to – when Siberian air masses are driven south across the [[Alborz Mountains]] by blocking over Europe – frigid. An example of the latter situation was in January 2008 when minima fell to {{convert|−23|C|F|1|disp=or}} on the 15th, whilst earlier similar situations occurred in January 1964 and to a lesser extent January 1950, January 1972 and December 1972.

The highest recorded temperature was {{convert|47|°C|0}} on 11 July 2010 and the lowest recorded temperature was {{convert|-23|°C|0}} on 15 January 2008.

{{Weather box
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
|location = Qom (1986–2010, records 1986–2020)
|Jan record high C = 23.4
|Feb record high C = 26.5
|Mar record high C = 35.5
|Apr record high C = 37.0
|May record high C = 41.8
|Jun record high C = 45.9
|Jul record high C = 47.0
|Aug record high C = 45.6
|Sep record high C = 42.3
|Oct record high C = 37.7
|Nov record high C = 31.0
|Dec record high C = 22.5
|year record high C = 47.0
|Jan high C = 10.2
|Feb high C = 13.6
|Mar high C = 19.1
|Apr high C = 26.0
|May high C = 31.8
|Jun high C = 37.9
|Jul high C = 40.3
|Aug high C = 39.4
|Sep high C = 34.9
|Oct high C = 27.7
|Nov high C = 18.9
|Dec high C = 12.2
|year high C = 26.0
|Jan mean C = 4.2
|Feb mean C = 7.1
|Mar mean C = 12.0
|Apr mean C = 18.3
|May mean C = 23.6
|Jun mean C = 29.1
|Jul mean C = 31.8
|Aug mean C = 30.3
|Sep mean C = 25.2
|Oct mean C = 19.0
|Nov mean C = 11.5
|Dec mean C = 6.1
|year mean C = 18.2
|Jan low C = -1.9
|Feb low C = 0.6
|Mar low C = 5.0
|Apr low C = 10.5
|May low C = 15.4
|Jun low C = 20.2
|Jul low C = 23.4
|Aug low C = 21.2
|Sep low C = 15.6
|Oct low C = 10.3
|Nov low C = 4.1
|Dec low C = -0.1
|year low C = 10.4
|Jan record low C = -23.0
|Feb record low C = -11.2
|Mar record low C = -11.0
|Apr record low C = -0.2
|May record low C = 5.4
|Jun record low C = 8.0
|Jul record low C = 15.0
|Aug record low C = 11.8
|Sep record low C = 6.5
|Oct record low C = 0.6
|Nov record low C = -11.0
|Dec record low C = -10.5
|year record low C = -23.0
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 25.4
|Feb precipitation mm = 20.5
|Mar precipitation mm = 27.7
|Apr precipitation mm = 20.2
|May precipitation mm = 10.4
|Jun precipitation mm = 2.3
|Jul precipitation mm = 0.7
|Aug precipitation mm = 0.3
|Sep precipitation mm = 0.8
|Oct precipitation mm = 6.2
|Nov precipitation mm = 14.3
|Dec precipitation mm = 19.4
|Jan humidity = 66
|Feb humidity = 58
|Mar humidity = 48
|Apr humidity = 42
|May humidity = 33
|Jun humidity = 24
|Jul humidity = 23
|Aug humidity = 24
|Sep humidity = 26
|Oct humidity = 38
|Nov humidity = 52
|Dec humidity = 66
|year humidity = 41
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 4.4
|Feb precipitation days = 4.1
|Mar precipitation days = 4.2
|Apr precipitation days = 3.9
|May precipitation days = 2.0
|Jun precipitation days = 0.4
|Jul precipitation days = 0.2
|Aug precipitation days = 0.1
|Sep precipitation days = 0.3
|Oct precipitation days = 1.8
|Nov precipitation days = 2.6
|Dec precipitation days = 3.2
|Jan snow days = 3.1
|Feb snow days = 1.4
|Mar snow days = 0.3
|Apr snow days = 0.0
|May snow days = 0.0
|Jun snow days = 0.0
|Jul snow days = 0.0
|Aug snow days = 0.0
|Sep snow days = 0.0
|Oct snow days = 0.0
|Nov snow days = 0.1
|Dec snow days = 0.9
|Jan sun = 185.0
|Feb sun = 194.0
|Mar sun = 221.5
|Apr sun = 233.3
|May sun = 296.6
|Jun sun = 351.5
|Jul sun = 354.5
|Aug sun = 347.3
|Sep sun = 309.9
|Oct sun = 263.4
|Nov sun = 204.9
|Dec sun = 172.7
|source 1 = Iran Meteorological Organization (records),<ref name= records>
*{{cite web|url=http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/7.asp|title=Highest record temperature in Ghom by Month 1986–2010|publisher=Iran Meteorological Organization|access-date=8 April 2015}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/6.asp|title=Lowest record temperature in Ghom by Month 1986–2010|publisher=Iran Meteorological Organization|access-date=8 April 2015}}</ref> (temperatures),<ref name=temperatures>*{{cite web|url=http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/3.asp|title=Average Maximum temperature in Ghom by Month 1986–2010|publisher=Iran Meteorological Organization|access-date=8 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906134337/http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/3.asp|archive-date=2014-09-06|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/5.asp|title=Average Mean Daily temperature in Ghom by Month 1986–2010|publisher=Iran Meteorological Organization|access-date=8 April 2015}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/2.asp|title=Average Minimum temperature in Ghom by Month 1986–2010|publisher=Iran Meteorological Organization|access-date=8 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906035549/http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/2.asp|archive-date=2014-09-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> (precipitation),<ref name=precipitation>
{{cite web|url=http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/25.asp|title=Monthly Total Precipitation in Ghom by Month 1986–2010|publisher=Iran Meteorological Organization|access-date=8 April 2015}}</ref> (humidity),<ref name=humidity>{{cite web|url=http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/14.asp|title=Average relative humidity in Ghom by Month 1986–2010|publisher=Iran Meteorological Organization|access-date=8 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916074028/http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/14.asp|archive-date=2014-09-16|url-status=dead}}</ref> (days with precipitation and snow),<ref name=precipdays>*{{cite web|url=http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/29.asp|title=No. of days with precipitation equal to or greater than 1 mm in Ghom by Month 1986–2010|publisher=Iran Meteorological Organization|access-date=8 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140822011201/http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/29.asp|archive-date=2014-08-22|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/32.asp|title=No. of days with snow or sleet in Ghom by Month 1986–2010|publisher=Iran Meteorological Organization|access-date=8 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826001622/http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/32.asp|archive-date=2014-08-26|url-status=dead}}</ref> (sunshine)<ref name=sunshine>{{cite web|url=http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/42.asp|title=Monthly total sunshine hours in Ghom by Month 1986–2010|publisher=Iran Meteorological Organization|access-date=8 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906204143/http://www.chaharmahalmet.ir/stat/archive/iran/qom/GHOM/42.asp|archive-date=2014-09-06|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}

==Governance==
Authority for the city lies with the mayor, who is elected by a municipal board. The municipal board is periodically elected by the city's residents. The municipal central office is located on Saheli Street. The current mayor of Qom is Mohammad Delbari.

===Old districts===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* Soltan Mohammad Sharif
* Bagh Pambeh
* Jouy Shour
* Safaiyyeh
* Sadough
* Yakhchal Ghazi
* Shah Ahmad Ghasim
* Bagh Ashrafi
* Darvaze Ghale'
* Khandagh
* Ghale Amou Hossein
{{col-break}}
* Barassoun
* Hammam Taalaar
* Sang Band
* Eshgh Ali
* Tekyeh Agha Sayyed Hassan
* Arabestan
* Darvazeh Kashan
* Sarbakhsh
* Sar Howz
* Alvandiyeh
* Gozar Sadegh
{{col-break}}
* Lab Chaal
* Chehel Akhtaran
* Razavia
* Manba' Ab
* Nikouyee
* Nowbahar
* Allouchou
* Khak-Faraj
* Haj Zaynal
* Haj Khalil
{{col-break}}
* Bagh Shazdeh
* Chehel Derakht
* Zad
* Chahar Imamzadeh
* Hanif Nizhad
* Paminar
* Qom Now
* Maydan Now
* Zandyan va Handyan
* Darvazeh Choubi
{{col-end}}

===Modern districts===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* Tohid
* Shahr-e-Gha'em
* Panzdah-e-Khordad
* Jahan Bini
* Talighani Town
* Baajak Town
* Farhangian Town
* Tavaneer Town
* Fatimia Town
{{col-break}}
* Imam Hassan Town[[File:Qom-Azadari-Moharram4.JPG|thumb|[[Day of Ashura|Ashura]] Mourning in Bagh Shazdeh, Qom]]
* Imam Hossein Residential Area
* Bonyad Residential Area
* Mahdia Town
* Imam Khomeini Town
* [[Pardisan City]]
* Safa Shahr
* Qods Town
{{col-end}}

==Tourism==
[[File:Jamkaran Mosque-3855.jpg|thumb|[[Jamkaran]] Mosque]]

===Historical and cultural heritage===
[[File:Mezquita del Imam Hassan Al-Asgari, Qom, Irán, 2016-09-19, DD 20.jpg|thumb|Imam Hassan Al-Askari Mosque]]
[[File:ALGHADIR MOSQUE.JPG|thumb|Al-Ghadir Mosque]]
Iran's Cultural Heritage Organization lists 195 sites of historical and cultural significance in Qom. But the more visited sites of Qom are:

{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Shrine of Fatimah al-Masumah]]
* [[Jamkaran Mosque]]
* [[Azam mosque of Qom|Azam Mosque]]
* Imam Hassan Al-Asgari Mosque
* Al-Ghadir Mosque
* Atiq Mosque in Qom
* Qom Bazaar
* Feyzieh Religious School
* Mar'ashi Najafi Library, with over 500,000 handwritten texts and copies.
* Timcheh-ye-Bozorg (Grand Timcheh)
* Paminar School
* Jahangirkhan School
* [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar]] Tomb
* [[Mohammad Shah Qajar]] Tomb
* [[Shah Abbas II]] Tomb
* [[Shah Soleyman III]] & [[Shah Safi]] Tomb
* Gonbad Sabz Historical Garden
* Ali Ibn Ja'afar Tomb
* Shah Hamzeh Tomb
* [[Seyyed Hossein Borujerdi]]'s Historical House
* Yazdan Panah Historical House
* Haji Khan Historical House
* Zand Historical House
* [[Ruhollah Khomeini]]'s House
* Beyt-on-noor House
* Haj Asgar Khan Historical Bath
* The Minarets Of Risbaf Historical Factory
* Gholi Darvish Historical Hill
* [[Jamkaran]] Historical Castle
* 500 year Cypress Tree in Jamkaran
* Sirang Tourism Centre
* Kohne Bazaar Commercial Centre
* Kohne Mosque
{{div col end}}

===Museums===
* Astaneh Moqaddaseh Museum (Qom Central Museum)[[File:QoranQomMuseum.jpg|thumb|[[Quran]] manuscript written by [[Ali al-Ridha|Ali ibn Musa]] in the Qom Museum]]
* Anthropology Museum Of Qom
* The Museum Of Traditional Arts
* The Museum Of Natural History & Wildlife
* The Museum Of Astronomy

==Educational institutions==
[[File:Merkaz Modiria Hawzeha ye Ilmiyeh Qom.JPG|thumb|Iranian Seminaries Management Centre]]
Qom is well known for its many religious seminaries and institutes that offer advanced religious studies, which made this city the largest center for Shia scholarship in the world. There are an estimated 50,000 seminarians in the city coming from 80 countries, including Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Pakistan. Qom has seminaries for women and some non-Shia students. Most of the seminaries teach their students modern social sciences and Western thought as well as traditional religious studies.<ref name="Nasr, Vali 2006 p.217">Nasr, Vali ''The Shia Revival'', Norton (2006), p. 217</ref>

===Hawzah 'Ilmiyya Qom (Qom Seminary)===
[[File:Qom Seminary.jpg|thumb|[[Qom Seminary]]]]
[[File:000920-ImamHassanMosque-Qom-IMG 4944-2.jpg|thumb|Imam Hassan Askari Mosque, Qom, [[Iran]]]]
The Hawzah (a short form of al-Hawzah al-Ilmiyya), which presently consists of over 200 education and research centres and organisations, catering for over 40,000 scholars and students from over 80 sovereign states. The modern [[Qom hawza]] was revitalized by [[Abdul Karim Haeri Yazdi]] and [[Grand Ayatollah Borujerdi]] and is barely a century old. There are nearly 300,000 clerics in Iran's seminaries.

===Universities and seminaries===
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[University of Qom]]
* [[Mofid University]]
* [[Qom University of Medical Sciences]]
* [[Al-Mustafa International University]]
* Al-Zahra Seminary
* Seyyed Hassan Shirazi Seminary
* Imam Hossein Seminary
* Imam Baghir Seminary
* Imam Mahdi Seminary
* Rasoul A'zam Seminary
* Razavia Seminary
* Satia Seminary
* Imam Khomeini Seminary
* Aba-Salih Seminary
* Al-Mahdi Seminary
* Al-Hadi Seminary
* Haghani Seminary
* Janbazan Seminary
* Resalat Seminary
* Itrat Seminary
* Darb-Astana Seminary
* Seyyed Abdol Aziz Seminary
* Toloo-e-Mehr Educational Institute
* Shahab Danesh University
* Pardis-e-Daneshgah-e-Tehran University
* IRIB University Of Qom
* Qom's Industrial College
* Azad Islami University of Pardisan
* Payam-Nour College of Pardisan
* Ma'sumia University
* Hikmat College
* The University Of Religions & Denominations
* Quran & Hadis University
* Fekr-e-Eslami University
* Ma'aref-e-Islami University
* Computer Research Center of Islamic Sciences
* Qom University of Technology

{{Div col end}}

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Qom University gate.JPG|[[University of Qom]]
File:Mofid-University-Qom.jpg|[[Mofid University]]
File:DANESHGAH OLOOM PEZESHKI QOM0.jpg|[[Qom University of Medical Sciences]]
File:Ahl ul Bait International Community.JPG|[[Ahl Al-Bayt World Assembly]]
</gallery>

===Fordow uranium enrichment facility===
{{Main|Fordow uranium enrichment facility}}
The Fordow uranium enrichment facility is located 20 miles north east of Qom.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/russia-regrets-reported-iran-nuclear-activity-in-qom-facility-1.406555 Russia 'regrets' reported Iran nuclear activity in Qom facility], [[Haaretz]], January 10, 2012.</ref> In January 2012 the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) announced that Iran had started producing uranium enriched up to 20% for medical purposes and that material "remains under the agency's containment and surveillance."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16470100 |title=Iran enriching uranium at Fordo plant near Qom |publisher=BBC |date=10 January 2012 |access-date=1 March 2012}}</ref> Iranian authorities state the facility is built deep in a mountain because of repeated threats by Israel to attack such facilities, which Israel believes can be used to produce nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web|author=Azmat Khan|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/government-elections-politics/did-santorum-suggest-iran-wants-nukes-to-bring-back-messiah|title=Did Santorum Suggest Iran Wants Nukes to Bring Back Messiah?|publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]]|date=13 January 2012}}</ref> However, attacking a nuclear facility so close to a city considered so holy in [[Shia Islam]] brings concern of a potential risk of a [[Shiite]] religious response.<ref>{{cite web|author=Akluf Benn|url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/opinion/cries-of-hold-me-back-may-lead-israel-to-strike-iran-1.6986|title=Cries of 'hold me back' may lead Israel to strike Iran|publisher=Haaretz.com|date=3 September 2009}}</ref>

==Transportation==
The city has a number of streets and roadways.

It will be served by [[Qom International Airport]] which is under construction.

==Notable people==


{{multiple image

|perrow = 6
|total_width = 700
|align = right
|direction = horizontal
|header =
|caption_align = center
|image1 = Hasan-e Sabah, rycina, XIX w (cropped).jpg
|alt1 = Hasan-i Sabbah
|caption1 = [[Hasan-i Sabbah]]
|width1 = 300
|image2 = Gen Oveissi main pic.jpg
|alt2 = Gholam Ali Oveissi
|caption2 = [[Gholam Ali Oveissi]]
|width2 = 300
|image3 = Farrokhroo Parsay.jpg
|alt3 = Farrokhroo Parsa
|caption3 = [[Farrokhroo Parsa]]
|width3 = 300
|image4 = Professor Kamalian Professorship 1967.jpeg
|alt4 = Nasser Kamalian
|caption4 = [[Naser Kamalian]]
|width4 = 300
|image5 = Azartash Azarnoush.tif
|alt5 = Azartash Azarnoush
|caption5 = [[Azartash Azarnoush]]
|width5 = 300
|image6 = Sadeq Tabatabaei as Spokesman for the interim government of Iran - 1979 (2).jpg
|alt6 = Sadeq Tabatabaei
|caption6 = [[Sadeq Tabatabaei]]
|width6 = 300
|image7 = عکس حمید رضا نوربخش.jpg
|alt7 = Hamid Reza Noorbakhsh
|caption7 = [[Hamid Reza Noorbakhsh]]
|width7 = 300
|image8 = Javad Razavian 2016.jpg
|alt8 = Javad Razavian
|caption8 = [[Javad Razavian]]
|width8 = 300
|image9 = Asghar Hassanzadeh.jpg
|alt9 = Ali Asghar Hassanzadeh
|caption9 = [[Ali Asghar Hassanzadeh]]
|width9 = 300
|image10 = Amir mehdizadeh.jpg
|alt10 = Amir Mehdizadeh
|caption10 = [[Amir Mehdizadeh]]
|width10 = 300
|image11 = Alireza vafaei.jpg
|alt11 = Alireza Vafaei
|caption11 = [[Alireza Vafaei]]
|width11 = 300
|image12 = orouji.jpg
|alt12 = Abolghasem Orouji
|caption12 = [[Abolghasem Orouji]]
|width12 = 300
}}

* [[Hassan-i Sabbah]] (1050-1124) - Leader of the Assassins and the Nizari Ismaili State
* [[Gholam Ali Oveissi]] (1918–1984) – General and The Chief Commander of the Imperial Iranian Armed Forces
* [[Farrokhroo Parsa]] (1922–1980) – Physician, educator and parliamentarian
* [[Parviz Shapour]] (1924-1999) – Writer
* [[Naser Kamalian]] (b. 1931) – Medical scholar
* [[Nasrollah Soltaninejad]] (b. 1936) – Wrestler
* [[Azartash Azarnoush]] (b. 1937) – Linguist and Scholar
* [[Bahram Afzali]] (b. 1938) – Commander of Iranian Navy
* [[Sadeq Tabatabaei]] (b. 1943) – politician
* [[Mohammad Reza Nasehi]] (b. 1944) – weightlifter
* [[Fathali Oveisi]] (b. 1946) – Actor
* [[Mostafa Pourmohammadi]] (b. 1960) – Politician and Prosecutor
* [[Hamid Reza Noorbakhsh]] (b. 1965) – Singer
* [[Majid Abdolhosseini]] (b. 1972) – Karateka
* [[Mehdi Khalaji]] (b. 1973) – Writer, Scholar of Islamic studies and Political analyst
* [[Javad Razavian]] (b. 1974) – Actor
* [[Mohsen Hassanzadeh]] (b. 1974) – Futsal coach
* [[Vahid Ghiasi]] (b. 1975) – Futsal coach
* [[Alireza Katiraei]] (b. 1976) – Karateka
* [[Mohsen Rabbani]] (b. 1983) – Pole vaulter
* [[Ali Asghar Hassanzadeh]] (b. 1987) – Futsal player
* [[Saeid Taghizadeh]] (b. 1988) – Futsal player
* [[Amir Mehdizadeh]] (b. 1989) – Karateka
* [[Alireza Vafaei]] (b. 1989) – Futsal player
* [[Abolghasem Orouji]] (b. 1989) – Futsal player
* [[Hamid Naderi Yeganeh]] (b. 1990) – Mathematical artist
* [[Mehdi Hosseini (footballer)|Mehdi Hosseini]] (b. 1993) – Football player
* [[Elnaz Ghasemi]] (b. 1996) – Handball player
* [[Alireza Nejati]] (b. 1998) – Wrestler

==Twin towns==
Qom is [[town twinning|twinned]] with:
{|class="wikitable"
|- valign="top"
|
*{{flagicon|LIB}} [[Baalbek]], [[Lebanon]]
*{{flagicon|IRQ}} [[Karbala]], [[Iraq]]
*{{flagicon|IRQ}} [[Najaf]], [[Iraq]]
*{{flagicon|TUR}} [[Konya]], [[Turkey]]
*{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Santiago de Compostela]], [[Spain]]
*{{flagicon|PAK}} [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]]
|}

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:مسجد جامع قم.jpg|Qom Mosque
File:دریاچه بوستان جوان قم.jpg|Young Water Park
File:عکس حرم حضرت معصومه سلام الله علیها 03.JPG|Shrine of Fatimah Masumah
File:نمایی پاییزی از قم ، بوستان هاشمی.jpg|The Hashemi park of Qom in autumn
File:BustaneAlaviQom.JPG|Alavi park
File:Qom, Qom Province, Iran - panoramio (15).jpg
File:Qom city Photos, Iran country Wallpaper, Shia Muslim religion, Mostafa Meraji- Urban landscapes - City Design 05.jpg
File:نمایی از شهر قم از بالای کوه خضر نبی در شب.jpg
File:ایران - کلانشهر قم - استان قم - مناظر عمومی و چشم اندازهای شهری 02.jpg
File:Park Bonyadi نمایی برفی و پاییزی از بوستان بنیادی قم.jpg|Bonyadi Park
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Timeline of Qom]]
* [[Fatima al-Masumeh Shrine]]
* [[Iranian architecture]]
* [[University of Qom]]
* [[Qom Seminary]]
* [[Qom rug]]
* [[Pardisan City]]

{{Commons category|Qom}}

{{Wikivoyage}}

{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{See also|Timeline of Qom#Bibliography|l1=Bibliography of the history of Qom}}
{{Ref expand|section|date=September 2018}}
* Balāḏori
* Drechsler
* Frye
* Ghirshman
* Hakemi
* Kleiss
* Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi
* Najāši
* Qomi
* Schippmann

== External links ==
* {{Cite web|last=Irani|first=Hamed|title=Qom Concerned over New Intelligence Appointments
| url = http://roozonline.com/11english/011400.shtml
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060325235926/http://roozonline.com/11english/011400.shtml
| archive-date=25 March 2006|access-date=28 June 2009|date=2 November 2005|publisher=ROOZ (ROOZ Online)}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7458709.stm Sādeq Sabā, ''Visiting Iran's ayatollahs at Qom'', Tuesday, 17 June 2008], [[BBC]]

{{Authority control}}

{{Qom Province|state=collapsed}}

{{Qom County|state=collapsed}}

{{Iranian Architecture}}

{{Provincial capitals of Iran}}

[[Category:Qom| ]]

[[Category:Populated places in Qom County]]

[[Category:Cities in Qom province]]

[[Category:Iranian provincial capitals]]

[[Category:Shia holy cities]]

[[Category:Holy cities]]

[[Category:Ziyarat]]

Apios americana

2024-08-11T13:16:44Z

131.111.5.201: /* Toxicity */ fixed an incorrect wiki link

{{Short description|Species of flowering plant in the pea family}}
{{about|the legume|other plants known by the name Indian potato|Indian potato}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = American groundnut
| image = Apios americana in flower (American groundnut; Indian potato) 1 (20278465435).jpg
| image_caption = Flowers
| status = {{TNCStatus}}
| status_system = TNC
| status_ref = <ref name="NatureServe">{{cite web |last1=NatureServe |title=''Apios americana'' |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.155895/Apios_americana |access-date=12 April 2024 |location=Arlington, Virginia |date=2024}}</ref>
| genus = Apios
| species = americana
| authority = [[Medik.]]
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="POWO">{{cite POWO |id= |title=''Apios americana'' Medik. |access-date=12 April 2024}}</ref>
| synonyms = {{Collapsible list | {{Species list
| Apios apios | (L.) MacMill. (1892)
| Apios perennis | Vahl ex Hornem. (1815)
| Apios tuberosa | Moench (1794)
| Glycine apios | L. (1753)
| Glycine tuberosa | Salisb. (1796)
| Gonancylis thyrsoidea | Raf. (1824)
| Phaseolus tuberosus | Eaton & Wright (1840)
}}
}}
}}

'''''Apios americana''''', sometimes called the '''American groundnut''', '''potato bean''', '''hopniss''', '''Indian potato''', '''hodoimo''', '''America-hodoimo''', '''cinnamon vine''', or '''groundnut''' (not to be confused with other plants in the subfamily [[Faboideae]] sometimes known by that name) is a [[perennial]] [[vine]] that bears edible [[bean]]s and large edible [[tuber]]s.<ref name=reynolds>{{cite journal|last=Reynolds|first=Berthal D.|author2=William J. Blackmon |author3=E. Wickremesinhe |author4=MH Wells |author5=RJ Constantin |title=Domestication of ''Apios americana''|journal=Advances in New Crops|year=1990|pages=436–442}}</ref>

==Description==
The vine of American groundnut can grow to {{convert|1|-|6|m|ft|abbr=off|frac=2}} long. It has pinnate [[leaves]] {{convert|8|-|15|cm|abbr=off|frac=2}} long with 5–7 leaflets.<ref name=reynolds /> The flowers are usually pink, purple, or red-brown, and are produced in dense [[raceme]]s {{convert|7.5|-|13|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}} in length.<ref name=reynolds /> The fruit is a [[legume]] (pod) {{convert|5|-|13|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}} long.<ref name=reynolds /> In botanical terms, the [[tuber]]s are [[rhizomatous]] stems, not roots.<ref name="juliarni tubers">{{cite journal|last=Juliarni|first=YG|author2=T Nakamura|title=Tuberization in Apios (''Apios americana'' Medicus) I. Developmental morphology of tuber|journal=Jpn. J. Crop Sci.|year=1997|volume=66|issue=3|pages=466–471|doi=10.1626/jcs.66.466|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{gallery|mode=packed
|WitteHeinrichFlora1868-071-Apios americana.png|Illustration
|Wp5074 apios americana.jpg|Leaves and flowers
|American Groundnut (Apios americana) (28241118430).jpg|Raceme
|Apios americana flowers.JPG|Close-up of flowers
|Apios americana - American groundnut (Indian potato) tuber.jpg|Tuber
}}

=== Genetics ===
The species is normally 2n=2x=22, [[diploid]], but both diploid and [[triploid]] forms exist.<ref name="reynolds" /> Only diploids are capable of producing seeds; triploids will produce flowers but not seeds.<ref name="Bruneau">{{cite journal |last=Bruneau |first=Anne |author2=Gregory J. Anderson |year=1988 |title=Reproductive Biology of Diploid and Triploid ''Apios americana'' (Leguminosae) |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=75 |issue=12 |pages=1876–1883 |doi=10.2307/2444742 |jstor=2444742}}</ref> Thus, triploids are entirely dependent on tuber division for propagation whereas diploids can be propagated through both seeds and tubers.<ref name="Bruneau" /> Other than seed production, there are no easily identifiable differences between diploids and triploids.<ref name="Bruneau" /> Triploids are generally found in the northern part of American groundnut's range whereas diploids predominate in the southern part of the range.<ref name="Bruneau" /> Triploids have been identified in Canada (in [[New Brunswick]], [[Quebec]], and [[Ontario]]) and the United States (in [[Connecticut]], [[Vermont]], [[Massachusetts]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Ohio]], [[New Hampshire]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Wisconsin]], and [[Iowa]]).<ref name="Bruneau" /><ref name="Seabrook">{{cite journal |last=Seabrook |first=Janet A. |author2=Leo A. Dionne |year=1976 |title=Studies on the genus ''Apios''. I. Chromosome number and distribution of ''Apios americana'' and ''A. priceana'' |journal=Can. J. Bot. |volume=54 |issue=22 |pages=2567–2572 |doi=10.1139/b76-276}}</ref><ref name="Joly">{{cite journal |last=Joly |first=Simon |author2=Anne Bruneau |year=2004 |title=Evolution of Triploidy in ''Apios americana'' (Leguminosae) Revealed by Genealogical Analysis of the Histone H3-D Gene |journal=Evolution |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=284–295 |doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2004.tb01645.x |pmid=15068346 |doi-access= |s2cid=15127648}}</ref> A few diploids have been found in the northeastern part of the range, such as along the [[Black River (Hastings County)|Black River]] in [[Central Ontario]].<ref name="Seabrook" /> All samples tested in the [[Southeastern United States]] have been found to be diploid.<ref name="Bruneau" /><ref name="Seabrook" /><ref name="Joly" />

== Distribution and habitat ==
The plant's natural range is from southern Canada (including Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick) down through [[Florida]] and west as far as the border of [[Colorado]].<ref name="reynolds" />

== Ecology ==
The species is a larval host for the ''[[Epargyreus clarus]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - The University of Texas at Austin |url=https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=APAM |access-date=2019-09-26 |website=www.wildflower.org}}</ref>

=== Nitrogen fixation ===
American groundnut [[Nitrogen fixation|fixes]] its own [[nitrogen]], which could be a great advantage in comparison to other roots crops, such as potatoes, [[Yam (vegetable)|true yams]], and sweet potatoes. These do not fix their own nitrogen and require large applications of nitrogen fertilizer or cover cropping with nitrogen fixing plants. <ref name="nitrogenresponse">{{cite journal |last=Putnam |first=DH |author2=GH Heichel |author3=LA Field |year=1991 |title=Response of ''Apios americana'' to Nitrogen and Inoculation |journal=HortScience |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=853–855 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.26.7.853 |doi-access=free}}</ref> American groundnut can be nodulated by bacterial strains that are normally found in symbiosis with soybeans or cowpeas.<ref name="nitrogenresponse" />

Research has been done on the potential of the soybean strain ''[[Bradyrhizobium japonicum]]'' to nodulate American groundnut.<ref name="nitrogenresponse" /> It was found that plants nodulated with ''B. japonicum'' yielded ~30% better than unnodulated plants if no nitrogen fertilizer was used.<ref name="nitrogenresponse" /> It was also determined that nodulated plants partitioned more carbon into non-edible shoots when they were given nitrogen fertilizer, whereas unnodulated plants responded to nitrogen fertilizer with greater tuber yields than nodulated plants.<ref name="nitrogenresponse" /> This data suggests that nitrogen fertilization may be required to maximize tuber size and yields in ''A. americana''.<ref name="nitrogenresponse" />

== Cultivation ==

=== Domestication ===
American groundnut is generally considered to be an undomesticated crop. In her 1939 description of the Native American use of American groundnut, Gretchen Beardsley states that several historical sources describe the "cultivation" of American groundnut by indigenous peoples. She dismisses the ambiguous term "cultivation" as perhaps referring to transplantation of tubers near a settlement. She quotes the historical author Waugh on this subject of cultivation: "sometimes planted in suitable locations, though they are not, strictly speaking, cultivated."<ref name="Beardsley" /> Subsequent authors on the American groundnut have followed Beardsley's interpretation of "cultivation" when referring to the early use by Indigenous peoples of American groundnut. However, recent evidence suggests that North American indigenous peoples likely intervened significantly as cultivators of the native plants of the region, in a manner similar to contemporary Western [[permaculture]] practices.<ref>{{cite book| first1= Dave| last1= Jacke| first2= Eric| last2= Toensmeier |year= 2005| title= Edible Forest Gardens - Volume One| pages= 30–33| publisher= Chelsea Green Publishing| isbn= 9781931498791}}</ref> So, from a permacultural perspective, Native Americans may well have "cultivated" the groundnut. Evidence suggests it was cultivated by the Shawnee tribe with corn and squash in a method known as three sisters gardening. Apios would provide nitrogen for the heavy-feeding squash.

In 1985, Dr. William J. Blackmon, Dr. Berthal D. Reynolds, and their colleagues at [[Louisiana State University]] in [[Baton Rouge]], [[Louisiana]], began a program of deliberate domestication of American groundnut. Their primary goal was to develop an American groundnut that can produce a significant yield in a single season.<ref name="reynolds" /><ref name="StalkingGroundnut" /><ref name="BlackmonCropPotential" /> Early trials identified LA85-034 as a promising [[cultivar]], with "elongate tubers of uniform, medium size with light brown skin and little extra rhizomatous material".<ref name="BlackmonCropPotential" /> By 1988, they had collected wild seeds and tubers from 210 plants found in 19 states, although the bulk of their selections came from the state of Louisiana.<ref name="reynolds" /> From these wild materials, and a small number of single crosses, they rigorously selected for plants that met their primary breeding goals of larger tuber size, denser tuber set, single season production, and productivity in untrellised cultivation.<ref name="reynolds" /> The American groundnut domestication program at Louisiana State University continued in various forms until the mid-1990s.<ref name="StalkingGroundnut" /> Cultivars from this program can still occasionally be found available from small seed companies.

From 1985 to 1994, an ''Apios'' breeding program took place that resulted in the collection of over 200 wild accessions. These accessions underwent [[Hybridisation (biology)|hybridization]] and selection, and over 2,200 lines were assessed.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Belamkar |first1=Vikas |last2=Wenger |first2=Alex |last3=Kalberer |first3=Scott R. |last4=Bhattacharya |first4=V. Gautam |last5=Blackmon |first5= William J. |last6=Cannon |first6=Steven B. |display-authors= 3 |year=2015 |title=Evaluation of Phenotypic Variation in a Collection of : An Edible Tuberous Legume |journal= [[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]] |doi= 10.2135/cropsci2014.04.0281 |s2cid=52211922|doi-access=free }}</ref> Of these lines, only 53 genotypes were kept for further analysis. Three different locations and three different growing conditions—field, pots, and grow-bags—were used. There was significant variation found among almost all of the 20 genotypes in the field growing condition. Inter-node length, plant vigor, and stem diameter during plant growth were positively correlated with the plant yield below ground.<ref name=":4" /> There were four distinct genotypic clusters found in this collection of ''Apios'' lines. Several genotypes yielded large plants in all locations, maxing up to {{convert|1.5|kg|lb|abbr=off}} of subterraneous tuber.<ref name=":4" /> This suggests that the plant has a good ability to adapt and grow in a wide variety of locations and conditions. Furthermore, the superior germplasm identified in this project may be suitable as cultivars, and will aid in further development of ''Apios'' lines as a crop.<ref name=":4" />

The largest germplasm collection of ''A. americana'' cultivars today is found at [[Iowa State University]] under the direction of Dr. Steven Cannon.<ref name="germplasm" /> It is maintained there for scholarly and academic use. Research continues at Iowa State on the domestication of American groundnut.<ref name="germplasm" /><ref name="Cannon">{{cite journal |last=Cannon |first=Steven B. |author2=Vikas Belamkar |date=October 2012 |title=Using high-throughput sequencing data to speed the domestication of ''Apios americana'' - a potential new legume crop |url=http://www.icrisat.org/gt-bt/vi-iclgg/AbstractBook.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=VI International Conference on Legume Genetics and Genomics |pages=abstract S–EAD03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111065238/http://www.icrisat.org/gt-bt/vi-iclgg/AbstractBook.pdf |archive-date=2014-01-11 |accessdate=11 January 2014}}</ref>

Despite these efforts at domestication, the American groundnut remains largely uncultivated and underused in North America and Europe.<ref name="StalkingGroundnut" /> There are challenges to breeding and domesticating this plant, as well.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Bruneau |first1=Anne |last2=Anderson |first2=Gregory J. |date=1988-12-01 |title=Reproductive Biology of Diploid and Triploid Apios americana (Leguminosae) |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=75 |issue=12 |pages=1876–1883 |doi=10.2307/2444742 |jstor=2444742}}</ref> There seems to be a partial self-incompatibility with Apios breeding and manual pollinations, resulting in rare seed-sets.<ref name=":5" /> Disadvantages in Apios as a crop are its vining habit.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Cannon |first=S.B. |date=2012 |title=Reintroducing a novel bean species: Apios americana (Medikus) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262723125 |journal=Annual Report of the Bean Improvement Cooperative}}</ref> The crop has small tuber size for most genotypes.<ref name=":6" /> These sizes are typically smaller than {{convert|50|g|oz|abbr=on}}; however, some do average around {{convert|100|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":6" /> The tuber plant is difficult to harvest because of the "beads on a string" arrangement on [[stolon]]s, which extend for over a meter.<ref name=":6" />

=== In Japan and South Korea ===
The only place in the world today where American groundnuts are commercially farmed in any significant quantities is in [[Japan]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2019}} Before the American groundnut was introduced to Japan, the people on the main island of [[Honshu]] and the northern island of [[Hokkaido]] were already familiar with a native, wild plant called hodoimo (''A. fortunei''), which was occasionally eaten as an emergency food.<ref name="Kinugasa">{{cite journal |last=Kinugasa |first=H |author2=Y Watanabe |year=1992 |title=Nutritional composition of the tubers of American groundnut (''Apios americana'' Medikus) |url=http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110000191309/en |journal=Sonoda Women's College Studies |volume=26 |pages=209–218}}</ref> American groundnut was introduced, accidentally or deliberately, to Japan during the [[Meiji period]] (1868–1912).<ref name="Kinugasa" /><ref name="Iwai">{{cite journal |last=Iwai |first=K |author2=H Matsue |year=2007 |title=Ingestion of ''Apios americana'' Medikus tuber suppresses blood pressure and improves plasma lipids in spontaneously hypertensive rats |journal=Nutrition Research |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=218–224 |doi=10.1016/j.nutres.2007.01.012}}</ref><ref name="nara">{{cite journal |last=Nara |first=K |author2=KI Nihei |author3=Y Ogasawara |author4=H Koga |author5=J Kato |year=2011 |title=Novel isoflavone diglycerides in groundnut (''Apios americana'' Medik) |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=124 |issue=3 |pages=703–710 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.05.107}}</ref><ref name="Hodoimo">{{cite web|last=Hidemasa |first=Shimada|title=Hodoimo America (USA Katamariimo)| url= http://www2.mmc.atomi.ac.jp/web01/Flower%20Information%20by%20Vps/Flower%20Albumn/ch6-foreign%20flowers/america%20hodoimo.htm| website= mmc.atomi.ac.jp| publisher= [[Atomi University]]| place= Niiza, Saitama, Japan|accessdate=10 January 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130929200242/http://www2.mmc.atomi.ac.jp/web01/Flower%20Information%20by%20Vps/Flower%20Albumn/ch6-foreign%20flowers/america%20hodoimo.htm|archive-date=29 September 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="hoshikawa">{{cite journal|last=Hoshikawa|first=Kiyochika|author2=Juliarni|title=The Growth of Apios (''Apios americana'' Medikus) a New Crop, under Field Conditions|journal= [[Japanese Journal of Crop Science]] |year=1995|volume=64|issue=2|pages=323–327|doi=10.1626/jcs.64.323|doi-access=free}}</ref> One theory is that it was accidentally brought to Japan as a stowaway weed among [[apple]] seedlings imported from North America.<ref name="Iwai" /><ref name="nara" /> Another theory is that American groundnut may have been deliberately brought to Japan in the middle of the Meiji period as an ornamental flower.<ref name= "Kinugasa" /><ref name="Hodoimo" />

It has become a culinary specialty of the [[Aomori Prefecture]], where American groundnut agriculture is centered. It has been eaten there for more than one hundred years.<ref name=Ichige>{{cite journal |last= Ichige|first=Marina|author2=E Fukuda |author3=S Miida |title=Novel Isoflavone glucosides in Groundnut (''Apios americana'' Medik) and their Antiandrogenic Activities|journal= [[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]] |year=2013| volume=61| issue=9| pages= 2183–2187 |doi=10.1021/jf305233t|pmid=23402539|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name=commercial_Hodoimo>{{cite web|title=Groundnut |url= http://www.gonohe.co.jp/25.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320050038/http://www.gonohe.co.jp/25.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 March 2007 |accessdate=10 January 2014 }}</ref> Although American groundnut agriculture is primarily identified with agriculture in the Aomori prefecture, it is grown in the nearby prefectures of Akita and Miyagi as well.<ref name=hoshikawa /> In addition, it is known to be grown in the southern part of Honshu in the Tottori prefecture. Radioactive testing records following the [[Fukushima nuclear disaster]] record cesium testing of American groundnut agricultural products in the central prefecture of Tochigi.<ref name=hoshikawa /><ref name=radioactivedb>{{cite web| publisher= Ministry of Health Labour and Welfare| place= Japan|title=Radioactivity Database|url=http://www.radioactivity-db.info| website= radioactivity-db.info |language= ja |accessdate=10 January 2014}}</ref>

An important part of the spread and popularization of American groundnut consumption in Japan has been the efforts of Dr. Kiyochika Hoshikawa to promote the cultivation of this crop in Japan, and the flurry of scientific articles on the health benefits of eating American groundnut tubers.<ref name=Iwai /> Japanese websites that sell American groundnut continue to emphasize its health benefits in their marketing efforts.<ref name=commercial_Hodoimo /><ref name=hodoimo2>{{cite web|last=Ryuichi|first=Suzuki|title=Suzukien| url= http://suzukien.shop28.makeshop.jp/shopdetail/004000000008/004/O/page1/order/ |website= suzukien.shop28.makeshop.jp| publisher= | date= |accessdate=10 January 2014}}</ref> There are reports of American groundnut cultivation in [[South Korea]] as well, where it is grown for its nutritional benefits.<ref name=germplasm>{{cite journal|last=Belamkar|first=Vikas|author2=VG Bhattacharya |author3=SR Kalberer |author4=WJ Blackmon |author5=NT Weeks |author6=AD Farmer |author7=A Wenger |author8=SB Cannon |display-authors= 3|title=Identification of Superior Germplasm and Development of Genetic Resources for ''Apios americana'': A potential New Legume Crop|journal=Plant & Animal Genome XXII Meeting|date=January 2014 |url=https://pag.confex.com/pag/xxii/webprogram/Paper10893.html| via= pag.confex.com| accessdate=10 January 2014}}</ref>

== Toxicity ==
Studies in rats suggest that raw tubers should not be consumed. They contain harmful [[Proteinase_inhibitors_in_plants|protease inhibitors]] that are denatured by cooking.<ref name="Johnson">
:{{ Cite journal
| date = 2005
| volume = 4
| issue = 3–4
| pages = 85–92
| publisher = The [[Haworth Press]]
| first2 = Dennis
| first1 = Jackie
| last2 = Wollard
| last1 = Carlisi
| journal = [[Journal of Nutraceuticals, Functional & Medical Foods]]
| issn = 1089-4179
| url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J133v04n03_06
| doi = 10.1300/j133v04n03_06
| title = History, Culture, and Nutrition of ''Apios americana''
| s2cid = 70562622
}}
:
:{{ cite journal
| year = 2020
| last1 = Kalberer
| first1 = Scott
| last2 = Belamkar
| first2 = Vikas
| last3 = Singh
| first3 = Jugpreet
| last4 = Cannon
| first4 = Steven
| pages = 29–32
| journal = [[Legume Perspectives]]
| title = Apios americana: natural history and ethnobotany
}}
:
:These reviews cite this research.
:
:{{ Cite thesis
| last = Johnson
| first = SE
| title = Protein quality evaluation and metabolic effects of ''Apios americana'' Medikus tubers
| publisher = [[Louisiana State University]] (LSU)
| type = MSc
| year = 1988
| location = [[Baton Rouge, LA]]
}}
</ref>

==Uses==
The tubers and seeds can both be cooked and eaten.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Niering |first1=William A. |author-link1=William Niering| last2=Olmstead |first2=Nancy C. |title=The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers, Eastern Region |year=1985 |orig-year=1979|publisher=Knopf |isbn=0-394-50432-1 |page=520}}</ref>

===By Indigenous peoples of the Americas===
The tubers have traditionally been a [[staple food]] among most [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] within the natural range of the plant.<ref name=Beardsley>{{cite journal|last=Beardsley|first=Gretchen|title=The Groundnut as used by the native peoples of Eastern North America|journal=Papers of the Michigan Academy of Sciences Arts and Letters|year=1939|volume=25|pages=507–525}}</ref> In 1749, the travelling Swedish botanist Peter Kalm writes, "Hopniss or Hapniss was the Indian name of a wild plant, which they ate at that time... The roots resemble potatoes, and were boiled by the Indians who ate them instead of bread."<ref name=Beardsley /> Strachey in 1612 recorded observations of the Indigenous peoples in [[Virginia]]: "In June, July, and August they feed upon roots of [[Peltandra virginica|tockohow]], berries, groundnutts, fish, and greene wheate..."<ref name=Beardsley /> In Eastern [[Canada]], the Jesuit missionary, Le Jeune, observed that the Indigenous peoples there would, "eat, besides, roots, such as the bulbs of the red lily; ... another that our French people call 'Rosary' because it is distinguished by tubers in the form of beads."<ref name=Beardsley /> The early author Rafinesque observed that the [[Cree]] were cultivating the plant for both its tubers and seeds.<ref name=Beardsley /> The author Brinton wrote in 1885 in regards to the [[Lenape]] people, "Of wild fruits and plants they consumed the esculent and nutritious tubers on the roots of the Wild Bean, Apios tuberosa... which the Indians called hobbenis..."<ref name=Beardsley /> In 1910, Parker writes that the [[Iroquois]] were consuming significant quantities of groundnuts up until about thirty years before his writing.<ref name=Beardsley /> The Paris Documents of 1666 record that the sixth tribe of the second division of the Iroquois were identified as, "that of the Potatoe, which they call Schoneschironon" and an illustration of tubers is found in the Paris Documents with the explanation, "This is the manner they paint the tribe of the Potatoe."<ref name=Beardsley /> The author Gilmore records the use of groundnuts by the [[Caddoan]] and Siouan tribes of the Missouri river region, and the authors Prescott and Palmer record its use among the [[Sioux]].<ref name=Beardsley /> The Indigenous peoples would prepare the tubers in many different ways, such as frying them in animal fat or drying them into flour.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://orionmagazine.org/article/stalking-the-wild-groundnut/|title=Stalking the Wild Groundnut|last=Dean|first=Tamara|date=2013|website=Orion Magazine|language=en|access-date=2019-01-26}}</ref> Many tribes peel them and dry them in the sun, such as the [[Menomini]] who have traditionally built scaffolds of cedar bark covered with mats to dry their tubers for winter use.<ref name=Beardsley /> The Menomini are recorded as having dried the tubers in [[maple syrup]] or making a preserve of Groundnut tubers by boiling them in maple syrup.<ref name=Beardsley /> The [[Potawatomi]] have traditionally boiled their tubers.<ref name=Beardsley /> The traditional [[Meskwaki]] and [[Chippewa]] preparation involves peeling, parboiling, slicing, and drying the tubers. The Chippewa have historically used them as a sort of seasoning in all their foods.<ref name=Beardsley />

===By Europeans===
The Europeans learned to use the American groundnut from the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. As a result, the American groundnut became interwoven with the history of the American colonies and [[Europe]]. The early traveler [[John Brereton]] was sustained by the "good meat" and "medicinable" qualities of American groundnut during his travels in [[New England]] in 1602.<ref name=Beardsley /> In 1613, the followers of Biencourt at [[Port-Royal National Historic Site|Port-Royal]] ate the tubers to help them survive in the New World.<ref name=Beardsley /> The American groundnut was an important factor in the survival of the Pilgrims during the first few winters of their settlement.<ref name=BlackmonCropPotential>{{cite journal|last=Blackmon|first=William J|author2=Berthal D Reynolds|title=The Crop Potential of ''Apios americana'' - preliminary evaluations|journal=HortScience|year=1986|volume=21|issue=6|pages=1334–1336|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.21.6.1334 |s2cid=88226324 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1623 the Pilgrims, "having but a small quantity of corn left," were "enforced to live on groundnuts... and such other things that the country afforded... and were easily gotten..."<ref name=Beardsley /> The Pilgrims were taught to find and prepare American groundnut by the [[Wampanoag people]].<ref name=StalkingGroundnut>{{cite news|last=Dean|first=Tamara|title=Stalking the Wild Groundnut|url=http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/458/|accessdate=11 January 2014|newspaper=Orion Magazine|year=2007}}</ref> The groundnut was likely eaten at the harvest festival of November 1621 that is regarded as the first [[Thanksgiving]], although only [[venison]] was specifically named as a food item at this meal by a Pilgrim eyewitness account.

Philosopher [[Henry David Thoreau]] commented on the nutty flavor and dry texture in October 1852.<ref name=":7" />

It is believed that American groundnut may have been shipped to Europe as early as 1597. It was listed in 1885 as a European garden crop.<ref name="reynolds"/> In 1845 it was evaluated as a possible alternative potato crop in Ireland during the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]].<ref name="reynolds"/> These early introductions to Europe appear to have resulted in little or no assimilation of the new food into the European diet.<ref name="reynolds"/> A primary reason for this lack of assimilation was that the two-year cycle for an acceptable tuber yield did not match the cropping systems that were familiar to Europeans.<ref name="reynolds"/>

=== Nutrition ===
The tubers are highly palatable with culinary characteristics of a potato, although the flavor can be somewhat nuttier than a potato and the texture can be finer.<ref name="StalkingGroundnut" /> These tubers contain roughly three times the protein content of a potato (16.5% by dry weight), and the [[amino acid]] balance is good with the exception of [[cysteine]] and [[methionine]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wilson |first=PW |author2=FJ Pichardo |author3=JA Liuzzo |author4=WJ Blackmon |author5=BD Reynolds |display-authors= 3 |year=1987 |title=Amino Acids in the American Groundnut (''Apios americana'') |journal= [[Journal of Food Science]] |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=224–225 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.1987.tb14013.x}}</ref> ''A. americana'' tubers were found to have a protein concentration of {{convert|15|-|30|mg/g|oz/lb|abbr=off}},<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Kenneth |last2=Li |first2=Jianhua |last3=Wirth |first3=Katherine |last4=Wilkins |first4=Emily |last5=Tufts |first5=Jim |last6=Bahena |first6=Fernando |display-authors= 3 |year=2014 |title=Determination of Genistein and Protein Content in A. Carnea and A. Fortunei from China, and Apios Americana |journal= [[Modern Applied Science]] | publisher= Canadian Center of Science and Education |volume=9 |issue=1 |doi= 10.5539/mas.v9n1p103 |doi-access=free}}</ref> similar to that of other species in the genus, ''[[Apios carnea|A. carnea]]'' and ''[[Apios fortunei|A. fortunei]]''.<ref name=":0" /> However, ''A. americana'' had larger levels of [[genistein]] than the other two species.<ref name=":0" /> The [[fatty acid]] content of tubers is approximately 4.2% to 4.6%, with linoleic fatty acids predominating.<ref name="wilson fatty acids">{{cite journal |last=Wilson |first=PW |author2=JR Gorney |author3=WJ Blackmon |author4=BG Reynolds |year=1986 |title=Fatty acids in the American groundnut (''Apios americana'') |journal=Journal of Food Science |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=1387–1388 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.1986.tb13136.x}}</ref> The fresh weight of a tuber is 36% of [[carbohydrate]] (primarily starch).<ref name="Kinugasa" /> The tubers are also an excellent source of calcium and iron.<ref name="Kinugasa" /> [[Calcium]] content is tenfold greater than a potato and [[iron]] is twofold greater than a potato, although [[vitamin C]] was considerably less than a potato.<ref name= "Kinugasa" /> The tuber and the flower also contain [[monosaccharide]]s and [[oligosaccharide]]s.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=康雄 |first1=小笠原 |last2=豊 |first2=肥田野 |last3=陽治 |first3=加藤 |date=2006-01-01 |title=アピオスの塊茎および花の炭水化物組成 |journal=日本食品科学工学会誌 |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=130–136 |language= ja |doi=10.3136/nskkk.53.130 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The tuber has more of these types of carbohydrates than the [[soybean]], potato, and [[sweet potato]].<ref name=":1" />

In addition, the tubers appear to have numerous health-promoting factors. Hypertensive rats that were fed powdered tubers as 5% of their total diet had a 10% decrease in blood pressure and also a reduction in [[cholesterol]] and [[triglyceride]]s.<ref name="Iwai" /> It has been shown that the tubers contain genistein and other [[isoflavones]] that have various health benefits, including an anti-carcinogenic function against colon, prostate, and breast cancer.<ref name="krishnan">{{cite journal |last=Krishnan |first=HB |year=1998 |title=Identification of genistein, an anticarcinogenic compound, in the edible tubers of the American groundnut (''Apios americana'' Medikus) |journal=Crop Science |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=1052–1056 |doi=10.2135/cropsci1998.0011183x003800040028x}}</ref><ref name="nara" /> Genistein-7-O-gentiobioside is a novel isoflavone that is found in the American groundnut.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Takashima |first1=Mizuki |last2=Nara |first2=Kazuhiro |last3=Niki |first3=Etsuo |last4=Yoshida |first4=Yasukazu |last5=Hagihara |first5=Yoshihisa |last6=Stowe |first6=Mayumi |last7=Horie |first7=Masanori |display-authors= 3 |date=2013-05-01 |title=Evaluation of biological activities of a groundnut (Apios americana Medik) extract containing a novel isoflavone |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=138 |issue=1 |pages=298–305 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.10.100 |pmid=23265491}}</ref> Extract from the American groundnut was shown to drive the anti-oxidative pathway in cells although it did not have anti-oxidative activity itself.<ref name=":2" /> Human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells were pretreated with the extract of ''A. americana'' for 24 hours.<ref name=":2" /> Subsequent analysis showed an increase in expression of [[Heme oxygenase|heme oxygenase-1]], a protein induced during oxidative stress.<ref name=":2" /> The American groundnut, like soybean, is a great source of [[isoflavone]].<ref name=":2" />

Furthermore, a study on ''A. americana'' and its flower shows that the flower of the particular plant is not toxic to mice.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Kawamura |first1=Jin |last2=Miura |first2=Emi |last3=Kawakishi |first3=Ken |last4=Kitamura |first4=Tsutomu |last5=Morinaga |first5=Yae |last6=Norikura |first6=Toshio |last7=Matsue |first7=Hajime |last8=Iwai |first8=Kunihisa |display-authors= 3 |date=2015-01-01 |title=Investigation of the Safety and Antihyperglycemic Effect of Apios americana Flower Intake as a Food Material in Normal and Diabetic Mice |journal=Food Science and Technology Research |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=453–462 |doi=10.3136/fstr.21.453 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Consumption of the flower was shown to lower plasma glucose levels in diabetic mice.<ref name=":3" /> The flower was shown to have an inhibitory activity on [[maltose]] and an anti-hyperglycemic effect in mice, suggesting that not only is it a viable and novel food source for the general population, but also in the prevention of [[diabetes]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Apios americana}}
*[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1990/V1-436.html Domestication of ''Apios americana'']
*[http://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Apios+americana Plants for a future database]
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=APAM ''Apios americana'' at the USDA Plants database]
*[http://www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com/Edible_Plants/Articles/Hopniss.htm Hopniss: North America's best wild tuber?]
*[http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/458/ Orion magazine article]
*[https://www.wired.com/2014/06/potato-bean Wired magazine - How We Can Tame Overlooked Wild Plants to Feed the World]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q568933}}

[[Category:Phaseoleae]]
[[Category:Edible legumes]]
[[Category:Plants used in Native American cuisine]]
[[Category:Root vegetables]]
[[Category:Perennial vegetables]]
[[Category:Flora of the Northeastern United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the Southeastern United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the Great Lakes region (North America)]]
[[Category:Flora of the United States]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Flora without expected TNC conservation status]]

Fire support

2024-08-05T11:37:56Z

131.111.5.201: /* Fire support in recent warfare (since 1975) */

{{Short description|Combat support provided by forces not directly in combat}}
[[File:155fire.jpg|thumb|An [[M198 howitzer|M198]] [[howitzer]] firing a [[155 mm caliber]] [[Shell (projectile)|shell]] to provide [[artillery]] fire support]]
'''Fire support''' is a [[military]] term used to describe weapons fire used to support friendly forces by engaging, [[Suppressive fire|suppressing]], or destroying enemy forces, facilities, or [[materiel]] in [[combat]]. It is often provided through [[indirect fire]], though the term may also be used for some forms of supporting [[direct fire]].

The [[United States Department of Defense]] defines fire support as "[[Fires (military)|fires]] that directly support [[Army|land]], [[Navy|maritime]], [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious]], and [[special operations]] forces to engage enemy forces, combat formations, and facilities in pursuit of tactical and operational objectives."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/data/f/9631.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921045341/http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/data/f/9631.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 21, 2012|title=fire support|website=www.dtic.mil|access-date=2017-10-01}}</ref>

== Overview ==
[[File:127-GVB-Vietnam-M-Bx4-6001829.jpg|thumb|[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] watching the aftermath of an [[airstrike]] during [[Operation Prairie II]] of the [[Vietnam War]]]]
Fire support generally consists of fire from heavy or crew-served weaponry with high [[firepower]], including strikes and [[Barrage (artillery)|barrages]] from [[artillery]], [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]], [[rocket artillery]], and [[Missile|missiles]]; [[naval gunfire support]] from [[naval artillery]]; [[Airstrike|airstrikes]], [[Strafing|strafes]], and [[close air support]] from [[military aircraft]]; and [[Drone warfare|drone strikes]] from [[Unmanned combat aerial vehicle|unmanned combat aerial vehicles]]; among various other forms. Fire support is typically ordered and directed by an observer (e.g. [[artillery observer]], [[Forward air control|forward air controller]], etc.) on the [[front line]], and provided by a weapon crew or operator in the [[Rear (military)|rear]], usually from a [[fortification]], [[Military vehicle|vehicle]], or facility (such as a [[fire support base]]).

Fire support is used to support and supplement military units that may lack the capabilities or firepower offered by fire support. For example, an [[infantry]] unit needing heavy explosives to bombard an enemy emplacement, or a large [[smoke screen]] to cover their advance, and lacking the ability to do so themselves (e.g. insufficient effectiveness using [[Grenade|grenades]]), may call for fire support from a capable nearby mortar unit.

Fire support can reduce friendly casualties whilst devastating enemy capabilities and morale. Effective use of fire support—as seen during the 2018 [[Battle of Khasham]] of the [[Syrian civil war|Syrian Civil War]], where an outnumbered force used various forms of fire support to their advantage, avoiding serious casualties—may help swing a battle in one's favor.

== History ==

Varying forms of fire support have existed since the advent of early [[Cannon|cannons]] and [[Rocket (weapon)|rockets]], which were used to bombard enemy positions and fortifications to support infantry. [[Warship]]s have long provided fire support using their cannons. The use of fire support in its current form developed during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], when [[combined arms]] and advances in technology and tactics made fire support increasingly effective.
==Definition==
Fire support is defined as "assistance to infantry and armored units by artillery fire, naval gunfire, and airplane strafing and bombing."<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Fire support|access-date=June 3, 2024}}</ref>

==Early cannons (1300-1599)==
Early versions of artillery included the roman Bastilla, esentaily a large, mounted version of a crossbow that fired a single arrow. The first documented use of bombards, (large mortars) in Europe as we know them today was at the siege of Algeciras in 1343. By the 1470’s, casting and metal work dramatically improved, giving way to the modern cannon. In the early 15th century, cast iron balls were invented for cannons. These balls, combined with gunpowder, were commonly used during sieges. By around 1550, the French had begun categorizing their guns by caliber, leading to a more organized formation of artillery.

==Renaissance and revolutionary cannons (1600-1790)==
Circa 1650, the French garrison gun was invented. The garrison gun was usually mounted and tied down to reduce recoil, and could be mounted in very small spaces. By the mid-18th century artillery pieces were making an appearance in North America, most notably during the [[French and Indian War]]. Artillery was later used by the Americans in their [[American Revolution | war for independence]]. The [[Continental Army]] used cannons captured at [[Fort Ticonderoga]] to win the [[Battle of Yorktown]], the last major battle of the American Revolution.

==Fire support during World War I and World War II (1914-1945)==
During the first World War, fire support was mostly used preemptively before an infantry attack. Artillery was often used to destroy enemy forces and positions, as well as obstacles in and near trenches. During this time, we also see the introduction of chemical fire support, using chemical compounds inside of shells in addition to conventional armaments. During the second World War, there was a joint usage of fire support by field artillery, naval fire support and air support. Field artillery was mainly in the western and eastern theaters, while naval fire support was used during the pacific theater, however a large number of ships were used to give fire support on D-Day. During World War II there was a large use of aerial fire support that included major improvements in technology in all theaters and campaigns of the second world war.

==Fire support in Vietnam (1955–1974)==
During the Vietnam War, fire support was used to flush out [[Viet Cong]] positions. Most notably, [[napalm]] was used to destroy forests and jungles, resulting in less cover for the enemy.

==Fire support in recent warfare (since 1975)==
During Operation Desert Storm the United States used fire support, particularly onboard naval craft to bombard positions. During this operation, we also see the introduction of drones into combat, as a way to provide fire support from the air without a manned aircraft. During Operation Desert storm, Artillery was used to achieve a decisive victory by coalition forces. More recently Artillery has been used in the Russo-Ukrainian war to bombard troops and key positions. When the war first broke out, the United States sent artillery aid including shells, cannons and Patriot missile defense systems to aid Ukraine. As of 2023, Fire support by tanks and artillery have been used by the Israeli Defense Force to bombard key positions in the war against Hamas.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Fire Support (7341225078).jpg|[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] firing a 120 mm shell from a [[2R2M mortar|2R2M]] [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]]
File:2022-11-25 ATMOS 003.jpg|The crew of a [[Philippine Army]] [[ATMOS 2000]] [[self-propelled artillery]] firing a 155 mm shell
File:UA pickup MLRS (1).jpg|A [[Mitsubishi Triton|Mitsubishi L200]] [[Technical (vehicle)|technical]] used as a [[multiple rocket launcher]] by the [[Ukrainian Ground Forces]]
File:303rd ERQS close air support 150622-F-OH871-879.jpg|A [[Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk|UH-60 Black Hawk]] providing close air support using its side-mounted [[M134 Minigun]] turrets
File:Urban Close Air Support Day & Night 160930-M-MR595-0841.jpg|A [[Bell UH-1Y Venom|UH-1Y Venom]] providing close air support during an [[urban warfare]] training exercise
File:Naval Fire Support Exercise in Djibouti DVIDS96880.jpg|High explosive munitions fired by the [[USS Winston S. Churchill|USS ''Winston S. Churchill'']] being used against target practice [[Dummy tank|dummy tanks]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Fire support base]]
* [[Fire support team]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
Admin. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Army Historical Foundation, 7 Apr. 2023, armyhistory.org/u-s-and-german-field-artillery-in-world-war-ii-a-comparison/. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Alexd. “Guadalcanal: The Joint Fight: The National WWII Museum: New Orleans.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, The National World War II Museum, 8 Feb. 2023, www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/guadalcanal-joint-fight-0. Accessed 14 May 2024.
“Artillery Played ‘decisive’ Role in 1st Gulf War.” AUSA, 7 Aug. 2020, www.ausa.org/news/artillery-played-%E2%80%98decisive%E2%80%99-role-1st-gulf-war. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Blosser, Kelly. “Naval Surface Fire Support—Mission Planning and Coordination.” US Navy, 1996, Accessed 02 May 2024.
“Bombardments and Barrages: Preparing American Artillery for the Front in World War I.” American Battle Monuments Commission, 24 Oct. 2017, www.abmc.gov/news-events/news/bombardments-and-barrages-preparing-american-artillery-front-world-war-i#:~:text=New%20techniques%20they%20learned%20allowed,fire%20into%20a%20defined%20area. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Coyne, James. “Weapons - Drones (Rpvs) | The Gulf War | Frontline.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 1993, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/weapons/drones.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20May%201991,Corps%2094%3B%20the%20Army%2048. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Golonka, Adrian. “The Role of Artillery in Joint Fire Support.” Safety & Defense, Safeth & Defense, 3 Nov. 2021, sd-magazine.eu/index.php/sd/article/view/136. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Admin. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Army Historical Foundation, 7 Apr. 2023, armyhistory.org/u-s-and-german-field-artillery-in-world-war-ii-a-comparison/. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Alexd. “Guadalcanal: The Joint Fight: The National WWII Museum: New Orleans.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, The National World War II Museum, 8 Feb. 2023, www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/guadalcanal-joint-fight-0. Accessed 14 May 2024.
“Artillery Played ‘decisive’ Role in 1st Gulf War.” AUSA, 7 Aug. 2020, www.ausa.org/news/artillery-played-%E2%80%98decisive%E2%80%99-role-1st-gulf-war. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Blosser, Kelly. “Naval Surface Fire Support—Mission Planning and Coordination.” US Navy, 1996, Accessed 02 May 2024.
“Bombardments and Barrages: Preparing American Artillery for the Front in World War I.” American Battle Monuments Commission, 24 Oct. 2017, www.abmc.gov/news-events/news/bombardments-and-barrages-preparing-american-artillery-front-world-war-i#:~:text=New%20techniques%20they%20learned%20allowed,fire%20into%20a%20defined%20area. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Coyne, James. “Weapons - Drones (Rpvs) | The Gulf War | Frontline.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 1993, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/weapons/drones.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20May%201991,Corps%2094%3B%20the%20Army%2048. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Golonka, Adrian. “The Role of Artillery in Joint Fire Support.” Safety & Defense, Safeth & Defense, 3 Nov. 2021, sd-magazine.eu/index.php/sd/article/view/136. Accessed 14 May 2024.
A graduate of the Naval Academy in 1930 Commander McMillian has had considerable and varied experience in connection with gunfire support strategy and tactics. He prepared the gunfire support plans for Attu. “Gunfire Support Lessons Learned in World War II.” U.S. Naval Institute, 10 Dec. 2020, www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1948/august/gunfire-support-lessons-learned-world-war-ii. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Manucy, Albert C. Artillery through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America. Division of Publications, National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1985.
O’Donohue, Daniel. Jont Fire Support. United States Military, 2019, Joint Publication 3-09, Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.
Ratiliff, Timothy. “Field Artillery and Fire Support at the Operational Level: An Analysis of Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom.” School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Military, 2017, pp. 1–49.
Why, Robert A. “The Evolution of Fire Support Doctrine Was Driven by Airmobile Doctrine and New Weapon Systems During the Vietnam War.” Mansfield State University, 2004, pp. 1–90.
“World War II Aviation.” Homepage, Smithosnian, 13 July 2006, airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/world-war-ii-aviation-uh. Accessed 14 May 2024.
A graduate of the Naval Academy in 1930 Commander McMillian has had considerable and varied experience in connection with gunfire support strategy and tactics. He prepared the gunfire support plans for Attu. “Gunfire Support Lessons Learned in World War II.” U.S. Naval Institute, 10 Dec. 2020, www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1948/august/gunfire-support-lessons-learned-world-war-ii. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Manucy, Albert C. Artillery through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America. Division of Publications, National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1985.
O’Donohue, Daniel. Jont Fire Support. United States Military, 2019, Joint Publication 3-09, Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.
Ratiliff, Timothy. “Field Artillery and Fire Support at the Operational Level: An Analysis of Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom.” School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Military, 2017, pp. 1–49.
Why, Robert A. “The Evolution of Fire Support Doctrine Was Driven by Airmobile Doctrine and New Weapon Systems During the Vietnam War.” Mansfield State University, 2004, pp. 1–90.
“World War II Aviation.” Homepage, Smithosnian, 13 July 2006, airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/world-war-ii-aviation-uh. Accessed 14 May 2024.

[[Category:Military terminology]]

{{Artillery-stub}}

Fire support

2024-08-05T10:27:32Z

131.111.5.201: /* Fire support in Vietnam (1955–1974) */

{{Short description|Combat support provided by forces not directly in combat}}
[[File:155fire.jpg|thumb|An [[M198 howitzer|M198]] [[howitzer]] firing a [[155 mm caliber]] [[Shell (projectile)|shell]] to provide [[artillery]] fire support]]
'''Fire support''' is a [[military]] term used to describe weapons fire used to support friendly forces by engaging, [[Suppressive fire|suppressing]], or destroying enemy forces, facilities, or [[materiel]] in [[combat]]. It is often provided through [[indirect fire]], though the term may also be used for some forms of supporting [[direct fire]].

The [[United States Department of Defense]] defines fire support as "[[Fires (military)|fires]] that directly support [[Army|land]], [[Navy|maritime]], [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious]], and [[special operations]] forces to engage enemy forces, combat formations, and facilities in pursuit of tactical and operational objectives."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/data/f/9631.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921045341/http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/data/f/9631.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 21, 2012|title=fire support|website=www.dtic.mil|access-date=2017-10-01}}</ref>

== Overview ==
[[File:127-GVB-Vietnam-M-Bx4-6001829.jpg|thumb|[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] watching the aftermath of an [[airstrike]] during [[Operation Prairie II]] of the [[Vietnam War]]]]
Fire support generally consists of fire from heavy or crew-served weaponry with high [[firepower]], including strikes and [[Barrage (artillery)|barrages]] from [[artillery]], [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]], [[rocket artillery]], and [[Missile|missiles]]; [[naval gunfire support]] from [[naval artillery]]; [[Airstrike|airstrikes]], [[Strafing|strafes]], and [[close air support]] from [[military aircraft]]; and [[Drone warfare|drone strikes]] from [[Unmanned combat aerial vehicle|unmanned combat aerial vehicles]]; among various other forms. Fire support is typically ordered and directed by an observer (e.g. [[artillery observer]], [[Forward air control|forward air controller]], etc.) on the [[front line]], and provided by a weapon crew or operator in the [[Rear (military)|rear]], usually from a [[fortification]], [[Military vehicle|vehicle]], or facility (such as a [[fire support base]]).

Fire support is used to support and supplement military units that may lack the capabilities or firepower offered by fire support. For example, an [[infantry]] unit needing heavy explosives to bombard an enemy emplacement, or a large [[smoke screen]] to cover their advance, and lacking the ability to do so themselves (e.g. insufficient effectiveness using [[Grenade|grenades]]), may call for fire support from a capable nearby mortar unit.

Fire support can reduce friendly casualties whilst devastating enemy capabilities and morale. Effective use of fire support—as seen during the 2018 [[Battle of Khasham]] of the [[Syrian civil war|Syrian Civil War]], where an outnumbered force used various forms of fire support to their advantage, avoiding serious casualties—may help swing a battle in one's favor.

== History ==

Varying forms of fire support have existed since the advent of early [[Cannon|cannons]] and [[Rocket (weapon)|rockets]], which were used to bombard enemy positions and fortifications to support infantry. [[Warship]]s have long provided fire support using their cannons. The use of fire support in its current form developed during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], when [[combined arms]] and advances in technology and tactics made fire support increasingly effective.
==Definition==
Fire support is defined as "assistance to infantry and armored units by artillery fire, naval gunfire, and airplane strafing and bombing."<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Fire support|access-date=June 3, 2024}}</ref>

==Early cannons (1300-1599)==
Early versions of artillery included the roman Bastilla, esentaily a large, mounted version of a crossbow that fired a single arrow. The first documented use of bombards, (large mortars) in Europe as we know them today was at the siege of Algeciras in 1343. By the 1470’s, casting and metal work dramatically improved, giving way to the modern cannon. In the early 15th century, cast iron balls were invented for cannons. These balls, combined with gunpowder, were commonly used during sieges. By around 1550, the French had begun categorizing their guns by caliber, leading to a more organized formation of artillery.

==Renaissance and revolutionary cannons (1600-1790)==
Circa 1650, the French garrison gun was invented. The garrison gun was usually mounted and tied down to reduce recoil, and could be mounted in very small spaces. By the mid-18th century artillery pieces were making an appearance in North America, most notably during the [[French and Indian War]]. Artillery was later used by the Americans in their [[American Revolution | war for independence]]. The [[Continental Army]] used cannons captured at [[Fort Ticonderoga]] to win the [[Battle of Yorktown]], the last major battle of the American Revolution.

==Fire support during World War I and World War II (1914-1945)==
During the first World War, fire support was mostly used preemptively before an infantry attack. Artillery was often used to destroy enemy forces and positions, as well as obstacles in and near trenches. During this time, we also see the introduction of chemical fire support, using chemical compounds inside of shells in addition to conventional armaments. During the second World War, there was a joint usage of fire support by field artillery, naval fire support and air support. Field artillery was mainly in the western and eastern theaters, while naval fire support was used during the pacific theater, however a large number of ships were used to give fire support on D-Day. During World War II there was a large use of aerial fire support that included major improvements in technology in all theaters and campaigns of the second world war.

==Fire support in Vietnam (1955–1974)==
During the Vietnam War, fire support was used to flush out [[Viet Cong]] positions. Most notably, [[napalm]] was used to destroy forests and jungles, resulting in less cover for the enemy.

==Fire Support in recent warfare (since 1975)==
During Operation Desert Storm the United States used fire support, particularly onboard naval craft to bombard positions. During this operation, we also see the introduction of drones into combat, as a way to provide fire support from the air without a manned aircraft. During Operation Desert storm, Artillery was used to achieve a decisive victory by coalition forces. More recently Artillery has been used in the Russo-Ukrainian war to bombard troops and key positions. When the war first broke out, the United States sent artillery aid including shells, cannons and Patriot missile defense systems to aid Ukraine. As of 2023, Fire support by tanks and artillery have been used by the Israeli Defense Force to bombard key positions in the war against Hamas.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Fire Support (7341225078).jpg|[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] firing a 120 mm shell from a [[2R2M mortar|2R2M]] [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]]
File:2022-11-25 ATMOS 003.jpg|The crew of a [[Philippine Army]] [[ATMOS 2000]] [[self-propelled artillery]] firing a 155 mm shell
File:UA pickup MLRS (1).jpg|A [[Mitsubishi Triton|Mitsubishi L200]] [[Technical (vehicle)|technical]] used as a [[multiple rocket launcher]] by the [[Ukrainian Ground Forces]]
File:303rd ERQS close air support 150622-F-OH871-879.jpg|A [[Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk|UH-60 Black Hawk]] providing close air support using its side-mounted [[M134 Minigun]] turrets
File:Urban Close Air Support Day & Night 160930-M-MR595-0841.jpg|A [[Bell UH-1Y Venom|UH-1Y Venom]] providing close air support during an [[urban warfare]] training exercise
File:Naval Fire Support Exercise in Djibouti DVIDS96880.jpg|High explosive munitions fired by the [[USS Winston S. Churchill|USS ''Winston S. Churchill'']] being used against target practice [[Dummy tank|dummy tanks]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Fire support base]]
* [[Fire support team]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
Admin. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Army Historical Foundation, 7 Apr. 2023, armyhistory.org/u-s-and-german-field-artillery-in-world-war-ii-a-comparison/. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Alexd. “Guadalcanal: The Joint Fight: The National WWII Museum: New Orleans.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, The National World War II Museum, 8 Feb. 2023, www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/guadalcanal-joint-fight-0. Accessed 14 May 2024.
“Artillery Played ‘decisive’ Role in 1st Gulf War.” AUSA, 7 Aug. 2020, www.ausa.org/news/artillery-played-%E2%80%98decisive%E2%80%99-role-1st-gulf-war. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Blosser, Kelly. “Naval Surface Fire Support—Mission Planning and Coordination.” US Navy, 1996, Accessed 02 May 2024.
“Bombardments and Barrages: Preparing American Artillery for the Front in World War I.” American Battle Monuments Commission, 24 Oct. 2017, www.abmc.gov/news-events/news/bombardments-and-barrages-preparing-american-artillery-front-world-war-i#:~:text=New%20techniques%20they%20learned%20allowed,fire%20into%20a%20defined%20area. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Coyne, James. “Weapons - Drones (Rpvs) | The Gulf War | Frontline.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 1993, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/weapons/drones.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20May%201991,Corps%2094%3B%20the%20Army%2048. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Golonka, Adrian. “The Role of Artillery in Joint Fire Support.” Safety & Defense, Safeth & Defense, 3 Nov. 2021, sd-magazine.eu/index.php/sd/article/view/136. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Admin. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Army Historical Foundation, 7 Apr. 2023, armyhistory.org/u-s-and-german-field-artillery-in-world-war-ii-a-comparison/. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Alexd. “Guadalcanal: The Joint Fight: The National WWII Museum: New Orleans.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, The National World War II Museum, 8 Feb. 2023, www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/guadalcanal-joint-fight-0. Accessed 14 May 2024.
“Artillery Played ‘decisive’ Role in 1st Gulf War.” AUSA, 7 Aug. 2020, www.ausa.org/news/artillery-played-%E2%80%98decisive%E2%80%99-role-1st-gulf-war. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Blosser, Kelly. “Naval Surface Fire Support—Mission Planning and Coordination.” US Navy, 1996, Accessed 02 May 2024.
“Bombardments and Barrages: Preparing American Artillery for the Front in World War I.” American Battle Monuments Commission, 24 Oct. 2017, www.abmc.gov/news-events/news/bombardments-and-barrages-preparing-american-artillery-front-world-war-i#:~:text=New%20techniques%20they%20learned%20allowed,fire%20into%20a%20defined%20area. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Coyne, James. “Weapons - Drones (Rpvs) | The Gulf War | Frontline.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 1993, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/weapons/drones.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20May%201991,Corps%2094%3B%20the%20Army%2048. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Golonka, Adrian. “The Role of Artillery in Joint Fire Support.” Safety & Defense, Safeth & Defense, 3 Nov. 2021, sd-magazine.eu/index.php/sd/article/view/136. Accessed 14 May 2024.
A graduate of the Naval Academy in 1930 Commander McMillian has had considerable and varied experience in connection with gunfire support strategy and tactics. He prepared the gunfire support plans for Attu. “Gunfire Support Lessons Learned in World War II.” U.S. Naval Institute, 10 Dec. 2020, www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1948/august/gunfire-support-lessons-learned-world-war-ii. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Manucy, Albert C. Artillery through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America. Division of Publications, National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1985.
O’Donohue, Daniel. Jont Fire Support. United States Military, 2019, Joint Publication 3-09, Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.
Ratiliff, Timothy. “Field Artillery and Fire Support at the Operational Level: An Analysis of Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom.” School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Military, 2017, pp. 1–49.
Why, Robert A. “The Evolution of Fire Support Doctrine Was Driven by Airmobile Doctrine and New Weapon Systems During the Vietnam War.” Mansfield State University, 2004, pp. 1–90.
“World War II Aviation.” Homepage, Smithosnian, 13 July 2006, airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/world-war-ii-aviation-uh. Accessed 14 May 2024.
A graduate of the Naval Academy in 1930 Commander McMillian has had considerable and varied experience in connection with gunfire support strategy and tactics. He prepared the gunfire support plans for Attu. “Gunfire Support Lessons Learned in World War II.” U.S. Naval Institute, 10 Dec. 2020, www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1948/august/gunfire-support-lessons-learned-world-war-ii. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Manucy, Albert C. Artillery through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America. Division of Publications, National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1985.
O’Donohue, Daniel. Jont Fire Support. United States Military, 2019, Joint Publication 3-09, Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.
Ratiliff, Timothy. “Field Artillery and Fire Support at the Operational Level: An Analysis of Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom.” School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Military, 2017, pp. 1–49.
Why, Robert A. “The Evolution of Fire Support Doctrine Was Driven by Airmobile Doctrine and New Weapon Systems During the Vietnam War.” Mansfield State University, 2004, pp. 1–90.
“World War II Aviation.” Homepage, Smithosnian, 13 July 2006, airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/world-war-ii-aviation-uh. Accessed 14 May 2024.

[[Category:Military terminology]]

{{Artillery-stub}}

Fire support

2024-08-05T10:27:19Z

131.111.5.201: /* Fire support during World War I and World War II (1914-1945) */

{{Short description|Combat support provided by forces not directly in combat}}
[[File:155fire.jpg|thumb|An [[M198 howitzer|M198]] [[howitzer]] firing a [[155 mm caliber]] [[Shell (projectile)|shell]] to provide [[artillery]] fire support]]
'''Fire support''' is a [[military]] term used to describe weapons fire used to support friendly forces by engaging, [[Suppressive fire|suppressing]], or destroying enemy forces, facilities, or [[materiel]] in [[combat]]. It is often provided through [[indirect fire]], though the term may also be used for some forms of supporting [[direct fire]].

The [[United States Department of Defense]] defines fire support as "[[Fires (military)|fires]] that directly support [[Army|land]], [[Navy|maritime]], [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious]], and [[special operations]] forces to engage enemy forces, combat formations, and facilities in pursuit of tactical and operational objectives."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/data/f/9631.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921045341/http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/data/f/9631.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 21, 2012|title=fire support|website=www.dtic.mil|access-date=2017-10-01}}</ref>

== Overview ==
[[File:127-GVB-Vietnam-M-Bx4-6001829.jpg|thumb|[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] watching the aftermath of an [[airstrike]] during [[Operation Prairie II]] of the [[Vietnam War]]]]
Fire support generally consists of fire from heavy or crew-served weaponry with high [[firepower]], including strikes and [[Barrage (artillery)|barrages]] from [[artillery]], [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]], [[rocket artillery]], and [[Missile|missiles]]; [[naval gunfire support]] from [[naval artillery]]; [[Airstrike|airstrikes]], [[Strafing|strafes]], and [[close air support]] from [[military aircraft]]; and [[Drone warfare|drone strikes]] from [[Unmanned combat aerial vehicle|unmanned combat aerial vehicles]]; among various other forms. Fire support is typically ordered and directed by an observer (e.g. [[artillery observer]], [[Forward air control|forward air controller]], etc.) on the [[front line]], and provided by a weapon crew or operator in the [[Rear (military)|rear]], usually from a [[fortification]], [[Military vehicle|vehicle]], or facility (such as a [[fire support base]]).

Fire support is used to support and supplement military units that may lack the capabilities or firepower offered by fire support. For example, an [[infantry]] unit needing heavy explosives to bombard an enemy emplacement, or a large [[smoke screen]] to cover their advance, and lacking the ability to do so themselves (e.g. insufficient effectiveness using [[Grenade|grenades]]), may call for fire support from a capable nearby mortar unit.

Fire support can reduce friendly casualties whilst devastating enemy capabilities and morale. Effective use of fire support—as seen during the 2018 [[Battle of Khasham]] of the [[Syrian civil war|Syrian Civil War]], where an outnumbered force used various forms of fire support to their advantage, avoiding serious casualties—may help swing a battle in one's favor.

== History ==

Varying forms of fire support have existed since the advent of early [[Cannon|cannons]] and [[Rocket (weapon)|rockets]], which were used to bombard enemy positions and fortifications to support infantry. [[Warship]]s have long provided fire support using their cannons. The use of fire support in its current form developed during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], when [[combined arms]] and advances in technology and tactics made fire support increasingly effective.
==Definition==
Fire support is defined as "assistance to infantry and armored units by artillery fire, naval gunfire, and airplane strafing and bombing."<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Fire support|access-date=June 3, 2024}}</ref>

==Early cannons (1300-1599)==
Early versions of artillery included the roman Bastilla, esentaily a large, mounted version of a crossbow that fired a single arrow. The first documented use of bombards, (large mortars) in Europe as we know them today was at the siege of Algeciras in 1343. By the 1470’s, casting and metal work dramatically improved, giving way to the modern cannon. In the early 15th century, cast iron balls were invented for cannons. These balls, combined with gunpowder, were commonly used during sieges. By around 1550, the French had begun categorizing their guns by caliber, leading to a more organized formation of artillery.

==Renaissance and revolutionary cannons (1600-1790)==
Circa 1650, the French garrison gun was invented. The garrison gun was usually mounted and tied down to reduce recoil, and could be mounted in very small spaces. By the mid-18th century artillery pieces were making an appearance in North America, most notably during the [[French and Indian War]]. Artillery was later used by the Americans in their [[American Revolution | war for independence]]. The [[Continental Army]] used cannons captured at [[Fort Ticonderoga]] to win the [[Battle of Yorktown]], the last major battle of the American Revolution.

==Fire support during World War I and World War II (1914-1945)==
During the first World War, fire support was mostly used preemptively before an infantry attack. Artillery was often used to destroy enemy forces and positions, as well as obstacles in and near trenches. During this time, we also see the introduction of chemical fire support, using chemical compounds inside of shells in addition to conventional armaments. During the second World War, there was a joint usage of fire support by field artillery, naval fire support and air support. Field artillery was mainly in the western and eastern theaters, while naval fire support was used during the pacific theater, however a large number of ships were used to give fire support on D-Day. During World War II there was a large use of aerial fire support that included major improvements in technology in all theaters and campaigns of the second world war.

==Fire Support in Vietnam (1955–1974)==
During the Vietnam War, fire support was used to flush out [[Viet Cong]] positions. Most notably, [[napalm]] was used to destroy forests and jungles, resulting in less cover for the enemy.

==Fire Support in recent warfare (since 1975)==
During Operation Desert Storm the United States used fire support, particularly onboard naval craft to bombard positions. During this operation, we also see the introduction of drones into combat, as a way to provide fire support from the air without a manned aircraft. During Operation Desert storm, Artillery was used to achieve a decisive victory by coalition forces. More recently Artillery has been used in the Russo-Ukrainian war to bombard troops and key positions. When the war first broke out, the United States sent artillery aid including shells, cannons and Patriot missile defense systems to aid Ukraine. As of 2023, Fire support by tanks and artillery have been used by the Israeli Defense Force to bombard key positions in the war against Hamas.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Fire Support (7341225078).jpg|[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] firing a 120 mm shell from a [[2R2M mortar|2R2M]] [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]]
File:2022-11-25 ATMOS 003.jpg|The crew of a [[Philippine Army]] [[ATMOS 2000]] [[self-propelled artillery]] firing a 155 mm shell
File:UA pickup MLRS (1).jpg|A [[Mitsubishi Triton|Mitsubishi L200]] [[Technical (vehicle)|technical]] used as a [[multiple rocket launcher]] by the [[Ukrainian Ground Forces]]
File:303rd ERQS close air support 150622-F-OH871-879.jpg|A [[Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk|UH-60 Black Hawk]] providing close air support using its side-mounted [[M134 Minigun]] turrets
File:Urban Close Air Support Day & Night 160930-M-MR595-0841.jpg|A [[Bell UH-1Y Venom|UH-1Y Venom]] providing close air support during an [[urban warfare]] training exercise
File:Naval Fire Support Exercise in Djibouti DVIDS96880.jpg|High explosive munitions fired by the [[USS Winston S. Churchill|USS ''Winston S. Churchill'']] being used against target practice [[Dummy tank|dummy tanks]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Fire support base]]
* [[Fire support team]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
Admin. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Army Historical Foundation, 7 Apr. 2023, armyhistory.org/u-s-and-german-field-artillery-in-world-war-ii-a-comparison/. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Alexd. “Guadalcanal: The Joint Fight: The National WWII Museum: New Orleans.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, The National World War II Museum, 8 Feb. 2023, www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/guadalcanal-joint-fight-0. Accessed 14 May 2024.
“Artillery Played ‘decisive’ Role in 1st Gulf War.” AUSA, 7 Aug. 2020, www.ausa.org/news/artillery-played-%E2%80%98decisive%E2%80%99-role-1st-gulf-war. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Blosser, Kelly. “Naval Surface Fire Support—Mission Planning and Coordination.” US Navy, 1996, Accessed 02 May 2024.
“Bombardments and Barrages: Preparing American Artillery for the Front in World War I.” American Battle Monuments Commission, 24 Oct. 2017, www.abmc.gov/news-events/news/bombardments-and-barrages-preparing-american-artillery-front-world-war-i#:~:text=New%20techniques%20they%20learned%20allowed,fire%20into%20a%20defined%20area. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Coyne, James. “Weapons - Drones (Rpvs) | The Gulf War | Frontline.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 1993, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/weapons/drones.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20May%201991,Corps%2094%3B%20the%20Army%2048. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Golonka, Adrian. “The Role of Artillery in Joint Fire Support.” Safety & Defense, Safeth & Defense, 3 Nov. 2021, sd-magazine.eu/index.php/sd/article/view/136. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Admin. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Army Historical Foundation, 7 Apr. 2023, armyhistory.org/u-s-and-german-field-artillery-in-world-war-ii-a-comparison/. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Alexd. “Guadalcanal: The Joint Fight: The National WWII Museum: New Orleans.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, The National World War II Museum, 8 Feb. 2023, www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/guadalcanal-joint-fight-0. Accessed 14 May 2024.
“Artillery Played ‘decisive’ Role in 1st Gulf War.” AUSA, 7 Aug. 2020, www.ausa.org/news/artillery-played-%E2%80%98decisive%E2%80%99-role-1st-gulf-war. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Blosser, Kelly. “Naval Surface Fire Support—Mission Planning and Coordination.” US Navy, 1996, Accessed 02 May 2024.
“Bombardments and Barrages: Preparing American Artillery for the Front in World War I.” American Battle Monuments Commission, 24 Oct. 2017, www.abmc.gov/news-events/news/bombardments-and-barrages-preparing-american-artillery-front-world-war-i#:~:text=New%20techniques%20they%20learned%20allowed,fire%20into%20a%20defined%20area. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Coyne, James. “Weapons - Drones (Rpvs) | The Gulf War | Frontline.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 1993, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/weapons/drones.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20May%201991,Corps%2094%3B%20the%20Army%2048. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Golonka, Adrian. “The Role of Artillery in Joint Fire Support.” Safety & Defense, Safeth & Defense, 3 Nov. 2021, sd-magazine.eu/index.php/sd/article/view/136. Accessed 14 May 2024.
A graduate of the Naval Academy in 1930 Commander McMillian has had considerable and varied experience in connection with gunfire support strategy and tactics. He prepared the gunfire support plans for Attu. “Gunfire Support Lessons Learned in World War II.” U.S. Naval Institute, 10 Dec. 2020, www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1948/august/gunfire-support-lessons-learned-world-war-ii. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Manucy, Albert C. Artillery through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America. Division of Publications, National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1985.
O’Donohue, Daniel. Jont Fire Support. United States Military, 2019, Joint Publication 3-09, Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.
Ratiliff, Timothy. “Field Artillery and Fire Support at the Operational Level: An Analysis of Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom.” School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Military, 2017, pp. 1–49.
Why, Robert A. “The Evolution of Fire Support Doctrine Was Driven by Airmobile Doctrine and New Weapon Systems During the Vietnam War.” Mansfield State University, 2004, pp. 1–90.
“World War II Aviation.” Homepage, Smithosnian, 13 July 2006, airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/world-war-ii-aviation-uh. Accessed 14 May 2024.
A graduate of the Naval Academy in 1930 Commander McMillian has had considerable and varied experience in connection with gunfire support strategy and tactics. He prepared the gunfire support plans for Attu. “Gunfire Support Lessons Learned in World War II.” U.S. Naval Institute, 10 Dec. 2020, www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1948/august/gunfire-support-lessons-learned-world-war-ii. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Manucy, Albert C. Artillery through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America. Division of Publications, National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1985.
O’Donohue, Daniel. Jont Fire Support. United States Military, 2019, Joint Publication 3-09, Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.
Ratiliff, Timothy. “Field Artillery and Fire Support at the Operational Level: An Analysis of Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom.” School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Military, 2017, pp. 1–49.
Why, Robert A. “The Evolution of Fire Support Doctrine Was Driven by Airmobile Doctrine and New Weapon Systems During the Vietnam War.” Mansfield State University, 2004, pp. 1–90.
“World War II Aviation.” Homepage, Smithosnian, 13 July 2006, airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/world-war-ii-aviation-uh. Accessed 14 May 2024.

[[Category:Military terminology]]

{{Artillery-stub}}

Fire support

2024-08-05T10:27:07Z

131.111.5.201: /* Fire support during the World War I and World War II (1914-1945) */

{{Short description|Combat support provided by forces not directly in combat}}
[[File:155fire.jpg|thumb|An [[M198 howitzer|M198]] [[howitzer]] firing a [[155 mm caliber]] [[Shell (projectile)|shell]] to provide [[artillery]] fire support]]
'''Fire support''' is a [[military]] term used to describe weapons fire used to support friendly forces by engaging, [[Suppressive fire|suppressing]], or destroying enemy forces, facilities, or [[materiel]] in [[combat]]. It is often provided through [[indirect fire]], though the term may also be used for some forms of supporting [[direct fire]].

The [[United States Department of Defense]] defines fire support as "[[Fires (military)|fires]] that directly support [[Army|land]], [[Navy|maritime]], [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious]], and [[special operations]] forces to engage enemy forces, combat formations, and facilities in pursuit of tactical and operational objectives."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/data/f/9631.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921045341/http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/data/f/9631.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 21, 2012|title=fire support|website=www.dtic.mil|access-date=2017-10-01}}</ref>

== Overview ==
[[File:127-GVB-Vietnam-M-Bx4-6001829.jpg|thumb|[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] watching the aftermath of an [[airstrike]] during [[Operation Prairie II]] of the [[Vietnam War]]]]
Fire support generally consists of fire from heavy or crew-served weaponry with high [[firepower]], including strikes and [[Barrage (artillery)|barrages]] from [[artillery]], [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]], [[rocket artillery]], and [[Missile|missiles]]; [[naval gunfire support]] from [[naval artillery]]; [[Airstrike|airstrikes]], [[Strafing|strafes]], and [[close air support]] from [[military aircraft]]; and [[Drone warfare|drone strikes]] from [[Unmanned combat aerial vehicle|unmanned combat aerial vehicles]]; among various other forms. Fire support is typically ordered and directed by an observer (e.g. [[artillery observer]], [[Forward air control|forward air controller]], etc.) on the [[front line]], and provided by a weapon crew or operator in the [[Rear (military)|rear]], usually from a [[fortification]], [[Military vehicle|vehicle]], or facility (such as a [[fire support base]]).

Fire support is used to support and supplement military units that may lack the capabilities or firepower offered by fire support. For example, an [[infantry]] unit needing heavy explosives to bombard an enemy emplacement, or a large [[smoke screen]] to cover their advance, and lacking the ability to do so themselves (e.g. insufficient effectiveness using [[Grenade|grenades]]), may call for fire support from a capable nearby mortar unit.

Fire support can reduce friendly casualties whilst devastating enemy capabilities and morale. Effective use of fire support—as seen during the 2018 [[Battle of Khasham]] of the [[Syrian civil war|Syrian Civil War]], where an outnumbered force used various forms of fire support to their advantage, avoiding serious casualties—may help swing a battle in one's favor.

== History ==

Varying forms of fire support have existed since the advent of early [[Cannon|cannons]] and [[Rocket (weapon)|rockets]], which were used to bombard enemy positions and fortifications to support infantry. [[Warship]]s have long provided fire support using their cannons. The use of fire support in its current form developed during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], when [[combined arms]] and advances in technology and tactics made fire support increasingly effective.
==Definition==
Fire support is defined as "assistance to infantry and armored units by artillery fire, naval gunfire, and airplane strafing and bombing."<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Fire support|access-date=June 3, 2024}}</ref>

==Early cannons (1300-1599)==
Early versions of artillery included the roman Bastilla, esentaily a large, mounted version of a crossbow that fired a single arrow. The first documented use of bombards, (large mortars) in Europe as we know them today was at the siege of Algeciras in 1343. By the 1470’s, casting and metal work dramatically improved, giving way to the modern cannon. In the early 15th century, cast iron balls were invented for cannons. These balls, combined with gunpowder, were commonly used during sieges. By around 1550, the French had begun categorizing their guns by caliber, leading to a more organized formation of artillery.

==Renaissance and revolutionary cannons (1600-1790)==
Circa 1650, the French garrison gun was invented. The garrison gun was usually mounted and tied down to reduce recoil, and could be mounted in very small spaces. By the mid-18th century artillery pieces were making an appearance in North America, most notably during the [[French and Indian War]]. Artillery was later used by the Americans in their [[American Revolution | war for independence]]. The [[Continental Army]] used cannons captured at [[Fort Ticonderoga]] to win the [[Battle of Yorktown]], the last major battle of the American Revolution.

==Fire support during the World War I and World War II (1914-1945)==
During the first World War, fire support was mostly used preemptively before an infantry attack. Artillery was often used to destroy enemy forces and positions, as well as obstacles in and near trenches. During this time, we also see the introduction of chemical fire support, using chemical compounds inside of shells in addition to conventional armaments. During the second World War, there was a joint usage of fire support by field artillery, naval fire support and air support. Field artillery was mainly in the western and eastern theaters, while naval fire support was used during the pacific theater, however a large number of ships were used to give fire support on D-Day. During World War II there was a large use of aerial fire support that included major improvements in technology in all theaters and campaigns of the second world war.

==Fire Support in Vietnam (1955–1974)==
During the Vietnam War, fire support was used to flush out [[Viet Cong]] positions. Most notably, [[napalm]] was used to destroy forests and jungles, resulting in less cover for the enemy.

==Fire Support in recent warfare (since 1975)==
During Operation Desert Storm the United States used fire support, particularly onboard naval craft to bombard positions. During this operation, we also see the introduction of drones into combat, as a way to provide fire support from the air without a manned aircraft. During Operation Desert storm, Artillery was used to achieve a decisive victory by coalition forces. More recently Artillery has been used in the Russo-Ukrainian war to bombard troops and key positions. When the war first broke out, the United States sent artillery aid including shells, cannons and Patriot missile defense systems to aid Ukraine. As of 2023, Fire support by tanks and artillery have been used by the Israeli Defense Force to bombard key positions in the war against Hamas.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Fire Support (7341225078).jpg|[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] firing a 120 mm shell from a [[2R2M mortar|2R2M]] [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]]
File:2022-11-25 ATMOS 003.jpg|The crew of a [[Philippine Army]] [[ATMOS 2000]] [[self-propelled artillery]] firing a 155 mm shell
File:UA pickup MLRS (1).jpg|A [[Mitsubishi Triton|Mitsubishi L200]] [[Technical (vehicle)|technical]] used as a [[multiple rocket launcher]] by the [[Ukrainian Ground Forces]]
File:303rd ERQS close air support 150622-F-OH871-879.jpg|A [[Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk|UH-60 Black Hawk]] providing close air support using its side-mounted [[M134 Minigun]] turrets
File:Urban Close Air Support Day & Night 160930-M-MR595-0841.jpg|A [[Bell UH-1Y Venom|UH-1Y Venom]] providing close air support during an [[urban warfare]] training exercise
File:Naval Fire Support Exercise in Djibouti DVIDS96880.jpg|High explosive munitions fired by the [[USS Winston S. Churchill|USS ''Winston S. Churchill'']] being used against target practice [[Dummy tank|dummy tanks]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Fire support base]]
* [[Fire support team]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
Admin. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Army Historical Foundation, 7 Apr. 2023, armyhistory.org/u-s-and-german-field-artillery-in-world-war-ii-a-comparison/. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Alexd. “Guadalcanal: The Joint Fight: The National WWII Museum: New Orleans.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, The National World War II Museum, 8 Feb. 2023, www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/guadalcanal-joint-fight-0. Accessed 14 May 2024.
“Artillery Played ‘decisive’ Role in 1st Gulf War.” AUSA, 7 Aug. 2020, www.ausa.org/news/artillery-played-%E2%80%98decisive%E2%80%99-role-1st-gulf-war. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Blosser, Kelly. “Naval Surface Fire Support—Mission Planning and Coordination.” US Navy, 1996, Accessed 02 May 2024.
“Bombardments and Barrages: Preparing American Artillery for the Front in World War I.” American Battle Monuments Commission, 24 Oct. 2017, www.abmc.gov/news-events/news/bombardments-and-barrages-preparing-american-artillery-front-world-war-i#:~:text=New%20techniques%20they%20learned%20allowed,fire%20into%20a%20defined%20area. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Coyne, James. “Weapons - Drones (Rpvs) | The Gulf War | Frontline.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 1993, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/weapons/drones.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20May%201991,Corps%2094%3B%20the%20Army%2048. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Golonka, Adrian. “The Role of Artillery in Joint Fire Support.” Safety & Defense, Safeth & Defense, 3 Nov. 2021, sd-magazine.eu/index.php/sd/article/view/136. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Admin. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Army Historical Foundation, 7 Apr. 2023, armyhistory.org/u-s-and-german-field-artillery-in-world-war-ii-a-comparison/. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Alexd. “Guadalcanal: The Joint Fight: The National WWII Museum: New Orleans.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, The National World War II Museum, 8 Feb. 2023, www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/guadalcanal-joint-fight-0. Accessed 14 May 2024.
“Artillery Played ‘decisive’ Role in 1st Gulf War.” AUSA, 7 Aug. 2020, www.ausa.org/news/artillery-played-%E2%80%98decisive%E2%80%99-role-1st-gulf-war. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Blosser, Kelly. “Naval Surface Fire Support—Mission Planning and Coordination.” US Navy, 1996, Accessed 02 May 2024.
“Bombardments and Barrages: Preparing American Artillery for the Front in World War I.” American Battle Monuments Commission, 24 Oct. 2017, www.abmc.gov/news-events/news/bombardments-and-barrages-preparing-american-artillery-front-world-war-i#:~:text=New%20techniques%20they%20learned%20allowed,fire%20into%20a%20defined%20area. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Coyne, James. “Weapons - Drones (Rpvs) | The Gulf War | Frontline.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 1993, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/weapons/drones.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20May%201991,Corps%2094%3B%20the%20Army%2048. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Golonka, Adrian. “The Role of Artillery in Joint Fire Support.” Safety & Defense, Safeth & Defense, 3 Nov. 2021, sd-magazine.eu/index.php/sd/article/view/136. Accessed 14 May 2024.
A graduate of the Naval Academy in 1930 Commander McMillian has had considerable and varied experience in connection with gunfire support strategy and tactics. He prepared the gunfire support plans for Attu. “Gunfire Support Lessons Learned in World War II.” U.S. Naval Institute, 10 Dec. 2020, www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1948/august/gunfire-support-lessons-learned-world-war-ii. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Manucy, Albert C. Artillery through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America. Division of Publications, National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1985.
O’Donohue, Daniel. Jont Fire Support. United States Military, 2019, Joint Publication 3-09, Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.
Ratiliff, Timothy. “Field Artillery and Fire Support at the Operational Level: An Analysis of Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom.” School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Military, 2017, pp. 1–49.
Why, Robert A. “The Evolution of Fire Support Doctrine Was Driven by Airmobile Doctrine and New Weapon Systems During the Vietnam War.” Mansfield State University, 2004, pp. 1–90.
“World War II Aviation.” Homepage, Smithosnian, 13 July 2006, airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/world-war-ii-aviation-uh. Accessed 14 May 2024.
A graduate of the Naval Academy in 1930 Commander McMillian has had considerable and varied experience in connection with gunfire support strategy and tactics. He prepared the gunfire support plans for Attu. “Gunfire Support Lessons Learned in World War II.” U.S. Naval Institute, 10 Dec. 2020, www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1948/august/gunfire-support-lessons-learned-world-war-ii. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Manucy, Albert C. Artillery through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America. Division of Publications, National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1985.
O’Donohue, Daniel. Jont Fire Support. United States Military, 2019, Joint Publication 3-09, Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.
Ratiliff, Timothy. “Field Artillery and Fire Support at the Operational Level: An Analysis of Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom.” School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Military, 2017, pp. 1–49.
Why, Robert A. “The Evolution of Fire Support Doctrine Was Driven by Airmobile Doctrine and New Weapon Systems During the Vietnam War.” Mansfield State University, 2004, pp. 1–90.
“World War II Aviation.” Homepage, Smithosnian, 13 July 2006, airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/world-war-ii-aviation-uh. Accessed 14 May 2024.

[[Category:Military terminology]]

{{Artillery-stub}}

Fire support

2024-08-05T10:26:52Z

131.111.5.201: /* Fire Support in recent warfare (since 1975) */

{{Short description|Combat support provided by forces not directly in combat}}
[[File:155fire.jpg|thumb|An [[M198 howitzer|M198]] [[howitzer]] firing a [[155 mm caliber]] [[Shell (projectile)|shell]] to provide [[artillery]] fire support]]
'''Fire support''' is a [[military]] term used to describe weapons fire used to support friendly forces by engaging, [[Suppressive fire|suppressing]], or destroying enemy forces, facilities, or [[materiel]] in [[combat]]. It is often provided through [[indirect fire]], though the term may also be used for some forms of supporting [[direct fire]].

The [[United States Department of Defense]] defines fire support as "[[Fires (military)|fires]] that directly support [[Army|land]], [[Navy|maritime]], [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious]], and [[special operations]] forces to engage enemy forces, combat formations, and facilities in pursuit of tactical and operational objectives."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/data/f/9631.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921045341/http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/data/f/9631.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 21, 2012|title=fire support|website=www.dtic.mil|access-date=2017-10-01}}</ref>

== Overview ==
[[File:127-GVB-Vietnam-M-Bx4-6001829.jpg|thumb|[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] watching the aftermath of an [[airstrike]] during [[Operation Prairie II]] of the [[Vietnam War]]]]
Fire support generally consists of fire from heavy or crew-served weaponry with high [[firepower]], including strikes and [[Barrage (artillery)|barrages]] from [[artillery]], [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]], [[rocket artillery]], and [[Missile|missiles]]; [[naval gunfire support]] from [[naval artillery]]; [[Airstrike|airstrikes]], [[Strafing|strafes]], and [[close air support]] from [[military aircraft]]; and [[Drone warfare|drone strikes]] from [[Unmanned combat aerial vehicle|unmanned combat aerial vehicles]]; among various other forms. Fire support is typically ordered and directed by an observer (e.g. [[artillery observer]], [[Forward air control|forward air controller]], etc.) on the [[front line]], and provided by a weapon crew or operator in the [[Rear (military)|rear]], usually from a [[fortification]], [[Military vehicle|vehicle]], or facility (such as a [[fire support base]]).

Fire support is used to support and supplement military units that may lack the capabilities or firepower offered by fire support. For example, an [[infantry]] unit needing heavy explosives to bombard an enemy emplacement, or a large [[smoke screen]] to cover their advance, and lacking the ability to do so themselves (e.g. insufficient effectiveness using [[Grenade|grenades]]), may call for fire support from a capable nearby mortar unit.

Fire support can reduce friendly casualties whilst devastating enemy capabilities and morale. Effective use of fire support—as seen during the 2018 [[Battle of Khasham]] of the [[Syrian civil war|Syrian Civil War]], where an outnumbered force used various forms of fire support to their advantage, avoiding serious casualties—may help swing a battle in one's favor.

== History ==

Varying forms of fire support have existed since the advent of early [[Cannon|cannons]] and [[Rocket (weapon)|rockets]], which were used to bombard enemy positions and fortifications to support infantry. [[Warship]]s have long provided fire support using their cannons. The use of fire support in its current form developed during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], when [[combined arms]] and advances in technology and tactics made fire support increasingly effective.
==Definition==
Fire support is defined as "assistance to infantry and armored units by artillery fire, naval gunfire, and airplane strafing and bombing."<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Fire support|access-date=June 3, 2024}}</ref>

==Early cannons (1300-1599)==
Early versions of artillery included the roman Bastilla, esentaily a large, mounted version of a crossbow that fired a single arrow. The first documented use of bombards, (large mortars) in Europe as we know them today was at the siege of Algeciras in 1343. By the 1470’s, casting and metal work dramatically improved, giving way to the modern cannon. In the early 15th century, cast iron balls were invented for cannons. These balls, combined with gunpowder, were commonly used during sieges. By around 1550, the French had begun categorizing their guns by caliber, leading to a more organized formation of artillery.

==Renaissance and revolutionary cannons (1600-1790)==
Circa 1650, the French garrison gun was invented. The garrison gun was usually mounted and tied down to reduce recoil, and could be mounted in very small spaces. By the mid-18th century artillery pieces were making an appearance in North America, most notably during the [[French and Indian War]]. Artillery was later used by the Americans in their [[American Revolution | war for independence]]. The [[Continental Army]] used cannons captured at [[Fort Ticonderoga]] to win the [[Battle of Yorktown]], the last major battle of the American Revolution.

==Fire Support during the World War I and World War II (1914-1945)==
During the first World War, fire support was mostly used preemptively before an infantry attack. Artillery was often used to destroy enemy forces and positions, as well as obstacles in and near trenches. During this time, we also see the introduction of chemical fire support, using chemical compounds inside of shells in addition to conventional armaments. During the second World War, there was a joint usage of fire support by field artillery, naval fire support and air support. Field artillery was mainly in the western and eastern theaters, while naval fire support was used during the pacific theater, however a large number of ships were used to give fire support on D-Day. During World War II there was a large use of aerial fire support that included major improvements in technology in all theaters and campaigns of the second world war.

==Fire Support in Vietnam (1955–1974)==
During the Vietnam War, fire support was used to flush out [[Viet Cong]] positions. Most notably, [[napalm]] was used to destroy forests and jungles, resulting in less cover for the enemy.

==Fire Support in recent warfare (since 1975)==
During Operation Desert Storm the United States used fire support, particularly onboard naval craft to bombard positions. During this operation, we also see the introduction of drones into combat, as a way to provide fire support from the air without a manned aircraft. During Operation Desert storm, Artillery was used to achieve a decisive victory by coalition forces. More recently Artillery has been used in the Russo-Ukrainian war to bombard troops and key positions. When the war first broke out, the United States sent artillery aid including shells, cannons and Patriot missile defense systems to aid Ukraine. As of 2023, Fire support by tanks and artillery have been used by the Israeli Defense Force to bombard key positions in the war against Hamas.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Fire Support (7341225078).jpg|[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] firing a 120 mm shell from a [[2R2M mortar|2R2M]] [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]]
File:2022-11-25 ATMOS 003.jpg|The crew of a [[Philippine Army]] [[ATMOS 2000]] [[self-propelled artillery]] firing a 155 mm shell
File:UA pickup MLRS (1).jpg|A [[Mitsubishi Triton|Mitsubishi L200]] [[Technical (vehicle)|technical]] used as a [[multiple rocket launcher]] by the [[Ukrainian Ground Forces]]
File:303rd ERQS close air support 150622-F-OH871-879.jpg|A [[Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk|UH-60 Black Hawk]] providing close air support using its side-mounted [[M134 Minigun]] turrets
File:Urban Close Air Support Day & Night 160930-M-MR595-0841.jpg|A [[Bell UH-1Y Venom|UH-1Y Venom]] providing close air support during an [[urban warfare]] training exercise
File:Naval Fire Support Exercise in Djibouti DVIDS96880.jpg|High explosive munitions fired by the [[USS Winston S. Churchill|USS ''Winston S. Churchill'']] being used against target practice [[Dummy tank|dummy tanks]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Fire support base]]
* [[Fire support team]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
Admin. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Army Historical Foundation, 7 Apr. 2023, armyhistory.org/u-s-and-german-field-artillery-in-world-war-ii-a-comparison/. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Alexd. “Guadalcanal: The Joint Fight: The National WWII Museum: New Orleans.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, The National World War II Museum, 8 Feb. 2023, www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/guadalcanal-joint-fight-0. Accessed 14 May 2024.
“Artillery Played ‘decisive’ Role in 1st Gulf War.” AUSA, 7 Aug. 2020, www.ausa.org/news/artillery-played-%E2%80%98decisive%E2%80%99-role-1st-gulf-war. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Blosser, Kelly. “Naval Surface Fire Support—Mission Planning and Coordination.” US Navy, 1996, Accessed 02 May 2024.
“Bombardments and Barrages: Preparing American Artillery for the Front in World War I.” American Battle Monuments Commission, 24 Oct. 2017, www.abmc.gov/news-events/news/bombardments-and-barrages-preparing-american-artillery-front-world-war-i#:~:text=New%20techniques%20they%20learned%20allowed,fire%20into%20a%20defined%20area. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Coyne, James. “Weapons - Drones (Rpvs) | The Gulf War | Frontline.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 1993, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/weapons/drones.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20May%201991,Corps%2094%3B%20the%20Army%2048. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Golonka, Adrian. “The Role of Artillery in Joint Fire Support.” Safety & Defense, Safeth & Defense, 3 Nov. 2021, sd-magazine.eu/index.php/sd/article/view/136. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Admin. “U.S. and German Field Artillery in World War II: A Comparison.” The Army Historical Foundation, 7 Apr. 2023, armyhistory.org/u-s-and-german-field-artillery-in-world-war-ii-a-comparison/. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Alexd. “Guadalcanal: The Joint Fight: The National WWII Museum: New Orleans.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, The National World War II Museum, 8 Feb. 2023, www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/guadalcanal-joint-fight-0. Accessed 14 May 2024.
“Artillery Played ‘decisive’ Role in 1st Gulf War.” AUSA, 7 Aug. 2020, www.ausa.org/news/artillery-played-%E2%80%98decisive%E2%80%99-role-1st-gulf-war. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Blosser, Kelly. “Naval Surface Fire Support—Mission Planning and Coordination.” US Navy, 1996, Accessed 02 May 2024.
“Bombardments and Barrages: Preparing American Artillery for the Front in World War I.” American Battle Monuments Commission, 24 Oct. 2017, www.abmc.gov/news-events/news/bombardments-and-barrages-preparing-american-artillery-front-world-war-i#:~:text=New%20techniques%20they%20learned%20allowed,fire%20into%20a%20defined%20area. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Coyne, James. “Weapons - Drones (Rpvs) | The Gulf War | Frontline.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 1993, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/weapons/drones.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20May%201991,Corps%2094%3B%20the%20Army%2048. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Golonka, Adrian. “The Role of Artillery in Joint Fire Support.” Safety & Defense, Safeth & Defense, 3 Nov. 2021, sd-magazine.eu/index.php/sd/article/view/136. Accessed 14 May 2024.
A graduate of the Naval Academy in 1930 Commander McMillian has had considerable and varied experience in connection with gunfire support strategy and tactics. He prepared the gunfire support plans for Attu. “Gunfire Support Lessons Learned in World War II.” U.S. Naval Institute, 10 Dec. 2020, www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1948/august/gunfire-support-lessons-learned-world-war-ii. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Manucy, Albert C. Artillery through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America. Division of Publications, National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1985.
O’Donohue, Daniel. Jont Fire Support. United States Military, 2019, Joint Publication 3-09, Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.
Ratiliff, Timothy. “Field Artillery and Fire Support at the Operational Level: An Analysis of Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom.” School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Military, 2017, pp. 1–49.
Why, Robert A. “The Evolution of Fire Support Doctrine Was Driven by Airmobile Doctrine and New Weapon Systems During the Vietnam War.” Mansfield State University, 2004, pp. 1–90.
“World War II Aviation.” Homepage, Smithosnian, 13 July 2006, airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/world-war-ii-aviation-uh. Accessed 14 May 2024.
A graduate of the Naval Academy in 1930 Commander McMillian has had considerable and varied experience in connection with gunfire support strategy and tactics. He prepared the gunfire support plans for Attu. “Gunfire Support Lessons Learned in World War II.” U.S. Naval Institute, 10 Dec. 2020, www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1948/august/gunfire-support-lessons-learned-world-war-ii. Accessed 14 May 2024.
Manucy, Albert C. Artillery through the Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America. Division of Publications, National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1985.
O’Donohue, Daniel. Jont Fire Support. United States Military, 2019, Joint Publication 3-09, Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.
Ratiliff, Timothy. “Field Artillery and Fire Support at the Operational Level: An Analysis of Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom.” School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Military, 2017, pp. 1–49.
Why, Robert A. “The Evolution of Fire Support Doctrine Was Driven by Airmobile Doctrine and New Weapon Systems During the Vietnam War.” Mansfield State University, 2004, pp. 1–90.
“World War II Aviation.” Homepage, Smithosnian, 13 July 2006, airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/world-war-ii-aviation-uh. Accessed 14 May 2024.

[[Category:Military terminology]]

{{Artillery-stub}}

Sovereign's Prize

2024-07-30T11:27:07Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|Annual prize for target rifle shooting in Britain}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox sports award
| name =
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| sport = [[Shooting sports|Shooting]]
| competition = [[Imperial Meeting]]
| discipline = [[Fullbore target rifle]]
| awardedfor =
| english =
| localnames =
| nickname =
| sponsor =
| location = [[National Shooting Centre|Bisley Camp]]
| country = {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| presenter = [[National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)|National Rifle Association]]
| first = 1860
| number = 154
| last =
| firstwinner = Edward CR Ross
| mostwins = {{unbulleted list|[[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|A Fulton]]|[[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]]|TA Ringer|D Calvert|[[Glyn Barnett|GCD Barnett]]|[[David Luckman|DC Luckman]]}}''3 times''
| mostrecent = [[David Luckman |DC Luckman]]
}}

The '''Sovereign's Prize''' is a British [[fullbore target rifle]] shooting competition. It is the climax of the [[National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)|National Rifle Association]]'s annual [[Imperial Meeting]] and is widely regarded as one of the most prestigious prizes in the sport globally.<ref>{{cite web |title=H.M. The Queen's Prize |url=https://www.gbrt.org.uk/individual-competitions/h-m-the-queens-prize/ |website=GB Rifle Team |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112112355/https://www.gbrt.org.uk/individual-competitions/h-m-the-queens-prize/ |archive-date=12 January 2023 |language=English |url-status=live}}</ref> The prize is typically referred to as the '''Queen's Prize''' or the '''King's Prize''' depending on the incumbent [[British monarch]].

The Prize was first contested in 1860, with the winner receiving a gold medal and £250. Strictly, the "Queen's Prize" refers to the £250 cash prize, which was originally the personal gift of Queen Victoria. The gold medal is awarded by the Association.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/782828930 |work=Aris's Birmingham Gazette |date=7 May 1860 |page=1 |language=en |quote=The Queen's prize of 250l., together with the gold medal of the Association, will be shot for by candidates successful in other trials, the ranges being 800, 900 and 1000 yards. |title=Aris's Birmingham Gazette, etc. 07 May 1860, page 1 }}</ref> As of 2024, the Prize has been contested 155 times, breaking only for the World Wars. Although contested on an open basis, it has only been won three times by women (in 1930, 2000 and 2022). Six people have won it three times.

==Course of fire==
As of 2022, the Prize is contested in three stages.<ref name="Imperial-Handbook-2022">{{cite web |title=NRA Handbook – Imperial competitions 2022 |url=https://nra.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/NRA-Handbook-Imperial-competitions-2022.pdf |website=[[National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)|National Rifle Association]] |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112091650/https://nra.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/NRA-Handbook-Imperial-competitions-2022.pdf |archive-date=12 January 2023 |pages=294 |language=English |url-status=live}}</ref> Standard NRA targets are used, with scoring rings offering a maximum score of five points, plus a "v-bull" within the 5-ring (used for tie-breaking). Since the move to the [[National Shooting Centre]] at Bisley, the first and second stages have been contested on the 600yard range Century Range, whilst the final is contested on Stickledown Range (which can support shooting up to 1200yards).

Stages II and III are sometimes known as a "Queen's Prize" match. A "Queen's Prize" is used as the standard course of fire for [[Shooting at the Commonwealth Games|fullbore rifle matches at the Commonwealth Games]], although all competitors shoot all distances without elimination.

===King's I===
Stage one is an open elimination round consisting of three "2+7" matches (2 sighters with 7 shots to count) at 300, 500 and 600yards. This gives a highest possible score of 105 with 21 V-bulls (rendered as 105.21v).

The top three hundred competitors progress to the second stage, which typically includes scores of ~101 or better.

===King's II===
Stage two consists of 2+10 matches at the same distances as the first stage. Qualification is on a "start from zero" basis, meaning that scores from the first stage are not carried forward and top qualifiers have no advantage over those with poorer scores in the first stage. The highest possible score is 150 with 30 v-bulls (150.30v).

The top one hundred competitors progress to the third and final stage. The "King's Hundred" each receive an NRA '100' Badge. The top scorer in the second stage is awarded an NRA Silver Medal for winning the "short range" portion of the competition, regardless of how they perform in the final.

===King's III (King's Final)===
[[File:Arthur Fulton 1912 Kings Prize.jpg|thumb|Newspaper illustration of Arthur Fulton being chaired after winning the 1912 Kings Prize.]]
Stage three moves to longer distances, consisting of 2+15 matches at 900 and 1000yards. Scores are carried forward from the second stage, giving a highest possible score of 300.60v. Winning scores better than 298 are common, indicating the shooter has only dropped one or two shots across five distances and sixty shots.

The winner receives a gold medal and £250, with the runners up receiving silver and bronze badges respectively. The winner is then "chaired" off the range on an open [[sedan chair]] borne by other competitors.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Bruce A R Scott |title=Chairing of Rifle Shooting Champions – The Tradition |url=https://nraa.com.au/history/chairing-of-rifle-shooting-champions-the-tradition/ |website=[[National Rifle Association of Australia]] |access-date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306021210/https://nraa.com.au/history/chairing-of-rifle-shooting-champions-the-tradition/ |archive-date=6 March 2022 |language=English |date=22 September 2021 |quote=The earliest evidence of the Chairing Ceremony for the sport of long range rifle shooting is recorded in the book titled 'History of the National Rifle Association during its first fifty years 1859 to 1909' by A.P. Humphry and Lieutenant Colonel the Hon T.F. Fremantle, 1914. ... The plate on the original chair reads: 'Presented in 1883 by Sgt GJ Wainwright LRB'. This suggests that the Chairing Ceremony was introduced at the Wimbledon Championship in 1883 and is peculiar to shooting and the King's/Queen's Prize. Since this likely first chairing of the winner, the ceremony has been adopted by many other nations, particularly Commonwealth Countries, where long range rifle shooting is an established and recognised activity. |url-status=live}}</ref> By tradition they are carried to the NRA offices to receive their prize, followed by a tour of the clubhouses on camp.

==Winners==
[[File:Marjorie Elaine Foster (1893-1974) by Picture Post.png|thumb|Marjorie Foster]]
Notable winners include the three female winners – [[Marjorie Foster]] (1930);<ref>{{cite news |title="See The Conquering Heroine Comes" Again! |url=https://www.britishpathe.com/video/see-the-conquering-heroine-comes-again-1/ |access-date=19 October 2022 |work=[[Pathé News]] |publisher=British Pathé |date=21 July 1930 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127020428/https://www.britishpathe.com/video/see-the-conquering-heroine-comes-again-1/ |archive-date=27 November 2018 |language=British English |format=Video}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Marjorie Foster (1893–1974) |url=https://www.exploringsurreyspast.org.uk/themes/subjects/sports/marjorie_foster/ |website=Exploring Surrey's Past |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031171036/https://www.exploringsurreyspast.org.uk/themes/subjects/sports/marjorie_foster/ |archive-date=31 October 2020 |language=English |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Imogen Lyons |title=Marjorie Foster: prize-winning rifle shot and poultry farmer |url=http://intriguing-people.com/marjorie-foster/ |website=Intriguing People |access-date=19 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326200322/http://intriguing-people.com/marjorie-foster/ |archive-date=26 March 2016 |language=English |date=6 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Surrey's bygone sporting heroes to be celebrated |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/surrey/hi/people_and_places/newsid_9359000/9359601.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=19 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124210351/http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/surrey/hi/people_and_places/newsid_9359000/9359601.stm |archive-date=24 January 2011 |language=English |date=19 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Joanna Hossack (2000)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2000-07-23 |title=First woman to win Bisley in 70 years |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/first-woman-to-win-bisley-in-70-years-708821.html |access-date=2023-05-19 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref> and Alice Good (2022).<ref>{{cite web |author1=Callum O'Shea |title=CURA Captain wins highly coveted Queen's Prize! |url=https://www.sport.cam.ac.uk/news/cura-captain-wins-highly-coveted-queens-prize |website=University of Cambridge Sport |publisher=University of Cambridge |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112092812/https://www.sport.cam.ac.uk/news/cura-captain-wins-highly-coveted-queens-prize |archive-date=12 January 2023 |language=English |date=27 July 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> A road on Bisley Camp is named Marjorie Foster Way.

[[File:Fulton's Gun Shop, National Shooting Centre.jpg|thumb|Fulton's Gun Shop, National Shooting Centre]]
The Fulton family have the unique distinction of having three generations of winners. George Fulton used the proceeds of his 1888 win to found Fulton's Gun Shop on Bisley Camp, which still stands today. His son [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|Arthur]] won a record-breaking three times in 1912, 1926 and 1931. Arthur's son Robin won in 1958.

Arthur Fulton's record was only matched in 1996. There are now five shooters who have won the Prize three times:<ref name="nra-prizelist">{{cite web |title=The King's and Queen's Prize |url=https://nra.org.uk/results/imperial-results-classifications/the-kings-and-queens-prize/ |website=[[National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)|National Rifle Association]] |access-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602022130/https://nra.org.uk/results/imperial-results-classifications/the-kings-and-queens-prize/ |archive-date=2 June 2022 |language=English |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Private W. T. Ward, winner of the Queen's Prize.png|thumb|right|200px|W. T. Ward, winner in 1897 and 1900]]

* [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|Arthur Fulton]] (1912, 1926, 1931)
* [[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]] (1980, 1983, 1996)<ref name="am-obit">{{cite web |title=Alain Marion GM3, GC, SM, SB, SC2 |url=https://nra.org.uk/alain-marion-gm3-gc-sm-sb-sc2/ |website=NRA News |publisher=[[National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)|National Rifle Association]] |access-date=26 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627060811/https://nra.org.uk/alain-marion-gm3-gc-sm-sb-sc2/ |archive-date=27 June 2023 |language=en-GB |date=26 June 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* TA Ringer (1992, 1997, 2001)
* David Calvert (2010, 2015, 2016)
* GCD Barnett (2002, 2003, 2019)

Also notable is PA Bennison's 1998 shoot, where he became the first person to score a "possible" with 300.40v. Canadian shooter [[James Paton (sport shooter)|James Paton]] matched this in 2005 with another 300.40v.

{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Gold Medal !! Gold Medal Score !! Silver Medal{{NoteTag|The Silver Medal is awarded to the highest scorer in the second stage, who has effectively won the "short range" portion of the competition. The overall runner-up in the Final is awarded a silver badge, and is not recorded here.}} !! Silver Medal Score
|-
| 1860 || ECR Ross || 24 || Cpl F Sharp || 17
|-
| 1861 || Pte JM Jopling || 18 || Sgt J Dougan || 23
|-
| 1862 || S Pixley || 41 || Ens H Walton || 46
|-
| 1863 || J Roberts || 65 || Cpl W Wisker || 49
|-
| 1864 || J Wyatt || 60 || Pte J Haward || 47
|-
| 1865 || J Sharman<ref name="Standard-1865">{{cite news |title=J Sharman |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/409700477 |work=The Standard |date=26 December 1865 |location=London |page=6 |language=en-gb |quote=The Queen's Prize was won by Private Sharman, or the 4th West York Rifles, ... while Mr. Edward Ross, formerly of the Cambridge University Corps, and now of the London Scottish, the champion for the yea 1860, won the SIlver Medal in the first stage for this prize this year...}}</ref> || 64 || ECR Ross<ref name="Standard-1865"/> || 47
|-
| 1866 || A Cameron || 69 || Pte A James || 48
|-
| 1867 || H Lane || 57 || Capt W Wright || 52
|-
| 1868 || JB Carslake || 65 || D/Maj SG Hutchinson || 51
|-
| 1869 || A Cameron || 71 || T Kirk || 46
|-
| 1870 || W Humphries || 66 || Cpl H Young || 49
|-
| 1871 || AP Humphrey || 68 || Pte TH Mayfield || 51
|-
| 1872 || W Michie || 65 || Capt A Cortis || 52
|-
| 1873 || AD Menzies || 60 || Cpl R Willows || 74
|-
| 1874 || WC Atkinson || 64 || Cpl H Young || 87
|-
| 1875 || G Pearse || 73 || Pte A Innes || 90
|-
| 1876 || R Pullman || 74 || Pte RB Burgess || 86
|-
| 1877 || G Jamieson || 70 || Cpl Betts || 92
|-
| 1878 || P Rae || 78 || Pte C Lowe || 47
|-
| 1879 || G Taylor || 83 || QM JC Macdonald || 96
|-
| 1880 || A Ferguson || 74 || Cpl Scott || 102
|-
| 1881 || T Beck || 86 || Cpl W Ingram || 96
|-
| 1882 || A Lawrance || 65 || Sgt WHO Smith || 174
|-
| 1883 || Col-Sgt R Mackay || 79 || Capt JH Young || 183
|-
| 1884 || D Gallant || 110 || Sgt JH Taylor || 105
|-
| 1885 || W Bulmer || 307 || Col-Sgt Simonds || 104
|-
| 1886 || CH Jackson || 265 || Capt A Cortis || 110
|-
| 1887 || RO Warren || 274 || Armr-Sgt Hill || 104
|-
| 1888 || Armr-Sgt GE Fulton || 280 || LCpl Noakes || 108
|-
| 1889 || Sgt D Reid || 281 || Pte CW Wattleworth || 205
|-
| 1890 || H Bates || 278 || Pte J Murray || 107
|-
| 1891 || D Dear || 269 || Sgt A Milner || 113
|-
| 1892 || Major J Pollock || 277 || Major J Pollock || 108
|-
| 1893 || Sgt WT Davies<ref name="WT-Davies">{{cite news |title=A colourful character... |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/838583392 |access-date=30 December 2023 |work=[[The Glamorgan Gazette]] |date=25 April 1991 |page=5 |language=en-gb |issn=0965-9242 |quote=A crack shot with a rifle, Colour Sgt Davies - a Llanelli man - won scores of medals for shooting, including the Queen's Prize in 1893 and the King's Prize in 1903.}}</ref> || 274 || Pte A Stocks || 96
|-
| 1894 || Pte MS Rennie || 283 || Capt H Bateman || 113
|-
| 1895 || TH Hayhurst || 279 || LSgt W Hogg || 114
|-
| 1896 || JL Thomson || 273 || Capt R Foster || 105
|-
| 1897 || WT Ward || 304 || Armr-Sgt JH Scott || 117
|-
| 1898 || D Yates || 327 || Lieut EL Fletcher || 119
|-
| 1899 || WA Priaulx || 336 || Col-Sgt HWM Matthews || 120
|-
| 1900 || WT Ward || 341 || Col-Sgt H Comery || 116
|-
| 1901 || Cpl ANVH Ommundsen || 310 || Armr-Sgt AJ Comber || 93
|-
| 1902 || Lt ED Johnson<ref>{{cite news |title=The Bisley Meeting Leicester Man Wins the King's Prize the Final Stage |url=http://www.nottsra.co.uk/archive/19020726.html |access-date=14 January 2023 |newspaper=[[Nottingham Evening Post]] |date=28 July 1902 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020025357/http://www.nottsra.co.uk/archive/19020726.html |archive-date=20 October 2015 |language=English}}</ref> || 307 || Cpl TH Kerr || 94
|-
| 1903 || Col-Sgt WT Davies<ref name="WT-Davies"/> || 311 || Pte W Gray || 85
|-
| 1904 || SJ Perry || 321 || Chap CJ Ferguson-Davie || 93
|-
| 1905 || AJ Comber || 315 || SSgt G Souter || 119
|-
| 1906 || RfF Davies || 324 || Sgt ANVH Ommundsen || 94
|-
| 1907 || WC Addison || 318 || Pte EA Buckley || 99
|-
| 1908 || G Gray || 325 || Gnr DR Paterson || 94
|-
| 1909 || HG Burr || 324 || Lieut JW Beatty || 93
|-
| 1910 || FR Radice || 340 || FR Radice || 94
|-
| 1911 || WJ Clifford || 319 || Pte AG Garrod || 95
|-
| 1912 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 335 || RSIM GH Harvey || 96
|-
| 1913 || WA Hawkins || 330 || Sgt ANVH Ommundsen || 92
|-
| 1914 || JL Dewar || 309 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 94
|-
| 1919 || L Loveday || 253 || Pte RW Lockwood || 129
|-
| 1920 || FH Morgan || 281 || Capt WH Hoey || 144
|-
| 1921 || J Cunningham || 226 || CR Crowe || 95
|-
| 1922 || AF Marchment || 230 || RSM S Green || 94
|-
| 1923 || EH Robinson || 232 || J Elgood || 97
|-
| 1924 || DT Burke || 230 || CSM JL Dewar || 95
|-
| 1925 || A Smith || 226 || Fl Off G Richardson || 98
|-
| 1926 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 286 || FH Kelly || 146
|-
| 1927 || Capt, Dr CH Vernon || 292 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 148
|-
| 1928 || AC Hale || 283 || Lieut AE Martin || 145
|-
| 1929 || RM Blair || 283 || Pte PRT Garnett || 141
|-
| 1930 || [[Marjorie Foster]]<ref name=forb>{{Cite ODNB |last=Kay |first=Joyce |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-65174 |title=Foster, Marjorie Elaine (1893–1974), rifle shot and poultry farmer |date=2004-09-23 |volume=1 |language=en |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/65174|isbn=978-0-19-861412-8 }}</ref> || 280 || Lieut AJ Andrews || 147
|-
| 1931 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 285 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 145
|-
| 1932 || CFH Bayly || 289 || JW Houlden || 146
|-
| 1933 || DE Woods<ref>{{cite news |title=Father's Bisley Prophecy Comes True |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/808005460 |access-date=30 December 2023 |work=The Stapleford and Sandiacre News |date=29 July 1933 |page=7 |language=en-gb |issn=
1351-993X}}</ref> || 287 || Fl Off C Bunch || 145
|-
| 1934 || JA Barlow || 288 || CSM WR Clarke || 146
|-
| 1935 || Armr-Sgt FS French || 289 || CA Sutherland || 148
|-
| 1936 || LD Busschau || 272 || Sgt JE Johnson || 146
|-
| 1937 || DL Birney || 283 || O/Cdt DL Birney || 143
|-
| 1938 || JA Barlow || 287 || RD Greig || 147
|-
| 1939 || Capt TS Smith || 282 || Lieut A Eccles || 146
|-
| 1946 || CC Willott || 280 || Capt RJ Middlemas || 144
|-
| 1947 || WO R Bennett || 279 || WO R Bennett || 146
|-
| 1948 || PA Pavey || 283 || Cpl RJ Kerslake || 146
|-
| 1949 || Capt EWH Brookes || 278 || AG Fox || 146
|-
| 1950 || Capt RD Greig || 277 || J Draper || 144
|-
| 1951 || Lt GS Boa || 285 || Flt Lt H Gill || 144
|-
| 1952 || Major AB Kinnier-Wilson || 277 || WH Magnay<ref name="Magnay-Obit"/> || 146
|-
| 1953 || Major NW McCaw || 273 || RL Saunders || 145
|-
| 1954 || Major GE Twine<ref name="Twine"/> || 278 || Major GE Twine || 145
|-
| 1955 || LR Fenwick || 286 || Lt Col OA Watts || 146
|-
| 1956 || Major GE Twine<ref name="Twine">{{cite news |title=Queen's Prize Win Repeated |work=The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post |date=23 July 1956 |page=9 |language=en |quote=Major G.E. Twine ... repeated his 1954 success in winning the Queen's Prize of £250 and the National Rifle Association Gold Medal, at Bisley on Saturday.}}</ref> || 283 || Capt AF Bromley || 142
|-
| 1957 || JRC Love || 283 || Lt Col F Adams || 147
|-
| 1958 || Major RA Fulton || 281 || [[John Vivian, 4th Baron Swansea|Lord Swansea]] || 145
|-
| 1959 || Lt LW Mallabar || 276 || M Hook (later Hook-Sinclair) || 146
|-
| 1960 || Sgt G Westling || 280 || Lt Col DE Elford || 146
|-
| 1961 || WO2 NL Beckett || 284 || NL Beckett || 148
|-
| 1962 || Flt Lt PWM Hall || 280 || PO RS Boyman || 147
|-
| 1963 || KM Pilcher<ref name="Pilcher-Obit">{{cite news |title=Keith Pilcher |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/keith-pilcher-g27gb8g6hlm |access-date=18 July 2023 |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publisher=[[Times Media Group]] |date=23 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725025734/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/keith-pilcher-g27gb8g6hlm |archive-date=25 July 2021 |language=en-gb |quote=He held the unique distinction of winning the Queen's Prize blue riband event at Bisley twice, using first, in 1963, the immediate postwar .303 calibre adapted Lee Enfield service rifle and ten years later, in 1973, a bespoke rifle in the 'new' 7.62mm calibre.}}</ref> || 283 || Dr KM Pilcher || 148
|-
| 1964 || AD Harris<ref>{{cite news |title=Bisley - The Queen's Prize |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WEH_ft3Mlfs |access-date=12 January 2023 |work=Movietone News |agency=British MovieTone News |date=23 July 1964 |language=British English |format=Video}}</ref> || 281 || LEM PEM Tarrant || 147
|-
| 1965 || Capt JA Allen || 284 || Lt Col HJ Orpen-Smellie || 147
|-
| 1966 || Maj RW Hampton<ref>{{cite news |title=Uk: Canadian Wins Queen's Prize At Bisley Shooting |url=https://britishpathe.com/video/VLVAANYYISGS34ECBFA0JM0EWHLZ5-UK-CANADIAN-WINS-QUEENS-PRIZE-AT-BISLEY-SHOOTING/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |work=[[Pathé News]] |publisher=British Pathé |date=16 July 1966 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127192857/https://britishpathe.com/video/VLVAANYYISGS34ECBFA0JM0EWHLZ5-UK-CANADIAN-WINS-QUEENS-PRIZE-AT-BISLEY-SHOOTING/ |archive-date=27 November 2018 |language=British English |format=Video}}</ref> || 280 || Lieut RJ Cade || 146
|-
| 1967 || JG Powell || 280 || Major GE Twine || 147
|-
| 1968 || Capt AA Parks || 285 || [[John Vivian, 4th Baron Swansea|Lord Swansea]] || 146
|-
| 1969 || FG Little || 284 || CERA D Fox || 145
|-
| 1970 || GF Arnold || 281 || EGJ Hayes || 146
|-
| 1971 || RM Stevens || 292 || MJ Brister || 150
|-
| 1972 || RP Rosling || 293.34 || TPB Garnett || 148.19
|-
| 1973 || KM Pilcher<ref name="Pilcher-Obit"/> || 293.39 || KO Pugh || 149.23
|-
| 1974 || FO Harriss || 283 || JR Killian || 148
|-
| 1975 || [[Charles Trotter|CMY Trotter]] || 284 || GF Arnold || 148
|-
| 1976 || WH Magnay<ref name="Magnay-Obit">{{cite news |title=Walter Magnay |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/walter-magnay-8lq5dt6x79c |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publisher=[[Times Media Group]] |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112104923/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/walter-magnay-8lq5dt6x79c |archive-date=12 January 2023 |language=English |date=4 May 2013 |url-status=live}}{{Subscription required}}</ref> || 287 || green|E Felton || 149
|-
| 1977 || DA Friend || 283 || JMA Thompson || 149
|-
| 1978 || GR Graham || 285 || PG Kent || 148
|-
| 1979 || [[Andrew St George Tucker|Andrew Tucker]]<ref name="Tucker-Obit">{{cite news |title=Andrew Tucker |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/andrew-tucker-cnjwd7xfb5k |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publisher=[[Times Media Group]] |access-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718083130/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/andrew-tucker-cnjwd7xfb5k |archive-date=18 July 2023 |language=en-gb |date=16 July 2003 |quote=Andrew Tucker won international honours in small-bore and full-bore rifle shooting in 39 consecutive years from the early 1960s. He won the Queen's Prize at Bisley twice, the Bisley Grand Aggregate, the National Smallbore Rifle Association Lord Roberts Trophy and its Grand Aggregate (twice), and Commonwealth Games gold and silver medals. |url-status=live}}{{Subscription required}}</ref> || 290 || JH Carmichael || 150
|-
| 1980 || [[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]]<ref name="am-obit"/> || 294 || RWH Stafford || 150
|-
| 1981 || GM Ayling || 291 || SA Thomas || 150
|-
| 1982 || LM Peden || 295 || AG Harrison || 150
|-
| 1983 || [[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]]<ref name="am-obit"/> || 289 || [[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]] || 150
|-
| 1984 || DFP Richards || 284 || Flt Lt C Fitzpatrick || 149
|-
| 1985 || JPS Bloomfield || 290 || S Belither || 149
|-
| 1986 || G Cox || 289 || PG Kent || 148
|-
| 1987 || [[Andrew St George Tucker|Andrew Tucker]]<ref name="Tucker-Obit"/> || 290 || J Pugsley || 150
|-
| 1988 || J Pugsley || 290 || C Mallett || 148
|-
| 1989 || JMA Thompson || 288 || RE Hind || 149.12
|-
| 1990 || JPS Bloomfield || 293 || HA Tomlinson || 150.22
|-
| 1991 || Flt Lt C Fitzpatrick || 293 || GR Robilliard<ref>{{cite news |author1=Leslie Howcroft |title=Robilliard moves up with maximum |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image |access-date=2 January 2024 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=27 July 1991 |page=27 |language=en-gb |issn=0307-1235 |quote=Graham Robilliard , an actuary who shoots for Ibis Rifle Club, confounded some of Britain's top internationals at Bisley yesterday with the top score in the second stage of the Queen's Prize.}}</ref> || 150.21
|-
| 1992 || TA Ringer || 287.37 || AD Le Cheminant<ref>{{cite news |author1=Leslie Howcroft |title=Cheminant wins the silver |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/751485275 |access-date=2 January 2024 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=25 July 1992 |page=30 |language=en-gb |issn=0307-1235 |quote=ANDREW Le Cheminant, from Jersey, won the Queen's Silver Medal at Bisley yesterday with a score of 148 out of 150 for the short-range semi-final round.}}</ref> || 148.11
|-
| 1993 || CA Brook || 295.29 || CA Brook || 150.20
|-
| 1994 || ML Millar || 291.34 || JS Collings || 149.24
|-
| 1995 || [[Andrew Luckman|AJ Luckman]]<ref>{{cite news |author1=Leslie Howcroft |title=Luckman master of the conditions |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/751972774 |access-date=1 January 2024 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=24 July 1995 |page=41 |language=en-gb |issn=0307-1235 |quote=ANDY LUCKMAN, of Sedgemoor RC, at 23 one of Britain's most outstanding marksmen, won the Queen's Prize at Bisley only one year after winning the Grand Aggregate, the overall championship.}}</ref> || 289.30 || DGM Coleman || 149.22
|-
| 1996 || [[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]]<ref name="am-obit"/><ref>{{cite news |title=SHOOTING |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/752033872 |access-date=1 January 2024 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=29 July 1996 |page=45 |language=en-gb |issn=0307-1235 |quote=Queen's Prize: 1. A Marion (Canada) 298.41pts (sic); 2. Sqdn Ldr D Calvert (RAF/Comber) 298.41; 3. A Luckman (Sedgmoor TSC) 297.49.}}</ref> || 298.51 || PB Bromley || 150.27
|-
| 1997 || TA Ringer || 299.44 || PG Kent || 150.26
|-
| 1998 || PA Bennison || '''300.40''' || Chief Tech B Jones || 150.23
|-
| 1999 || DGM Coleman || 294.37 || TA Ringer || 150.22
|-
| 2000 || green|JF Hossack || 294.29 || GC Childs || 150.20
|-
| 2001 || TA Ringer || 295.41 || JMA Thompson || 150.26
|-
| 2002 || Dr GCD Barnett || 297.38 || Flt Lt IW Robertson || 150.28
|-
| 2003 || Dr GCD Barnett<ref>{{cite web |title=Sport in Brief |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/sport-in-brief-895w9rgkhml |website=[[The Times]] |publisher=[[Times Media Group]] |access-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718084549/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/sport-in-brief-895w9rgkhml |archive-date=18 July 2023 |language=en-gb |date=21 July 2003 |quote=Shooting: Glyn Barnett's first act after creating history by successfully defending the Queen's Prize at Bisley was to dedicate his win to the memory of Andrew Tucker, one of the finest British riflemen, who died on July 9. 'He was a great friend to all shooters,' Barnett said. |url-status=live}}</ref> || 297.34 || Lt NJ Ball || 150.27
|-
| 2004 || HRT Jeens || 291.25 || AJ Woodward || 149.18
|-
| 2005 || [[James Paton (sport shooter)|JAM Paton]] || '''300.40''' || J Corbett || 150.23
|-
| 2006 || JC Underwood || 297.42 || JC Underwood || 150.23
|-
| 2007 || James WE Lewis<ref>{{cite news |first=Dominic |last=Walsh |title=Shard Capital's hot shots go in all guns blazing |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/shard-capitals-hot-shots-go-in-all-guns-blazing-dwcmrmbw3 |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publisher=[[Times Media Group]] |access-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314055220/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/shard-capitals-hot-shots-go-in-all-guns-blazing-dwcmrmbw3 |archive-date=14 March 2017 |language=en-gb |date=14 March 2017 |quote=Shard Capital, the brokerage and asset management firm, will be a little light on senior management. Toby Raincock, its chief executive, and James Lewis, its managing partner, are both flying to South Africa to represent the Great Britain rifle team at one of the sport's big events. Who's the better shot? 'James won the highly coveted Queen's Prize at Bisley in 2007, which puts him into an elite club of winners dating back over 150 years,' says Mr Raincock. 'On current form it would be close but perhaps I might just edge him out.' |url-status=live}}{{Subscription required}}</ref> || 293.26 || [[David Luckman|DC Luckman]] || 150.23
|-
| 2008 || Zainal Abidin Md Zain || 294.36 || Zainal Abidin Md Zain || 150.24
|-
| 2009 || CN Tremlett || 298.44 || TA Ringer || 150.23
|-
| 2010 || Wg Cdr DP Calvert<ref>{{cite news |author1=Tony de Launay |title=David Calvert puts near misses behind him to finally win HM The Queen's Prize at Bisley |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/shooting/7911261/David-Calvert-puts-near-misses-behind-him-to-finally-win-HM-The-Queens-Prize-at-Bisley.html |newspaper=The Telegraph |publisher=Telegraph Media Group |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112092355/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/shooting/7911261/David-Calvert-puts-near-misses-behind-him-to-finally-win-HM-The-Queens-Prize-at-Bisley.html |archive-date=12 January 2023 |language=English |date=26 July 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> || 297.37 || J C Underwood || 150.26
|-
| 2011 || ES Compton || 297.35 || D E Nuthall || 150.24
|-
| 2012 || Dr JD Warburton || 298.34 || G E Morris || 150.25
|-
| 2013 || J Corbett || 297.46 || SKC Hunter || 150.19
|-
| 2014 || RCT Jeens || 297.44 || J Corbett || 150.24
|-
| 2015 || Wg Cdr DP Calvert || 294.29 || J P Tapster || 149.20
|-
| 2016 || Wg Cdr DP Calvert || 297.41 || HJ Golaszewski || 150.28
|-
| 2017 || [[Parag Patel|PM Patel]] || 297.37 || [[Parag Patel|PM Patel]] || 149.18
|-
| 2018 || [[David Luckman|DC Luckman]] || 281.29 || SJ Whitby || 150.13
|-
| 2019 || GCD Barnett || 299.47 || WCP Richards || 150.26
|-
| 2020 || [[David Luckman|DC Luckman]] || 297.40 || BJ Le Cheminant || 150.24
|-
| 2021 || RSF Shouler || 298.35 || RL Furniss || 150.21
|-
| 2022 || AP Good || 293.37 || Wg Cdr DP Calvert || 150.28
|-
| 2023 || [[Chris Watson (sport shooter)|CJ Watson]] || 297.34 || CP Weeden || 150.22
|-
| 2024 || [[David Luckman|DC Luckman]] || 298.42 || [[David Luckman|DC Luckman]] || 150.25
|}

==See also==
* [[Imperial Meeting]] - The NRA Meeting in which the Sovereign's Prize is contested.
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AyKSGl0cEFM ''Bisley – The Queen's Prize''] – a BBC film following the 1986 Imperial Meeting and Queen's Prize, presented by [[Brian Glover]].

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sovereign's Prize}}
* [https://nra.org.uk/imperial/tr-imperial/ NRA Target Rifle Imperial Meeting]

[[Category:National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)]]
[[Category:Sports trophies and awards]]
[[Category:Rifle shooting sports]]
[[Category:Recurring events established in 1860]]
[[Category:British sports trophies and awards]]
[[Category:Target shooting trophies and awards]]
[[Category:Awards established in 1860]]

Out-of-bag error

2024-07-29T17:36:34Z

131.111.5.201: /* Accuracy and Consistency */

{{Short description|Method of measuring prediction error}}
{{Machine learning bar}}

'''Out-of-bag''' ('''OOB''') '''error''', also called '''out-of-bag estimate''', is a method of measuring the [[prediction error]] of [[random forest]]s, [[gradient boosting|boosted decision trees]], and other [[machine learning]] models utilizing [[bootstrap aggregating]] (bagging). Bagging uses subsampling with replacement to create training samples for the model to learn from. OOB error is the mean prediction error on each training sample {{mvar|xi}}, using only the trees that did not have {{mvar|xi}} in their bootstrap sample.<ref name="islr">{{cite book |first1=Gareth |last1=James |first2=Daniela |last2=Witten |first3=Trevor |last3=Hastie |first4=Robert |last4=Tibshirani |title=An Introduction to Statistical Learning |publisher=Springer |year=2013 |url=http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~gareth/ISL/ |pages=316–321}}</ref>

[[Bootstrap aggregating]] allows one to define an out-of-bag estimate of the prediction performance improvement by evaluating predictions on those observations that were not used in the building of the next base learner.

== Out-of-bag dataset ==
When [[bootstrap aggregating]] is performed, two independent sets are created. One set, the bootstrap sample, is the data chosen to be "in-the-bag" by sampling with replacement. The out-of-bag set is all data not chosen in the sampling process.

When this process is repeated, such as when building a [[random forest]], many bootstrap samples and OOB sets are created. The OOB sets can be aggregated into one dataset, but each sample is only considered out-of-bag for the trees that do not include it in their bootstrap sample. The picture below shows that for each bag sampled, the data is separated into two groups.
[[File:Sampling with replacement and out-of-bag dataset - medical context.jpg|center|thumb|752x752px|Visualizing the bagging process. Sampling 4 patients from the original set with replacement and showing the out-of-bag sets. Only patients in the bootstrap sample would be used to train the model for that bag.]]
This example shows how bagging could be used in the context of diagnosing disease. A set of patients are the original dataset, but each model is trained only by the patients in its bag. The patients in each out-of-bag set can be used to test their respective models. The test would consider whether the model can accurately determine if the patient has the disease.

== Calculating out-of-bag error ==
Since each out-of-bag set is not used to train the model, it is a good test for the performance of the model. The specific calculation of OOB error depends on the implementation of the model, but a general calculation is as follows.

# Find all models (or trees, in the case of a [[random forest]]) that are not trained by the OOB instance.
# Take the majority vote of these models' result for the OOB instance, compared to the true value of the OOB instance.
# Compile the OOB error for all instances in the OOB dataset.
[[File:OOB Error Example.png|thumb|An illustration of OOB error]]

The [[Bootstrap aggregating|bagging]] process can be customized to fit the needs of a model. To ensure an accurate model, the bootstrap training sample size should be close to that of the original set.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ong|first=Desmond|url=https://github.com/desmond-ong/doBootstrap/blob/master/doBootstrapPrimer.pdf|title=A primer to bootstrapping; and an overview of doBootstrap|year=2014|pages=2–4}}</ref> Also, the number of iterations (trees) of the model (forest) should be considered to find the true OOB error. The OOB error will stabilize over many iterations so starting with a high number of iterations is a good idea.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Hastie|first1=Trevor|url=https://web.stanford.edu/~hastie/Papers/ESLII.pdf#page=611&zoom=auto|title=The Elements of Statistical Learning|last2=Tibshirani|first2=Robert|last3=Friedman|first3=Jerome|publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]]|year=2008|pages=592–593}}</ref>

Shown in the example to the right, the OOB error can be found using the method above once the forest is set up.

== Comparison to cross-validation ==
Out-of-bag error and [[Cross-validation (statistics)|cross-validation]] (CV) are different methods of measuring the error estimate of a [[machine learning]] model. Over many iterations, the two methods should produce a very similar error estimate. That is, once the OOB error stabilizes, it will converge to the [[Cross-validation (statistics)|cross-validation]] (specifically leave-one-out cross-validation) error.<ref name=":0" /> The advantage of the OOB method is that it requires less computation and allows one to test the model as it is being trained.

== Accuracy and consistency ==
Out-of-bag error is used frequently for error estimation within [[Random forest|random forests]] but with the conclusion of a study done by Silke Janitza and Roman Hornung, out-of-bag error has shown to overestimate in settings that include an equal number of observations from all response classes (balanced samples), small sample sizes, a large number of predictor variables, small correlation between predictors, and weak effects.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Janitza|first1=Silke|last2=Hornung|first2=Roman|date=2018-08-06|title=On the overestimation of random forest's out-of-bag error|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=13|issue=8|pages=e0201904|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0201904|pmid=30080866|pmc=6078316|issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Boosting (meta-algorithm)]]
*[[Bootstrap aggregating]]
*[[Bootstrapping (statistics)]]
*[[Cross-validation (statistics)]]
*[[Random forest]]
*[[Random subspace method]] (attribute bagging)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Ensemble learning]]
[[Category:Machine learning algorithms]]
[[Category:Computational statistics]]

Sovereign's Prize

2024-07-29T11:41:41Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|Annual prize for target rifle shooting in Britain}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox sports award
| name =
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| sport = [[Shooting sports|Shooting]]
| competition = [[Imperial Meeting]]
| discipline = [[Fullbore target rifle]]
| awardedfor =
| english =
| localnames =
| nickname =
| sponsor =
| location = [[National Shooting Centre|Bisley Camp]]
| country = {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| presenter = [[National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)|National Rifle Association]]
| first = 1860
| number = 154
| last =
| firstwinner = Edward CR Ross
| mostwins = {{unbulleted list|[[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|A Fulton]]|[[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]]|TA Ringer|D Calvert|[[Glyn Barnett|GCD Barnett]]|[[David Luckman|DC Luckman]]}}''3 times''
| mostrecent = [[Chris Watson (sport shooter)|Chris Watson]]<ref>{{cite web |title=H.M. King's Prize, Stage III (2023) |url=https://nra.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/historical/imperial/2022/101.pdf |website=[[National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)|National Rifle Association]] |access-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811123854/https://nra.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/historical/imperial/2022/101.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2022 |language=English |date=24 July 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| url = {{URL|nra.org.uk}}
}}

The '''Sovereign's Prize''' is a British [[fullbore target rifle]] shooting competition. It is the climax of the [[National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)|National Rifle Association]]'s annual [[Imperial Meeting]] and is widely regarded as one of the most prestigious prizes in the sport globally.<ref>{{cite web |title=H.M. The Queen's Prize |url=https://www.gbrt.org.uk/individual-competitions/h-m-the-queens-prize/ |website=GB Rifle Team |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112112355/https://www.gbrt.org.uk/individual-competitions/h-m-the-queens-prize/ |archive-date=12 January 2023 |language=English |url-status=live}}</ref> The prize is typically referred to as the '''Queen's Prize''' or the '''King's Prize''' depending on the incumbent [[British monarch]].

The Prize was first contested in 1860, with the winner receiving a gold medal and £250. Strictly, the "Queen's Prize" refers to the £250 cash prize, which was originally the personal gift of Queen Victoria. The gold medal is awarded by the Association.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/782828930 |work=Aris's Birmingham Gazette |date=7 May 1860 |page=1 |language=en |quote=The Queen's prize of 250l., together with the gold medal of the Association, will be shot for by candidates successful in other trials, the ranges being 800, 900 and 1000 yards. |title=Aris's Birmingham Gazette, etc. 07 May 1860, page 1 }}</ref> As of 2023, the Prize has been contested 154 times, breaking only for the World Wars. Although contested on an open basis, it has only been won three times by women (in 1930, 2000 and 2022). Five people have won it three times.

==Course of fire==
As of 2022, the Prize is contested in three stages.<ref name="Imperial-Handbook-2022">{{cite web |title=NRA Handbook – Imperial competitions 2022 |url=https://nra.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/NRA-Handbook-Imperial-competitions-2022.pdf |website=[[National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)|National Rifle Association]] |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112091650/https://nra.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/NRA-Handbook-Imperial-competitions-2022.pdf |archive-date=12 January 2023 |pages=294 |language=English |url-status=live}}</ref> Standard NRA targets are used, with scoring rings offering a maximum score of five points, plus a "v-bull" within the 5-ring (used for tie-breaking). Since the move to the [[National Shooting Centre]] at Bisley, the first and second stages have been contested on the 600yard range Century Range, whilst the final is contested on Stickledown Range (which can support shooting up to 1200yards).

Stages II and III are sometimes known as a "Queen's Prize" match. A "Queen's Prize" is used as the standard course of fire for [[Shooting at the Commonwealth Games|fullbore rifle matches at the Commonwealth Games]], although all competitors shoot all distances without elimination.

===King's I===
Stage one is an open elimination round consisting of three "2+7" matches (2 sighters with 7 shots to count) at 300, 500 and 600yards. This gives a highest possible score of 105 with 21 V-bulls (rendered as 105.21v).

The top three hundred competitors progress to the second stage, which typically includes scores of ~101 or better.

===King's II===
Stage two consists of 2+10 matches at the same distances as the first stage. Qualification is on a "start from zero" basis, meaning that scores from the first stage are not carried forward and top qualifiers have no advantage over those with poorer scores in the first stage. The highest possible score is 150 with 30 v-bulls (150.30v).

The top one hundred competitors progress to the third and final stage. The "King's Hundred" each receive an NRA '100' Badge. The top scorer in the second stage is awarded an NRA Silver Medal for winning the "short range" portion of the competition, regardless of how they perform in the final.

===King's III (King's Final)===
[[File:Arthur Fulton 1912 Kings Prize.jpg|thumb|Newspaper illustration of Arthur Fulton being chaired after winning the 1912 Kings Prize.]]
Stage three moves to longer distances, consisting of 2+15 matches at 900 and 1000yards. Scores are carried forward from the second stage, giving a highest possible score of 300.60v. Winning scores better than 298 are common, indicating the shooter has only dropped one or two shots across five distances and sixty shots.

The winner receives a gold medal and £250, with the runners up receiving silver and bronze badges respectively. The winner is then "chaired" off the range on an open [[sedan chair]] borne by other competitors.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Bruce A R Scott |title=Chairing of Rifle Shooting Champions – The Tradition |url=https://nraa.com.au/history/chairing-of-rifle-shooting-champions-the-tradition/ |website=[[National Rifle Association of Australia]] |access-date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306021210/https://nraa.com.au/history/chairing-of-rifle-shooting-champions-the-tradition/ |archive-date=6 March 2022 |language=English |date=22 September 2021 |quote=The earliest evidence of the Chairing Ceremony for the sport of long range rifle shooting is recorded in the book titled 'History of the National Rifle Association during its first fifty years 1859 to 1909' by A.P. Humphry and Lieutenant Colonel the Hon T.F. Fremantle, 1914. ... The plate on the original chair reads: 'Presented in 1883 by Sgt GJ Wainwright LRB'. This suggests that the Chairing Ceremony was introduced at the Wimbledon Championship in 1883 and is peculiar to shooting and the King's/Queen's Prize. Since this likely first chairing of the winner, the ceremony has been adopted by many other nations, particularly Commonwealth Countries, where long range rifle shooting is an established and recognised activity. |url-status=live}}</ref> By tradition they are carried to the NRA offices to receive their prize, followed by a tour of the clubhouses on camp.

==Winners==
[[File:Marjorie Elaine Foster (1893-1974) by Picture Post.png|thumb|Marjorie Foster]]
Notable winners include the three female winners – [[Marjorie Foster]] (1930);<ref>{{cite news |title="See The Conquering Heroine Comes" Again! |url=https://www.britishpathe.com/video/see-the-conquering-heroine-comes-again-1/ |access-date=19 October 2022 |work=[[Pathé News]] |publisher=British Pathé |date=21 July 1930 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127020428/https://www.britishpathe.com/video/see-the-conquering-heroine-comes-again-1/ |archive-date=27 November 2018 |language=British English |format=Video}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Marjorie Foster (1893–1974) |url=https://www.exploringsurreyspast.org.uk/themes/subjects/sports/marjorie_foster/ |website=Exploring Surrey's Past |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031171036/https://www.exploringsurreyspast.org.uk/themes/subjects/sports/marjorie_foster/ |archive-date=31 October 2020 |language=English |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Imogen Lyons |title=Marjorie Foster: prize-winning rifle shot and poultry farmer |url=http://intriguing-people.com/marjorie-foster/ |website=Intriguing People |access-date=19 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326200322/http://intriguing-people.com/marjorie-foster/ |archive-date=26 March 2016 |language=English |date=6 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Surrey's bygone sporting heroes to be celebrated |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/surrey/hi/people_and_places/newsid_9359000/9359601.stm |website=BBC News |access-date=19 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124210351/http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/surrey/hi/people_and_places/newsid_9359000/9359601.stm |archive-date=24 January 2011 |language=English |date=19 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Joanna Hossack (2000)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2000-07-23 |title=First woman to win Bisley in 70 years |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/first-woman-to-win-bisley-in-70-years-708821.html |access-date=2023-05-19 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref> and Alice Good (2022).<ref>{{cite web |author1=Callum O'Shea |title=CURA Captain wins highly coveted Queen's Prize! |url=https://www.sport.cam.ac.uk/news/cura-captain-wins-highly-coveted-queens-prize |website=University of Cambridge Sport |publisher=University of Cambridge |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112092812/https://www.sport.cam.ac.uk/news/cura-captain-wins-highly-coveted-queens-prize |archive-date=12 January 2023 |language=English |date=27 July 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> A road on Bisley Camp is named Marjorie Foster Way.

[[File:Fulton's Gun Shop, National Shooting Centre.jpg|thumb|Fulton's Gun Shop, National Shooting Centre]]
The Fulton family have the unique distinction of having three generations of winners. George Fulton used the proceeds of his 1888 win to found Fulton's Gun Shop on Bisley Camp, which still stands today. His son [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|Arthur]] won a record-breaking three times in 1912, 1926 and 1931. Arthur's son Robin won in 1958.

Arthur Fulton's record was only matched in 1996. There are now five shooters who have won the Prize three times:<ref name="nra-prizelist">{{cite web |title=The King's and Queen's Prize |url=https://nra.org.uk/results/imperial-results-classifications/the-kings-and-queens-prize/ |website=[[National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)|National Rifle Association]] |access-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602022130/https://nra.org.uk/results/imperial-results-classifications/the-kings-and-queens-prize/ |archive-date=2 June 2022 |language=English |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Private W. T. Ward, winner of the Queen's Prize.png|thumb|right|200px|W. T. Ward, winner in 1897 and 1900]]

* [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|Arthur Fulton]] (1912, 1926, 1931)
* [[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]] (1980, 1983, 1996)<ref name="am-obit">{{cite web |title=Alain Marion GM3, GC, SM, SB, SC2 |url=https://nra.org.uk/alain-marion-gm3-gc-sm-sb-sc2/ |website=NRA News |publisher=[[National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)|National Rifle Association]] |access-date=26 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627060811/https://nra.org.uk/alain-marion-gm3-gc-sm-sb-sc2/ |archive-date=27 June 2023 |language=en-GB |date=26 June 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* TA Ringer (1992, 1997, 2001)
* David Calvert (2010, 2015, 2016)
* GCD Barnett (2002, 2003, 2019)

Also notable is PA Bennison's 1998 shoot, where he became the first person to score a "possible" with 300.40v. Canadian shooter [[James Paton (sport shooter)|James Paton]] matched this in 2005 with another 300.40v.

{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Gold Medal !! Gold Medal Score !! Silver Medal{{NoteTag|The Silver Medal is awarded to the highest scorer in the second stage, who has effectively won the "short range" portion of the competition. The overall runner-up in the Final is awarded a silver badge, and is not recorded here.}} !! Silver Medal Score
|-
| 1860 || ECR Ross || 24 || Cpl F Sharp || 17
|-
| 1861 || Pte JM Jopling || 18 || Sgt J Dougan || 23
|-
| 1862 || S Pixley || 41 || Ens H Walton || 46
|-
| 1863 || J Roberts || 65 || Cpl W Wisker || 49
|-
| 1864 || J Wyatt || 60 || Pte J Haward || 47
|-
| 1865 || J Sharman<ref name="Standard-1865">{{cite news |title=J Sharman |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/409700477 |work=The Standard |date=26 December 1865 |location=London |page=6 |language=en-gb |quote=The Queen's Prize was won by Private Sharman, or the 4th West York Rifles, ... while Mr. Edward Ross, formerly of the Cambridge University Corps, and now of the London Scottish, the champion for the yea 1860, won the SIlver Medal in the first stage for this prize this year...}}</ref> || 64 || ECR Ross<ref name="Standard-1865"/> || 47
|-
| 1866 || A Cameron || 69 || Pte A James || 48
|-
| 1867 || H Lane || 57 || Capt W Wright || 52
|-
| 1868 || JB Carslake || 65 || D/Maj SG Hutchinson || 51
|-
| 1869 || A Cameron || 71 || T Kirk || 46
|-
| 1870 || W Humphries || 66 || Cpl H Young || 49
|-
| 1871 || AP Humphrey || 68 || Pte TH Mayfield || 51
|-
| 1872 || W Michie || 65 || Capt A Cortis || 52
|-
| 1873 || AD Menzies || 60 || Cpl R Willows || 74
|-
| 1874 || WC Atkinson || 64 || Cpl H Young || 87
|-
| 1875 || G Pearse || 73 || Pte A Innes || 90
|-
| 1876 || R Pullman || 74 || Pte RB Burgess || 86
|-
| 1877 || G Jamieson || 70 || Cpl Betts || 92
|-
| 1878 || P Rae || 78 || Pte C Lowe || 47
|-
| 1879 || G Taylor || 83 || QM JC Macdonald || 96
|-
| 1880 || A Ferguson || 74 || Cpl Scott || 102
|-
| 1881 || T Beck || 86 || Cpl W Ingram || 96
|-
| 1882 || A Lawrance || 65 || Sgt WHO Smith || 174
|-
| 1883 || Col-Sgt R Mackay || 79 || Capt JH Young || 183
|-
| 1884 || D Gallant || 110 || Sgt JH Taylor || 105
|-
| 1885 || W Bulmer || 307 || Col-Sgt Simonds || 104
|-
| 1886 || CH Jackson || 265 || Capt A Cortis || 110
|-
| 1887 || RO Warren || 274 || Armr-Sgt Hill || 104
|-
| 1888 || Armr-Sgt GE Fulton || 280 || LCpl Noakes || 108
|-
| 1889 || Sgt D Reid || 281 || Pte CW Wattleworth || 205
|-
| 1890 || H Bates || 278 || Pte J Murray || 107
|-
| 1891 || D Dear || 269 || Sgt A Milner || 113
|-
| 1892 || Major J Pollock || 277 || Major J Pollock || 108
|-
| 1893 || Sgt WT Davies<ref name="WT-Davies">{{cite news |title=A colourful character... |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/838583392 |access-date=30 December 2023 |work=[[The Glamorgan Gazette]] |date=25 April 1991 |page=5 |language=en-gb |issn=0965-9242 |quote=A crack shot with a rifle, Colour Sgt Davies - a Llanelli man - won scores of medals for shooting, including the Queen's Prize in 1893 and the King's Prize in 1903.}}</ref> || 274 || Pte A Stocks || 96
|-
| 1894 || Pte MS Rennie || 283 || Capt H Bateman || 113
|-
| 1895 || TH Hayhurst || 279 || LSgt W Hogg || 114
|-
| 1896 || JL Thomson || 273 || Capt R Foster || 105
|-
| 1897 || WT Ward || 304 || Armr-Sgt JH Scott || 117
|-
| 1898 || D Yates || 327 || Lieut EL Fletcher || 119
|-
| 1899 || WA Priaulx || 336 || Col-Sgt HWM Matthews || 120
|-
| 1900 || WT Ward || 341 || Col-Sgt H Comery || 116
|-
| 1901 || Cpl ANVH Ommundsen || 310 || Armr-Sgt AJ Comber || 93
|-
| 1902 || Lt ED Johnson<ref>{{cite news |title=The Bisley Meeting Leicester Man Wins the King's Prize the Final Stage |url=http://www.nottsra.co.uk/archive/19020726.html |access-date=14 January 2023 |newspaper=[[Nottingham Evening Post]] |date=28 July 1902 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020025357/http://www.nottsra.co.uk/archive/19020726.html |archive-date=20 October 2015 |language=English}}</ref> || 307 || Cpl TH Kerr || 94
|-
| 1903 || Col-Sgt WT Davies<ref name="WT-Davies"/> || 311 || Pte W Gray || 85
|-
| 1904 || SJ Perry || 321 || Chap CJ Ferguson-Davie || 93
|-
| 1905 || AJ Comber || 315 || SSgt G Souter || 119
|-
| 1906 || RfF Davies || 324 || Sgt ANVH Ommundsen || 94
|-
| 1907 || WC Addison || 318 || Pte EA Buckley || 99
|-
| 1908 || G Gray || 325 || Gnr DR Paterson || 94
|-
| 1909 || HG Burr || 324 || Lieut JW Beatty || 93
|-
| 1910 || FR Radice || 340 || FR Radice || 94
|-
| 1911 || WJ Clifford || 319 || Pte AG Garrod || 95
|-
| 1912 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 335 || RSIM GH Harvey || 96
|-
| 1913 || WA Hawkins || 330 || Sgt ANVH Ommundsen || 92
|-
| 1914 || JL Dewar || 309 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 94
|-
| 1919 || L Loveday || 253 || Pte RW Lockwood || 129
|-
| 1920 || FH Morgan || 281 || Capt WH Hoey || 144
|-
| 1921 || J Cunningham || 226 || CR Crowe || 95
|-
| 1922 || AF Marchment || 230 || RSM S Green || 94
|-
| 1923 || EH Robinson || 232 || J Elgood || 97
|-
| 1924 || DT Burke || 230 || CSM JL Dewar || 95
|-
| 1925 || A Smith || 226 || Fl Off G Richardson || 98
|-
| 1926 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 286 || FH Kelly || 146
|-
| 1927 || Capt, Dr CH Vernon || 292 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 148
|-
| 1928 || AC Hale || 283 || Lieut AE Martin || 145
|-
| 1929 || RM Blair || 283 || Pte PRT Garnett || 141
|-
| 1930 || [[Marjorie Foster]]<ref name=forb>{{Cite ODNB |last=Kay |first=Joyce |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-65174 |title=Foster, Marjorie Elaine (1893–1974), rifle shot and poultry farmer |date=2004-09-23 |volume=1 |language=en |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/65174|isbn=978-0-19-861412-8 }}</ref> || 280 || Lieut AJ Andrews || 147
|-
| 1931 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 285 || [[Arthur Fulton (sport shooter)|AG Fulton]] || 145
|-
| 1932 || CFH Bayly || 289 || JW Houlden || 146
|-
| 1933 || DE Woods<ref>{{cite news |title=Father's Bisley Prophecy Comes True |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/808005460 |access-date=30 December 2023 |work=The Stapleford and Sandiacre News |date=29 July 1933 |page=7 |language=en-gb |issn=
1351-993X}}</ref> || 287 || Fl Off C Bunch || 145
|-
| 1934 || JA Barlow || 288 || CSM WR Clarke || 146
|-
| 1935 || Armr-Sgt FS French || 289 || CA Sutherland || 148
|-
| 1936 || LD Busschau || 272 || Sgt JE Johnson || 146
|-
| 1937 || DL Birney || 283 || O/Cdt DL Birney || 143
|-
| 1938 || JA Barlow || 287 || RD Greig || 147
|-
| 1939 || Capt TS Smith || 282 || Lieut A Eccles || 146
|-
| 1946 || CC Willott || 280 || Capt RJ Middlemas || 144
|-
| 1947 || WO R Bennett || 279 || WO R Bennett || 146
|-
| 1948 || PA Pavey || 283 || Cpl RJ Kerslake || 146
|-
| 1949 || Capt EWH Brookes || 278 || AG Fox || 146
|-
| 1950 || Capt RD Greig || 277 || J Draper || 144
|-
| 1951 || Lt GS Boa || 285 || Flt Lt H Gill || 144
|-
| 1952 || Major AB Kinnier-Wilson || 277 || WH Magnay<ref name="Magnay-Obit"/> || 146
|-
| 1953 || Major NW McCaw || 273 || RL Saunders || 145
|-
| 1954 || Major GE Twine<ref name="Twine"/> || 278 || Major GE Twine || 145
|-
| 1955 || LR Fenwick || 286 || Lt Col OA Watts || 146
|-
| 1956 || Major GE Twine<ref name="Twine">{{cite news |title=Queen's Prize Win Repeated |work=The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post |date=23 July 1956 |page=9 |language=en |quote=Major G.E. Twine ... repeated his 1954 success in winning the Queen's Prize of £250 and the National Rifle Association Gold Medal, at Bisley on Saturday.}}</ref> || 283 || Capt AF Bromley || 142
|-
| 1957 || JRC Love || 283 || Lt Col F Adams || 147
|-
| 1958 || Major RA Fulton || 281 || [[John Vivian, 4th Baron Swansea|Lord Swansea]] || 145
|-
| 1959 || Lt LW Mallabar || 276 || M Hook (later Hook-Sinclair) || 146
|-
| 1960 || Sgt G Westling || 280 || Lt Col DE Elford || 146
|-
| 1961 || WO2 NL Beckett || 284 || NL Beckett || 148
|-
| 1962 || Flt Lt PWM Hall || 280 || PO RS Boyman || 147
|-
| 1963 || KM Pilcher<ref name="Pilcher-Obit">{{cite news |title=Keith Pilcher |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/keith-pilcher-g27gb8g6hlm |access-date=18 July 2023 |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publisher=[[Times Media Group]] |date=23 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725025734/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/keith-pilcher-g27gb8g6hlm |archive-date=25 July 2021 |language=en-gb |quote=He held the unique distinction of winning the Queen's Prize blue riband event at Bisley twice, using first, in 1963, the immediate postwar .303 calibre adapted Lee Enfield service rifle and ten years later, in 1973, a bespoke rifle in the 'new' 7.62mm calibre.}}</ref> || 283 || Dr KM Pilcher || 148
|-
| 1964 || AD Harris<ref>{{cite news |title=Bisley - The Queen's Prize |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WEH_ft3Mlfs |access-date=12 January 2023 |work=Movietone News |agency=British MovieTone News |date=23 July 1964 |language=British English |format=Video}}</ref> || 281 || LEM PEM Tarrant || 147
|-
| 1965 || Capt JA Allen || 284 || Lt Col HJ Orpen-Smellie || 147
|-
| 1966 || Maj RW Hampton<ref>{{cite news |title=Uk: Canadian Wins Queen's Prize At Bisley Shooting |url=https://britishpathe.com/video/VLVAANYYISGS34ECBFA0JM0EWHLZ5-UK-CANADIAN-WINS-QUEENS-PRIZE-AT-BISLEY-SHOOTING/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |work=[[Pathé News]] |publisher=British Pathé |date=16 July 1966 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127192857/https://britishpathe.com/video/VLVAANYYISGS34ECBFA0JM0EWHLZ5-UK-CANADIAN-WINS-QUEENS-PRIZE-AT-BISLEY-SHOOTING/ |archive-date=27 November 2018 |language=British English |format=Video}}</ref> || 280 || Lieut RJ Cade || 146
|-
| 1967 || JG Powell || 280 || Major GE Twine || 147
|-
| 1968 || Capt AA Parks || 285 || [[John Vivian, 4th Baron Swansea|Lord Swansea]] || 146
|-
| 1969 || FG Little || 284 || CERA D Fox || 145
|-
| 1970 || GF Arnold || 281 || EGJ Hayes || 146
|-
| 1971 || RM Stevens || 292 || MJ Brister || 150
|-
| 1972 || RP Rosling || 293.34 || TPB Garnett || 148.19
|-
| 1973 || KM Pilcher<ref name="Pilcher-Obit"/> || 293.39 || KO Pugh || 149.23
|-
| 1974 || FO Harriss || 283 || JR Killian || 148
|-
| 1975 || [[Charles Trotter|CMY Trotter]] || 284 || GF Arnold || 148
|-
| 1976 || WH Magnay<ref name="Magnay-Obit">{{cite news |title=Walter Magnay |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/walter-magnay-8lq5dt6x79c |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publisher=[[Times Media Group]] |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112104923/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/walter-magnay-8lq5dt6x79c |archive-date=12 January 2023 |language=English |date=4 May 2013 |url-status=live}}{{Subscription required}}</ref> || 287 || green|E Felton || 149
|-
| 1977 || DA Friend || 283 || JMA Thompson || 149
|-
| 1978 || GR Graham || 285 || PG Kent || 148
|-
| 1979 || [[Andrew St George Tucker|Andrew Tucker]]<ref name="Tucker-Obit">{{cite news |title=Andrew Tucker |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/andrew-tucker-cnjwd7xfb5k |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publisher=[[Times Media Group]] |access-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718083130/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/andrew-tucker-cnjwd7xfb5k |archive-date=18 July 2023 |language=en-gb |date=16 July 2003 |quote=Andrew Tucker won international honours in small-bore and full-bore rifle shooting in 39 consecutive years from the early 1960s. He won the Queen's Prize at Bisley twice, the Bisley Grand Aggregate, the National Smallbore Rifle Association Lord Roberts Trophy and its Grand Aggregate (twice), and Commonwealth Games gold and silver medals. |url-status=live}}{{Subscription required}}</ref> || 290 || JH Carmichael || 150
|-
| 1980 || [[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]]<ref name="am-obit"/> || 294 || RWH Stafford || 150
|-
| 1981 || GM Ayling || 291 || SA Thomas || 150
|-
| 1982 || LM Peden || 295 || AG Harrison || 150
|-
| 1983 || [[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]]<ref name="am-obit"/> || 289 || [[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]] || 150
|-
| 1984 || DFP Richards || 284 || Flt Lt C Fitzpatrick || 149
|-
| 1985 || JPS Bloomfield || 290 || S Belither || 149
|-
| 1986 || G Cox || 289 || PG Kent || 148
|-
| 1987 || [[Andrew St George Tucker|Andrew Tucker]]<ref name="Tucker-Obit"/> || 290 || J Pugsley || 150
|-
| 1988 || J Pugsley || 290 || C Mallett || 148
|-
| 1989 || JMA Thompson || 288 || RE Hind || 149.12
|-
| 1990 || JPS Bloomfield || 293 || HA Tomlinson || 150.22
|-
| 1991 || Flt Lt C Fitzpatrick || 293 || GR Robilliard<ref>{{cite news |author1=Leslie Howcroft |title=Robilliard moves up with maximum |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image |access-date=2 January 2024 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=27 July 1991 |page=27 |language=en-gb |issn=0307-1235 |quote=Graham Robilliard , an actuary who shoots for Ibis Rifle Club, confounded some of Britain's top internationals at Bisley yesterday with the top score in the second stage of the Queen's Prize.}}</ref> || 150.21
|-
| 1992 || TA Ringer || 287.37 || AD Le Cheminant<ref>{{cite news |author1=Leslie Howcroft |title=Cheminant wins the silver |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/751485275 |access-date=2 January 2024 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=25 July 1992 |page=30 |language=en-gb |issn=0307-1235 |quote=ANDREW Le Cheminant, from Jersey, won the Queen's Silver Medal at Bisley yesterday with a score of 148 out of 150 for the short-range semi-final round.}}</ref> || 148.11
|-
| 1993 || CA Brook || 295.29 || CA Brook || 150.20
|-
| 1994 || ML Millar || 291.34 || JS Collings || 149.24
|-
| 1995 || [[Andrew Luckman|AJ Luckman]]<ref>{{cite news |author1=Leslie Howcroft |title=Luckman master of the conditions |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/751972774 |access-date=1 January 2024 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=24 July 1995 |page=41 |language=en-gb |issn=0307-1235 |quote=ANDY LUCKMAN, of Sedgemoor RC, at 23 one of Britain's most outstanding marksmen, won the Queen's Prize at Bisley only one year after winning the Grand Aggregate, the overall championship.}}</ref> || 289.30 || DGM Coleman || 149.22
|-
| 1996 || [[Alain Marion (sport shooter)|A Marion]]<ref name="am-obit"/><ref>{{cite news |title=SHOOTING |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/752033872 |access-date=1 January 2024 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=29 July 1996 |page=45 |language=en-gb |issn=0307-1235 |quote=Queen's Prize: 1. A Marion (Canada) 298.41pts (sic); 2. Sqdn Ldr D Calvert (RAF/Comber) 298.41; 3. A Luckman (Sedgmoor TSC) 297.49.}}</ref> || 298.51 || PB Bromley || 150.27
|-
| 1997 || TA Ringer || 299.44 || PG Kent || 150.26
|-
| 1998 || PA Bennison || '''300.40''' || Chief Tech B Jones || 150.23
|-
| 1999 || DGM Coleman || 294.37 || TA Ringer || 150.22
|-
| 2000 || green|JF Hossack || 294.29 || GC Childs || 150.20
|-
| 2001 || TA Ringer || 295.41 || JMA Thompson || 150.26
|-
| 2002 || Dr GCD Barnett || 297.38 || Flt Lt IW Robertson || 150.28
|-
| 2003 || Dr GCD Barnett<ref>{{cite web |title=Sport in Brief |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/sport-in-brief-895w9rgkhml |website=[[The Times]] |publisher=[[Times Media Group]] |access-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718084549/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/sport-in-brief-895w9rgkhml |archive-date=18 July 2023 |language=en-gb |date=21 July 2003 |quote=Shooting: Glyn Barnett's first act after creating history by successfully defending the Queen's Prize at Bisley was to dedicate his win to the memory of Andrew Tucker, one of the finest British riflemen, who died on July 9. 'He was a great friend to all shooters,' Barnett said. |url-status=live}}</ref> || 297.34 || Lt NJ Ball || 150.27
|-
| 2004 || HRT Jeens || 291.25 || AJ Woodward || 149.18
|-
| 2005 || [[James Paton (sport shooter)|JAM Paton]] || '''300.40''' || J Corbett || 150.23
|-
| 2006 || JC Underwood || 297.42 || JC Underwood || 150.23
|-
| 2007 || James WE Lewis<ref>{{cite news |first=Dominic |last=Walsh |title=Shard Capital's hot shots go in all guns blazing |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/shard-capitals-hot-shots-go-in-all-guns-blazing-dwcmrmbw3 |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publisher=[[Times Media Group]] |access-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314055220/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/shard-capitals-hot-shots-go-in-all-guns-blazing-dwcmrmbw3 |archive-date=14 March 2017 |language=en-gb |date=14 March 2017 |quote=Shard Capital, the brokerage and asset management firm, will be a little light on senior management. Toby Raincock, its chief executive, and James Lewis, its managing partner, are both flying to South Africa to represent the Great Britain rifle team at one of the sport's big events. Who's the better shot? 'James won the highly coveted Queen's Prize at Bisley in 2007, which puts him into an elite club of winners dating back over 150 years,' says Mr Raincock. 'On current form it would be close but perhaps I might just edge him out.' |url-status=live}}{{Subscription required}}</ref> || 293.26 || [[David Luckman|DC Luckman]] || 150.23
|-
| 2008 || Zainal Abidin Md Zain || 294.36 || Zainal Abidin Md Zain || 150.24
|-
| 2009 || CN Tremlett || 298.44 || TA Ringer || 150.23
|-
| 2010 || Wg Cdr DP Calvert<ref>{{cite news |author1=Tony de Launay |title=David Calvert puts near misses behind him to finally win HM The Queen's Prize at Bisley |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/shooting/7911261/David-Calvert-puts-near-misses-behind-him-to-finally-win-HM-The-Queens-Prize-at-Bisley.html |newspaper=The Telegraph |publisher=Telegraph Media Group |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112092355/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/shooting/7911261/David-Calvert-puts-near-misses-behind-him-to-finally-win-HM-The-Queens-Prize-at-Bisley.html |archive-date=12 January 2023 |language=English |date=26 July 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> || 297.37 || J C Underwood || 150.26
|-
| 2011 || ES Compton || 297.35 || D E Nuthall || 150.24
|-
| 2012 || Dr JD Warburton || 298.34 || G E Morris || 150.25
|-
| 2013 || J Corbett || 297.46 || SKC Hunter || 150.19
|-
| 2014 || RCT Jeens || 297.44 || J Corbett || 150.24
|-
| 2015 || Wg Cdr DP Calvert || 294.29 || J P Tapster || 149.20
|-
| 2016 || Wg Cdr DP Calvert || 297.41 || HJ Golaszewski || 150.28
|-
| 2017 || [[Parag Patel|PM Patel]] || 297.37 || [[Parag Patel|PM Patel]] || 149.18
|-
| 2018 || [[David Luckman|DC Luckman]] || 281.29 || SJ Whitby || 150.13
|-
| 2019 || GCD Barnett || 299.47 || WCP Richards || 150.26
|-
| 2020 || [[David Luckman|DC Luckman]] || 297.40 || BJ Le Cheminant || 150.24
|-
| 2021 || RSF Shouler || 298.35 || RL Furniss || 150.21
|-
| 2022 || AP Good || 293.37 || Wg Cdr DP Calvert || 150.28
|-
| 2023 || [[Chris Watson (sport shooter)|CJ Watson]] || 297.34 || CP Weeden || 150.22
|}

==See also==
* [[Imperial Meeting]] - The NRA Meeting in which the Sovereign's Prize is contested.
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AyKSGl0cEFM ''Bisley – The Queen's Prize''] – a BBC film following the 1986 Imperial Meeting and Queen's Prize, presented by [[Brian Glover]].

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sovereign's Prize}}
* [https://nra.org.uk/imperial/tr-imperial/ NRA Target Rifle Imperial Meeting]

[[Category:National Rifle Association (United Kingdom)]]
[[Category:Sports trophies and awards]]
[[Category:Rifle shooting sports]]
[[Category:Recurring events established in 1860]]
[[Category:British sports trophies and awards]]
[[Category:Target shooting trophies and awards]]
[[Category:Awards established in 1860]]

Cranswick plc

2024-07-29T08:46:08Z

131.111.5.201: Updated Chair info

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2019}}

{{Infobox company
| name = Cranswick plc
| logo = Cranswickplclogo.PNG
| logo_size = 300px
| former_name = Cranswick Mill Group p.l.c. (1972{{endash}}1991)<ref name="CompaniesHouse">{{cite web |date=29 September 1972 |title=Cranswick PLC overview - Find and update company information - GOV.UK |url=https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/01074383 |access-date=28 January 2024 |website=[[Companies House]] }}</ref>
| type = [[Public company|Public]]
| traded_as = {{ubl|{{lse|CWK}}|[[FTSE 250 Index|FTSE 250]] component}}
| key_people = {{Ubl
| Tim Smith ([[Chairman]])
| Adam Couch ([[CEO]])
}}
| industry = [[Food]]
| products =
| revenue = {{increase}} [[Pound sterling|£]]2,323.0 million (2023)<ref name=results>{{cite web|url=https://s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/cranswick-2021/Cranswick_AR23_Spreads_WEB.pdf|title=Annual Report 2023|publisher=Cranswick PLC|access-date=12 February 2024}}</ref>
| operating_income = {{increase}} [[Pound sterling|£]]145.9 million (2023)<ref name=results/>
| net_income = {{increase}} [[Pound sterling|£]]111.4 million (2023)<ref name=results/>
| num_employees = 10,422 (2023)<ref name=results/>
| parent =
| subsid =
| footnotes =
| foundation = 1974
| location = [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]]
| hq_location_country = England
| homepage = {{URL|https://cranswick.plc.uk}}
| slogan =
}}

'''Cranswick plc''' is a leading [[United Kingdom|UK]] food producer and supplier of premium, fresh and added-value food products. The company is listed on the [[London Stock Exchange]] and is a constituent of the [[FTSE 250 Index]].

==History==
Cranswick was founded by Jim Bloom, Mike Field and twenty-one other [[East Riding of Yorkshire]] farmers producing pig feed in 1974 under the name ''Cranswick Mill''. The company subsequently diversified into food production. It was first listed on the [[London Stock Exchange]] in 1985.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/products/companyservices/joiningbeingonmarket/ukcompanyservices/decision/ourmarkets/cscasestudies/cscranswick.htm |title=London Stock Exchange: Case studies |access-date=20 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223185811/http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/products/companyservices/joiningbeingonmarket/ukcompanyservices/decision/ourmarkets/cscasestudies/cscranswick.htm |archive-date=23 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1993 Cranswick diversified into pet products with the purchase of George Buckton and then, in 2009, sold its pet products business.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alacrastore.com/deal-snapshot/Cranswick_Mill_Group_PLC_acquires_George_Buckton_1985_Ltd-76796 |title=Cranswick Mill Group acquires George Buckton|work= Thomson M&A|date= 29 June 1993|access-date=20 December 2008}}</ref> The company has recently moved back to breeding and rearing its own British pigs after acquiring East Anglian Pigs Limited and livestock and assets from Dent Ltd in 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/markets/questor/10844761/Questor-share-tip-Cranswick-expands-pig-farming.html |title=Cranswick expands pig farming|newspaper= The Telegraph|date= 20 May 2014|access-date=10 April 2015}}</ref>

Cranswick has developed through a combination of [[mergers and acquisitions|acquisitions]] and subsequent [[organic growth]], enabling the company to build upon its philosophy of working with artisan producers to provide premium, market leading products to a much wider audience. The Company now serves its customers from twelve production facilities across the UK.<ref name=prelims2>{{cite web|url=http://cranswick.plc.uk/sites/default/files/Cranswick_R_A_2014_0_0.pdf |publisher=Cranswick|title=Preliminary Results 2013|access-date=26 March 2015}}</ref>

On 25 July 2016, the company announced it had sold The Sandwich Factory Holdings Ltd for £15 million to [[Greencore]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencore.com/greencore-announces-15m-bolt-on-acquisition-in-uk-food-to-go/|title=Greencore Announces £15m Bolt-On Acquisition In UK Food To Go - Greencore|date=25 July 2016|access-date=20 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodmanufacture.co.uk/Business-News/Food-manufacturer-acquires-sandwich-business-for-15M|title=Greencore buys Cranswick's sandwich business|website=FoodManufacture.co.uk|access-date=20 November 2016}}</ref>

== Animal abuse ==
On 11 March 2023, a site rearing pigs for Cranswick gained media attention after video emerged showing pigs living in squalor with others being left for hours to die. Footage showed bins filled with dead pigs and animals cannibalising each other.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Farhoud |first=Nada |date=2023-03-11 |title=Grim lives of farmed pigs forced to live in squalor and left for hours to die |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/inside-grim-lives-farmed-pigs-29431556 |access-date=2024-05-19 |website=The Mirror |language=en}}</ref>

On 1 April 2024, footage emerged from a Cranswick site in Norfolk showing workers hitting pigs in the face and back before they entered a carbon dioxide gas chamber.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dalton |first=Jane |date=2024-04-03 |title=Pigs hit in face before ‘agonising’ CO2 death at supplier for Tesco, Asda, Aldi and M&S |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/pigs-bacon-tesco-asda-aldi-mands-b2520254.html |access-date=2024-05-18 |work=The Independent |language=en}}</ref> After reviewing the footage the [[RSPCA]] stated "alternatives to CO2 [gas chambers] need to be developed as a matter of urgency and we urge the UK government to follow the EU’s lead to seek a phase-out by investing in research to find a more humane alternative". Protesters occupied the site on 3 April 2024.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-04-03 |title=Protesters arrested at Cranswick Country Foods in Norfolk |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-norfolk-68721834 |access-date=2024-05-18 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Acquisitions==
* 2001: Continental Fine Foods<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alacrastore.com/deal-snapshot/Cranswick_PLC_acquires_Continental_Fine_Foods_Ltd-307091 |title=Cranswick plc acquires Continental Fine Foods|work= Thomson M&A|date= 30 July 2001|access-date=20 December 2008}}</ref>
* 2003: Cranswick plc acquires The Sandwich Factory<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodchainmagazine.com/2007/01/08/the-sandwich-factory/|title=The Sandwich Factory|publisher=Food Chain Magazine|access-date=17 April 2017}}</ref>
* 2005: Perkins Chilled Foods<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thegrocer.co.uk/topics/cranswick-buys-division-of-perkins-foods/98973.article |title=Cranswick buys division of Perkins Foods| work=The Grocer|date= 21 December 2004|access-date=9 April 2012}}</ref>
* 2006: Delico, a cooked meats producer<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-23804342_ITM |title=Cranswick buys cooked meats producer Delico for £17.9m|work= Europe Intelligence Wire|date= 2 November 2006|access-date=20 December 2008}}</ref>
* 2009: Bowes of Norfolk<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thegrocer.co.uk/fmcg/cranswick-snaps-up-bowes-of-norfolk/198852.article |title=Cranswick snaps up Bowes of Norfolk|work= The Grocer|date= 6 April 2009|access-date=9 April 2009}}</ref>
* 2012: Kingston Foods, a cooked meats business<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/markets/questor/9370213/Questor-share-tip-Cranswick-profits-from-quick-service-trade.html |title=Cranswick profits from 'quick service' trade |newspaper=The Telegraph|date= 3 July 2012|access-date=10 April 2015}}</ref>
* 2013: East Anglian Pigs Ltd and Dent Ltd, pig rearing businesses<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.meatinfo.co.uk/news/archivestory.php/aid/15575/Cranswick_snaps_up_East_Anglian_Pigs.html |title=Cranswick snaps up East Anglian Pigs|work= Meat Info|date= 30 April 2013|access-date=10 April 2015}}</ref>
*2014: Benson Park, a premium cooked poultry business<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cityam.com/1414110126/cranswick-gobbles-yorkshire-cooked-poultry-product-firm |title=Cranswick gobbles up Yorkshire cooked poultry product firm|work= City A.M.|date= 24 October 2014|access-date=10 April 2015}}</ref>
*2016: CCL Holdings Limited and Crown Chicken Limited, a leading integrated poultry producer<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/dcdb5b52-ffcb-11e5-99cb-83242733f755|title=UK sausage maker Cranswick buys Crown Chicken for £40m|publisher=FT|date=11 April 2016|access-date=20 November 2016}}</ref>
*2016: Dunbia Ballymena, a leading Northern Irish pork processing business<ref>{{cite web|url=https://meatmanagement.com/cranswick-acquires-dunbia-ballymena/|title=Cranswick acquires Dunbia Ballymena|date=16 November 2016|publisher=Meat Management|access-date=20 November 2016}}</ref>

==Operations==
Cranswick produces fresh [[pork]], [[gourmet]] [[sausage]]s, cooked meat, air-dried [[bacon]], premium cooked poultry, [[charcuterie]], [[sandwiches]] and gourmet pastry products.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profiles/companies/CWK:LN-cranswick-plc |title=Cranswick Company Profile|publisher= Bloomberg|access-date= 9 April 2015}}</ref> The Company's brands include Bodega, [[WW International|Weight Watchers]], Woodall's, Simply Sausages, Red Lion Foods and the Black Farmer.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://markets.ft.com/research/Markets/Tearsheets/Business-profile?s=cwk:lse |title=Cranswick plc|newspaper= Financial Times|access-date= 9 April 2015}}</ref> Cranswick's core market is the UK but the company has a rapidly developing export business serving the [[Europe]]an, [[United States|US]] and [[South East Asia]]n markets.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/Hull-food-firm-Cranswick-sets-sights-Asia-sales/story-20927362-detail/story.html |title=Hull food firm Cranswick sets sights on Asia sales |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924042418/http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/Hull-food-firm-Cranswick-sets-sights-Asia-sales/story-20927362-detail/story.html |archive-date=24 September 2015 |newspaper=Hull Daily Mail |date=8 April 2014 |access-date=10 April 2015}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.cranswick.plc.uk/ Official site]

{{FTSE 250 Index constituents}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Companies based in Kingston upon Hull]]
[[Category:Food and drink companies established in 1974]]
[[Category:Food manufacturers of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:1974 establishments in England]]

Brier score

2024-07-24T10:22:26Z

131.111.5.201: Brier Skill Score (BSS) is not strictly proper

{{Short description|Measure of the accuracy of probabilistic predictions}}
The '''Brier Score''' is a [[Scoring rule#StrictlyProperScoringRules|''strictly proper score function'' or ''strictly proper scoring rule'']] that measures the accuracy of [[probabilistic classification|probabilistic predictions]]. For unidimensional predictions, it is strictly equivalent to the [[mean squared error]] as applied to predicted probabilities.

The Brier score is applicable to tasks in which predictions must assign probabilities to a set of [[mutually exclusive]] discrete outcomes or classes. The set of possible outcomes can be either binary or categorical in nature, and the probabilities assigned to this set of outcomes must sum to one (where each individual probability is in the range of 0 to 1). It was proposed by [[Glenn W. Brier]] in 1950.<ref name="Brier">{{Cite journal|author=Brier|year=1950|title=Verification of Forecasts Expressed in Terms of Probability|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/078/mwr-078-01-0001.pdf|journal=Monthly Weather Review|volume=78|issue=1 |pages=1–3|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1950)078<0001:vofeit>2.0.co;2|bibcode=1950MWRv...78....1B |s2cid=122906757 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023012737/https://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/078/mwr-078-01-0001.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-23}}</ref>

The Brier score can be thought of as a [[Loss function|cost function]]. More precisely, across all items <math>i\in{1...N}</math> in a set of ''N'' predictions, the Brier score measures the mean squared difference between:
* The predicted probability assigned to the possible outcomes for item ''i''
* The actual outcome <math>o_i</math>

Therefore, the ''lower'' the Brier score is for a set of predictions, the ''better'' the predictions are calibrated. Note that the Brier score, in its most common formulation, takes on a value between zero and one, since this is the square of the largest possible difference between a predicted probability (which must be between zero and one) and the actual outcome (which can take on values of only 0 or 1). In the original (1950) formulation of the Brier score, the range is double, from zero to two.

The Brier score is appropriate for binary and categorical outcomes that can be structured as true or false, but it is inappropriate for ordinal variables which can take on three or more values.

== Definition ==
The most common formulation of the Brier score is
:<math>BS = \frac{1}{N}\sum\limits _{t=1}^{N}(f_t-o_t)^2 \,\!</math>

in which <math>f_t</math> is the probability that was forecast, <math>o_t</math> the actual outcome of the event at instance <math>t</math> (<math> 0 </math> if it does not happen and <math>1</math> if it does happen) and <math>N</math> is the number of forecasting instances. In effect, it is the [[mean squared error]] of the forecast. This formulation is mostly used for binary events (for example "rain" or "no rain"). The above equation is a proper scoring rule only for binary events; if a multi-category forecast is to be evaluated, then the original definition given by Brier below should be used.

===Example===
Suppose that one is forecasting the probability <math>P</math> that it will rain on a given day. Then the Brier score is calculated as follows:
* If the forecast is 100% (<math>P</math> = 1) and it rains, then the Brier Score is 0, the best score achievable.
* If the forecast is 100% and it does not rain, then the Brier Score is 1, the worst score achievable.
* If the forecast is 70% (<math>P</math> = 0.70) and it rains, then the Brier Score is (0.70−1)2 = 0.09.

* In contrast, if the forecast is 70% (<math>P</math> = 0.70) and it does not rain, then the Brier Score is (0.70−0)2 = 0.49.
* Similarly, if the forecast is 30% (<math>P</math> = 0.30) and it rains, then the Brier Score is (0.30−1)2 = 0.49.
* If the forecast is 50% (<math>P</math> = 0.50), then the Brier score is (0.50−1)2 = (0.50−0)2 = 0.25, regardless of whether it rains.

===Original definition by Brier===
Although the above formulation is the most widely used, the original definition by Brier<ref name="Brier" /> is applicable to multi-category forecasts as well as it remains a proper scoring rule, while the binary form (as used in the examples above) is only proper for binary events. For binary forecasts, the original formulation of Brier's "probability score" has twice the value of the score currently known as the Brier score.

:<math>BS = \frac{1}{N}\sum\limits _{t=1}^{N}\sum\limits _{i=1}^{R}(f_{ti}-o_{ti})^2 \,\!</math>

In which <math>R</math> is the number of possible classes in which the event can fall, and <math>N</math> the overall number of instances of all classes. <math>f_{ti}</math> is the predicted probability for class <math>i. o_{ti}</math> is <math>1</math> if it is <math>i</math>-th class in instance <math>t</math>; <math>0</math>, otherwise. For the case Rain / No rain, <math>R=2</math>, while for the forecast Cold / Normal / Warm, <math>R=3</math>.

==Decompositions==
There are several decompositions of the Brier score which provide a deeper insight on the behavior of a binary classifier.

=== 3-component decomposition ===
The Brier score can be decomposed into 3 additive components: Uncertainty, Reliability, and Resolution. (Murphy 1973)<ref name="Murphy1973">
{{Cite journal
| author = Murphy, A. H.
| year = 1973
| title = A new vector partition of the probability score
| journal = Journal of Applied Meteorology
| volume = 12
| issue = 4
| pages = 595–600
| doi=10.1175/1520-0450(1973)012<0595:ANVPOT>2.0.CO;2
| bibcode = 1973JApMe..12..595M
| doi-access = free
}}</ref>

:<math> BS=REL-RES+UNC</math>

Each of these components can be decomposed further according to the number of possible classes in which the event can fall. Abusing the equality sign:

:<math> BS=\frac{1}{N}\sum\limits _{k=1}^{K}{n_{k}(\mathbf{f_{k}}-\mathbf{\bar{o}}_{\mathbf{k}})}^{2}-\frac{1}{N}\sum\limits _{k=1}^{K}{n_{k}(\mathbf{\bar{o}_{k}}-\bar{\mathbf{o}})}^{2}+\mathbf{\bar{o}}\left({1-\mathbf{\bar{o}}}\right)</math>

With <math>\textstyle N</math> being the total number of forecasts issued, <math>\textstyle K</math> the number of unique forecasts issued, <math>\mathbf{\bar{o}}={\sum_{t=1}^{N}}\mathbf{{o_t}}/N</math> the observed climatological base rate for the event to occur, <math> n_{k}</math> the number of forecasts with the same probability category and <math>\mathbf{\overline{o}}_{\mathbf{k}}</math> the observed frequency, given forecasts of probability <math>\mathbf{f_{k}}</math>. The bold notation in the above formula indicates vectors, which is another way of denoting the original definition of the score and decomposing it according to the number of possible classes in which the event can fall. For example, a 70% chance of rain and an occurrence of no rain are denoted as <math>\mathbf{{f}}=(0.3,0.7)</math> and <math>\mathbf{{o}}=(1,0)</math> respectively. Operations like the square and multiplication on these vectors are understood to be component wise. The Brier Score is then the sum of the resulting vector on the right hand side.

====Reliability====
The reliability term measures how close the forecast probabilities are to the true probabilities, given that forecast. Reliability is defined in the contrary direction compared to [[English language]]. If the reliability is 0, the forecast is perfectly reliable. For example, if we group all forecast instances where 80% chance of rain was forecast, we get a perfect reliability only if it rained 4 out of 5 times after such a forecast was issued.

====Resolution====
The resolution term measures how much the conditional probabilities given by the different forecasts differ from the climatic average. The higher this term is, the better. In the worst case, when the climatic probability is always forecast, the resolution is zero. In the best case, when the conditional probabilities are zero and one, the resolution is equal to the uncertainty.

====Uncertainty====
The uncertainty term measures the inherent uncertainty in the outcomes of the event. For binary events, it is at a maximum when each outcome occurs 50% of the time, and is minimal (zero) if an outcome always occurs or never occurs.

=== Two-component decomposition ===
An alternative (and related) decomposition generates two terms instead of three.

:<math> BS=CAL + REF</math>

:<math> BS=\frac{1}{N}\sum\limits _{k=1}^{K}{n_{k}(\mathbf{f_{k}}-\mathbf{\bar{o}}_{\mathbf{k}})}^{2}+\frac{1}{N}\sum\limits _{k=1}^{K}{ n_{k}(\mathbf{\bar{o}_{k}} (1 - \mathbf{\bar{o}_{k}} } ) )</math>

The first term is known as calibration (and can be used as a measure of calibration, see [[Calibration (statistics)|statistical calibration]]), and is equal to reliability. The second term is known as refinement, and it is an aggregation of resolution and uncertainty, and is related to the area under the [[Receiver operating characteristic|ROC]] Curve.

The Brier Score, and the CAL + REF decomposition, can be represented graphically through the so-called Brier Curves,<ref name="hernandez2011brier">{{cite conference |first1=J.|last1=Hernandez-Orallo | first2=P.A.| last2=Flach |first3=C. | last3=Ferri |year=2011 |title=Brier curves: a new cost-based visualisation of classifier performance|book-title=Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML-11)|pages=585–592|url=http://www.icml-2011.org/papers/366_icmlpaper.pdf}}</ref> where the expected loss is shown for each operating condition. This makes the Brier Score a measure of aggregated performance under a uniform distribution of class asymmetries.<ref name="hernandez2012unified ">{{cite journal |first1=J.| last1= Hernandez-Orallo| first2=P.A.| last2=Flach | first3=C. | last3=Ferri |year=2012 |title=A unified view of performance metrics: translating threshold choice into expected classification loss|journal=Journal of Machine Learning Research|volume=13 |pages=2813–2869 |url=http://jmlr.org/papers/volume13/hernandez-orallo12a/hernandez-orallo12a.pdf}}</ref>

== Brier Skill Score (BSS) ==

A [[skill score]] for a given underlying score is an offset and (negatively-) scaled variant of the underlying score such that a skill score value of zero means that the score for the predictions is merely as good as that of a set of baseline or reference or default predictions, while a skill score value of one (100%) represents the best possible score. A skill score value less than zero means that the performance is even worse than that of the baseline or reference predictions. When the underlying score is the Brier score (BS), the ''Brier skill score'' (BSS) is calculated as

:<math>BSS = 1 - \frac{BS}{BS_{ref}}</math>

where <math>BS_{ref}</math> is the Brier score of reference or baseline predictions which we seek to improve on. While the reference predictions could in principle be given by any pre-existing model, by default one can use the naïve model that predicts the overall proportion or frequency of a given class in the data set being scored, as the constant predicted probability of that class occurring in each instance in the data set. This baseline model would represent a "no skill" model that one seeks to improve on. Skill scores originate in the meteorological prediction literature, where the naïve default reference predictions are called the "in-sample climatology" predictions, where climatology means a long-term or overall average of weather predictions, and in-sample means as calculated from the present data set being scored.<ref>A bias-corrected decomposition of the Brier score. (Notes and Correspondence.) C. A. T. Ferro and T. E. Fricker in ''Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society'', Volume 138, Issue 668, October 2012 Part A, Pages 1954-1960 [https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/10871/8503/2/A%20bias-corrected%20decomposition%20of%20the%20Brier%20score.pdf]</ref><ref>"Numerical Weather Prediction: The MOGREPS short-range ensemble prediction system: Verification report: Trial Performance of MOGREPS: January 2006 - March 2007. Forecasting Research Technical Report No. 503." Neill Bowler, Marie Dando, Sarah Beare & Ken Mylne[https://digital.nmla.metoffice.gov.uk/download/file/IO_8e01bfc9-1bb2-45a0-9918-c4f911a1050d]</ref> In this default case, for binary (two-class) classification, the reference Brier score is given by (using the notation of the first equation of this article, at the top of the Definition section):

:<math>BS_{ref} = \frac{1}{N}\sum\limits _{t=1}^{N}(\bar{o}-o_t)^2 \,</math>

where <math>\bar{o}</math> is simply the average actual outcome, i.e. the overall proportion of true class 1 in the data set:
:<math>\bar{o} = \frac{1}{N}\sum\limits _{t=1}^{N}o_t .</math>

With a Brier score, lower is better (it is a loss function) with 0 being the best possible score. But with a Brier skill score, higher is better with 1 (100%) being the best possible score.

The Brier skill score can be more interpretable than the Brier score because the BSS is simply the percentage improvement in the BS compared to the reference model, and a negative BSS means you are doing even worse than the reference model, which may not be obvious from looking at the Brier score itself. However, a BSS near 100% should not typically be expected because this would require that every probability prediction was nearly 0 or 1 (and was correct of course).

Even if the Brier score is a [[Scoring rule#StrictlyProperScoringRules|''strictly proper scoring rule'']], the BSS is not strictly proper: indeed, skill scores are generally non-proper even if the underlying scoring rule is proper <ref name="GneitingRaftery2007">
{{cite journal
| last1=Gneiting
| first1=Tilmann
| last2=Raftery
| first2=Adrian E.
| author2-link=Adrian Raftery
| title=Strictly Proper Scoring Rules, Prediction, and Estimation
| journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association
| year=2007
| volume=102
| issue=447
| pages=359–378
| doi=10.1198/016214506000001437
| url=https://sites.stat.washington.edu/raftery/Research/PDF/Gneiting2007jasa.pdf
| s2cid=1878582
}}</ref>. Still, Murphy (1973)<ref> Murphy, A. H. (1973). "Hedging and skill scores for probability forecasts". ''Journal of Applied Meteorology''. '''12''': 215–223.</ref> proved that the BSS is asymptotically proper with a large number of samples.

You might notice that classification's (probability estimation's) BSS is to its BS, as regression's [[coefficient of determination]] (<math>R^2</math>) is to its [[mean squared error]] (MSE).

== Shortcomings ==

The Brier score becomes inadequate for very rare (or very frequent) events, because it does not sufficiently discriminate between small changes in forecast that are significant for rare events.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 138| issue = 1| pages = 203–211| last = Riccardo Benedetti| title = Scoring Rules for Forecast Verification| journal = Monthly Weather Review| date = 2010-01-01| doi = 10.1175/2009MWR2945.1| bibcode = 2010MWRv..138..203B| doi-access = free}}</ref> Wilks (2010) has found that "[Q]uite large
sample sizes, i.e. n > 1000, are required for higher-skill forecasts of relatively rare events, whereas only quite modest sample sizes are needed for low-skill forecasts of common events."<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 136| issue = 1| pages = 2109–2118| last = Wilks, D. S.| title = Sampling distributions of the Brier score and Brier skill score under serial dependence| journal = Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society|date = 2010| doi = 10.1002/qj.709| bibcode = 2010QJRMS.136.2109W| s2cid = 121504347}}</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Forecast skill]]
*[[Scoring rule]]

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal
| last1 = Brier
| first1 = Glenn W
| year = 1950
| title = Verification of forecasts expressed in terms of probability
| journal = Monthly Weather Review
| volume = 78
| issue = 1
| pages = 1–3
| doi = 10.1175/1520-0493(1950)078<0001:VOFEIT>2.0.CO;2
| bibcode = 1950MWRv...78....1B
| s2cid = 122906757
| url = https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/78/1/1520-0493_1950_078_0001_vofeit_2_0_co_2.xml }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060907074929/http://armstrong.wharton.upenn.edu/dictionary/definitions/brier%20score.html J. Scott Armstrong, ''Principles of Forecasting''].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070419130309/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/browse?s=b&p=43 AMS Glossary of Meteorology]
* [http://timvangelder.com/2015/05/18/brier-score-composition-a-mini-tutorial// Brier score composition: a mini-tutorial]
* {{cite journal |author=Chicco D. |author2=Warrens M.J. |author3=Jurman G. |title = The Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC) is more informative than Cohen's Kappa and Brier score in binary classification assessment |journal = IEEE Access |volume = 9 |issue = |date = 2021 |page = 78368 - 78381 |doi = 10.1109/access.2021.3084050 | s2cid = 235308708 |doi-access=free|hdl = 10281/430460 |hdl-access = free }}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Probability assessment]]

2024 CrowdStrike-related IT outages

2024-07-19T12:53:20Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|Global computer systems outage}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=July 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Current|date=July 2024|2=current computer systems outage}}
{{Infobox event
| image =
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| date = {{start date and age|2024|07|19|df=y}}
| venue =
| location = Global
| coordinates = 
| also_known_as =
| type = [[Downtime|Outage]]
| cause = [[Kernel (operating system)|Kernel]] driver issue with [[CrowdStrike]] update
| motive =
| target =
| perpetrator =
| outcome =
| reported deaths =
| reported injuries =
| reported property damage =
}}

On Friday, 19 July 2024, computer systems around the world experienced an [[Downtime|outage]] that has led to ongoing disruptions across multiple different industries, relating to a faulty [[CrowdStrike]] security software update for [[Microsoft Windows]] systems.<ref name="auto4">{{Cite news |date=2024-07-19 |title=Live: 'Completely unprecedented' outage causes havoc with IT systems across globe |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-07-19/global-it-outage-crowdstrike-microsoft-banks-airlines-australia/104119960 |access-date=2024-07-19 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU}}</ref>

== Technical details ==
[[CrowdStrike]] is a suite of security software products provided to businesses designed to protect a company's computers from cyberattacks. The Falcon Sensor product installs a network sensor at the operating system level on individual computers to detect and prevent threats. Patches are routinely distributed through CrowdStrike to its customers and their computers to address emerging cyberattack threats.<ref name="the-register-workaround"/>

An update to Falcon Sensor for [[Microsoft Windows]] issued at 04:09 ([[UTC]]) on 19 July 2024 included the faulty kernel driver <code>csagent.sys</code>, causing affected machines to enter a [[blue screen of death]] with the message <code>[[Page fault|PAGE_FAULT_IN_NONPAGED_AREA]]</code>.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=CrowdStrike Falcon blue screen issue updates |url=https://www.eye.security/blog/crowdstrike-falcon-blue-screen-issue-updates |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=www.eye.security |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-19 |title=Botched security update breaks Windows worldwide, causing BSOD and crashes |url=https://www.neowin.net/news/botched-security-update-breakes-windows-worldwide-causing-bsod-and-crashes/ |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=Neowin |language=en}}</ref> This left machines stuck in a [[Bootloop|boot loop]] or in recovery mode.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Baran |first=Guru |date=19 July 2024 |title=CrowdStrike Update Pushing Windows Machines Into a BSOD Loop |url=https://cybersecuritynews.com/crowdstrike-update-bsod-loop/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Cyber Security News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=United, Delta and American Airlines issue global ground stop on all flights |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/american-airlines-issues-global-ground-stop-flights/story?id=112092372 |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=[[ABC News (USA)|ABC News]] |language=en}}</ref>

Affected machines were restored by booting into [[safe mode]] and deleting the <code>%windir%\System32\drivers\CrowdStrike\C-00000291*.sys</code> files.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arjunan |first=Abhijith N. |date=2024-07-19 |title=Windows CrowdStrike Update Causing Blue Screen of Death: 3 Ways to Fix |url=https://www.techworm.net/2024/07/windows-crowdstrike-update-blue-screen-death-ways-fix.html |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=TechWorm |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="the-register-workaround">{{cite web |last1=Sharwood |first1=Simon |title=CrowdStrike code update bricking Windows machines around the world |url=https://www.theregister.com/2024/07/19/crowdstrike_falcon_sensor_bsod_incident/ |website=The Register |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nisbet |first1=Brody |title=There is a faulty channel file, so not quite an update. There is a workaround... |url=https://x.com/brody_n77/status/1814185935476863321 |website=X.com/Twitter |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

CrowdStrike reverted the content update at 05:27 (UTC).{{Cn|date=July 2024}} Devices booted after the update was reverted are expected to not be affected.<ref name=":10" /> As of 09:45 (UTC), the CEO confirmed the fix was deployed.<ref>{{cite web |title=CrowdStrike is actively working with customers impacted by a defect found in a single content update for Windows hosts. |url= https://x.com/George_Kurtz/status/1814235001745027317 |website=X.com/Twitter |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Microsoft IT outage latest: Security firm Crowdstrike finds cause of global IT 'disaster' - as cyber attack ruled out |url=https://news.sky.com/story/outages-latest-airports-business-and-broadcasters-experiencing-issues-worldwide-13180821 |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=Sky News |language=en}}</ref>

== Impact ==
Outages were experienced worldwide.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=19 July 2024 |title=Massive outage hits companies around the world |url=https://www.news.com.au/technology/online/massive-outage-hits-companies-around-the-world/news-story/e02375a976a08b45e72e64040fe14362 |access-date=19 July 2024 |work=news.com.au}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Taylor |first=Josh |date=19 July 2024 |title=Banks, airlines and media outlets hit by global outage linked to Windows PCs |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/article/2024/jul/19/microsoft-windows-pcs-outage-blue-screen-of-death |access-date=19 July 2024 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Taylor |first=Derrick Bryson |date=19 July 2024 |title=Live Updates: Global Tech Outage Grounds Flights and Hits Businesses |url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/07/19/business/global-tech-outage |access-date=19 July 2024 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> As many IT systems across the world use Windows and the CrowdStrike software, outages were reported across many business sectors.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yeo |first=Amanda |date=19 July 2024 |title=Windows PCs crashing worldwide due to CrowdStrike issue |url=https://mashable.com/article/windows-bsod-crash-crowdstrike-update-worldwide-outage |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Mashable |language=en}}</ref> More than 1,000 flights were cancelled globally,<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=IT outage live updates: Planes grounded as mass worldwide issue hits airlines, media and banks |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/cnk4jdwp49et |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> as the travel sector in general has been widely affected.<ref name=TC_1>{{cite web| title=CrowdStrike update causes major IT outage, taking out banks, airlines and businesses globally| author=Singh, M.| url=https://techcrunch.com/2024/07/19/banks-airlines-brokerage-houses-report-widespread-outages-across-the-globe| publisher=[[Yahoo]]| date=19 July 2024| access-date=19 July 2024| quote=The travel sector seems to be one of the hardest hit.}}</ref> By some estimates, Crowdstrike's error has caused problems to approximately 24,000 customers.<ref name=CM_1>{{cite news| title=Crowdstrike and Microsoft: What we know about global IT outage| author=Plummer, R.| url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cp4wnrxqlewo| publisher=[[BBC]]| date=19 July 2024| access-date=19 July 2024| quote=In its last earnings report, Crowdstrike declared a total of nearly 24,000 customers.}}</ref> The number of individual computers affected is hard to pinpoint as many of the customers are large organizations.<ref name=CM_2>{{cite news| title=Crowdstrike and Microsoft: What we know about global IT outage| author=Plummer, R.| url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cp4wnrxqlewo| publisher=[[BBC]]| date=19 July 2024| access-date=19 July 2024| quote=Each of those customers is a huge organisation in itself, so the number of individual computers affected is hard to estimate.}}</ref> In 2021, it was estimated that around 47% of companies in the [[Fortune 500]] list were customers of CrowdStrike.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jennewine |first=Jeremy Bowman, Brian Withers, and Trevor |date=2021-12-16 |title=Why CrowdStrike Holdings Stock Is Still Delivering Red-Hot Growth |url=https://www.fool.com/investing/2021/12/16/why-crowdstrike-holdings-stock-was-gaining-today/ |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=The Motley Fool |language=en}}</ref> On its own website, CrowdStrike claims it has nearly 60% of Fortune 500 companies and more than half of the Fortune 1,000 among its clients.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Manish |date=2024-07-19 |title=Faulty CrowdStrike update causes major global IT outage, taking out banks, airlines and businesses globally |url=https://techcrunch.com/2024/07/19/banks-airlines-brokerage-houses-report-widespread-outages-across-the-globe/ |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Air transport ===
[[Hong Kong International Airport]] experienced delays during check-in, primarily for passengers of the local budget carrier [[Dua Lipa|Hong Kong Express]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-07-19 |title=Microsoft system global outage affects HK Express and Cathay Pacific, switching to manual check-ins |url=https://www.thestandard.com.hk/breaking-news/section/4/218559/Microsoft-system-global-outage-affects-HK-Express-and-Cathay-Pacific,-switching-to-manual-check-ins |work=[[The Standard (Hong Kong)]]}}</ref> The [[Airport Authority Hong Kong|Hong Kong Airport Authority]] activated the emergency response, after airline websites and automatic check-in malfunctioned. Local Airlines [[Cathay Pacific]], Hong Kong Express and [[Hong Kong Airlines]]'s booking systems are unavailable.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=Global Microsoft outage hits Hong Kong airport, forcing manual check-in |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/hong-kong-economy/article/3271092/global-microsoft-aviation-outage-hits-hong-kongs-airport-check-services-operated-manually |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref>

In North America, a ground stop was issued by [[United Airlines|United]], [[Delta Air Lines|Delta]] and [[American Airlines]]. Flights in the air will continue flying, but no new flights will take off.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/other/delta-united-and-american-airlines-flights-grounded-due-to-communication-issue-faa-says/ar-BB1qg30t |title=Delta, United and American Airlines flights grounded due to communication issue, FAA says |last1=Yeung |first1=Jessie |last2=Afshar |first2=Paradise |last3=Yan |first3=Holly |date=19 July 2024 |publisher=CNN |access-date=2024-07-19 |via=www.msn.com}}</ref> [[Allegiant Airlines]] were also grounded by the outage according to the FAA.<ref name="auto4"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=blinder@pennlive.com |first=Brian Linder {{!}} |date=2024-07-19 |title=All Delta, United, Allegiant and American Airlines flights grounded. Here’s what we know |url=https://www.pennlive.com/news/2024/07/all-delta-united-allegiant-and-american-airlines-flights-grounded-heres-what-we-know.html |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=pennlive |language=en}}</ref>

[[Swiss International Air Lines]] had 30% of flights grounded.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Topham |first=Gwyn |title=‘Bedlam’ at UK airports and trains disrupted after global IT outage |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/article/2024/jul/19/uk-airports-trains-disrupted-microsoft-global-it-outage |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=www.theguardian.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Doja Cat|Czechia's]] [[Václav Havel Airport Prague|Prague Airport]]<ref name=":AusOutage1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=Prague Airport has been affected by outage of global check-in system |url=https://cedarnews.net/breakingnews/737658/prague-airport-has-been-affected-by-outage-of-global-check-in-system/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Cedar News |language=ar}}</ref> and [[Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport|Budapest Airport]] experienced issues.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web |title=Microsoft IT outage latest: Global IT 'disaster' thought 'not to be cyber attack' – as airports and banks cope with 'chaos' |url=https://news.sky.com/story/outages-latest-airports-business-and-broadcasters-experiencing-issues-worldwide-13180821 |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Sky News |language=en}}</ref> [[Ryanair]] reported that booking and check-in were unavailable,<ref>{{cite web |title=Disruptions across the network (Fri 19 July) due to a global 3rd party system outage. |url=https://www.ryanair.com/ie/en/lp/travel-updates/articles/potential-disruptions-across-the-network |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Ryanair}}</ref> and its flights from Slovakia's [[Bratislava Airport]] were affected.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Onderčanin |first1=Lukáš |last2=Straňáková |first2=Iveta |title=SME Minúta: Výpadok sietí ochromil leteckú dopravu po celom svete, v Bratislave je problém len s Ryanairom |url=https://tech.sme.sk/c/23359380/vypadok-it-systemy-letiska-televizie.html |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=tech.sme.sk |language=sk}}</ref> Planes were not allowed to land at [[Zurich Airport]].<ref name=":4"/> [[Wizz Air]] blamed the incident for its online services going offline.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WizzAir airline announced that operations are impacted due to "global 3rd party service provider incident" |url=https://wizzair.com/en-gb/latest-travel-information |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=WizzAir |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1814224179442413585 |user=wizzair |title=Wizz Air on X: "Wizz Air alerts customers to arrive at the airport at least 3 hours prior to their flight today." |author=Wizz Air |author-link=Wizz Air |date=19 July 2024 |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> Dutch airline [[KLM]] suspended most operations, announcing that flight handling is impossible with the issue.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Microsoft outage live updates: Crowdstrike cybersecurity firm says its software update triggered worldwide IT issues |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/cnk4jdwp49et |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> The [[Berlin Brandenburg Airport|Berlin Airport]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=„Massive technische Störung“: Betrieb am Flughafen BER zum Ferienstart eingestellt |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/berlin/massive-technische-storung-betrieb-am-flughafen-ber-zum-ferienstart-eingestellt-12051248.html |via=Tagesspiegel}}</ref> planned to stop flights until 8 (UTC).<ref name=":3" /> [[Lufthansa]] has also been affected.<ref name=":4"/> In [[Brussels]], Charleroi Airport's employees manually checked passengers in, but other software alleviated issues by 10:00 and there were minimal delays.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chini |first=Maïthé |title=Global computer outage: Problems at Brussels Airport and SNCB |url=https://www.brusselstimes.com/belgium/1146329/major-global-computer-outage-problems-at-brussels-airport-and-sncb-tbtb |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=www.brusselstimes.com |language=en}}</ref> Spanish airports were disrupted.<ref name=":9" />

[[Spring Japan]] is experiencing issues.<ref name=":4" /> [[Jetstar Japan]] had to cancel several flights.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=Jetstar Japan cancels some domestic flights due to system failure
|url=https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20240719_23/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=NHK World}}</ref> Korean airline [[Jeju Air]] is experiencing issues.<ref name=":4" /> Some of [[Singapore|Singapore's]] [[Changi Airport]]'s self-check-in machines were affected, delaying and forcing airlines switch to manual check in.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=Major worldwide IT outage spreads to Singapore |url=https://www.asiaone.com/singapore/major-worldwide-it-outage-spread-singapore-straits-times-dbs-changi-airport-singtel |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=AsiaOne}}</ref> [[Cebu Pacific]] and [[Philippines AirAsia]] flights are delayed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adonis |first=Meg |date=19 July 2024 |title=Cebu Pacific system down due to Microsoft outage |url=https://business.inquirer.net/469477/cebu-pacific-system-down-due-to-microsoft-outage |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=INQUIRER.net |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cordero |first=Ted |date=19 July 2024 |title=Microsoft outage disrupts operations of Cebu Pacific, AirAsia Philippines |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/companies/913963/microsoft-outage-disrupts-operations-of-cebu-pacific-airasia-philippines/story/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=GMA News Online |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Zurbano |first=Joel E. |date=19 July 2024 |title=Global system outage affects airlines in the Philippines |url=https://manilastandard.net/news/314473620/global-system-outage-affects-airlines-in-the-philippines.html |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Manila Standard |language=en-US}}</ref> Long queues formed at the [[Ninoy Aquino International Airport]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fuentes |first=Arthur |date=19 July 2024 |title=Microsoft probing outage reports; some PH firms report IT disruption |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/business/2024/7/19/microsoft-says-probing-issue-after-outage-reports-1513 |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=ABS-CBN News}}</ref>

=== Africa ===
Banks in South Africa, including [[Capitec Bank]], were experiencing issues.<ref name="auto2"/>

=== Asia ===

==== China ====
Many users have reported encountering [[Blue screen of death|blue screens of death]] on [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] [[Personal computer|PC]], and some companies have let their employees go home early.<ref>{{Cite web |title=“感谢微软，提前放假”！Windows全球大范围蓝屏 |url=https://news.ifeng.com/c/8bLXkXnjos4 |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=news.ifeng.com |language=zh}}</ref> The topic "Thank you Microsoft for an early vacation" momentarily became [[Weibo]]'s most popular term.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Companies around the world hit by Microsoft outage |url=https://www.ft.com/content/fba9b61d-efcf-4348-b640-ccb1f9d18ced |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref>

==== India ====
Outages are being experienced with [[Air India]], [[Indigo Airlines]], [[Akasa Air]], [[SpiceJet]] and [[Vistara]]. Handwritten boarding passes are being issued during the outage. Boarding was being done manually. The [[Ministry of Civil Aviation (India)|ministry of Civil aviation]] has asked and ordered the airlines as well as the airports to be compassionate while providing food as well as seats if need be.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |title=Massive Worldwide Microsoft Outage: Flights, Markets, Stock Exchange Down |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/microsoft-blue-screen-of-death-flights-markets-banks-stock-exchange-microsoft-outage-crippling-sectors-6139053 |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=Global Microsoft outage impacts Indigo, Akasa, Spicejet, Air India ops, airport services |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/business/aviation/global-microsoft-outage-indigo-akasa-air-india-9463089/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 July 2024 |title=Microsoft tech glitch: Airlines across globe affected, IndiGo, SpiceJet & Akasa say ops impacted at Mumbai, Delhi airports |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nri/visit/microsoft-tech-glitch-aviation-cos-across-globe-affected-check-in-systems-impacted-at-mumbai-delhi-airports/articleshow/111855229.cms |access-date=19 July 2024 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

As of 18:14 IST alone, over 200 flights were cancelled with the tally of [[IndiGo|Indigo]] alone being 192.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-19 |title=Microsoft Global Outage Live Updates: Over 200 flights cancelled by Indian carriers; IndiGo alone 192 so far |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/microsoft-windows-outage-live-updates-windows-bsod-error-blue-screen-of-death/liveblog/111856162.cms |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

Major IT firms in India such as [[Tata Consultancy Services|TCS]], [[Infosys]], [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], [[Nokia]] and many others also face the outage, resulting in thousands of issues raised by employees and devices being stuck in [[bootloop]] and unable to recover.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/technology/government-in-touch-with-microsoft-over-outage-it-minister-ashwini-vaishnaw/articleshow/111860846.cms?from=mdr|title=Government in touch with Microsoft over outage: IT minister Ashwini Vaishnaw|date=19 July 2024|via=The Economic Times - The Times of India}}</ref>

The [[Indian Computer Emergency Response Team|Indian Computer Emergency Response Team, CERT-In,]] has issued a severity rating of ‘Critical’ for the incident. <ref>{{Cite news |last=Bureau |first=The Hindu |date=2024-07-19 |title=Microsoft Global Outage LIVE: Microsoft’s Windows outage impacts airlines, financial institutions and broadcasters on a global scale |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/technology/microsoft-outage-live-updates-mumbai-delhi-flight-operations-affected/article68421219.ece |access-date=2024-07-19 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

However, [[NSE Indices|NSE]] and [[BSE SENSEX|BSE]] have said that they have not been impacted due to the global outage of Microsoft systems amid reports of disruptions. <ref>{{Cite news |last=Bureau |first=The Hindu |date=2024-07-19 |title=Microsoft Global Outage LIVE: Microsoft’s Windows outage impacts airlines, financial institutions and broadcasters on a global scale |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/technology/microsoft-outage-live-updates-mumbai-delhi-flight-operations-affected/article68421219.ece |access-date=2024-07-19 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> On the other hand, India’s Minister for Railways, Information & Broadcasting, Electronics & Information Technology, [[Ashwini Vaishnaw]], said the government was in touch with Microsoft and that the reason for the outage had been identified. <ref>{{Cite news |last=Bureau |first=The Hindu |date=2024-07-19 |title=Microsoft Global Outage LIVE: Microsoft’s Windows outage impacts airlines, financial institutions and broadcasters on a global scale |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/technology/microsoft-outage-live-updates-mumbai-delhi-flight-operations-affected/article68421219.ece |access-date=2024-07-19 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==== Israel ====
In Israel, [[Magen David Adom]] and its emergency service line, as well as several public hospitals such as [[Sheba Medical Center|Sheba]], [[Laniado Hospital|Laniado]], and [[Rambam Health Care Campus|Rambam]] were affected. Other affected organizations include [[Israel Postal Company|Israel Post]] and several local banks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ynetnews.com/article/s1f7r5do0|title=Massive global glitch shuts down systems in hospitals, banks and emergency hotlines|first=Adir|last=Yanko|date=19 July 2024|via=www.ynetnews.com}}</ref> Many{{which|date=July 2024}} pharmaceutical companies are also impacted.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

==== Philippines ====
IT workers in the Philippines who are using Windows laptops are experiencing the Blue Screen of Death.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guiao |first=Micah Avry |date=19 July 2024 |title=What's Happening to Microsoft-Powered Laptops Right Now? |url=https://www.spot.ph/newsfeatures/trending/109526/what-s-happening-to-microsoft-powered-laptops-a5229-20240719 |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Spot.ph}}</ref> Major banks, telecommunications, radio and TV broadcasts, and supermarkets are affected due to crashed POS systems.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cañete |first=Patrick |date=19 July 2024 |title=Global Windows outage affecting workers, industries |url=https://www.noypigeeks.com/computers/windows-outage-affecting-workers-industries/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=NoypiGeeks |language=en-US}}</ref>

Banks in the Philippines such us [[Rizal Commercial Banking Corporation|RCBC]], [[Metrobank (Philippines)|Metrobank]], [[Land Bank of the Philippines|LandBank]], [[Banco de Oro|BDO]], [[Unionbank (Philippines)|UnionBank]], [[Bank of the Philippine Islands|BPI]], and [[Philippine National Bank|PNB]] online systems was down due to the outage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cordero |first=Ted |date=19 July 2024 |title=PH banks hit by global Microsoft outage |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/companies/913970/ph-banks-digital-services-hit-by-global-microsoft-outage/story/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=GMA News Online |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adonis |first=Meg |date=19 July 2024 |title=PH banks hit by Microsoft outage |url=https://business.inquirer.net/469535/ph-banks-also-hit-by-microsoft-outage |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=INQUIRER.net |language=en}}</ref> E-wallets such us [[Maya (mobile payments)|Maya]], and [[GCash]] were reported also experiencing issues.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mangaluz |first=Jean |date=19 July 2024 |title=Philippine banks hit by global IT outage |url=https://www.philstar.com/business/2024/07/19/2371419/philippine-banks-hit-global-it-outage |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Philstar.com}}</ref>

Government websites in the Philippines, such as the website of the [[House of Representatives of the Philippines]], were down due to the outage.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=LIST: Philippine government websites down during global IT outage |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2024/07/19/2371414/list-philippine-government-websites-down-during-global-it-outage |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Philstar.com}}</ref>

==== Other ====
Malaysia's railway operator KTMB confirmed that its KITS ticketing system is experiencing technical issues.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 July 2024 |title=CNA Live |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/world/it-outage-microsoft-crowdstrike-airports-flights-businesses-4490741 |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

Numerous Singaporean companies, including [[Singapore Airlines]], [[Scoot]], [[Singapore Post]], [[Singapore Exchange|Singapore Exchange (SGX)]], [[SPH Media]], [[Singtel]], [[M1 (Singaporean company)|M1]], [[Grab Holdings|Grab]] and [[DBS Bank]], reported various levels of service difficulties throughout the day on 19 July.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Several Singapore companies affected by global IT outage; check-ins at Changi Airport processed manually |url=https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/companies-markets/several-singapore-companies-affected-global-it-outage-check-ins-changi-airport-processed-manually |website=The Business Times |publisher=SPH Media Limited |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

Carpark entrance and exit gantries in Singapore were affected across 185 locations managed by the [[Housing and Development Board|Housing and Development Board (HDB)]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Live: Global tech outage caused by software update, says cybersecurity firm CrowdStrike |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/tech/tech-news/live-major-tech-outage-disrupts-businesses-worldwide-including-in-singapore |website=The Straits Times |publisher=SPH Media Limited |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

=== Europe ===

==== Belgium ====
[[File:Vanden_Borre_Website_Offline.webp|thumb|alt=Vanden Borre Outage due to July 2024 global cyber outages|Vanden Borre retail website is down due to the outage|right|200x200px]]

In Belgium, the issue affected the purchase of train tickets and digital announcements in the [[National Railway Company of Belgium]] stations, the office laptops of [[DPG Media]] Belgium – which impacts JOE and QMusic Radio, banks, post services, government agencies, telephone communication with the urban services in [[Antwerp]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=Stadsloketten telefonisch niet bereikbaar door technische storing |url=https://www.antwerpen.be/info/stadsloketten-telefonisch-niet-bereikbaar-door-technische-storing |url-status=live |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Stad Antwerpen |language=nl}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite web | title=Liveblog – Grote gevolgen na wereldwijde softwareproblemen: ook 2 Belgische ziekenhuizen getroffen en hinder bij overheidsdiensten, banken, NMBS, Bpost en luchthavens | website=[[VRT (broadcaster)|VRT]] | date=19 July 2024 | url=https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/nl/2024/07/19/it-problemen-bij-nmbs-aankoop-van-tickets-via-app-onmogelijk-o/ | language=nl | access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

A spokesperson for the [[National Railway Company of Belgium]] said there is no impact to actual train traffic, but to all digital applications. They previously advise passengers to listen to the audio announcements in the various train stations, and if you are unable to buy a ticket to contact the train conductor.

The Centre for Cybersecurity Belgium stated that the impact in Belgium is limited.<ref name=":7" />

[[Federal Public Service Health|FPS Public Health]] have confirmed that there were two hospitals impacted and have activated their emergency IT plans. They have also stated there is no impact to care, only to new patient admissions.<ref name=":7" />

The National Crisis Center were evaluating the impact in Belgium and stated there had no reports of significant problems in the security sectors and our critical infrastructure (e.g. power plants or transport sector). They also were informed of the issue impacting two hospitals in Belgium.<ref name=":7" />

==== France ====
Several French TV channels affected by the issues include [[TF1]], [[TFX (TV channel)|TFX]], [[La Chaîne Info|LCI]] and [[Canal+ Group]] networks.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 July 2024 |title=DIRECT. Panne mondiale chez Microsoft : après l’Australie, la France, la Belgique, le Royaume-Uni, le Japon sont touchés |url=https://www.lavoixdunord.fr/1484962/article/2024-07-19/une-enorme-panne-mondiale-perturbe-tf1-canal-free-l-aeroport-d-orly-mondial |access-date=19 July 2024 |language= French |work=La Voix du Nord}}</ref> Phone and internet service provider [[Bouygues Telecom]] has also announced the unavailability of its customer service as a result of the outage.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Bouygues Telecom on X |title=[🔴Info ] A la suite d'un incident technique mondial, votre Service clients est indisponible. Nous mettons tout en œuvre pour rétablir la situation dans les plus brefs délais. Nous sommes désolés de cette situation et vous rappelons que vous pouvez gérer vos offres et services en |url=https://x.com/bouyguestelecom/status/1814216904501776438 |website=X (formerly Twitter) |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]] and [[Orly Airport]] both also experienced problems related to check in and suspension of flights.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/mass-cyber-outage-airports-businesses-broadcasters-crowdstrike-rcna162664|title=Mass IT outage hits airports, businesses and broadcasters around the world|first=Patrick|last=Smith|date=19 July 2024|work=NBC News}}</ref>

The operations of the [[2024 Summer Olympics]], which is scheduled to officially begin in a week in [[Paris]], France, have also been affected. The incident happened a day after the [[Olympic Village]] opened, and organizers were processing the arrivals of athletes and delegates. The organizing committee said that a contingency plan was activated, and that only the delivery of uniforms and accreditations were impacted. The incident, however, is slowing down the operations with the accreditation desk at the press center closed, and security checks done manually using a list of names. <ref name=":4"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-19 |title=Global cyber outage hits Olympics preparations |url=https://www.espn.com/olympics/story/_/id/40594979/paris-olympics-systems-hit-global-cyber-outage |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=ESPN.com |language=en}}</ref>

==== Germany ====
Two hospitals in [[Lübeck]] and [[Kiel]] have cancelled non-emergency operations.<ref name=":4"/> Supermarket chain [[Tegut]] has closed some of its stores.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Weltweites Software-Problem legt auch hessische Firmen lahm |url=https://www.hessenschau.de/wirtschaft/fehlerhaftes-windows-update-weltweites-software-problem-legt-auch-hessische-firmen-lahm-v1,it-panne-unternehmen-100.html |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Hessenschau |language=de}}</ref>
The [[Berlin Brandenburg Airport]] announced that since around 7:00 a.m. operational processes were affected by "IT problems at an external provider." While passenger handling continued with some restrictions, there were delays and some flights had to be canceled by the airlines.

==== Ireland ====

''[[The Irish Times]]'' reported that several Irish businesses were impacted, including [[Ryanair]]. [[Transport for Ireland]] said its apps were down due to the outage.<ref>{{cite web | title=Irish businesses caught up in major global IT outage | website=[[Irish Times]] | date=19 July 2024 | url=https://www.irishtimes.com/business/2024/07/19/companies-around-the-world-hit-by-major-it-outage/ | access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> [[Gaelic Athletic Association|GAA]] clubs reported that they were unable to access All Ireland tickets.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

==== Isle of Man ====

[[Manx Radio]] reported that [[General practitioner|GP surgeries]] were impacted<ref>{{cite web | title=GP surgeries on the Island affected by worldwide IT outage | website=Manx Radio | date=19 July 2024 | url=https://www.manxradio.com/news/isle-of-man-news/gp-surgeries-on-the-island-affected-by-worldwide-it-outage/ | access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> and that a number of flights to the island could be affected{{Speculation inline|date=July 2024}}, particularly to and from the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Some flights could be affected due to mass IT outage | website=Manx Radio | date=19 July 2024 | url=https://www.manxradio.com/news/isle-of-man-news/some-flights-could-be-affected-due-to-mass-it-outage/ | access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> Businesses were reported to be "mostly unaffected".<ref>{{cite web | title=LIVE: Worldwide IT issues effect on the Isle of Man | website=[[Isle of Man Newspapers|Isle of Man Today]] | date=19 July 2024 | url=https://www.iomtoday.co.im/news/live-worldwide-it-issues-effect-on-the-isle-of-man-706394 | access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

==== Netherlands ====
Businesses operating in the Netherlands experiencing issues include [[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol|Schiphol airport]], KNAB bank, [[Transavia|Transavia Airlines]], [[Keolis Nederland]], government services and hospitals are starting to cancel operations and scale down medical care.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 July 2024 |title=Wereldwijd problemen door computerstoring, ook Schiphol getroffen |url=https://nos.nl/artikel/2529464-wereldwijd-problemen-door-computerstoring-ook-schiphol-getroffen |access-date=19 July 2024 |work=[[Nederlandse Omroep Stichting|NOS]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Wereldwijde computerstoring – allGo, Keolis R-net en Syntus Utrecht bussen rijden niet |url=https://www.keolis.nl/ |website=Keolis |publisher=Keolis |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

==== Norway ====
One of the largest pharmacy chains in Norway, [[Apotek1]], had to shut down their stores for some time.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flere apotek har stengt etter datatrøbbel
|url=https://www.nrk.no/ostfold/flere-apotek-1-har-stengt-etter-datatrobbel-1.16970700 |website=NRK|publisher=NRK|access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

==== Spain ====
[[ENAIRE]]'s Aena, the national airport traffic control manager, has also made reference to an IT outage in their website and social media.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1814199738180223279 |user=aena |title=La incidencia técnica global está afectando, sobre todo, a facturación y a los puntos de información al pasajero, pero ya se están levantando en contingencia algunos sistemas. Seguimos trabajando con todas las partes implicadas.}}</ref> All Spanish airports reported disruptions<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Presse |first=AFP-Agence France |title=All Spanish Airports Impacted By IT Outage: Operator |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/all-spanish-airports-impacted-by-it-outage-operator-b7dc5b29 |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=www.barrons.com |language=en-US}}</ref> and the regional governments of [[Aragon]], [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], [[Castilla–La Mancha|Castilla-La Mancha]], [[Catalonia]] and [[Galicia]] reported issues with their healthcare services.<ref>{{Cite web |last=elDiario.es |date=2024-07-19 |title=Varios servicios de salud autonómicos, afectados por la caída informática global |url=https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/servicios-salud-autonomicos-afectados-caida-informatica-microsoft_1_11534890.html |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=ElDiario.es |language=es}}</ref>

==== Turkey ====
[[Turkish Airlines]] cancelled some of its flights to avoid disruptions in flights.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-19 |title=Küresel yazılım sıkıntısı nedeniyle Türk Hava Yolları 84 seferini iptal etti |url=https://www.haberler.com/guncel/turk-hava-yollari-dunya-capindaki-aksaklik-17537736-haberi/ |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=Haberler |language=tr}}</ref> The website and mobile banking application of [[DenizBank]], cannot be accessed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Microsoft'taki arıza: Denizbank'ın internet sitesine ve mobil uygulamasına erişilemiyor |url=https://www.birgun.net/haber/microsoft-taki-ariza-denizbank-in-internet-sitesine-ve-mobil-uygulamasina-erisilemiyor-545786 |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=birgun.net |language=Turkish}}</ref>

==== United Kingdom ====
24 hour news channel [[Sky News]] was unable to broadcast live,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Salisbury |first1=Josh |title=Planes grounded, trains disrupted and Sky News off air due to Microsoft tech issue |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/sky-news-crashes-tv-channel-news-microsoft-b1171651.html |access-date=19 July 2024 |work=Evening Standard |date=19 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref> as well as the [[BBC]]'s [[CBBC]], a free-to-air children's television channel.<ref name=":4"/>
Several airports experienced difficulties, including [[Edinburgh Airport|Edinburgh]], whose departure boards froze,<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/cnk4jdwp49et|title=IT outage live updates: Planes grounded as mass worldwide issue hits airlines, media and banks|website=BBC News}}</ref> and [[Gatwick Airport]], where automatic barcode scanning stopped working and had to be checked manually.<ref name=":4" />
Rail companies were also affected.<ref name="auto"/> The [[NHS England|National Health Service (NHS)]] said that the issues are "causing disruption in the majority of [English] GP practices",<ref name="auto2"/> with some of its services, such as [[General practitioner|GP]] surgeries, which rely on a software product called [[EMIS Health|EMIS Web]], unable to view and manage medical records, issue and manage prescriptions, or make appointments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/cnk4jdwp49et|title=IT outage live updates: Planes grounded as mass worldwide issue hits airlines, media and banks|website=BBC News}}</ref> The [[London Stock Exchange]], while operating normally, was unable to push news updates to its website.<ref name=":4"/>

Gambling company [[Ladbrokes Coral]] and supermarket chain [[Morrisons]] also reported problems.<ref name=":4"/><ref name=":4"/> Amadeus, which manages baggage at Heathrow, says they were affected by the IT outage.<ref> {{Cite web |title=Heathrow hit by outage, baggage handler confirms. |url=https://www.lbc.co.uk/news/global-it-outage-down-airplane-live/ |website=LBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

[[Taxi|Cabs]] in London were also affected as the customers could not pay via credit or with debit cards and required cash.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Microsoft IT outage live updates: Worldwide travel and banking hit after cybersecurity update causes IT chaos |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/cnk4jdwp49et |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

News sources in the UK have reported that the government's [[COBR]] committee has met to discuss the incident.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Travel, banking and businesses hit after software bug causes worldwide IT chaos|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/cnk4jdwp49et#player|website=BBC News}}</ref>

==== Other ====
The {{ill|Central Health Information System of Croatia|hr|CEZIH|}} in Croatia was affected, although it was clarified that it was a separate issue tied with moving their servers to a new location<ref>{{cite web |title=Pao CEZIH! Obiteljski liječnici i ljekarne imaju teškoća u radu |url=https://n1info.hr/vijesti/pao-cezih-obiteljski-lijecnici-i-ljekarne-imaju-teskoca-u-radu/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=n1info.hr}}</ref> as well as the Croatian Air Traffic Control.<ref>{{cite web |title=Butković: 'Hrvatska kontrola zračne plovidbe ima određenih poteškoća. Ali nije kibernetički napad u pitanju' |url=https://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/butkovic-kontrola-plovidbe-nije-dovedena-u-pitanje-nije-se-dogodio-kiberneticki-napad-1786062 |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=vecernji.hr}}</ref> Professor Doctor Fernando Fonseca Hospital in Portugal has registered problems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amadora-Sintra Hospital in trouble due to Microsoft failure |url=https://healthnews.pt/2024/07/19/hospital-amadora-sintra-com-problemas-por-causa-da-falha-da-microsoft/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Healthnews jornalismo de saúde |language=pt}}</ref> The National Security Authority spokesman confirmed several institutions in Slovakia were affected.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aktualizácia CrowdStrike spôsobuje výpadky aj na Slovensku - SME Minúta |url=https://www.sme.sk/minuta/23359519/aktualizacia-crowdstrike-sposobuje-vypadky-aj-na-slovensku |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=www.sme.sk |language=sk}}</ref> The pharmaceutical company [[Krka (company)|Krka]] in Slovenia is said<ref>{{Cite web |last=V |first=G. |title=Izpad informacijskih sistemov občutili tudi v Sloveniji, zamude na ljubljanskem letališču |url=https://www.rtvslo.si/znanost-in-tehnologija/izpad-informacijskih-sistemov-obcutili-tudi-v-sloveniji-zamude-na-ljubljanskem-letaliscu/715409 |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=rtvslo.si |language=sl}}</ref> to have suffered a full outage of production and sent its workforce home. In Sweden, Air traffic was disrupted,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nyheter |first=S. V. T. |date=2024-07-19 |title=Störningar på Landvetter efter it-problem – långa köer och strul på flygplatsen |url=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/vast/storningar-pa-landvetter-efter-it-problem-langa-koer-och-strul-pa-flygplatsen |access-date=2024-07-19 |work=SVT Nyheter |language=sv}}</ref> tickets for soccer games<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sport |first=S. V. T. |date=2023-03-30 |title=Globala IT-problemen påverkade allsvenskan – Fotboll: Liverapportering: Allsvenskan 2024 |url=https://www.svt.se/sport/fotboll/allt-om-allsvenskan-2024?inlagg=b4841400b66118b15bef49fcb38d157c |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=SVT Sport |language=sv}}</ref> and public transport could not be sold<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nyheter |first=S. V. T. |date=2024-07-19 |title=Störningar i reseplanerare i kollektivtrafiken – problem att köpa biljetter på flera håll |url=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/orebro/problem-att-kopa-bussbiljetter-i-flera-lan |access-date=2024-07-19 |work=SVT Nyheter |language=sv}}</ref> and the [[Malmberget mine]] was evacuated as a precaution.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nyheter |first=S. V. T. |date=2024-07-19 |title=Gruvan i Malmberget utrymd på grund av it-problem |url=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/norrbotten/gruvan-i-malmberget-utrymt-pa-grund-av-it-problem |access-date=2024-07-19 |work=SVT Nyheter |language=sv}}</ref> [[Vodafone]], [[Nova Poshta]], and [[Sense Bank]] in Ukraine experienced outages due to the update.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heathrow hit by outage, baggage handler confirms. |url=https://espreso.tv/suspilstvo-u-roboti-novoi-poshti-stavsya-zbiy-shcho-vidomo |website=[[Espreso TV]] |language=uk}}</ref>

=== North America ===

==== Canada ====
[[Montreal-Trudeau International Airport]] and [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] were affected.<ref name="CBC" /> [[Vancouver International Airport]] was also reportedly affected, although it was unclear whether this was directly related to the global outages.<ref>{{cite web | last=Nassar | first=Hana Mae | title=Microsoft outage disruptions felt globally | website=CityNews Vancouver | date=19 July 2024 | url=https://vancouver.citynews.ca/2024/07/19/microsoft-outage-worldwide/ | access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> The [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] was also impacted.<ref name="CBC">{{cite web | title=Cyber outage disrupts global services, crashes Windows PCs | website=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] | date=19 July 2024 | url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/cyber-outage-disrupts-global-services-crashes-windows-pcs-1.7268863 | access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

==== United States ====
There are outages in [[911 (emergency telephone number)|911]] service or disruptions in 911 call centers' operation in some parts of Alaska,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=Alaska's News Source Digital |date=19 July 2024 |title=Alaska experiencing widespread 911 outage |url=https://www.alaskasnewssource.com/2024/07/19/alaska-experiencing-statewide-911-outage/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=alaskasnewssource.com |language=en}}</ref> Arizona,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boyd |first=Robert Anglen and L. M. |title=911, other Phoenix area emergency systems affected by software outage |url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/phoenix-breaking/2024/07/19/phoenix-area-emergency-response-systems-down/74465872007/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=The Arizona Republic |language=en-US}}</ref> Florida,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=WPTV- |date=19 July 2024 |title=Worldwide Microsoft outage affecting local 911 services |url=https://www.wflx.com/2024/07/19/worldwide-microsoft-outage-affecting-local-911-services/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=wflx.com |language=en}}</ref> Indiana,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Area dispatch centers experience 911 outages |url=https://www.abc57.com/news/area-dispatch-centers-experience-911-outages |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=ABC57 |language=en}}</ref> Kansas,<ref>{{Cite web |title=911 call centers report outages: Here's which counties are affected |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/911-call-centers-report-outages-heres-which-counties-are-affected/ar-BB1qgv46?ocid=BingNewsVerp}}</ref> Michigan,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-19 |title=DTW warns travelers of global outage, University of Michigan says 911 lines experiencing difficulties |url=https://www.fox2detroit.com/news/dtw-warns-travelers-global-outage-university-michigan-says-911-lines-experiencing-difficulties |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=FOX 2 Detroit |language=en-US}}</ref> Minnesota,<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=911 call centers report outages: Here's which counties are affected |url=https://www.kare11.com/article/news/local/911-call-centers-report-outages-heres-which-counties-are-affected/89-7076d8e3-51fb-4fa1-8241-f9681650b4bb |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=kare11.com |language=en-US}}</ref> New York,<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 19, 2024 |title=How the global IT outage is impacting NYC services, transit, local airports |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/travel/news/how-the-global-it-outage-is-impacting-nyc-services-transit-local-airports/ar-BB1qgCVy?ocid=BingNewsVerp}}</ref> Ohio,<ref>{{Cite web |last=WKRC |date=19 July 2024 |title=Middletown police issue 'urgent' alert, confirming outage impacting phones, 911 service |url=https://local12.com/news/local/greater-cincinnati-police-department-division-issue-urgent-alert-confirming-outage-is-impacting-phones-911-service-fire-assistance-phone-out-tech-technical-difficulties-community-impact |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=WKRC |language=en}}</ref> and Pennsylvania.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=Can I still make a 911 call amid global IT outage? How emergency services are still able to respond |url=https://6abc.com/post/how-emergency-services-are-respond-call-amid-global-it-outage/15070726/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=6abc Philadelphia |language=en}}</ref> 911 was down for all of New Hampshire.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brewer |first=Ray |date=19 July 2024 |title=911 system in New Hampshire restored after overnight outage; extent of outage's impacts not known |url=https://www.wmur.com/article/some-911-systems-down-due-to-worldwide-computer-outage/61642712 |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=WMUR |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Carter |first=Tom |title=Emergency services say 911 lines are down in several states as a mass IT outage causes havoc |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/mass-it-outage-911-lines-down-parts-of-us-havoc-2024-7 |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref> In addition, Alaska is experiencing issues with non-emergency call centres.<ref name=":5" />

[[Share (finance)|Shares]] have dropped in both [[Microsoft]] and [[CrowdStrike]] as a result of the outage. CrowdStrike's stock fell nearly 12 percent in premarket trading early Friday.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 July 2024 |title=Microsoft, CrowdStrike Stock Fall After Outage Hits Companies Globally |url=https://www.wsj.com/livecoverage/stock-market-today-dow-sp500-nasdaq-live-07-19-2024/card/mVZUhTlDpQdDsx6NYdKP |url-status=live |access-date=19 July 2024 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |pages=1}}</ref><ref name="auto4"/>

=== Oceania ===

==== Australia ====
[[File:KFC AU App Outage due to July 2024 global cyber outages.jpg|thumb|right|alt=KFC AU App Outage due to July 2024 global cyber outages|The [[KFC]] mobile app was inaccessible due to the outage]]

Australian businesses and government agencies were impacted hugely by the outages, including media companies, airlines, airports, supermarkets, hospitals, universities, law firms, pharmacies, casinos, train networks, petrol stations, stadiums and banks.<ref name=":AusOutage1">{{Cite news |date=19 July 2024 |title=Global IT outage live: Australian banks, flights and media outlets hit by CrowdStrike software issue |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-07-19/global-it-outage-crowdstrike-microsoft-banks-airlines-australia/104119960 |access-date=19 July 2024 |work=ABC News}}</ref><ref name=":AusOutage2">{{Cite news |date=19 July 2024 |title=Major IT outage impacting banks, media, airlines and supermarkets |url=https://www.examiner.com.au/story/8701644/major-australian-institutions-hit-by-widespread-it-outages/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |work=The Examiner}}</ref> Australian media firms affected by the issues include [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]], [[SBS (Australian TV channel)|SBS]], [[Seven Network]] and [[Nine Network]].<ref name=":1"/>

[[ABC News (Australian TV channel)|ABC News 24]] that struggled to play news packages. The crisis then hit [[Woolworths Supermarkets|Woolworths supermarkets]] where checkout systems crashed due to the outage. Several customers also complained that their cards are not working. [[Law enforcement in Australia|Police systems]] also went down.<ref name="auto1"/>

Airlines affected include [[Qantas]], [[Virgin Australia]] and [[Jetstar]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=Businesses crippled by widespread IT outage |url=https://www.afr.com/technology/businesses-crippled-by-widespread-it-outage-20240719-p5jv2t |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=Australian Financial Review |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Banks, media, airlines hit by major IT outage |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cv2g5lvwkl2o |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> A [[Sydney Airport]] spokesperson said that the outage had impacted some airline operations and that the airport may{{Speculation inline|date=July 2024}} experience some delays throughout the evening.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite news |date=19 July 2024 |title=Australians have been hit by a worldwide tech outage. Here's what we know |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-07-19/global-tech-outage-latest/104120106 |access-date=19 July 2024 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU}}</ref> In its news bulletin, [[Nine Network]] reported that the Sydney Airport curfew meant that there wouldn't be enough time to clear the backlog before 11 pm and it may{{Speculation inline|date=July 2024}} take several days to clear the backlog. [[Melbourne Airport]] has also been affected, with website statements underlining the "global technology issue" as impacting check-in procedures, and advising passengers to consult with relative airlines.<ref name=":2" /> [[Canberra Airport]], [[Darwin Airport]], [[Adelaide Airport]], [[Perth Airport]], [[Hobart Airport]], [[Launceston Airport]] and [[Brisbane Airport]] were also affected.<ref name=":AusOutage1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Airlines thrown into chaos as global Microsoft outage hits |url=https://www.escape.com.au/news/airlines-thrown-into-chaos-as-global-microsoft-outage-hits/news-story/981be5728c7290a9cf42b562c654d0cc |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=www.escape.com.au/news/ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Qantas, Jetstar cancel multiple flights at Tasmanian airports due to global IT outage |url=https://pulsetasmania.com.au/news/multiple-flights-cancelled-at-tasmanian-airports-due-to-global-it-outage/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=pulsetasmania.com.au/ |language=en}}</ref>

Retailers and fast food chains are also hit by the outage, causing self-checkout and online order systems out of service.<ref>{{cite web |title=Major global IT outage sends Melbourne into chaos |url=https://www.news.com.au/technology/online/massive-outage-hits-companies-around-the-world/news-story/e02375a976a08b45e72e64040fe14362 |website=news.com.au |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> Fuel stations have also been affected, with people stuck at fuel pumps unable to pay for petrol because payment systems aren't working.<ref name="auto3"/>

Supermarkets affected include [[Woolworths Supermarkets|Woolworths]] and [[Coles Supermarkets|Coles]].<ref name=":AusOutage1" /> Banking apps were down which affected banks such as [[National Australia Bank|NAB]], [[Westpac]], [[ANZ (bank)|ANZ]], [[Commonwealth Bank]], [[Bendigo Bank]] and [[Suncorp]].<ref name=":AusOutage1" /> Freight train operator [[Aurizon]] was affected.<ref name=":AusOutage1" /> Regional trains in [[NSW]] on the [[Hunter Line]] and the [[Southern Highlands Line]] were cancelled or delayed with the [[List of V/Line railway stations|Regional Bus and Train network]] in [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] operated by [[V/Line]] having all lines suspended.<ref name=":AusOutage1" /><ref name=":AusOutage2" /> Systems in some [[Ramsay Health Care]] and [[UnitingCare Health|Uniting Care]] hospitals were affected, including [[Wesley Hospital (Brisbane)|Wesley Hospital]] and [[St Andrew's Hospital, Brisbane|St Andrews Hospital]] in [[Brisbane]].<ref name="auto3"/> [[Sunshine Coast Council]] was one of several councils affected.<ref name=":AusOutage1" /> Ticketing at [[Docklands Stadium]] for Friday night's [[Australian Football League]] match between the [[Essendon Bombers]] and the [[Adelaide Crows]] was affected.<ref name=":AusOutage2" />

Victorians were advised to call [[000 (emergency telephone number)|000]] if a fire alarm sounds or smoke is detected, as some automatic alarms in buildings may not automatically call fire services due to the outage.<ref name=":AusOutage1" />

The [[Australian government]] held a national emergency meeting to address the outage. It was declared that the National Coordination Mechanism had been activated, with [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Anthony Albanese]] saying "I understand Australians are concerned about the outage that is unfolding globally and affecting a wide range of services. My Government is working closely with the [[National Cyber Security Coordinator (Australia)|National Cyber Security Coordinator]]".<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://x.com/AlboMP/status/1814220385715687591|title=x.com}}</ref> He later said "There is no impact to critical infrastructure, government services or [[000 (emergency telephone number)|Triple-0]] services at this stage. The National Coordination Mechanism was activated and is meeting now".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://x.com/AlboMP/status/1814220388920078506|title=x.com}}</ref>

==== New Zealand ====
Businesses operating in New Zealand experiencing issues include [[ANZ (bank)|ANZ]], [[ASB Bank|ASB]], [[Kiwibank]] and [[Westpac]] banks, [[Woolworths (New Zealand supermarket chain)|Woolworths]], and Auckland Transport's [[AT HOP card|HOP card]]. [[Christchurch Airport]] is also having problems,<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |date=19 July 2024 |title=Live: Banks, stores, airport reporting issues amid global IT issues |url=https://www.1news.co.nz/2024/07/19/live-banks-stores-airport-reporting-issues-amid-global-it-issues/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |work=[[1 News]]}}</ref> as well as [[New Zealand Parliament|Parliament]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=Live: IT outages reported worldwide for banks, stores, airports, media |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/business/522606/live-it-outages-reported-worldwide-for-banks-stores-airports-media |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=[[RNZ]] |language=en-nz}}</ref> Customers have also experienced payment issues at [[Foodstuffs (company)|Foodstuffs]] supermarkets.<ref name=":6" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:CrowdStrike incident, 2024}}
[[Category:2024 in computing]]
[[Category:2020s internet outages]]
[[Category:July 2024 events]]
[[Category:Microsoft]]

Climate policy of China

2024-07-12T12:12:57Z

131.111.5.201: /* Emissions contributed by multinationals in China */ Just removed a spare comma, but I think this entire section needs work...the first sentence is written very oddly 'China officials claim that they are doing a great job...' and towards the end a lot of the sentences seem unfinished almost or need further clarification to make sense.

{{Short description|none}}

{{Cleanup rewrite|date=May 2022}}

The '''climate policy of China''' is to peak [[Greenhouse gas emissions by China|its greenhouse gas emissions]] before 2030 and to be [[Net zero emissions|carbon neutral]] before 2060.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prater |first=Hongqiao Liu, Simon Evans, Zizhu Zhang, Wanyuan Song, Xiaoying You, Joe Goodman, Tom |date=2023-11-30 |title=The Carbon Brief Profile: China |url=https://interactive.carbonbrief.org/ |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}}</ref> Due to the large buildout of [[solar power in China]] and burning of [[coal in China]] the [[energy policy of China]] is closely related to its climate policy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tsang |first=Lauri Myllyvirta, Byford |date=2024-01-22 |title=China Pledged to 'Strictly Control' Coal. The Opposite Happened. |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/11/12/china-coal-climate-change-carbon-emissions-pledge-plants-apec/ |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US}}</ref> There is also policy to [[Climate change adaptation|adapt to climate change]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=24: Adaptation |url=https://chineseclimatepolicy.oxfordenergy.org/book-content/domestic-policies/adaptation/ |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=Guide to Chinese Climate Policy |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[Ding Xuexiang]] represented China at the [[2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] in 2023, and may be influential in setting climate policy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-20 |title=Do Vice-Premier Ding Xuexiang's COP28 talks signal new climate role? |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3217674/chinese-vice-premiers-meeting-cop28-president-reveals-beijings-climate-leadership-and-intent |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref>

There is a debate surrounding China's economic responsibilities in terms of [[climate change mitigation]] and efforts to mitigate [[climate change in China|climate change within China]]. In 2006, China surpassed [[Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States|the United States]] as [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions|the country with the highest total carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions rate]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mnp.nl/en/service/pressreleases/2007/20070619Chinanowno1inCO2emissionsUSAinsecondposition.html |title=China now no. 1 in CO2 emissions; USA in second position |publisher=[[Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency]] |date=2010-08-31 |access-date=2010-12-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003082240/http://www.mnp.nl/en/service/pressreleases/2007/20070619Chinanowno1inCO2emissionsUSAinsecondposition.html |archive-date=October 3, 2008 }}</ref>

== Actors and institutions ==
[[File:Total CO2 by Region.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Since 2000, rising {{CO2}} emissions in China and the rest of world have eclipsed the output of the United States and Europe.<ref name="Friedlingstein 2019">{{harvnb|Friedlingstein|Jones|O'Sullivan|Andrew|2019}}, Table 7.</ref>]]
[[File:Per Capita CO2 by Region.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Per person, the United States generates carbon dioxide at a far faster rate than other primary regions.<ref name="Friedlingstein 2019"/>]]

In 2018, China established the [[Ministry of Ecology and Environment]] (MEE).<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Joanna I. |title=Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector |date=2023 |publisher=The [[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-54482-5 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>{{Rp|page=95}} A number of [[Environmental policy in China|environmental policy]] functions were merged from other ministries into the MEE, including MEP functions, climate policy previously under the NDRC, and a number of environmental policy functions previously under the [[Ministry of Water Resources of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Water Resources]] and the [[State Oceanic Administration]].<ref name=":322" />{{Rp|page=95}} Pollutant and carbon emissions trading programs were also placed within the MEE's jurisdiction.<ref name=":922">{{Cite book |last=Ding |first=Iza |title=Greening East Asia: The Rise of the Eco-Developmental State |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-74791-0 |editor-last=Esarey |editor-first=Ashley |location=Seattle |chapter=Pollution Emissions Trading in China |jstor=j.ctv19rs1b2 |editor-last2=Haddad |editor-first2=Mary Alice |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Joanna I. |editor-last4=Harrell |editor-first4=Stevan}}</ref>{{Rp|page=78}} In 2021, [[Ministry of Ecology and Environment]] published a White Paper on "Responding to Climate Change: China's Policies and Actions".<ref>{{cite web |date=2021-10-27 |title=Full Text: Responding to Climate Change: China's Policies and Actions |url=http://www.news.cn/english/2021-10/27/c_1310272455.htm |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=Xinhua News |language=la}}</ref>

Beginning with a joint statement on the Kyoto Protocol in Bali in December 2007, Chinese non-governmental organizations (NGOs), in cooperation with international NGOs, assumed a more prominent role in efforts to mitigate climate change within China. NGO activity in China is restricted by government controls.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schröder |first=Miriam |author2=Melanie Müller |year=2009 |title=Chinese paths to climate protection |url=http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/084418/index.en.shtml |url-status=dead |journal=Development and Cooperation |location=[[Frankfurt am Main]] |publisher=Societäts-Verlag |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=28–30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218153155/http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/084418/index.en.shtml |archive-date=2010-12-18}}</ref>

The Institute of Public and Environmental Affairs is attempting to persuade large GHG emitters, such as steelmakers in Hubei, to publish their emission figures.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lushan |first=Huang |date=2023-01-04 |title=From smog to carbon: Chinese NGOs in transition |url=https://chinadialogue.net/en/climate/from-smog-to-carbon-chinese-ngos-in-transition/ |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=China Dialogue |language=en}}</ref>

== Greenhouse gas emissions ==
{{Excerpt|Greenhouse gas emissions by China}}Its commitment to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions has been a major force in decreasing the global cost of wind and solar power, in turn helping the use of renewable energy to rise globally.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |title=Greening East Asia: The Rise of the Eco-Developmental State |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-74791-0 |editor-last=Esarey |editor-first=Ashley |location=Seattle |jstor=j.ctv19rs1b2 |editor-last2=Haddad |editor-first2=Mary Alice |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Joanna I. |editor-last4=Harrell |editor-first4=Stevan}}</ref>{{Rp|page=8}}

== The toll on GDP ==
A federal [[financial audit]]ing project—the '[[Green GDP]]' -- has focused on the economic losses incurred by pollution. The project began in 2004 to incorporate the externalities of previously unaccounted-for environmental costs, but soon produced results that were much worse than anticipated. The program stopped in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kahn |first1=Joseph |last2=Yardley |first2=Jim |title=As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html |access-date=4 January 2024 |work=The New York Times |date=26 August 2007}}</ref>

== Emissions trading ==
{{excerpt|Chinese national carbon trading scheme}}

== The large scale of current mitigation ==
[[File:Tieshan-solar-water-heaters-0101.jpg|thumb|New apartment buildings in [[Hubei]] are commonly equipped with [[solar water heater]]s]]
As of 2008, China's per capita emissions of {{CO2}} were still one-quarter of that of the US.<ref name="sciencemag1">{{cite journal|url= http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/319/5864/730|title= SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: Climate Change-the Chinese Challenge|journal= [[Science (journal)|Science]]|access-date= 2010-12-11|doi= 10.1126/science.1153368|pmid= 18258882|volume= 319|issue= 5864|pages= 730–731|year= 2008|last1= Zeng|first1= N.|last2= Ding|first2= Y.|last3= Pan|first3= J.|last4= Wang|first4= H.|last5= Gregg|first5= J.|s2cid= 206510567|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090310031310/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/319/5864/730|archive-date= 2009-03-10|url-status= live}}</ref> Though China continues to build emissions-intensive [[coal-fired power plants]], its "rate of development of [[renewable energy]] is even faster".<ref name="news.aol.com">{{Cite web |url=http://news.aol.com/story/_a/chinas-climate-change-challenge-is-also/n20080208133709990095 |title=China's Climate Change Challenge Is Also the World's |access-date=2008-03-18 |archive-date=2020-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314161446/https://www.aol.com/news/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

There is great interest in [[solar power in China]]. The world's market share of China's [[photovoltaic]] units manufacturers grew from approximately 1% in 2003 to 18% in 2007,<ref>{{cite web
|author=Dorn, Jonathan G.
|title=Solar Cell Production Jumps 50 Percent in 2007
|publisher=[[Earth Policy Institute]]
|url=http://www.earth-policy.org/Indicators/Solar/2007.htm
|access-date=2008-05-30
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529063653/http://www.earth-policy.org/Indicators/Solar/2007.htm
|archive-date=2008-05-29
}}</ref> with one of the largest Chinese manufacturers of these devices being the Chinese solar company [[Suntech]].<ref name="China special: The solar power king">{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg19626291.500 |title=China special: The solar power king |publisher=[[New Scientist]].com |date=2007-11-07 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005083659/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg19626291.500 |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the overwhelming majority of the photovoltaic units are exported, plans are under to increase the installed capacity to at least 1,800 MW by 2020.<ref name=reu20090505>{{cite news
|
url=https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idAFPEK12384620090505
|
title=China solar set to be 5 times 2020 target
|
work=[[Reuters]]
|
date=May 5, 2009
|
access-date=June 30, 2017
|
archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508113944/http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idAFPEK12384620090505
|
archive-date=May 8, 2009
|
url-status=live
}}</ref> Some officials expect the plans to be significantly over-fulfilled, with the installed capacity reaching possibly as much as 10,000 megawatts by 2020.<ref name=reu20090505/>

Due to the growing demand for photovoltaic electricity, more companies (Aleo Solar, Global Solar, Anwell,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.solarbuzz.com/News/NewsASMA255.htm |title= Anwell Produces its First Thin Film Solar Panel |publisher=Solarbuzz |date=2009-09-07 }}</ref> CMC Magnetics, etc.) have entered into the photovoltaic market, which is expected to lower the cost of PV cells.

[[Solar water heating]] is already used extensively throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web |last=Biello |first=David |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=chinas-big-push-for-renewable-energy |title=China's Big Push for Renewable Energy |publisher=[[SciAm]] |date=2008-08-04 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427192532/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/chinas-big-push-for-renewable-energy/ |archive-date=2020-04-27 |url-status=live }}</ref>

China also has embarked upon a 9 million acre (36,000 km2) reforestation project—the [[Green Wall of China]]—that may become the largest ecological project in history; it is projected to be finished by 2050 at a cost of up to US$8 billion.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ratliff |first1=Evan |title=The Green Wall Of China |url=https://www.wired.com/2003/04/greenwall/ |access-date=4 January 2024 |magazine=Wired}}</ref>

== Keeping emissions growth at less than GDP growth ==
Considering that energy consumption in most developed countries has usually grown faster than GDP during the early stages of [[industrialization]], it is to China's credit that while its GDP has grown by 9.5% per year over the last 27 years, its {{CO2}} emissions have increased by only about 5.4% per year,<ref name="news.aol.com"/><ref name="sciencemag1"/> meaning that its [[carbon intensity]] (its carbon emissions per unit of GDP) has decreased during that time, though it remains among the highest of any of the developed or developing nations.

== Emissions contributed by multinationals in China ==
Chinese officials claim that they are doing a great deal that is often not visible, especially for a country as large, populous, and (rurally) undeveloped as it is. But working against that, and equally non-visible, is the role of multinational ventures in China in contributing to its emissions. It has been estimated that as of 2004, almost a quarter (23%) of China's {{CO2}} emissions were coming from Chinese-made products destined for the West, providing an interesting perspective on China's large [[trade surplus]]. Another study shown that around 1/3 emissions from China in 2005 are due to exports.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=5467388 |title=33% of China's Carbon Footprint Blamed on Exports |publisher=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] Abcnews.go.com |date=2008-07-29 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522035713/https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=5467388 |archive-date=2011-05-22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Over half of those emissions driven by demand from the West are from transnationals taking advantage of China's developmental policies favouring heavy manufacturing over regions with more developed environmental laws and enforcement. This includes many of the [[Walmart]]-suppliers and other foreign-owned factories that stock department store shelves, particularly in the US.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jim WatsonWang Tao |url=http://www.chinadialogue.net/homepage/show/single/en/1592-Is-the-west-to-blame-for-China-s-emissions- |title=Is the west to blame for China's emissions? |publisher=[[Chinadialogue.net]] |date=2007-12-20 |access-date=2010-12-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012110343/http://www.chinadialogue.net/homepage/show/single/en/1592-Is-the-west-to-blame-for-China-s-emissions- |archive-date=2008-10-12 }}</ref>

China has buttressed its call for joint international responsibility for at least part of China's emissions, by making public, in Jan 2008, Multinationals committed 130 violations of Chinese environmental law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zhb.gov.cn/xcjy/zwhb/200801/t20080109_116064.htm |title=Environmental Protection Agency announced the 130 multinational corporations environmental |publisher=www.zhb.gov.cn |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821223848/http://www.zhb.gov.cn/xcjy/zwhb/200801/t20080109_116064.htm |archive-date=2008-08-21 }}</ref>[[File:Yangzhou-WenchangGe-traffic-3417.jpg|thumb|Unlike their counterparts in many other countries, many Chinese commuters opt for [[electric bicycles]] and [[electric scooters]], rather than vehicles with internal combustion engines]]

== International collaboration ==
{{Expand section|date=January 2024}}
In the early 21st century [[John Kerry]] from the US and Xie were very important climate envoys.<ref>{{Cite news |author-link=Fiona Harvey|date=2024-01-21 |title=Goodbye Mr Kerry, farewell Mr Xie: end of an era in global climate politics |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/jan/21/goodbye-mr-kerry-farewell-mr-xie-end-of-an-era-in-global-climate-politics |access-date=2024-01-22 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In 2023 the US made an agreement.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Milman |first=Oliver |date=2023-11-15 |title=US and China's joint climate plan leaves key questions unanswered |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/nov/15/us-china-climate-plan-analysis |access-date=2024-01-18 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

== Debates ==

=== Opposition from provincial and local officials ===
However, officials in [[Beijing]] cite violations by China's own companies as well—in this case, to illustrate the enormity of the task in front of them in getting compliance for environmental regulations which they see as very progressive. Regional and local officials have been taken to task for this.

For example, in 2006, Premier [[Wen Jiabao]] issued a warning to local officials to shut down some of the plants in the most energy-intensive industries, designating at least six industries for slow-down. The following year, those same industries posted a 20.6% ''increase'' in output.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Toxic cost of China' success |url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/article75083.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108010100/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/article75083.ece |archive-date=2015-01-08 |access-date=2015-01-07 |website=[[The Sunday Times]]}}</ref> In 2006 as well, the federal government began banning logging in some locations in order to expand its protection of forests, and at the same time restricted the size of cities and golf courses in order to increase land use efficiency. Yet many of the local officials responsible for carrying out the new regulations essentially ignored them.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Another reason for lack of compliance is apparently because local governments now have a chunk of funding for which they are not beholden to the central government, and are motivated to protect those funding sources which pollute, but pollute profitably.<ref name="China special: The solar power king" />

As a result, SEPA's attempt to use local banks as a means of discouraging companies from [[emission intensity|carbon-intensive]] practices has followed a troubled path. Many local governments that have officially implemented the 'Green Credit' policy of loaning only to companies with green practices continue also to protect polluting firms that are profitable, and the banks in some provinces have yet to apply the policy at all.<ref>{{cite web |date=2008-02-13 |title=China green credit 'meets resistance' |url=http://www.chinadialogue.net/blog/show/single/en/1706-China-green-credit-meets-resistance- |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718135353/http://www.chinadialogue.net/blog/show/single/en/1706-China-green-credit-meets-resistance- |archive-date=2011-07-18 |access-date=2010-12-11 |publisher=Chinadialogue.net}}</ref>

=== Economic growth ===
China's leadership worries that China would end up suffering a slowdown in economic growth that would result in "massive unemployment and social unrest".<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/simp/hi/newsid_7140000/newsid_7145600/7145698v.stm China "does not accept" caps on greenhouse gas emissions] {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Griffiths |first=Daniel |date=2007-05-07 |title=China's mixed messages on climate |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6632399.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114014146/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6632399.stm |archive-date=2012-11-14 |access-date=2010-12-11 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>
To the Chinese{{Vague|date=January 2024}}, it appears ironic at best that China is being criticized for following the practice of 'pollute first, clean up later' that the Western nations themselves followed during their early stages of [[capital accumulation]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Jiang Gaoming |author-link=Jiang Gaoming |date=2007-01-12 |title=The terrible cost of China's growth (part one) |url=http://www.chinadialogue.net/homepage/show/single/en/684-The-terrible-cost-of-China-s-growth-part-one- |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080329062924/http://www.chinadialogue.net/homepage/show/single/en/684-The-terrible-cost-of-China-s-growth-part-one- |archive-date=2008-03-29 |access-date=2010-12-11 |publisher=[[Chinadialogue.net]]}}</ref>

=== Global Responsibility and Historical Emissions ===
Chinese officials argue that China has been contributing to global warming for only 30 years, while the developed countries have been doing so for 200 years. And since pollution-flagrant early stages of industrialization may have contributed to what China sees as a lack of balance of power, particularly between the US and China,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1350745.stm |title=Chinese concern over US dominance |work=BBC News |date=2001-05-25 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114014018/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1350745.stm |archive-date=2012-11-14 |url-status=live }}</ref> many Chinese officials see global warming mitigation as creating an economic burden that slows its economy and further exacerbates the unequal [[Balance of power in international relations|balance of power]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6964892.stm |title=Merkel presses China on climate |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2007-08-27 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507075202/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6964892.stm |archive-date=2009-05-07 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Chinese officials point out that the highest ''per capita'' emissions have long been and still are in the [[Developed country|developed countries]], not in China.<ref>{{cite news |last=Blanchard |first=Ben |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSPEK35318820070801?pageNumber=1&sp=true |title=China blames climate change for extreme weather |publisher=[[Reuters]] |date=2007-08-01 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428044707/http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSPEK35318820070801?pageNumber=1&sp=true |archive-date=2009-04-28 |url-status=live }}</ref> They implied that it is the developed nations who should shoulder a comparable portion of the global cost for reversing the world's emissions, consistent with the [[polluter pays principle]].<ref>García-Portela, Laura. “[https://philpapers.org/archive/GARMRF-2.pdf Moral Responsibility for Climate Change Loss and Damage: A Response to the Excusable Ignorance Objection]”, ''[[International Journal of Philosophy]]'', Vol. 1 (39), pp. 7-24 (2020).</ref>

China's climate envoy [[Xie Zhenhua (politician)|Xie Zhenhua]] has emphasized China's stance that rich countries have a greater responsibility regarding climate change than China, though China has been the world's largest carbon emitter since 2006.<ref name=Quartz>Li, Jane. [https://finance.yahoo.com/news/china-xie-zhenhua-most-important-090039807.html “China’s Xie Zhenhua is the most important person attending COP26”], [[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] (27 Oct 2021) via [[Yahoo Finance]].</ref> His speech at the 2010 climate conference in South Africa conveyed this Chinese position:<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Waarlo|first=Niels|date=2021-11-04|title=Westerse landen moeten in de spiegel kijken, vindt de man achter China's klimaatambities|url=https://www.volkskrant.nl/gs-b4f2dec8|access-date=2021-11-05|website=de Volkskrant|language=nl-NL}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Li|first=Jane|title=China's Xie Zhenhua is the most important person attending COP26|url=https://qz.com/2077072/meet-xie-zhenhua-chinas-top-climate-diplomat-at-cop26/|access-date=2021-11-05|website=Quartz|date=27 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=We are developing countries. We need to develop and eradicate poverty while protecting the environment. We’ve done what we should do, but you [developed countries] haven’t. What right do you have to lecture us?}}

== History ==
The provision by which China signed the [[Kyoto Protocol]] without committing to a cap was the same provision given to all [[developing nation]] signers.<ref name="sciencemag1"/>

The Climate Change Special Plan which is part of China's [[Fourteenth five-year plan|Fourteenth Five-Year Plan]] emphasizes ecologically oriented urban planning, including through means like [[Urban green space|urban green rings]], public transportation, and bicycle lanes and walking paths.<ref name=":Curtis&Klaus">{{Cite book |last1=Curtis |first1=Simon |title=The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order |last2=Klaus |first2=Ian |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=9780300266900 |location=New Haven and London |publication-date=2024 |doi=10.2307/jj.11589102 |jstor=jj.11589102}}</ref>{{Rp|page=114}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Renewable Energy|Global warming|Politics}}
{{wikinews|Nobel prize winner Al Gore urges US and China to do more about global warming}}
* [[Attribution of recent climate change]]
* [[Belt and Road Initiative International Green Development Coalition]]
* [[Climate change in China]]
* [[Dongtan, Shanghai|Dongtan]], a Chinese [[Eco-cities|eco-city]]
* [[Energy policy of China]]
* [[Green growth#National green growth efforts|Green growth in China]]
* [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite journal |last1=Friedlingstein |first1=Pierre |last2=Jones |first2=Matthew W. |last3=O'Sullivan |first3=Michael |last4=Andrew |first4=Robbie M. |display-authors=4 |last5=Hauck|first5=Judith |last6=Peters|first6=Glen P. |last7=Peters|first7=Wouter |last8=Pongratz|first8=Julia |last9=Sitch|first9=Stephen |last10=Quéré|first10=Corinne Le |last11=Bakker|first11=Dorothee C. E. |date=2019 |title=Global Carbon Budget 2019 |journal=Earth System Science Data |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=1783–1838 |doi=10.5194/essd-11-1783-2019 |bibcode=2019ESSD...11.1783F |issn=1866-3508 |doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11850/385668 |hdl-access=free }}

== External links ==
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/16/business/energy-environment/16green.html China Takes a New Interest in Energy Efficiency] by Keith Bradsher of ''[[The New York Times]]'' June 15, 2011
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/15/business/energy-environment/15iht-sreCHINA15.html A Green Solution, or the Dark Side to Cleaner Coal?] by Keith Bradsher of ''The New York Times'' June 14, 2011
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110521095810/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/06/green-china/mckibben-text Can China Go Green? No other country is investing so heavily in clean energy. But no other country burns as much coal to fuel its economy], [[Bill McKibben]] June 2011 [[National Geographic (magazine)]]
* [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/04/china-green-growth-boom-industry China plots course for green growth amid a boom built on dirty industry; National economic blueprint set to tackle pollution and waste, and invest in renewable energy] 4.February.2011
* [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203710704577053683586609816 China Pushes Clean-Energy Agenda Ahead of Summit] November 22, 2011

{{China topics|state=autocollapse}}
{{Asia topic|Environment of}}
{{climate change}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Debate Over China's Economic Responsibilities For Climate Change Mitigation}}
[[Category:Climate change in China]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Environmental issues in China]]
[[Category:Climate change assessment and attribution]]
[[Category:Controversies in China]]
[[Category:Climate change controversies]]

Sheet resistance

2024-06-26T08:45:05Z

131.111.5.201: incorrect comma removed

{{Short description|Electrical resistance of a thin film}}
{{more footnotes|date=September 2013}}
[[File:Carbon-film Resistor Construction.svg|thumb|Resistor based on the sheet resistance of carbon film]]
'''Sheet resistance''' is the resistance of a square piece of a thin material with contacts made to two opposite sides of the square.<ref>{{Citation |last=Dobkin |first=Daniel M. |title=Chapter 5 - UHF RFID Tags |date=2013-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123945839000053 |work=The RF in RFID (Second Edition) |pages=189–237 |editor-last=Dobkin |editor-first=Daniel M. |publisher=Newnes |language=en |isbn=978-0-12-394583-9 |access-date=2023-02-23}}</ref> It is usually a measurement of [[electrical resistance]] of thin films that are uniform in thickness. It is commonly used to characterize materials made by semiconductor doping, metal deposition, resistive paste printing, and [[Insulated glazing|glass coating]]. Examples of these processes are: [[Doping (semiconductors)|doped]] [[semiconductor]] regions (e.g., [[silicon]] or [[polysilicon]]), and the resistors that are screen printed onto the substrates of [[Hybrid integrated circuit|thick-film hybrid microcircuits]].

The utility of sheet resistance as opposed to [[Electrical resistance|resistance]] or [[resistivity]] is that it is directly measured using a [[four-terminal sensing]] measurement (also known as a four-point probe measurement) or indirectly by using a non-contact eddy-current-based testing device. Sheet resistance is invariable under scaling of the film contact and therefore can be used to compare the electrical properties of devices that are significantly different in size.

==Calculations==
[[File:sheet resistance.svg|thumb|right|300px|Geometry for defining resistivity (left) and sheet resistance (right). In both cases, the current is parallel to the ''L'' direction.]]

Sheet resistance is applicable to two-dimensional systems in which thin films are considered two-dimensional entities. When the term sheet resistance is used, it is implied that the current is along the plane of the sheet, not perpendicular to it.

In a regular three-dimensional conductor, the [[electrical resistance|resistance]] can be written as
<math display="block">R = \rho \frac{L}{A} = \rho \frac{L}{W t},</math>
where

* <math>\rho</math> is material [[resistivity]],
* <math>L</math> is the length,
* <math>A</math> is the cross-sectional area, which can be split into:
** width <math>W</math>,
** thickness <math>t</math>.

Upon combining the resistivity with the thickness, the resistance can then be written as
<math display="block">R = \frac{\rho}{t} \frac{L}{W} = R_\text{s} \frac{L}{W},</math>
where <math>R_\text{s}</math> is the sheet resistance. If the film thickness is known, the bulk resistivity <math>\rho</math> (in [[ohm|Ω]]·m) can be calculated by multiplying the sheet resistance by the film thickness in m:
<math display="block">\rho = R_s \cdot t.</math>
===Units===

Sheet resistance is a special case of resistivity for a uniform sheet thickness. Commonly, resistivity (also known as bulk resistivity, specific electrical resistivity, or volume resistivity) is in units of Ω·m, which is more completely stated in units of Ω·m2/m (Ω·area/length). When divided by the sheet thickness (m), the units are Ω·m·(m/m)/m = Ω. The term "(m/m)" cancels, but represents a special "square" situation yielding an answer in [[ohm]]s. An alternative, common unit is "ohms square" (denoted "<math>\Omega\Box</math>") or "ohms per square" (denoted "Ω/sq" or "<math>\Omega/\Box</math>"), which is dimensionally equal to an ohm, but is exclusively used for sheet resistance. This is an advantage, because sheet resistance of 1 Ω could be taken out of context and misinterpreted as bulk resistance of 1 ohm, whereas sheet resistance of 1 Ω/sq cannot thus be misinterpreted.

The reason for the name "ohms per square" is that a square sheet with sheet resistance 10 ohm/square has an actual resistance of 10 ohm, regardless of the size of the square. (For a square, <math>L = W</math>, so <math>R_\text{s} = R</math>.) The unit can be thought of as, loosely, "ohms · [[aspect ratio]]". Example: A 3-unit long by 1-unit wide (aspect ratio = 3) sheet made of material having a sheet resistance of 21 Ω/sq would measure 63 Ω (since it is composed of three 1-unit by 1-unit squares), if the 1-unit edges were attached to an ohmmeter that made contact entirely over each edge.

===For semiconductors===

For semiconductors doped through diffusion or surface peaked ion implantation we define the sheet resistance using the average resistivity <math>\overline{\rho} = 1 / \overline{\sigma}</math> of the material:

<math display="block">R_\text{s} = \overline{\rho} / x_\text{j} = (\overline{\sigma} x_\text{j})^{-1} = \frac{1}{ \int_0^{x_\text{j}} \sigma(x) \,dx },</math>
which in materials with majority-carrier properties can be approximated by (neglecting intrinsic charge carriers):

<math display="block">R_\text{s} = \frac{1}{\int_0^{x_\text{j}} \mu q N(x) \,dx},</math>
where <math>x_\text{j}</math> is the junction depth, <math>\mu</math> is the majority-carrier mobility, <math>q</math> is the carrier charge, and <math>N(x)</math> is the net impurity concentration in terms of depth. Knowing the background carrier concentration <math>N_\text{B}</math> and the surface impurity concentration, the ''sheet resistance-junction depth'' product <math>R_\text{s} x_\text{j}</math> can be found using Irvin's curves, which are numerical solutions to the above equation.

==Measurement==
A [[Four-terminal sensing|four-point probe]] is used to avoid contact resistance, which can often have the same magnitude as the sheet resistance. Typically a constant [[Electric current|current]] is applied to two probes, and the potential on the other two probes is measured with a high-impedance [[voltmeter]]. A geometry factor needs to be applied according to the shape of the four-point array. Two common arrays are square and in-line. For more details see [[Van der Pauw method]].

Measurement may also be made by applying high-conductivity bus bars to opposite edges of a square (or rectangular) sample. Resistance across a square area will be measured in Ω/sq. For a rectangle an appropriate geometric factor is added. Bus bars must make [[ohmic contact]].

Inductive measurement is used as well. This method measures the shielding effect created by [[eddy currents]]. In one version of this technique a conductive sheet under test is placed between two coils. This non-contact sheet resistance measurement method also allows to characterize encapsulated thin-films or films with rough surfaces.<ref name="Sheet Resistance Measurement">[http://www.sheet-resistance-measurement.com/ Overview on non-contact eddy current sheet resistance measurement techniques and benefits], retrieved 22 November 2013.</ref>

A very crude two-point probe method is to measure resistance with the probes close together and the resistance with the probes far apart. The difference between these two resistances will be of the order of magnitude of the sheet resistance.

==Typical applications==
Sheet resistance measurements are very common to characterize the uniformity of conductive or semiconductive coatings and materials, e.g. for quality assurance. Typical applications include the inline process control of metal, TCO, conductive nanomaterials or other coatings on architectural glass, wafers, flat panel displays, polymer foils, OLED, ceramics, etc.
The contacting four-point probe is often applied for single-point measurements of hard or coarse materials. Non-contact eddy current systems are applied for sensitive or encapsulated coatings, for inline measurements and for high-resolution mapping.

==See also==
* [[ESD materials]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* [https://www.academia.edu/29112469/Electrical_Conductivity_and_Resistivity Measuring Sheet Resistance]

===General references===
* {{cite book
| last = Van Zant
| first = Peter
| year = 2000
| title = Microchip Fabrication
| pages = [https://archive.org/details/microchipfabrica00pete/page/431 431–2]
| publisher = McGraw-Hill
| location = New York
| isbn = 0-07-135636-3
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/microchipfabrica00pete/page/431
}}

* {{cite book
| last = Jaeger
| first = Richard C.
| year = 2002
| title = Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication
| url = https://archive.org/details/introductiontomi00jaeg
| url-access = limited
| edition= 2nd
| pages = [https://archive.org/details/introductiontomi00jaeg/page/n94 81]–88
| publisher = Prentice Hall
| location = New Jersey
| isbn = 0-201-44494-1
}}

* {{cite book
| last = Schroder
| first = Dieter K.
| year = 1998
| title = Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization
| url = https://archive.org/details/semiconductormat00schr
| url-access = limited
| pages = [https://archive.org/details/semiconductormat00schr/page/n22 1]–55
| publisher = J Wiley & Sons
| location = New York
| isbn = 0-471-24139-3
}}

* [https://www.academia.edu/29112469/Electrical_Conductivity_and_Resistivity Measuring Sheet Resistance]

[[Category:Semiconductors]]
[[Category:Electrical resistance and conductance]]

Claire Coutinho

2024-06-23T07:28:13Z

131.111.5.201:

{{short description|British politician (born 1985)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{2024 UK Commons}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix = [[The Right Honourable]]
| name = Claire Coutinho
| honorific-suffix = {{Post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|}}
| image = Official portrait of Claire Coutinho MP crop 2.jpg
| caption = Official portrait, 2019
| office1 = [[Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero]]
| primeminister1 = [[Rishi Sunak]]
| term_start1 = 31 August 2023
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Grant Shapps]]
| successor1 =
| office2 = [[Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Children, Families and Wellbeing]]
| primeminister2 = [[Rishi Sunak]]
| termstart2 = 28 October 2022
| termend2 = 31 August 2023
| predecessor2 = [[Kelly Tolhurst]]
| successor2 = [[David Johnston (British politician)|David Johnston]]
| office3 = [[Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Disabled People, Health and Work]]
| primeminister3 = [[Liz Truss]]
| termstart3 = 21 September 2022
| termend3 = 28 October 2022
| predecessor3 = [[Chloe Smith]]
| successor3 = [[Tom Pursglove]]
| office4 = [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] for [[East Surrey]]
| term_start4 = 12 December 2019
| term_end4 = 30 May 2024
| predecessor4 = [[Sam Gyimah]]
| majority4 = 24,040 (40.3%)
| birth_name = Claire Coryl Julia Coutinho
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1985|07|08}}
| birth_place = [[London]], England
| party = [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
| alma_mater = [[Exeter College, Oxford]]
| website = {{URL|https://www.clairecoutinho.com/}}
}}

'''Claire Coryl Julia Coutinho''' (born 8 July 1985) is a British politician and former investment banker who has served as [[Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero]] since August 2023. A member of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], Coutinho has been the [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP) for [[East Surrey]] since [[2019 United Kingdom general election|2019]]. She has been described as a close ally of Prime Minister [[Rishi Sunak]], and as an ardent supporter of [[Brexit]].

After graduating in mathematics and philosophy from [[Exeter College, Oxford]], Coutinho worked as an associate at the investment bank [[Merrill Lynch]] for nearly four years, and co-founded, with food writer Mina Holland, a literary-themed events company called The Novel Diner. She also worked the centre-right think tank [[Centre for Social Justice]] and at the industry group [[Housing and Finance Institute]] created by [[Natalie Elphicke]], and for accounting firm [[KPMG]] as a corporate responsibility manager. She left KPMG to become a [[Special adviser (UK)|special adviser]] at [[HM Treasury]]; initially working for [[Julian Smith (politician)|Julian Smith]], she then became an aide to [[Rishi Sunak]].

Prior to her current role, she served as [[Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Disabled People]] from September to October 2022 and [[Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Children, Families and Wellbeing]] from October 2022 to August 2023.

==Early life and education==
Claire Coutinho was born on 8 July 1985 in [[London]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hansard.parliament.uk/commons/2019-12-18/debates/2E37F0BD-4DF0-40A6-B9F9-0607212DBFB1/MembersSworn|title=Members Sworn|publisher=UK Parliament|date=18 December 2019|access-date=28 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219003923/https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2019-12-18/debates/2E37F0BD-4DF0-40A6-B9F9-0607212DBFB1/MembersSworn|archive-date=19 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Brunskill|first=Ian|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1129682574|title=The Times Guide to the House of Commons 2019: the definitive record of Britain's historic 2019 General Election|date=19 March 2020|isbn=978-0-00-839258-1|pages=350|access-date=23 June 2021|archive-date=29 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929051457/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1129682574|url-status=live}}</ref> Her parents emigrated from India in the late 1970s and are of [[Goan Christian]] descent. Her late father Winston was an [[anaesthetist]], and her mother Maria is a [[general practitioner]].<ref name=TOI>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/after-uk-polls-pune-family-gets-its-first-mp-from-east-surrey/articleshow/72647336.cms|title=After UK polls, Pune family gets its first MP from East Surrey|date=15 December 2019|access-date=5 February 2020|last=Pandit|first=Shiladitya|work=The Times of India|archive-date=1 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901003552/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/after-uk-polls-pune-family-gets-its-first-mp-from-east-surrey/articleshow/72647336.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="CUNLIFFE">{{cite magazine |last=Cuniffe |first=Rachel |title=The quiet ruthlessness of Claire Coutinho |magazine=The New Statesman |date=20 November 2023 |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/conservatives/2023/11/the-quiet-ruthlessness-of-claire-coutinho |access-date=22 April 2024 |archive-date=17 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117023629/https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/conservatives/2023/11/the-quiet-ruthlessness-of-claire-coutinho |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gmc-uk.org/doctors/3034792|title=Winston Basil Aquino Coutinho|publisher=General Medical Council|access-date=5 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205121714/https://www.gmc-uk.org/doctors/3034792|archive-date=5 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Coutinho attended [[James Allen's Girls' School]], a [[Private schools in the United Kingdom|private day school]] in [[Dulwich]],<ref name=PH>{{cite web|url=https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/political-parties/conservative-party/house/house-magazine/108577/class-2019-meet-new-mps|title=Class of 2019: Meet the new MPs|last=Bond|first=Daniel|date=16 December 2019|access-date=5 February 2020|publisher=Politics Home|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217174745/https://www.politicshome.com/news/uk/political-parties/conservative-party/house/house-magazine/108577/class-2019-meet-new-mps|archive-date=17 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> before studying for an BA/[[Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin)|MA]] in mathematics and philosophy at [[Exeter College, Oxford]].<ref name=PH/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.exeter.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Exeter_Excelling_Campaign_celebration_brochure.pdf|title=Exeter Excelling|page=11|publisher=Exeter College, Oxford|access-date=5 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013060319/http://www.exeter.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Exeter_Excelling_Campaign_celebration_brochure.pdf|archive-date=13 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Career ==
After graduating, Coutinho worked as an associate at the investment bank [[Merrill Lynch]] for nearly four years.<ref name="PH" /><ref name="Spec">{{cite news|url=https://blogs.spectator.co.uk/2019/12/ones-to-watch-the-most-promising-new-mps-of-2019/|work=The Spectator|title=Ones to watch: The most promising new MPs of 2019|date=18 December 2019|last=Carter|first=Gus|access-date=5 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109103347/https://blogs.spectator.co.uk/2019/12/ones-to-watch-the-most-promising-new-mps-of-2019/|archive-date=9 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012, Coutinho and food writer Mina Holland founded a literary-themed events company called The Novel Diner.<ref name="BBC23"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theupcoming.co.uk/2013/03/20/restaurant-review-the-novel-diner-does-the-bell-jar/|title=The Novel Diner does The Bell Jar|publisher=The Upcoming|date=20 March 2013|access-date=5 February 2020|last=Audley|first=Alice|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205121659/https://www.theupcoming.co.uk/2013/03/20/restaurant-review-the-novel-diner-does-the-bell-jar/|archive-date=5 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.litro.co.uk/2012/11/the-novel-diner-charlie-and-the-chocolate-factory/?print=print|title=Save 7 December for the Novel Diner's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory-themed Supperclub|publisher=Litro|access-date=5 February 2020|archive-date=27 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327172408/https://www.litromagazine.com/?print=print|url-status=live}}</ref> Two years later, she appeared on the cooking game show ''[[The Taste (British TV series)|The Taste]]'' judged by [[Anthony Bourdain]] and [[Nigella Lawson]].<ref name="TOI" /> The Novel Diner was dissolved in 2015.<ref name="BBC23" />

Coutinho worked at [[Iain Duncan Smith]]'s centre-right think tank [[Centre for Social Justice]] (CSJ) between 2013 and 2015 and later became a programme director for the industry group [[Housing and Finance Institute]] created by [[Natalie Elphicke]] between 2015 and 2017.<ref name="Spec" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.insidehousing.co.uk/insight/insight/coaching-for-councils-45764|title=Coaching for councils|publisher=Inside Housing|date=8 January 2016|access-date=5 February 2020|last=Cooper|first=Keith|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205120204/https://www.insidehousing.co.uk/insight/insight/coaching-for-councils-45764|archive-date=5 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> In the former role, she focussed on financial inclusion, education, and regeneration policy.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/fbf83227-cd64-40b5-9b42-94b3d9be5b70|work=Financial Times|date=31 August 2023|access-date=9 September 2023|title='The most loyal': Tory rising star Claire Coutinho enters UK cabinet|last1=Fisher|first1=Lucy|last2=Gross|first2=Anna|archive-date=1 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901112313/https://www.ft.com/content/fbf83227-cd64-40b5-9b42-94b3d9be5b70|url-status=live}}</ref> After this, she worked for accounting firm [[KPMG]] as a corporate responsibility manager between 2017 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/claire-coutinho-a5b0774b/|title=Claire Coutinho|access-date=9 September 2023|publisher=LinkedIn}}</ref><ref name="WHOI">{{cite news |last=Langford |first=Eleanor |title=rising star who has replaced Grant Shapps as Energy Secretary |url=https://inews.co.uk/news/politics/who-claire-coutinho-tory-rising-star-grant-shapps-energy-secretary-2584155 |newspaper=i |date=31 August 2023 |access-date=27 March 2024 |archive-date=27 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327172853/https://inews.co.uk/news/politics/who-claire-coutinho-tory-rising-star-grant-shapps-energy-secretary-2584155 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Coutinho left the company to become a [[Special adviser (UK)|special adviser]] at [[HM Treasury]]. Initially working for [[Julian Smith (politician)|Julian Smith]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/766413/AnnualReportOnSpecialAdvisers2018.pdf|page=10|access-date=5 February 2020|title=Annual Report on Special Advisers, 2018|publisher=UK Parliament|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725124447/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/766413/AnnualReportOnSpecialAdvisers2018.pdf|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> she then became an aide to [[Rishi Sunak]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/854554/Annual_Report_on_Special_Advisers.pdf|title=Annual Report on Special Advisers 2019|page=13|access-date=5 February 2020|publisher=UK Parliament|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110212547/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/854554/Annual_Report_on_Special_Advisers.pdf|archive-date=10 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Coutinho has commented that she left KPMG to join the government as a special adviser so that she could help deliver [[Brexit]] "from the inside", having supported the Leave vote in the [[2016 EU membership referendum]].<ref name="PH" />

==Parliamentary career ==
Coutinho was selected as the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] candidate for [[East Surrey]] on 11 November 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eastsurreyconservatives.org.uk/news/new-conservative-candidate-chosen-east-surrey|title=New Conservative Candidate chosen for East Surrey|date=11 November 2019|access-date=5 February 2020|publisher=East Surrey Conservatives|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205120155/https://www.eastsurreyconservatives.org.uk/news/new-conservative-candidate-chosen-east-surrey|archive-date=5 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Described in ''[[The Guardian]]'' as a "super-safe Conservative seat", it was previously held by [[Sam Gyimah]] who defected to the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] in September that year.<ref>{{cite news |title=Former Conservative MP Sam Gyimah joins Lib Dems |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-49703214 |date=14 September 2019 |work=BBC News |access-date=22 April 2024 |archive-date=10 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110144731/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-49703214 |url-status=live }}</ref>

She was elected as MP for East Surrey at the [[2019 United Kingdom general election|2019 general election]] with 59.7% of the vote and a majority of 24,040.<ref name="2019R">{{cite web |date=13 December 2019 |title=Surrey East |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/constituencies/E14000681 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413011542/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/constituencies/E14000681 |archive-date=13 April 2019 |access-date=5 February 2020 |work=Election 2019 }}</ref><ref name="Statement of persons nominated">{{cite web |last=Jackson |first=Elaine |date=14 November 2019 |title=Election of a Member of Parliament for the East Surrey Constituency: Statement of Persons Nominated and Notice of Poll |url=https://www.tandridge.gov.uk/Portals/0/Documents/Your-council/Voting-and-elections/Current%20elections/General%20Election/Statement-of-Persons-Nominated-and-notice-of-poll.pdf?ver=2019-11-14-160145-033 |website=[[Tandridge District Council]] |access-date=17 March 2024 |archive-date=25 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225045246/https://www.tandridge.gov.uk/Portals/0/Documents/Your-council/Voting-and-elections/Current%20elections/General%20Election/Statement-of-Persons-Nominated-and-notice-of-poll.pdf?ver=2019-11-14-160145-033 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="CBP-8749">{{cite web |date=28 January 2020 |title=Commons Briefing Paper 8749. General Election 2019: results and analysis |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8749/CBP-8749.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118043715/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8749/CBP-8749.pdf |archive-date=18 November 2021 |access-date=19 January 2022 |publisher=[[House of Commons Library]] |location=London}}</ref> This was almost exactly same share of the constituency vote that the Conservative Party has secured in the previous election in 2017, when Gyimah took 59.6% of votes cast.<ref name="2019R"/>

In May 2020, she was criticised by several of her local constituents for supporting [[Dominic Cummings]] (then the PM's chief adviser) in taking a [[Dominic Cummings scandal|controversial {{convert|260|mile|adj=on}} trip from London to County Durham]] during a national lockdown in the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/surrey-news/surrey-mps-face-backlash-supporting-18309646|title=Surrey MPs face backlash for supporting Dominic Cummings after Downing Street press conference|work=SurreyLive|last=Pengelly|first=Emma|date=26 May 2020|publisher=Reach|access-date=23 June 2020|archive-date=21 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921055421/https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/surrey-news/surrey-mps-face-backlash-supporting-18309646|url-status=live}}</ref> In June 2020, the windows of the East Surrey Conservative Association offices were graffitied with the words "liars, cheats, traitors" in black paint.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/surrey-news/east-surrey-conservatives-office-vandalised-18361308|title=East Surrey Conservatives' office vandalised with the words 'traitors, liars, cheats'|work=SurreyLive|last=Pengelly|first=Emma|date=4 June 2020|access-date=23 June 2020|archive-date=31 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831141247/https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/surrey-news/east-surrey-conservatives-office-vandalised-18361308|url-status=live}}</ref>

Coutinho was appointed as a [[Parliamentary Private Secretary]] (PPS) at HM Treasury, and joined the advisory board of the centre-right think tank [[Onward (think tank)|Onward]] in February 2020.<ref>{{cite tweet|title=Last week I was delighted to be appointed as a PPS to @hmtreasury, I look forward to working with the excellent team there. AND for getting the keys to our new home in East Surrey! Big week|user=ClaireCoutinho|number=1234440592731639808|date=2 March 2020|access-date=11 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.eu/newsletter/london-playbook/politico-london-playbook-baptism-of-fire-a-touch-of-frost-super-forecasters/|publisher=Politico Europe|date=17 February 2020|access-date=11 March 2020|title=Politico London Playbook: Baptism of fire — A touch of Frost — Super-forecasters|last=Blanchard|first=Jack|archive-date=31 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831141246/https://www.politico.eu/newsletter/london-playbook/politico-london-playbook-baptism-of-fire-a-touch-of-frost-super-forecasters/|url-status=live}}</ref> She was a senior fellow at the conservative think tank [[Policy Exchange]] in 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://policyexchange.org.uk/events/the-new-anglo-india-dialogue-global-challenges-and-tech-power-in-the-2020s/|title=The New Anglo-Indian Dialogue: Global Challenges and Tech Power in the 2020s|publisher=[[Policy Exchange]]|date=20 April 2021|access-date=10 September 2023|archive-date=30 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130195235/https://policyexchange.org.uk/events/the-new-anglo-india-dialogue-global-challenges-and-tech-power-in-the-2020s/|url-status=live}}</ref> Coutinho resigned from her position as PPS on 6 July 2022 in protest at Prime Minister [[Boris Johnson]]'s leadership following the [[Chris Pincher scandal]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Three more British lawmakers resign from PM Johnson's government |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/three-more-british-lawmakers-resign-pm-johnsons-government-2022-07-06/ |access-date=6 July 2022 |agency=Reuters |date=6 July 2022 |archive-date=28 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428174801/https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/three-more-british-lawmakers-resign-pm-johnsons-government-2022-07-06/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and endorsed Sunak in the [[July–September 2022 Conservative Party leadership election]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/full-list-tory-endorsements-for-next-leader|work=The Spectator|date=12 July 2022|title=Who's backing who? Raab backs Rishi|access-date=12 July 2022|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708122203/https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/full-list-tory-endorsements-for-next-leader|url-status=live}}</ref>

Coutinho served as [[Minister of State for Disabled People, Health and Work|Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Disabled People]] between September and October 2022 and [[Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Children, Families and Wellbeing]] between October 2022 and August 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/people/claire-coutinho|publisher=gov.uk|access-date=31 August 2023|title=Claire Coutinho MP|archive-date=31 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831134024/https://www.gov.uk/government/people/claire-coutinho|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/parliamentary-under-secretary-of-state--192|title=Parliamentary Under Secretary of State (Minister for Disabled People, Health and Work)|publisher=gov.uk|access-date=3 September 2023|archive-date=1 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901012551/https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/parliamentary-under-secretary-of-state--192|url-status=live}}</ref>

She wrote to Mayor of London [[Sadiq Khan]] in February 2023 to voice her opposition to the expansion of the [[Ultra Low Emission Zone]] in the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.clairecoutinho.com/news/claire-writes-sadiq-khan-ulez-tandridge-councillors|title=Claire writes to Sadiq Khan on ULEZ with Tandridge Councillors|date=3 February 2023|access-date=31 August 2023|publisher=Claire Coutinho|archive-date=31 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831173651/https://www.clairecoutinho.com/news/claire-writes-sadiq-khan-ulez-tandridge-councillors|url-status=live}}</ref>

The government signed a £19.5 million contract with consultancy Newton Europe in June 2022 to design and develop its Delivering Better Value (DBV) programme, which aimed to reduce budget deficits in the education of children with [[Special education in the United Kingdom|special educational needs and disabilities]] with a target of at least 20% cut in new education provision. In May 2023, Coutinho stated to the [[Education Select Committee]] that there were no targets.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/sep/10/revealed-covert-deal-to-cut-help-for-pupils-in-england-with-special-needs|work=The Guardian|title=Revealed: covert deal to cut help for pupils in England with special needs|last=Jayanetti|first=Chaminda|date=10 September 2023|access-date=10 September 2023|archive-date=10 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230910103913/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/sep/10/revealed-covert-deal-to-cut-help-for-pupils-in-england-with-special-needs|url-status=live}}</ref>

In August 2023, Coutinho wrote to social landlords, housing associations and developers calling on them to let childminders work from rented properties. She commented that restrictive clauses in their contracts may stop them working from their homes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Clarence-Smith |first=Louisa |date=21 August 2023 |title=Minister calls on landlords to let tenants use homes to run childminding businesses |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2023/08/21/claire-coutinho-landlords-tenants-use-homes-childminder/ |access-date=31 August 2023 |issn=0307-1235 |archive-date=31 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831143726/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2023/08/21/claire-coutinho-landlords-tenants-use-homes-childminder/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero===
{{see also|Sunak ministry}}
[[File:Claire Coutinho Political Cabinet 2024.jpg|thumb|alt=A woman at a meeting table|Coutinho at a Cabinet meeting in November 2023]]
On 31 August 2023, Coutinho was appointed as [[Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero]], replacing [[Grant Shapps]]; she was the first of the MPs elected in 2019 to join the Cabinet, and at 38 was the youngest member.<ref name=BBC23>{{cite web |first1=Henry |last1=Zeffman |first2=Georgina |last2=Rannard |first3=Kate |last3=Whannel |title=Claire Coutinho: Who is the new energy secretary? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-66669995 |work=BBC News |access-date=31 August 2023 |archive-date=9 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009113553/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-66669995 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'', Daniel Martin and Ben Riley-Smith commented that Coutinho's appointment came at a time when Sunak's government was signalling "a subtle change of policy from the Government away from green causes".<ref name="RIPUP">{{cite news |first1=Daniel |last1=Martin |first2=Ben |last2=Riley-Smith |title=Could Sunak ally Coutinho rip up the net zero playbook? |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=1 September 2023|page=5}}</ref> They reported that a "senior government source" had stated that both Sunak and Coutinho were committed to planning for net zero, but would be looking to prevent people from facing large financial costs for the implementation of net zero plans.<ref name="RIPUP"/> The reporters noted that although she had previously supported both the preservation of [[green belt]]s and the expansion of wild rural spaces, she had also shown sympathy for owners of oil [[boiler]]s, and speculated that she might overturn the policies of banning new oil boilers from 2026 and of banning new petrol and diesel cars from 2030.<ref name="RIPUP"/> Heather Stewart of ''[[The Guardian]]'' remarked that Coutinho while appeared to show a genuine interest in environmental issues, as evidenced by her membership of the Conservative Environment Network before becoming a minister, Sunak's position seemed to be to seek to gain votes by backtracking on the party's net zero commitments.<ref name="STEWART23"/>

In a speech at the 2023 Conservative Party Conference, Coutinho claimed that the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] supported the introduction of a [[meat tax]]. Factchecking charity [[Full Fact]] found no evidence of this. When pressed by [[Sky News]] journalist [[Sophy Ridge]] on her comments, she said that it was only a light-hearted moment in her speech and provided no evidence for her assertion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fullfact.org/news/claire-coutinho-labour-meat-tax/|title=No evidence for energy secretary's claim that Labour is 'relaxed' about taxing meat|last=Asl|first=Nasim|publisher=Full Fact|date=3 October 2023|access-date=28 October 2023|archive-date=28 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028115729/https://fullfact.org/news/claire-coutinho-labour-meat-tax/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In April 2024, Coutinho replied to criticism from Chris Stark, the outgoing Head of the [[Climate Change Committee]] that provides independent advice to ministers, that Sunak's government had hampered progress on climate change.<ref name="WHANNEL">{{cite news |first=Kate |last= Whannel|title=Energy secretary Claire Coutinho defends government's climate record |website=BBC News |date=21 April 2024}}</ref> Coutinho countered that the UK was the first major economy to reduce its emissions by half since 1990, and that she had made changes to the tax system to encourage investment in the energy sector.<ref name="WHANNEL"/> She added that the government would be "sensible and pragmatic" in its plans for net zero, and avoid ""heap[ing] costs on families".<ref name="WHANNEL"/>

Coutinho has been characterised as an ardent [[Brexiteer]],<ref>{{cite web|date=31 August 2023|title=Claire Coutinho, new UK energy secretary, has distinct shades of green|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/new-uk-energy-secretary-has-distinct-shades-of-green/|access-date=10 November 2023|work=Politico|archive-date=10 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110185914/https://www.politico.eu/article/new-uk-energy-secretary-has-distinct-shades-of-green/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="CUNLIFFE"/><ref name="STEWART23"/> and as a factional ally of Sunak.<ref name="STEWART23">{{cite news|last=Stewart|first=Heather|date=1 September 2023|title=Claire Coutinho: Sunak loyalist will walk a fine green line as energy secretary|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2023/sep/01/claire-coutinho-rishi-sunak-loyalist-energy-secretary|access-date=10 November 2023|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=2 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902014603/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2023/sep/01/claire-coutinho-rishi-sunak-loyalist-energy-secretary|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="CUNLIFFE"/> Stewart wrote that "Like Sunak{{nbsp}}... Coutinho has spoken with pride about her Indian background".<ref name="STEWART23"/> Rachel Cunliffe of ''[[New Statesman]]'' wrote that descriptions of Coutinho from Conservative Members of Parliament included that she was competent, "work-driven", "level-headed" and "forensic-minded".<ref name="CUNLIFFE"/> Discussing Coutinho's reputation amongst her colleagues, Cunliffe remarked that "The common narrative is that Coutinho is a dedicated grafter who got lucky, backed the right person at the right time, and has been rewarded by a troubled Prime Minister desperately trying to surround himself with people he can trust."<ref name="CUNLIFFE"/>

== Honours ==
* On 15 September 2023, she was sworn into the [[Privy Council (United Kingdom)|Privy Council]], entitling her to the honorific ''[[The Right Honourable]]'' for life.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://privycouncil.independent.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/2023-09-15-List-of-Business.pdf|publisher=Privy Council Office|title=Orders for 15 September 2023|access-date=18 September 2023|archive-date=19 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230919104111/https://privycouncil.independent.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/2023-09-15-List-of-Business.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
{{UK MP links|parliament=claire-coutinho/4806 |publicwhip=Claire_Coutinho |theywork=25890}}

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{{British special advisers}}
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{{Secretary of State for Energy Security}}
{{South East Conservative Party MPs}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Coutinho, Claire}}
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Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)

2024-06-23T07:26:15Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|Academic title or rank}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}

In the universities of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], and [[University of Dublin|Dublin]], [[Bachelor of Arts|Bachelors of Arts]] are promoted to the [[academic degree|degree]] of '''Master of Arts''' or '''Master in Arts''' ('''MA''') on application after six or seven years as members of the university, including years as an [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]]. It is an academic rank indicating seniority and not an additional postgraduate qualification. Within these three universities there are in fact no postgraduate degrees which result in the postnominals 'MA'.<ref>{{cite web|date=April 2020|title=Verifying qualifications|url=https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/graduation/verification|website=Oxford University}}</ref> No further examination or study is required for this promotion and it is equivalent to undergraduate degrees awarded by other universities.<ref name=oxford-ma>{{cite web|url=https://examregs.admin.ox.ac.uk/Regulation?code=mastofarts|title=Regulations for the Degree of Master of Arts|publisher=[[University of Oxford]]|access-date=17 October 2022}}</ref><ref name=camb-ma>{{cite web|url=http://www.cambridgestudents.cam.ac.uk/your-course/graduation-and-what-next/cambridge-ma|title=The Cambridge MA|date=6 November 2014 |publisher=University of Cambridge|access-date=13 December 2015}}</ref><ref name=dublin-ma>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcd.ie/calendar/1415-2/part-3/4-regulations-for-professional-higher-and-other-degrees/7-regulations-for-the-degree-of-master-in-arts-m-a/|title=Regulations for the degree of Master in Arts (M.A.)|publisher=Trinity College Dublin|access-date=13 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924121512/http://www.tcd.ie/calendar/1415-2/part-3/4-regulations-for-professional-higher-and-other-degrees/7-regulations-for-the-degree-of-master-in-arts-m-a/ |archive-date= Sep 24, 2015 }}</ref>

This practice differs from most other universities worldwide, at which the degree reflects further postgraduate study or achievement. These degrees are therefore sometimes referred to as the '''Oxford and Cambridge MA''' and the '''Dublin''' or '''Trinity MA,''' to draw attention to the difference.<ref>See for instance a reader's letter to ''[[Times Higher Education]]'': {{Cite web |date=2000-06-16 |title=Why I...think Oxbridge MA degrees should be scrapped |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/why-ithink-oxbridge-ma-degrees-should-be-scrapped/152170.article |website=Times Higher Education |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817202701/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/why-ithink-oxbridge-ma-degrees-should-be-scrapped/152170.article?storycode=152170 |archive-date= Aug 17, 2022 |postscript=,}} an ''[[The Independent|Independent]]'' article {{Cite web |date=June 8, 2000 |title=Parliament: The House In Brief: Oxbridge MA 'unfair' |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-5087035.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826052616/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-5087035.html |archive-date=Aug 26, 2011 |publisher=The Independent |via=HighBeam Research |postscript=,}} and an article in ''[[The Oxford Student]]'' {{cite web |title=Privilege Axed |website=The Oxford Student |date=14 Oct 1999 |url=http://www.oxfordstudent.com/mt1999wk1/news/privilege_axed |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203174401/http://www.oxfordstudent.com/mt1999wk1/news/privilege_axed |archive-date=3 December 2008 |access-date=2009-06-25 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> However, as with gaining a postgraduate degree from another university, once incepted and promoted to a Master, the graduate no longer wears the [[academic dress]] or uses the post-nominal letters pertaining to a Bachelor of Arts, being no longer of that rank.

All three universities have other masters' (i.e. postgraduate) degrees which do require further study and examination, but these have other titles, such as [[Master of Letters]] (MLitt), [[Master of Philosophy]] (MPhil), [[Master of Studies]] (MSt), [[Master of Engineering]] (MAI, or MEng), [[Master of Science]] (MSc) or Master of Business (MBA).

In the [[ancient universities of Scotland]], a degree with the same name is awarded as a [[Undergraduate degree|first degree]] to graduates in certain subjects (see [[Master of Arts (Scotland)]]).

==Requirements==
In all three universities, a Bachelor of Arts may "incept" as a Master of Arts after a given lapse of time or as soon as a person is of the required academic standing. No further examinations or residence are required, but some institutions require the incipient to pay a fee.

*At Oxford, the rank of MA may be conferred during or after the twenty-first term from [[matriculation]] (i.e., ordinarily seven years after joining the University) upon anyone holding an Oxford BA or [[Bachelor of Fine Arts]] (BFA) degree.<ref name="oxford">{{cite book
| year = 2005
| title = University of Oxford Examination Decrees and Regulations for the Academic Year 2005–2006
| chapter = Chapter 4: Regulations for the Degree of Master of Arts
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| page = 563
}}</ref> An exception is that a Bachelor of Arts who attains the degree of Doctor of Philosophy may immediately incept as a Master of Arts, before the requisite number of terms have passed. Those who completed other bachelor degrees at Oxford such as [[Bachelor of Theology]], [[Bachelor of Philosophy]] and [[Bachelor of Civil Law]] are not entitled to the Master of Arts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.whatdotheyknow.com/request/information_about_the_master_of/response/2657348/attach/2/202405%20424%20Oxford%20MA.pdf|title=Information about the Master of Arts at the University of Oxford|author= University of Oxford|website=[[WhatDoTheyKnow]] |publisher= |date=2024-05-16|archive-url= |archive-date= |quote=}}</ref>

*At Cambridge, the MA degree may be conferred six years after the end of the first term in residence to a person holding a Cambridge Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree. The previous requirement that the BA must have been held for two years before becoming eligible for the MA was removed as a result of the delay for many graduands receiving their BAs during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], although it remains the case that the BA must be held before the MA can be applied for.<ref name="cambridge">{{Cite web|url=https://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/univ/so/pdfs/2022/ordinance05.pdf|title=CHAPTER V : B.A. DEGREE AND M.A. DEGREE - MASTER OF ARTS|website=www.admin.cam.ac.uk}}</ref> The MA degree can also be awarded by the University of Cambridge to senior members of staff of the university or colleges, after three years of employment, if they have not previously graduated from Cambridge.
*At Dublin, the rank of MA may be conferred to anyone who has held a Dublin BA degree (or another bachelor's degree after at least nine terms' residence) for at least three years. A fee (€637 in 2012) is payable, but is waived in the case of graduates of more than fifty years' standing.<ref name="tcd">{{cite book
| year = 2007
| title = College Calendar, Trinity College Dublin
| chapter = Degrees and Diplomas – II. REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE AWARD OF DEGREES – 4. Masters
| url = http://www.tcd.ie/calendar/assets/pdf/degrees_diplomas.pdf
| page = E5
}}</ref>

The MA degree may be conferred in some other situations, but these are by far the most common. Details of these other instances may be found in the referenced statutes and ordinances of the three universities.<ref name="oxford" /><ref name="cambridge" /><ref name="tcd" />

In accordance with the formula of ''[[ad eundem gradum]],'' a form of recognition that exists among the three universities, a graduate of Oxford, Cambridge, or Dublin who is entitled to an MA degree may be conferred with the equivalent degree at either of the other two universities without further examination.<ref>{{cite book
| title = Statutes and Regulations, University of Oxford
| chapter = Statute X: Degrees, Diplomas, and Certificates
| url = http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/
| chapter-url = http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/215-031.shtml
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| year = 2006
| title = The 1966 Consolidated Statutes of Trinity College, Dublin, and the University of Dublin
| chapter = Chapter XXII: Chapter relating to the Degrees conferred by the University
| url = http://www.tcd.ie/Secretary/Board/Other_Papers/Statutes-Current.pdf
| page = 83
| access-date = 16 July 2008
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090305164644/http://www.tcd.ie/Secretary/Board/Other_Papers/Statutes-Current.pdf
| archive-date = 5 March 2009
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> The Board of Trinity College, Dublin currently restricts its ''ad eundem'' awards to eligible members of the Dublin academic staff, or those who wish to register for a higher degree at Dublin;<ref>{{cite book
| year = 2007
| title = College Calendar, Trinity College Dublin
| chapter = Degrees and Diplomas – II. REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE AWARD OF DEGREES – 10. Degrees awarded in special cases: degrees ''ad eundem gradum''
| url = http://www.tcd.ie/about/calendar/pdf/degrees_diplomas.pdf
| page = E5
}}</ref> Cambridge restricts its awards to those "matriculated as a member of the University";<ref>{{cite book
| year = 2007
| title = Statutes and Ordinances of the University of Cambridge and Passages from Acts of Parliament relating to the University
| chapter = Ordinances Chapter II: Matriculation, Residence, Admission to Degrees, Discipline
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| url = http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/univ/so/
|chapter-url = http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/univ/so/so_ch02.pdf
| page = 179
}}</ref> Oxford considers applicants who are undertaking a course of study or fulfil some educational role at Oxford, or who have "rendered valuable services to the University or to its members."<ref>{{cite book
| year = 2002
| title = Statutes and Regulations, University of Oxford
| chapter = Regulations for Degrees, Diplomas, and Certificates, Part 1: Admission to Degrees – Incorporation
| url = http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/
|chapter-url = http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/regulations/307-072.shtml#_Toc28140154
}}</ref> This process is called "incorporation".

==Post-nominal style==
Masters of Arts of the three universities may use the [[post-nominal letters]] "MA". Although [[honours degree|honours]] are awarded for the examinations leading to the BA degree (hence "BA (Hons)"), it is incorrect to use the style "MA (Hons)," as there is no examination for the MA degree. The abbreviated name of the university (Oxon, Cantab or Dubl) is therefore almost always appended in parentheses to the initials "MA" in the same way that it is to higher degrees, e.g. "John Smith, MA (Cantab), PhD (Lond)," principally so that it is clear (to those who are aware of the system) that these are nominal and unexamined degrees.<ref name="oxford-ma"/><ref name="camb-ma"/><ref name="dublin-ma"/>

If someone incorporates from one of the above universities to another, the Latin ''et'' can be inserted between the university names, e.g. "MA (Oxon et Cantab)", etc. as opposed to "MA (Oxon), MA (Cantab)" which would indicate that the holder graduated BA at both universities.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

The Oxford ''University Gazette'' and ''University Calendar'' have, since 2007, used Oxf rather than Oxon (also Camb rather than Cantab and Dub rather than Dubl) to match the style used for other universities, stating that: "It is not feasible to use the form ‘Oxon’ because to do so would entail Latinising all of the very many university names which occur in the Calendar".

This style is used equally for all degrees, with no distinction being made between incorporated, incepted, and examined MAs. However, the BA degree is not shown if the graduate has proceeded from BA to MA – "BA MA Oxf" should not appear. For example, someone who graduated BA at Oxford and proceeded to MA, studied for an MA in London, then moved to Cambridge and became an MA by incorporation, would be shown as MA Camb, MA Lond, MA Oxf (note the universities are ordered alphabetically), while someone who had graduated as both BA and MA in London is shown as BA MA Lond.<ref>{{cite web|title=Calendar Style Guide 2015|url=https://www.ox.ac.uk/media/global/wwwoxacuk/localsites/gazette/documents/universitycalendar/Calendar_Style_Guide_2015.pdf|publisher=University of Oxford|access-date=12 December 2015}}</ref>

==History and rationale==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2020}}This system dates from the Middle Ages, when the study of the liberal arts took seven years. In the late Middle Ages most students joined their university at an earlier age than is now usual, often when aged only 14 or 15. The basic university education in the [[liberal arts]] comprised the [[Trivium (education)|Trivium]] (grammar, rhetoric and dialectic) and the [[Quadrivium]] (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and music), and typically took seven years of full-time study.

In between matriculation and licence to teach, which was awarded at the end of an undergraduate's studies (whereafter he was incepted as a Master of Arts), he took an intermediate degree known as the [[bachelor's degree|baccalaureate]], or degree of Bachelor of Arts. The division into trivium and quadrivium did not always correspond with the division between the studies required for the BA and MA degrees, but was adopted in Cambridge in the Tudor era and maintained long after it was abandoned elsewhere in Europe. In the [[University of Paris]] the baccalaureate was granted soon after [[responsions]] (the examination for matriculation), whereas in Oxford and Cambridge the bachelor's degree was postponed to a much later stage, and gradually developed a greater significance.

On inception and admission to the degree of Master of Arts, a student would become a full member of the university, and was allowed to vote in discussions of the house of [[Convocation]]. The new MA might then teach in the university for a specified number of years, during which time he was a 'regent' or 'regent master'. Upon completion of this work, he would become a 'non-regent master' and would either leave the university (often to become a clerk or [[schoolmaster]] or to enter the priesthood), or else remain and undertake further studies in one of the specialised or 'higher' faculties: Divinity, Canon or Civil Law, and Medicine.

Later, it became possible to study in the higher faculties as a BA, although the higher degree could not be taken until a graduate had the required seniority to incept as an MA. While the requirements for the bachelor's degree increased, those for the master's degree gradually diminished. By the 18th century, the ancient system of [[disputation]]s had degenerated into a mere formality, and it was possible to satisfy the prescribed terms of residence, which formerly included compulsory attendance at set lectures, by keeping one's name on the college books. Examinations along modern lines were introduced for the BA and MA degrees in Oxford by the first great statute to reform the examination system in 1800, but the MA examination was abolished by a second statute in 1807.
[[File:Agar Cambridge non-regent MA 1815.jpg|thumb|Costume of a non-[[Regent master|regent]] MA in Cambridge, 1815.]]
From at least the sixteenth century, the most select group of undergraduates were the noblemen (peers, eldest sons of peers or relatives of the monarch) who paid four times the normal fees and often received an MA degree after two years’ residence only, and without any formal exercises - thus bypassing the BA degree. However, they might not stay long enough to graduate. At the universities this group was marked with gold tassels ("tufts") on their [[mortarboard]] caps, compared to the black ones that socially lower-ranking students wore.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldwidewords.org/weirdwords/ww-tuf2.htm|title=World Wide Words: Tufthunter|website=World Wide Words}}</ref> Those students of the next rank, [[fellow-commoner]]s at Cambridge or Dublin, or [[gentleman commoner|gentlemen commoners]] at Oxford, paid twice the normal fee, ate with the fellows and were also excused from attending college lectures and performing their exercises for the plain BA. They could graduate a year earlier than the next category below. Nevertheless, at Cambridge both higher categories of student still had to take the Senate House Examination if they wished to have an honours degree.<ref> Peter Searby, ''A History of the University of Cambridge'', vol. III, 1750-1870, Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 68-69</ref> Commoners (at Oxford) or Pensioners (at Cambridge & Dublin) paid the standard fee and were more likely remain to graduate. Below them came [[servitor]]s (at Oxford) and [[sizar]]s (at Cambridge & Dublin), whose college fees were subsidised by their colleges and who in return had to fetch and carry, sweep, and serve at table. This group was much more likely to graduate. [[Oliver Goldsmith]] was a sizar: [[Isaac Newton]] was a subsizar. These privileges and humiliations were gradually removed during the nineteenth century.

Reforms in the late sixteenth century allowed some ordinary undergraduates also to bypass the BA stage: after the bachelor of arts degree, it used to be necessary to wait another three years to become a bachelor of laws or medicine, but after paying a fine it was possible to leave college after three years in residence, study at the Inns of Court or a teaching hospital in London, or abroad, and return at the five year mark for a professional bachelor's degree, allowing later progression to a doctorate, as happened in the case of [[William Blackstone]].

Students at [[King's College, Cambridge]], who until 1865 were all from [[Eton College]], could until 1851 graduate BA, and in due course MA, without taking the university examinations. Students at [[New College, Oxford]], who all used to come from [[Winchester College]], had the same exemptions until 1834.

While the length of the undergraduate degree course has been shortened to three or four years in all subjects, all three universities still require roughly seven years to pass before the awarding of the MA degree. The shortening of the degree course reflects the fact that much of the teaching of the liberal arts was taken over by [[grammar school]]s, and undergraduates now enter universities at an older age, in most cases between 17 and 19. (It may be noted that the school-leaving certificate in France today is known as the [[Baccalauréat|baccalaureate]].)

[[Durham University]] (first MA awarded 1838) and the [[University of London]] (first MA awarded 1840) broke away from the ancient model of England by considering the MA to be a higher degree distinct from the initial degree, awarded after further examination.<ref>{{cite news|work=[[Yorkshire Post]]|date=29 June 1937|title=Durham University Centenary|access-date=12 December 2015 |url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000687/19370629/295/0008| via = [[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription |author=C. E. Whiting|quote=The M.A. degree at Oxford and Cambridge had degenerated, and was granted to Bachelors of three years' standing on the payment of certain fees. At Durham the B.A. had to keep residence for three extra terms, and to pass what seems have been an honours examination in order to proceed to the Master's degree, and for a number of years classes were awarded in the M.A. examination.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|pages=21–23|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AYNCAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR1|title=Regulations of the University of London on the Subject of Degrees in Arts|date=1839|chapter=Examination for the degree of Matter of Arts}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fd8NAAAAQAAJ|pages=xxv–xxvi|chapter=Regulations|title=The Durham University Calendar|date=1842}}</ref> However, in instituting a course of further study beyond the initial baccalaureate, these universities can be seen to have reverted to the ancient model. Almost all newer universities followed their lead, with the result that the Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin model is now the anomaly. Some followed that model for some years (allowing progressions in the same faculty such as from BSc to MSc, etc.) but changed to the newer system afterwards.

Among the "[[steamboat ladies]]", female students at Oxford and Cambridge who were awarded ''ad eundem'' University of Dublin degrees between 1904 and 1907 (at a time when their own universities refused to confer degrees upon women), some like [[Julia Bell]] obtained an MA.<ref>
{{cite ODNB |id=38514 |title=Bell, Julia (1879–1979) |first=Greta |last=Jones |date=17 September 2015}};
{{cite ODNB |id=61643 |title=Steamboat ladies (''act.'' 1904–1907) |last1=Parkes |first1=Susan M. }}
</ref>

==Rights and privileges==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2020}}The degree of Master of Arts traditionally carried various rights and privileges, the chief of which was membership of the legislative bodies of the universities – [[Convocation]] at Oxford and the [[Faculty senate|Senate]] at Cambridge and Dublin. These were originally important decision-making bodies, approving changes to the statutes of the universities and electing various officials, including the two [[University constituency#Scotland, England, Ireland, Great Britain, United Kingdom|members of Parliament]] for each university. Inception to the MA degree was the principal way of becoming a member of these bodies, though it is not the only way, e.g. at Oxford Doctors of Divinity, Medicine and Civil Law were always also automatically members of Convocation. Today, the main role of Convocation and Senate is the election of the [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]] of each university as well as the [[Oxford Professor of Poetry|Professor of Poetry]] at Oxford and the [[High Steward (academia)|High Steward]] at Cambridge.

The privileges accorded to MAs and other members of Convocation/Senate were formerly very important. At Oxford, until 1998 the [[Proctor]]s only had the power to discipline "junior members" (those who had not been admitted to membership of Convocation), which meant that any graduate student who had incepted as an MA was immune from their authority. At Cambridge, MAs and those with MA status continue to be exempt from the rules governing the ownership of motor vehicles by students. Other privileges intended for academic staff and alumni, e.g. the right to dine at High Table, to attend [[Gaudy|Gaudies]], to walk upon college lawns, etc., are in most colleges restricted to MAs, which excludes the majority of graduate students.

For Cambridge, membership of the Senate is no longer limited to the MA<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/univ/so/2009/statute_a-section1.html |title=Statutes and Ordinances of the University of Cambridge: Statute A Chapter 1 |publisher=Admin.cam.ac.uk |access-date=21 November 2012}}</ref> and in 2000, Oxford opened membership of Convocation to all graduates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/780-121.shtml |title=Statutes and Regulations: Statute III – Convocation |publisher=Admin.ox.ac.uk |access-date=21 November 2012}}</ref>

For Dublin, the right to elect senators to the upper house of the Irish parliament, [[Seanad Éireann]], is now restricted to those who are Irish citizens and since 1918 the franchise was extended to include all graduates, not only those with an MA.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tcd.ie/calendar/assets/pdf/seanad_eireann.pdf |title=Representation of the University in Seanad Éireann |access-date=21 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607042527/http://www.tcd.ie/calendar/assets/pdf/seanad_eireann.pdf |archive-date=7 June 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Precedence==
The MA degree gives its holder a particular status in the universities' orders of precedence/seniority.<ref>{{cite book
| year = 2005
| title = Statutes and Ordinances of the University of Cambridge and Passages from Acts of Parliament relating to the University
| chapter = Ordinances Chapter II: Matriculation, Residence, Admission to Degrees, Discipline
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| url = http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/univ/so/
| chapter-url = http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/univ/so/so_ch02.pdf
| page = 186
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| year = 2002
| title = Statutes and Regulations, University of Oxford
| chapter = Regulations for Degrees, Diplomas and Certificates, Part 2: Academic Precedence and Standing
| url = http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/
|chapter-url = http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/regulations/307-072.shtml#_Toc28140155
}}</ref> In the [[University of Oxford]] a Master of Arts enjoys precedence, standing, and rank before all doctors, masters, and bachelors of the university who are not Masters of Arts, apart from [[Doctor of Divinity|Doctors of Divinity]] and [[Doctor of Civil Law|Doctors of Civil Law]]. Precedence, standing, and rank were formerly important for determining eligibility for appointments such as fellowships, but now generally have only a ceremonial significance.

==MA status==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2020}}In Oxford, until 2000 the university statutes required that all members of [[congregation (university)|Congregation]] (the academic and senior staff of the university) have at least the degree of DD, DM, DCL or MA or have MA status. This linked back to the MA as the licence to teach in the university. MA status was thus routinely granted to academics from other universities who came to take up positions within the university; while it is no longer granted in this way, many members of Congregation appointed before 2000 retain MA status.

In Cambridge, the status of MA is automatically accorded to graduates of other universities studying in Cambridge who are aged 24 or older (graduate students under 24 years are given BA status). This entitles them to wear the appropriate Cambridge gown, but without strings.<ref name="cusugg">{{cite web|title=Cambridge SU Gown Guide|url=https://www.cambridgesu.co.uk/aboutus/services/gowns/gownguide/}}</ref>

For the above cases, the status is not a degree so is automatically relinquished upon leaving the University (in the case of Oxford) or completion of their degree (for Cambridge).

== Historical examples at other colleges ==
While today only Cambridge, Oxford, and Trinity College, Dublin promote students to the degree of Master of Arts three years after graduation, this was a practice at other colleges before the 20th century.

In the United States, [[Columbia University]] awarded the Master of Arts in this manner from 1761<ref>{{Cite book |last=Columbia College (New York |first=N. Y. ) |url=http://archive.org/details/62640310R.nlm.nih.gov |title=Catalogue of Columbia College in the City of New-York : embracing the names of its trustees, officers, and graduates, together with a list of all academical honours conferred by the institution from A.D. 1758 to A.D. 1826, inclusive |date=1826 |publisher=New York : Printed by T. and J. Swords |others=U.S. National Library of Medicine}}</ref> until the practice was abolished by the Board of Trustees in June 1880, when a formal exam for the Master of Arts was introduced.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Columbia university. [from old catalog] |url=http://archive.org/details/statutesofcolumb00colu |title=Statutes of Columbia college and its associated schools |date=1878 |publisher=New York, Printed for the College |others=The Library of Congress}}</ref>

==Criticism==
In 2000, research by the [[Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education]] showed that 62% of employers were unaware that the Cambridge MA did not represent any kind of postgraduate achievement involving study.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oxbridge students' MA 'degrees' under threat|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/8318460/Oxbridge-students-MA-degrees-under-threat.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/8318460/Oxbridge-students-MA-degrees-under-threat.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|publisher=Daily Telegraph|access-date=2 January 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The same survey found widespread ignorance amongst employers regarding university-level qualifications in general: 51% believed the [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]] [[Master of Arts (Scotland)|MA]] to be a postgraduate qualification, 22% were unaware that a [[Doctor of Business Administration|Doctorate in Business Administration]] was a higher qualification than an undergraduate [[Diploma of Higher Education]], and 40% thought that a BA or BSc was a postgraduate degree.<ref name=thes-qaa>{{cite web|title=QAA to tighten reins on MAs|url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/news/qaa-to-tighten-reins-on-mas/152424.article|publisher=[[Times Higher Education Supplement]]|access-date=6 February 2014|date=7 July 2000}}</ref>

In February 2011, the then Labour MP for Nottingham East, [[Chris Leslie (politician)|Chris Leslie]], sponsored a private member's bill, the ''Master's Degrees (Minimum Standards) Bill 2010–12'', to "prohibit universities awarding Master's degrees unless certain standards of study and assessment are met".<ref name="mdmsb"/><ref name=hansard>{{cite journal|title=Master's Degrees (Minimum Standards) Bill 2010–2012: Second Reading|journal=House of Commons Hansard Debates|date=21 October 2011|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201011/cmhansrd/cm111021/debtext/111021-0002.htm#11102146000004}}</ref> The bill's second reading debate occurred on 21 October 2011, but ran out of time.<ref name="hansard"/><ref name="mdmsb">{{cite web|title=Master's Degrees (Minimum Standards) Bill 2010–2012|url=https://bills.parliament.uk/bills/831|publisher=UK Parliament|access-date=29 November 2021}}</ref>

In Ireland, the Master of Arts at Trinity College, Dublin, is not registered with or approved by [[Quality and Qualifications Ireland]], the national agency responsible for academic [[National Framework of Qualifications|qualifications]] in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Irish Register of Qualification |url=https://irq.ie/ |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=irq.ie}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Ad eundem degree|''Ad eundem'' degree]]
*[[Wooden spoon (award)]]
*[[Wrangler (University of Cambridge)]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/univ/so/2016/chapter05-section2.html Ordinances of the University of Cambridge regarding Master of Arts degree]
*[http://www.oriel.ox.ac.uk/content/oxford-ma The Oxford MA], [[Oriel College, Oxford]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/478163.stm Oxbridge MA degrees under threat (BBC website)]
{{Academic degrees}}

[[Category:Academic courses at the University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Academic courses at the University of Oxford]]
[[Category:Education in England]]
[[Category:Master's degrees|Arts]]
[[Category:Terminology of the University of Cambridge]]

Convection

2024-06-19T19:29:02Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|Fluid flow that occurs due to heterogeneous fluid properties and body forces}}
{{distinguish|Conviction}}
[[File:Convection-snapshot.png|thumb|400px|right|Simulation of thermal convection in the [[Earth's mantle]]. Hot areas are shown in red, cold areas are shown in blue. A hot, less-dense material at the bottom moves upwards, and likewise, cold material from the top moves downwards.]]

'''Convection''' is single or [[Multiphase flow|multiphase]] [[fluid flow]] that occurs [[Spontaneous process|spontaneously]] due to the combined effects of [[material property]] [[heterogeneity]] and [[body forces]] on a [[fluid]], most commonly [[density]] and [[gravity]] (see [[buoyancy]]). When the cause of the convection is unspecified, convection due to the effects of [[thermal expansion]] and buoyancy can be assumed. Convection may also take place in soft [[solids]] or [[mixtures]] where particles can flow.

[[File:Ghillie Kettle Thermal.jpg|thumb|Thermal image of a newly lit [[Kelly Kettle|Ghillie kettle]]. The plume of hot air resulting from the convection current is visible.]]Convective flow may be [[Transient state|transient]] (such as when a [[Multiphasic liquid|multiphase]] [[mixture]] of [[oil]] and [[water]] separates) or [[steady state]] (see [[convection cell]]). The convection may be due to [[Gravity|gravitational]], [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] or [[Fictitious force|fictitious]] body forces. [[Convection (heat transfer)|Heat transfer by natural convection]] plays a role in the structure of [[Earth's atmosphere]], its [[oceans]], and its [[Earth's mantle|mantle]]. Discrete convective cells in the atmosphere can be identified by [[clouds]], with stronger convection resulting in [[thunderstorm]]s. Natural convection also plays a role in [[stellar physics]]. Convection is often categorised or described by the main effect causing the convective flow; for example, thermal convection.

Convection cannot take place in most solids because neither bulk current flows nor significant [[diffusion]] of matter can take place.
[[Granular convection]] is a similar phenomenon in [[granular material]] instead of fluids.
[[Advection#Distinction between advection and convection|Advection]] is fluid motion created by velocity instead of thermal gradients.
[[Convective heat transfer]] is the intentional use of convection as a method for [[heat transfer]]. Convection is a process in which heat is carried from place to place by the bulk movement of a fluid and gases.

==History==
In the 1830s, in ''[[Bridgewater Treatises|The Bridgewater Treatises]]'', the term ''convection'' is attested in a scientific sense. In treatise VIII by [[William Prout]], in the book on [[chemistry]], it says:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prout |first=William. |url=http://archive.org/details/chemistrymeteoro00pro |title=Chemistry, meteorology and the function of digestion: considered with reference to natural theology |publisher=William Pickering |year=1834 |series=The Bridgewater Treatises: On the power, wisdom and goodness of God as manifested in the creation. Treatise 8. |volume= |pages=65–66}}</ref>

<blockquote>[[File:Prout William painting (cropped).jpg|alt=Painting of William Prout|thumb|217x217px|William Prout]][[File:Fireplace (60857557) (cropped).jpg|alt=Fireplace with grate|thumb|204x204px|Fireplace, with grate and chimney]][...] This motion of heat takes place in three ways, which a common fire-place very well illustrates. If, for instance, we place a thermometer directly before a fire, it soon begins to rise, indicating an increase of temperature. In this case the heat has made its way through the space between the fire and the thermometer, by the process termed ''[[radiation]]''. If we place a second thermometer in contact with any part of the grate, and away from the direct influence of the fire, we shall find that this thermometer also denotes an increase of temperature; but here the heat must have travelled through the metal of the grate, by what is termed ''[[Thermal conduction|conduction]]''. Lastly, a third thermometer placed in the chimney, away from the direct influence of the fire, will also indicate a considerable increase of temperature; in this case a portion of the air, passing through and near the fire, has become heated, and has ''carried'' up the chimney the temperature acquired from the fire. There is at present no single term in our language employed to denote this third mode of the propagation of heat; but we venture to propose for that purpose, the term ''convection'', [in footnote: [Latin] ''Convectio'', a carrying or conveying] which not only expresses the leading fact, but also accords very well with the two other terms.
</blockquote>

Later, in the same treatise VIII, in the book on [[meteorology]], the concept of convection is also applied to "the process by which heat is communicated through water".

==Terminology==
Today, the word ''convection'' has different but related usages in different scientific or engineering contexts or applications.

In [[fluid mechanics]], ''convection'' has a broader sense: it refers to the motion of fluid driven by density (or other property) difference.<ref>{{cite book| title=Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics| first= Bruce R. |last=Munson |isbn= 978-0-471-85526-2 |publisher = [[John Wiley & Sons]]| year= 1990 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Falkovich|first=G.|title=Fluid Mechanics, a short course for physicists|url=http://www.weizmann.ac.il/complex/falkovich/fluid-mechanics|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-107-00575-4|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120034443/http://www.weizmann.ac.il/complex/falkovich/fluid-mechanics|archive-date=2012-01-20}}</ref>

In [[thermodynamics]], ''convection'' often refers to [[Convection (heat transfer)|heat transfer by convection]], where the prefixed variant Natural Convection is used to distinguish the fluid mechanics concept of Convection (covered in this article) from convective heat transfer.<ref>{{cite book|title=Thermodynamics:An Engineering Approach|first1= Yunus A. |last1=Çengel |first2= Michael A. |last2 = Boles |year= 2001 |isbn=978-0-07-121688-3 |publisher =[[McGraw-Hill Education]]}}</ref>

Some phenomena which result in an effect superficially similar to that of a convective cell may also be (inaccurately) referred to as a form of convection; for example, [[Marangoni effect|thermo-capillary convection]] and [[granular convection]].

==Mechanisms==
Convection may happen in [[fluids]] at all scales larger than a few atoms. There are a variety of circumstances in which the forces required for convection arise, leading to different types of convection, described below. In broad terms, convection arises because of [[body force]]s acting within the fluid, such as gravity.

===Natural convection===
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2023}}
[[Image:Bénard cells convection.ogv|thumb|300px|[[Rayleigh–Bénard convection|Rayleigh–Bénard cells]].]]
[[File:Thermal-plume-from-human-hand.jpg|thumb|This color [[schlieren]] image reveals [[thermal convection]] originating from heat conduction from a human hand (in silhouette) to the surrounding still atmosphere, initially by diffusion from the hand to the surrounding air, and subsequently also as advection as the heat causes the air to start to move upwards.]]
'''Natural convection''' is a flow whose motion is caused by some parts of a fluid being heavier than other parts. In most cases this leads to '''natural circulation''': the ability of a fluid in a system to circulate continuously under gravity, with transfer of heat energy.

The driving force for natural convection is gravity. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth from the weight of the overlying fluid. The pressure at the bottom of a submerged object then exceeds that at the top, resulting in a net upward [[buoyancy]] force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. Objects of higher density than that of the displaced fluid then sink. For example, regions of warmer low-density air rise, while those of colder high-density air sink. This creates a circulating flow: convection.

Gravity drives natural convection. Without gravity, convection does not occur, so there is no convection in free-fall ([[inertial]]) environments, such as that of the orbiting International Space Station. Natural convection can occur when there are hot and cold regions of either air or water, because both water and air become less dense as they are heated. But, for example, in the world's oceans it also occurs due to salt water being heavier than fresh water, so a layer of salt water on top of a layer of fresher water will also cause convection.

Natural convection has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers because of its presence both in nature and engineering applications. In nature, convection cells formed from air raising above sunlight-warmed land or water are a major feature of all weather systems. Convection is also seen in the rising plume of hot air from [[fire]], [[plate tectonics]], oceanic currents ([[thermohaline circulation]]) and sea-wind formation (where upward convection is also modified by [[Coriolis force]]s). In engineering applications, convection is commonly visualized in the formation of microstructures during the cooling of molten metals, and fluid flows around shrouded heat-dissipation fins, and solar ponds. A very common industrial application of natural convection is free air cooling without the aid of fans: this can happen on small scales (computer chips) to large scale process equipment.

Natural convection will be more likely and more rapid with a greater variation in density between the two fluids, a larger acceleration due to gravity that drives the convection or a larger distance through the convecting medium. Natural convection will be less likely and less rapid with more rapid diffusion (thereby diffusing away the thermal gradient that is causing the convection) or a more viscous (sticky) fluid.

The onset of natural convection can be determined by the [[Rayleigh number]] ('''Ra''').

Differences in buoyancy within a fluid can arise for reasons other than temperature variations, in which case the fluid motion is called '''gravitational convection''' (see below). However, all types of buoyant convection, including natural convection, do not occur in [[microgravity]] environments. All require the presence of an environment which experiences [[g-force]] ([[proper acceleration]]).

The difference of [[density]] in the fluid is the key driving mechanism. If the differences of density are caused by heat, this force is called as "thermal head" or "thermal driving head." A fluid system designed for natural circulation will have a heat source and a [[heat sink]]. Each of these is in contact with some of the fluid in the system, but not all of it. The heat source is positioned lower than the heat sink.

Most fluids expand when heated, becoming less [[density|dense]], and contract when cooled, becoming denser. At the heat source of a system of natural circulation, the heated fluid becomes lighter than the fluid surrounding it, and thus rises. At the heat sink, the nearby fluid becomes denser as it cools, and is drawn downward by gravity. Together, these effects create a flow of fluid from the heat source to the heat sink and back again.

===Gravitational or buoyant convection===
'''Gravitational convection''' is a type of natural convection induced by buoyancy variations resulting from material properties other than temperature. Typically this is caused by a variable composition of the fluid. If the varying property is a concentration gradient, it is known as '''solutal convection'''.<ref>{{cite journal|citeseerx=10.1.1.15.8288 |title=Pattern Formation in Solutal Convection: Vermiculated Rolls and Isolated Cells |journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications |volume=314 |issue=1 |pages=291 |bibcode=2002PhyA..314..291C |last1=Cartwright |first1=Julyan H. E. |author1-link = Julyan Cartwright |last2=Piro |first2=Oreste |last3=Villacampa |first3=Ana I. |year=2002 |doi=10.1016/S0378-4371(02)01080-4 }}</ref> For example, gravitational convection can be seen in the diffusion of a source of dry salt downward into wet soil due to the buoyancy of fresh water in saline.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Raats|first= P. A. C. |year=1969 |title=Steady Gravitational Convection Induced by a Line Source of Salt in a Soil|journal = Soil Science Society of America Proceedings |volume = 33 |pages = 483–487 | doi=10.2136/sssaj1969.03615995003300040005x |issue=4|bibcode=1969SSASJ..33..483R}}</ref>

Variable [[salinity]] in water and variable water content in air masses are frequent causes of convection in the oceans and atmosphere which do not involve heat, or else involve additional compositional density factors other than the density changes from thermal expansion (see ''[[thermohaline circulation]]''). Similarly, variable composition within the Earth's interior which has not yet achieved maximal stability and minimal energy (in other words, with densest parts deepest) continues to cause a fraction of the convection of fluid rock and molten metal within the Earth's interior (see below).

Gravitational convection, like natural thermal convection, also requires a [[g-force]] environment in order to occur.

===Solid-state convection in ice===
[[Sputnik Planitia#Convection cells|Ice convection on Pluto]] is believed to occur in a soft mixture of [[nitrogen ice]] and [[carbon monoxide]] ice. It has also been proposed for [[Europa (moon)|Europa]],<ref name="On convection in ice I shells of ou">{{cite journal| doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.03.004 | bibcode=2006Icar..183..435M | volume=183 | issue=2 | title=On convection in ice I shells of outer Solar System bodies, with detailed application to Callisto | year=2006 | journal=Icarus | pages=435–450 | last1 = McKinnon | first1 = William B.}}</ref> and other bodies in the outer Solar System.<ref name="On convection in ice I shells of ou"/>

===Thermomagnetic convection===
{{main|Thermomagnetic convection}}
'''Thermomagnetic convection''' can occur when an external magnetic field is imposed on a [[ferrofluid]] with varying [[magnetic susceptibility]]. In the presence of a temperature gradient this results in a nonuniform magnetic body force, which leads to fluid movement. A ferrofluid is a liquid which becomes strongly magnetized in the presence of a [[magnetic field]].

===Combustion===
In a [[zero-gravity]] environment, there can be no buoyancy forces, and thus no convection possible, so flames in many circumstances without gravity smother in their own waste gases. Thermal expansion and chemical reactions resulting in expansion and contraction gases allows for ventilation of the flame, as waste gases are displaced by cool, fresh, oxygen-rich gas. moves in to take up the low pressure zones created when flame-exhaust water condenses.

==Examples and applications==
Systems of natural circulation include [[tornado]]es and other [[weather|weather systems]], [[ocean current]]s, and household [[Ventilation (architecture)|ventilation]]. Some solar water heaters use natural circulation. The [[Gulf Stream]] circulates as a result of the evaporation of water. In this process, the water increases in salinity and density. In the North Atlantic Ocean, the water becomes so dense that it begins to sink down.

Convection occurs on a large scale in [[Earth atmosphere|atmosphere]]s, oceans, [[planet]]ary [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]]s, and it provides the mechanism of heat transfer for a large fraction of the outermost interiors of the Sun and all stars. Fluid movement during convection may be invisibly slow, or it may be obvious and rapid, as in a [[hurricane]]. On astronomical scales, convection of gas and dust is thought to occur in the accretion disks of [[black hole]]s, at speeds which may closely approach that of light.

===Demonstration experiments===
[[File:Thermal circulation.png|thumb|Thermal circulation of air masses]]
Thermal convection in liquids can be demonstrated by placing a heat source (for example, a [[Bunsen burner]]) at the side of a container with a liquid. Adding a dye to the water (such as food colouring) will enable visualisation of the flow.<ref>{{Citation|title=Convection Experiment - GCSE Physics|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MBFUfld_5i0| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/MBFUfld_5i0| archive-date=2021-12-11 | url-status=live|language=en|access-date=2021-05-11}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Convection Experiment|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8H06ZA2xmo| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/B8H06ZA2xmo| archive-date=2021-12-11 | url-status=live|language=en|access-date=2021-05-11}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Another common experiment to demonstrate thermal convection in liquids involves submerging open containers of hot and cold liquid coloured with dye into a large container of the same liquid without dye at an intermediate temperature (for example, a jar of hot tap water coloured red, a jar of water chilled in a fridge coloured blue, lowered into a clear tank of water at room temperature).<ref>{{Citation|title=Convection Current Lab Demo|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBGT6UPTgWE| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/JBGT6UPTgWE| archive-date=2021-12-11 | url-status=live|language=en|access-date=2021-05-11}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

A third approach is to use two identical jars, one filled with hot water dyed one colour, and cold water of another colour. One jar is then temporarily sealed (for example, with a piece of card), inverted and placed on top of the other. When the card is removed, if the jar containing the warmer liquid is placed on top no convection will occur. If the jar containing colder liquid is placed on top, a convection current will form spontaneously.<ref>{{Citation|title=Colorful Convection Currents - Sick Science! #075|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RCO90hvEL1I| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/RCO90hvEL1I| archive-date=2021-12-11 | url-status=live|language=en|access-date=2021-05-11}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Convection in gases can be demonstrated using a candle in a sealed space with an inlet and exhaust port. The heat from the candle will cause a strong convection current which can be demonstrated with a flow indicator, such as smoke from another candle, being released near the inlet and exhaust areas respectively.<ref>{{Citation|title=Convection in gases|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6VZZtB7yjmA| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/6VZZtB7yjmA| archive-date=2021-12-11 | url-status=live|language=en|access-date=2021-05-11}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

===Double diffusive convection===
{{main|Double diffusive convection}}

===Convection cells===
{{main|Convection cell}}
[[File:ConvectionCells.svg|thumb|right|300px|Convection cells in a gravity field]]

A '''convection cell''', also known as a '''[[Bénard cell]]''', is a characteristic fluid flow pattern in many convection systems. A rising body of fluid typically loses heat because it encounters a colder surface. In liquid, this occurs because it exchanges heat with colder liquid through direct exchange. In the example of the Earth's atmosphere, this occurs because it radiates heat. Because of this heat loss the fluid becomes denser than the fluid underneath it, which is still rising. Since it cannot descend through the rising fluid, it moves to one side. At some distance, its downward force overcomes the rising force beneath it, and the fluid begins to descend. As it descends, it warms again and the cycle repeats itself. Additionally, convection cells can arise due to density variations resulting from differences in the composition of electrolytes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Colli |first1=A.N. |last2=Bisang |first2=J.M. |title=Exploring the Impact of Concentration and Temperature Variations on Transient Natural Convection in Metal Electrodeposition: A Finite Volume Method Analysis |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |date=2023 |volume=170 |issue=8 |pages=083505 |doi=10.1149/1945-7111/acef62 |bibcode=2023JElS..170h3505C |s2cid=260857287 |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1945-7111/acef62/meta}}</ref>

===Atmospheric convection===
{{main|Atmospheric convection}}

====Atmospheric circulation====
{{main|Atmospheric circulation}}
[[File:Earth Global Circulation.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Idealised depiction of the global circulation on Earth]]

'''Atmospheric circulation''' is the large-scale movement of air, and is a means by which [[thermal energy]] is distributed on the surface of the [[Earth]], together with the much slower (lagged) ocean circulation system. The large-scale structure of the [[atmospheric circulation]] varies from year to year, but the basic climatological structure remains fairly constant.

Latitudinal circulation occurs because incident solar [[radiation]] per unit area is highest at the [[heat equator]], and decreases as the [[latitude]] increases, reaching minima at the poles. It consists of two primary convection cells, the [[Hadley cell]] and the [[polar vortex]], with the [[Hadley cell]] experiencing stronger convection due to the release of [[latent heat]] energy by [[condensation]] of [[water vapor]] at higher altitudes during cloud formation.

Longitudinal circulation, on the other hand, comes about because the [[ocean]] has a higher specific heat capacity than land (and also [[thermal conductivity]], allowing the heat to penetrate further beneath the surface ) and thereby absorbs and releases more [[heat]], but the [[temperature]] changes less than land. This brings the sea breeze, air cooled by the water, ashore in the day, and carries the land breeze, air cooled by contact with the ground, out to sea during the night. Longitudinal circulation consists of two cells, the [[Walker circulation]] and [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation|El Niño / Southern Oscillation]].
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====Weather====
{{see also|Cloud|Thunderstorm|Wind}}
[[File:foehn1.svg|right|thumb|300px|How Foehn is produced]]

Some more localized phenomena than global atmospheric movement are also due to convection, including wind and some of the [[hydrologic cycle]]. For example, a [[foehn wind]] is a down-slope wind which occurs on the downwind side of a mountain range. It results from the [[adiabatic]] warming of air which has dropped most of its moisture on windward slopes.<ref name="MT">{{cite web|first=Michael|last=Pidwirny|year=2008|url=http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8e.html|title=CHAPTER 8: Introduction to the Hydrosphere (e). Cloud Formation Processes|publisher=Physical Geography|access-date=2009-01-01|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220230524/http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8e.html|archive-date=2008-12-20}}</ref> Because of the different adiabatic lapse rates of moist and dry air, the air on the leeward slopes becomes warmer than at the same height on the windward slopes.

A [[thermal column]] (or thermal) is a vertical section of rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earth's atmosphere. Thermals are created by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface from solar radiation. The Sun warms the ground, which in turn warms the air directly above it. The warmer air expands, becoming less dense than the surrounding air mass, and creating a [[thermal low]].<ref>{{cite web|agency=National Weather Service Forecast Office in [[Tucson, Arizona]]|year=2008|url=http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/twc/monsoon/monsoon_whatis.php|title=What is a monsoon?|publisher=National Weather Service Western Region Headquarters|access-date=2009-03-08|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623140647/http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/twc/monsoon/monsoon_whatis.php|archive-date=2012-06-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1 = Douglas G. | last1 = Hahn | author2-link = Syukuro Manabe | first2 = Syukuro | last2 = Manabe |year=1975|bibcode=1975JAtS...32.1515H|title=The Role of Mountains in the South Asian Monsoon Circulation|journal=[[Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences]]|volume=32|issue=8|pages=1515–1541|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032<1515:TROMIT>2.0.CO;2|issn=1520-0469|doi-access=free}}</ref> The mass of lighter air rises, and as it does, it cools by expansion at lower air pressures. It stops rising when it has cooled to the same temperature as the surrounding air. Associated with a thermal is a downward flow surrounding the thermal column. The downward moving exterior is caused by colder air being displaced at the top of the thermal. Another convection-driven weather effect is the [[sea breeze]].<ref>University of Wisconsin. [http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/wxwise/seabrz.html Sea and Land Breezes.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704184333/http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/wxwise/seabrz.html |date=2012-07-04 }} Retrieved on 2006-10-24.</ref><ref name="Jet">JetStream: An Online School For Weather (2008). [http://www.srh.weather.gov/srh/jetstream/ocean/seabreezes.htm The Sea Breeze.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923233344/http://www.srh.weather.gov/srh/jetstream/ocean/seabreezes.htm |date=2006-09-23 }} [[National Weather Service]]. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.</ref>

[[File:Thunderstorm formation.jpg|thumb|500px|Stages of a thunderstorm's life.]]
Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warm air rises within cooler air,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDtIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA462 |title=Civil engineers' pocket book: a reference-book for engineers, contractors|first = Albert Irvin | last = Frye|page=462|publisher=D. Van Nostrand Company|year=1913|access-date=2009-08-31}}</ref> similar to [[hot air balloon]]s.<ref>{{cite book
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ssO_19TRQ9AC&q=Kongming+balloon&pg=PA112
| title = Ancient Chinese Inventions
| first = Yikne | last = Deng
| publisher = Chinese International Press
| isbn=978-7-5085-0837-5
| year=2005
| pages = 112–13
| access-date = 2009-06-18}}</ref> Clouds form as relatively warmer air carrying moisture rises within cooler air. As the moist air rises, it cools, causing some of the [[water vapor]] in the rising packet of air to [[condensation|condense]].<ref>{{cite web|agency=FMI|year=2007|url=http://www.zamg.ac.at/docu/Manual/SatManu/main.htm?/docu/Manual/SatManu/CMs/FgStr/backgr.htm|title=Fog And Stratus – Meteorological Physical Background|publisher=Zentralanstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik|access-date=2009-02-07|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706085616/http://www.zamg.ac.at/docu/Manual/SatManu/main.htm?%2Fdocu%2FManual%2FSatManu%2FCMs%2FFgStr%2Fbackgr.htm|archive-date=2011-07-06}}</ref> When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as [[latent heat]] of condensation which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than its surrounding air,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RRSzR4NQdGkC&pg=PA20 |title=Storm world: hurricanes, politics, and the battle over global warming| first = Chris C. | last = Mooney|page=20|isbn=978-0-15-101287-9|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2007|access-date=2009-08-31}}</ref> continuing the cloud's ascension. If enough [[Convective available potential energy|instability]] is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for [[Cumulonimbus|cumulonimbus clouds]] to form, which support lightning and thunder. Generally, thunderstorms require three conditions to form: moisture, an unstable airmass, and a lifting force (heat).

All [[thunderstorm]]s, regardless of type, go through three stages: the '''developing stage''', the '''mature stage''', and the '''dissipation stage'''.<ref name="Extreme Weather">{{cite book |title=Extreme Weather |first=Michael H. |last=Mogil |year=2007 |publisher=Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher |location=New York |isbn=978-1-57912-743-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/extremeweatherun0000mogi/page/210 210–211] |url=https://archive.org/details/extremeweatherun0000mogi/page/210 }}</ref> The average thunderstorm has a {{convert|24|km|mi|abbr=on}} diameter. Depending on the conditions present in the atmosphere, these three stages take an average of 30 minutes to go through.<ref name="tsbasics">{{cite web|url=http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/tstorm/tst_basics.html|title=A Severe Weather Primer: Questions and Answers about Thunderstorms|agency=National Severe Storms Laboratory|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|date=2006-10-15|access-date=2009-09-01|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825000832/http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/tstorm/tst_basics.html|archive-date=2009-08-25}}</ref>

===Oceanic circulation===
{{Main|Gulf Stream|Thermohaline circulation}}
[[File:Conveyor belt.svg|Ocean currents|thumb|200px|right]]

Solar radiation affects the oceans: warm water from the Equator tends to circulate toward the [[geographical pole|pole]]s, while cold polar water heads towards the Equator. The surface currents are initially dictated by surface wind conditions. The [[trade winds]] blow westward in the tropics,<ref>{{cite web |title=trade winds |work=Glossary of Meteorology |publisher=American Meteorological Society |year=2009 |access-date=2008-09-08 |url=http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=trade-winds1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211050708/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=trade-winds1 |archive-date=2008-12-11 }}</ref> and the [[westerlies]] blow eastward at mid-latitudes.<ref>Glossary of Meteorology (2009). [http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=westerlies1 Westerlies.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622073904/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=westerlies1 |date=2010-06-22 }} [[American Meteorological Society]]. Retrieved on 2009-04-15.</ref> This wind pattern applies a [[stress (physics)|stress]] to the subtropical ocean surface with negative [[curl (mathematics)|curl]] across the [[Northern Hemisphere]],<ref>Matthias Tomczak and J. Stuart Godfrey (2001). [http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/regoc/pdffiles/colour/double/04P-Ekman-left.pdf Regional Oceanography: an Introduction.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090914120630/http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/regoc/pdffiles/colour/double/04P-Ekman-left.pdf |date=2009-09-14 }} Matthias Tomczak, pp. 42. {{ISBN|81-7035-306-8}}. Retrieved on 2009-05-06.</ref> and the reverse across the [[Southern Hemisphere]]. The resulting [[Sverdrup transport]] is equatorward.<ref>Earthguide (2007). [http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/parkerprogram/berger/pdf/OcnBasLesson06.pdf Lesson 6: Unraveling the Gulf Stream Puzzle - On a Warm Current Running North.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723104316/http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/parkerprogram/berger/pdf/OcnBasLesson06.pdf |date=2008-07-23 }} [[University of California]] at San Diego. Retrieved on 2009-05-06.</ref> Because of conservation of [[potential vorticity]] caused by the poleward-moving winds on the [[subtropical ridge]]'s western periphery and the increased relative vorticity of poleward moving water, transport is balanced by a narrow, accelerating poleward current, which flows along the western boundary of the ocean basin, outweighing the effects of friction with the cold western boundary current which originates from high latitudes.<ref>Angela Colling (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=tFJRLhSez_YC&pg=PA90 Ocean circulation.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180302144439/https://books.google.com/books?id=tFJRLhSez_YC&pg=PA90 |date=2018-03-02 }} Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 96. Retrieved on 2009-05-07.</ref> The overall process, known as western intensification, causes currents on the western boundary of an ocean basin to be stronger than those on the eastern boundary.<ref>National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (2009). [http://www.science-house.org/nesdis/gulf/background.html Investigating the Gulf Stream.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100503013457/http://www.science-house.org/nesdis/gulf/background.html |date=2010-05-03 }} [[North Carolina State University]]. Retrieved on 2009-05-06.</ref>

As it travels poleward, warm water transported by strong warm water current undergoes evaporative cooling. The cooling is wind driven: wind moving over water cools the water and also causes [[evaporation]], leaving a saltier brine. In this process, the water becomes saltier and denser. and decreases in temperature. Once sea ice forms, salts are left out of the ice, a process known as brine exclusion.<ref>{{cite web |last=Russel |first=Randy |title=Thermohaline Ocean Circulation |url=http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Water/thermohaline_ocean_circulation.html |publisher=University Corporation for Atmospheric Research |access-date=2009-01-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325062339/http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Water/thermohaline_ocean_circulation.html |archive-date=2009-03-25 }}</ref> These two processes produce water that is denser and colder. The water across the northern [[Atlantic Ocean]] becomes so dense that it begins to sink down through less salty and less dense water. (This [[open ocean convection]] is not unlike that of a [[lava lamp]].) This downdraft of heavy, cold and dense water becomes a part of the [[North Atlantic Deep Water]], a south-going stream.<ref>{{cite web |last=Behl |first=R. |title=Atlantic Ocean water masses |url=http://seis.natsci.csulb.edu/rbehl/NADW.htm |publisher=[[California State University]] Long Beach |access-date=2009-01-06|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080523170145/http://seis.natsci.csulb.edu/rbehl/NADW.htm |archive-date = May 23, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>
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===Mantle convection===
{{main|Mantle convection}}
[[File:Accretion-Subduction.PNG|thumb|right|250px|An [[oceanic plate]] is added to by upwelling (left) and consumed at a [[subduction]] zone (right).]]

'''Mantle convection''' is the slow creeping motion of Earth's rocky mantle caused by convection currents carrying heat from the interior of the Earth to the surface.<ref name="University of Winnipeg">{{cite web | date = 2002-12-16 | last1 = Kobes | first1 = Randy | first2 = Gabor | last2 = Kunstatter | url = http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/mod_tech/node195.html | title = Mantle Convection | publisher = Physics Department, University of Winnipeg | access-date = 2010-01-03 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110114151750/http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/mod_tech/node195.html | archive-date = 2011-01-14 }}</ref> It is one of 3 driving forces that causes tectonic plates to move around the Earth's surface.<ref name=Condie>{{cite book |title=Plate tectonics and crustal evolution |first=Kent C. |last=Condie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HZrA6OQzsvgC&pg=PA5 |page=5 |isbn=978-0-7506-3386-4 |year=1997 |edition=4th |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029161501/http://books.google.com/books?id=HZrA6OQzsvgC&pg=PA5 |archive-date=2013-10-29 }}</ref>

The Earth's surface is divided into a number of [[tectonic]] plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries. Creation ([[Accretion (geology)|accretion]]) occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate. This hot added material cools down by conduction and convection of heat. At the consumption edges of the plate, the material has thermally contracted to become dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction at an ocean trench. This subducted material sinks to some depth in the Earth's interior where it is prohibited from sinking further. The subducted oceanic crust triggers volcanism.

Convection within [[Earth's mantle]] is the driving force for [[plate tectonics]]. Mantle convection is the result of a thermal gradient: the lower mantle is hotter than the [[upper mantle (Earth)|upper mantle]], and is therefore less dense. This sets up two primary types of instabilities. In the first type, plumes rise from the lower mantle, and corresponding unstable regions of [[lithosphere]] drip back into the mantle. In the second type, subducting oceanic plates (which largely constitute the upper thermal boundary layer of the mantle) plunge back into the mantle and move downwards towards the [[core-mantle boundary]]. Mantle convection occurs at rates of centimeters per year, and it takes on the order of hundreds of millions of years to complete a cycle of convection.

Neutrino flux measurements from the Earth's core (see [[kamLAND]]) show the source of about two-thirds of the heat in the inner core is the [[radioactive decay]] of [[potassium|40K]], uranium and thorium. This has allowed plate tectonics on Earth to continue far longer than it would have if it were simply driven by heat left over from Earth's formation; or with heat produced from [[gravitational energy|gravitational potential energy]], as a result of physical rearrangement of denser portions of the Earth's interior toward the center of the planet (that is, a type of prolonged falling and settling).
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===Stack effect===
{{Main|Stack effect}}
The '''Stack effect''' or '''chimney effect''' is the movement of air into and out of buildings, chimneys, flue gas stacks, or other containers due to buoyancy. Buoyancy occurs due to a difference in indoor-to-outdoor air density resulting from temperature and moisture differences. The greater the thermal difference and the height of the structure, the greater the buoyancy force, and thus the stack effect. The stack effect helps drive natural ventilation and infiltration. Some [[cooling tower]]s operate on this principle; similarly the [[solar updraft tower]] is a proposed device to generate electricity based on the stack effect.

===Stellar physics===
{{main|Convection zone|granule (solar physics)}}
[[File:Structure of Stars (artist’s impression).jpg|thumb|right|300px|An illustration of the structure of the [[Sun]] and a [[red giant]] star, showing their convective zones. These are the granular zones in the outer layers of these stars.]]

The convection zone of a star is the range of radii in which energy is transported outward from the [[stellar core|core region]] primarily by convection rather than [[Radiation zone|radiation]]. This occurs at radii which are sufficiently [[Opacity (optics)|opaque]] that convection is more efficient than radiation at transporting energy.<ref>{{cite book
| title=Discovering the Cosmos
| first=Robert C. | last=Bless | year=1996
| page=310 | isbn=9780935702675
| publisher=University Science Books
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jC47sk3mfjcC&pg=PA310 }}</ref>

Granules on the [[photosphere]] of the Sun are the visible tops of convection cells in the photosphere, caused by convection of [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] in the photosphere. The rising part of the granules is located in the center where the plasma is hotter. The outer edge of the granules is darker due to the cooler descending plasma. A typical granule has a diameter on the order of 1,000 kilometers and each lasts 8 to 20 minutes before dissipating. Below the photosphere is a layer of much larger "supergranules" up to 30,000 kilometers in diameter, with lifespans of up to 24 hours.
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===Water convection at freezing temperatures===
[[Water]] is a fluid that does not obey the Boussinesq approximation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Banaszek|first1=J.|last2=Jaluria|first2=Y.|last3=Kowalewski|first3=T. A.|last4=Rebow|first4=M.|date=1999-10-01|journal=Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A: Applications|language=en|volume=36|issue=5|pages=449–472|doi=10.1080/104077899274624|issn=1040-7782|title=Semi-Implicit Fem Analysis of Natural Convection in Freezing Water|bibcode=1999NHTA...36..449B|s2cid=3740709 }}</ref> This is because its density varies nonlinearly with temperature, which causes its thermal expansion coefficient to be inconsistent near freezing temperatures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-density-specific-weight-d_595.html|title=Water - Density, Specific Weight and Thermal Expansion Coefficient|website=www.engineeringtoolbox.com|language=en|access-date=2018-12-01}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=http://polymer.bu.edu/hes/articles/ds03.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060301224729/http://polymer.bu.edu/hes/articles/ds03.pdf |archive-date=2006-03-01 |url-status=live|title=Supercooled and Glassy Water|last1=Debenedetti|first1=Pablo G.|date=June 2003|work=Physics Today|access-date=1 December 2018|last2=Stanley|first2=H. Eugene}}</ref> The [[density of water]] reaches a maximum at 4 °C and decreases as the temperature deviates. This phenomenon is investigated by experiment and numerical methods.<ref name=":0" /> Water is initially stagnant at 10 °C within a square cavity. It is differentially heated between the two vertical walls, where the left and right walls are held at 10 °C and 0 °C, respectively. The density anomaly manifests in its flow pattern.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Giangi|first1=Marilena|last2=Stella|first2=Fulvio|last3=Kowalewski|first3=Tomasz A.|date=December 1999|title=Phase change problems with free convection: fixed grid numerical simulation|journal=Computing and Visualization in Science|language=en|volume=2|issue=2–3|pages=123–130|doi=10.1007/s007910050034|issn=1432-9360|citeseerx=10.1.1.31.9300|s2cid=3756976 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tong|first1=Wei|last2=Koster|first2=Jean N.|date=December 1993|title=Natural convection of water in a rectangular cavity including density inversion|journal=International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow|volume=14|issue=4|pages=366–375|doi=10.1016/0142-727x(93)90010-k|issn=0142-727X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ezan|first1=Mehmet Akif|last2=Kalfa|first2=Mustafa|date=October 2016|title=Numerical investigation of transient natural convection heat transfer of freezing water in a square cavity|journal=International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow|volume=61|pages=438–448|doi=10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2016.06.004|issn=0142-727X}}</ref> As the water is cooled at the right wall, the density increases, which accelerates the flow downward. As the flow develops and the water cools further, the decrease in density causes a recirculation current at the bottom right corner of the cavity.

Another case of this phenomenon is the event of [[Supercooling|super-cooling]], where the water is cooled to below freezing temperatures but does not immediately begin to freeze.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Moore|first1=Emily B.|last2=Molinero|first2=Valeria|date=November 2011|title=Structural transformation in supercooled water controls the crystallization rate of ice|journal=Nature|language=En|volume=479|issue=7374|pages=506–508|doi=10.1038/nature10586|pmid=22113691|issn=0028-0836|arxiv=1107.1622|bibcode=2011Natur.479..506M|s2cid=1784703 }}</ref> Under the same conditions as before, the flow is developed. Afterward, the temperature of the right wall is decreased to −10 °C. This causes the water at that wall to become supercooled, create a counter-clockwise flow, and initially overpower the warm current.<ref name=":0" /> This plume is caused by a delay in the [[Nucleation of ice|nucleation of the ice]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Once ice begins to form, the flow returns to a similar pattern as before and the solidification propagates gradually until the flow is redeveloped.<ref name=":0" />

===Nuclear reactors===
In a [[nuclear reactor]], natural circulation can be a design criterion. It is achieved by reducing turbulence and friction in the fluid flow (that is, minimizing [[head loss]]), and by providing a way to remove any inoperative pumps from the fluid path. Also, the reactor (as the heat source) must be physically lower than the steam generators or turbines (the heat sink). In this way, natural circulation will ensure that the fluid will continue to flow as long as the reactor is hotter than the heat sink, even when power cannot be supplied to the pumps. Notable examples are the [[S5G reactor|S5G]]
<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/history/tech-3.html| publisher=Chief of Naval Operations Submarine Warfare Division| title=Technical Innovations of the Submarine Force| access-date=2006-03-12| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060127003651/http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/history/tech-3.html| archive-date=2006-01-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://ar.inel.gov/images/pdf/200506/2005061600214ALL.pdf| title=Appendix C, Attachment to NR:IBO-05/023, Evaluation of Naval Reactors Facility Radioactive Waste Disposed of at the Radioactive Waste Management Complex| access-date=2006-03-12| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204154809/http://ar.inel.gov/images/pdf/200506/2005061600214ALL.pdf| archive-date=2012-02-04| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Edward Monroe |last2=Roderick |first2=Shawn S. |title=Submarine Torpedo Tactics: An American History |date=4 November 2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-9646-4 |page=153 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6F6QBQAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>
and [[S8G reactor|S8G]]<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ship.bsu.by/main.asp?id=100092| script-title=ru:Энциклопедия кораблей /Ракетные ПЛ /Огайо| access-date=2006-03-12| language=ru| archive-date=2006-07-14| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060714151444/http://ship.bsu.by/main.asp?id=100092| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.submarinesonstamps.co.il/openhist.php?ID=269| title=The Ohio, US Navy's nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine| access-date=2006-03-12 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060720075350/http://www.submarinesonstamps.co.il/openhist.php?ID=269  |archive-date = 2006-07-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://tech.military.com/equipment/viewEquipment.do?eq_id=89213| title=Members-only feature, registration required| access-date=2006-03-12| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223130956/http://tech.military.com/equipment/viewEquipment.do?eq_id=89213| archive-date=2007-02-23| url-status=dead}}</ref> [[United States Naval reactor]]s, which were designed to operate at a significant fraction of full power under natural circulation, quieting those propulsion plants. The [[S6G reactor]] cannot operate at power under natural circulation, but can use it to maintain emergency cooling while shut down.

By the nature of natural circulation, fluids do not typically move very fast, but this is not necessarily bad, as high flow rates are not essential to safe and effective reactor operation. In modern design nuclear reactors, flow reversal is almost impossible. All nuclear reactors, even ones designed to primarily use natural circulation as the main method of fluid circulation, have pumps that can circulate the fluid in the case that natural circulation is not sufficient.

==Mathematical models of convection==
A number of dimensionless terms have been derived to describe and predict convection, including the [[Archimedes number]], [[Grashof number]], [[Richardson number]], and the [[Rayleigh number]].

In cases of mixed convection (natural and forced occurring together) one would often like to know how much of the convection is due to external constraints, such as the fluid velocity in the pump, and how much is due to natural convection occurring in the system.

The relative magnitudes of the [[Grashof number]] and the square of the [[Reynolds number]] determine which form of convection dominates. If <math>\rm Gr/Re^2 \gg 1 </math>, forced convection may be neglected, whereas if <math>\rm Gr/Re^2 \ll 1 </math>, natural convection may be neglected. If the ratio, known as the [[Richardson number#Thermal convection|Richardson number]], is approximately one, then both forced and natural convection need to be taken into account.

===Onset===
{{See also|Heat transfer}}
The onset of natural convection is determined by the [[Rayleigh number]] ('''Ra'''). This [[dimensionless number]] is given by

:<math>\textbf{Ra} = \frac{\Delta\rho g L^3}{D\mu}</math>

where

*<math>\Delta \rho</math> is the difference in density between the two parcels of material that are mixing
*<math>g</math> is the local [[gravitational acceleration]]
*<math>L</math> is the characteristic length-scale of convection: the depth of the boiling pot, for example
*<math>D</math> is the [[diffusivity]] of the characteristic that is causing the convection, and
*<math>\mu</math> is the [[dynamic viscosity]].

Natural convection will be more likely and/or more rapid with a greater variation in density between the two fluids, a larger acceleration due to gravity that drives the convection, and/or a larger distance through the convecting medium. Convection will be less likely and/or less rapid with more rapid diffusion (thereby diffusing away the gradient that is causing the convection) and/or a more viscous (sticky) fluid.

For thermal convection due to heating from below, as described in the boiling pot above, the equation is modified for thermal expansion and thermal diffusivity. Density variations due to thermal expansion are given by:

:<math>\Delta\rho=\rho_0 \beta \Delta T</math>

where

*<math>\rho_0</math> is the reference density, typically picked to be the average density of the medium,
*<math>\beta</math> is the [[coefficient of thermal expansion]], and
*<math>\Delta T</math> is the temperature difference across the medium.

The general diffusivity, <math>D</math>, is redefined as a [[thermal diffusivity]], <math>\alpha</math>.

:<math>D=\alpha</math>

Inserting these substitutions produces a Rayleigh number that can be used to predict thermal convection.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-521-66624-4|author1=Donald L. Turcotte |author2=Gerald Schubert. |year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|title=Geodynamics}}</ref>

:<math>\textbf{Ra} = \frac{\rho_0 g \beta \Delta T L^3}{\alpha \mu}</math>

===Turbulence===
The tendency of a particular naturally convective system towards turbulence relies on the [[Grashof number]] (Gr).<ref>{{cite book |author1=Kays, William |author2=Crawford, Michael |author3=Weigand, Bernhard | title=Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, 4E | publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional | year=2004 | isbn=978-0072990737}}</ref>

:<math> Gr= \frac{g \beta \Delta T L^3}{\nu^2} </math>

In very sticky, viscous fluids (large ''ν''), fluid motion is restricted, and natural convection will be non-turbulent.

Following the treatment of the previous subsection, the typical fluid velocity is of the order of <math>g \Delta \rho L^2 / \mu</math>, up to a numerical factor depending on the geometry of the system. Therefore, Grashof number can be thought of as [[Reynolds number]] with the velocity of natural convection replacing the velocity in Reynolds number's formula. However In practice, when referring to the Reynolds number, it is understood that one is considering forced convection, and the velocity is taken as the velocity dictated by external constraints (see below).

===Behavior===
The [[Grashof number]] can be formulated for natural convection occurring due to a [[concentration gradient]], sometimes termed thermo-solutal convection. In this case, a concentration of hot fluid diffuses into a cold fluid, in much the same way that ink poured into a container of water diffuses to dye the entire space. Then:

:<math> Gr= \frac{g \beta \Delta C L^3}{\nu^2} </math>

Natural convection is highly dependent on the geometry of the hot surface, various correlations exist in order to determine the heat transfer coefficient.
A general correlation that applies for a variety of geometries is

: <math>Nu = \left[Nu_0^\frac{1}{2} + Ra^ \frac{1}{6} \left(\frac {f_4\left(Pr\right)}{300}\right)^\frac{1}{6} \right]^2 </math>

The value of f4(Pr) is calculated using the following formula

: <math>f_4(Pr)= \left[1+ \left ( \frac {0.5}{Pr} \right )^\frac{9}{16} \right]^\frac{-16}{9}</math>

Nu is the [[Nusselt number]] and the values of Nu0 and the characteristic length used to calculate Re are listed below (see also Discussion):

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Geometry'''
! '''Characteristic length'''
! '''Nu0'''
|-
| Inclined plane
| x (Distance along plane)
| 0.68
|-
| Inclined disk
| 9D/11 (D = diameter)
| 0.56
|-
| Vertical cylinder
| x (height of cylinder)
| 0.68
|-
| Cone
| 4x/5 (x = distance along sloping surface)
| 0.54
|-
| Horizontal cylinder
| <math>\pi D/2</math> (D = diameter of cylinder)
| 0.36<math>\pi</math>
|}
'''Warning''': The values indicated for the '''Horizontal cylinder''' are '''wrong'''; see discussion.

==Natural convection from a vertical plate==
One example of natural convection is heat transfer from an isothermal vertical plate immersed in a fluid, causing the fluid to move parallel to the plate. This will occur in any system wherein the density of the moving fluid varies with position. These phenomena will only be of significance when the moving fluid is minimally affected by forced convection.<ref name=unitop>{{cite book | author= W. McCabe J. Smith | title=Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering | publisher=McGraw-Hill | year=1956 | isbn= 978-0-07-044825-4}}</ref>

When considering the flow of fluid is a result of heating, the following correlations can be used, assuming the fluid is an ideal diatomic, has adjacent to a vertical plate at constant temperature and the flow of the fluid is completely laminar.<ref name=bennett>{{cite book | author=Bennett | title=Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer | url=https://archive.org/details/momentumheatmass00benn | url-access=registration | publisher=McGraw-Hill | year=1962 | isbn = 978-0-07-004667-2 }}</ref>

Num = 0.478(Gr0.25)<ref name=bennett />

Mean [[Nusselt number]] = Num = hmL/k<ref name=bennett />

where

*hm = mean coefficient applicable between the lower edge of the plate and any point in a distance L (W/m2. K)
*L = height of the vertical surface (m)
*k = thermal conductivity (W/m. K)

[[Grashof number]] = Gr = <math>[gL^3(t_s-t_\infty)]/v^2T</math> <ref name=unitop /><ref name=bennett />

where

*g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
*L = distance above the lower edge (m)
*ts = temperature of the wall (K)
*t∞ = fluid temperature outside the thermal boundary layer (K)
*v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s)
*T = absolute temperature (K)

When the flow is turbulent different correlations involving the Rayleigh Number (a function of both the [[Grashof number]] and the [[Prandtl number]]) must be used.<ref name=bennett />

Note that the above equation differs from the usual expression for [[Grashof number]] because the value <math>\beta</math> has been replaced by its approximation <math>1/T</math>, which applies for ideal gases only (a reasonable approximation for air at ambient pressure).

==Pattern formation==
[[Image:Convection1.png|thumb|right|A fluid under [[Rayleigh–Bénard convection]]: the left picture represents the thermal field and the right picture its two-dimensional [[Fourier transform]].]]

Convection, especially [[Rayleigh–Bénard convection]], where the convecting fluid is contained by two rigid horizontal plates, is a convenient example of a [[Pattern formation|pattern-forming system]].

When heat is fed into the system from one direction (usually below), at small values it merely diffuses (''conducts'') from below upward, without causing fluid flow. As the heat flow is increased, above a critical value of the [[Rayleigh number]], the system undergoes a [[Bifurcation theory|bifurcation]] from the stable ''conducting'' state to the ''convecting'' state, where bulk motion of the fluid due to heat begins. If fluid parameters other than density do not depend significantly on temperature, the flow profile is symmetric, with the same volume of fluid rising as falling. This is known as [[Boussinesq approximation (buoyancy)|Boussinesq]] convection.

As the temperature difference between the top and bottom of the fluid becomes higher, significant differences in fluid parameters other than density may develop in the fluid due to temperature. An example of such a parameter is [[viscosity]], which may begin to significantly vary horizontally across layers of fluid. This breaks the symmetry of the system, and generally changes the pattern of up- and down-moving fluid from stripes to hexagons, as seen at right. Such hexagons are one example of a [[convection cell]].

As the [[Rayleigh number]] is increased even further above the value where convection cells first appear, the system may undergo other bifurcations, and other more complex patterns, such as [[spiral]]s, may begin to appear.

==See also==
{{cmn|
* [[Convection-diffusion equation]]
* [[Bénard cells]]
* [[Churchill–Bernstein equation]]
* [[Combined forced and natural convection]]
* [[Double diffusive convection]]
* [[Forced convection]]
* [[Fluid dynamics]]
* [[Heat exchanger]]
* [[Heat transfer#Convection|Heat transfer]]
**[[Convection (heat transfer)|Convective heat transfer]]
* [[Laser-heated pedestal growth]]
* [[Natural ventilation]]
* [[Nusselt number]]
* [[Pressure head]]
* [[Thermomagnetic convection]]
* [[Vortex tube]]
* [[Convective mixing]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Convection}}
{{Fluid Mechanics}}
{{Meteorological variables}}
{{Portal bar|Physics|Astronomy|Solar System|Weather}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Fluid mechanics]]
[[Category:Physical phenomena]]

Tion Wayne

2024-06-17T20:53:27Z

131.111.5.201: change edmonton link to london edmonton

{{Short description|British rapper (born 1993)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Tion Wayne
| image = Tion wayne.webp
| caption =
| birth_name = Dennis Junior Odunwo<ref name="bristol">{{cite web |url=https://www.bristolpost.co.uk/news/bristol-news/grime-star-tion-wayne-stamped-754319 |title=Grime star Tion Wayne stamped on a man's head during mass brawl outside Clifton nightclub |last=Bennett |first=Geoffrey |publisher=[[Bristol Live]] |date=9 November 2017}}</ref>
| alias = T Wizzy
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1993|9|1|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Edmonton, London|Edmonton]], [[Greater London|London]], England<ref name="ES"/>
| origin =
| genre = {{flatlist|
* [[British hip hop]]
* [[afroswing]]
* [[UK drill]]
}}
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Rapper
* DJ
}}
| years_active = 2010–present<ref name="Guardian"/>
| label = {{flatlist|
* [[Warner Music UK]]
* [[Atlantic Records UK]]
}}
| website =
| associated_acts = {{flatlist|
* [[M24 (rapper)|M24]]
* [[Jay1]]
* [[KSI]]
* [[NSG (group)|NSG]]
* [[Swarmz]]
* [[Dutchavelli]]
* [[Stormzy]]
* [[Russ Millions]]
* [[Sidhu Moosewala]]
}}
}}
'''Dennis Junior Odunwo'''<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-09-17 |title=Rapper Tion Wayne: 'Police don't want us to win, they want us in jail' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/sep/17/rapper-tion-wayne-police-dont-want-us-to-win-they-want-us-in-jail |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> (born 1 September 1993),<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Tion Wayne {{!}} full Official Chart History {{!}} Official Charts Company |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/49992/tion-wayne/ |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=www.officialcharts.com}}</ref> known professionally as '''Tion Wayne''', is a Nigerian-British rapper and DJ from [[Edmonton]], North London.<ref name="Guardian">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/oct/13/tion-wayne-review-o2-academy-brixton-london |title=Tion Wayne review – enthrallingly glossy anthems and joyful productions |last=Aniefiok |first=Ekpoudom |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=13 October 2019}}</ref><ref name="ES">{{cite news|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/go/london/music/virtually-famous-tion-wayne-i-dunno-a4473306.html |title=Virtually Famous: Tion Wayne |last=Embley |first=Jochan |publisher=[[Evening Standard]] |date=19 June 2020}}</ref>

He appeared on three top-10 singles on [[UK Singles Chart]] as a guest – [[NSG (group)|NSG]]'s "[[Options (NSG song)|Options]]", "Keisha & Becky" with [[Russ Millions]] and [[KSI]]'s track "[[Houdini (rapper)|Houdini]]" – before getting his first top 10 hit as the lead artist with "[[I Dunno (Tion Wayne song)|I Dunno]]" featuring [[Dutchavelli]] and [[Stormzy]], which peaked at number 7, and having his first number 1 with "[[Body (Russ Millions and Tion Wayne song)|Body]]" alongside [[Russ Millions]].<ref name="ES"/><ref name=":1" />

==Early life==
Dennis Junior Odunwo was born in [[Edmonton]], North London.<ref name="ES"/><ref name="Guardian"/><ref name=":0" /> His parents are immigrants from [[Nigeria]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://notion.online/tion-wayne/ |title=Tion Wayne |last=Kane |first=David |work=Notion Online |date=8 May 2020}}</ref> His mother was a nurse and his father was a computer engineer. He is a middle child and wanted to become an accountant.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/music/tion-wayne-rapper-interview-stormzy-headie-one-new-album-b920927.html |title=Tion Wayne interview |last=Smyth |first=David |work=[[Evening Standard]] |date=9 April 2021|quote=I was good at maths, I love money - I was going to be an accountant.}}</ref>

==Career==
Odunwo began to make a name for himself in the music scene in 2010 after dropping a handful of videos on [[YouTube]].<ref name="ES"/><ref name="Guardian"/><ref name=":0" /> By 2014, he had released his first mixtape, titled ''Wayne's World''.<ref name="allmusic">{{cite web |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/tion-wayne-mn0003666177/biography |title=Tion Wayne {{!}} Biography & History |publisher=AllMusic}}</ref> Odunwo slowly began building a loyal following. By 2016, he had supported artists such as American rapper [[Rick Ross]] and [[Ghana]]ian artist [[Sarkodie (rapper)|Sarkodie]].<ref name="allmusic"/> His follow-up mixtape, ''Wayne's World Vol. 2'', was also released that year. In 2017, Odunwo released ''Transition EP''.<ref name="allmusic"/> He made his [[UK Singles Chart]]-debut in early 2019 when he was featured on [[London]]-based group [[NSG (group)|NSG]]'s single "[[Options (NSG song)|Options]]", which peaked at number seven.<ref name="charts">{{cite web |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/49992/tion-wayne/ |title=Tion Wayne {{!}} full Official Chart History |publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]}}</ref> He also released ''Wayne's World 3'' in 2019.<ref name="charts"/>

His single "Keisha & Becky" with fellow British rapper [[Russ Millions]] also reached the UK top 10, peaking at number seven.<ref name="charts"/> In 2020, Odunwo was featured, alongside rapper and singer [[Swarmz]], and rapper [[KSI]]'s single "[[Houdini (KSI song)|Houdini]]".<ref name="forbes">{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/hughmcintyre/2020/05/30/btss-suga-the-1975-gunna-and-ksi-chart-new-top-10-albums-in-the-uk/#6c4f77eb4822 |title=BTS's Suga, The 1975, Gunna And KSI Chart New Top 10 Albums In The U.K. |work=[[Forbes]]}}</ref> The single peaked at number six in the [[UK Singles Charts]].<ref name="charts"/><ref name="forbes"/> Soon after that, he released his single "[[I Dunno (Tion Wayne song)|I Dunno]]" featuring [[Dutchavelli]] and [[Stormzy]], which also reached the UK top 10, peaking at number seven.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.complex.com/music/2020/05/tion-wayne-dutchavelli-stormzy-i-dunno |title=Tion Wayne, Dutchavelli, Stormzy Shake Things Up With New Drop "I Dunno" |work=[[Complex Magazine|Complex]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/hughmcintyre/2020/06/06/dababy-and-roddy-ricch-replace-lady-gaga-and-ariana-grande-at-no-1-on-the-uk-singles-chart/#fa2a3975b0d8 |title=DaBaby And Roddy Ricch Replace Lady Gaga And Ariana Grande At No. 1 On The U.K. Singles Chart |work=[[Forbes]]}}</ref>

In 2021, Tion Wayne released "[[Body (Russ Millions and Tion Wayne song)|Body]]", a second collaboration with [[Russ Millions]]. A remix was released on 22 April. The song charted at number 1 on the [[UK Singles Chart]], becoming the first [[UK drill]] song to chart at number 1.

In May 2023, Tion Wayne went to the residence of late rapper [[Sidhu Moose Wala]] at his village in [[Punjab, India]]. He also went to pay his respect to his parents and film a music video for the song "Healing". Tion Wayne and Moosewala previously collaborated on the track "Celebrity Killer" in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tion Wayne Set For Release With Sidhu Moosewala |url=https://britasia.tv/tion-wayne-set-for-release-with-sidhu-moosewala/ |website=BritAsiaTv|date=2 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Tion Wayne Salutes Late Rapper Sidhu Moose Wala In New "Healing" Video |work=Complex |url=https://www.complex.com/music/tion-wayne-healing}}</ref>

==Controversies==
On 4 March 2017, Odunwo was involved in a brawl outside a nightclub in [[Clifton, Bristol|Clifton]], [[Bristol]]<ref name=":0" /> where he was among the performers who had been DJing at the venue.<ref name="Guardian"/> The brawl involved more than 100 people.<ref name="Guardian"/> Odunwo, along with three other men, were sentenced at [[Bristol Crown Court]] on 9 November.<ref name="Guardian"/> Odunwo was jailed for 16 months.<ref name="bristol"/><ref name="charts"/>

On 17 November 2020, Odunwo was involved in an altercation with rapper [[Headie One]] on board a flight from Dubai to London in which the rapper [[Morrisson (rapper)|Morrisson]] tried to break up shortly after boarding.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 November 2020|title=Headie One and Tion Wayne in 'altercation' on Dubai flight – reports say|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/headie-one-tion-wayne-fight-dubai-video-b1724333.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220621/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/headie-one-tion-wayne-fight-dubai-video-b1724333.html |archive-date=21 June 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=18 November 2020|website=The Independent|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hitc.com/en-gb/2020/11/18/morrisson-tion-wayne/|title=Who is Morrisson? Rapper responds to Tion Wayne and Headie One fight!|first=Kate|last=Fowler|date=18 November 2020|website=HITC}}</ref>

== Discography ==
===Studio albums===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of studio albums, with selected details
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:9em;"| Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:22em;"| Details
! scope="col" colspan="5"| Peak chart positions
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[UK Albums Chart|UK]] <ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/49992/tion-wayne/|title=Tion Wayne | full Official Chart History|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[UK R&B Chart|UK R&B/HH]] <ref>Peaks on the UK R&B Albums Chart:
* ''Green With Envy'': {{Cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-albums-chart/20210924/115/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Albums Chart Top 40|publisher=Official Charts Company|language=en|access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Ultratop|BEL (FL)]] <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ultratop.be/nl/album/765a9/Tion-Wayne-Green-With-Envy|title=Tion Wayne – Green with Envy|publisher=[[Ultratop]]|language=nl|access-date=26 September 2021}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Irish Albums Chart|IRE]] <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/irish-albums-chart/20210924/ie7502|title=Official Irish Albums Chart Top 50|publisher=Official Charts Company|date=24 September 2021|access-date=25 September 2021}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Dutch Album Top 100|NLD]] <ref name="NLD">{{cite web|url=https://dutchcharts.nl/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Tion+Wayne|title=Discografie Tion Wayne|website=dutchcharts.nl|language=nl|access-date=24 September 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| ''Green With Envy''
|
* Released: 17 September 2021<ref name="NLD"/>
* Label: [[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]]
* Formats: [[Compact disc|CD]], [[music download|digital download]], [[Streaming audio|streaming]], [[Cassette tape|cassette]]
| 5 || 3 || 164 || 33 || 93
|}

===Mixtapes===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of mixtapes, with selected details
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:11em;"| Title
! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" |Year
! scope="col" colspan="1"| Peak chart positions
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[UK Albums Chart|UK]] <ref name="charts"/>
|-
! scope="row"| ''Wayne's World''
|2014
| —
|-
! scope="row"| ''Wayne's World 2''
|2016
| —
|-
! scope="row"| ''T Wayne's World 3''
|2019
| 62
|-
| colspan="14" style="font-size:85%"| "—" denotes a mixtape that did not chart or was not released in that territory.
|}

=== Singles ===
==== As lead artist ====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:24em;"|Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:1em;"| Year
! scope="col" colspan="10"| Peak chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Certifications
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Album
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[UK Singles Chart|UK]] <ref name="auto"/>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[UK R&B Chart|UK R&B/HH]] <ref name="RandB">Peak R&B chart positions in the UK:
* For "Options": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20190215/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart Top 40: 15 February 2019 - 21 February 2019|date=15 February 2019|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Bally": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20190308/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart Top 40: 8 March 2019 - 14 March 2019|date=8 March 2019|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Keisha & Becky": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20190419/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 19 April 2019 - 25 April 2019|date=19 April 2019|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Drive By": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20190621/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 21 June 2019 - 27 June 2019|date=21 June 2019|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "2 on 2": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20191004/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 4 October 2019 - 10 October 2019|date=4 October 2019|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "London": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20200214/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 14 February 2020 - 20 February 2020|date=14 February 2020|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Houdini": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20200501/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 1 May 2020 - 7 May 2020|date=1 May 2020|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "I Dunno": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20200605/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 5 June 2020 - 11 June 2020|date=5 June 2020|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Deluded": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20201106/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 6 November 2020 - 12 November 2020|date=6 November 2020|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Body": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20210430/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 30 April 2021 - 6 May 2021|date=30 April 2021|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Wow": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20210611/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 11 June 2021 - 17 June 2021|date=11 June 2021|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Wid It": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20210827/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 27 August 2021 - 2 September 2021|date=27 August 2021|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Who's True": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20210924/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 24 September 2021 - 30 September 2021|date=24 September 2021|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Knock Knock": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20220225/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 25 February 2022 - 3 March 2022|date=25 February 2022|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Night Away (Dance)": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20220311/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 11 March 2022 - 17 March 2022|date=11 March 2022|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "IFTK": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20220610/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 10 June 2022 - 16 June 2022|date=10 June 2022|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Let's Go": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20221014/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 14 October 2022 - 20 October 2022|date=14 October 2022|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Healing": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20230512/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 12 May 2023 - 18 May 2023|date=12 May 2023|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* For "Amen": {{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-hip-hop-and-r-and-b-singles-chart/20230908/114/|title=Official Hip Hop and R&B Singles Chart 40: 8 September 2023 - 14 September 2023|date=8 September 2023|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[ARIA Charts|AUS]] <ref name="AUS">{{cite web|url=https://australian-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Tion+Wayne|title=Tion Wayne Australian Charts Discography|publisher=australian-charts.com|accessdate=19 May 2024}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Canadian Hot 100|CAN]] <ref name="CAN">{{cite magazine|title=Tion Wayne Chart History: Canadian Hot 100|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/tion-wayne/chart-history/can/|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Hitlisten|DEN]] <ref name="DEN">{{cite web|url=http://danishcharts.dk/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Tion+Wayne|title=danishcharts.dk – Discography Tion Wayne|website=danishcharts.dk|accessdate=19 May 2024}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Irish Singles Chart|IRE]] <ref name="IRMA">{{cite web|url=http://irish-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Tion+Wayne|title=irishcharts.com - Discography Tion Wayne|website=irishcharts.com|access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Dutch Single Top 100|NLD]] <ref name="NLD"/>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Official New Zealand Music Chart|NZ]] <ref name=NZ>{{cite web|title=Discography Tion Wayne|url=https://charts.nz/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Tion+Wayne|website=charts.nz|access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Associação Fonográfica Portuguesa|POR]] <ref name="POR">{{cite web|url=https://portuguesecharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Tion+Wayne|title=Portuguesecharts.com – Tion Wayne|publisher=[[Associação Fonográfica Portuguesa|AFP Top 100 Singles]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Billboard Global 200|WW]] <ref name="WW">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/tion-wayne/chart-history/glo/|title=Billboard Global 200 Chart History: Billboard Global 200|magazine=Billboard|access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| "Streetz Dem" (with Brandz)
| rowspan="4"| 2017
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
| rowspan="7" {{n/a|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row"| "I'm On" (featuring [[Kojo Funds]])
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Gone Bad" (with [[Geko (rapper)|Geko]] and One Acen)
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Cmon" (with [[Hardy Caprio]])
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Home"
| rowspan="3"| 2018
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "On My Life"
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Sweet Thug" (with One Acen)
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Keisha & Becky" (with [[Russ Millions]])
| rowspan="5"| 2019
| 7 || 1 || — || — || — || 44 || — || — || — || —
|
* [[British Phonographic Industry|BPI]]: 2× Platinum<ref name="BPI">{{cite certification|region=United Kingdom|artist=Tion Wayne|access-date=21 July 2023}}</ref>
| ''T Wayne's World 3''
|-
! scope="row"| "Married to the £"
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
| {{n/a|Non-album single}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Drive By" (featuring [[Swarmz]])
| 57 || 30 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
| rowspan="3"| ''T Wayne's World 3''
|-
! scope="row"| "2 On 2" (with [[Jay1]])
| 53 || 40 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "2/10" (featuring One Acen)
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "4AM" (with Manny Norté, 6LACK, Rema featuring Love Renaissance)
| rowspan="3"| 2020
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
| rowspan="3" {{Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row" | "[[I Dunno (Tion Wayne song)|I Dunno]]" (featuring [[Dutchavelli]] and [[Stormzy]])
| 7 || 7 || — || — || — || 30 || — || — || — || —
|
* BPI: Platinum<ref name="BPI"/>
|-
! scope="row"| "Deluded" (featuring [[Mist (rapper)|Mist]])
| 26 || 14 || — || — || — || 83 || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Body (Russ Millions and Tion Wayne song)|Body]]" (with [[Russ Millions]])
| rowspan="3"| 2021
| 1 || 1 || 1 || 16 || 3 || 1 || 3 || 1 || 15 || 11
|
* BPI: 2× Platinum<ref name="BPI"/>
* [[Australian Recording Industry Association|ARIA]]: 2× Platinum<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aria.com.au/charts/hip-hop-r-and-b-singles-chart/2021-11-15|title=ARIA Top 40 Hip Hop/R&B Singles for week of 15 November 2021|publisher=aria.com.au|access-date=December 30, 2021}}</ref>
* [[Music Canada|MC]]: Platinum<ref name="MC cert">{{cite web|url=https://musiccanada.com/gold-platinum/?_gp_search=Tion%20Wayne|title=Gold/Platinum – Tion Wayne|date=24 August 2021|publisher=[[Music Canada]]|access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
* [[IFPI Denmark|IFPI DEN]]: Gold<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ifpi.dk/node/10490|title=Tion Wayne & Russ Millions – Body|publisher=IFPI Denmark|date=17 August 2021|accessdate=19 May 2024}}</ref>
* [[RMNZ]]: Gold<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/singles?chart=5163|title=NZ Top 40 Singles Chart|date=12 July 2021|access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
* [[Associação Fonográfica Portuguesa|AFP]]: Platinum<ref name="AFP">{{cite web | url= https://www.audiogest.pt/uploads/files/file_2022-05-13-15-04-29.pdf | title="Portuguese single certifications – Tion Wayne & Russ Millions – Body" | publisher= [[Associação Fonográfica Portuguesa]] | access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
| rowspan="3"| ''Green with Envy''
|-
! scope="row" | "Wow"
| 21 || 8 || — || — || — || 49 || — || —{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"Wow" did not enter the [[Official New Zealand Music Chart|NZ Top 40 Singles Chart]], but peaked at number 27 on the NZ Hot Singles Chart.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5089|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|date=14 June 2021|access-date=12 June 2021}}</ref>}} || — || —
|
* BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/>
|-
! scope="row"| "Wid It" (with [[ArrDee]]){{efn|group=upper-alpha|"Wid It" is also included on Arrdee's debut mixtape ''[[Pier Pressure (mixtape)|Pier Pressure]]''.}}
| 19 || 6 || — || — || — || 41 || — || —{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"Wid It" did not enter the NZ Top 40 Singles Chart, but peaked at number 12 on the NZ Hot Singles Chart.<ref name="NZ Hot Singles Chart">{{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5208|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|date=27 September 2021|access-date=25 September 2021}}</ref>}} || — || —
|
* BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/>
|-
! scope="row"| "Knock Knock" (with [[M24 (rapper)|M24]])
| rowspan="3"|2022
| 21 || 8 || — || — || — || 42 || — || —{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"Knock Knock" did not enter the NZ Top 40 Singles Chart, but peaked at number 30 on the NZ Hot Singles Chart.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5292|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|date=28 February 2022|access-date=26 February 2022}}</ref>}} || — || —
|
| rowspan="5" {{TBA}}
|-
! scope="row"| "IFTK" (with [[La Roux]])
| 6 || 1 || — || — || — || 10 || — || —{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"IFTK" did not enter the NZ Top 40 Singles Chart, but peaked at number 20 on the NZ Hot Singles Chart.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5334|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|date=23 May 2022|access-date=21 May 2022}}</ref>}} || — || —
|
* BPI: Platinum<ref name="BPI"/>
|-
! scope="row"| "Let's Go" (featuring [[Aitch (rapper)|Aitch]])
| 30 || 11 || — || — || — || 84 || — || —{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"Let's Go" did not enter the NZ Top 40 Singles Chart, but peaked at number 11 on the NZ Hot Singles Chart.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5428|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|date=17 October 2022|access-date=15 October 2022}}</ref>}} || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Healing"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.complex.com/music/tion-wayne-healing|title=Tion Wayne Salutes Late Rapper Sidhu Moose Wala In New "Healing" Video|website=[[Complex Networks|Complex]]|last=Keith|first=James|date=6 May 2023|access-date=9 May 2023}}</ref>
| rowspan="2"|2023
| 35 || 15 || — || — || — || — || — || —{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"Healing" did not enter the NZ Top 40 Singles Chart, but peaked at number 24 on the NZ Hot Singles Chart.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5576|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|date=15 May 2023|access-date=13 May 2023}}</ref>}} || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Amen" (featuring [[Nines (rapper)|Nines]])
| 43 || 18 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Lowkey (LDN Drift)" (with Hedex featuring Takura)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://weraveyou.com/2024/01/hedex-unveils-lowkey-ldn-drift-with-tion-wayne-listen/|title= Hedex unveils 'Lowkey (LDN Drift)' with Tion Wayne |website=We Rave You|date=27 January 2024|access-date=1 February 2024}}</ref>
| 2024

| —{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"Lowkey (LDN Drift)" did not enter the UK Singles Chart Top 100 but debuted at number 97 on the UK Singles Downloads Chart Top 100.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/singles-downloads-chart/20240202/7000/|title=Official Singles Downloads Chart on 2/2/2024 2 February 2024 – 8 February 2024|website=Official Charts|date=2 February 2024|access-date=2 February 2024}}</ref>}} || — || — || — || — || — || — || —{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"Lowkey (LDN Drift)" did not enter the NZ Top 40 Singles Chart, but peaked at number 13 on the NZ Hot Singles Chart.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5753|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|date=5 February 2024|access-date=2 February 2024}}</ref>}} || — || —
|
| {{Non-album single}}
|-
| colspan="14" style="font-size:85%" | "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory.
|}

==== As featured artist ====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:24em;"|Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:1em;"| Year
! scope="col" colspan="6"| Peak chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Certifications
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Album
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[UK Singles Chart|UK]] <ref name="auto"/>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[UK R&B Chart|UK R&B/HH]] <ref name="RandB"/>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[ARIA Charts|AUS]] <ref name="AUS"/>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Irish Singles Chart|IRE]] <ref name="IRMA"/>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Dutch Single Top 100|NLD]] <ref name="NLD"/>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Official New Zealand Music Chart|NZ Hot]] <ref>Peaks on the NZ Hot Singles Chart:
* "Houdini": {{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=4850|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=Recorded Music NZ|date=April 27, 2020|access-date=May 19, 2024}}
* "Night Away (Dance)": {{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5299|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=Recorded Music NZ|date=14 March 2022|access-date=May 19, 2024}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| "Gyaldem Sugar" (Mazi Chukz featuring Tion Wayne)
| rowspan="2"| 2017
| — || — || — || — || — || —
|
| rowspan="2" {{n/a|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Hot Property" (Team Salut featuring Tion Wayne, [[Afro B]] and [[Eugy]])
| — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Options (NSG song)|Options]]" ([[NSG (group)|NSG]] featuring Tion Wayne)
| rowspan="2"| 2018
| 7 || 3 || — || 52 || — || —
|
* BPI: 2× Platinum<ref name="BPI"/>
| Roots
|-
! scope="row"| "Trendy" ([[Cadet (rapper)|Cadet]] featuring Ay Em and Tion Wayne)
| — || — || — || — || — || —
|
| rowspan="3" {{n/a|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Bally" ([[Swarmz]] featuring Tion Wayne)
| 2019
| 32 || 16 || — || — || — || —
|
* BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/>
|-
! scope="row"| "London" ([[M24 (rapper)|M24]] featuring Tion Wayne)
| rowspan="5"| 2020
| 32 || 16 || — || — || — || —
|
* BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/>
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Houdini (KSI song)|Houdini]]" ([[KSI]] featuring [[Swarmz]] and Tion Wayne)
| 6 || 5 || —{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"Houdini" did not enter the [[ARIA Charts|Australian Singles Chart]], but debuted at number 36 on the [[ARIA Charts|Australian Hip Hop/R&B Singles Chart]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aria.com.au/charts/hip-hop-r-and-b-singles-chart/2020-05-04|title=ARIA Top 40 Hip Hop/R&B Singles|publisher=[[ARIA Charts|ARIA]]|accessdate=May 19, 2024}}</ref>}} || 11 || — || 3
|
* BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/>
| ''[[Dissimulation (KSI album)|Dissimulation]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "Moncler" ([[Tinie Tempah|Tinie]] featuring Tion Wayne)
| — || — || — || — || — || —
|
| rowspan="2" {{n/a|Non-album single}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Last Night" ([[B Young]] featuring Tion Wayne)
| — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Come Over (Rudimental song)|Come Over]]" ([[Rudimental]] featuring [[Anne-Marie]] and Tion Wayne)
| 26 || — || — || — || — || —
|
* BPI: Gold<ref name="BPI"/>
| ''Ground Control''
|-
! scope="row"| "Celebrity Killer" ([[Sidhu Moose Wala]] featuring Tion Wayne)
| rowspan="2"| 2021
| — || — || — || — || — || —
|
|''[[Moosetape|MooseTape]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "Blama" ([[Steel Banglez]] featuring Tion Wayne and [[Morrisson (rapper)|Morrisson]])
| 94 || — || — || — || — || —
|
| {{TBA}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Night Away (Dance)" ([[A1 x J1]] featuring Tion Wayne)
| rowspan="3"| 2022
| 11 || 4 || 83 || 21 <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/irish-singles-chart/20220401/ie7501/|title=Top 100 Singles, Week Ending 1 April 2022|publisher=Official Charts Company|access-date=1 April 2022}}</ref> || 42 || 26
|
* BPI: Gold<ref name="BPI"/>
| {{n/a|Non-album single}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Suffer" ([[GRM Daily]] featuring [[Giggs (rapper)|Giggs]] and Tion Wayne)
| — || — || — || — || — || —
|
| {{TBA}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Je M’appelle" (Benzz featuring Tion Wayne & [[French Montana]])
| — || — || — || — || — || —
|
| {{n/a|Non-album single}}
|-
| colspan="14" style="font-size:90%" |"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory.
|}

=== Other charted songs ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:24em;"|Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:1em;"| Year
! scope="col" colspan="2"| Peak chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Album
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[UK Singles Chart|UK]] <ref name="auto"/>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:85%;"| [[Official New Zealand Music Chart|NZ Hot]] <ref name="NZ Hot Singles Chart">{{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5208|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|date=27 September 2021|access-date=25 September 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| "Rock Dat" (featuring [[Polo G]])
| rowspan="2"| 2021
| — || 35
| rowspan="2"| ''Green with Envy''
|-
! scope="row"| "Who's True" (with Jae5 and [[Davido]])
| 50 || —
|}

==Notes==
{{notelist-ua}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Tion Wayne}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wayne, Tion}}
[[Category:1993 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:English DJs]]
[[Category:English people of Nigerian descent]]
[[Category:English male songwriters]]
[[Category:Black British DJs]]
[[Category:Black British male rappers]]
[[Category:English male rappers]]
[[Category:People from Edmonton, London]]
[[Category:Rappers from London]]
[[Category:UK drill musicians]]
[[Category:Gangsta rappers]]

Prisoner Transportation Services

2024-06-17T10:18:29Z

131.111.5.201:

{{short description|US privately-held company}}

'''Prisoner Transportation Services''' is a [[privately held company]] that [[Prisoner transport|moves prisoners from one jurisdiction]] to another in the United States. Established in 2001,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.prisonlegalnews.org/media/issues/09pln06.pdf|title=For-Profit Transportation Companies;Taking Prisoners and the Public for a Ride|last1=Friedmann|first1=Alex|accessdate=23 March 2017|work=Prison Legal News|issue=September 2006}}</ref> it is based in Nashville, Tennessee and headed by Joel Brasfield.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hager|first1=Eli|last2=Santo|first2=Alysia|title=Death on a Prison Bus: Extradition Companies' Safety Improvements Lag |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/23/us/prisoner-transport-vans.html |work=The New York Times|date=23 March 2017}}</ref> It was the largest such firm in the United States and it transports more than 100,000 persons each year. The firm's subsidiaries include U.S. Prisoner Transport and U.S. Corrections. The companies operate [[prisoner transport vehicle]]s ranging in size from four-person automobiles to buses that can transport thirty-five people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Home page|url=http://prisonertransport.net/application.html|publisher=PTS of America|accessdate=23 March 2017}}</ref>

Since 2012, at least five people have died on private extradition vans operated by Prisoner Transportation Services, leading to a Justice Department investigation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Inside the Deadly World of Private Prisoner Transport|url=https://www.themarshallproject.org/2016/07/06/inside-the-deadly-world-of-private-prisoner-transport|publisher=The Marshall Project|accessdate=24 April 2018}}</ref> An April 2018 lawsuit filed against the company alleges negligence, intentional infliction of emotional distress, and violation of [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|14th Amendment]] rights by a detainee held in a Prisoner Transportation Services van for 18 consecutive days.<ref>{{cite web|title=Privately run prisoner transport company kept detainee shackled for 18 days in human waste, lawsuit alleges|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/04/24/privately-run-prisoner-transport-company-kept-detainee-shackled-for-18-days-in-human-waste-lawsuit-alleges/ |work=The Washington Post|accessdate=24 April 2018}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Incarceration in the United States]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Prisoner Transportation Services}}
[[Category:2001 establishments in Tennessee]]
[[Category:Companies based in Nashville, Tennessee]]
[[Category:Transport companies established in 2001]]
[[Category:Penal system in the United States]]
[[Category:Prisoner transport]]

{{prison-stub}}

Judith Bunbury

2024-06-12T22:52:34Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|British geoarchaeologist}}
{{Infobox scientist
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Judith Bunbury
| honorific_suffix =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image = 
| image_size =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1967|02|07|df=yes}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Register of Births, Marriages and Deaths, Droxford District, Volume 6B, Mar 1967 qtr, page 520|url=https://www.freebmd.org.uk/cgi/search.pl|access-date=13 September 2022}}</ref>
| birth_place =
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates = 
| other_names = Judith Mervyn Richardson-Bunbury JM Richardson-Bunbury Judith Richardson-Bunbury J Bunbury
| siglum =
| pronounce =
| citizenship =
| nationality = British
| fields =
| workplaces = University of Cambridge
| patrons =
| education =
| alma_mater = [[Durham University]] [[New Hall, Cambridge]]
| thesis_title = The basalts of Kula and their relation to extension in Western Turkey
| thesis_url = 
| thesis_year = 1992
| thesis2_year =
| doctoral_advisors = [[Dan McKenzie (geophysicist)|Dan McKenzie]]
| academic_advisors =
| doctoral_students =
| notable_students =
| known_for =
| influences =
| influenced =
| awards =
| author_abbrev_bot =
| author_abbrev_zoo =
| spouse = Jonathan Collis
| partner = 
| children = 2
| parents =
| father =
| mother =
| relatives =
| signature = 
| signature_alt =
| website = 
| footnotes =
}}

'''Judith Mervyn Richardson-Bunbury''', known professionally as '''Judith Bunbury''', is a British [[geoarchaeologist]]. Bunbury was the senior tutor at [[St Edmund's College, Cambridge]] until 2023. Her work has characterised the movement of the river across the [[Nile]] valley over the last 10,000 years, and its impact on Egyptian civilisation.<ref name="SEdCollCambs2022">{{cite web |title=Dr Judith Bunbury Senior Tutor and Teaching Associate Department Earth Sciences |url=https://www.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/people/dr-judith-bunbury |website=St Edmund's College, University of Cambridge |access-date=13 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://women50.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/eddies50/2-judith-bunbury-senior-tutor/|accessdate=13 September 2022|title=St Edmund's College}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
The daughter of a [[Royal Navy]] officer, Bunbury studied [[Natural Sciences]] at [[Durham University]], where she specialised in geology and geophysics, and realised she enjoyed fieldwork. Inspired by a lecture from the [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] geophysicist [[Dan McKenzie (geophysicist)|Dan McKenzie]], she asked to do a PhD with him, awarded in 1992. This was a study of [[basalts]] from Turkey.<ref name="Bunbury_J_2022" /><ref name="Richardson-Bunbury-Cambridge-thesis1992">{{cite thesis |title=The basalts of Kula and their relation to extension in Western Turkey. |url=https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.281904 |website=British Library | year=1992 |access-date=13 September 2022| type=Ph.D | last1=Richardson-Bunbury | first1=Judith Mervyn }}</ref>

==Career==
Following the completion of her doctorate, Bunbury worked as a postdoc at the [[British Institute at Ankara|Institute of Archaeology in Ankara]] in Turkey (1993–1994). She joined the Department of Earth Sciences at the [[University of Cambridge]] as a [[research fellow]] in 1994. Bunbury worked on a new project at University of Cambridge in development of [[mass spectrometry]] equipment to estimate how the rocks of the [[Himalayas]] were dissolving.<ref name="Bunbury_J_2022" />

Her skills and experience were then applied to archaeological sites in Egypt. It was development of methods to apply [[geological boring|geological auger boring]] techniques to these sites, as well as photographs from the air and satellites, that led to a new consensus that the course of the river in the Nile valley had moved very substantially over the millennia, causing profound impacts such as on the location of buildings. For example, the precise sites of buildings in the [[Karnak]] temple complex depended on where the river Nile was at the time each was built. The details of waste from human settlements and sediments retrieved in the boring core samples allowed dating and interpretation for the changing uses of the location, as sites changed between dry land and river, marsh or lakes.<ref name="Bunbury_J_2022" /> She works in collaboration with archaeologists to characterise the materials found in cores of sediments in sites in Egypt, especially the [[Nile Valley]] and other places of archaeological interest.<ref name="Schiestl2021">{{cite journal |last1=Schiestl |first1=Robert |title=Book Review: The Nile and Ancient Egypt. Changing Land- and Waterscapes, from the Neolithic to the Roman Era |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |date=2021 |volume=107 |issue=1–2 |pages=299–302 |doi=10.1177/03075133211043541 |s2cid=244873833 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/03075133211043541 |access-date=13 September 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref>

From 2015 onwards her research focus moved address how climate change had resulted in changes in landscapes, through surveying locations in the Sahara. This led to reinterpretation of landscapes such as the Valley of the Kings as having trees, lakes and animal life 3500 years ago, rather than being sand deserts.<ref name="Bunbury_J_2022" />

In 2022 she was a guest on ''[[The Life Scientific]]'' on [[BBC Radio 4]].<ref name="Bunbury_J_2022">{{cite web |title=Judith Bunbury on the shifting River Nile in the time of the Pharaohs|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m001byyc|accessdate=13 September 2022}}</ref>

==Personal life==
She married Canon Jonathan Collis. He was curate at [[St Neots]], chaplain at [[Jesus College, Cambridge]] and the vicar of [[Thorpe Bay]] for twelve years until 2021. A daughter was born in 2001, and another daughter was born in 2005.<ref name="Bunbury_J_2022" /><ref>{{cite journal|journal=St Edmund's Record|title=Personalia|date=2007}}</ref>

==Publications==
Bunbury is the author or co-author of several books and over 40 scientific publications. The books include:

* Judith Bunbury (2019) ''The Nile and Ancient Egypt. Changing Land- and Waterscapes, from the Neolithic to the Roman Era'' Cambridge University Press pp 181 {{ISBN|9781107012158}}

Her most significant scientific publications include:

* B. T. Pennington, J. Bunbury, and N. Hovius, (2016) Emergence of civilization, changes in fluvio-deltaic style, and nutrient redistribution forced by Holocene sea-level rise. ''Geoarchaeology'' '''31''' (3) 194–210.
* JK Hillier, JM Bunbury, A Graham (2007) Monuments on a migrating Nile. ''Journal of Archaeological Science'' '''34''' (7) 1011-1015
* T Ahmad, N Harris, M Bickle, H Chapman, J Bunbury, C Prince (2000) Isotopic constraints on the structural relationships between the lesser Himalayan series and the high Himalayan crystalline series, Garhwal Himalaya ''Geological Society of America Bulletin'' '''112''' (3) 467-477
* I Shaw, J Bunbury, R Jameson (1999) Emerald mining in Roman and Byzantine Egypt. ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'' '''12 '''203-215

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m001byyc The Life Scientific: Judith Bunbury on the shifting River Nile in the time of the Pharaohs]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Bunbury, Judith}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:British geologists]]
[[Category:Women geologists]]
[[Category:20th-century British geologists]]
[[Category:20th-century British women scientists]]
[[Category:21st-century British geologists]]
[[Category:21st-century British women scientists]]
[[Category:Fellows of St Edmund's College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Alumni of New Hall, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Alumni of St Aidan's College, Durham]]

Marjolein Robertson

2024-06-10T14:59:50Z

131.111.5.201: Removed redundant words in references to Shetland

{{Short description|Scottish stand-up comedian}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
[[File:Marjolein Robertson (sq cropped).jpg|thumb|Marjolein Robertson in March 2024]]
'''Marjolein Robertson''' (born 1990)<ref name="guard-6jun2024">{{cite news |last1=Moore |first1=Anna |title=The period that almost killed me: ‘My mam was told, if you take her home, she won’t last the night’ |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/article/2024/jun/06/the-period-that-almost-killed-me-my-mam-was-told-if-you-take-her-home-she-wont-last-the-night |access-date=6 June 2024 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=6 June 2024}}</ref> is a Scottish [[Stand-up comedy|stand-up comedian]] and actress from [[Shetland]]. She was ''Scots Speaker of the Year''. She has appeared at the [[Edinburgh Festival Fringe|Edinburgh Fringe]] and her 2023 show "Marj" was nominated for an award.

==Early and personal life==
Robertson's father is Scottish and her mother is Dutch.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://projects.handsupfortrad.scot/scotslanguageawards/scots-language-awards-2022-marjolein-robertson/|website=Handsupfortrad.scot|title= Scots Language Awards 2022: Marjolein Robertson|accessdate=1 November 2023}}</ref> She was born and brought up<ref name=story>{{Cite web |title=Scottish Storytelling Centre |url=https://scottishstorytellingcentre.online.red61.co.uk/event/913:4092/ |access-date=2024-03-30 |language=en-GB}}</ref> in a Christian background on [[Shetland]]. Robertson attended university in [[Edinburgh]]. She has a diagnosis of [[ADHD]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chortle.co.uk/review/2022/08/20/51542/marjolein_robertson%3A_thank_god_fish_dont_have_hands|website=Chortle|accessdate=1 November 2023|title= Marjolein Robertson: Thank God Fish Don't Have Hands|first=Steve|last=Bennett|date=20 August 2022}}</ref>

Since she was 16, Robertson has suffered from [[adenomyosis]], causing abnormally heavy and debilitating menstrual periods. She has incorporated her experience and frustration with getting proper care for her condition into her comedy routines.<ref name=guard-6jun2024 />

In 2019 Robertson moved to [[Glasgow]], but returned to Shetland when she could no longer perform during the [[Covid-19 pandemic]]. Whilst the country was in [[lockdown]] she performed comedy online and worked in care.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/arts-and-culture/theatre-and-stage/the-scotsman-sessions-20-marjolein-robertson-2542392|website=The Scotsman|accessdate=1 November 2023|title= The Scotsman Sessions #20: Marjolein Robertson|first=Jay|last=Richardson|date=17 August 2020}}</ref>

==Career==
Robertson lived briefly in [[Amsterdam]] performing [[improvisational comedy]] where she was encouraged to try [[Stand-up comedy|stand-up comedy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecourier.co.uk/fp/entertainment/4791735/marjolein-robertson/|website=The Courier|accessdate=1 November 2023|title= ‘I’m oblivious to red flags’: Marjolein Robertson on dating, Daniel Sloss and David Cameron ahead of Dundee gig|first=Rebecca|last=Baird|date=27 October 2023}}</ref> She made her [[Edinburgh Fringe Festival]] debut after only a handful of gigs and would write and practise her act in Shetland on her own to an empty room.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chortle.co.uk/features/2023/07/30/53670/how_i_spaffed_away_my_edinburgh_fringe_debut|website=Chortle|accessdate=1 November 2023|title= How I spaffed away my Edinburgh Fringe debut|date=5 August 2023}}</ref>
[[File:Marjolein Robertson on 30 March 2024 at the Heart of Hawick (sq cropped).jpg|thumb|Marjolein Robertson in March 2024 at the Heart of Hawick]]
In 2022, Robertson received funding to write an almanac in the Shetland dialect.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-61859131|date=20 June 2022|accessdate=1 November 2023|website=BBC News|title= George Orwell's Animal Farm to be translated into Scots}}</ref> At the 2022 Edinburgh Fringe Festival Robertson performed a one-woman show at The Stand comedy club entitled ''Thank God Fish Don’t Have Hands''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.edinburghlive.co.uk/news/edinburgh-news/edinburgh-fringe-comedian-disgusted-heckler-24727698.amp|website=Edinburgh Live|accessdate=1 November 2023|title= Edinburgh Fringe comedian hits back after man makes 'creepy comment' to her|first=Sian|last=Traynor|date=11 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chortle.co.uk/news/2022/08/11/51435/comic_shares_her_disgust_at_sexist_heckle|website=Chortle|accessdate=1 November 2023|title= Comic shares her disgust at sexist heckle|date=11 August 2022}}</ref> In September 2022, she won in the Scots Speaker of the Year category at the Scots Leid Awards.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.shetlandtimes.co.uk/2022/09/25/robertson-picks-up-scots-award|date=25 September 2022|accessdate=1 November 2023|website=Shetland Times|title=Robertson picks up Scots award}}</ref> The following month she reached the final of the [[BBC New Comedy Awards]] after winning the regional Scottish heat.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.shetnews.co.uk/2022/10/19/marjolein-makes-it-through-to-final-of-bbc-new-comedy-awards/|website=Shetnews.co.uk|accessdate=1 November 2023|title= Marjolein makes it through to final of BBC New Comedy Awards|date=22 October 2022|first=Chris|last=Cope}}</ref> In 2022 she was awarded second place in the final of the [[Funny Women]] awards.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://funnywomen.com/2022/11/25/meet-stage-award-runner-up-2022-marjolein-robertson/#google_vignette|website=Funnywomen.com|accessdate=1 November 2023|title= MEET 2022 STAGE AWARD RUNNER UP MARJOLEIN ROBERTSON!!|date=
November 25, 2022}}</ref>

At the 2023 Edinburgh Festival, Robertson performed an eponymous one-woman stand-up show ''Marj''. The show was nominated for best show at the (ISH) Edinburgh Comedy Awards 2023 alongside acts such as [[Ed Byrne (comedian)|Ed Byrne]], [[Luke Kempner]] and [[Paul Foot (comedian)|Paul Foot]].<ref>{{cite web|title=(ISH) Edinburgh Comedy Awards 2023 shortlist|date=21 August 2023|accessdate=1 November 2023|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/fringe/news/7493/ish-edinburgh-comedy-awards-2023-shortlist/|website=Comedy.co.uk}}</ref> At the 2023 Fringe she also appeared in the historical play ''Me, Myself and Mary (Queen of Scots)''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/fringe/2023/me-myself-mary-queen-of-scots/|title= Marjolein Robertson|accessdate=1 November 2023|website=Comedy.co.uk}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|10775747}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Robertson, Marjolein}}
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Scottish women comedians]]
[[Category:Scottish stand-up comedians]]
[[Category:People from Shetland]]

Resistive random-access memory

2024-06-10T10:12:35Z

131.111.5.201: /* Intrensic */

{{short description|Novel type of computer memory}}
{{See also|Electrochemical random-access memory}}
{{Lead too short|date=August 2014}}
{{Memory types}}
'''Resistive random-access memory''' ('''ReRAM''' or '''RRAM''') is a type of [[non-volatile]] (NV) [[random-access memory|random-access]] (RAM) computer memory that works by changing the resistance across a [[dielectric]] solid-state material, often referred to as a [[memristor]]. One major advantage of ReRAM over other NVRAM technologies is the ability to scale below 10nm.

ReRAM bears some similarities to [[Programmable metallization cell|conductive-bridging RAM]] (CBRAM) and [[phase-change memory]] (PCM) in that they change dielectric material properties. CBRAM involves one electrode providing ions that dissolve readily in an electrolyte material, while PCM involves generating sufficient Joule heating to effect amorphous-to-crystalline or crystalline-to-amorphous phase changes. By contrast, ReRAM involves generating defects in a thin oxide layer, known as oxygen vacancies (oxide bond locations where the oxygen has been removed), which can subsequently charge and drift under an electric field. The motion of oxygen ions and vacancies in the oxide would be analogous to the motion of electrons and holes in a semiconductor.

Although ReRAM was initially seen as a replacement technology for [[flash memory]], the cost and performance benefits of ReRAM have not been enough for companies to proceed with the replacement. Apparently, a broad range of materials can be used for ReRAM. However, the discovery<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lee|first1=H. Y.|last2=Chen|first2=P. S.|last3=Wu|first3=T. Y.|last4=Chen|first4=Y. S.|last5=Wang|first5=C. C.|last6=Tzeng|first6=P. J.|last7=Lin|first7=C. H.|last8=Chen|first8=F.|last9=Lien|first9=C. H.|last10=Tsai|first10=M. J.|title=2008 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting |chapter=Low power and high speed bipolar switching with a thin reactive Ti buffer layer in robust HfO2 based RRAM |date=2008|pages=1–4|doi=10.1109/IEDM.2008.4796677|isbn=978-1-4244-2377-4|s2cid=26927991}}</ref> that the popular [[High-κ dielectric|high-κ]] gate dielectric [[Hafnium(IV) oxide|HfO2]] can be used as a low-voltage ReRAM has encouraged researchers to investigate more possibilities.

RRAM is the registered [[trademark]] name of [[Sharp Corporation]], a Japanese electronic components manufacturer, in some countries, including members of the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite web|title=RRAM: Trademark 003062791|url=https://euipo.europa.eu/eSearch/#details/trademarks/003062791|website=euipo.europa.eu|publisher=EUIPO}}</ref>

An energy-efficient chip called NeuRRAM fixes an old design flaw to run large-scale AI algorithms on smaller devices, reaching the same accuracy as digital computers, at least for applications needing only a few million bits of neural state. As NeuRRAM is an analog technology, it suffers from the same analog noise problems that plague other analog semiconductors. While this is a handicap, many neural processors do not need bit-perfect state storage to do useful work.<ref>{{cite web|title=NeuRRAM|url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/a-brain-inspired-chip-can-run-ai-with-far-less-energy-20221110/|website=www.quantamagazine.org|publisher=Simon's Foundation}}</ref>

== History ==
In the early 2000s, ReRAMs were under development by a number of companies, some of which filed patent applications claiming various implementations of this technology.<ref>{{US patent|6531371}}</ref><ref>{{US patent|7292469}}</ref><ref>{{US patent|6867996}}</ref> ReRAM has entered commercialization on an initially limited KB-capacity scale.{{citation needed|reason=previous cite was essentially a blank page|date=November 2020}}

In February 2012, [[Rambus]] bought a ReRAM company called Unity Semiconductor for $35 million.<ref name="UnityRambus2012">{{Citation |last=Mellor |first=Chris |date=7 February 2012|title=Rambus drops $35m for Unity Semiconductor|url=http://www.channelregister.co.uk/2012/02/07/rambus_unity_semiconductor/}}</ref> [[Panasonic]] launched a ReRAM evaluation kit in May 2012, based on a [[tantalum oxide]] 1T1R (1 transistor – 1 resistor) memory cell architecture.<ref>{{cite press release |title=the new microcontrollers with on-chip non-volatile memory ReRAM |url=http://panasonic.co.jp/corp/news/official.data/data.dir/jn120515-1/jn120515-1.html |publisher=Panasonic |date=May 15, 2012 |access-date=May 16, 2012}}</ref>

In 2013, [[Crossbar (computer hardware manufacturer)|Crossbar]] introduced an ReRAM prototype as a chip about the size of a postage stamp that could store 1 TB of data. In August 2013, the company claimed that large-scale production of their ReRAM chips was scheduled for 2015.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Next-gen storage wars: In the battle of RRAM vs 3D NAND flash, all of us are winners |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2046282/next-gen-storage-wars-in-the-battle-of-rram-vs-3d-nand-flash-all-of-us-are-winners.html |publisher=PC World |date=August 9, 2013 |access-date=January 28, 2014 |archive-date=February 2, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202144151/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2046282/next-gen-storage-wars-in-the-battle-of-rram-vs-3d-nand-flash-all-of-us-are-winners.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The memory structure (Ag/a-Si/Si) closely resembles a silver-based CBRAM.

Also in 2013, Hewlett-Packard demonstrated a memristor-based ReRAM [[wafer (electronics)|wafer]], and predicted that 100 TB SSDs based on the technology could be available in 2018 with 1.5 PB capacities available in 2020, just in time for the stop in growth of NAND flash capacities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theregister.com/2013/11/01/hp_memristor_2018/|title=HP 100TB Memristor drives by 2018 – if you're lucky, admits tech titan|first=Chris|last=Mellor|website=www.theregister.com}}</ref>

Different forms of ReRAM have been disclosed, based on different dielectric materials, spanning from [[perovskite]]s to [[transition metal oxides]] to [[chalcogenide]]s. [[Silicon dioxide]] was shown to exhibit resistive switching as early as May 1966,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1088/0508-3443/18/1/306 | title = A non-filamentary switching action in thermally grown silicon dioxide films| journal = British Journal of Applied Physics| volume = 18| issue = 1| pages = 29–32| year = 1967| last1 = Lamb| first1 = D R| last2 = Rundle| first2 = P C| bibcode = 1967BJAP...18...29L}}</ref> and has recently been revisited.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1143/JJAP.46.2172 | title = Resistance Switching Characteristics for Nonvolatile Memory Operation of Binary Metal Oxides| journal = Japanese Journal of Applied Physics| volume = 46| issue = 4B| pages = 2172| year = 2007| last1 = Park| first1 = In-Sung| last2 = Kim| first2 = Kyong-Rae| last3 = Lee| first3 = Sangsul| last4 = Ahn| first4 = Jinho| bibcode = 2007JaJAP..46.2172P| s2cid = 122024553}}</ref><ref name="hal.archives-ouvertes.fr">{{Cite journal | last1 = Mehonic | first1 = A. | last2 = Cueff | first2 = S. B. | last3 = Wojdak | first3 = M. | last4 = Hudziak | first4 = S. | last5 = Jambois | first5 = O. | last6 = Labbé | first6 = C. | last7 = Garrido | first7 = B. | last8 = Rizk | first8 = R. | last9 = Kenyon | first9 = A. J. | doi = 10.1063/1.3701581 | title = Resistive switching in silicon suboxide films | journal = Journal of Applied Physics | volume = 111 | issue = 7 | pages = 074507–074507–9 | year = 2012 |bibcode = 2012JAP...111g4507M | url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01148232/document | doi-access = free }}</ref>

In 1963 and 1964, a thin-film resistive memory array was first proposed by members of the [[University of Nebraska–Lincoln]].<ref name="Bashara 1963">
{{cite book|last1=Bashara|first1=N. M.|last2=Nielsen|first2=P. H.|title=Annual Report 1963 Conference on Electrical Insulation |chapter=Memory effects in thin film negative resistance structures |date=1963|pages=29–32|doi=10.1109/EIC.1963.7466544|isbn=978-1-5090-3119-1}}
</ref><ref name="Nielsen 1964">
{{cite journal|last1=Nielsen|first1=P. H.|last2=Bashara|first2=N. M.|title=The reversible voltage-induced initial resistance in the negative resistance sandwich structure|journal=IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices|date=1964|volume=11|issue=5|pages=243–244|doi=10.1109/T-ED.1964.15319|issn=0018-9383|bibcode=1964ITED...11..243N}}
</ref> Further work on this new thin-film resistive memory was reported by J.G. Simmons in 1967.<ref name="Simmons 1967">
{{cite journal|last1=Simmons|first1=J. G.|last2=Verderber|first2=R. R.|title=New thin-film resistive memory|journal=Radio and Electronic Engineer|date=August 1967|volume=34|issue=2|pages=81–89|doi=10.1049/ree.1967.0069|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5267142|issn=0033-7722}}
</ref><ref name="Simmons 1968">
{{cite journal|last1=Lomax|first1=R. W.|last2=Simmons|first2=J. G.|title=A thin film, cold cathode, alpha-numeric display panel|journal=Radio and Electronic Engineer|date=1968|volume=35|issue=5|pages=265–272|doi=10.1049/ree.1968.0039|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5267292|issn=0033-7722}}
</ref> In 1970, members of the [[Atomic Energy Research Establishment]] and [[University of Leeds]] attempted to explain the mechanism theoretically.<ref name="Dearnaley 1970">
{{cite journal|last1=Dearnaley|first1=G.|last2=Stoneham|first2=A. M.|last3=Morgan|first3=D. V.|title=Electrical phenomena in amorphous oxide films|journal=Reports on Progress in Physics|date=1970|volume=33|issue=3|pages=1129{{endash}}1191|doi=10.1088/0034-4885/33/3/306|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2e88/58f3b9e71602bff2e318d82cc13a361e16f5.pdf|language=en|issn=0034-4885|quote=[p. 1180] A thin-film resistive memory array based upon voltage-controlled negative resistance in SiO, was first proposed by Nielsen and Bashara (1964) and such a device has been described by Simmons and Verderber (1968).|bibcode=1970RPPh...33.1129D|s2cid=14500522|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320170100/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2e88/58f3b9e71602bff2e318d82cc13a361e16f5.pdf|archive-date=2018-03-20}}
</ref>{{rp|1180}} In May 1997, a research team from the [[University of Florida]] and [[Honeywell]] reported a manufacturing method for "magneto-resistive random access memory" by utilizing electron cyclotron resonance plasma etching.<ref name="Jung 1997">
{{cite journal|last1=Jung|first1=K. B.|last2=Lee|first2=J. W.|last3=Park|first3=Y. D.|last4=Childress|first4=J. R.|last5=Pearton|first5=S. J.|last6=Jenson|first6=M.|last7=Hurst|first7=A. T.|title=Electron cyclotron resonance plasma etching of materials for magneto-resistive random access memory applications|journal=Journal of Electronic Materials|date=1 November 1997|volume=26|issue=11|pages=1310–1313|doi=10.1007/s11664-997-0076-x|language=en|issn=0361-5235|bibcode=1997JEMat..26.1310J|s2cid=93702602}}
</ref>

[[Leon Chua]] argued that all two-terminal non-volatile memory devices including ReRAM should be considered [[memristors]].<ref name="chua11">{{citation |last=Chua |first=L. O. |date=2011 |title=Resistance switching memories are memristors |journal=Applied Physics A |volume=102 |issue=4 |pages=765–783 |doi=10.1007/s00339-011-6264-9 |bibcode=2011ApPhA.102..765C|doi-access=free }}</ref> Stan Williams of [[HP Labs]] also argued that ReRAM was a [[memristor]].<ref name="Mellor2011">{{Citation |last=Mellor |first=Chris |date=10 October 2011|title=HP and Hynix to produce the memristor goods by 2013|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/10/10/memristor_in_18_months/ |work=The Register |access-date=2012-03-07}}</ref> However, others challenged this terminology and the applicability of memristor theory to any physically realizable device is open to question.<ref name="Meuffels_2012">{{cite arXiv |last1=Meuffels |first1=P. |last2=Soni |first2=R. |date=2012 |title=Fundamental Issues and Problems in the Realization of Memristors |eprint=1207.7319 |mode=cs2|class=cond-mat.mes-hall }}</ref><ref name="DiVentra_2013">{{cite journal|last=Di Ventra|first=Massimiliano|author2=Pershin, Yuriy V. |title=On the physical properties of memristive, memcapacitive and meminductive systems|journal=Nanotechnology|date=2013|volume=24|issue=25|doi=10.1088/0957-4484/24/25/255201|arxiv = 1302.7063 |bibcode = 2013Nanot..24y5201D|pmid=23708238|pages=255201|citeseerx=10.1.1.745.8657|s2cid=14892809}}</ref><ref name="Kim_2019">{{cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=J.|last2=Pershin|first2=Y. V.|last3=Yin|first3=M.|last4=Datta|first4=T.|last5=Di Ventra|first5=M. |title=An experimental proof that resistance-switching memories are not memristors |journal=Advanced Electronic Materials |volume=6 |issue=7 |date=July 2020 |doi=10.1002/aelm.202000010|arxiv=1909.07238|s2cid=202577242}}</ref> Whether redox-based resistively switching elements (ReRAM) are covered by the current memristor theory is disputed.<ref name=memristor_nanobattery>{{Cite journal | last1 = Valov | first1 = I. | last2 = Linn | first2 = E. | last3 = Tappertzhofen | first3 = S. | last4 = Schmelzer | first4 = S. | last5 = van den Hurk | first5 = J. | last6 = Lentz | first6 = F. | last7 = Waser | first7 = R. | title = Nanobatteries in redox-based resistive switches require extension of memristor theory | doi = 10.1038/ncomms2784 | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 4 | pages = 1771 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23612312| pmc = 3644102| bibcode = 2013NatCo...4.1771V | arxiv = 1303.2589 }}</ref>

Silicon oxide presents an interesting case of resistance switching.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Intrinsic AI Solutions |url=https://www.intrinsicsemi.com/ |access-date=2023-11-02 |website=Intrinsic AI Solutions |language=en-GB}}</ref> Two distinct modes of intrinsic switching have been reported - surface-based, in which conductive silicon filaments are generated at exposed edges (which may be internal—within pores—or external—on the surface of mesa structures), and bulk switching, in which oxygen vacancy filaments are generated within the bulk of the oxide. The former mode suffers from oxidation of the filaments in air, requiring hermetic sealing to enable switching. The latter requires no sealing. In 2014 researchers from Rice University announced a silicon filament-based device that used a porous [[silicon dioxide|silicon oxide]] dielectric with no external edge structure - rather, filaments were formed at internal edges within pores. Devices can be manufactured at room temperature and have a sub-2V forming voltage, high on-off ratio, low power consumption, nine-bit capacity per cell, high switching speeds and good endurance. Problems with their inoperability in air can be overcome by hermetic sealing of devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foresight.org/nanodot/?p=6188 |title=the Foresight Institute » Blog Archive » Nanotechnology-based next generation memory nears mass production |publisher=Foresight.org |access-date=2014-08-13|date=2014-08-10 }}</ref> Bulk switching in silicon oxide, pioneered by researchers at UCL ([[University College London]]) since 2012,<ref name="hal.archives-ouvertes.fr"/> offers low electroforming voltages (2.5V), switching voltages around 1V, switching times in the nanoseconds regime, and more than 10,000,000 cycles without device failure - all in ambient conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Mehonic | first1 = A. | last2 = Munde | first2 = M. S. | last3 = Ng | first3 = W. H. | last4 = Buckwell | first4 = M. | last5 = Montesi | first5 = L. | last6 = Bosman | first6 = M. | last7 = Shluger | first7 = A. L. | last8 = Kenyon | first8 = A. J. |doi = 10.1016/j.mee.2017.04.033 | title = Intrinsic resistance switching in amorphous silicon oxide for high performance SiOx ReRAM devices | journal = Microelectronic Engineering | volume = 178 | pages = 98–103 | year = 2017 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

== Forming ==
[[File:I-V of filamentary RRAM.png|right|thumb|300px|'''Filament forming:''' A 50 nm × 50 nm ReRAM cell by [http://www.crossbar-inc.com/assets/img/media/Crossbar-RRAM-Technology-Whitepaper-080413.pdf Crossbar] {{clarify span|shows|what are the axes and units?|date=December 2014}}{{dead link|date=May 2017}} the instance of filament forming when the current abruptly increases beyond a certain voltage. A transistor is often used to limit current to prevent a runaway breakdown following the filament formation.]]
The basic idea is that a [[dielectric]], which is normally insulating, can form a conduction path after application of a sufficiently high voltage.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lanza|first=Mario|year=2014|title=A Review on Resistive Switching in High-k Dielectrics: A Nanoscale Point of View Using Conductive Atomic Force Microscope|journal=Materials|volume=7|issue=3|pages=2155–2182|bibcode=2014Mate....7.2155L|doi=10.3390/ma7032155|pmid=28788561|pmc=5453275|doi-access=free}}</ref> The conduction path can arise from different mechanisms, including vacancy or metal defect migration. Once the conduction path is formed, it may be ''reset'' (broken, resulting in high resistance) or ''set'' (re-formed, resulting in lower resistance) by another lower voltage. Many current paths, rather than a single filament, are possibly involved.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1063/1.2715002| title = Resistance switching of copper doped MoO[sub x] films for nonvolatile memory applications| journal = Applied Physics Letters| volume = 90| issue = 12| pages = 122104| year = 2007| last1 = Lee | first1 = D. | last2 = Seong | first2 = D. J. | last3 = Jo | first3 = I. | last4 = Xiang | first4 = F.| last5 = Dong | first5 = R.| last6 = Oh | first6 = S. | last7 = Hwang | first7 = H. | bibcode = 2007ApPhL..90l2104L}}</ref> The presence of these current paths in the dielectric can be in situ demonstrated via [[conductive atomic force microscopy]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2012-11-05|title=Resistive switching in hafnium dioxide layers: Local phenomenon at grain boundaries|journal=Applied Physics Letters|volume=101|issue=19|pages=193502|doi=10.1063/1.4765342|issn=0003-6951|bibcode=2012ApPhL.101s3502L|last1=Lanza|first1=M.|last2=Bersuker|first2=G.|last3=Porti|first3=M.|last4=Miranda|first4=E.|last5=Nafría|first5=M.|last6=Aymerich|first6=X.|url=http://ddd.uab.cat/record/182947}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shi|first1=Yuanyuan|last2=Ji|first2=Yanfeng|last3=Hui|first3=Fei|last4=Nafria|first4=Montserrat|last5=Porti|first5=Marc|last6=Bersuker|first6=Gennadi|last7=Lanza|first7=Mario|date=2015-04-01|title=In Situ Demonstration of the Link Between Mechanical Strength and Resistive Switching in Resistive Random-Access Memories|journal=Advanced Electronic Materials|language=en|volume=1|issue=4|pages=n/a|doi=10.1002/aelm.201400058|s2cid=110305072 |issn=2199-160X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy: Applications in Nanomaterials|last=Lanza|first=Mario|publisher=Wiley-VCH|year=2017|isbn=978-3-527-34091-0|location=Berlin, Germany|pages=10–30}}</ref>

The low-resistance path can be either localized (filamentary) or homogeneous. Both effects can occur either throughout the entire distance between the electrodes or only in proximity to one of the electrodes. Filamentary and homogenous conduction path switching effects can be distinguished by measuring the area dependence of the low-resistance state.<ref name="aem-journal.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.aem-journal.com |title=Advanced Engineering Materials – Wiley Online Library |publisher=Aem-journal.com |doi=10.1002/(ISSN)1527-2648 |access-date=2014-08-13 |archive-date=2013-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430021515/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1527-2648 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Under certain conditions, the forming operation may be bypassed.<ref name="Chen 2009">{{cite book|last1=Chen|first1=Yu-Sheng|last2=Wu|first2=Tai-Yuan|last3=Tzeng|first3=Pei-Jer|last4=Chen|first4=Pang-Shiu|last5=Lee|first5=H. Y.|last6=Lin|first6=Cha-Hsin|last7=Chen|first7=F.|last8=Tsai|first8=Ming-Jinn|title=2009 International Symposium on VLSI Technology, Systems, and Applications |chapter=Forming-free HfO2 bipolar RRAM device with improved endurance and high speed operation |date=2009|pages=37–38|doi=10.1109/VTSA.2009.5159281|isbn=978-1-4244-2784-0|s2cid=7590725}}</ref> It is expected that under these conditions, the initial current is already quite high compared to insulating oxide layers. ReRAM cells generally do not require high voltage forming if Cu ions are already present in the dielectric, having already been driven-in by a designed photo-diffusion or annealing process; such cells may also readily return to their initial state.<ref name="Balakrishnan 2006">{{cite book|last1=Balakrishnan|first1=M.|last2=Thermadam|first2=S. C. P.|last3=Mitkova|first3=M.|last4=Kozicki|first4=M. N.|title=2006 7th Annual Non-Volatile Memory Technology Symposium |chapter=A Low Power Non-Volatile Memory Element Based on Copper in Deposited Silicon Oxide |date=2006|pages=104–110|doi=10.1109/NVMT.2006.378887|isbn=978-0-7803-9738-5|s2cid=27573769}}</ref> In the absence of such Cu initially being in the dielectric, the voltage applied directly to the electrolyte has a strong possibility of forming.<ref name="Sills 2014">{{cite book|last1=Sills|first1=S.|last2=Yasuda|first2=S.|last3=Strand|first3=J.|last4=Calderoni|first4=A.|last5=Aratani|first5=K.|last6=Johnson|first6=A.|last7=Ramaswamy|first7=N.|title=2014 Symposium on VLSI Technology (VLSI-Technology): Digest of Technical Papers |chapter=A copper ReRAM cell for Storage Class Memory applications |date=2014|pages=1–2|doi=10.1109/VLSIT.2014.6894368|isbn=978-1-4799-3332-7|s2cid=9690870}}</ref>

==Operation styles==
For random-access type memories, a 1T1R (one transistor, one resistor) architecture is preferred because the transistor isolates current to cells that are selected from cells that are not. On the other hand, a cross-point architecture is more compact and may enable vertically stacking memory layers, ideal suited for mass-storage devices. However, in the absence of any transistors, isolation must be provided by a "selector" device, such as a [[diode]], in series with the memory element or by the memory element itself. Such isolation capabilities are inferior to the use of transistors if the on/off ratio for the selector is not sufficient, limiting the ability to operate very large arrays in this architecture. Thin film based threshold switch can work as a selector for bipolar and unipolar ReRAM. Threshold switch-based selector was demonstrated for 64 Mb array.<ref>[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7956129&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S1946427400002724 I.V. Karpov, D. Kencke, D. Kau, S. Tang and G. Spadini, MRS Proceedings, Volume 1250, 2010]</ref> The cross-point architecture requires [[BEOL]] compatible two terminal selectors like punch-through diode for bipolar ReRAM<ref>V. S. S. Srinivasan et al., Punchthrough-Diode-Based Bipolar RRAM Selector by Si Epitaxy," Electron Device Letters, IEEE , vol.33, no.10, pp.1396,1398, Oct. 2012 doi: 10.1109/LED.2012.2209394 [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6286985&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D6286985]</ref> or PIN diode for unipolar ReRAM.<ref>{{Cite book | doi=10.1109/DRC.2014.6872387| chapter=High performance sub-430°C epitaxial silicon PIN selector for 3D RRAM| title=72nd Device Research Conference| pages=241–242| year=2014| last1=Mandapati| first1=R.| last2=Shrivastava| first2=S.| last3=Das| first3=B.| last4=Sushama| last5=Ostwal| first5=V.| last6=Schulze| first6=J.| last7=Ganguly| first7=U.| isbn=978-1-4799-5406-3| s2cid=31770873}}</ref>

Polarity can be either binary or unary. Bipolar effects cause polarity to reverse when switching from low to high resistance (reset operation) compared to switching high to low (set operation). Unipolar switching leaves polarity unaffected, but uses different voltages.

== Material systems for resistive memory cells ==
Multiple inorganic and organic material systems display thermal or ionic resistive switching effects. These can be grouped into the following categories:<ref name="aem-journal.com"/>

* phase-change chalcogenides such as {{chem|Ge|2|Sb|2|Te|5}} or AgInSbTe
* binary transition metal oxides such as NiO, Ta2O5, or {{chem|TiO|2}}
* perovskites such as Sr(Zr){{chem|TiO|3}}<ref name="Waser 2007">
{{cite journal|last1=Waser|first1=Rainer|last2=Aono|first2=Masakazu|title=Nanoionics-based resistive switching memories|journal=[[Nature Materials]]|date=2007|volume=6|issue=11|pages=833–840|doi=10.1038/nmat2023|pmid=17972938|language=En|issn=1476-4660|bibcode=2007NatMa...6..833W}}
</ref> or PCMO
* solid-state electrolytes such as GeS, GeSe, {{chem|SiO|''x''}} or {{chem|Cu|2|S}}
* organic charge-transfer complexes such as CuTCNQ
* organic donor–acceptor systems such as Al AIDCN
* two dimensional (layered) insulating materials like hexagonal boron nitride<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pan|first1=Chengbin|last2=Ji|first2=Yanfeng|last3=Xiao|first3=Na|last4=Hui|first4=Fei|last5=Tang|first5=Kechao|last6=Guo|first6=Yuzheng|last7=Xie|first7=Xiaoming|last8=Puglisi|first8=Francesco M.|last9=Larcher|first9=Luca|date=2017-01-01|title=Coexistence of Grain-Boundaries-Assisted Bipolar and Threshold Resistive Switching in Multilayer Hexagonal Boron Nitride|journal=Advanced Functional Materials|volume=27|issue=10|language=en|pages=n/a|doi=10.1002/adfm.201604811|hdl=11380/1129421 |s2cid=100500198 |issn=1616-3028|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Puglisi|first1=F. M.|last2=Larcher|first2=L.|last3=Pan|first3=C.|last4=Xiao|first4=N.|last5=Shi|first5=Y.|last6=Hui|first6=F.|last7=Lanza|first7=M.|title=2016 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) |chapter=2D h-BN based RRAM devices |date=2016-12-01|pages=34.8.1–34.8.4|doi=10.1109/IEDM.2016.7838544|isbn=978-1-5090-3902-9|s2cid=28059875}}</ref>

== RRAM Based on Perovskite ==
ABO3-type inorganic perovskite materials such as BaTiO3, SrRuO3, SrZrO3, and SrTiO3 have attracted extensive research interest as the storage media in memristors due to their remarkable resistance switching effects and various functionalities such as ferroelectric, dielectric, and semiconducting physical characteristics.<ref>S.C. Lee, Q. Hu, Y.-J. Baek, Y.J. Choi, C.J. Kang, H.H. Lee, T.-S. Yoon, Analog and bipolar resistive switching in pn junction of n-type ZnO nanowires on p-type Si substrate, J. Appl. Phys. 114 (2013) 1–5.</ref> However, the fragile nature and high cost of the fabrication process limit the wide applications of these ABO3-type inorganic perovskite materials for memristors. Recently, ABX3-type lead trihalide perovskites have received extensive research interest for using in optoelectronic devices such as photovoltaics, photodetectors, and light-emitting diodes (LED).<ref>D.V. Talapin, J.-S. Lee, M.V. Kovalenko, E.V. Shevchenko, Prospects of colloidal nanocrystals for electronic and optoelectronic applications, Chem. Rev. 110 (2009) 389–458.</ref> In these structures, A is a monovalent organic or inorganic (MA:CH3NH3+, FA: CH(NH2)2+, Cs+, Rb+), B is a divalent metal cation (Pb2+, Sn2+), and X is a halide anion (Cl, Br, I). The A cation resides at the eight corners of the cubic unit and the B cation locates at the center of the octahedral cluster [BX6]4 to form the 3D perovskite structure. According to the different A-site cations, these structures can be classified into organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites and all-inorganic perovskites.<ref>Li, B., Hui, W., Ran, X., Xia, Y., Xia, F., Chao, L., ... & Huang, W. (2019). Metal halide perovskites for resistive switching memory devices and artificial synapses. Journal of Materials Chemistry C, 7(25), 7476-7493.</ref> Moreover, this type of perovskite can be obtained readily by solution-processable methods at a low cost.[16] Nevertheless, owing to the inclusion of organic cations, it was commonly found that the intrinsic thermal instability of methylammonium (MA) and formamidinium (FA) lead trihalide perovskites was really a bottleneck for the development of hybrid perovskite-based electronic devices.<ref>Kojima, A.; Teshima, K.; Shirai, Y.; Miyasaka, T. Organometal Halide Perovskites as Visible-light Sensitizers for Photovoltaic Cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 6050−6051.</ref> Therefore, to resolve this issue, the organic cations must be substituted by other ions such as Cesium (Cs) cations. Interestingly, there are some reports of Cesium/Cesium hybridization solar cells that give us many new clues for the improved stability of all-inorganic perovskite-based electronic devices. More and more publications demonstrate that inorganic Cs cation-based all-inorganic perovskites could be both structurally and thermally stable above 100 °C, while hybrid perovskites thermally degraded to lead iodide above 85 °C.<ref>Gratzel, M. The Light and Shade of Perovskite Solar Cells. ̈ Nat. Mater. 2014, 13, 838−842.</ref> Therefore, it has been implied that all-inorganic perovskites could be excellent candidates for the fabrication of stable and highly efficient resistive switching memory devices using a low-cost process. Considering the CsPbX3 perovskites are usually prepared by solution method, point defects such as vacancies, interstitials, and antisites are possible in the crystals. These defects are essential for the defect drift-dominated resistive switching memory. Thus, these CsPbX3 perovskites have great potential for application in memory devices.<ref>Liu, D., Lin, Q., Zang, Z., Wang, M., Wangyang, P., Tang, X., ... & Hu, W. (2017). Flexible all-inorganic perovskite CsPbBr3 nonvolatile memory device. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 9(7), 6171-6176.</ref> Given the fact that resistance switching in halide perovskite-based RRAM is caused by migrations of halide atoms through vacancies, the migration characteristics of a vacancy within the RRAM are one of the most important material properties of the RRAM determining the key features of it. However, despite its importance, the activation energy of halide vacancy in RRAMs has been no serious study topic at all. Obviously, a small activation barrier of halide vacancy expected in halide perovskite-based RRAMs plays a central role in allowing this RRAM to operate at low voltages and thus at low power consumption mode.<ref>Hur, J. H. (2020). First principles study of oxygen vacancy activation energy barrier in zirconia-based resistive memory. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-8.</ref>

== Demonstrations ==
Papers at the IEDM Conference in 2007 suggested for the first time that ReRAM exhibits lower programming currents than [[Phase-change memory|PRAM]] or [[Magnetoresistive RAM|MRAM]] without sacrificing programming performance, retention or endurance.<ref>{{Cite book | doi = 10.1109/IEDM.2007.4419060| chapter = Low Power and High Speed Switching of Ti-doped NiO ReRAM under the Unipolar Voltage Source of less than 3 V| title = 2007 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting| pages = 767–770| year = 2007| last1 = Tsunoda | first1 = K.| last2 = Kinoshita | first2 = K.| last3 = Noshiro | first3 = H.| last4 = Yamazaki | first4 = Y.| last5 = Iizuka | first5 = T.| last6 = Ito | first6 = Y.| last7 = Takahashi | first7 = A.| last8 = Okano | first8 = A.| last9 = Sato | first9 = Y.| last10 = Fukano | first10 = T.| last11 = Aoki | first11 = M.| last12 = Sugiyama | first12 = Y.| isbn = 978-1-4244-1507-6| s2cid = 40684267}}</ref> Some commonly cited ReRAM systems are described further below.

===Gb-scale ReRAM===
A 32 Gb 24 nm ReRAM was published by SanDisk in 2013 without many details other than a non-transistor access device, and metal oxide RRAM composition.<ref>T. Liu et al., ISSCC 2013.</ref>

A 16 Gb 27 nm ReRAM (actually CBRAM) was published by Micron and Sony in 2014. Instead of a 1T1R structure for one bit, two bits were split between two transistors and bottom electrodes while sharing the top portions (electrolyte, copper reservoir, and top electrode).<ref>J. Zahurak et al., IEDM 2014.</ref>

===HfO2-based ReRAM===
At IEDM 2008, the first high-performance ReRAM technology was demonstrated by [[ITRI]] using HfO2 with a Ti buffer layer, showing switching times less than 10 ns and currents less than 30μA. At IEDM 2010, ITRI again broke the speed record, showing <0.3 ns switching time, while also showing process and operation improvements to allow yield up to 100% and endurance up to 10 billion cycles.<ref>H-Y. Lee et al., IEDM 2010.</ref> [[IMEC]] presented updates of their ReRAM program at the 2012 Symposia on VLSI Technology and Circuits, including a solution with a 500 nA operating current.<ref>L. Goux ''et al.'', 2012 Symp. on VLSI Tech. Dig. of Tech. Papers, 159 (2012).</ref>

ITRI had focused on the Ti/HfO2 system since its first publication in 2008. ITRI's patent 8362454 has since been sold to TSMC;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://assignment.uspto.gov/patent/index.html#/patent/search/resultAbstract?id=8362454&type=patNum|title = United States Patent and Trademark Office}}</ref> the number of prior licensees is unknown. On the other hand, IMEC focused mainly on Hf/HfO2.<ref>Y. Y. Chen ''et al.'', IEDM 2013.</ref> Winbond had done more recent work toward advancing and commercializing the HfO2-based ReRAM.<ref>C-H. Ho ''et al.'', 2016 Symposium on VLSI Technology.</ref>

A Chinese group presented the largest 1T1R RRAM to date, a 64 Mb chip on a 130 nm process.<ref>X. Han et al., CICC 2017.</ref> 10 million cycles were achieved, as well as an extrapolated retention of 10 yrs at 75 C.

===Panasonic===
Panasonic revealed its TaOx-based ReRAM at IEDM 2008.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wei|first1=Z.|last2=Kanzawa|first2=Y.|last3=Arita|first3=K.|last4=Katoh|first4=Y.|last5=Kawai|first5=K.|last6=Muraoka|first6=S.|last7=Mitani|first7=S.|last8=Fujii|first8=S.|last9=Katayama|first9=K.|last10=Iijima|first10=M.|last11=Mikawa|first11=T.|last12=Ninomiya|first12=T.|last13=Miyanaga|first13=R.|last14=Kawashima|first14=Y.|last15=Tsuji|first15=K.|last16=Himeno|first16=A.|last17=Okada|first17=T.|last18=Azuma|first18=R.|last19=Shimakawa|first19=K.|last20=Sugaya|first20=H.|last21=Takagi|first21=T.|last22=Yasuhara|first22=R.|last23=Horiba|first23=K.|last24=Kumigashira|first24=H.|last25=Oshima|first25=M.|title=2008 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting |chapter=Highly reliable TaOx ReRAM and direct evidence of redox reaction mechanism |date=2008|pages=1–4|doi=10.1109/IEDM.2008.4796676|isbn=978-1-4244-2377-4|s2cid=30862029}}</ref> A key requirement was the need for a high work function metal such as Pt or Ir to interface with the TaOx layer. The change of O content results in resistance change as well as Schottky barrier change. More recently, a Ta2O5/TaOx layer was implemented, which still requires the high work function metal to interface with Ta2O5.<ref>Y. Hayakawa ''et al.'', 2015 Symposium on VLSI Technology.</ref> This system has been associated with high endurance demonstration (trillion cycles),<ref>M-J. Lee ''et al.'', Nat. Mat. 10, 625 (2011).</ref> but products are specified at 100K cycles.<ref>[http://www.mouser.tw/new/panasonic/panasonic-mn101l-reram/ Panasonic ReRAM-based product description]</ref> Filament diameters as large as ~100 nm have been observed.<ref>Z. Wei, IMW 2013.</ref> Panasonic released a 4Mb part with Fujitsu,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fujitsu.com/jp/group/fsl/en/resources/news/press-releases/2016/1026.html|title=Fujitsu Semiconductor Launches World's Largest Density 4 Mbit ReRAM Product for Mass Production : FUJITSU SEMICONDUCTOR|website=www.fujitsu.com}}</ref> and is developing 40 nm embedded memory with UMC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170206005452/en/Panasonic-and-United-Microelectronics-Corporation-Agreed-to-Develop-Mass-Production-Process-for-Next-Generation-ReRAM|title=Panasonic and United Microelectronics Corporation Agreed to Develop Mass Production Process for Next Generation ReRAM|date=February 6, 2017|website=www.businesswire.com}}</ref>

===HP memristor===
On 30 April 2008, HP announced that they had discovered the memristor, originally envisioned as a missing 4th fundamental circuit element by Chua in 1971. On 8 July they announced they would begin prototyping ReRAM using their memristors.<ref>[http://www.eetimes.com/news/design/rss/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=208803176&cid=RSSfeed_eetimes_designRSS EETimes.com – Memristors ready for prime time]</ref> HP first demonstrated its memristor using TiOx,<ref>D. B. Strukov, Nature 453, 80 (2008).</ref> but later migrated to TaOx,<ref>J. P. Strachan ''et al.'', IEEE Trans. Elec. Dev. 60, 2194 (2013).</ref> possibly due to improved stability.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.jos.ac.cn/bdtxbcn/ch/reader/create_pdf.aspx?file_no=15090022&year_id=2016&quarter_id=6&falg=1 |title=Comparison of Pt/TiOx/Pt vs Pt/TaOx/TaOy/Pt |access-date=2017-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213170042/http://www.jos.ac.cn/bdtxbcn/ch/reader/create_pdf.aspx?file_no=15090022&year_id=2016&quarter_id=6&falg=1 |archive-date=2017-02-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The TaOx-based device has some material similarity to Panasonic's ReRAM, but the operation characteristics are different. The Hf/HfOx system was similarly studied.<ref>S. Kumar ''et al.'', ACS Nano 10, 11205 (2016).</ref>

===Adesto Technologies===
The [[Adesto Technologies]] CBRAM is based on filaments generated from the electrode metal rather than oxygen vacancies. The original material system was Ag/GeS2<ref>J. R. Jameson ''et al.'', IEDM 2013.</ref> but eventually migrated to ZrTe/Al2O3.<ref>D. Kanter, "Adesto Targets IoT Using CBRAM, The Linley Group Microprocessor Report, Feb 2016.</ref> The tellurium filament achieved better stability as compared to silver. Adesto has targeted the ultralow power memory for Internet-of-Things (IoT) applications. Adesto has released products manufactured at Altis foundry<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.dialog-semiconductor.com/|title=Dialog Semiconductor: Advancing the connected world through technology | Dialog|website=www.dialog-semiconductor.com}}</ref> and entered into a 45 nm foundry agreement with [[Tower Semiconductor|TowerJazz]]/[[Panasonic]].<ref name="auto"/>

===Weebit Nano===
[[Weebit Nano]] has been working with [[CEA-Leti: Laboratoire d'électronique des technologies de l'information|CEA-Leti]], one of the largest nanotechnology research institutes in Europe to further ReRAM technology. Beginning in November, 2017, the company has demonstrated the manufacturability in 40 nm SiOx ReRAM cells,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rram-info.com/weebit-announced-working-40nm-siox-rram-cell-samples|title=Weebit announced working 40nm SiOx RRAM cell samples | RRAM-Info|website=www.rram-info.com}}</ref> followed by demonstrations of working arrays in 2018<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eenewseurope.com/news/siox-reram-reaches-1mbit-milestone-0|title=SiOx ReRAM reaches 1Mbit milestone|date=July 4, 2018|website=eeNews Europe}}</ref> and discrete components in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rram-info.com/weebit-nano-packaged-its-rram-chips-first-time|title=Weebit Nano packaged its RRAM chips for the first time | RRAM-Info|website=www.rram-info.com}}</ref> In July 2021, the company taped out its first embedded ReRAM modules.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rram-info.com/weebit-nano-completed-its-first-embedded-rram-module-design-and-tape-out|title=Weebit Nano completed its first embedded RRAM module design and tape-out | RRAM-Info|website=www.rram-info.com}}</ref> In September 2021, Weebit, together with Leti, produced, tested and characterized a 1 Mb ReRAM array, using a 28 nm FDSOI process on 300mm wafers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.electronicsweekly.com/news/business/weebit-nano-reram-scaled-28nm-2021-10/|title=Weebit Nano ReRAM scaled to 28nm|website=www.electronicsweekly.com|date=October 2021}}</ref>

===Crossbar===
[[Crossbar (computer hardware manufacturer)|Crossbar]] implements an Ag filament in amorphous Si along with a threshold switching system to achieve a diode+ReRAM.<ref>Y. Dong ''et al.'', Nano. Lett. 8, 386 (2008).</ref><ref>S. H. Jo ''et al.'', ASPDAC 2015.</ref> Their system includes the use of a transistor in 1T1R or 1TNR architecture. Crossbar started producing samples at SMIC on the 40 nm process in 2017.<ref>[http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1331173 Crossbar sampling 40nm at SMIC]</ref> The Ag filament diameter has been visualized on the scale of tens of nanometers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sites.ieee.org/sfbanano/files/2013/06/Lu_NVMT_2013.pdf|title=TEMs of Ag filament}}</ref>

=== IntrinSic ===
A UK based that company plans to create cells using common silicon-oxide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Intrinsic AI Solutions |url=https://www.intrinsicsemi.com/ |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=Intrinsic AI Solutions |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mellor |first=Chris |date=2023-03-16 |title=Taking a look at the ReRAM state of play |url=https://blocksandfiles.com/2023/03/16/the-state-of-reram-play/ |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=Blocks and Files |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Programmable metallization cell===
{{Main|Programmable metallization cell}}
[[Infineon Technologies]] calls it conductive-bridging RAM(CBRAM), NEC has a variant called "Nanobridge" and Sony calls their version "electrolytic memory". New research suggests CBRAM can be [[3D printed]].<ref>[http://aip.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/1.4978664?dm_i=3Q4Y%2C6QBI%2CJ2QY2%2CNJEU%2C1& Fully inkjet printed flexible resistive memory] -[[American Institute of Physics|AIP]] Scitation</ref><ref>[http://www.engineering.com/DesignerEdge/DesignerEdgeArticles/ArticleID/14672/Mass-Producing-Printed-Electronics.aspx Mass Producing Printed Electronics] -Engineering.com</ref>

'''<big>Quantum dot resistive memory device</big>'''

Quantum dot based non-volatile resistive memory device with a switching speed of 10 ns and ON/OFF ratio of 10 000. The device showed excellent endurance characteristics for 100 000 switching cycles. Retention tests showed good stability and the devices are reproducible. Memory operating mechanism is proposed based on charge trapping in quantum dots with AlOx acting as barrier. This mechanism is supported by marked variation in capacitance value in ON and OFF states.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kannan|first1=V|last2=Rhee J K|date=6 October 2011|title=Ultra-fast switching in solution processed quantum dot based non-volatile resistive memory|url=https://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.3647629|journal=Applied Physics Letters|volume=99|issue=14|pages=143504|doi=10.1063/1.3647629|bibcode=2011ApPhL..99n3504K|via=AIP}}</ref>

== ReRam test boards ==
* Panasonic AM13L-STK2 : MN101LR05D 8-bit MCU with built in ReRAM for evaluation, {{nowrap|USB 2.0}} connector

== Future applications ==
Compared to PRAM, ReRAM operates at a faster timescale (switching time can be less than 10 ns), while compared to MRAM, it has a simpler, smaller cell structure (less than 8F² MIM stack). A vertical 1D1R (one diode, one resistive switching device) integration can be used for crossbar memory structure to reduce the unit cell size to 4F² (F is the feature dimension).<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1088/0022-3727/46/14/145101 | title = Vertically integrated ZnO-Based 1D1R structure for resistive switching| journal = Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics| volume = 46| issue = 14| pages = 145101| year = 2013| last1 = Zhang| first1 = Yang| last2 = Duan| first2 = Ziqing| last3 = Li| first3 = Rui| last4 = Ku| first4 = Chieh-Jen| last5 = Reyes| first5 = Pavel I| last6 = Ashrafi| first6 = Almamun| last7 = Zhong| first7 = Jian| last8 = Lu| first8 = Yicheng| bibcode = 2013JPhD...46n5101Z| s2cid = 121110610}}</ref> Compared to flash memory and racetrack memory, a lower voltage is sufficient, and hence it can be used in low-power applications.

ITRI has shown that ReRAM is scalable below 30 nm.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chen|first1=Y. S.|last2=Lee|first2=H. Y.|last3=Chen|first3=P. S.|last4=Gu|first4=P. Y.|last5=Chen|first5=C. W.|last6=Lin|first6=W. P.|last7=Liu|first7=W. H.|last8=Hsu|first8=Y. Y.|last9=Sheu|first9=S. S.|last10=Chiang|first10=P. C.|last11=Chen|first11=W. S.|last12=Chen|first12=F. T.|last13=Lien|first13=C. H.|last14=Tsai|first14=M. J.|title=2009 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) |chapter=Highly scalable hafnium oxide memory with improvements of resistive distribution and read disturb immunity |date=2009|pages=1–4|doi=10.1109/IEDM.2009.5424411|isbn=978-1-4244-5639-0|s2cid=36391893}}</ref> The motion of oxygen atoms is a key phenomenon for oxide-based ReRAM;<ref>New Non-Volatile Memory Workshop 2008, Hsinchu, Taiwan.</ref> one study indicated that oxygen motion may take place in regions as small as 2 nm.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nmat2136 | pmid = 18311143| title = Nanoscale control of an interfacial metal–insulator transition at room temperature| journal = Nature Materials| volume = 7| issue = 4| pages = 298–302| year = 2008| last1 = Cen| first1 = C.| last2 = Thiel| first2 = S.| last3 = Hammerl| first3 = G.| last4 = Schneider| first4 = C. W.| last5 = Andersen| first5 = K. E.| last6 = Hellberg| first6 = C. S.| last7 = Mannhart| first7 = J.| last8 = Levy| first8 = J.| bibcode = 2008NatMa...7..298C| url = https://opus.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/opus4/frontdoor/index/index/docId/61913}}</ref> It is believed that if a filament is responsible, it would not exhibit direct scaling with cell size.<ref>I. G. Baek et al.,IEDM 2004.</ref> Instead, the current compliance limit (set by an outside resistor, for example) could define the current-carrying capacity of the filament.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1149/1.2750450 | title = Bistable Resistive Switching in Al2O3 Memory Thin Films| journal = Journal of the Electrochemical Society| volume = 154| issue = 9| pages = G189| year = 2007| last1 = Lin| first1 = Chih-Yang| last2 = Wu| first2 = Chen-Yu| last3 = Wu| first3 = Chung-Yi| last4 = Hu| first4 = Chenming| last5 = Tseng| first5 = Tseung-Yuen| bibcode = 2007JElS..154G.189L}}</ref>

A significant hurdle to realizing the potential of ReRAM is the sneak path problem that occurs in larger passive arrays. In 2010, [[complementary resistive switching]] (CRS) was introduced as a possible solution to sneak-path current interference.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nmat2748 | pmid = 20400954| title = Complementary resistive switches for passive nanocrossbar memories| journal = Nature Materials| volume = 9| issue = 5| pages = 403–6| year = 2010| last1 = Linn| first1 = Eike| last2 = Rosezin| first2 = Roland| last3 = Kügeler| first3 = Carsten| last4 = Waser| first4 = Rainer| bibcode = 2010NatMa...9..403L}}</ref> In the CRS approach, the information storing states are pairs of high- and low-resistance states (HRS/LRS and LRS/HRS) so that the overall resistance is always high, allowing larger passive crossbar arrays.

A drawback to the initial CRS solution is the requirement for switching endurance caused by conventional destructive readout based on current measurements. A new approach for a nondestructive readout based on capacity measurement potentially lowers the requirements for both material endurance and power consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1088/0957-4484/22/39/395203 | pmid = 21891857| title = Capacity based nondestructive readout for complementary resistive switches| journal = Nanotechnology| volume = 22| issue = 39| pages = 395203| year = 2011| last1 = Tappertzhofen| first1 = S| last2 = Linn| first2 = E| last3 = Nielen| first3 = L| last4 = Rosezin| first4 = R| last5 = Lentz| first5 = F| last6 = Bruchhaus| first6 = R| last7 = Valov| first7 = I| last8 = Böttger| first8 = U| last9 = Waser| first9 = R| bibcode = 2011Nanot..22M5203T| s2cid = 12305490}}</ref> Bi-layer structure is used to produce the nonlinearity in LRS to avoid the sneak path problem.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1063/1.3693392 | title = Engineering nonlinearity into memristors for passive crossbar applications| journal = Applied Physics Letters| volume = 100| issue = 11| pages = 113501| year = 2012| last1 = Joshua Yang| first1 = J.| last2 = Zhang| first2 = M.-X.| last3 = Pickett| first3 = Matthew D.| last4 = Miao| first4 = Feng| last5 = Paul Strachan| first5 = John| last6 = Li| first6 = Wen-Di| last7 = Yi| first7 = Wei| last8 = Ohlberg| first8 = Douglas A. A.| last9 = Joon Choi| first9 = Byung| last10 = Wu| first10 = Wei| last11 = Nickel| first11 = Janice H.| last12 = Medeiros-Ribeiro| first12 = Gilberto| last13 = Stanley Williams| first13 = R.| bibcode = 2012ApPhL.100k3501J| doi-access = free}}</ref> A single-layer device exhibiting a strong nonlinear conduction in LRS was reported.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1088/0957-4484/23/45/455201 | pmid = 23064085| title = Electrically tailored resistance switching in silicon oxide| journal = Nanotechnology| volume = 23| issue = 45| pages = 455201| year = 2012| last1 = Mehonic| first1 = Adnan| last2 = Cueff| first2 = Sébastien| last3 = Wojdak| first3 = Maciej| last4 = Hudziak| first4 = Stephen| last5 = Labbé| first5 = Christophe| last6 = Rizk| first6 = Richard| last7 = Kenyon| first7 = Anthony J| bibcode = 2012Nanot..23S5201M| s2cid = 12528923}}</ref> Another bi-layer structure was introduced for bipolar ReRAM to improve the HRS and stability.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s11664-012-2045-2 | title = FeZnO-Based Resistive Switching Devices| journal = Journal of Electronic Materials| volume = 41| issue = 10| pages = 2880| year = 2012| last1 = Zhang| first1 = Yang| last2 = Duan| first2 = Ziqing| last3 = Li| first3 = Rui| last4 = Ku| first4 = Chieh-Jen| last5 = Reyes| first5 = Pavel| last6 = Ashrafi| first6 = Almamun| last7 = Lu| first7 = Yicheng| bibcode = 2012JEMat..41.2880Z| s2cid = 95921756}}</ref>

Another solution to the sneak current issue is to perform ''read'' and ''reset'' operations in parallel across an entire row of cells, while using ''set'' on selected cells.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yoon|first1=Hong Sik|last2=Baek|first2=In-Gyu|last3=Zhao|first3=Jinshi|last4=Sim|first4=Hyunjun|last5=Park|first5=Min Young|last6=Lee|first6=Hansin|last7=Oh|first7=Gyu-Hwan|last8=Shin|first8=Jong Chan|last9=Yeo|first9=In-Seok|last10=Chung|first10=U.-In|title=Vertical cross-point resistance change memory for ultra-high density non-volatile memory applications|journal=2009 Symposium on VLSI Technology|date=2009|pages=26–27|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5200621}}</ref> In this case, for a 3D-ReRAM 1TNR array, with a column of ''N'' ReRAM cells situated above a select transistor, only the intrinsic nonlinearity of the HRS is required to be sufficiently large, since the number of vertical levels ''N'' is limited (e.g., ''N'' = 8–32), and this has been shown possible for a low-current ReRAM system.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=F. T.|last2=Chen|first2=Y. S.|last3=Wu|first3=T. Y.|last4=Ku|first4=T. K.|title=Write Scheme Allowing Reduced LRS Nonlinearity Requirement in a 3D-RRAM Array With Selector-Less 1TNR Architecture|journal=[[IEEE Electron Device Letters]]|date=2014|volume=35|issue=2|pages=223–225|doi=10.1109/LED.2013.2294809|issn=0741-3106|bibcode=2014IEDL...35..223C|s2cid=1126533}}</ref>

Modeling of 2D and 3D caches designed with ReRAM and other non-volatile random access memories such as [[Magnetoresistive random-access memory|MRAM]] and [[Phase-change memory|PCM]] can be done using DESTINY<ref>Poremba et al., "[https://www.academia.edu/9045143/DESTINY_A_Tool_for_Modeling_Emerging_3D_NVM_and_eDRAM_caches DESTINY: A Tool for Modeling Emerging 3D NVM and eDRAM caches]", DATE, 2015.</ref> tool.

==Proposed role in artificial intelligence applications==
The increasing computational demands necessary for many improvements in [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence]] have led many to speculate that ReRAM implementations could be extremely useful hardware for running [[Artificial Intelligence|artificial intelligence]] and [[Machine Learning|machine learning]] applications.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prezioso |first1=M. |editor1-first=Ferechteh H |editor1-last=Teherani |editor2-first=David C |editor2-last=Look |editor3-first=David J |editor3-last=Rogers |display-authors=etal |title=RRAM-based Hardware Implementation of Artificial Neural Networks: Progress Updates and Challenges Ahead |journal=SPIE Annual Review |series=Oxide-based Materials and Devices VII |date=2016 |volume=9749 |page=974918 |doi=10.1117/12.2235089 |bibcode=2016SPIE.9749E..18P |s2cid=20633281 |url=https://web.ece.ucsb.edu/~strukov/papers/2016/SPIEannreview2016.pdf |access-date=June 13, 2021}}</ref>

Researchers at School of Engineering of Stanford University Havel built up a RRAM that "does the AI processing within the memory itself, thereby eliminating the separation between the compute and memory units." It is twice as energy efficient as state-of-the-art.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.stanford.edu/2022/08/18/new-chip-ramps-ai-computing-efficiency/|title=Stanford engineers present new chip that ramps up AI computing efficiency|date=August 18, 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{emerging technologies|topics=yes|infocom=yes}}

[[Category:Solid-state computer storage media]]
[[Category:Computer memory]]
[[Category:Non-volatile random-access memory]]
[[Category:Types of RAM]]

For our freedom and yours

2024-06-05T00:33:35Z

131.111.5.201: /* Contemporary Usage */

{{Short description|An unofficial motto of Poland}}
[[File:Za wolność naszą i waszą 1831.PNG|250px|thumb|Flag of the [[November Uprising]] 1831]]
[[File:November Uprising flag 1831.PNG|250px|thumb|a version in Cyrillic alphabet, in Russian]]
[[File:Memorial_to_Polish_Soldiers_and_German_Anti-Fascists_x.jpg|250px|thumb|The Memorial to Polish Soldiers and German Anti-Fascists 1939-1945 in Berlin.]]
[[File:PikiWiki_Israel_12584_monument_to_fallen_jewish_soldiers_in_the_polish_a.jpg|250px|thumb|Motto: "For our freedom and yours" from monument in Jerusalem commemorating Jewish soldiers in the Polish Army fighting against Nazi Germany 1939-1945.]]
'''For our freedom and yours''' ({{lang-pl|Za naszą i waszą wolność}} or ''Za wolność naszą i waszą'') is one of the [[unofficial mottos of Poland]]. It is commonly associated with the times when Polish [[soldier]]s, [[exile]]d from the [[partitioned Poland (1795-1914)|partitioned Poland]], fought in various [[independence movement]]s all over the world.<ref name="LRJohnson">Lonnie R. Johnson, ''Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends'', Oxford University Press, 1996, {{ISBN|0-19-510071-9}}, [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716/page/128  Google Print, p.127-128]</ref><ref name="ZawLuk">Hubert Zawadzki, Jerzy Lukowski, ''A Concise History of Poland'', Cambridge University Press, 2001, {{ISBN|0-521-55917-0}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NpMxTvBuWHYC&q=for+freedom+ours&pg=PA145 Google Print, p.145]</ref> First seen during a patriotic demonstration to commemorate the [[Decembrists]], held in [[Warsaw]] on January 25, 1831[[#Notes|1]], it was most probably authored by [[Joachim Lelewel]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lzWHDEE6OqkC&q=%22For+your+freedom+and+ours%22+Lelewel&pg=RA1-PA72 |title=Nation and history: Polish ... – Peter Brock, John D. Stanley, Piotr Wróbel – Google Books |date= January 2006|isbn=9780802090362 |access-date=2011-10-05|last1=Brock |first1=Peter |last2=Stanley |first2=John D. |last3=Wrobel |first3=Piotr |last4=Wróbel |first4=Piotr |publisher=University of Toronto Press }}</ref> The initial banner has the inscription in both Polish and Russian, and was meant to underline that the victory of Decembrists would also have meant liberty for Poland. The slogan got shorter with time; the original had the form 'In the name of [[God]], for our freedom and yours' ('W imię Boga za Naszą i Waszą Wolność'). The original banner has been preserved in the collection of [[Muzeum Wojska Polskiego]] in Warsaw.

==19th century==
One of the first prominent examples of Poles embodying the slogan and assisting other nations freedom struggles in addition to fighting for Polish causes were [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]] and [[Casimir Pulaski]] who both fought on the American side in the [[American War of Independence]] (1775–1783). Kosciuszko later returned to Poland to lead an [[Kościuszko Uprising|insurrection against Russia]] and the partitioning of Poland among Russia, Prussia and Austria. Pulaski had already led an earlier Polish uprising against Russian influence in Poland and died in battle against British troops in Georgia in 1779. The slogan soon became very popular and became among the most commonly seen on military standards during the [[November Uprising]] (1830–1831).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b2IRot3UaQ0C&q=%22For+freedom+our+and+yours%22&pg=PA60 |title=Liberal nationalism in Central Europe – Stefan Auer – Google Books |date= 22 January 2004|isbn=9780203561294 |access-date=2011-10-05|last1=Auer |first1=Stefan |publisher=Taylor & Francis }}</ref> During the war against Russia, the slogan was to signify that the Polish victory would also mean liberty for the peoples of Russia and that the uprising was aimed not at the Russian nation but at the [[despotic]] [[tsar]]ist regime.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBpghdZeIwAC&q=%22For+your+freedom+and+ours%22&pg=PA50 |title=God's Playground: 1795 to the present – Norman Davies – Google Books |isbn=9780231128193 |access-date=2011-10-05|last1=Davies |first1=Norman |year=2005 |publisher=Columbia University Press }}</ref> Following the failure of the uprising the slogan was used by a variety of Polish military units formed abroad out of refugees. Among them was the unit of [[Józef Bem]], which featured the text in both Polish and Hungarian during the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848]] and wherever Poles fought during the [[Spring of Nations]].<ref name="Fofay">[http://www.globalprovince.com/ghl.htm Gods, Heroes, & Legends]</ref><ref name="DieterDowe">Dieter Dowe, ''Europe in 1848: revolution and reform'', Berghahn Books, 2001, {{ISBN|1-57181-164-8}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=B3qRFCn5CHoC&dq=Polish+romantic+revolutionaries&pg=PA180 Google Print, p.180] ''While it is often and quite justifiably remarked that there was hardly a barricade or battlefield in Europe between 1830 and 1870 where no Poles were fighting, this is especially true for the revolution of 1848/1849.''</ref><ref name="Head">Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire. James Wycliffe Headlam 1899. ''In those days the Poles were to be found in every country in Europe, foremost in fighting on the barricades; they helped the Germans to fight for their liberty, and the Germans were to help them to recover independence. In 1848, [[Ludwik Mierosławski|Mierosławski]] had been carried like a triumphant hero through the streets of Berlin; the Baden rebels put themselves under the leadership of a Pole, and it was a Pole who commanded the Viennese in their resistance to the Austrian army; a Pole led the Italians to disaster on the field of Novara''</ref>

After unsuccessful [[January Uprising|Uprising of 1863–1864]] in Poland, Lithuania (including what is now Belarus) and Ukraine its active participants were sent by Russian [[Tsar]] to Eastern Siberia. Several Poles had developed a [[conspiracy (political)|conspiracy]] and then rebelled in June 1866. They had their own banner with the motto written on it.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

==World War II era==
During the [[Polish-Soviet War]], the motto was used by the Soviet government, which considered itself to be fighting for the rights of Polish workers and peasants against what it saw as the Polish government of landowners and capitalists.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

The motto was also used by the [[General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia|Bundists]] among the members of the [[Jewish Fighting Organization]] who led and fought in the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LXdVF6LmTa8C&q=%22For+your+freedom+and+ours%22&pg=PA56 |title=1945: the war that never ended – Gregor Dallas – Google Books |isbn=0300119887 |access-date=2011-10-05|last1=Dallas |first1=Gregor |year=2005 |publisher=Yale University Press }}</ref>

The motto was used by Polish Armed Forces in the West during the fight against Nazi Germany (1939-1945).

==Spain==

In 1956 the government of the [[People's Republic of Poland]] established an award, 'Za wolność waszą i naszą', for the members of the [[Polish Brigade in Spain]] ('Dąbrowszczacy'), part of the [[International Brigades]], supporting the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican]] [[military]] units in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. The Dabrowszczacy's brigade motto was 'Za wolność waszą i naszą'.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

==Motto in Soviet Union and Russia==
[[File:Za vashu i nashu svobodu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Banner of the [[1968 Red Square demonstration|Red Square demonstrators]], 25 August 1968.]]

[[File:Medal za Waszą Wolność i Naszą1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The award 'Za wolność waszą i naszą' (communist general [[Karol Świerczewski]])]]

The equivalent slogan ({{lang-ru|За вашу и нашу свободу}} ''Za vashu i nashu svobodu'') was very popular among the [[Soviet dissidents|Soviet dissident]] movement after the historic
[[1968 Red Square demonstration|demonstration on the Red Square]] in support of the [[Prague Spring]] on August 25, 1968.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hmed65SZNqgC&q=%22For+your+freedom+and+ours%22&pg=PA82 |title=Conscience, dissent and reform in ... – Philip Boobbyer – Google Books |isbn=9780415331869 |access-date=2011-10-05|last1=Boobbyer |first1=Philip |year=2005 |publisher=Routledge }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q82GoL56Yd8C&q=%22For+your+freedom+and+ours%22&pg=PA139 |title=The legacy of Soviet dissent ... – Robert Horvath – Google Books |date= February 2005|isbn=9780203412855 |access-date=2011-10-05|last1=Horvath |first1=Robert|publisher=Taylor & Francis }}</ref>

The same slogan was used at the
[[2008 Red Square demonstration|demonstration on the Red Square 24 August 2008]]
<ref name="novaya2008">I.Vasunin, E.Kostuchenko, A.Kondrawheva. Civil activists celebrated the jubilee of the protest against the occupation of Czechozolvakia by Soviet troops. Novaya Gaseta, N63, 28 August 2008. (in Russian); {{cite web |url=http://www.novayagazeta.ru/news/309835.html |title=Новая Газета | Лента событий | Москва. Гражданские активисты отметили "юбилей" протеста против ввода советских войск в Чехословакию |access-date=2008-08-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829203446/http://www.novayagazeta.ru/news/309835.html |archive-date=2008-08-29 }}</ref>
<ref>Documentary film of the demonstration at the Red Square of 25 August 2008: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A-B9ie-aFMM&NR=1</ref>
<ref>Youth Human Right News, 24 Aug 2008: "again they try to convince us, that we are surrounded by enemies". (in Russian), http://yhrm.org/news/archives/08_2008/?vw=909 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005001103/http://yhrm.org/news/archives/08_2008/?vw=909 |date=2011-10-05 }}</ref> and again on August 25, 2013,<ref>{{cite news | url=http://lenta.ru/news/2013/08/25/wolnocs/ | title=На Красной площади задержаны десять человек | date=25 August 2013 | agency=[[Lenta.ru]]}}</ref> both suppressed by the [[Russian police]].
<ref>For your freedom and ours. (in Russian) NewTimes, 30 August 2008, {{cite web |url=http://newtimes.ru/news/2008-08-25/2008-08-25-3/ |title="За Вашу и нашу свободу!" - NewTimes.ru |access-date=2008-08-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829160726/http://newtimes.ru/news/2008-08-25/2008-08-25-3/ |archive-date=2008-08-29}}</ref>

==United States==
It is still often invoked in official speeches, including those of then US President [[George W. Bush]] regarding [[Polish contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq|Poland's help]] in the war against [[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[regime]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/10/20031010-13.html |title=General Pulaski Memorial Day, 2003 |publisher=Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov |access-date=2011-10-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/06/20010615-1.html |title=President Bush Speaks to Faculty and Students of Warsaw University |publisher=Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov |date=2001-06-15 |access-date=2011-10-05}}</ref>

==Books==
The slogan has also been used as a title of various books in the Polish and [[English language]]s, for example ''For your freedom and ours: The Polish Armed Forces in the Second World War'' (2003), ''For Your Freedom and Ours: The Kosciuszko Squadron – Forgotten Heroes of World War II'' (2003) or ''For Your Freedom and Ours: Casimir Pulaski, 1745–1779'' (2004).

==Contemporary usage==
To this day, Polish foreign policy and diplomacy are guided by a belief that it is Poland's mission to support rights for [[self-determination]], [[democracy|democratic government]] and a respect for [[human rights]] in other countries.<ref name="ZabDun">Marcin Zaborowski, David H Dunn, ''Poland: A New Power in Transatlantic Security'', Routledge, 2003, {{ISBN|0-7146-5552-X}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FZlM0uNqXz4C&pg=PA25 Google Print, p.25]</ref>

In the context of the wider influence of [[Romanticism in Poland|Romanticism]] on [[Polish hip hop]], the phrase has been linked to lyrics composed by the rapper [[Peja (rapper)|Peja]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Aniskiewicz |first=Alena Gray |date=2019 |title=Cultural Remix: Polish Hip-Hop and the Sampling of Heritage |page=64 |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/151384/alaniski_1.pdf | access-date=22 May 2024 |degree=PhD |publisher=[[University of Michigan]]}}</ref> The slogan has also been used as a metaphor for understanding the spread of contemporary [[graffiti]] within Poland after the fall of the [[Berlin Wall graffiti art|Berlin Wall]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Chambers |first=Thomas |date=2023 |editor-last1=Häuser |editor-first1=Friederike |editor-last2=Kaltenhäuser |editor-first2=Robert|title=Graffiti und Politik |language=German |trans-title=Graffiti and Politics |chapter=''Za naszą i waszą wolność'': Imagining the Nation in Polish Graffiti Magazines |pages=70-84 |publisher=Beltz Juventa |location=Weinheim |isbn=978-3-7799-7066-8}}</ref>
[[File:Euromaidan in Lviv 013.jpg|thumb|A banner during [[Euromaidan]] displaying the Cyrillic version of the phrase За вашу і нашу свободу]]

==See also==
{{Commons category|Za wolność naszą i waszą}}
* [[Polish Legions (disambiguation)]]
* [[Pro Fide, Lege et Rege]]
* [[Bóg, Honor, Ojczyzna]]

==Notes==
#Several sources (for example, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-mzOGzb2T2UC&dq=%22For+your+freedom+and+ours%22+Kosciuszko&pg=PA22 ''Witness to Hope: The Biography of Pope John Paul II''], [http://www.kosciuszkoatwestpoint.org/custom2.html "Historical Perspectives on Kosciuszko"], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070106225741/http://www.senat.gov.pl/k5/agenda/wydarz/19.htm "Spotkanie marszałka z delegacją "Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts"" (in Polish)]) state that the slogan dates from the late 18th century and was used by [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]], presumably during the [[Kościuszko Uprising]]. This is most likely an error based on associating the 1831 motto which became popular with Polish revolutionaries with one of the earliest and most famous of them all. [[Karma Nabulsi]] offers a possible explanation: Kościuszko has used the words "For [both] our freedom and yours" ("Za naszą wolność i waszą"), Lelewel reworded them into "For your freedom and ours", a variant which became more popular and is often mixed up with its predecessor.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mohW074K0OkC&q=%22For+your+freedom+and+ours%22+Lelewel&pg=PA234 |title=Traditions of war: occupation ... – Karma Nabulsi – Google Books |date=1999-10-28 |isbn=9780199279470 |access-date=2011-10-05|last1=Nabulsi |first1=Karma |publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:For Our Freedom And Yours}}
[[Category:1830s neologisms]]
[[Category:Mottos]]
[[Category:National symbols of Poland]]
[[Category:Bundism in Europe]]
[[Category:Decembrist revolt]]
[[Category:November Uprising]]
[[Category:January Uprising]]
[[Category:Hungarian Revolution of 1848]]
[[Category:Revolutions of 1848]]
[[Category:Polish–Soviet War]]
[[Category:Spanish Civil War]]
[[Category:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]]
[[Category:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Battle cries]]

Poland–Slovakia relations

2024-06-05T00:31:18Z

131.111.5.201: /* European Union */

{{bilateral|Polish–Slovak|Poland|Slovakia}}

'''Polish–Slovak relations''' are foreign relations between [[Poland]] and [[Slovakia]]. Both nations are members of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. Both joined the EU simultaneously on 1 May 2004. Both countries form together with the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Hungary]] the [[Visegrád Group]], which is an important regional group in [[Central Europe]]. Both have [[West Slavic languages]] as majority languages.

The countries share a 539 km long common border.<ref name="Prez">{{in lang|pl}} [http://www.prezydent.pl/x.node?id=44 Informacje o Polsce - informacje ogólne] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625210208/http://www.prezydent.pl/x.node?id=44 |date=2009-06-25 }}. Page gives Polish [[Internetowa encyklopedia PWN|PWN Encyklopedia]] as reference.</ref>

==European Union==
Both countries became members of the [[European Union]] in 2004.
== Resident diplomatic missions ==
* Poland has an embassy in [[Bratislava]].
* Slovakia has an embassy in [[Warsaw]] and a consulate-general in [[Kraków]].

<gallery class="center">
File:Bratislava - Veľvyslanectvo Poľskej republiky 01.jpg|Embassy of Poland in Bratislava
File:Pałacyk księcia Wasyla Dołgorukowa (Warszawa, ul. Litewska 6).jpg|Embassy of Slovakia in Warsaw
File:Consulate General of Slovakia in Kraków.jpg|Consulate-General of Slovakia in Kraków
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Foreign relations of Poland]]
* [[Foreign relations of Slovakia]]
* [[Czechoslovakia–Poland relations]]
* [[Polish diaspora#Slovakia|Poles in Slovakia]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.bratyslawa.msz.gov.pl/en/root Polish embassy in Bratislava]
* [https://www.mzv.sk/web/varsava-en Slovak embassy in Warsaw]

{{Polish foreign relations}}
{{Foreign relations of Slovakia}}
{{Portal bar|Politics|Poland|Slovakia}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Poland-Slovakia relations}}
[[Category:Poland–Slovakia relations| ]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of Poland|Slovakia]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of Slovakia]]

{{Bilateralrelations-stub}}

Climate of Karachi

2024-06-04T22:31:24Z

131.111.5.201: Undid revision 1218595790 by 37.211.172.77 (talk). The linked source is 2022.

{{Short description|None}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}

{{coord|24|51|N|67|02|E|display=title}}
[[Karachi]] has a [[semi-arid climate]], formerly a hot [[desert climate]] , albeit a moderate version of this climate, influenced by monsoons. Karachi has a tropical climate, despite being located slightly above the Tropic of Cancer. It is situated in the monsoon region of Pakistan. It is located on the coast bordering the [[Arabian Sea]], and as a result, has a relatively mild [[climate]]. However, in more recent years, rainfall has become more abundant. For this reason, the city may be classed as semi-arid (BSh) , since it has a mild climate with a short but defined wet season, along with a lengthy dry season.

Karachi has two main seasons; summer and winter, while spring and autumn are very short. The Summer season persists for the longest period during the year. Karachi also receives the rains from late June to mid-September (Monsoon). The city experiences a tropical climate encompassing mild and dry winters and hot, humid and rainy summers. The [[humidity]] levels usually remain high from March to November, while they are very low in winter as the wind direction in winter is north-east.
The temperature in winter season sometimes goes below 10 °C and day temperature is about 26 °C.

On 27 December 2021, the metropolis broke a 13-year record and experienced the coldest day with the maximum temperature dropping to {{convert|19|C|F}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Winter breaks 13-year record in Karachi |url=https://www.geo.tv/latest/390099-winter-breaks-13-year-record-in-karachi |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=www.geo.tv |language=en}}</ref>

== Charts ==

{{Weather box
| width = auto
| location = Karachi
| metric first = Y
| single line = Y
| Jan record high C = 32.8
| Feb record high C = 36.5
| Mar record high C = 42.5
| Apr record high C = 44.4
| May record high C = 47.8
| Jun record high C = 42.0
| Jul record high C = 42.2
| Aug record high C = 41.7
| Sep record high C = 42.8
| Oct record high C = 43.3
| Nov record high C = 38.5
| Dec record high C = 34.5
| Jan high C = 28.2
| Feb high C = 28.4
| Mar high C = 32.2
| Apr high C = 34.7
| May high C = 35.5
| Jun high C = 35.4
| Jul high C = 33.3
| Aug high C = 32.1
| Sep high C = 33.2
| Oct high C = 35.5
| Nov high C = 32.5
| Dec high C = 28.2
| Jan mean C = 20.5
| Feb mean C = 21.2
| Mar mean C = 25.4
| Apr mean C = 28.8
| May mean C = 31.0
| Jun mean C = 31.8
| Jul mean C = 30.4
| Aug mean C = 29.2
| Sep mean C = 28.7
| Oct mean C = 27.8
| Nov mean C = 24.6
| Dec mean C = 20.4
| Jan low C = 12.7
| Feb low C = 14.0
| Mar low C = 18.6
| Apr low C = 23.0
| May low C = 26.6
| Jun low C = 28.3
| Jul low C = 27.6
| Aug low C = 26.3
| Sep low C = 25.6
| Oct low C = 21.9
| Nov low C = 16.8
| Dec low C = 12.7
| Jan record low C = 0.0
| Feb record low C = 3.3
| Mar record low C = 7.0
| Apr record low C = 12.2
| May record low C = 17.7
| Jun record low C = 22.1
| Jul record low C = 22.2
| Aug record low C = 20.0
| Sep record low C = 18.0
| Oct record low C = 10.0
| Nov record low C = 6.1
| Dec record low C = 1.3
| Jan precipitation mm = 8.6
| Feb precipitation mm = 9.4
| Mar precipitation mm = 5.3
| Apr precipitation mm = 15.7
| May precipitation mm = 6.1
| Jun precipitation mm = 25.8
| Jul precipitation mm = 103.2
| Aug precipitation mm = 78.9
| Sep precipitation mm = 39.6
| Oct precipitation mm = 7.6
| Nov precipitation mm = 0.4
| Dec precipitation mm = 2.8
| Jan precipitation days = 0.7
| Feb precipitation days = 0.8
| Mar precipitation days = 0.7
| Apr precipitation days = 2.2
| May precipitation days = 0.1
| Jun precipitation days = 4.9
| Jul precipitation days = 9.5
| Aug precipitation days = 9.3
| Sep precipitation days = 2.7
| Oct precipitation days = 1.3
| Nov precipitation days = 0.1
| Dec precipitation days = 0.7
| source 1 = PMD (2022) <ref name= PMD>{{cite web
|url = http://ffd.pmd.gov.pk/cp/ffd.php
|title = Flood Forecasting Division Lahore
|access-date = 25 February 2020}}</ref>
| source 2 = <ref name= PMDE>{{cite web
|url = http://www.pmd.gov.pk/cdpc/extrems/karachi.htm
|title = Krachi Extremes
|publisher = Pakistan Meteorological Department
|access-date = 1 November 2020}}</ref><ref name="ogimet">{{cite web |url=https://www.ogimet.com/cgi-bin/gsynres?ind=41780&ano=2022&mes=3&day=30&hora=12&min=0&ndays=30|title= 41780: Karachi Airport (Pakistan)|author= |date= 29 March 2022|website=ogimet.com |publisher=OGIMET |access-date= 30 March 2022|quote=}}</ref>
| source =
}}

== January ==
The month of January is the coolest month of the year in the city, with mostly clear skies and a constant N, NE breeze blowing. The influx of very cold and very dry Siberian winds (called "Quetta Waves" in common parlance), bring brief and cold spells to the region, dropping the night temperatures to below 10 degrees Celsius. Western Disturbances from the Persian Gulf and Iran affect the city during this time, bringing with them light rainfall. The highest rainfall during this month was {{convert|89.3|mm|in}}, which was recorded in 1995.<ref name="pakmet">{{cite web |url=http://www.pakmet.com.pk/cdpc/Climate/Karachi_Climate_Data.txt |title= PakMet|website=www.pakmet.com.pk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613053222/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/cdpc/Climate/Karachi_Climate_Data.txt |archive-date=13 June 2010}}</ref> The highest temperature of {{convert|32.8|C|F}} was recorded in January 2018.<ref name=pakmet/> The average high for the month is 24.6 °C while the average low for the month is a mild 6 °C.

The lowest temperature was 0.0 °C
[[File:Foggy Karachi.jpg|thumb|left|Foggy morning in the winter of Karachi.]]

== February ==
The cold waves can affect the metropolis until the middle of the month, after which a warming trend begins in the city. The relative humidity also tends to increase after the middle of the month. The lowest temperature was {{convert|3.3|C|F}} on 11 February 1950 and the highest was {{convert|36.5|C|F}} on 27 February 2016.<ref name=pakmet/> The highest monthly rainfall of {{convert|96|mm|in}} was recorded in 1979.<ref name=pakmet/> Western depressions can continue to affect the city during this month, often causing overcast skies and light to moderate rainfall. The intensity of rainfall in February is relatively higher compared to the preceding month. The average high for the month is a pleasant 27.7 °C whereas the lows hover around 15 °C.

== March ==
Weather turns quite warm with the start of March, with increasing humidity and intensity of sunshine. The highest temperature was recorded at 42 °C in 2004, and then again in 2010 and 2022.<ref name=pakmet/><ref name="ogimet" /> March is considered spring time in the city, when the skies are usually clear blue and W/SW breeze dominates, making the outdoors much more pleasant. Western depressions can bring moderate to at times even heavy rainfall. In the recent years, Karachi has received quite heavy rainfall in the month of March, for instance on 18 March 1997, the city received 25 mm rainfall from an overnight thunderstorm. On 11 March 2007, a strong western depression gave up to 35 mm rainfall in the city, during which intermittent moderate to heavy rain continued in the metropolis from morning until midnight. On 19 March 2007, once again an isolated heavy downpour lashed the city, in which the northern parts (North Karachi) received 53 mm rainfall in less than an hour, while other areas received lesser precipitation.on 13 March 2015, an overnight dose of heavy rain lashed mainly the southern and SE areas of the city. Between 10 and 15 mm rainfall was recorded in these areas within 15 minutes. However, Gulshan-e-Hadeed observatory (located ESE of the metropolis in the outskirts), received 40 mm downpour on the same night.Most recently on 1 march 2024 the city received heavy rainfall all day.The all-time high for the month was a mighty {{convert|130|mm|in}}, recorded in 1967, which is March's highest rainfall for the city.<ref name=pakmet/>

== April ==
Moving into April, the temperatures and humidity see an increasing trend. The highest temperature of April was {{convert|44.4|C|F}}, recorded on 16 April 1947, while the lowest temperature of {{convert|12.2|C|F}} was recorded on 29 April 1967.<ref name=pakmet/> The highest monthly rainfall of {{convert|52.8|mm|in}} was recorded in 1935.<ref name=pakmet/> The average high for the month is 34.3 °C while the average low is 22.3 °C. Although it is rare for the metropolis to get rainfall in this month, in recent times, April 2013 was quite exceptional as the metropolis was blessed by heavy rain on three occasions: On 2 April 2013, a thunder storm gave heavy rain in northern parts of the city where 12.6 mm rain was recorded. On 8 April 2013, a strong western depression from the Persian Gulf affected the city, giving widespread heavy rainfall in the morning hours, accompanied by strong winds; a maximum of 28 mm rainfall was recorded. On 22 April 2013, a strong thunderstorm ripped across the metropolis at mid-day, giving very heavy rainfall specially in central, NW and southern parts of the city. Downtown (Saddar) observatory in south Karachi received an accumulation of 66 mm for the month, however, the record for the highest rainfall in April stands unbroken because the record of 52.8 mm in 1935 was set at the Airport observatory, while the total rainfall recorded at the Airport in April 2013 was 29 mm. The April 2015 was very warm in Karachi, as it was 2.4 °C warmer on average compared to a standard April.

== May ==
May is the hottest month in Karachi, highest temperature was recorded on 9 May 1938, when temperatures reached {{convert|47.8|C|F}} while the lowest temperature was {{convert|17.7|C|F}}, recorded on 4 May 1989.<ref name=pakmet/> The humidity in the month is quite high, often surpassing 60% and coupled with temperatures ranging between 35 and 37 °C, the heat indices are generally quite high, making the outdoors highly uncomfortable. Rainfall in May is a rare occurrence. Recently, a very strong thunderstorm affected the metropolis during the early hours of 2 May 1997. 40 mm rainfall was recorded at Masroor Base, while the Airport received 6 mm rain. The highest monthly rain that occurred was in May 1933, when {{convert|33|mm|in}} rain lashed the city.<ref name="ReferenceA">[http://www.pakmet.com.pk/cdpc/extrems/KARACHI.htm Karachi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100422011000/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/cdpc/extrems/KARACHI.htm |date=22 April 2010 }}. Pakmet.com.pk. Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref> In 1999, 2001 and 2010, three major [[cyclones]] formed that came close to Karachi. The 1999 cyclone (the fourth strongest cyclone of the [[Arabian Sea]]) hit close to Karachi, along the coast of [[Thatta]] and [[Keti Bandar]] giving massive rainfall and causing widespread damage in these areas while the city of Karachi only received very strong NE winds, with light showers (traces). [[2001 North Indian Ocean cyclone season|2001 Indian Ocean cyclone]] was the third strongest cyclone of the Arabian Sea, that made landfall near the Indian border. [[Cyclone Phet]] formed in May 2010, about 1100 km away from Karachi. It travelled along the coast, striking [[Oman]] then affecting the coast of [[Balochistan region|Balochistan]], giving record-breaking rain amounts there. [[Gwadar]], for instance, got 372 mm rainfall in 36-hours. In May 1902, a cyclonic storm struck the coast in the vicinity of [[Karachi]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=1902-06-17 |title=CYCLONE AT KARACHI, INDIA. |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1902/06/17/archives/cyclone-at-karachi-india.html |access-date=2022-05-08 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=PMD Cyclone Page |url=http://www.pmd.gov.pk/Tcyclone-video/admin/History-add.php |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=www.pmd.gov.pk}}</ref>

== June ==
[[File:Beaches of Karachi.jpg|thumb|right|Drizzle is common in June as Pre-Monsoon rain.]]
The temperatures of June are almost identical to May, with just a slight decrease. The highest temperature of June was {{convert|47|C|F}}, recorded on 18 June 1979, and the lowest was {{convert|22.1|C|F}}, recorded on 3 June 1997.<ref name=pakmet/> On 6 June 2010, [[Cyclone Phet]] came close to the coast of Karachi as a [[tropical depression]], at about 50 km away from the city after a week-long journey. About {{convert|150|mm|in}} of rain with {{convert|35|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} winds struck the city. 95 mm rainfall was recorded at the Airport observatory whereas 150 mm was recorded at Masroor Base.<ref name="pakmet.com.pk">{{cite web|url=http://www.pakmet.com.pk/FFD/index_files/rainfalljune10.htm|title=RAINFALL STATEMENT JUNE-2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729124915/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/FFD/index_files/rainfalljune10.htm|archive-date=29 July 2010}}</ref> That's why once again, the official record for highest rainfall in the month of June, which was set at the Airport observatory in June 2007 i.e. 110 mm, stands unbroken. The average maximum temperature for the month of June is 34.8 °C whereas the average low is 27.9 °C.

=== 2015 heat wave ===
[[File:EPA-2015-A-Tiger-cools-off-to-beat-the-heat-by-embracing-a-large-lump-of-ice-at-the-Karachi-Zoo.jpg|thumb|Tiger cools off in Karachi's Zoo during June 2015 Heat Wave.]]
June 2015 was incredibly hot and humid in Karachi, being 1.8 °C warmer than an average June in the metropolis. Between 18 June and 23 June 2015, a severe heatwave struck the city; during these days, the maximum temperature remained in the range of 40 °C to 45 °C whereas the minimum temperature was between 30 °C and 33 °C.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pakistanweatherportal.com/category/karachi-heat-wave/|title=Karachi Heat Wave}}</ref> Due to humidity levels ranging between 40 and 50%, coupled with high temperature, the heat indices recorded in the city were above 50 °C during these days. The highest temperature during this heatwave was 45 °C (reached first time since 8 June 2000, when the temperature had soared to 45.5 °C), recorded on 20 June 2015, while the minimum temperature on this day was 31 °C. On 21 June 2015, the highest temperature was 43 °C whereas the minimum was 33 °C. The abnormal heat and humidity, coupled with government specifically [[K-Electric]]'s apathy towards the masses, claimed the lives of 1234 people in Karachi in one week.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karachi heatwave death toll reaches 1,160 |url=https://www.geo.tv/latest/4183-karachi-heatwave-death-toll-reaches-1160 |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=www.geo.tv |language=en}}</ref>

== July ==
[[File:Mosque in DHA, Karachi.JPG|thumb|left|Monsoon cloud hovering over the city]]
[[File:Watery Road of Karachi.jpg|thumb|right|Karachi is badly affected by the yearly monsoon rains rendering the road network unusable. The above picture depicts a certain road in Karachi completely covered with rainwater. The situation arises due to yearly rainfall which causes urban flooding. Other factors are improper drainage facilities and chocked drains.]]
In the month of July, the city is likely to start receiving rainfall from monsoon systems, that strike the metropolis from the Indian states of Rajasthan or Gujarat. Fast breeze from the W/SW blows throughout the day with stratus clouds covering the sky for most part of the day and night, making the weather very pleasant. Drizzle increases in intensity in this month, mostly occurring during night and early morning hours. At times, showers of considerable intensity can also lash the metropolis from these weak clouds, causing up to a few millimetres of rain. Heavy rains lash the city when a strong monsoon system strikes the region. Average high for the month is 33.1 °C whereas average low is 27.4 °C. The highest July temperature of {{convert|42.2|C|F}} was recorded on 3 July 1958 and the lowest temperature was {{convert|21.2|C|F}} on 22 July 1997.<ref name=pakmet/> The highest monthly rainfall for July was {{convert|429.3|mm|abbr=on}}, recorded in 1967.<ref name=pakmet/> On 27 July 1944, a cyclone left some 10,000 people homeless in Karachi.<ref>[http://www.ndma.gov.pk/Publications/livingwithdisasters.pdf Living with disasters] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709085830/http://www.ndma.gov.pk/Publications/livingwithdisasters.pdf |date=9 July 2011 }}</ref>

== August ==

The weather of August is identical to that of July. In 2006, after two years of drought (2004 and 2005), widespread rainfall of {{convert|77|mm|in}} occurred in the city to break the drought period.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-08-18 |title=KARACHI: More rains likely |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/206348/karachi-more-rains-likely |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> Between 09 and 11 August 2007, a very strong [[Deep Depression BOB 06 (2007)|tropical depression]] produced {{convert|191|mm|in}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Bhagwandas |date=2007-08-12 |title=KARACHI: 191mm rain in two days leaves city in shambles |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/260792/karachi-191mm-rain-in-two-days-leaves-city-in-shambles |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> Intermittent moderate to heavy rain lashed the mega-city during these 48 hours. Another monsoon low produced {{convert|80|mm|in}} of rain on 22 August 2007<ref>[http://www.interface.edu.pk/students/Aug/Karachi-rains.asp Heavy rains affect academic activities, 23 Aug – 2007]. Interface.edu.pk. Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref> The [[monsoon]] typically starts to get weak from the last week of August, but still has the potential to cause heavy rains in the city, as on 31 August 2009, when SE parts of the city received 148 mm rainfall, while precipitation in other areas varied between 40 and 70 mm. But history has shown that the monsoon withdraws from Karachi during the final days of August. The highest rainfall for August is {{convert|272.5|mm|in}}, which occurred in 1979. The highest temperature was {{convert|41.7|C|F}} on 9 August 1964, while the lowest temperature was {{convert|21.0|C|F}}, recorded on 7 August 1984.<ref name=pakmet/> The city's highest rainfall in 24 hours occurred on 27 August 2020, when 345 mm rain was officially recorded at PAF Base Faisal. However, unofficial records from DHA/Clifton areas put the total somewhere around 380 mm for 27 August 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nation.com.pk/25-Aug-2020/karachi-rain-breaks-36-year-record-confirms-met-office|title = Karachi rain breaks 36-year record, confirms Met Office|date = 25 August 2020}}</ref> Significantly, this total was achieved in just 12 hours, flooding the entire Southern district of the city.<ref>{{Cite web |agency=Reuters|date=2020-08-27 |title=In pictures: Torrential rain floods Karachi, shatters records |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1576744 |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=Dawn.com |language=en}}</ref>

== September ==
The first three weeks of September can have some good rains. After the first three weeks, the monsoon completely withdraws from the city, and the sky remains sunny and dry. There is a slight decrease in humidity, which hovers between 70 and 80%, and an increase in temperatures. Rain in this month is inconsistent. During the monsoon of 2005 no rain occurred in the city raising the fears of drought but from 9 September till 11 September heavy rainfall lashed the city about {{convert|80|mm|in}} rainfall was recorded.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhagwandas |date=2005-09-11 |title=KARACHI: Rains claim three lives: More showers forecast |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/156105/karachi-rains-claim-three-lives-more-showers-forecast |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref><ref name="beta.dawn.com">{{Cite web |date=2005-09-13 |title=KARACHI: Weather in city turns sultry, more rain likely |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/156378/karachi-weather-in-city-turns-sultry-more-rain-likely |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> From 12 September evening till 13 September afternoon, 2011 a total of {{convert|140|mm|in}} occurred in the city that caused [[urban flooding]] in almost all parts of the city.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Newspaper |first=the |date=2011-09-13 |title=Up to 140mm of rainfall in less than 24 hours |url=https://www.dawn.com/2011/09/13/up-to-140mm-of-rainfall-in-less-than-24-hours/ |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> The highest rainfall for September was {{convert|315.7|mm|in}} in 1959.<ref name=pakmet/><ref name="ReferenceA"/> The highest temperature was {{convert|42.2|C|F}} on 30 September 1951 and the lowest temperature recorded was {{convert|18.2|C|F}} on 23 September 1994.<ref name=pakmet/>

[[File:July floods karachi (2).jpg|thumb|left|Sunset in Karachi]]

== October ==
October is the driest month in the city of Karachi. The highest temperature of {{convert|43.3|C|F}} was recorded on 1 October 1959 and lowest was {{convert|10.0|C|F}} recorded on 30 October 1949.<ref name=pakmet/> Morning is hazy and the winds are calm, the sky remains clear with hot conditions. The highest monthly rainfall for October is 98mm, which occurred in 1956.<ref name=pakmet/> It is the second hottest month of the year after May. Karachi is considered by some to be a city with two summers. Pre monsoon summer of April–May and post monsoon summer of Sep–Oct.
During the year of 2004, the city received no significant precipitation, with the exception of a two-day spell of moderate rain which occurred between 2 and 3 October 2004, due to [[Cyclone Onil]]. 35 mm rain was recorded in two days across the city.

== November ==
November has hot days and pleasant nights. Mid-November conditions are much like those of October. During the last weeks of November there is a gradual decrease in temperature and thus winter begins, but it is not that cold. The first weeks of November are typically dry and the last week of November is cool. It is one of the driest months of the year, not only in Karachi, but most parts of Pakistan. On 9 November 2010 remnants of [[Cyclone Jal]] caused gusty winds in the metropolis.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2011-09-13 |title=Up to 140mm of rainfall in less than 24 hours |url=https://www.dawn.com/2011/09/13/up-to-140mm-of-rainfall-in-less-than-24-hours/ |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> The highest rainfall for November is {{convert|83.1|mm|in}}, which occurred in 1959.<ref name=pakmet/> The highest and lowest temperatures are {{convert|38.5|C|F}}, recorded on 1 November 1994 and {{convert|6.1|C|F}}, recorded on 29 November 1938 respectively.<ref name=pakmet/>

== December ==
The month of December is the annual winter month. In December, the weather remains cool. The sky remains overcast for part of the month, causing temperatures to decrease. Rainfall is common in the city during the month of December due to the western disturbance coming from the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The highest monthly rainfall of {{convert|63.6|mm|in}} was recorded in 1980.<ref name=pakmet/> During December 2006 a strong westerly "low" pressure resulted in {{convert|60.5|mm|in}} of rain in the city.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Report |first=Dawn |date=2006-12-05 |title=Widespread rain claims 17 lives |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/221944/widespread-rain-claims-17-lives |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> The highest recorded temperature for December was {{convert|34.5|C|F}} on 11 December 2001 and the lowest temperature was {{convert|1.3|C|F}}, which occurred on 14 December 1988.<ref name=pakmet/>

==Monsoon precipitation in Karachi==
The average annual rainfall for Karachi is {{convert|295.6|mm|in}} (1981–2022); the highest annual rainfall of {{convert|869|mm|in}} was recorded in 1967.<ref name=pakmet/> The highest rainfall in a single day was recorded on 27 August 2020 when rainfall of {{convert|223.5|mm|in}} lashed the financial hub of Pk. Annual [[monsoon]] rains for Karachi amount to {{convert|187.5|mm|in}}. The city experienced above-normal monsoon rainfalls in 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2017 and 2019, while in 2004 and 2005 the city received below-normal rainfall. In 2009 the country received 30% below normal rainfall with the exception of [[Sindh]], including Karachi, which received above normal monsoon rains. Following is the annual monsoon rainfall for the last few years based on data from the [[Pakistan Meteorological Department]].<ref name="http://www.pakmet.com.pk">[http://www.pakmet.com.pk/ Pakistan Meteorological Department] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901073841/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/ |date=1 September 2010 }}. Pakmet.com.pk (5 October 2010). Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"0" style="font-size:92%"
|-
! colspan=4 style="background:#ccf;" |Monsoon precipitation in Karachi Monsoon begins from June till September
|-
! colspan=4 | Precipitation
|-
! Year
! (mm)
! (in)
! References
|-
| 2000 || 76.9 mm || 0 inches ||<ref name="karachipage.com">[http://www.karachipage.com/news/Jul_01/071101.html Karachi News]. Karachipage.com (11 July 2001). Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref>
|-
| 2001 || 100.4 mm || 2.41 inches ||<ref name="karachipage.com"/><ref>[http://www.karachipage.com/news/Jul_01/071301.html Karachi News]. Karachipage.com (13 July 2001). Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref>
|-
| 2002 || 98.8 mm || 4.84 inches ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2002-08-27 |title=KARACHI: 27.5mm rain recorded |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/54410/karachi-27-5mm-rain-recorded |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-07-26 |title=KARACHI: Parts of city get light rain |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/131983/karachi-parts-of-city-get-light-rain |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2003 || 335.2 mm || 13.20  inches ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-07-30 |title=12 more killed as rains continue |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/132712/12-more-killed-as-rains-continue |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2004 || 135 mm || 1.38 inches ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-10-04 |title=Rain plays havoc in lower Sindh |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/372535/rain-plays-havoc-in-lower-sindh |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2005 || 97.2 mm || 3.17  inches ||<ref name="beta.dawn.com"/><ref name="pakrealestatetimes.com">[http://www.pakrealestatetimes.com/showthread.php?tid=5719 Usual cycle of monsoons expected this year: Met]. Pakrealestatetimes.com. Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref>
|-
| 2006 || 301.1 mm || 11.85 inches ||<ref name="pakrealestatetimes.com"/>
|-
| 2007 || 465.6 mm || 18.33 inches ||<ref name="http://www.pakmet.com.pk"/><ref name="pakrealestatetimes.com"/>
|-
| 2008 || 191.5 mm || 3.60 inches ||<ref name="pakrealestatetimes.com"/>
|-
| 2009 || 279.9 mm || 11.02 inches ||<ref name="pakmet1">[http://www.pakmet.com.pk/Pakistan%20Weather%20outlook/September%202009.html Government of Pakistan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315185248/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/Pakistan%20Weather%20outlook/September%202009.html |date=15 March 2012 }}. Pakmet.com.pk. Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-06-26 |title=Light rain disrupts power supply in Karachi |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/879751/light-rain-disrupts-power-supply-in-karachi |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/karachi-thunderstorm-forecast-879 |title=DAWN.COM | Local | KARACHI: Thunderstorm forecast |access-date=2010-09-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100725173933/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/karachi-thunderstorm-forecast-879 |archive-date=25 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-07-20 |title=Protests break out over power supplies |url=https://www.samaaenglish.tv/news/2009/07/protests-break-out-over-power-supplies/ |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=[[Samaa TV]]}}</ref><ref>http://hamaralyari.com/ Hamara Lyari</ref><ref>http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/karachi-35mm-of-rain-recorded%2C-more-forecast-189 {{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|-
| 2010 || 372.9 mm || 14.68 inches ||<ref name="pakmet.com.pk"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-10-28 |title=Pre-monsoon showers lash Karachi |url=http://news.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/premonsoon-showers-lash-karachi-670 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028193428/http://news.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/premonsoon-showers-lash-karachi-670 |archive-date=2010-10-28 |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ayub |first=Imran |date=2010-07-08 |title=Three die from electrocution as rain lashes Karachi |url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/16-two-children-drown%2C-man-dies-from-electrocution-as-rain-lashes-karachi-870-hs-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711114245/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/16-two-children-drown%2C-man-dies-from-electrocution-as-rain-lashes-karachi-870-hs-01 |archive-date=2010-07-11 |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-07-28 |title=More showers forecast for Karachi |url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/16-showers-forecast-870-hs-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100731100624/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/16-showers-forecast-870-hs-01 |archive-date=2010-07-31 |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhagwandas |date=2010-08-08 |title=Rain spell triggers prolonged traffic jams |url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/rain-spell-triggers-prolonged-traffic-jams-880 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817011653/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/rain-spell-triggers-prolonged-traffic-jams-880 |archive-date=2010-08-17 |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhagwandas |date=2010-08-09 |title=Met office forecasts two more days of rain |url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/met-office-forecasts-two-more-days-of-rain-980 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811213943/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/met-office-forecasts-two-more-days-of-rain-980 |archive-date=2010-08-11 |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-08-10 |title=Heavy rain lashes parts of Karachi |url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/19-heavy-rain-lashes-parts-of-city-080-hh-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815055234/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/19-heavy-rain-lashes-parts-of-city-080-hh-04 |archive-date=2010-08-15 |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-09-02 |title=Scattered showers in city |url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/scattered-showers-in-city-290 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101026052426/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/scattered-showers-in-city-290 |archive-date=2010-10-26 |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Bhagwandas |date=2010-09-10 |title=More rain forecast after scattered showers |url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/more-rain-forecast-after-scattered-showers-090 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919112757/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/more-rain-forecast-after-scattered-showers-090 |archive-date=19 September 2010 |access-date=2010-09-17 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-09-11 |title=More rain forecast |url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/more-rain-forecast-190 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914092610/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/more-rain-forecast-190 |archive-date=2010-09-14 |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref><ref>[http://www.karachidigest.com/articles/news/heavy-rain-lashes-karachi-2/ "Heavy rain lashes Karachi"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713134730/http://www.karachidigest.com/articles/news/heavy-rain-lashes-karachi-2/ |date=13 July 2011 }}. ''Karachi Digest''. (11 September 2010). Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.aaj.tv/2010/09/karachi-receives-rainfall-forecast-for-more-rains/ Karachi receives heavy rainfall"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113172905/http://www.aaj.tv/2010/09/karachi-receives-rainfall-forecast-for-more-rains/ |date=13 January 2016 }} AAJ News. Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref>
|-
| 2011 || 295 mm || 11.61 inches ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Newspaper |first=the |date=2011-07-26 |title=First monsoon showers in Karachi |url=https://www.dawn.com/2011/07/26/first-monsoon-showers-in-karachi/ |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref><ref>[http://www.pakmet.com.pk/met.gov/RDWR1.html marine_forecast] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112034819/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/met.gov/RDWR1.html |date=12 January 2012 }}. Pakmet.com.pk. Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref>
|-
| 2012 || 159.1 mm || 6.26 inches ||<ref>{{cite web|url=http://namc.pmd.gov.pk/fog.php?type%3Df%26page%3D46 |title=Pakistan Meteorological Department |access-date=2012-07-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719191230/http://namc.pmd.gov.pk/fog.php?type=f&page=46 |archive-date=19 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pmd.gov.pk/FFD/index_files/daily/rainfalljul12.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-07-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714003152/http://www.pmd.gov.pk/FFD/index_files/daily/rainfalljul12.htm |archive-date=14 July 2012 }}</ref>
|-
| 2013 || 172.4 mm || 6.79 inches || As of 8 August 2013<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pmd.gov.pk/FFD/index_files/daily/rainfalljun13.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-06-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616004542/http://www.pmd.gov.pk/FFD/index_files/daily/rainfalljun13.htm |archive-date=16 June 2013 }}</ref>
|-
|2020
|484 mm
|19.06 inches
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rapid Need Assessment Report: Monsoon Rains Karachi Division, 24th – 27th August 2020 - Pakistan |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/pakistan/rapid-need-assessment-report-monsoon-rains-karachi-division-24th-27th-august-2020 |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=ReliefWeb |date=29 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
|}

==Tropical cyclones and tropical storms==

Though cyclones are rare in the Arabian sea which is a part of North Indian Ocean, cyclones that form in the Arabian sea may move in five possible tracks; towards Indian Gujrat, towards Badin/Tharparkar coast, towards Karachi/Thatta coast, towards [[Gwadar Coast|Gwadar coast]] or towards Oman Coast.<ref name="imd.gov.in">{{cite web |url=http://www.imd.gov.in/section/nhac/static/cyclone-history-as.htm |title=History of Past Cyclones |access-date=2010-04-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100302202018/http://www.imd.gov.in/section/nhac/static/cyclone-history-as.htm |archive-date=2 March 2010 }}</ref> Cyclones in the Arabian sea form mostly from mid-May to mid-July and then in the month of October. [[Monsoon]] season plays a vital role for the formation of cyclones in this basin. Tropical storms that hit Pakistan are mostly remnants by the time they reach Pakistan or make landfall in south eastern [[Sindh]], which is not very populated. They rarely move towards the [[Balochistan]] coast.

Due to "Climate Change", now the frequency of Tropical Cyclones formation in the Arabian Sea has been increased and hence threats of landfall towards Karachi has also been increased.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-05-23 |title=Sea-saw: Climate change makes Karachi feel under the weather |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/712345/sea-saw-climate-change-makes-karachi-feel-under-the-weather |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=The Express Tribune |language=en}}</ref>

===List of tropical cyclones in Pakistan===

Each year before the onset of monsoon (15 May to 15 July) and also after its withdrawal (15 September to 15 November), there is always a distinct possibility of the cyclonic storm to develop in the north Arabian Sea.<ref name="indianweatherman.blogspot.com">{{cite web|url=http://indianweatherman.blogspot.com/2010/06/cyclone-history-for-karachi.html|title = Cyclone History for Karachi|date = 6 June 2010}}</ref> There is a 50 percent chance of cyclones to turn towards the Indian state of [[Gujarat]], 20 percent chance of moving towards the Oman/Gulf and thirty percent chance of moving towards the Pakistani coast.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-06-04 |title=Cyclone Phet losing intensity: Met office |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/855268/cyclone-phet-losing-intensity-met-office |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref>

There is one [[Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre|tropical cyclone warning centre]] (TCWC) operational in Pakistan. It is in Karachi, as in operated by the Pakistan Meteorological Department.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre {{!}} Press Releases {{!}} Advisories {{!}} Alerts {{!}} Warnings » Pakistan Meteorological Department |url=https://www.pmd.gov.pk/en/tropical-cyclone-warning-centre/advisories.php |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=www.pmd.gov.pk}}</ref> It monitors different systems that emerge in the Arabian Sea, and issues appropriate advisories, alerts, and warnings.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ali |first=Qazi Hassan {{!}} Imtiaz |date=2021-09-30 |title=All schools closed as Sindh braces for cyclonic storm, torrential rain |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1649320 |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-30 |title=Rains hit Karachi as cyclone threat looms |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2322639/rains-hit-karachi-as-cyclone-threat-looms |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=The Express Tribune |language=en}}</ref> During the last 100 years, a number of cyclonic storms have struck Pakistan's coastal areas. The years involved were 1895, 1902, 1907, 1944, 1948, 1964, 1985, 1999, 2007 and 2010.

{| class="wikitable"0" style="font-size:92%"
|-
! colspan=5 style="background:#cff;" | Wettest tropical cyclones/depressions in Pakistan Highest known recorded totals
|-
! colspan=3 | Precipitation / Rainfall
! rowspan=2 | Name of Tropical Cyclone / Storm
! rowspan=2 | Measurement Station
|-
! Rank
! ([[Millimetre|mm]])
! ([[Inch|in]])
|-
| 1 || 370 mm || 14.57 inches || [[Cyclone Phet|Phet (2010)]] || [[Gwadar]]<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.centralasiaonline.com/cocoon/caii/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/caii/newsbriefs/2010/06/04/newsbrief-04| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100605090832/http://centralasiaonline.com/cocoon/caii/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/caii/newsbriefs/2010/06/04/newsbrief-04| archive-date = 2010-06-05| title = Cyclone Phet dumps heavy rains on Gwadar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-06-06 |title=Thunder at night: Karachi awaits Cyclone Phet |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/19006/phet-400-km-from-karachi |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=The Express Tribune |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2 || 285  mm || 11.22  inches || [[1999 Pakistan cyclone|2A (1999)]] || [[Keti Bandar]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.heatisonline.org/contentserver/objecthandlers/index.cfm?id=3330&method=full |title = The Heat is Online| date=June 2022 }}</ref>
|-
| 3 || 245 mm || 9.64 inches || [[2009 North Indian Ocean cyclone season#Depression BOB|BOB (2009)]] || [[Karachi]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pakmet.com.pk/FFD/cp/fr2009.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-01-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806000315/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/FFD/cp/fr2009.pdf |archive-date=6 August 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.wunderground.com/history/airport/OPKC/2009/7/17/DailyHistory.html |title = Karachi, Pakistan History}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://hamariweb.com/myreport/report.aspx?id=199 | title=Effects of Heavy Rain in Karachi on 18 July 2009}}</ref>
|-
| 4 || 191 mm || 7.51 inches || [[Deep Depression BOB 06 (2007)|BOB 06 (2007)]] || [[Karachi]]<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.accuweather.com/world-news-blogs.asp?blog=andrews&partner=accuweather&pgUrl=/mtweb/content/andrews/archives/2007/08/will_the_arabia.asp| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110707080945/http://www.accuweather.com/world-news-blogs.asp?blog=andrews&partner=accuweather&pgUrl=/mtweb/content/andrews/archives/2007/08/will_the_arabia.asp| archive-date = 2011-07-07| title = AccuWeather.com News & Blogs: Jim Andrews Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pakmet.com.pk/monsoon.html |title=Government of Pakistan |access-date=8 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808042422/http://pakmet.com.pk/monsoon.html |archive-date=8 August 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":0" />
|-
| 5 || 145 mm || 5.71 inches || [[Cyclone Onil|Onil (2004)]] || [[Thatta]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archives.dawn.com/dawnftp/72.249.57.55/dawnftp/fixed/arch/arch_2004/arch_oct_04.htm |title=DAWN Back Issues of 2005 |access-date=2010-12-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203031745/http://archives.dawn.com/dawnftp/72.249.57.55/dawnftp/fixed/arch/arch_2004/arch_oct_04.htm |archive-date=3 December 2010 }}</ref>
|-
| 6 || 110 mm || 3.94 inches || [[Cyclone Yemyin|Yemyin (2007)]] || [[Karachi]]
|-
| 7 || 43 mm || 1.69 inches || [[2007 North Indian Ocean cyclone season#Deep Depression BOB 04|BOB 04 (2007)]] || [[Karachi]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pakmet.com.pk/sindhadvisory.html |title=Government of Pakistan |access-date=1 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629230656/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/sindhadvisory.html |archive-date=29 June 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Siddiqui |first=Tahir |date=2007-07-01 |title=KARACHI: Rains pile on the misery |url=http://beta.dawn.com/news/254171/karachi-rains-pile-on-the-misery |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 8 || 18 mm || 0.70 inches || [[Deep Depression BOB 03 (2009)|BOB 03 (2009)]] || [[Karachi]]<ref>http://news.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/karachi-heavy-rains-forecast-579 {{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|}

==See also==
* [[2009 Karachi floods]]
* [[Climate of Pakistan]]
* [[Climate of Sindh]]
* [[Demographics of Karachi]]
* [[History of Karachi]]
* [[List of extreme weather records in Pakistan]]
* [[List of most populous metropolitan areas in Pakistan]]
* [[Pakistan Meteorological Department]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100901073841/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/ Pakistan Meteorological Department]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100613053222/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/cdpc/Climate/Karachi_Climate_Data.txt Climate Data of Karachi]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020325142014/http://www.karachicity.gov.pk/ Official site: City District Government of Karachi]
* [http://www.worldweather.org/047/c00892.htm UN World Weather Service]
{{Karachi}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Climate of Karachi}}
[[Category:Environment of Karachi]]
[[Category:Climate by city in Pakistan|Karachi]]
[[Category:Climate of Sindh|Karachi]]
[[Category:Geography of Karachi]]

Faisalabad

2024-06-04T22:31:01Z

131.111.5.201: Removing arbitrary date added by https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Faisalabad&diff=prev&oldid=1217868109. It does not reflect any sources.

{{short description|City in Punjab, Pakistan (formerly Lyallpur)}}
{{For|the district|Faisalabad District}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=June 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox settlement


|
| name = Faisalabad
| official_name =
| other_name =
| native_name = {{nobold|{{Nastaliq| فیصل آباد}}}}
| nickname = ''The [[Manchester]] of Pakistan''
| etymology =
| settlement_type = [[City Districts of Pakistan|Metropolis]]
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Clock Tower Faisalabad by Usman Nadeem.jpg
| photo2a = Gurdwara-School_inner_front.JPG
| photo2b = Jhal flay over Faisaabad.jpg
| photo3a = Circuit House, Faisalabad.jpg
| photo3b = Faisalabad Canal Way1.jpg
| photo4a = M2-2.JPG
| photo4b =
| size = 250
| spacing = 1 
| color_border = white 
| border = 
|color = white
}}
| image_caption = <div style="background:#fee8ab;">'''From top, left to right:''' [[Clock Tower, Faisalabad|Clock Tower]], Sikh Gurdwara, Jhal Flyover Circuit House Gardens, Faisalabad Canal, Faisalabad Pindi-Bhattian Interchange</div>
| image_flag =
| flag_size =
| image_seal = Municipal Corporation Faisalabad.png
| seal_size = 100
| image_shield =
| shield_size =
| image_blank_emblem =
| blank_emblem_type = [[Faisalabad Development Authority|FDA]] logo
| image_map =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = Punjab Pakistan#Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position = bottom
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Faisalabad
| pushpin_mapsize = 
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Subdivisions of Pakistan|Province]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon|Punjab, Pakistan}} [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Divisions of Pakistan|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Faisalabad Division|Faisalabad]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Districts of Pakistan|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Faisalabad District|Faisalabad]]
| blank_name_sec1 = Former Name
| blank_info_sec1 = Lyallpur
| blank1_name_sec1 = Official Languages
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Urdu]], [[English language|English]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = Native language
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = Languages (1981)
| blank3_info_sec1 = 98.2% [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] 1.8% ''Others''<ref name="Languages">{{cite book|author=Stephen P. Cohen|title=The Idea of Pakistan|url=https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe|url-access=registration|date=2004|publisher=[[Brookings Institution Press]]|isbn=0815797613|page=[https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe/page/202 202]}}</ref>
| seat_type = [[Local government in Punjab|Metropolitan Corporation]]
| seat =
| parts_type =
| parts_style = 
| parts = 
| p1 =
| p2 = 
| government_footnotes =
| government_type =
| leader_title = [[Mayor of Faisalabad|Mayor]]
| leader_name = None (''vacant'')<ref>{{cite news|url=https://nation.com.pk/31-Dec-2021/administrators-appointments-planned-as-punjab-lg-system-dissolves-today|title=Administrators' appointments planned as Punjab LG system dissolves today|date=31 December 2021|access-date=5 January 2022|work=The Nation (newspaper)}}</ref>
| leader_title1 = Commissioner
| leader_name1 = Silwat Saeed<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nation.com.pk/19-Dec-2023/commissioner-for-early-completion-of-business-facilitation-centre|title=Commissioner for early completion of Business Facilitation Centre|date=19 December 2023|access-date=19 December 2023|work=The Nation (newspaper)}}</ref>
| established_title = Settled
| established_date = 1892
| founder = [[James Broadwood Lyall]]
| named_for = [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia]]
| unit_pref = metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_sq_mi = 512
| area_land_sq_mi = 325
| area_water_sq_mi = 165
| area_metro_sq_mi = 2261
| area_water_percent = 33
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 186
| elevation_max_m =
| elevation_min_m = 
| population_as_of = 2017
| population_footnotes = <ref name=ProP/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/provisional-summary-results-6th-population-and-housing-census-2017-0|title=Provisional Summary Results of 6th Population and Housing Census-2017|work=pbs.gov.pk|access-date=24 November 2017}}</ref>
| population_note =
| population_total = 32,04,704
| total_type = City
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank = [[List of most populous cities in Pakistan|3rd, Pakistan]]
| population_demonym = Faisalabadi
| timezone = [[Pakistan Standard Time|PKT]]
| utc_offset = +05:00
| timezone_DST =
| utc_offset_DST =
| coordinates = {{Coord|31|25|0|N|73|5|28|E|type:city_region:PK|display=inline,title}}
| postal_code_type = [[Postal codes in Pakistan|Postal code]]
| postal_code = 38000
| area_code = 041
| area_code_type =
| blank_name_sec2 = [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]
| blank_info_sec2 = $43 billion (2013)
| blank_emblem_link =
| imagesize = 250px
| area_rank = [[List of metropolitan areas in Pakistan|3rd]]
}}

'''Faisalabad''' ({{IPAc-en|pron||f|ɑː|ɪ|s|ɑː|l|ˌ|b|ɑː|d}}; [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], {{lang-ur|{{nq|فیصل آباد}}}}, {{IPA-pa|fɛːsə̆ləˌbäːd}}; {{IPA-ur|fɛːsˈlɑˌbɑːd|-|Faisalabad Pronounciation.ogg}}), formerly known as '''Lyallpur''' ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], {{Lang-ur|{{unq|لائل پور}}}}), is the [[List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population|second largest]] city and industrial centre of the [[Administrative units of Pakistan|Pakistani province]] of [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]. It is an industrial and metropolitan hub, being the [[List of cities in Pakistan by population|third most populous city]] in [[Pakistan]], with an estimated population of 3.7 million in 2023. Located in central Punjab's [[Rachna Doab|Rachna Do'āb]], between the [[River Ravi|Ravi]] and [[River Chenab|Chenab]] rivers, it is the second-largest [[Punjabi language|Punjabi-speaking]] city in the world. Faisalabad is one of Pakistan's wealthiest and most industrialized city, the largest industrial hub and second largest city of the wider [[Punjab|Punjab region]].

Historically one of the largest villages of Punjab, Lyallpur was one of the first planned cities within [[British India]]. It has long since developed into a cosmopolitan metropolis. Faisalabad was restructured into [[City Districts of Pakistan|city district]] status; a devolution promulgated by the 2001 [[Local government in Pakistan|local government ordinance]] (LGO). The total area of [[Faisalabad District]] is {{convert|5856|km2|abbr=on}}<ref name="FCCI:City History"/> while the area controlled by the [[Faisalabad Development Authority]] (FDA) is {{convert|1326|km2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="LoP">{{cite web|url=http://www.lawsofpakistan.com/faisalabad-geography-city-district-government-towns-of-faisalabad/|title=Faisalabad Geography | date=April 12, 2013 |access-date=April 15, 2017}}</ref><ref name="RPF">{{cite report | url=https://www.scribd.com/book/50333273 | publisher = University of Agriculture, Faisalabad | title=Regional Profile, Faisalabad | author = Ghulam Mustafa |year = 2009}}</ref>{{rp|8}}

Faisalabad has grown to become a major industrial and distribution centre because of its central location in the region and connecting roads, rails, and air transportation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gcuf.edu.pk/about/the-city-faisalabad/|title=The City Faisalabad – GCUF|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424053923/http://gcuf.edu.pk/about/the-city-faisalabad/|archive-date=24 April 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It has been referred to as the Manchester of Pakistan because of its extensive textile industry.<ref name="uaf.edu.pk">{{cite report |date=2005 |title=International Conference on Soil Sustainability and Food Security |url=http://uaf.edu.pk/downloads/2nd_path/Brochure_SSFS_2015.pdf |publisher=University of Agriculture, Faisalabad |access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Jaffrelot 2002 57">{{cite book |page=57 |title=Pakistan: Nationalism Without A Nation |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |author-link=Christophe Jaffrelot |publisher=Zed Books |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84277-117-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2avL3aZzSEC&pg=PA57}}</ref>
{{As of|2013}}, the [[GDP]] of Faisalabad was estimated at $43 billion<ref name="PBIT">{{cite web| url=http://www.pbit.gop.pk/punjab_at_glance| title=Punjab At A Glance| publisher=Punjab Board of Investment & Trade, Government of The Punjab| date=2021| access-date=April 15, 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416133204/http://www.pbit.gop.pk/punjab_at_glance| archive-date=16 April 2017| url-status=dead| df=dmy-all}}</ref> and projected to rise to $87 billion in 2025 at a growth rate of 5.7%.<ref name="faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk">{{Cite web|url=http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx|title=District Website|website=faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk|access-date=3 December 2015|archive-date=9 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709065525/http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Faisalabad contributes over 10 percent to the Punjab's GDP and has an average annual GDP (nominal) of $20.5 billion.<ref name="PBIT"/> Agriculture and industry remain its hallmarks.<ref name=FCCI/><ref name=RPF />{{rp|41}}

== Etymology ==

Faisalabad was formerly (until 1977) known as Lyallpur. When founded in 1890 it was named after [[James Broadwood Lyall|Sir James Broadwood Lyall]], the British lieutenant governor of the Punjab.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ian |last=Talbot |year=2020 |title=The History of British Diplomacy in Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kwIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT275 |publisher=Routledge |page=275|isbn=9781000326703 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Kavita |last=Puri |year=2019 |title=Partition Voices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emCWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT108 |publisher=Bloomsbury |page=108|isbn=9781408899069 }}</ref> It became headquarters of the Lower Chenab colony and in 1898 was incorporated as a municipality.<ref>Britannica {{cite news|title=Faisalabad|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Faisalabad|newspaper= Britannica}}</ref>

In September 1977, the city of Lyallpur was renamed "Faisalabad" by the [[Government of Pakistan]] in honour of the [[King of Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian king]] [[Faisal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud]], respecting his long relationship with Pakistan and its people.<ref>The Express Tribune {{cite news|title=From Lyallpur to Faisalabad: the city of eight bazaars|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2340127/from-lyallpur-to-faisalabad-the-city-of-eight-bazaars|newspaper= The Express Tribune|date=24 Jan 2022}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|image1=University of Agriculture, Lyallpur, British India.jpg
|caption1=The first university in Lyallpur was built by the [[British Indian Empire]] in 1906 with the foundation stone laid by Sir Louis Dane, then Lieutenant and Governor of Punjab.<ref name="UAF: this city was made by Rai Bahadur Hansraj Bhavanidas Sikka. History">{{cite web|url=http://uaf.edu.pk/faculties/agri/agri_history.html|title=Faculty of Agriculture – History|publisher=University of Agriculture, Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>
|image2=Quaid E Azam Jinnah Ali Lyallpur Dhobi Ghat.jpeg
|caption2=[[Mohammed Ali Jinnah]], in Lyallpur where he gave a historic speech at Dhobi Ghat, c. 1943
|image3=Industrial exhibition in FSD.jpg
|caption3=One of the earlier industrial exhibition at the [[University of Agriculture]], still a major exhibition in the city today, c. 1949
|image4= Lady Mountbatten among the Hindu evacuees at the Punjab Scouts Camp, Layallpur during partition of India.jpg
|caption4= [[Edwina Mountbatten, Countess Mountbatten of Burma|Lady Mountbatten]], [[Vicereine]] of India, among the Hindu evacuees at the Punjab Scouts Camp, Layallpur during partition of British India
|image5=Gurdwara-School inner front.JPG
|caption5=Gurudawar Layallpur, a [[Sikh]] [[Gurdwara]] constructed during the reign of the [[British Empire]] in 1911
}}

=== Toponymy ===
The city was settled or established in 1880 during the colonisation of the lower Chenab Valley.<ref name="TUF history">{{cite web |title=History of Faisalabad |url=https://tuf.edu.pk/n/history-faisalabad |website=University of Faisalabad (TUF) |publisher=University of Faisalabad |access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref> This city was settled down by Rai Bahadur Bhavanidas Sikka, after which the British Government granted [[jagir|jagirs]] to him. After Partition his descendants settled in India, now settled in Mumbai. This city was named in honour of [[List of governors of Punjab (British India)|Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab]], Sir James Broadwood Lyall, for his role in establishing the [[Punjab Canal Colonies|canal colonisation project]].<ref name="Punjab Canal Colonies">Douie, J. (1914). The Punjab Canal Colonies. Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, 62(3210), 611-623. Retrieved March 5, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41341616</ref><ref name="asb.org.pk">{{cite journal |url=http://www.asb.org.pk/faisalabadprofile.doc |title=Faisalabad CITY PROFILE and SELECTION OF WARDS |author=Integrated Slums Development Programme (ISDP) |date=March 2001 |access-date=8 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923174341/http://www.asb.org.pk/faisalabadprofile.doc |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The surname ''[[Lyall (surname)|Lyall]]'' was joined with the noun ''[[Pur (placename element)|pur]]'', meaning 'city' in [[Sanskrit]].<ref name=Sanskrit>{{cite web|url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=pur&script=&direction=SE&link=yes|title=Spoken Sanskrit Dictionary|access-date=11 June 2016}}</ref>

On 1 September 1977, the [[Government of Pakistan]] changed the name of the city from Lyallpur to Faisalabad ''('City of Faisal')'' in honour of [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal of Saudi Arabia]], who made several financial contributions to Pakistan.<ref name="TUF history" /><ref>{{cite book|author=John Everett-Heath|title=The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVRuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT728|date=13 September 2018|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-256243-2|page=728}}</ref><ref name="FCCI:City History">{{cite web |url=http://www.fcci.com.pk/a-histroty-of-faisalabad-city.html |title=A History of Faisalabad City |publisher=The Faisalabad Chamber of Commerce & Industry |access-date=8 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903002333/http://www.fcci.com.pk/a-histroty-of-faisalabad-city.html |archive-date=3 September 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

===Early settlements===
The region encompassing modern day Faisalabad district was originally inhabited by a number of forest-dwelling tribes.<ref name="Punjab Canal Colonies"/> It is believed these early settlements belonged to the ancient districts of [[Jhang]] and [[Sandalbar]], and included the area between [[Shahdara Bagh|Shahdara]] to Shorekot and [[Sangla Hill]] to [[Toba Tek Singh]].<ref name="TUF history" /> The shrine of [[Baba Noor Shah Wali]] was erected in the area in the 1600s.<ref>[https://pakvoter.org/wp-content/pdfs/Punjab%20Local%20Government%20Elections%202016/Faisalabad.pdf Local government elections 2020 Faisalabad]</ref>

===Development===
At the conclusion of the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] in 1849, the entire [[Punjab region]] became administered as [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab province]], firstly by the [[East India Company]] and after 1858 as part of the [[British Raj]].<ref name=Stein>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=GBS.PA107|last=Stein|first=Burton|title=A History of India|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1|page=107}} Quote: "When the formal rule of the Company was replaced by the direct rule of the British Crown in 1858, ...."</ref><ref name=Duke>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UMMECgAAQBAJ&pg=PT71|last=Lowe|first=Lisa|title=The Intimacies of Four Continents|date= 2015|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-7564-7|page=71}} Quote: "... Company rule in India lasted effectively from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 until 1858, when following the 1857 Indian Rebellion, the British Crown assumed direct colonial rule of India in the new British Raj."</ref>

In the 1880s the Punjab government began an irrigation scheme to cultivate large tracts of western Punjab through the creation of canal colonies.<ref>'Chenab Colony Gazetteer (1904), p.29.</ref> The Chenab colony was the largest of these colonisation projects, and covered the entirety of present-day Faisalabad district. Popham Young, the Colonisation Officer managing the project identified the site of the current city to establish headquarters for the colony.<ref name="Punjab Canal Colonies"/><ref name=DCF>{{cite web|url=http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx|title=Brief History of Faisalabad|publisher=District Court of Faisalabad|access-date=8 June 2016|archive-date=9 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709065525/http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Young designed the settlement's centre to replicate the design in the [[Union Jack]] with eight roads extending from a large [[Clock Tower, Faisalabad|clock tower]] at its epicentre;<ref name="DCF-PP">{{cite web | url=http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx | title=Brief History of Faisalabad | publisher=District Court Faisalabad | access-date=3 December 2015 | archive-date=9 July 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709065525/http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx | url-status=dead }}</ref> a design geometrically symbolic of the [[Flag of Scotland|Cross of Saint Andrew]] counter changed with the [[Cross of Saint Patrick]], and [[Saint George's Cross]] over all.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.flaginstitute.org/wp/british-flags/the-union-jack-or-the-union-flag/ |first=Bruce |last=Nicolls |title=The Union Jack or The Union Flag? |publisher=The Flag Institute |access-date=3 December 2015 }}</ref> The eight roads developed into eight separate bazaars (markets) leading to different regions of the Punjab.<ref name="asb.org.pk" /><ref name=UofF>{{cite web|url=http://www.tuf.edu.pk/history-fabad.php|publisher=The University of Faisalabad|title=City of Faisalabad|access-date=3 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018214515/http://www.tuf.edu.pk/history-fabad.php|archive-date=18 October 2015|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 1892, the newly constructed town with its growing agricultural surplus was added to the British rail network.<ref name="Bogart">{{cite web | url=http://www.socsci.uci.edu/~dbogart/indraileconachieve.pdf | title=Railways in Colonial India: An Economic Achievement? | work=Social Sciences | publisher=University of California-Irvine | date=August 2011 | access-date=3 December 2015 | author=Dan Bogart, Latika Chaudhry | page=2}}</ref> Construction of the rail link between [[Wazirabad]] and Lyallpur was completed in 1895.<ref name="DCF-PP"/> In 1896, [[Gujranwala]], Jhang and [[Montgomery Tahsil|Montgomery]] comprising the [[Tehsils]] of Lyallpur were under the administrative control of the Jhang District.<ref name=PGH>{{cite web|url=http://punjab.gov.pk/faisalabad_history|title=History of Faisalabad|work=Punjab Portal|access-date=8 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018214515/http://punjab.gov.pk/faisalabad_history|archive-date=18 October 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> The town became one of the first planned settlements within [[British India]].<ref name=FCCI>{{cite web|url=http://fcci.com.pk/rte/The-Economy-of-Faisalabad.pdf | publisher=Faisalabad Chamber of Commerce & Industry | title=The Economy of Faisalabad|access-date=8 February 2018}}</ref>

In 1904, the new district of Lyallpur was created to include the tehsils of [[Samundri]] and Toba Tek Singh with a sub-tehsil at [[Jaranwala]], which later became a full tehsil in itself.<ref name="Gazetteer">{{cite journal | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTS2AAAAIAAJ&q=1906+the+new+district+of+Lyallpur&pg=PA220 | title=Imperial Gazetteer of India | year=1908 | volume=2 | pages=220–223 | publisher=Superintendent of Government Printing}}</ref> The [[University of Agriculture (Faisalabad)|University of Agriculture]], originally the Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute, Lyallpur, was established in 1906.<ref name="UAF: this city was made by Rai Bahadur Hansraj Bhavanidas Sikka. History" /> The Town Committee was upgraded to a Municipal Committee in 1909. Lyallpur grew into an established agricultural tool and grain centre.<ref name="Anwar">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNUaBgAAQBAJ&q=1930s+in+Faisalabad&pg=PT119 | title=Infrastructure Redux: Crisis, Progress in Industrial Pakistan & Beyond | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan | author=Nausheen Anwar | year=2014 | page=119 | location=Pakistan | isbn=978-1-137-44818-7}}</ref> By 1911 the city had a population of 19,578.<ref name="Punjab Canal Colonies"/> The 1930s brought industrial growth and market expansion to the textile industry as well as to food processing, grain crushing and chemicals.<ref name="asb.org.pk" />

=== Independence ===
In August 1947, following three decades of nationalist struggles, India and Pakistan achieved independence. The British agreed to [[Partition of India|partition British India]] into two sovereign states – Pakistan with a [[Islam|Muslim]] majority, and India with a [[Hindu]] majority. However, more Muslims remained in India than what governing authorities believed would assimilate into Pakistan.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/partition1947_01.shtml | title=The Hidden Story of Partition and its Legacies | work=British History | publisher=BBC | date=3 March 2011 | access-date=4 December 2015 | author=Crispin Bates, Phd}}</ref> The partitioning led to a mass migration of an estimated 10 million people which made it the largest mass migration in human history.<ref name="BBC" /> The Punjab province was divided into [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab, West Pakistan]] and [[Punjab, India]]. There were also respective divisions of the [[British Indian Army]], the [[Indian Civil Service]], various administrative services, the central treasury, and the railways.<ref name="Yale">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan | title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan | publisher=Yale University Press | author=Yasmin Khan | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-300-12078-3 | url-access=registration }}</ref> Riots and local fighting followed the expeditious withdrawal of the British, resulting in an estimated one million civilians deaths, particularly in the western region of Punjab.<ref name=BBC /> Lyallpur, which was located in the region of the Punjab Province that became West Pakistan, was populated by a minority of Hindus and [[Sikhs]] who migrated to India, while Muslim refugees from [[East Punjab]] settled in the district.<ref name="Yale" />

In 1977, Pakistani authorities changed the name of the city from Lyallpur to Faisalabad, in order to honor the close friendship of [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal of Saudi Arabia]] with Pakistan.<ref name="Burki">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rk-sBwAAQBAJ&q=faisalabad+named+after&pg=PA196 | title=Historical Dictionary of Pakistan | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield | author=Shahid Javed Burki | year=2015 | page=196 | isbn=978-1-4422-4148-0}}</ref>

During the eighties, the city saw an influx of foreign investments in the textile sector.<ref name="Tribune-26-April">{{cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/875965/business-ties-faisalabad-encourages-turkish-investment/|title=Business ties: Faisalabad encourages Turkish investment|date=26 April 2015|work=The Express Tribune}}</ref> Large number of residents of Faisalabad began working abroad as bilateral ties improved as part of new trade agreements. This led to more foreign remittances into the city. This aided the development of large scale infrastructure projects within the city.<ref name="FCCI:City History"/> In 1985, the city was upgraded as a division with the districts of Faisalabad, Jhang and Toba Tek Singh.<ref name="TUF history"/>

== Geography ==
=== Location ===
Faisalabad lies in the rolling flat plains of northeast Punjab, at {{convert|186|m}} above sea level. The city proper comprises approximately {{convert|1326|km2}} while the district encompasses more than {{convert|16000|km2}}. The Chenab River flows about {{convert|30|km}}, and the [[Ravi River]] meanders {{convert|40|km}} to the southeast. The lower Chenab canal provides water to 80% of cultivated lands making it the main source of irrigation. Faisalabad is bound on the north by [[Chiniot]] and [[Sheikhupura]], on the east by Sheikhupura and Sahiwal, on the south by Sahiwal and Toba Tek Singh and on the west by Jhang.<ref name="CDG: Geography">{{cite web|title=CDG Faisalabad|url=http://www.faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/CityProfileDetail/2|website=www.faisalabad.gov.pk|publisher=City District Government Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505070526/http://www.faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/CityProfileDetail/2|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
{{Geographic location
|width=auto
|title = '''Adjoining cities to Faisalabad'''
|Northwest = [[Sargodha]]
|North = [[Chiniot]]
|Northeast = [[Sheikhupura]]
|West = [[Jhang]]
|Centre = Faisalabad
|East = [[Nankana Sahib]]
|Southwest = [[Gojra]]
|South = [[Samundri]]
|Southeast = [[Tandlianwala]] and [[Okara, Pakistan|Okara]]
}}

=== Geology ===
The district of Faisalabad is part of the [[alluvial plain]]s between the [[Himalayan foothills]] and the central core of the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name=WP>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/countries/pakistan.html?nav=el | title=Pakistan | newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=9 June 2016}}</ref> The [[alluvial deposits]] are typically over a thousand feet thick.<ref name="Nasim Akhtar">{{cite thesis |last=Akhtar |first=Nasim |date=October 2006 |title=Radionuclide Pollution due to Fertilizer use in some Saline Soils of the Punjab and their Potential Risk Assessment on Human Health |type=PhD |chapter=Study Area and Sampling |publisher=Bahauddin Zakariya University |chapter-url=http://prr.hec.gov.pk/chapters/2356-2.pdf |access-date=7 June 2016 |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018214515/http://prr.hec.gov.pk/chapters/2356-2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[interfluve]]s are believed to have been formed during the [[Late Pleistocene]] and feature [[River terraces (tectonic–climatic interaction)|river terraces]].<ref name=PNAS>{{cite journal|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/109/26/E1688.full.pdf|title=Fluvial Landscapes of the Harappan Civilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |last1=Giosan|first1=Liviu |last2=Clift |first2=Peter D.|last3=Macklin|first3=Mark G.|last4=Fuller|first4= Dorian Q.|last5=Constantinescu|first5=Stefan|last6=Durcan|first6=Julie A.|last7=Stevens|first7=Thomas|last8=Duller|first8=Geoff A. T.|last9=Tabrez |first9=Ali R.|last10=Gangal|first10=Kavita |last11=Adhikari |first11=Ronojoy|last12= Alizai |first12=Anwar|last13=Filip |first13=Florin | last14=VanLaningham|first14=Sam|last15=Syvitski|first15=James P.M.|volume=109|issue=26|pages=E1688-94|date=26 June 2012|access-date=9 June 2016|doi=10.1073/pnas.1112743109|pmid=22645375|bibcode=2012PNAS..109E1688G |pmc=3387054|doi-access=free}}</ref> These were later identified as old and young floodplains of the [[Ravi River]] on the Kamalia and Chenab Plains. The old floodplains consist of [[Holocene]] deposits from the Ravi and Chenab rivers.<ref name="Jehangir">{{cite book | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MgweBQAAQBAJ&q=Holocene+deposits+Ravi+and+Chenab+rivers&pg=PA3 | title=Conjunctive Water Management in the Rechna Doab: An Overview of Resources and Issues | publisher=International Water Management Institute | last1=Jehangir |first1= Waqar Ahmed |last2 =Qureshi |first2=Asad Sarwar |last3= Ali |first3=Nazim | chapter=Physiography of the Rechna Doab | year=2002 | page=3 | isbn=9290904895}}</ref>

The soil consists of young stratified silt loam or very fine sand loam which makes the subsoil weak in structure with common kankers at only five feet. The course of the rivers within Faisalabad is winding and often subject to frequent alternations. In the rainy season, the currents are very strong. This leads to high floods in certain areas which do last for a number of days. The [[Rakh]] and [[Gogera]] canals have encouraged the water levels in the district however the belt on the Ravi River has remained narrow. The river bed does include the river channels which have shifted the sand bars and low sandy [[levees]] leading to river erosion.<ref name="Nasim Akhtar"/>
Faisalabad is situated at the centre of the lower [[Rechna Doab]], the area is located between the Chenab and Ravi rivers. There is a mild slope from the northeast to the southwest with an average fall of {{convert|0.2|-|0.3|m/km|abbr=off}}. The city is situated at an elevation of about {{convert|183|m}}. The topography is marked by valleys, local depression and high ground.<ref name=Kobe />

== Climate ==
{{Main|Climate of Faisalabad}}

Faisalabad overlaps between a [[semi-arid]] climate and a [[humid subtropical]] climate.

The weather in the city is monitored by the [[Pakistan Meteorological Department]].<ref name=PMD>{{cite web|url=http://www.pmd.gov.pk/| title=Pakistan Weather|publisher=Pakistan Meteorological Department|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref> The Pakistan Meteorological Department regularly provides forecasts, public warnings and rainfall information to farmers with the assistance of the National Agromet Centre.<ref name="PMD-NAMC">{{cite web|url=http://namc.pmd.gov.pk/advisories.php|title= Weather Advisory for Farmers|publisher= Pakistan Meteorological Department|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="PMD-RAMC">{{cite web|url=http://namc.pmd.gov.pk/ramc-faisalabad.php | title=Regional Agrometeorological Center Faisalabad|publisher=Pakistan Meteorological Department|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Climate-Data">{{cite web|url=http://en.climate-data.org/location/764568/ | title=Climate: Faisalabad – Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table|publisher=Climate-Data.org|access-date=7 September 2013}}</ref>

Average annual rainfall is approximately {{convert|718|mm}}. It is at its peak in July, August and September during the monsoon season though western disturbances during winter months also bring considerable rainfall associated with hail.<ref name="nation.com.pk">{{Cite web|url=https://nation.com.pk/24-Jul-2019/rain-forecast-flood-warning-for-three-days|title=Rain forecast, flood warning for three days|date=24 July 2019|website=The Nation}}</ref> Monsoon season which starts in July and ends in September brings heavy rain to the city causing flash flooding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/pakistan/urban-flooding-likely-in-various-divisions-t-720528.html|title=Urban Flooding Likely In Various Divisions: The Flood Forecasting Division (FFD)|website=UrduPoint}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.samaa.tv/news/2019/07/pdma-warns-of-urban-flooding-in-several-punjab-cities/|title=PDMA warns of urban flooding in several Punjab cities | SAMAA|website=Samaa TV}}</ref> If the monsoon currents interact with the western disturbance, then cloudburst can also occur. July is the wettest month of the year during which flooding is reported a number of times.<ref name="nation.com.pk"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1493771|title=Govt reviews flood preparations ahead of heavy rainfall|first=Khaleeq|last=Kiani|date=13 July 2019|website=DAWN.COM}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/503153-heavy-rains-pmd-issues-flood-landslide-alert|title=Heavy rains: PMD issues flood, landslide alert|website=www.thenews.com.pk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/501988-Heavy-monsoon-rain-lashes-parts-of-country|title = Monsoon's third spell generates urban flood warning| date=14 February 2008 }}</ref> Monsoon ends in September and then the dry period begins. October and November are the driest months with very little rainfall. During winter the weather usually remains cloudy associated with frequent fog.<ref name=Kobe>{{cite web | url=http://www.kicc.jp/auick/database/baseline/BS2004/BS2004-CHAP6.html | title=Report of Baseline Survey Faisalabad, Pakistan | publisher=Asian Urban Information of Kobe | access-date=27 January 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124024723/http://www.kicc.jp/auick/database/baseline/BS2004/BS2004-CHAP6.html | archive-date=24 January 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> [[List of extreme weather records in Pakistan|Record-breaking rainfall]] of {{convert|264.2|mm}} was recorded on 5 September 1961 by the Pakistan Meteorological Department.<ref>Pakistan Meteorological Department http://www.pmd.gov.pk/ Retrieved 18 January 2016</ref> The temperature of the city has reached a summer maximum record temperature of 48.0 °C (118.4 °F), which was observed on 9 June 1947 and again on 26 May 2010.<ref name="rmcpunjab.pmd.gov.pk">{{Cite web|url=http://rmcpunjab.pmd.gov.pk/P-historical.html|title=Historical Events|website=rmcpunjab.pmd.gov.pk}}</ref> An extreme minimum temperature of −4.0 °C (24.8 °F) was recorded on 15 January 1978. The highest wind gust ever recorded in Faisalabad occurred during a severe dust-thunderstorm on 2 June 2000, when the maximum wind speed reached 151 kilometers per hour (94 mph).<ref name="rmcpunjab.pmd.gov.pk"/> Apart from temperature and rainfall records, the winds in Faisalabad are generally light. The city lies in an area with low wind speeds. Westerly breeze dominates the afternoons, while the nights are calm. Southeast / easterly winds are common here during the monsoon season. Faisalabad, being in the plains, can experience severe thunderstorms and high wind gusts that can be damaging to its crops.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/weather/faisalabad-receives-heavy-rain-663064.html|title=Faisalabad Receives Heavy Rain|website=UrduPoint}}</ref>

{{Weather box
| location = Faisalabad
| metric first = Yes
| single line = Yes
| Jan record high C = 26.6
| Feb record high C = 30.8
| Mar record high C = 37
| Apr record high C = 44
| May record high C = 47.5
| Jun record high C = 48
| Jul record high C = 46.1
| Aug record high C = 42
| Sep record high C = 41.1
| Oct record high C = 40
| Nov record high C = 36.1
| Dec record high C = 29.2
| year record high C = 48
| Jan high C = 19.0
| Feb high C = 22.1
| Mar high C = 27.1
| Apr high C = 34.1
| May high C = 39.2
| Jun high C = 40.3
| Jul high C = 37.3
| Aug high C = 36.4
| Sep high C = 35.6
| Oct high C = 32.9
| Nov high C = 27.3
| Dec high C = 21.6
| year high C = 31.6
| Jan low C = 4.7
| Feb low C = 7.5
| Mar low C = 12.9
| Apr low C = 18.3
| May low C = 23.7
| Jun low C = 26.7
| Jul low C = 27.3
| Aug low C = 26.7
| Sep low C = 24.0
| Oct low C = 17.5
| Nov low C = 10.8
| Dec low C = 5.7
| year low C = 17.4
| Jan record low C = -2.9
| Feb record low C = -1.4
| Mar record low C = 1
| Apr record low C = 7
| May record low C = 13
| Jun record low C = 17
| Jul record low C = 19
| Aug record low C = 18.6
| Sep record low C = 15.6
| Oct record low C = 9
| Nov record low C = 2
| Dec record low C = -1.3
| year record low C = -4
| Jan precipitation mm = 11.3
| Feb precipitation mm = 19.1
| Mar precipitation mm = 23.8
| Apr precipitation mm = 23.8
| May precipitation mm = 15.0
| Jun precipitation mm = 43.9
| Jul precipitation mm = 100.8
| Aug precipitation mm = 87.0
| Sep precipitation mm = 42.6
| Oct precipitation mm = 4.7
| Nov precipitation mm = 2.1
| Dec precipitation mm = 7.1
| year precipitation mm = 422
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation days = 4
| Feb precipitation days = 5
| Mar precipitation days = 7
| Apr precipitation days = 6
| May precipitation days = 5
| Jun precipitation days = 5
| Jul precipitation days = 10
| Aug precipitation days = 10
| Sep precipitation days = 4
| Oct precipitation days = 2
| Nov precipitation days = 2
| Dec precipitation days = 3
| Jan humidity = 61
| Feb humidity = 51
| Mar humidity = 44
| Apr humidity = 26
| May humidity = 21
| Jun humidity = 18
| Jul humidity = 63
| Aug humidity = 55
| Sep humidity = 57
| Oct humidity = 26
| Nov humidity = 31
| Dec humidity = 51
| source 1 = <ref name="hcd">{{cite web|url=http://www.pakmet.com.pk/cdpc/Climate/Faisalabad_Climate_Data.txt |title=Faisalabad Climate Data|access-date=18 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613053307/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/cdpc/Climate/Faisalabad_Climate_Data.txt |archive-date=13 June 2010 }}</ref> <ref name="wmo">{{cite web|url=https://worldweather.wmo.int/en/city.html?cityId=898 |title=World Meteorological Organization |access-date=4 June 2024 |date=2010 }}</ref>
| date = January 2011
| source =
}}

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Pakistan|List of places in Faisalabad|List of people from Faisalabad}}
{{Multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|image1=Entrance to the Chenab Club, Faisalabad.jpg
|caption1=The Chenab Club, built in 1904 is the oldest social club in the city<ref name=CC>{{cite web|url=http://chenabclub.com/viewred/history.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040206113917/http://chenabclub.com/viewred/history.htm|title=THE CHENAB CLUB – History|archive-date=6 February 2004}}</ref>
|image2=Faisalabad Arts Council.JPG
|caption2=The Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan Auditorium, home of the Faisalabad Arts Council.<ref name="Tribune-March">{{cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/688607/art-and-culture-museum-to-honour-nusrat-fateh-ali//|title= Art And Culture: Museum To Honour Nusrat Fateh Ali | newspaper= The Express Tribune|date=29 March 2014|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref>
|image3=Chicken Fajita Forkes & Knives Faisalabad.jpg
|caption3=Chicken Fajita Pizza in spicy tandoori chicken
|image4= Malai Kebabs Al Nakhal Restaurant Faisalabad.jpg
|caption4=Malai Seekh Kebabs at Al-Nakhal Restaurant
}}

Faisalabad, the third most populated [[List of most populated metropolitan areas in Pakistan|metropolis]] in Pakistan after [[Karachi]] and [[Lahore]]<ref name="city">{{cite web|url=http://www.serenahotels.com/serenafaisalabad/default-en.html|title=The Faisalabad Serena Hotel|publisher=[[Serena Hotels]]|access-date=22 August 2014|archive-date=2 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702151805/http://www.serenahotels.com/serenafaisalabad/default-en.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> is an epicentre for trade that has gained popularity for its colonial heritage sites.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pakistanitourism.com/faisalabad_city |title=Faisalabad :: Pakistani Tourism |access-date=19 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007013956/http://www.pakistanitourism.com/faisalabad_city |archive-date=7 October 2015 }}</ref> In 1982, the [[Government of Punjab (Pakistan)|Government of Punjab]] established the [[Faisalabad Arts Council]], a division of the Punjab Arts Council which is overseen administratively by the Information, Culture and Youth Affairs Department.<ref name=FAC>{{cite web|url=http://www.faisalabadartscouncil.gov.pk/index.html | title=Faisalabad Arts Council | publisher=Faisalabad Arts Council | access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref> The [[Faisalabad Arts Council]] building, designed by architect [[Nayyar Ali Dada|Nayyer Ali Dada]], was completed in 2006. The auditorium was named after the late [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]], a Pakistani musician and singer.<ref name=FAC/>

=== Festivals ===
The [[Punjabi people]] celebrate a variety of cultural and religious festivals throughout the [[Punjab region]], such as arts and craft, music, local events, and religious celebrations.<ref name=Khalid>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/7147299 | title=Culture and Customs of Pakistan | author=Khalid, Ameena |publisher=Academia | access-date=12 June 2016}}</ref> The city of Faisalabad customarily celebrates its independence day on 14 August every year by raising the [[Pakistan flag]] at the clock tower in the Commissioner Office compound. Bazaars are colourfully decorated for the celebration, government and private buildings are brightly lit, and there are similar flag–raising ceremonies that are typically held in the district and its tehsils.<ref name=ITN>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/print/56607-faisalabad-city-news|title=Faisalabad City News | newspaper=The News International |date=15 August 2015|access-date=12 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="ET: Independence day">{{cite news|title=Patriotism: Gigantic flag unveiled in Faisalabad|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/938311/patriotism-gigantic-flag-unveiled-in-faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=14 August 2015}}</ref>

The arrival of spring brings the annual "Rang-e-Bahar" festival where the Parks & Horticulture Authority of the city district government organise a flower show and exhibition at Jinnah Gardens.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://phafsd.gop.pk/ |title=PHA Faisalabad | Parks and Horticulture Authority Faisalabad |access-date=2016-01-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106112204/http://phafsd.gop.pk/ |archive-date=6 January 2016 |df=dmy-all }} Annual Chrysanthemum Festival 2015</ref> The University of Agriculture organises a similar event at their main campus which is known as the "Kissan Mela".<ref name="UAF: Festivals">{{cite web|title=Festivals|url=http://www.uaf.edu.pk/festival.html|publisher=University of Agriculture, Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> The festival of [[Basant (season)|Basant]] which involves kite flying is an annual tradition in the city despite the ban.<ref name="ET: Basant">{{cite news|last1=Dastagir|first1=Ghulam|last2=Haq|first2=Ahtishamul|title=Faisalabad celebrates Basant despite ban|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/120590/faisalabad-celebrates-basant-despite-ban|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=18 February 2011}}</ref> The provincial government introduced the "Canal Mela" which involves five days of festivities including the main canal in the city being decorated with national floats and lights ending with a musical concert to conclude the festival.<ref name="DT: Canal Mela">{{cite news|author1=Associated Press of Pakistan|author-link1=Associated Press of Pakistan|title=Canal mela to begin on Apr 26|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/national/25-Apr-2015/canal-mela-to-begin-on-apr-26|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=Daily Times|date=25 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053711/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/national/25-Apr-2015/canal-mela-to-begin-on-apr-26|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>

Being a Muslim majority the city religious observances include [[Ramadan]] and [[Mourning of Muharram|Muharram]]. The festivals of [[Chaand Raat]], [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Eid al-Adha]] are celebrated and are national holidays.<ref name="ET: Eid">{{cite news|last1=Gishkori|first1=Zahid|title=Public holidays announced for Eid|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/957301/govt-announces-four-day-eidul-azha-holidays|access-date=7 June 2016|work=The Express Tribune|date=15 September 2015}}</ref> The [[Mawlid|celebration]] of the Prophet Muhammad birthday is observed in the city which is often referred to as "Eid Milād-un-Nabī".<ref name="ET: Eid Millad">{{cite news|title=Walks, rallies mark: Eid Milad in Faisalabad|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1016035/walks-rallies-mark-eid-milad-in-faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=24 December 2015}}</ref> There are a number of darbar and shrines which attract a number of devotees during the annual [[Urs]].<ref name="punjab.gov: Shrines/Tombs">{{cite web|title=Faisalabad – Shrines / Tombs|url=http://punjab.gov.pk/node/259|website=punjab.gov.pk|publisher=Government of the Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> There are a number of Christian churches in the city where Easter and Christmas services take place each year.<ref name="Dunya: Christmas">{{cite news|title=Christmas: Carol services, sermons ongoing in Lahore churches|url=http://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/314553-Christmas-Carol-services-sermons-ongoing-in-Laho|access-date=7 June 2016|work=dunyanews.tv|publisher=Dunya News Network|date=25 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="ET: Christmas">{{cite news|title=Christmas Bazaars open on Dec 22|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1011191/christmas-bazaars-open-on-dec-22|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=16 December 2015}}</ref>

=== Attire ===
Traditional attire in Faisalabad is [[Punjabi clothing]] such as the [[Kurta]] and [[Sherwani]]s.<ref name=Brit>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Pakistan/Daily-life-and-social-customs |title=Daily life and social customs in Pakistan|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref> Faisalabadi men wear white [[shalwar kameez]] as do women but also with a [[dupatta]] (scarf). The more religious women wear [[burqas]] that may or may not cover the face.<ref name=Brit/> Combinations of Pakistani and Western attire are worn by women, such as an embroidered kurta worn with jeans or [[trousers]], and half sleeve or sleeveless shirts with [[Capri pants]]. Men and women have adopted some of the modern Western styles for both casual and formal business dress such as dress pants, trousers, T-shirts and jeans.<ref name=Brit/>

Faisalabad Institute of Textile and Fashion Design at the Government College University teaches Fashion Design as part of their [[Fine Arts]] program.<ref name="GCUF-Arts">{{cite web|url=http://gcuf.edu.pk/faculties/arts/fine-arts/bfa-fashion-design/|title=BFA Fashion Design GCUF|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428202723/http://gcuf.edu.pk/faculties/arts/fine-arts/bfa-fashion-design/|archive-date=28 April 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Some of the more conservative establishments and universities follow strict dress codes, such as the National Textile University in Faisalabad where a notice was issued on 27 April 2016 by university professor Muhammad Ashfaq. The intent of the notice was to "promote a positive image of the NTU and to maintain good moral, religious and cultural values among the faculty, staff and students." The [[dress code]] bans certain styles of Western attire including shorts, sleeveless shirts and shawls for men. Women are prohibited from wearing jeans, tights or [[leggings]], sleeveless or half-sleeved shirts for women. Women are also prohibited from wearing heavy make-up and expensive jewellery.<ref name="SAMAA-TV">{{cite web | url=http://www.samaa.tv/social-buzz/2016/05/faisalabad-university-issues-strict-dresscode-guidelines/ | title=Faisalabad university issues strict dresscode guidelines | publisher=SAMAA TV | date=10 May 2016 | access-date=10 June 2016}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
Faisalabadi cuisine is a mixture [[Punjabi cuisine]] as well as [[Mughlai cuisine]] and [[Anglo-Indian cuisine]]. Famous dishes include rice or [[roti]] (flatbread) served with a vegetable or non-vegetable [[curry]], a salad consisting of spiced tomatoes and onions, and yogurt. This is usually accompanied by a variety of [[South Asian sweets]] such as [[Jaggery|gud]], [[gajar ka halwa]], [[gulab jamun]], and [[jalebi]].<ref name=Jalebis>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFx-dQjOunU | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211104/GFx-dQjOunU| archive-date=2021-11-04 | url-status=live| title=Faisalabad's famous jalebi فیصل آباد کی مشہور اور لذیز جلیبیاں | publisher=QUR ANACADEMYFSD| access-date=17 June 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Tandoor]]i barbecue specialties consist of a variety of naan bread served with [[tandoori chicken]], [[chicken tikka]] or lamb [[shishkebab|shish kebab]] served with a [[mint chutney]].<ref name=Eat>{{cite web|url=http://www.tdcp.gop.pk/tdcp/ExplorePakistan/AboutPunjab/MajorCities/Faisalabad/WhattoEatinFaisalabad/tabid/682/Default.aspx|title=What To Eat in Faisalabad|work=Faisalabad—Getting There|publisher=Tourism Development Corporation of Pakistan|access-date=17 June 2016| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624180522/http://www.tdcp.gop.pk/tdcp/ExplorePakistan/AboutPunjab/MajorCities/Faisalabad/WhattoEatinFaisalabad/tabid/682/Default.aspx|archive-date=24 June 2016}}</ref>

Street foods are a key element to Faisalabadi cuisine.<ref name="Dawn: Food">{{cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1170367|last1=Rizwan|first1=Sheharyar|title=Food: My Quest For The Best Nihari In Lahore|publisher=Dawn|date=19 March 2015|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> [[Samosa]]s (deep fried pastry filled with vegetables or meat) topped with an onion salad and two types of [[chutney]]. There is even a square dedicated to them in the old city.<ref name=TP>{{cite web|url=http://www.subrung.com/travel-pakistan/faisalabad/food-not-to-miss-in-faisalabad.html|title=Subrung – Food not to miss in Faisalabad|publisher=Travel Pakistan|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref> Other street foods include, [[Dahi vada|dahi bhale]] (deep fried vadas in creamy yoghurt), [[Panipuri|gol gappay]] (fried round puri filled with vegetables and topped with tamarind chutney) and vegetable or chicken [[pakora]]s. [[Biryani]] and murgh pilao rice are a speciality in Faisalabad.<ref name=QA>{{cite web|url=http://www.qatarairways.com/global/en/destinations/flights-to-faisalabad.page|title= Eating in Faisalabad | publisher=Qatar Airways|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref>

A typical breakfast in Faislabadi is [[halwa poori]], consisting of a deep fried flatbread served with a spicy chickpea curry and sweet orange coloured [[halwa]].<ref name=TP/> It is customarily accompanied by a sweet or salty yoghurt based drink called [[lassi]].<ref name=SAMAA2>{{cite web|url=http://www.samaa.tv/editor-s-choice/2011/04/lassi-shop-in-faisalabad/|title= Lassi shop in Faisalabad|publisher=SAMAA TV|date=29 April 2011 | access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref> During winter, a common breakfast is [[Naan|roghni naan]] served with [[Paya (food)|paya]].<ref name=Pakladies>{{cite web|url=http://www.pakladies.com/category/traditional-dishes/ | title=Traditional Dishes Archive | publisher=Pak Ladies |access-date=30 May 2016}}</ref>

Certain drinks are available seasonally, such as, such as rabri doodh, a drink commonly made with full-fat milk, almonds, pistachios and basil seeds, [[Doodh Pati Chai|dhood patti]] (milky tea), and [[Kashmiri chai]], a pink coloured milky tea containing almonds and pistachios, which is had in the winters.<ref name=Drink>{{cite web|url=http://www.journeum.com/dst/Asia/Pakistan/Punjab/Faisalabad/Drink/|title=Where to drink in Faisalabad|publisher=Journeum|access-date=17 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073331/http://www.journeum.com/dst/Asia/Pakistan/Punjab/Faisalabad/Drink/|archive-date=4 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> During summer, drinks such as sugar cane juice, [[nimbu pani]] (iced lemon water), skanjvi (iced orange and black pepper) and lassi are consumed.<ref name=Aradmin>{{cite web|url=http://www.asian-recipe.com/pakistan/pk-information/pakistan-country-information.html|title=Pakistan Country Information | publisher=Recipes of Asia | author=Aradmin | date=5 October 2012 | access-date=30 May 2016}}</ref>

=== Literacy ===
According to a report by the [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)]], the 2015 literacy rate for Pakistan ranked 160th which is among the lowest literacy rates in the world.<ref name=Archivist>{{cite web|url=http://www.archivistonline.pk/literacy-rate-in-pakistan/ | title=Literary Rate of Education in Pakistan 2016 | publisher=Archivist Online | date=19 February 2015 | access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref>

In 1981, Faisalabad was among four districts in Punjab, which included Gujranwala, Jhelum and Gujrat, that were experiencing low literacy rates, due primarily to either a lack of resources or family pressure; the latter of which may also be attributable to illiteracy.<ref name=Archivist/> In 1998, Faisalabad progressed to a higher literacy rate with the most improvement realised at the primary school level.<ref name=UNESCO>{{cite web|url=http://unesco.org.pk/education/life/nfer_library/Reports/4-39.pdf|title=Literacy Trends in Pakistan|publisher=UNESCO Office Islamabad|last1=Iqbal|first1=Zafar|last2=Haque|first2=Anjum Riyazul|last3=Farah|first3=Iffat|last4=Mukhtar|first4=Eshya Mujahid|last5=Aijaz|first5=S.M.|last6=Niazi|first6=Hamid Khan|last7=Ahmed|first7=Saeed|last8=ud-Din|first8=Fakhar|last9=Khan|first9=Arshad Saeed|page=23|date=March 2002|access-date=13 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018214515/http://unesco.org.pk/education/life/nfer_library/Reports/4-39.pdf|archive-date=18 October 2015|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2008, Faisalabad District ranked 51.9% which placed the district ninth in literacy out of the 34 Punjab districts.<ref name=Aser>{{cite web | url=http://www.aserpakistan.org/document/aser/map/faislabad.pdf | title=The Annual Status of Education Report | publisher=Aser Pakistan | date=2008 | access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref>

In 2014, the city held its first literary festival which brought a number of writers to the city to encourage the community to follow the arts.<ref name=FLF>{{cite web|url=http://faisalabadliteraryfestival.org/ |title=Faisalabad Literary Festival 2014 | publisher=Faisalabad Literary Festival Online |date=2014|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref> Two literary groups were established, the Faisalabad Union of Column Writers and Faisalabad Union of Journalists, to bring together printed media personalities for the purpose of providing training to budding writers from the city.<ref name=PPF>{{cite web|url=http://www.pakistanpressfoundation.org/?s=Journalists%27+Day%3A+Working+conditions+need+to+improve | title=Journalists' Day: Working Conditions Need To Improve|publisher=Pakistan Press Foundation | date=20 November 2013}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{PakistanCensusPop
|title=Population growth
|1941=69930
|1951=179000
|1961=425240
|1972=823344
|1981=1104209
|1985=1475000
|1998=2008861
|2000=2154520
|2004=2548541
|2010=2943401
|2015=3419752
|align-fn=center
|footnote=Figures based on the 2004 Baseline Survey conducted by the Asian Urban Information Centre of Kobe<ref name=Kobe />
}}
The language of Faisalabad is Punjabi predominantly 96%, Urdu and Pashto are spoken by 2% population each. Faisalabad is world's second largest Punjabi speaking city.
Faisalabad was established as one of the first planned towns of British India, covering an area of {{convert|3|km2}}.<ref>India Unbound: from Independence to the Global Information age by Gurcharan Das</ref> It was initially designed to accommodate 20,000 people. The city's population increased from 69,930 in 1941 to 179,000 in 1951 (152.2% increase).<ref name=AUICK>{{cite web | url=http://www.kicc.jp/auick/database/baseline/BS2004/BS2004-CHAP6.html | title=Chapter 6: Faisalabad, Pakistan | work=The 2004 Baseline Survey on Millennium Development Goals in AACs | publisher=Asian Urban Information Center of Kobe | year=2004 | access-date=4 December 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124024723/http://www.kicc.jp/auick/database/baseline/BS2004/BS2004-CHAP6.html | archive-date=24 January 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Much of the increase is attributed to the settlement of Muslim refugees from [[East Punjab]] and [[Haryana]], India. In 1961, the population rose to 425,248, an increase of 137.4%. Faisalabad set a record in the demographic history of Pakistan by registering an overall population increase of 508.1% between 1941 and 1961. The industrial revolution of the 1960s contributed to population growth.<ref name=AUICK /> In 1961, the population was 425,248. A 1972 census ranked Faisalabad as the third largest city of Pakistan with a population of 864,000. In a 1981 census, the population was 1,092,000; however, the Faisalabad Development Authority estimated the number to be 1,232,000.<ref name="AUICK" /> In the 2017 consensus, the total population of the city was 3,203,846<ref name=ProP>{{cite web|url=https://propakistani.pk/2017/08/28/ten-populated-cities-pakistan/|title=Here are Ten Most Populated Cities of Pakistan|date=2017}}</ref>

=== Religion and ethnic groups ===
{{Multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|image1=Sunni Rizwi Masjid.jpg
|caption1=A [[mughal architecture|Mughal]] inspired mosque in the old city. The majority of the population are Muslim.<ref name="BBC: Pakistan's Christians">{{cite news|title=Who are Pakistan's Christians?|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-24201241|access-date=7 June 2016|publisher=BBC|date=23 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303111101/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-24201241|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref>
}}

The province of Punjab, in which Faisalabad is the second largest city, has prevalent [[Sociocultural system|sociocultural distinctions]].<ref name="SAS">{{cite journal | url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/csas/PDF/V_26_No_2_9Dr.%20Asad%20Ali%20Khan.pdf | title=Changing Pattern of Population Growth and Structure in Punjab, Pakistan | author=Asad Ali Khan | journal=South Asian Studies | date=December 2011 | volume=26 | issue=2 | pages=387–388}}</ref> Population sizes vary by district but some distinguishing factors include a young age structure, high age dependency ratio, a higher percentage of males, a higher proportion of married population, and [[heterogeneity]] in [[Baradari (brotherhood)|tribes]] and languages.<ref name="SAS"/>{{rp|387}}

Islam is the most common religion, with a 97.22% Muslim majority according to the 1998 Pakistan census report and 2001 population data sheet.<ref name="SAS"/> People live in tight-knit joint families, although a [[nuclear family]] system is emerging due to changing socio-economic conditions.<ref name="SAS"/> Ancient culture prevails in most marriage practices in the region, as do certain restrictions related to ethnicity and tribes. However, the influences of more modern societies have effected some change, particularly in the area of the [[dowry system]]. In the following ancient culture, marriages are customarily arranged by the parents or matchmakers. In some instances, the husband must buy his wife from her parents.<ref name=FAO>{{cite journal|url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=PK2008000150|title=Sociological Study of Marriage Patterns and Adjustment in a Selected Community in Faisalabad City (Pakistan)|journal=AGRIS, Information System for the Agricultural Science and Technology | last1=Masood| first1=Saira| last2=Batool|first2=Zahira| last3=Abbasi|first3=Saif-Ur-Rehman Saif|volume=3|issue=1 | page=1 |date=2007|access-date=21 July 2016}}</ref> Studies conducted in 2007 and 2013, the latter in an outlying rural village in Faisalabad District, acknowledged the existence of gender bias and discrimination against females, stating that "Gender discrimination is not a new phenomenon", and that it still exists in the modern world.<ref name="SAS"/>

Social change in the region has been a slow process but there are indications that change has occurred as more villages are exposed to various forms of media and modernized urban communities. In early 2014, there was a march known as the "White Ribbon Campaign" which took place in front of the Faisalabad Press Club. Protesters appealed to the government to adopt new laws "to protect women who are discriminated against in the family and workplace."<ref name=AN>{{cite web|url=http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Faisalabad:-hundreds-of-white-ribbons-to-protest-against-violence-against-women-30501.html |title=Faisalabad: Hundreds of "White Ribbons" to Protest Against Violence Against Women | publisher=AsiaNews |last=Kholkar | first=Shafique | date=3 March 2014 |access-date=21 July 2016}}</ref>

Prevalent minorities, particularly Hindu and Christian, feel a sense of vulnerability because of their religious beliefs.<ref name="BBC: Pakistan's Christians"/> Labourers and farmhands form the countless Christian villages throughout Punjab; many are descendants of people who converted from Hinduism to Christianity under the British Raj, and considered low caste by virtue of their birth.<ref name=BBC /> A small population of wealthy, well-educated Christians have settled in Karachi; however, as a result of increasing Islamization, religious intolerance in Pakistani society, blasphemy laws and Islamist militancy, most have left Pakistan to settle in other countries where there is more religious tolerance, such as Canada and Australia.<ref name="BBC: Pakistan's Christians"/><ref name=FNN>{{cite web | url = http://www.foxnews.com/world/2015/07/23/pakistani-christian-refugees-face-ordeal-in-thailand.html | title=Pakistani Christian refugees face ordeal in Thailand | publisher=FOX News Network, LLC | date = 3 August 2015}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible sortable"
|+ Religious groups in Faisalabad City (1901−2017){{efn|1901-1941: Data for the entirety of the town of Lyallpur, which included Lyallpur Municipality.<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|32}} 2017: Combined urban populations of Faisalabad City Tehsil and Faisalabad Saddar Tehsil.|name="FaisalabadCity1901to2017"}}
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in Pakistan|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25352838 |jstor=saoa.crl.25352838 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. Vol. 1A, India. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1901}}</ref>{{rp|44}}<ref name="Census1901B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25363739 |jstor=saoa.crl.25363739 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. [Vol. 17A]. Imperial tables, I-VIII, X-XV, XVII and XVIII for the Punjab, with the native states under the political control of the Punjab Government, and for the North-west Frontier Province. |year=1901}}</ref>{{rp|26}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25393779 |jstor=saoa.crl.25393779 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India, 1911. Vol. 1., Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911 |last1=Edward Albert Gait |first1=Sir |author2=India Census Commissioner |volume=2 |publisher=Calcutta, Supt. Govt. Print., India, 1913. }}</ref>{{rp|23}}<ref name="Census1911B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25393788 |jstor=saoa.crl.25393788 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911}}</ref>{{rp|19}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25394121 |jstor=saoa.crl.25394121 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 1, India. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921}}</ref>{{rp|25}}<ref name="Census1921B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430165 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430165 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921}}</ref>{{rp|21}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1931-26575928/|title=CENSUS OF INDIA, 1931 VOLUME XVII PUNJAB PART II TABLES|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref>{{rp|26}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|title=CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 VOLUME VI PUNJAB|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref>{{rp|32}}
! colspan="2" |2017<ref name="Census2017B">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/final-results-census-2017|title=Final Results (Census-2017)|access-date=27 January 2023}}</ref>
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
| [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]
| 4,434
| {{Percentage | 4434 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 8,024
| {{Percentage | 8024 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 12,922
| {{Percentage | 12922 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 20,147{{efn|name=ad-dharmi|1931-1941: Including [[Ad-Dharmi]]s}}
| {{Percentage | 20147 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 32,896{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| {{Percentage | 32896 | 69930 | 2 }}
| 131
| {{Percentage | 131 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 4,232
| {{Percentage | 4232 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 9,166
| {{Percentage | 9166 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 11,116
| {{Percentage | 11116 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 15,534
| {{Percentage | 15534 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 23,003
| {{Percentage | 23003 | 69930 | 2 }}
| 3,114,321
| {{Percentage | 3114321 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 365
| {{Percentage | 365 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 1,607
| {{Percentage | 1607 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 2,958
| {{Percentage | 2958 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 5,181
| {{Percentage | 5181 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 10,897
| {{Percentage | 10897 | 69930 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 132
| {{Percentage | 132 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 758
| {{Percentage | 758 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 1,100
| {{Percentage | 1100 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 1,988
| {{Percentage | 1988 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 3,027
| {{Percentage | 3027 | 69930 | 2 }}
| 131,686
| {{Percentage | 131686 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 23
| {{Percentage | 23 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 38
| {{Percentage | 38 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 65
| {{Percentage | 65 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 34
| {{Percentage | 34 | 69930 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 2
| {{Percentage | 2 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 42922 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Ahmadiyya]] [[File:Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya_1-2.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 3,822
| {{Percentage | 3822 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|-
| Others
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 73
| {{Percentage | 73 | 69930 | 2 }}
| 71
| {{Percentage | 71 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 9,171
! {{Percentage | 9171 | 9171 | 2 }}
! 19,578
! {{Percentage | 19578 | 19578 | 2 }}
! 28,136
! {{Percentage | 28136 | 28136 | 2 }}
! 42,922
! {{Percentage | 42922 | 42922 | 2 }}
! 69,930
! {{Percentage | 69930 | 69930 | 2 }}
! 3,250,031
! {{Percentage | 3250031 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|}

=={{Anchor|Eco}}Economy==
As of 2015 GDP of Faisalabad was estimated at $63 billion and projected to rise to $107 billion in 2025 at a growth rate of 5.7%.

Faisalabad contributes over 35% toward Pakistan's annual GDP and export revenue. The textile and apparel industry is the major industry in Faisalabad. It is also responsible for almost 60-80% of the export revenue of Pakistan.

The Faisalabad Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FCCI) and Pakistan Hosiery Manufacturers Association (PHMA) are the regulatory bodies for all textile and apparel manufacturers in the city. These organizations work closely with the Ministry of Trade.

Faisalabad is as an industrial center with industries like processing mills, engineering, industrial goods, textile manufacturing including cotton and silk textiles, super phosphates, apparel and hosiery, industrial chemicals and dyes, pulp and paper, agricultural research and equipment, oil and ghee (clarified butter), and concentrated beverages. It has also been a hub for real estate, particularly gated neighbourhoods such as Abdullah Gardens, owned by Akbar Pervaiz and not Sheikh Ayub.

=== Ghanta Ghar ===
{{Multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|image1=Ghanta Ghar 04.JPG
|caption1=The historical eight separate markets where locally grown produce is sold.
|image2=Faisalabad, the City of Textile.jpg
|caption2=The [[Chenab Group|Chenab Chowk]] Chowk monument pays homage to the city's textile industry.<ref name="FCCI:City History"/>
}}

The Faisalabad clock tower and its eight bazaars (markets) is a major trading zone in the city. The eight markets were designed based on the English flag, Union Jack. Every one of the eight bazaars is known for certain goods.

# Katchery Bazar is known for its mobile phones and accessories market. It is named for the session courts located adjacent to the street
# Rail Bazar is famous for its gold and cloth market.
# Kharkhana Bazaar is known for its spices and herbs.
# Montgomery Bazaar (also known as Sutar Mandi) is known for yarn and raw cloth trading.
# Jhang Bazaar is known for its fish, meat, vegetables and fruits.
# Bhawana Bazaar has all the commercial and industrial electrical goods.
# Aminpur Bazaar has some of the oldest books, stationery and interior décor boutiques.
# Chiniot Bazaar is known for allopathic and homoeopathic medicinal stores.

=== Industrial zones ===
Faisalabad Industrial Estate Development & Management Company (FIEDMC) was established by Federal Government to boost manufacturing in Faisalabad. Its objectives are to promote business and develop new clientele for the city's factories. It further supports businesses to find suitable land, infrastructure, provision of utilities and dedicated business support services.

'''Value Addition City (VAC)''' commonly known as Garment city is located at Sahianwala Road, near Khurrianwala. It is home to many garments and apparel factories.

'''M-3 Industrial City (M-3-IC)''' comprises 4356 acres of land and '''Allama Iqbal City (AllC)''' comprises more than 3300 acres. They house large scale manufacturing companies including textiles, yarn mills, pharmaceuticals, chemicals automotive, and spare parts, etc. [[Ruyi Masood Textile Park]] is located here.

'''Small Industrial Estate (SME)''' located at Punj Pullian Road houses small to medium-sized industries. It was provided by former Prime Minister, Mian Muhammad [[Nawaz Sharif]] to provide international grade services to small and medium-sized companies at promotional packages.

Faisalabad has received substantial funding from the [[Government of Punjab, Pakistan|government of Punjab]] and the city district government to improve infrastructure and roads to rural areas.<ref name="ET: Roads">{{cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/865137/benefiting-farmers-rs965m-allocated-for-roads-in-faisalabad-rural-areas|title=Benefiting farmers: Rs965m allocated for roads in Faisalabad rural areas|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=5 April 2015 | access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> In an effort to deal with the energy crisis, the FCCI has been working with private companies to develop renewable energy resources such as solar energy and the construction of dams within the district.<ref name="BR: Dams">{{cite news|title=FCCI chief calls for construction of dams|url=http://www.brecorder.com/top-stories/0/1189242/|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=Business Recorder|date=23 May 2015|archive-date=20 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920184344/http://www.brecorder.com/top-stories/0/1189242/|url-status=dead}}</ref> CAE, a German-based renewable energy company, has disclosed plans to establish the first solar panel manufacturing facility in Faisalabad, second of its kind in Asia, with intentions of investing upwards of €100 million (Rs 12.9 billion) for its development.<ref name="ET: Solar plant">{{cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/491194/renewable-energy-german-firm-to-set-up-first-solar-panel-plant-in-pakistan|last1=Rana|first1=Imran|title=Renewable energy: German firm to set up first solar panel plant in Pakistan|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=8 January 2013|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>

=== 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic ===

Pakistan entered a complete lockdown on 20 March 2020. All national and international travel was suspended. The industry in Faisalabad was hit hard. The federal government ordered complete closure of all industrial units.

Some industrial units are screening their workers for the coronavirus and making sure they follow the SOPs issued by the government as well. Punjab has reported more than 11,000 coronavirus cases so far.<ref>samaaenglish.tv {{cite news|title=Faisalabad textile industry reopens despite COVID-19 lockdown|url=https://www.samaaenglish.tv/news/2027236/pakistan-faisalabad-textile-industry-reopens-despite-covid-19-lockdown|newspaper= Samaa English|date=11 May 2020}}</ref>

=== 2022 Floods Impact ===

Pakistan saw a record flooding in the western and southern part of the country during the monsoon season in 2022. This resulted in a massive food shortage and provision of industrial raw materials such as cotton. Faisalabad's textile industry took a massive hit in the costs and availability of cotton.<ref>dw.com {{cite news|title=Pakistan: Millions of textile workers lose jobs amid crisis|url=https://www.dw.com/en/pakistan-millions-of-textile-workers-lose-jobs-amid-crisis/a-64420339|newspaper= DW.com|date=17 Jan 2023}}</ref>

== Education ==
{{Main|List of educational institutions in Faisalabad}}
{{multiple image
| align =right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Faisalabad, Pakistan.jpg
| caption1 =
| image2 = Faisalabad Pakistan PSSP 06.jpg
| caption2 = Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Agriculture.

}}

Faisalabad has several research and educational institutions. Faisalabad is considered a regional hub for of research and higher education, specializing in agriculture, medical sciences, chemical sciences, textile universities and economics.

There are many public funded institutions that offer scholarships and financing options to lower and middle income households. Many private schools, colleges and universities offer huge range of courses at various levels of education.

=== Education system ===
The education system is administered by the chief executive officer (CEO) of the District Education Authority of Faisalabad. The city district Government is responsible for funding, finances, management and resource allocation for public run institutions.
It falls under the [[Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training]] and the [[Minister for Education (Pakistan)|Minister for Education]].

=== High ranking institutions ===

'''Public funded'''
* [[Faisalabad Medical University]] (formerly: Punjab Medical College Faisalabad)
* [[Divisional Public School Faisalabad]]
* [[Divisional Public Schools and Colleges|Divisional Model School & College]], Faisalabad
* [[University of Agriculture, Faisalabad|University of Agriculture]]
* [[Government College University (Faisalabad)|Government College University Faisalabad]]
* [[Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology]]
* [[Government College Women University Faisalabad|Government College for Women University Faisalabad (GCWUF)]]
* [[University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore|University of Engineering & Technology of Lahore]]

'''Private funded'''
* [[National Textile University]]
* [[National University of Modern Languages]] (NUML)
* [[NFC Institute of Engineering and Fertilizer Research]] (NFC-IEFR)
* [[University of Faisalabad]]
* The Millennium Universal College Faisalabad Campus (TMUC Faisalabad)
* [[Beaconhouse School System]]
* [[The City School (Pakistan)|The City School]]
* Roots Ivy School
* Allied School
* [[Punjab Group of Colleges]]
* [[SKANS School of Accountancy]]

== Government and Administration ==

=== Civic Administration ===
Faisalabad was restructured into [[City Districts of Pakistan|city district]] status; a devolution promulgated by the 2001 [[Local government in Pakistan|local government ordinance]] (LGO).<ref name=PRC>{{cite report|url=http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/1671S-4.pdf|work=Pakistan Research Repository, Influence of the Development Plan on City Growth|publisher=Pakistan Higher Education Commission|title=Urban Management Initiatives in Pakistan|pages=84–85|access-date=19 January 2016|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011180514/http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/1671S-4.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is governed by the city district's seven departments: Agriculture, Community Development, Education, Finance and Planning, Health, Municipal Services, and Works and Services.<ref name=CDG>{{cite web|url=http://faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/Departments|title=CDG Faisalabad – Welcome...}}</ref> The [[district coordination officer]] of Faisalabad (DCO) is head of the city district government and responsible for co-ordinating and supervising the administrative units.<ref name=CDG/> Each of the seven departments has its own Executive District Officer who is charged with co-ordinating and overseeing the activities of their respective departments.

The aim of the city district government is to empower politics by improving governance which basically involved decentralising administrative authority with the establishment of different departments and respective department heads, all working under one platform. The stated vision and mission of the city district government of Faisalabad is to "establish an efficient, effective and accountable city district government, which is committed to respecting and upholding women, men and children's basic human rights, responsive towards people's needs, committed to poverty reduction and capable of meeting the challenges of the 21st century. Our actions will be driven by the concerns of local people."<ref name=CDG/>

=== Tehsil Municipal Administration ===
In 2005, Faisalabad was reorganised as a city district composed of eight Tehsil municipal administrations (TMAs) or towns as follows: Lyallpur, Madina, Jinnah, Iqbal, Chak Jhumra, Jaranwala, Samundari, and Tandlianwala.<ref name="faisalabad.gov: Towns">{{cite web|title=CDG Faisalabad|url=http://faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/Towns|website=faisalabad.gov.pk|publisher=Government of Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> The functions of the TMA include preparation of the spatial and land use plans, management of these development plans and exercise of control over land use, land sub-division, land development and zoning by public and private sectors, enforcement of municipal laws, rules and by-laws, provision and management of water, drainage waste and sanitation along with allied municipal services.<ref name="punjab.gov: TMA">{{cite web|title=TMA Faisalabad Division|url=http://lgcd.punjab.gov.pk/tma_faisalabad|website=lgcd.punjab.gov.pk|publisher=Government of Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>

There are 118 [[Union councils of Pakistan|union councils]] in Faisalabad. Their role is to collect and maintain statistical information for socio-economic surveys. They consolidate ward neighbourhood development needs and prioritise these into union-wide development proposals. The council identifies any deficiencies in the delivery of these services and makes recommendations for improvement to the TMA.<ref name=UCB>{{cite web | url=http://citypulse.com.pk/pakistangis/union-council-boundaries-of-faisalabad-city-2/ | title=Union Council Boundaries of Faisalabad City | publisher=Pakistan GIS | last=Bhalli | first=Nasar min Allah | work=Department of Geography, GUCF | date=22 January 2012 | access-date=17 June 2016 | archive-date=6 August 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806012535/https://citypulse.com.pk/pakistangis/union-council-boundaries-of-faisalabad-city-2/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Faisalabad Development Authority ===
The [[Faisalabad Development Authority]] (FDA) was validly established in October 1976 under The Punjab Development of Cities Act (1976) to regulate, supervise and implement development activities in its jurisdiction area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.urbanunit.gov.pk/PublicationDocs/28.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714064733/http://www.urbanunit.gov.pk/PublicationDocs/28.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Assessment of Land Development and Management Practices in Five Large Cities of Punjab|archive-date=14 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://punjablaws.gov.pk/laws/323.html|title=The Punjab Development of Cities Act, 1976|website=punjablaws.gov.pk}}</ref> The FDA acts as a policy-making body for the development of the city and is in charge of arranging and supervising major developments within the city. It is responsible for the administration of building regulations, management of parks and gardens and subsoil water management. The FDA works with the Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) to control and maintain the water supply, sewerage and drainage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwon.org.pk/forms/Profile%20WASA%20Faisalabad.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805182019/http://pwon.org.pk/forms/Profile%20WASA%20Faisalabad.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 August 2016|title=Water And Sanitation Agency|access-date=8 June 2016}}</ref> The FDA works to improve conditions in the slums.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/9198176|title=Application of GIS in the Spatial Analysis of Slums in Faisalabad, Pakistan|access-date=8 June 2016|last1=Sajjad|first1=Muhammad}}</ref>

== Public Services ==

===Law enforcement===

====Punjab Police====

Law enforcement in Faisalabad is carried out by provincial police force officially called [[Punjab Police (Pakistan)|Punjab Police]]. Within the city of Faisalabad, it is under the command of the city police officer (CPO), an appointment by the provincial government appointments for Punjab Police.<ref name="Dawn-Feb 2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/233103/govt-puts-a-whole-new-complexion-on-police|title=Government Puts A Whole New Complexion on Police | publisher=Dawn | author= Hanif, Intikhab | date=16 February 2007 | access-date=8 June 2016}}</ref> The office of the CPO is located in the District Courts, Faisalabad.<ref name=FPD>{{cite web|url=http://faisalabadpolice.gov.pk/|title=Contact Us Faisalabad City Police|access-date=17 November 2015|archive-date=10 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210110015/http://www.faisalabadpolice.gov.pk/page.php?id=110|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Faisalabad Region is headed by an officer not less than the rank of Deputy Inspector-General of Police (DIG). [https://www.punjabpolice.gov.pk/fsbregion Faisalabad Police] is headed by a District Police Officer who is assisted by a varying number of Superintendents and Deputy Superintendents of Police.

====City Traffic Police Faisalabad====

[https://ctpfsd.gop.pk/ City Traffic Police] is a branch of Punjab Police which is a public funded entity of the provincial government of Punjab.

The department is responsible for maintaining the following within the district of Faisalabad:
* Conduct traffic safety and compliance
* Traffic signs
* Road signs and closures
* Road marking and planning
* Traffic signals and maintaining uninterrupted flow of traffic
* Traffic violation ticketing and penalty collection
* Issuance of [[Driving licence in Pakistan|driving license]]
* Conducting driving tests and provisional licensing

====District and Session Courts Faisalabad====

[https://dsjfaisalabad.gov.pk/ District and Sessions Court] in Faisalabad is an extension of the provincial bench of High Court in Lahore.

The offices are located at [http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=31.424891&lon=73.094144&z=15&m=w&show=/1351055/District-Courts&search=faisalabad District Courts Faisalabad].{{Coord|31|25|22|N|73|4|52|W|display=District Courts Faisalabad}}. Directions can also be found at Google Maps for [https://goo.gl/maps/AhZ2TaaFHqchjCFs6 Sessions Courts Faisalabad] and [https://goo.gl/maps/xnjTgpNcoPBaL5Ln8 District Courts Faisalabad].

====Special Offices====

Police formations including District Police, Elite Police, Punjab highway Patrol, Crime Investigation Branch, and Special Operations Branch have offices in the city.<ref name="Police Formations">{{cite web|url=http://faisalabadpolice.gov.pk|publisher=Faisalabad Police|access-date=8 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210110015/http://www.faisalabadpolice.gov.pk/page.php?id=110|title=Faisalabad Police | archive-date=10 February 2015}}</ref>

=== Taxation ===

'''Regional Tax Office''' is a field formation of the [[Federal Board of Revenue]] (FBR). It is situated at Regional Tax Office, Jail Road, Faisalabad and can be found at Google Maps [https://goo.gl/maps/ANcgCMUA3juGgxun9 Regional Tax Office].

This office is responsible for monitoring and collection of federal taxes imposed by the [[Government of Pakistan]]. This office has jurisdiction to send notices, research and execute legal notices for entities operating within the district of Faisalabad.

This office actively runs mass media campaigns to create awareness regarding taxation, legal rights of citizens and to facilitate voluntary tax compliance.

This office can provide information regarding Income Tax, Sales Tax (VAT), Corporation Tax and Zero-Tax rated services.

The website managed and operated by the [https://www.fbr.gov.pk/ FBR], is a reliable and up-to-date source of information for all tax related matters. [[Federal Board of Revenue|FBR]] does issue regular notices to ensure correct information is published and to disregard false information circulating in the market places by unverified sources.

'''Excise, Taxation and Narcotics Control Department''' is another department managed by the provincial Govt. of Punjab. This department is responsible for the following:

* Collection of property tax
* Issuance of property notices, and property taxes
* Motor vehicle registration
* Online verification of registered vehicles
* Online self assessment of property tax
* Motor vehicle clearance
* Control of regulated substances and prosecutions

The department can be accessed by its website [https://excise.punjab.gov.pk/ ETNC]. The office can be accessed by the Google Maps [https://goo.gl/maps/mvcxVbZxcakEMSB86 ETNC].

=== Water and Sanitation ===

The Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) is a subsidiary of Faisalabad Development Authority (FDA), established on 23 April 1978 under the Development of Cities Act 1976.<ref name="WASA: Water Supply">{{cite web|title=Water Supply|url=http://wasafaisalabad.gop.pk/Home/WaterService|website=wasafaisalabad.gop.pk|publisher=Water and Sanitation Agency Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> Estimates in indicate that the WASA provides about 72% of the city's sewerage services and about 60% of their water services.<ref name="WASA: Profile">{{cite web|title=The City Faisalabad|url=http://wasafaisalabad.gop.pk/Home/WASAProfile|website=wasafaisalabad.gop.pk|publisher=Water and Sanitation Agency Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> The existing production capacity of the WASA is {{convert|65|e6impgal/d|e6l/d|abbr=off}}, almost all of which is drawn from wells located in the old beds of the [[Chenab River]]. From the wells, water is pumped to a terminal reservoir located on Sargodha Road.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite report |author=Mahboob Elahi |date=12 June 2007 |title=Performance Benchmarking in WASA Faisalabad |url=http://www.asb.org.pk/WASA%20faisalabad.pdf |publisher=Anjuman Samaji Behbood |access-date=7 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081646/http://www.asb.org.pk/WASA%20faisalabad.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Water is normally supplied for a total of about 8 hours per day to the majority of the city.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has provided financial and hardware equipment to help improve the water and sanitation conditions in the city.<ref name="JICA: WASA">{{cite web|title=Japan gifts WASA Faisalabad with Equipment to improve Sewerage and Drainage system|url=http://www.jica.go.jp/pakistan/english/office/topics/press141017.html|website=www.jica.go.jp|publisher=Japan International Cooperation Agency|access-date=7 June 2016|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226015401/https://www.jica.go.jp/pakistan/english/office/topics/press141017.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Healthcare ==

=== Government Hospitals ===
Faisalabad is home to some large public hospitals within the district. [[Allied Hospital|Allied Hospital Faisalabad]] is the largest public funded and managed hospital within the city of Faisalabad as well as the district. It offers many advanced treatments and specialist care facilities.

Other notable government–run hospitals are [[DHQ Hospital Faisalabad|DHQ (District Headquarter) Hospital]], Institute of Child Care,<ref name="CDG: FICC">{{cite web|title=CDG Faisalabad|url=http://www.faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/ProjectDetail/4|website=www.faisalabad.gov.pk|publisher=City District Government Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512015947/http://www.faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/ProjectDetail/4|archive-date=12 May 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> PINUM Cancer Hospital, Govt. Children Hospital, [https://pessi.punjab.gov.pk/social%20security%20hospital%20faisalabad Punjab Social Security Hospital], Social Security Newborn and Children Hospital, Punjab Employees Maternity Ward, and Faisalabad Institute of Cardiology.

There are other government funded and managed general hospitals in Ghulam Muhammadabad, Samanabad and Peoples Colony No. 2.<ref name=FIC>{{cite web|url=http://www.fic.gop.pk/|title=FIC Official Website|publisher=FIC|access-date=22 November 2013}}</ref>

== Media ==
=== Television and radio ===
The [[Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority]] (PEMRA) is responsible for the regulation and monitoring of electronic media entertainment in the country.<ref name="PEMRA">{{cite web|url=http://www.pemra.gov.pk/|title=Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA)|publisher=Government of Pakistan|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref> [[Pakistan Television Corporation]], is the state-owned regulated television broadcasting network.<ref name="AMICC">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wo9YWvrWFcIC&q=history+of+Pakistan+Television+Corporation&pg=PA377 | last=Logan|first=Stephen|title=Asian Communication Handbook, 2008|year=2008|publisher=Asian Media Information and Communication Centre|location=New York, United States (United Nations Secretariat)|isbn=978-981-4136-10-5|pages=377–400|access-date= 13 June 2016}}</ref> The government began licensing private broadcasters in 2002.<ref name=Internews>{{cite web|url=https://www.internews.org/sites/default/files/resources/InfoasAid_Pakistan_MediaGuide.pdf| title=Pakistan Media and Telecoms Landscape Guide |publisher=InterNews|date=June 2012|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref>

The government of Pakistan installed the first radio transmitters in the city on 15 September 1982.<ref name="PBC: Radio Station">{{cite web|title=Chronology of PBC|url=http://www.radio.gov.pk/chronology-of-pbc|website=Radio Pakistan|publisher=Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> "[[Radio Pakistan]]" broadcasts three government regulated FM stations: "Radio Pakistan FM101, Radio Pakistan FM93 and Radio Pakistan Sautul Qur'an Channel FM93.4. FM101 became operational in 2002, FM93 went live in 2010 and FM93.4 Sautul Qur'an Channel went live in 2016; PBC all three stations are standard power KW 2.5.<ref name="PBC: FM Station">{{cite web|title=FM Station|url=http://www.radio.gov.pk/fm-station|website=Radio Pakistan|publisher=Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>

=== Telecommunications ===
[[Pakistan Telecommunication Authority]] is a government-owned organisation that is responsible for the establishment, operation and maintenance of telecommunications in the city.<ref name=PTA>{{cite web|url=http://www.pta.gov.pk/index.php?cur_t=vtext&option=com_content&task=view&id=523&catid=95&Itemid=229|title= Pakistan Telecommunication Authority|access-date=10 June 2016}}</ref> The organisation monitors and prevents illegal exchanges in the city.<ref name=PTA2005>{{cite web|url=http://www.pta.gov.pk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2033&catid=92&Itemid=1 |title=Illegal Gateway Exchange Raided in Faisalabad |date= 20 May 2005 |access-date=10 June 2016}}</ref>

[[PTCL|Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited]] is the main provider of fixed line, mobile and broadband services. Regional headquarters is located at the Central Telecom House in Chinot Bazaar.<ref name=PTCL>{{cite web|url=http://ptcl.com.pk/Home/PageDetail?ItemId=113&linkId=121|title=Telephone Exchanges in Punjab|access-date=10 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128170005/http://ptcl.com.pk/Home/PageDetail?ItemId=113&linkId=121|archive-date=28 January 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> With the deregulation of the telecommunication sector by the Ministry of Information Technology, a range of companies now offer [[List of mobile network operators in Pakistan|mobile]] and [[Internet in Pakistan|broadband]] services in the city.<ref name=WTO>{{cite web|url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/telecom_e/sym_feb08_e/siddiqui_e.pdf | title=Telecom Sector Liberalization & Deregulation in Pakistan: Economic and Social Benefits|author=Siddiqui, Zainab Hussain | access-date=10 June 2016}}</ref>

=== Film and theatre ===
In 2008, the Government of Pakistan lifted a forty-year ban on [[Bollywood]] films which allowed Indian films to be played in cinemas.<ref name=AT>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/JB08Df05.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514161639/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/JB08Df05.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=14 May 2008 |title=The Curtain Lifts For Bollywood in Pakistan | publisher= Asia Time | last=Ramachandran|first=Sudha|date=8 February 2008|access-date=18 June 2016}}</ref> The cinema industry has since seen the introduction of new cinemas such as Cinepax by Hotel One,<ref name=Cinepax>{{cite web|url=http://www.cinepax.com/cine/faislabad.php|title=Cinepax Faisalabad|access-date=18 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115224102/http://www.cinepax.com/cine/faislabad.php|archive-date=15 November 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and Cine Nagina.<ref name=NCF>{{cite web |url=http://cinenagina.com/ |title=Nagina Cinemas Faisalabad |publisher=Nagina Cinemas |access-date=18 June 2016 |archive-date=16 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616122525/http://www.cinenagina.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Government College University in Faisalabad encourages students from the University of Agriculture to hold workshops and explore themes of peace and tolerance which can be used in an engaging and entertaining way to communicate complex issues to different audiences.<ref name=CWSA>{{cite web | url=http://communityworldservice.asia/performing_for_peace/ | title=Performing for Peace: Theater Workshops Promote Peace and Tolerance | date=12 April 2016 | access-date=13 June 2016 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809180501/http://communityworldservice.asia/performing_for_peace/ | archive-date=9 August 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

== Recreation ==
{{multiple image
| align =right
| direction = vertical
| image1=Chenab_Club_View_2022_Clouds.jpg
| caption1=A view of Chenab Club in December 2020
| image2=Faisalabad D-Ground 02.jpg
| caption2=[[D Ground]] Central Park was rebuilt by the city district government and now includes miniatures of the [[National symbols of Pakistan|symbols of Pakistan]] such as the [[Mazar-e-Quaid]], [[Minar-e-Pakistan]], and [[Bab-e-Pakistan]].
| image3 = Iqbal Cricket Stadium Faisalabad PAKISTAN.jpg
| caption3 = [[Iqbal Stadium]], is an international cricket ground, home to the [[Faisalabad Wolves]] cricket team.
}}

=== Public parks ===
The Parks and Horticulture Authority (PHA) is responsible for running and managing all public parks within the district of Faisalabad.

Jinnah Gardens is the oldest and most established public park in the city. It serves as the city's central park, and a cultural hub. It is commonly known as "Company Bagh". A monument of Sir James Broadwood Lyall is situated at the eastern corner of the park.

Dhobi Ghat Park is a historic park, in the oldest part of the city. It is located on Kotwali Road, just next to the Government College University, Faisalabad. The park has a long history of rallies and protests. The park was chosen as a venue of choice by [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], [[Liaquat Ali Khan|Liaqat Ali Khan]], [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto|Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]], [[Benazir Bhutto]], [[Nawaz Sharif]], [[Shehbaz Sharif|Shebaz Sharif]], [[Maryam Nawaz]] and [[Imran Khan]].

Gatwala Park is located in the outskirts of the city, on the north-eastern side. It serves as a family park with amusements such as a zoo and a lake. The [[Gatwala Wildlife Park]] is a botanical natural reserve located next to the Gatwala Park. It that was renovated by the city district government.<ref name="punjab.gov: Gatwala">{{cite web|title=Gatwala Forest Park|url=http://www.fwf.punjab.gov.pk/gatwala_forest_wildlife_park|website=www.fwf.punjab.gov.pk|publisher=Government of the Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>

Pahari Grounds is located in Peoples Colony #2. It is a residential area popular locations such as Babar Chowk, Fawara Chowk and the old gates. A Pakistan Air Force retired F-86 Sabre is on display on a hilltop within this park. It is a local attraction.

D-Ground Park is located in the Peoples Colony #1 area, within the D-Ground shopping area. Several models of Pakistani monuments are on display in this park, all year round.

=== Sports ===
{{Main|List of sports venues in Faisalabad}}
[[Cricket]] is a popular sport in Faisalabad. Regional and international cricket matches are held in [[Iqbal Stadium]],<ref name = "ESPN">{{cite web | url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/America/content/ground/58927.html | title = Iqbal Stadium | publisher = ESPN Sports Media Ltd. | author = Andrew McGlashan | access-date = 20 December 2015}}</ref> named after Pakistani poet Sir [[Allama Muhammad Iqbal]].<ref name="NDTV: Iqbal Stadium">{{cite news|title=Iqbal Stadium, Faisalabad|url=http://sports.ndtv.com/cricket/grounds/2005-iqbal-stadium-faisalabad-groundprofile|access-date=7 June 2016|work=NDTVSports.com|publisher=NDTV}}</ref> The stadium is home to Faisalabad's local team, the [[Faisalabad Wolves]].<ref name=TNT>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenewstribe.com/2012/12/02/faisalabad-wolves-profile/|title=Faisalabad Wolves Profile|last=Ahmed|first=Hassam|publisher=The News Tribe|date=2 December 2012|access-date=13 June 2016|archive-date=12 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812075932/http://www.thenewstribe.com/2012/12/02/faisalabad-wolves-profile/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Iqbal Stadium hosted the [[1987 Cricket World Cup]],<ref name=CA>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/49/49317.html | title=Pakistan v Sri Lanka in 1987/88 |date=25 October 1987|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref> and the [[1996 Cricket World Cup]].<ref name=CA2>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/1/Wills_World_Cup_1995-96.html |title=Wills World Cup 1996: New Zealand v United Arab Emirates|publisher=Cricket Archive|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref>

The [[Faisalabad Hockey Stadium]], located on Susan Road, was constructed in 2002, and can accommodate 25,000 spectators. On 16 April 2003, the stadium was inaugurated by [[Khalid Maqbool]], governor of Punjab. It is the third-largest [[field hockey]] stadium in the country.<ref name=Dawn>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1232421 | title=Hockey Stadium in Faisalabad in Pathetic Condition|publisher=Dawn| last=Saleem|first=Mohammad|date=12 January 2016|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref> The stadium has hosted [[field hockey]] matches for both national and international competition but by the beginning of 2016 was reported to be in "pathetic condition as its astroturf has completed its life span about eight years ago." Commissioner Naseem Nawaz advised that efforts were under way to maintain the stadium.<ref name=Dawn/>

In October 2002, the Government College University established a Directorate of Sports to promote university and national level sports for male and female players. Infrastructure and facilities are available for university players in [[Track (sport)|track]], hockey, tennis, basketball, table tennis, badminton and [[cricket pitch]].<ref name="GCUF-Sports">{{cite web | url=http://gcuf.edu.pk/directorates/sports/ |title=Directorate of Sports | publisher = Government College University Faisalabad |date=20 February 1996| access-date = 20 December 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327175622/http://gcuf.edu.pk/directorates/sports/|archive-date=27 March 2016}}</ref>

=== Public libraries and museums ===
There are two [[List of libraries in Pakistan|libraries]] that are open to the public: Allama Iqbal Library and Municipal Corporation Public Library. They are funded and regulated by the government of Punjab under the service sector.<ref name="punjab.gov: Libraries">{{cite web|url=https://www.punjab.gov.pk/node/625|website=Punjab Portal, Government of Punjab, Pakistan website|title=Faisalabad – Public libraries|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref>
* Allama Iqbal Library is located on University Road, opposite the District Courts. The library is housed in the 1911-built colonial building originally named "Coronation Library" during the rule of the British Empire. In 2012, the building came under control of the Lyallpur Heritage Foundation<ref name="ET: Museum">{{cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/427461/lyllpur-museum-body-formed-to-acquire-conserve-artifacts|access-date=28 October 2020|title=Lyllpur Museum: Body Formed To Acquire, Conserve Artifacts|newspaper=The Express Tribune (newspaper)|date=29 August 2012}}</ref> and the Punjab Archives and Libraries Department.<ref name="ET: Libraries">{{cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/516789/public-libraries-and-archive-department-formed|last1=Malik|first1=Sonia|title=Public Libraries and Archive Department formed|newspaper=The Express Tribune (newspaper)|date=6 March 2013|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref>
* [[Lyallpur Museum]] is located adjacent to the Allama Iqbal Library on University Road. It is a heritage museum and art gallery open to the public. The museum is primarily focused on regional history with a collection of artwork, artefacts and photographs.<ref name=HB>{{cite web|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-351537186.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911011028/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-351537186.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 September 2016 |title=BoG Approves Lyallpur Museum Regulations|publisher=The Nation (Karachi, Pakistan)|date=2 December 2013|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref>
* Municipal Library is located in Iqbal Park on Narwala Road, opposite the historical grounds of Dhobi Ghat.<ref name=ML>{{cite web|url=https://www.punjab.gov.pk/node/625|title= Faisalabad —- Public libraries|publisher=Punjab Portal, Government of Punjab, Pakistan website|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref> The library has a large collection of books, a photo gallery and a conference centre. In 2011, the library underwent a renovation costing 40 million rupees.<ref name="PT-2011">{{cite news|url=http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2011/03/24/national/municipal-library-building-to-be-reconstructed/ | title=Municipal Library Building To Be Reconstructed|newspaper=Pakistan Today|date=24 March 2011|access-date=18 June 2016}}</ref>
* The Forest Library at the Punjab Forestry Research Institute (PFRI) is one of two specialist libraries, the other being in Lahore.<ref name="punjab.gov: Forest Library">{{cite web|title=Libraries|url=http://fwf.punjab.gov.pk/libraries|website=fwf.punjab.gov.pk|publisher=Government of Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> Opened in 1986, the research library is based at the [[Gatwala Wildlife Park|Wildlife Research Center]] in Gatwala.<ref name="punjab.gov: WRC">{{cite web|url=http://fwf.punjab.gov.pk/WRC_gatwala|title=Wildlife Research Center Gatwala, Faisalabad|publisher=Government of Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>

=== Social clubs ===
The Chenab Club, founded in 1910 is the oldest social club in Faisalabad. It was founded by the British armed forces serving in the area, during the British rule. Today it is a prestigious club offering sports, recreation, dining and cultural activities.

== Transportation ==
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = New terminal building at Faisalabad International Airport 16.jpg
| caption1 = Airside view of Faisalabad Airport
| image2 = Railway station of Faisalabad.JPG
| caption2 = The front entrance to the 19th century colonial railway station
| image3 = Faisalabad D-Ground Road.jpg
| caption3 = Roads in Faisalabad
| image4 =
| caption4 =
}}

=== Airport ===
[[Faisalabad International Airport]] is approximately {{convert|15|km}} from the city center. It is located at Faisalabad-Jhang Road. The airport underwent major renovations during between 2014 and 2017. The main termainal building was completed renovated. Major extensions were carried out as part of a major development initiative by the former [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]], Mian Muhammad [[Nawaz Sharif]]. It is a regional airport that serves domestic and international travel. The airport offers cargo, freight, passenger travel, private terminal, flying school, and military base to Pakistan Air Force. The airlines with operations at Faisalabad International Airport include [[Pakistan International Airlines]], [[FlyDubai]], [[Qatar Airways]], [[Air Arabia]], [[Gulf Air]] and [[SereneAir|Serene Air]].

=== Rail ===
The [[Faisalabad railway station]] is the central railway station in the city. The railway line forms part of the [[Khanewal–Wazirabad railway line]]. Rail services are operated by [[Pakistan Railways]], owned and operated by the [[Ministry of Railways (Pakistan)|Ministry of Railways]].<ref name=MoR>{{cite web|url=http://www.railways.gov.pk/gop/index.php?q=aHR0cDovLzE5Mi4xNjguNzAuMTM2L3JhaWx3YXlzd2ViLy4vZnJtRGV0YWlscy5hc3B4P29wdD1iYXNpYyZpZD0x|title=Ministry of Railways|work=Government of Pakistan|publisher=Ministry of Railways Government of Pakistan|access-date=12 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622210702/http://www.railways.gov.pk/gop/index.php?q=aHR0cDovLzE5Mi4xNjguNzAuMTM2L3JhaWx3YXlzd2ViLy4vZnJtRGV0YWlscy5hc3B4P29wdD1iYXNpYyZpZD0x|archive-date=22 June 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Cargo Express services are operated by Pakistan Railways which runs from Karachi to Faisalabad via Multan. Twenty-seven [[bogies]] compose the goods train, and are handled respectively by private contractors at the station.<ref name="Dawn: Railway">{{cite news|last1=Siddiqui|first1=Zaheer Mahmood|title=Karachi-Faisalabad route: Railways to resume cargo express|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1149270|access-date=7 June 2016|publisher=Dawn|date=7 December 2014}}</ref> The station has a special cargo facility operated by the Ministry of Railways (Pakistan) for handling various goods from the city to other regions of the country. An express parcel service runs from Karachi to Lahore via Faisalabad.<ref name="The Nation: Parcel Express">{{cite magazine|title=Railways to earn Rs 12b from freight trains|url=http://nation.com.pk/business/08-Feb-2016/railways-to-earn-rs12b-from-freight-trains|access-date=7 June 2016|magazine=The Nation|date=8 February 2016}}</ref>

=== Road network ===
{{Main|Roads in Faisalabad}}
Faisalabad has a highly developed road network. There are many access ways in and out of the city. It is well connected through motorways, dual-carriageways and highways.

==Sister cities==
Faisalabad is a globally recognized city due to its textiles export trade. Its [[sister cities]] are:

*{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Qingdao]], China
*{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Wuhan]], China
*{{flagicon|IRN}} [[Tabriz]], Iran
*{{flagdeco|IND}} [[Kanpur]], India
*{{flagicon|JPN}} [[Kobe]], Japan
*{{flagdeco|ESP}} [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], Spain
*{{flagicon|UAE}} [[Sharjah]], United Arab Emirates
*{{flagdeco|GRB}} [[Manchester]], United Kingdom
*{{flagicon|USA}} [[Los Angeles]], United States of America

== See also ==
* [[List of people from Faisalabad]]
* [[Faisalabad District]]
* [[Faisalabad Electric Supply Company]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Incubator|code=pnb/فیصل آباد| prefix=Wp|project=Wikipedia}}
{{Sister project links|Faisalabad}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060813061805/http://faisalabad.gov.pk/ Faisalabad City District]
* [http://www.punjab.gov.pk/ Punjab Government website]
* {{curlie|/Regional/Asia/Pakistan/Provinces/Punjab/Localities/Faisalabad|Faisalabad}}
* [https://postcodepk.com/postal-code/faisalabad/ Faisalabad Postal Codes (Complete List)]
* {{Wikivoyage inline|Faisalabad}}

{{Faisalabad|state=collapsed}}
{{Faisalabad District|state=collapsed}}
{{PakistanCities|state=collapsed}}
{{Pakistan topics|state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Faisalabad| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Faisalabad District]]
[[Category:Metropolitan areas of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Planned communities in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Populated places in Punjab, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Cities in Punjab (Pakistan)]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1892]]

Faisalabad

2024-06-04T22:30:08Z

131.111.5.201: Undid revision 1227300281 by 131.111.5.201 (talk)

{{short description|City in Punjab, Pakistan (formerly Lyallpur)}}
{{For|the district|Faisalabad District}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=June 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox settlement


|
| name = Faisalabad
| official_name =
| other_name =
| native_name = {{nobold|{{Nastaliq| فیصل آباد}}}}
| nickname = ''The [[Manchester]] of Pakistan''
| etymology =
| settlement_type = [[City Districts of Pakistan|Metropolis]]
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Clock Tower Faisalabad by Usman Nadeem.jpg
| photo2a = Gurdwara-School_inner_front.JPG
| photo2b = Jhal flay over Faisaabad.jpg
| photo3a = Circuit House, Faisalabad.jpg
| photo3b = Faisalabad Canal Way1.jpg
| photo4a = M2-2.JPG
| photo4b =
| size = 250
| spacing = 1 
| color_border = white 
| border = 
|color = white
}}
| image_caption = <div style="background:#fee8ab;">'''From top, left to right:''' [[Clock Tower, Faisalabad|Clock Tower]], Sikh Gurdwara, Jhal Flyover Circuit House Gardens, Faisalabad Canal, Faisalabad Pindi-Bhattian Interchange</div>
| image_flag =
| flag_size =
| image_seal = Municipal Corporation Faisalabad.png
| seal_size = 100
| image_shield =
| shield_size =
| image_blank_emblem =
| blank_emblem_type = [[Faisalabad Development Authority|FDA]] logo
| image_map =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = Punjab Pakistan#Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position = bottom
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Faisalabad
| pushpin_mapsize = 
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Subdivisions of Pakistan|Province]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon|Punjab, Pakistan}} [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Divisions of Pakistan|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Faisalabad Division|Faisalabad]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Districts of Pakistan|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Faisalabad District|Faisalabad]]
| blank_name_sec1 = Former Name
| blank_info_sec1 = Lyallpur
| blank1_name_sec1 = Official Languages
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Urdu]], [[English language|English]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = Native language
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = Languages (1981)
| blank3_info_sec1 = 98.2% [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] 1.8% ''Others''<ref name="Languages">{{cite book|author=Stephen P. Cohen|title=The Idea of Pakistan|url=https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe|url-access=registration|date=2004|publisher=[[Brookings Institution Press]]|isbn=0815797613|page=[https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe/page/202 202]}}</ref>
| seat_type = [[Local government in Punjab|Metropolitan Corporation]]
| seat =
| parts_type =
| parts_style = 
| parts = 
| p1 =
| p2 = 
| government_footnotes =
| government_type =
| leader_title = [[Mayor of Faisalabad|Mayor]]
| leader_name = None (''vacant'')<ref>{{cite news|url=https://nation.com.pk/31-Dec-2021/administrators-appointments-planned-as-punjab-lg-system-dissolves-today|title=Administrators' appointments planned as Punjab LG system dissolves today|date=31 December 2021|access-date=5 January 2022|work=The Nation (newspaper)}}</ref>
| leader_title1 = Commissioner
| leader_name1 = Silwat Saeed<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nation.com.pk/19-Dec-2023/commissioner-for-early-completion-of-business-facilitation-centre|title=Commissioner for early completion of Business Facilitation Centre|date=19 December 2023|access-date=19 December 2023|work=The Nation (newspaper)}}</ref>
| established_title = Settled
| established_date = 1892
| founder = [[James Broadwood Lyall]]
| named_for = [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia]]
| unit_pref = metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_sq_mi = 512
| area_land_sq_mi = 325
| area_water_sq_mi = 165
| area_metro_sq_mi = 2261
| area_water_percent = 33
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 186
| elevation_max_m =
| elevation_min_m = 
| population_as_of = 2017
| population_footnotes = <ref name=ProP/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/provisional-summary-results-6th-population-and-housing-census-2017-0|title=Provisional Summary Results of 6th Population and Housing Census-2017|work=pbs.gov.pk|access-date=24 November 2017}}</ref>
| population_note =
| population_total = 32,04,704
| total_type = City
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank = [[List of most populous cities in Pakistan|3rd, Pakistan]]
| population_demonym = Faisalabadi
| timezone = [[Pakistan Standard Time|PKT]]
| utc_offset = +05:00
| timezone_DST =
| utc_offset_DST =
| coordinates = {{Coord|31|25|0|N|73|5|28|E|type:city_region:PK|display=inline,title}}
| postal_code_type = [[Postal codes in Pakistan|Postal code]]
| postal_code = 38000
| area_code = 041
| area_code_type =
| blank_name_sec2 = [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]
| blank_info_sec2 = $43 billion (2013)
| blank_emblem_link =
| imagesize = 250px
| area_rank = [[List of metropolitan areas in Pakistan|3rd]]
}}

'''Faisalabad''' ({{IPAc-en|pron||f|ɑː|ɪ|s|ɑː|l|ˌ|b|ɑː|d}}; [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], {{lang-ur|{{nq|فیصل آباد}}}}, {{IPA-pa|fɛːsə̆ləˌbäːd}}; {{IPA-ur|fɛːsˈlɑˌbɑːd|-|Faisalabad Pronounciation.ogg}}), formerly known as '''Lyallpur''' ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], {{Lang-ur|{{unq|لائل پور}}}}), is the [[List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population|second largest]] city and industrial centre of the [[Administrative units of Pakistan|Pakistani province]] of [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]. It is an industrial and metropolitan hub, being the [[List of cities in Pakistan by population|third most populous city]] in [[Pakistan]], with an estimated population of 3.7 million in 2023. Located in central Punjab's [[Rachna Doab|Rachna Do'āb]], between the [[River Ravi|Ravi]] and [[River Chenab|Chenab]] rivers, it is the second-largest [[Punjabi language|Punjabi-speaking]] city in the world. Faisalabad is one of Pakistan's wealthiest and most industrialized city, the largest industrial hub and second largest city of the wider [[Punjab|Punjab region]].

Historically one of the largest villages of Punjab, Lyallpur was one of the first planned cities within [[British India]]. It has long since developed into a cosmopolitan metropolis. Faisalabad was restructured into [[City Districts of Pakistan|city district]] status; a devolution promulgated by the 2001 [[Local government in Pakistan|local government ordinance]] (LGO). The total area of [[Faisalabad District]] is {{convert|5856|km2|abbr=on}}<ref name="FCCI:City History"/> while the area controlled by the [[Faisalabad Development Authority]] (FDA) is {{convert|1326|km2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="LoP">{{cite web|url=http://www.lawsofpakistan.com/faisalabad-geography-city-district-government-towns-of-faisalabad/|title=Faisalabad Geography | date=April 12, 2013 |access-date=April 15, 2017}}</ref><ref name="RPF">{{cite report | url=https://www.scribd.com/book/50333273 | publisher = University of Agriculture, Faisalabad | title=Regional Profile, Faisalabad | author = Ghulam Mustafa |year = 2009}}</ref>{{rp|8}}

Faisalabad has grown to become a major industrial and distribution centre because of its central location in the region and connecting roads, rails, and air transportation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gcuf.edu.pk/about/the-city-faisalabad/|title=The City Faisalabad – GCUF|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424053923/http://gcuf.edu.pk/about/the-city-faisalabad/|archive-date=24 April 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It has been referred to as the Manchester of Pakistan because of its extensive textile industry.<ref name="uaf.edu.pk">{{cite report |date=2005 |title=International Conference on Soil Sustainability and Food Security |url=http://uaf.edu.pk/downloads/2nd_path/Brochure_SSFS_2015.pdf |publisher=University of Agriculture, Faisalabad |access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Jaffrelot 2002 57">{{cite book |page=57 |title=Pakistan: Nationalism Without A Nation |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |author-link=Christophe Jaffrelot |publisher=Zed Books |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84277-117-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2avL3aZzSEC&pg=PA57}}</ref>
{{As of|2013}}, the [[GDP]] of Faisalabad was estimated at $43 billion<ref name="PBIT">{{cite web| url=http://www.pbit.gop.pk/punjab_at_glance| title=Punjab At A Glance| publisher=Punjab Board of Investment & Trade, Government of The Punjab| date=2021| access-date=April 15, 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416133204/http://www.pbit.gop.pk/punjab_at_glance| archive-date=16 April 2017| url-status=dead| df=dmy-all}}</ref> and projected to rise to $87 billion in 2025 at a growth rate of 5.7%.<ref name="faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk">{{Cite web|url=http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx|title=District Website|website=faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk|access-date=3 December 2015|archive-date=9 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709065525/http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Faisalabad contributes over 10 percent to the Punjab's GDP and has an average annual GDP (nominal) of $20.5 billion.<ref name="PBIT"/> Agriculture and industry remain its hallmarks.<ref name=FCCI/><ref name=RPF />{{rp|41}}

== Etymology ==

Faisalabad was formerly (until 1977) known as Lyallpur. When founded in 1890 it was named after [[James Broadwood Lyall|Sir James Broadwood Lyall]], the British lieutenant governor of the Punjab.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ian |last=Talbot |year=2020 |title=The History of British Diplomacy in Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kwIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT275 |publisher=Routledge |page=275|isbn=9781000326703 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Kavita |last=Puri |year=2019 |title=Partition Voices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emCWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT108 |publisher=Bloomsbury |page=108|isbn=9781408899069 }}</ref> It became headquarters of the Lower Chenab colony and in 1898 was incorporated as a municipality.<ref>Britannica {{cite news|title=Faisalabad|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Faisalabad|newspaper= Britannica}}</ref>

In September 1977, the city of Lyallpur was renamed "Faisalabad" by the [[Government of Pakistan]] in honour of the [[King of Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian king]] [[Faisal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud]], respecting his long relationship with Pakistan and its people.<ref>The Express Tribune {{cite news|title=From Lyallpur to Faisalabad: the city of eight bazaars|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2340127/from-lyallpur-to-faisalabad-the-city-of-eight-bazaars|newspaper= The Express Tribune|date=24 Jan 2022}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|image1=University of Agriculture, Lyallpur, British India.jpg
|caption1=The first university in Lyallpur was built by the [[British Indian Empire]] in 1906 with the foundation stone laid by Sir Louis Dane, then Lieutenant and Governor of Punjab.<ref name="UAF: this city was made by Rai Bahadur Hansraj Bhavanidas Sikka. History">{{cite web|url=http://uaf.edu.pk/faculties/agri/agri_history.html|title=Faculty of Agriculture – History|publisher=University of Agriculture, Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>
|image2=Quaid E Azam Jinnah Ali Lyallpur Dhobi Ghat.jpeg
|caption2=[[Mohammed Ali Jinnah]], in Lyallpur where he gave a historic speech at Dhobi Ghat, c. 1943
|image3=Industrial exhibition in FSD.jpg
|caption3=One of the earlier industrial exhibition at the [[University of Agriculture]], still a major exhibition in the city today, c. 1949
|image4= Lady Mountbatten among the Hindu evacuees at the Punjab Scouts Camp, Layallpur during partition of India.jpg
|caption4= [[Edwina Mountbatten, Countess Mountbatten of Burma|Lady Mountbatten]], [[Vicereine]] of India, among the Hindu evacuees at the Punjab Scouts Camp, Layallpur during partition of British India
|image5=Gurdwara-School inner front.JPG
|caption5=Gurudawar Layallpur, a [[Sikh]] [[Gurdwara]] constructed during the reign of the [[British Empire]] in 1911
}}

=== Toponymy ===
The city was settled or established in 1880 during the colonisation of the lower Chenab Valley.<ref name="TUF history">{{cite web |title=History of Faisalabad |url=https://tuf.edu.pk/n/history-faisalabad |website=University of Faisalabad (TUF) |publisher=University of Faisalabad |access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref> This city was settled down by Rai Bahadur Bhavanidas Sikka, after which the British Government granted [[jagir|jagirs]] to him. After Partition his descendants settled in India, now settled in Mumbai. This city was named in honour of [[List of governors of Punjab (British India)|Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab]], Sir James Broadwood Lyall, for his role in establishing the [[Punjab Canal Colonies|canal colonisation project]].<ref name="Punjab Canal Colonies">Douie, J. (1914). The Punjab Canal Colonies. Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, 62(3210), 611-623. Retrieved March 5, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41341616</ref><ref name="asb.org.pk">{{cite journal |url=http://www.asb.org.pk/faisalabadprofile.doc |title=Faisalabad CITY PROFILE and SELECTION OF WARDS |author=Integrated Slums Development Programme (ISDP) |date=March 2001 |access-date=8 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923174341/http://www.asb.org.pk/faisalabadprofile.doc |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The surname ''[[Lyall (surname)|Lyall]]'' was joined with the noun ''[[Pur (placename element)|pur]]'', meaning 'city' in [[Sanskrit]].<ref name=Sanskrit>{{cite web|url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=pur&script=&direction=SE&link=yes|title=Spoken Sanskrit Dictionary|access-date=11 June 2016}}</ref>

On 1 September 1977, the [[Government of Pakistan]] changed the name of the city from Lyallpur to Faisalabad ''('City of Faisal')'' in honour of [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal of Saudi Arabia]], who made several financial contributions to Pakistan.<ref name="TUF history" /><ref>{{cite book|author=John Everett-Heath|title=The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVRuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT728|date=13 September 2018|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-256243-2|page=728}}</ref><ref name="FCCI:City History">{{cite web |url=http://www.fcci.com.pk/a-histroty-of-faisalabad-city.html |title=A History of Faisalabad City |publisher=The Faisalabad Chamber of Commerce & Industry |access-date=8 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903002333/http://www.fcci.com.pk/a-histroty-of-faisalabad-city.html |archive-date=3 September 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

===Early settlements===
The region encompassing modern day Faisalabad district was originally inhabited by a number of forest-dwelling tribes.<ref name="Punjab Canal Colonies"/> It is believed these early settlements belonged to the ancient districts of [[Jhang]] and [[Sandalbar]], and included the area between [[Shahdara Bagh|Shahdara]] to Shorekot and [[Sangla Hill]] to [[Toba Tek Singh]].<ref name="TUF history" /> The shrine of [[Baba Noor Shah Wali]] was erected in the area in the 1600s.<ref>[https://pakvoter.org/wp-content/pdfs/Punjab%20Local%20Government%20Elections%202016/Faisalabad.pdf Local government elections 2020 Faisalabad]</ref>

===Development===
At the conclusion of the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] in 1849, the entire [[Punjab region]] became administered as [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab province]], firstly by the [[East India Company]] and after 1858 as part of the [[British Raj]].<ref name=Stein>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=GBS.PA107|last=Stein|first=Burton|title=A History of India|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1|page=107}} Quote: "When the formal rule of the Company was replaced by the direct rule of the British Crown in 1858, ...."</ref><ref name=Duke>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UMMECgAAQBAJ&pg=PT71|last=Lowe|first=Lisa|title=The Intimacies of Four Continents|date= 2015|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-7564-7|page=71}} Quote: "... Company rule in India lasted effectively from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 until 1858, when following the 1857 Indian Rebellion, the British Crown assumed direct colonial rule of India in the new British Raj."</ref>

In the 1880s the Punjab government began an irrigation scheme to cultivate large tracts of western Punjab through the creation of canal colonies.<ref>'Chenab Colony Gazetteer (1904), p.29.</ref> The Chenab colony was the largest of these colonisation projects, and covered the entirety of present-day Faisalabad district. Popham Young, the Colonisation Officer managing the project identified the site of the current city to establish headquarters for the colony.<ref name="Punjab Canal Colonies"/><ref name=DCF>{{cite web|url=http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx|title=Brief History of Faisalabad|publisher=District Court of Faisalabad|access-date=8 June 2016|archive-date=9 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709065525/http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Young designed the settlement's centre to replicate the design in the [[Union Jack]] with eight roads extending from a large [[Clock Tower, Faisalabad|clock tower]] at its epicentre;<ref name="DCF-PP">{{cite web | url=http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx | title=Brief History of Faisalabad | publisher=District Court Faisalabad | access-date=3 December 2015 | archive-date=9 July 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709065525/http://faisalabad.dc.lhc.gov.pk/PublicPages/HistoryOfDistrict.aspx | url-status=dead }}</ref> a design geometrically symbolic of the [[Flag of Scotland|Cross of Saint Andrew]] counter changed with the [[Cross of Saint Patrick]], and [[Saint George's Cross]] over all.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.flaginstitute.org/wp/british-flags/the-union-jack-or-the-union-flag/ |first=Bruce |last=Nicolls |title=The Union Jack or The Union Flag? |publisher=The Flag Institute |access-date=3 December 2015 }}</ref> The eight roads developed into eight separate bazaars (markets) leading to different regions of the Punjab.<ref name="asb.org.pk" /><ref name=UofF>{{cite web|url=http://www.tuf.edu.pk/history-fabad.php|publisher=The University of Faisalabad|title=City of Faisalabad|access-date=3 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018214515/http://www.tuf.edu.pk/history-fabad.php|archive-date=18 October 2015|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 1892, the newly constructed town with its growing agricultural surplus was added to the British rail network.<ref name="Bogart">{{cite web | url=http://www.socsci.uci.edu/~dbogart/indraileconachieve.pdf | title=Railways in Colonial India: An Economic Achievement? | work=Social Sciences | publisher=University of California-Irvine | date=August 2011 | access-date=3 December 2015 | author=Dan Bogart, Latika Chaudhry | page=2}}</ref> Construction of the rail link between [[Wazirabad]] and Lyallpur was completed in 1895.<ref name="DCF-PP"/> In 1896, [[Gujranwala]], Jhang and [[Montgomery Tahsil|Montgomery]] comprising the [[Tehsils]] of Lyallpur were under the administrative control of the Jhang District.<ref name=PGH>{{cite web|url=http://punjab.gov.pk/faisalabad_history|title=History of Faisalabad|work=Punjab Portal|access-date=8 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018214515/http://punjab.gov.pk/faisalabad_history|archive-date=18 October 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> The town became one of the first planned settlements within [[British India]].<ref name=FCCI>{{cite web|url=http://fcci.com.pk/rte/The-Economy-of-Faisalabad.pdf | publisher=Faisalabad Chamber of Commerce & Industry | title=The Economy of Faisalabad|access-date=8 February 2018}}</ref>

In 1904, the new district of Lyallpur was created to include the tehsils of [[Samundri]] and Toba Tek Singh with a sub-tehsil at [[Jaranwala]], which later became a full tehsil in itself.<ref name="Gazetteer">{{cite journal | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTS2AAAAIAAJ&q=1906+the+new+district+of+Lyallpur&pg=PA220 | title=Imperial Gazetteer of India | year=1908 | volume=2 | pages=220–223 | publisher=Superintendent of Government Printing}}</ref> The [[University of Agriculture (Faisalabad)|University of Agriculture]], originally the Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute, Lyallpur, was established in 1906.<ref name="UAF: this city was made by Rai Bahadur Hansraj Bhavanidas Sikka. History" /> The Town Committee was upgraded to a Municipal Committee in 1909. Lyallpur grew into an established agricultural tool and grain centre.<ref name="Anwar">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNUaBgAAQBAJ&q=1930s+in+Faisalabad&pg=PT119 | title=Infrastructure Redux: Crisis, Progress in Industrial Pakistan & Beyond | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan | author=Nausheen Anwar | year=2014 | page=119 | location=Pakistan | isbn=978-1-137-44818-7}}</ref> By 1911 the city had a population of 19,578.<ref name="Punjab Canal Colonies"/> The 1930s brought industrial growth and market expansion to the textile industry as well as to food processing, grain crushing and chemicals.<ref name="asb.org.pk" />

=== Independence ===
In August 1947, following three decades of nationalist struggles, India and Pakistan achieved independence. The British agreed to [[Partition of India|partition British India]] into two sovereign states – Pakistan with a [[Islam|Muslim]] majority, and India with a [[Hindu]] majority. However, more Muslims remained in India than what governing authorities believed would assimilate into Pakistan.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/partition1947_01.shtml | title=The Hidden Story of Partition and its Legacies | work=British History | publisher=BBC | date=3 March 2011 | access-date=4 December 2015 | author=Crispin Bates, Phd}}</ref> The partitioning led to a mass migration of an estimated 10 million people which made it the largest mass migration in human history.<ref name="BBC" /> The Punjab province was divided into [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab, West Pakistan]] and [[Punjab, India]]. There were also respective divisions of the [[British Indian Army]], the [[Indian Civil Service]], various administrative services, the central treasury, and the railways.<ref name="Yale">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan | title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan | publisher=Yale University Press | author=Yasmin Khan | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-300-12078-3 | url-access=registration }}</ref> Riots and local fighting followed the expeditious withdrawal of the British, resulting in an estimated one million civilians deaths, particularly in the western region of Punjab.<ref name=BBC /> Lyallpur, which was located in the region of the Punjab Province that became West Pakistan, was populated by a minority of Hindus and [[Sikhs]] who migrated to India, while Muslim refugees from [[East Punjab]] settled in the district.<ref name="Yale" />

In 1977, Pakistani authorities changed the name of the city from Lyallpur to Faisalabad, in order to honor the close friendship of [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal of Saudi Arabia]] with Pakistan.<ref name="Burki">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rk-sBwAAQBAJ&q=faisalabad+named+after&pg=PA196 | title=Historical Dictionary of Pakistan | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield | author=Shahid Javed Burki | year=2015 | page=196 | isbn=978-1-4422-4148-0}}</ref>

During the eighties, the city saw an influx of foreign investments in the textile sector.<ref name="Tribune-26-April">{{cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/875965/business-ties-faisalabad-encourages-turkish-investment/|title=Business ties: Faisalabad encourages Turkish investment|date=26 April 2015|work=The Express Tribune}}</ref> Large number of residents of Faisalabad began working abroad as bilateral ties improved as part of new trade agreements. This led to more foreign remittances into the city. This aided the development of large scale infrastructure projects within the city.<ref name="FCCI:City History"/> In 1985, the city was upgraded as a division with the districts of Faisalabad, Jhang and Toba Tek Singh.<ref name="TUF history"/>

== Geography ==
=== Location ===
Faisalabad lies in the rolling flat plains of northeast Punjab, at {{convert|186|m}} above sea level. The city proper comprises approximately {{convert|1326|km2}} while the district encompasses more than {{convert|16000|km2}}. The Chenab River flows about {{convert|30|km}}, and the [[Ravi River]] meanders {{convert|40|km}} to the southeast. The lower Chenab canal provides water to 80% of cultivated lands making it the main source of irrigation. Faisalabad is bound on the north by [[Chiniot]] and [[Sheikhupura]], on the east by Sheikhupura and Sahiwal, on the south by Sahiwal and Toba Tek Singh and on the west by Jhang.<ref name="CDG: Geography">{{cite web|title=CDG Faisalabad|url=http://www.faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/CityProfileDetail/2|website=www.faisalabad.gov.pk|publisher=City District Government Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505070526/http://www.faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/CityProfileDetail/2|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
{{Geographic location
|width=auto
|title = '''Adjoining cities to Faisalabad'''
|Northwest = [[Sargodha]]
|North = [[Chiniot]]
|Northeast = [[Sheikhupura]]
|West = [[Jhang]]
|Centre = Faisalabad
|East = [[Nankana Sahib]]
|Southwest = [[Gojra]]
|South = [[Samundri]]
|Southeast = [[Tandlianwala]] and [[Okara, Pakistan|Okara]]
}}

=== Geology ===
The district of Faisalabad is part of the [[alluvial plain]]s between the [[Himalayan foothills]] and the central core of the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name=WP>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/countries/pakistan.html?nav=el | title=Pakistan | newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=9 June 2016}}</ref> The [[alluvial deposits]] are typically over a thousand feet thick.<ref name="Nasim Akhtar">{{cite thesis |last=Akhtar |first=Nasim |date=October 2006 |title=Radionuclide Pollution due to Fertilizer use in some Saline Soils of the Punjab and their Potential Risk Assessment on Human Health |type=PhD |chapter=Study Area and Sampling |publisher=Bahauddin Zakariya University |chapter-url=http://prr.hec.gov.pk/chapters/2356-2.pdf |access-date=7 June 2016 |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018214515/http://prr.hec.gov.pk/chapters/2356-2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[interfluve]]s are believed to have been formed during the [[Late Pleistocene]] and feature [[River terraces (tectonic–climatic interaction)|river terraces]].<ref name=PNAS>{{cite journal|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/109/26/E1688.full.pdf|title=Fluvial Landscapes of the Harappan Civilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |last1=Giosan|first1=Liviu |last2=Clift |first2=Peter D.|last3=Macklin|first3=Mark G.|last4=Fuller|first4= Dorian Q.|last5=Constantinescu|first5=Stefan|last6=Durcan|first6=Julie A.|last7=Stevens|first7=Thomas|last8=Duller|first8=Geoff A. T.|last9=Tabrez |first9=Ali R.|last10=Gangal|first10=Kavita |last11=Adhikari |first11=Ronojoy|last12= Alizai |first12=Anwar|last13=Filip |first13=Florin | last14=VanLaningham|first14=Sam|last15=Syvitski|first15=James P.M.|volume=109|issue=26|pages=E1688-94|date=26 June 2012|access-date=9 June 2016|doi=10.1073/pnas.1112743109|pmid=22645375|bibcode=2012PNAS..109E1688G |pmc=3387054|doi-access=free}}</ref> These were later identified as old and young floodplains of the [[Ravi River]] on the Kamalia and Chenab Plains. The old floodplains consist of [[Holocene]] deposits from the Ravi and Chenab rivers.<ref name="Jehangir">{{cite book | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MgweBQAAQBAJ&q=Holocene+deposits+Ravi+and+Chenab+rivers&pg=PA3 | title=Conjunctive Water Management in the Rechna Doab: An Overview of Resources and Issues | publisher=International Water Management Institute | last1=Jehangir |first1= Waqar Ahmed |last2 =Qureshi |first2=Asad Sarwar |last3= Ali |first3=Nazim | chapter=Physiography of the Rechna Doab | year=2002 | page=3 | isbn=9290904895}}</ref>

The soil consists of young stratified silt loam or very fine sand loam which makes the subsoil weak in structure with common kankers at only five feet. The course of the rivers within Faisalabad is winding and often subject to frequent alternations. In the rainy season, the currents are very strong. This leads to high floods in certain areas which do last for a number of days. The [[Rakh]] and [[Gogera]] canals have encouraged the water levels in the district however the belt on the Ravi River has remained narrow. The river bed does include the river channels which have shifted the sand bars and low sandy [[levees]] leading to river erosion.<ref name="Nasim Akhtar"/>
Faisalabad is situated at the centre of the lower [[Rechna Doab]], the area is located between the Chenab and Ravi rivers. There is a mild slope from the northeast to the southwest with an average fall of {{convert|0.2|-|0.3|m/km|abbr=off}}. The city is situated at an elevation of about {{convert|183|m}}. The topography is marked by valleys, local depression and high ground.<ref name=Kobe />

== Climate ==
{{Main|Climate of Faisalabad}}

Faisalabad overlaps between a [[semi-arid]] climate and a [[humid subtropical]] climate.

The weather in the city is monitored by the [[Pakistan Meteorological Department]].<ref name=PMD>{{cite web|url=http://www.pmd.gov.pk/| title=Pakistan Weather|publisher=Pakistan Meteorological Department|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref> The Pakistan Meteorological Department regularly provides forecasts, public warnings and rainfall information to farmers with the assistance of the National Agromet Centre.<ref name="PMD-NAMC">{{cite web|url=http://namc.pmd.gov.pk/advisories.php|title= Weather Advisory for Farmers|publisher= Pakistan Meteorological Department|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="PMD-RAMC">{{cite web|url=http://namc.pmd.gov.pk/ramc-faisalabad.php | title=Regional Agrometeorological Center Faisalabad|publisher=Pakistan Meteorological Department|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Climate-Data">{{cite web|url=http://en.climate-data.org/location/764568/ | title=Climate: Faisalabad – Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table|publisher=Climate-Data.org|access-date=7 September 2013}}</ref>

Average annual rainfall is approximately {{convert|718|mm}}. It is at its peak in July, August and September during the monsoon season though western disturbances during winter months also bring considerable rainfall associated with hail.<ref name="nation.com.pk">{{Cite web|url=https://nation.com.pk/24-Jul-2019/rain-forecast-flood-warning-for-three-days|title=Rain forecast, flood warning for three days|date=24 July 2019|website=The Nation}}</ref> Monsoon season which starts in July and ends in September brings heavy rain to the city causing flash flooding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/pakistan/urban-flooding-likely-in-various-divisions-t-720528.html|title=Urban Flooding Likely In Various Divisions: The Flood Forecasting Division (FFD)|website=UrduPoint}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.samaa.tv/news/2019/07/pdma-warns-of-urban-flooding-in-several-punjab-cities/|title=PDMA warns of urban flooding in several Punjab cities | SAMAA|website=Samaa TV}}</ref> If the monsoon currents interact with the western disturbance, then cloudburst can also occur. July is the wettest month of the year during which flooding is reported a number of times.<ref name="nation.com.pk"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1493771|title=Govt reviews flood preparations ahead of heavy rainfall|first=Khaleeq|last=Kiani|date=13 July 2019|website=DAWN.COM}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/503153-heavy-rains-pmd-issues-flood-landslide-alert|title=Heavy rains: PMD issues flood, landslide alert|website=www.thenews.com.pk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/501988-Heavy-monsoon-rain-lashes-parts-of-country|title = Monsoon's third spell generates urban flood warning| date=14 February 2008 }}</ref> Monsoon ends in September and then the dry period begins. October and November are the driest months with very little rainfall. During winter the weather usually remains cloudy associated with frequent fog.<ref name=Kobe>{{cite web | url=http://www.kicc.jp/auick/database/baseline/BS2004/BS2004-CHAP6.html | title=Report of Baseline Survey Faisalabad, Pakistan | publisher=Asian Urban Information of Kobe | access-date=27 January 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124024723/http://www.kicc.jp/auick/database/baseline/BS2004/BS2004-CHAP6.html | archive-date=24 January 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> [[List of extreme weather records in Pakistan|Record-breaking rainfall]] of {{convert|264.2|mm}} was recorded on 5 September 1961 by the Pakistan Meteorological Department.<ref>Pakistan Meteorological Department http://www.pmd.gov.pk/ Retrieved 18 January 2016</ref> The temperature of the city has reached a summer maximum record temperature of 48.0 °C (118.4 °F), which was observed on 9 June 1947 and again on 26 May 2010.<ref name="rmcpunjab.pmd.gov.pk">{{Cite web|url=http://rmcpunjab.pmd.gov.pk/P-historical.html|title=Historical Events|website=rmcpunjab.pmd.gov.pk}}</ref> An extreme minimum temperature of −4.0 °C (24.8 °F) was recorded on 15 January 1978. The highest wind gust ever recorded in Faisalabad occurred during a severe dust-thunderstorm on 2 June 2000, when the maximum wind speed reached 151 kilometers per hour (94 mph).<ref name="rmcpunjab.pmd.gov.pk"/> Apart from temperature and rainfall records, the winds in Faisalabad are generally light. The city lies in an area with low wind speeds. Westerly breeze dominates the afternoons, while the nights are calm. Southeast / easterly winds are common here during the monsoon season. Faisalabad, being in the plains, can experience severe thunderstorms and high wind gusts that can be damaging to its crops.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/weather/faisalabad-receives-heavy-rain-663064.html|title=Faisalabad Receives Heavy Rain|website=UrduPoint}}</ref>

{{Weather box
| location = Faisalabad (2000-2015)
| metric first = Yes
| single line = Yes
| Jan record high C = 26.6
| Feb record high C = 30.8
| Mar record high C = 37
| Apr record high C = 44
| May record high C = 47.5
| Jun record high C = 48
| Jul record high C = 46.1
| Aug record high C = 42
| Sep record high C = 41.1
| Oct record high C = 40
| Nov record high C = 36.1
| Dec record high C = 29.2
| year record high C = 48
| Jan high C = 19.0
| Feb high C = 22.1
| Mar high C = 27.1
| Apr high C = 34.1
| May high C = 39.2
| Jun high C = 40.3
| Jul high C = 37.3
| Aug high C = 36.4
| Sep high C = 35.6
| Oct high C = 32.9
| Nov high C = 27.3
| Dec high C = 21.6
| year high C = 31.6
| Jan low C = 4.7
| Feb low C = 7.5
| Mar low C = 12.9
| Apr low C = 18.3
| May low C = 23.7
| Jun low C = 26.7
| Jul low C = 27.3
| Aug low C = 26.7
| Sep low C = 24.0
| Oct low C = 17.5
| Nov low C = 10.8
| Dec low C = 5.7
| year low C = 17.4
| Jan record low C = -2.9
| Feb record low C = -1.4
| Mar record low C = 1
| Apr record low C = 7
| May record low C = 13
| Jun record low C = 17
| Jul record low C = 19
| Aug record low C = 18.6
| Sep record low C = 15.6
| Oct record low C = 9
| Nov record low C = 2
| Dec record low C = -1.3
| year record low C = -4
| Jan precipitation mm = 11.3
| Feb precipitation mm = 19.1
| Mar precipitation mm = 23.8
| Apr precipitation mm = 23.8
| May precipitation mm = 15.0
| Jun precipitation mm = 43.9
| Jul precipitation mm = 100.8
| Aug precipitation mm = 87.0
| Sep precipitation mm = 42.6
| Oct precipitation mm = 4.7
| Nov precipitation mm = 2.1
| Dec precipitation mm = 7.1
| year precipitation mm = 422
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation days = 4
| Feb precipitation days = 5
| Mar precipitation days = 7
| Apr precipitation days = 6
| May precipitation days = 5
| Jun precipitation days = 5
| Jul precipitation days = 10
| Aug precipitation days = 10
| Sep precipitation days = 4
| Oct precipitation days = 2
| Nov precipitation days = 2
| Dec precipitation days = 3
| Jan humidity = 61
| Feb humidity = 51
| Mar humidity = 44
| Apr humidity = 26
| May humidity = 21
| Jun humidity = 18
| Jul humidity = 63
| Aug humidity = 55
| Sep humidity = 57
| Oct humidity = 26
| Nov humidity = 31
| Dec humidity = 51
| source 1 = <ref name="hcd">{{cite web|url=http://www.pakmet.com.pk/cdpc/Climate/Faisalabad_Climate_Data.txt |title=Faisalabad Climate Data|access-date=18 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613053307/http://www.pakmet.com.pk/cdpc/Climate/Faisalabad_Climate_Data.txt |archive-date=13 June 2010 }}</ref> <ref name="wmo">{{cite web|url=https://worldweather.wmo.int/en/city.html?cityId=898 |title=World Meteorological Organization |access-date=4 June 2024 |date=2010 }}</ref>
| date = January 2011
| source =
}}

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Pakistan|List of places in Faisalabad|List of people from Faisalabad}}
{{Multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|image1=Entrance to the Chenab Club, Faisalabad.jpg
|caption1=The Chenab Club, built in 1904 is the oldest social club in the city<ref name=CC>{{cite web|url=http://chenabclub.com/viewred/history.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040206113917/http://chenabclub.com/viewred/history.htm|title=THE CHENAB CLUB – History|archive-date=6 February 2004}}</ref>
|image2=Faisalabad Arts Council.JPG
|caption2=The Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan Auditorium, home of the Faisalabad Arts Council.<ref name="Tribune-March">{{cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/688607/art-and-culture-museum-to-honour-nusrat-fateh-ali//|title= Art And Culture: Museum To Honour Nusrat Fateh Ali | newspaper= The Express Tribune|date=29 March 2014|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref>
|image3=Chicken Fajita Forkes & Knives Faisalabad.jpg
|caption3=Chicken Fajita Pizza in spicy tandoori chicken
|image4= Malai Kebabs Al Nakhal Restaurant Faisalabad.jpg
|caption4=Malai Seekh Kebabs at Al-Nakhal Restaurant
}}

Faisalabad, the third most populated [[List of most populated metropolitan areas in Pakistan|metropolis]] in Pakistan after [[Karachi]] and [[Lahore]]<ref name="city">{{cite web|url=http://www.serenahotels.com/serenafaisalabad/default-en.html|title=The Faisalabad Serena Hotel|publisher=[[Serena Hotels]]|access-date=22 August 2014|archive-date=2 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702151805/http://www.serenahotels.com/serenafaisalabad/default-en.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> is an epicentre for trade that has gained popularity for its colonial heritage sites.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pakistanitourism.com/faisalabad_city |title=Faisalabad :: Pakistani Tourism |access-date=19 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007013956/http://www.pakistanitourism.com/faisalabad_city |archive-date=7 October 2015 }}</ref> In 1982, the [[Government of Punjab (Pakistan)|Government of Punjab]] established the [[Faisalabad Arts Council]], a division of the Punjab Arts Council which is overseen administratively by the Information, Culture and Youth Affairs Department.<ref name=FAC>{{cite web|url=http://www.faisalabadartscouncil.gov.pk/index.html | title=Faisalabad Arts Council | publisher=Faisalabad Arts Council | access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref> The [[Faisalabad Arts Council]] building, designed by architect [[Nayyar Ali Dada|Nayyer Ali Dada]], was completed in 2006. The auditorium was named after the late [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]], a Pakistani musician and singer.<ref name=FAC/>

=== Festivals ===
The [[Punjabi people]] celebrate a variety of cultural and religious festivals throughout the [[Punjab region]], such as arts and craft, music, local events, and religious celebrations.<ref name=Khalid>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/7147299 | title=Culture and Customs of Pakistan | author=Khalid, Ameena |publisher=Academia | access-date=12 June 2016}}</ref> The city of Faisalabad customarily celebrates its independence day on 14 August every year by raising the [[Pakistan flag]] at the clock tower in the Commissioner Office compound. Bazaars are colourfully decorated for the celebration, government and private buildings are brightly lit, and there are similar flag–raising ceremonies that are typically held in the district and its tehsils.<ref name=ITN>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/print/56607-faisalabad-city-news|title=Faisalabad City News | newspaper=The News International |date=15 August 2015|access-date=12 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="ET: Independence day">{{cite news|title=Patriotism: Gigantic flag unveiled in Faisalabad|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/938311/patriotism-gigantic-flag-unveiled-in-faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=14 August 2015}}</ref>

The arrival of spring brings the annual "Rang-e-Bahar" festival where the Parks & Horticulture Authority of the city district government organise a flower show and exhibition at Jinnah Gardens.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://phafsd.gop.pk/ |title=PHA Faisalabad | Parks and Horticulture Authority Faisalabad |access-date=2016-01-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106112204/http://phafsd.gop.pk/ |archive-date=6 January 2016 |df=dmy-all }} Annual Chrysanthemum Festival 2015</ref> The University of Agriculture organises a similar event at their main campus which is known as the "Kissan Mela".<ref name="UAF: Festivals">{{cite web|title=Festivals|url=http://www.uaf.edu.pk/festival.html|publisher=University of Agriculture, Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> The festival of [[Basant (season)|Basant]] which involves kite flying is an annual tradition in the city despite the ban.<ref name="ET: Basant">{{cite news|last1=Dastagir|first1=Ghulam|last2=Haq|first2=Ahtishamul|title=Faisalabad celebrates Basant despite ban|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/120590/faisalabad-celebrates-basant-despite-ban|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=18 February 2011}}</ref> The provincial government introduced the "Canal Mela" which involves five days of festivities including the main canal in the city being decorated with national floats and lights ending with a musical concert to conclude the festival.<ref name="DT: Canal Mela">{{cite news|author1=Associated Press of Pakistan|author-link1=Associated Press of Pakistan|title=Canal mela to begin on Apr 26|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/national/25-Apr-2015/canal-mela-to-begin-on-apr-26|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=Daily Times|date=25 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053711/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/national/25-Apr-2015/canal-mela-to-begin-on-apr-26|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>

Being a Muslim majority the city religious observances include [[Ramadan]] and [[Mourning of Muharram|Muharram]]. The festivals of [[Chaand Raat]], [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Eid al-Adha]] are celebrated and are national holidays.<ref name="ET: Eid">{{cite news|last1=Gishkori|first1=Zahid|title=Public holidays announced for Eid|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/957301/govt-announces-four-day-eidul-azha-holidays|access-date=7 June 2016|work=The Express Tribune|date=15 September 2015}}</ref> The [[Mawlid|celebration]] of the Prophet Muhammad birthday is observed in the city which is often referred to as "Eid Milād-un-Nabī".<ref name="ET: Eid Millad">{{cite news|title=Walks, rallies mark: Eid Milad in Faisalabad|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1016035/walks-rallies-mark-eid-milad-in-faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=24 December 2015}}</ref> There are a number of darbar and shrines which attract a number of devotees during the annual [[Urs]].<ref name="punjab.gov: Shrines/Tombs">{{cite web|title=Faisalabad – Shrines / Tombs|url=http://punjab.gov.pk/node/259|website=punjab.gov.pk|publisher=Government of the Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> There are a number of Christian churches in the city where Easter and Christmas services take place each year.<ref name="Dunya: Christmas">{{cite news|title=Christmas: Carol services, sermons ongoing in Lahore churches|url=http://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/314553-Christmas-Carol-services-sermons-ongoing-in-Laho|access-date=7 June 2016|work=dunyanews.tv|publisher=Dunya News Network|date=25 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="ET: Christmas">{{cite news|title=Christmas Bazaars open on Dec 22|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1011191/christmas-bazaars-open-on-dec-22|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=16 December 2015}}</ref>

=== Attire ===
Traditional attire in Faisalabad is [[Punjabi clothing]] such as the [[Kurta]] and [[Sherwani]]s.<ref name=Brit>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Pakistan/Daily-life-and-social-customs |title=Daily life and social customs in Pakistan|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref> Faisalabadi men wear white [[shalwar kameez]] as do women but also with a [[dupatta]] (scarf). The more religious women wear [[burqas]] that may or may not cover the face.<ref name=Brit/> Combinations of Pakistani and Western attire are worn by women, such as an embroidered kurta worn with jeans or [[trousers]], and half sleeve or sleeveless shirts with [[Capri pants]]. Men and women have adopted some of the modern Western styles for both casual and formal business dress such as dress pants, trousers, T-shirts and jeans.<ref name=Brit/>

Faisalabad Institute of Textile and Fashion Design at the Government College University teaches Fashion Design as part of their [[Fine Arts]] program.<ref name="GCUF-Arts">{{cite web|url=http://gcuf.edu.pk/faculties/arts/fine-arts/bfa-fashion-design/|title=BFA Fashion Design GCUF|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428202723/http://gcuf.edu.pk/faculties/arts/fine-arts/bfa-fashion-design/|archive-date=28 April 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Some of the more conservative establishments and universities follow strict dress codes, such as the National Textile University in Faisalabad where a notice was issued on 27 April 2016 by university professor Muhammad Ashfaq. The intent of the notice was to "promote a positive image of the NTU and to maintain good moral, religious and cultural values among the faculty, staff and students." The [[dress code]] bans certain styles of Western attire including shorts, sleeveless shirts and shawls for men. Women are prohibited from wearing jeans, tights or [[leggings]], sleeveless or half-sleeved shirts for women. Women are also prohibited from wearing heavy make-up and expensive jewellery.<ref name="SAMAA-TV">{{cite web | url=http://www.samaa.tv/social-buzz/2016/05/faisalabad-university-issues-strict-dresscode-guidelines/ | title=Faisalabad university issues strict dresscode guidelines | publisher=SAMAA TV | date=10 May 2016 | access-date=10 June 2016}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
Faisalabadi cuisine is a mixture [[Punjabi cuisine]] as well as [[Mughlai cuisine]] and [[Anglo-Indian cuisine]]. Famous dishes include rice or [[roti]] (flatbread) served with a vegetable or non-vegetable [[curry]], a salad consisting of spiced tomatoes and onions, and yogurt. This is usually accompanied by a variety of [[South Asian sweets]] such as [[Jaggery|gud]], [[gajar ka halwa]], [[gulab jamun]], and [[jalebi]].<ref name=Jalebis>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFx-dQjOunU | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211104/GFx-dQjOunU| archive-date=2021-11-04 | url-status=live| title=Faisalabad's famous jalebi فیصل آباد کی مشہور اور لذیز جلیبیاں | publisher=QUR ANACADEMYFSD| access-date=17 June 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Tandoor]]i barbecue specialties consist of a variety of naan bread served with [[tandoori chicken]], [[chicken tikka]] or lamb [[shishkebab|shish kebab]] served with a [[mint chutney]].<ref name=Eat>{{cite web|url=http://www.tdcp.gop.pk/tdcp/ExplorePakistan/AboutPunjab/MajorCities/Faisalabad/WhattoEatinFaisalabad/tabid/682/Default.aspx|title=What To Eat in Faisalabad|work=Faisalabad—Getting There|publisher=Tourism Development Corporation of Pakistan|access-date=17 June 2016| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624180522/http://www.tdcp.gop.pk/tdcp/ExplorePakistan/AboutPunjab/MajorCities/Faisalabad/WhattoEatinFaisalabad/tabid/682/Default.aspx|archive-date=24 June 2016}}</ref>

Street foods are a key element to Faisalabadi cuisine.<ref name="Dawn: Food">{{cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1170367|last1=Rizwan|first1=Sheharyar|title=Food: My Quest For The Best Nihari In Lahore|publisher=Dawn|date=19 March 2015|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> [[Samosa]]s (deep fried pastry filled with vegetables or meat) topped with an onion salad and two types of [[chutney]]. There is even a square dedicated to them in the old city.<ref name=TP>{{cite web|url=http://www.subrung.com/travel-pakistan/faisalabad/food-not-to-miss-in-faisalabad.html|title=Subrung – Food not to miss in Faisalabad|publisher=Travel Pakistan|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref> Other street foods include, [[Dahi vada|dahi bhale]] (deep fried vadas in creamy yoghurt), [[Panipuri|gol gappay]] (fried round puri filled with vegetables and topped with tamarind chutney) and vegetable or chicken [[pakora]]s. [[Biryani]] and murgh pilao rice are a speciality in Faisalabad.<ref name=QA>{{cite web|url=http://www.qatarairways.com/global/en/destinations/flights-to-faisalabad.page|title= Eating in Faisalabad | publisher=Qatar Airways|access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref>

A typical breakfast in Faislabadi is [[halwa poori]], consisting of a deep fried flatbread served with a spicy chickpea curry and sweet orange coloured [[halwa]].<ref name=TP/> It is customarily accompanied by a sweet or salty yoghurt based drink called [[lassi]].<ref name=SAMAA2>{{cite web|url=http://www.samaa.tv/editor-s-choice/2011/04/lassi-shop-in-faisalabad/|title= Lassi shop in Faisalabad|publisher=SAMAA TV|date=29 April 2011 | access-date=17 June 2016}}</ref> During winter, a common breakfast is [[Naan|roghni naan]] served with [[Paya (food)|paya]].<ref name=Pakladies>{{cite web|url=http://www.pakladies.com/category/traditional-dishes/ | title=Traditional Dishes Archive | publisher=Pak Ladies |access-date=30 May 2016}}</ref>

Certain drinks are available seasonally, such as, such as rabri doodh, a drink commonly made with full-fat milk, almonds, pistachios and basil seeds, [[Doodh Pati Chai|dhood patti]] (milky tea), and [[Kashmiri chai]], a pink coloured milky tea containing almonds and pistachios, which is had in the winters.<ref name=Drink>{{cite web|url=http://www.journeum.com/dst/Asia/Pakistan/Punjab/Faisalabad/Drink/|title=Where to drink in Faisalabad|publisher=Journeum|access-date=17 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073331/http://www.journeum.com/dst/Asia/Pakistan/Punjab/Faisalabad/Drink/|archive-date=4 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> During summer, drinks such as sugar cane juice, [[nimbu pani]] (iced lemon water), skanjvi (iced orange and black pepper) and lassi are consumed.<ref name=Aradmin>{{cite web|url=http://www.asian-recipe.com/pakistan/pk-information/pakistan-country-information.html|title=Pakistan Country Information | publisher=Recipes of Asia | author=Aradmin | date=5 October 2012 | access-date=30 May 2016}}</ref>

=== Literacy ===
According to a report by the [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)]], the 2015 literacy rate for Pakistan ranked 160th which is among the lowest literacy rates in the world.<ref name=Archivist>{{cite web|url=http://www.archivistonline.pk/literacy-rate-in-pakistan/ | title=Literary Rate of Education in Pakistan 2016 | publisher=Archivist Online | date=19 February 2015 | access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref>

In 1981, Faisalabad was among four districts in Punjab, which included Gujranwala, Jhelum and Gujrat, that were experiencing low literacy rates, due primarily to either a lack of resources or family pressure; the latter of which may also be attributable to illiteracy.<ref name=Archivist/> In 1998, Faisalabad progressed to a higher literacy rate with the most improvement realised at the primary school level.<ref name=UNESCO>{{cite web|url=http://unesco.org.pk/education/life/nfer_library/Reports/4-39.pdf|title=Literacy Trends in Pakistan|publisher=UNESCO Office Islamabad|last1=Iqbal|first1=Zafar|last2=Haque|first2=Anjum Riyazul|last3=Farah|first3=Iffat|last4=Mukhtar|first4=Eshya Mujahid|last5=Aijaz|first5=S.M.|last6=Niazi|first6=Hamid Khan|last7=Ahmed|first7=Saeed|last8=ud-Din|first8=Fakhar|last9=Khan|first9=Arshad Saeed|page=23|date=March 2002|access-date=13 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018214515/http://unesco.org.pk/education/life/nfer_library/Reports/4-39.pdf|archive-date=18 October 2015|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2008, Faisalabad District ranked 51.9% which placed the district ninth in literacy out of the 34 Punjab districts.<ref name=Aser>{{cite web | url=http://www.aserpakistan.org/document/aser/map/faislabad.pdf | title=The Annual Status of Education Report | publisher=Aser Pakistan | date=2008 | access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref>

In 2014, the city held its first literary festival which brought a number of writers to the city to encourage the community to follow the arts.<ref name=FLF>{{cite web|url=http://faisalabadliteraryfestival.org/ |title=Faisalabad Literary Festival 2014 | publisher=Faisalabad Literary Festival Online |date=2014|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref> Two literary groups were established, the Faisalabad Union of Column Writers and Faisalabad Union of Journalists, to bring together printed media personalities for the purpose of providing training to budding writers from the city.<ref name=PPF>{{cite web|url=http://www.pakistanpressfoundation.org/?s=Journalists%27+Day%3A+Working+conditions+need+to+improve | title=Journalists' Day: Working Conditions Need To Improve|publisher=Pakistan Press Foundation | date=20 November 2013}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{PakistanCensusPop
|title=Population growth
|1941=69930
|1951=179000
|1961=425240
|1972=823344
|1981=1104209
|1985=1475000
|1998=2008861
|2000=2154520
|2004=2548541
|2010=2943401
|2015=3419752
|align-fn=center
|footnote=Figures based on the 2004 Baseline Survey conducted by the Asian Urban Information Centre of Kobe<ref name=Kobe />
}}
The language of Faisalabad is Punjabi predominantly 96%, Urdu and Pashto are spoken by 2% population each. Faisalabad is world's second largest Punjabi speaking city.
Faisalabad was established as one of the first planned towns of British India, covering an area of {{convert|3|km2}}.<ref>India Unbound: from Independence to the Global Information age by Gurcharan Das</ref> It was initially designed to accommodate 20,000 people. The city's population increased from 69,930 in 1941 to 179,000 in 1951 (152.2% increase).<ref name=AUICK>{{cite web | url=http://www.kicc.jp/auick/database/baseline/BS2004/BS2004-CHAP6.html | title=Chapter 6: Faisalabad, Pakistan | work=The 2004 Baseline Survey on Millennium Development Goals in AACs | publisher=Asian Urban Information Center of Kobe | year=2004 | access-date=4 December 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124024723/http://www.kicc.jp/auick/database/baseline/BS2004/BS2004-CHAP6.html | archive-date=24 January 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Much of the increase is attributed to the settlement of Muslim refugees from [[East Punjab]] and [[Haryana]], India. In 1961, the population rose to 425,248, an increase of 137.4%. Faisalabad set a record in the demographic history of Pakistan by registering an overall population increase of 508.1% between 1941 and 1961. The industrial revolution of the 1960s contributed to population growth.<ref name=AUICK /> In 1961, the population was 425,248. A 1972 census ranked Faisalabad as the third largest city of Pakistan with a population of 864,000. In a 1981 census, the population was 1,092,000; however, the Faisalabad Development Authority estimated the number to be 1,232,000.<ref name="AUICK" /> In the 2017 consensus, the total population of the city was 3,203,846<ref name=ProP>{{cite web|url=https://propakistani.pk/2017/08/28/ten-populated-cities-pakistan/|title=Here are Ten Most Populated Cities of Pakistan|date=2017}}</ref>

=== Religion and ethnic groups ===
{{Multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|image1=Sunni Rizwi Masjid.jpg
|caption1=A [[mughal architecture|Mughal]] inspired mosque in the old city. The majority of the population are Muslim.<ref name="BBC: Pakistan's Christians">{{cite news|title=Who are Pakistan's Christians?|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-24201241|access-date=7 June 2016|publisher=BBC|date=23 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303111101/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-24201241|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref>
}}

The province of Punjab, in which Faisalabad is the second largest city, has prevalent [[Sociocultural system|sociocultural distinctions]].<ref name="SAS">{{cite journal | url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/csas/PDF/V_26_No_2_9Dr.%20Asad%20Ali%20Khan.pdf | title=Changing Pattern of Population Growth and Structure in Punjab, Pakistan | author=Asad Ali Khan | journal=South Asian Studies | date=December 2011 | volume=26 | issue=2 | pages=387–388}}</ref> Population sizes vary by district but some distinguishing factors include a young age structure, high age dependency ratio, a higher percentage of males, a higher proportion of married population, and [[heterogeneity]] in [[Baradari (brotherhood)|tribes]] and languages.<ref name="SAS"/>{{rp|387}}

Islam is the most common religion, with a 97.22% Muslim majority according to the 1998 Pakistan census report and 2001 population data sheet.<ref name="SAS"/> People live in tight-knit joint families, although a [[nuclear family]] system is emerging due to changing socio-economic conditions.<ref name="SAS"/> Ancient culture prevails in most marriage practices in the region, as do certain restrictions related to ethnicity and tribes. However, the influences of more modern societies have effected some change, particularly in the area of the [[dowry system]]. In the following ancient culture, marriages are customarily arranged by the parents or matchmakers. In some instances, the husband must buy his wife from her parents.<ref name=FAO>{{cite journal|url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=PK2008000150|title=Sociological Study of Marriage Patterns and Adjustment in a Selected Community in Faisalabad City (Pakistan)|journal=AGRIS, Information System for the Agricultural Science and Technology | last1=Masood| first1=Saira| last2=Batool|first2=Zahira| last3=Abbasi|first3=Saif-Ur-Rehman Saif|volume=3|issue=1 | page=1 |date=2007|access-date=21 July 2016}}</ref> Studies conducted in 2007 and 2013, the latter in an outlying rural village in Faisalabad District, acknowledged the existence of gender bias and discrimination against females, stating that "Gender discrimination is not a new phenomenon", and that it still exists in the modern world.<ref name="SAS"/>

Social change in the region has been a slow process but there are indications that change has occurred as more villages are exposed to various forms of media and modernized urban communities. In early 2014, there was a march known as the "White Ribbon Campaign" which took place in front of the Faisalabad Press Club. Protesters appealed to the government to adopt new laws "to protect women who are discriminated against in the family and workplace."<ref name=AN>{{cite web|url=http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Faisalabad:-hundreds-of-white-ribbons-to-protest-against-violence-against-women-30501.html |title=Faisalabad: Hundreds of "White Ribbons" to Protest Against Violence Against Women | publisher=AsiaNews |last=Kholkar | first=Shafique | date=3 March 2014 |access-date=21 July 2016}}</ref>

Prevalent minorities, particularly Hindu and Christian, feel a sense of vulnerability because of their religious beliefs.<ref name="BBC: Pakistan's Christians"/> Labourers and farmhands form the countless Christian villages throughout Punjab; many are descendants of people who converted from Hinduism to Christianity under the British Raj, and considered low caste by virtue of their birth.<ref name=BBC /> A small population of wealthy, well-educated Christians have settled in Karachi; however, as a result of increasing Islamization, religious intolerance in Pakistani society, blasphemy laws and Islamist militancy, most have left Pakistan to settle in other countries where there is more religious tolerance, such as Canada and Australia.<ref name="BBC: Pakistan's Christians"/><ref name=FNN>{{cite web | url = http://www.foxnews.com/world/2015/07/23/pakistani-christian-refugees-face-ordeal-in-thailand.html | title=Pakistani Christian refugees face ordeal in Thailand | publisher=FOX News Network, LLC | date = 3 August 2015}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible sortable"
|+ Religious groups in Faisalabad City (1901−2017){{efn|1901-1941: Data for the entirety of the town of Lyallpur, which included Lyallpur Municipality.<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|32}} 2017: Combined urban populations of Faisalabad City Tehsil and Faisalabad Saddar Tehsil.|name="FaisalabadCity1901to2017"}}
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in Pakistan|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25352838 |jstor=saoa.crl.25352838 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. Vol. 1A, India. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1901}}</ref>{{rp|44}}<ref name="Census1901B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25363739 |jstor=saoa.crl.25363739 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. [Vol. 17A]. Imperial tables, I-VIII, X-XV, XVII and XVIII for the Punjab, with the native states under the political control of the Punjab Government, and for the North-west Frontier Province. |year=1901}}</ref>{{rp|26}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25393779 |jstor=saoa.crl.25393779 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India, 1911. Vol. 1., Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911 |last1=Edward Albert Gait |first1=Sir |author2=India Census Commissioner |volume=2 |publisher=Calcutta, Supt. Govt. Print., India, 1913. }}</ref>{{rp|23}}<ref name="Census1911B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25393788 |jstor=saoa.crl.25393788 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911}}</ref>{{rp|19}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25394121 |jstor=saoa.crl.25394121 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 1, India. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921}}</ref>{{rp|25}}<ref name="Census1921B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430165 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430165 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921}}</ref>{{rp|21}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1931-26575928/|title=CENSUS OF INDIA, 1931 VOLUME XVII PUNJAB PART II TABLES|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref>{{rp|26}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|title=CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 VOLUME VI PUNJAB|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref>{{rp|32}}
! colspan="2" |2017<ref name="Census2017B">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/final-results-census-2017|title=Final Results (Census-2017)|access-date=27 January 2023}}</ref>
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
| [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]
| 4,434
| {{Percentage | 4434 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 8,024
| {{Percentage | 8024 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 12,922
| {{Percentage | 12922 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 20,147{{efn|name=ad-dharmi|1931-1941: Including [[Ad-Dharmi]]s}}
| {{Percentage | 20147 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 32,896{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| {{Percentage | 32896 | 69930 | 2 }}
| 131
| {{Percentage | 131 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 4,232
| {{Percentage | 4232 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 9,166
| {{Percentage | 9166 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 11,116
| {{Percentage | 11116 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 15,534
| {{Percentage | 15534 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 23,003
| {{Percentage | 23003 | 69930 | 2 }}
| 3,114,321
| {{Percentage | 3114321 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 365
| {{Percentage | 365 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 1,607
| {{Percentage | 1607 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 2,958
| {{Percentage | 2958 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 5,181
| {{Percentage | 5181 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 10,897
| {{Percentage | 10897 | 69930 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 132
| {{Percentage | 132 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 758
| {{Percentage | 758 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 1,100
| {{Percentage | 1100 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 1,988
| {{Percentage | 1988 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 3,027
| {{Percentage | 3027 | 69930 | 2 }}
| 131,686
| {{Percentage | 131686 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 23
| {{Percentage | 23 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 38
| {{Percentage | 38 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 65
| {{Percentage | 65 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 34
| {{Percentage | 34 | 69930 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 2
| {{Percentage | 2 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 42922 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Ahmadiyya]] [[File:Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya_1-2.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 3,822
| {{Percentage | 3822 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|-
| Others
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 9171 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 19578 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 28136 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 42922 | 2 }}
| 73
| {{Percentage | 73 | 69930 | 2 }}
| 71
| {{Percentage | 71 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 9,171
! {{Percentage | 9171 | 9171 | 2 }}
! 19,578
! {{Percentage | 19578 | 19578 | 2 }}
! 28,136
! {{Percentage | 28136 | 28136 | 2 }}
! 42,922
! {{Percentage | 42922 | 42922 | 2 }}
! 69,930
! {{Percentage | 69930 | 69930 | 2 }}
! 3,250,031
! {{Percentage | 3250031 | 3250031 | 2 }}
|}

=={{Anchor|Eco}}Economy==
As of 2015 GDP of Faisalabad was estimated at $63 billion and projected to rise to $107 billion in 2025 at a growth rate of 5.7%.

Faisalabad contributes over 35% toward Pakistan's annual GDP and export revenue. The textile and apparel industry is the major industry in Faisalabad. It is also responsible for almost 60-80% of the export revenue of Pakistan.

The Faisalabad Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FCCI) and Pakistan Hosiery Manufacturers Association (PHMA) are the regulatory bodies for all textile and apparel manufacturers in the city. These organizations work closely with the Ministry of Trade.

Faisalabad is as an industrial center with industries like processing mills, engineering, industrial goods, textile manufacturing including cotton and silk textiles, super phosphates, apparel and hosiery, industrial chemicals and dyes, pulp and paper, agricultural research and equipment, oil and ghee (clarified butter), and concentrated beverages. It has also been a hub for real estate, particularly gated neighbourhoods such as Abdullah Gardens, owned by Akbar Pervaiz and not Sheikh Ayub.

=== Ghanta Ghar ===
{{Multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|image1=Ghanta Ghar 04.JPG
|caption1=The historical eight separate markets where locally grown produce is sold.
|image2=Faisalabad, the City of Textile.jpg
|caption2=The [[Chenab Group|Chenab Chowk]] Chowk monument pays homage to the city's textile industry.<ref name="FCCI:City History"/>
}}

The Faisalabad clock tower and its eight bazaars (markets) is a major trading zone in the city. The eight markets were designed based on the English flag, Union Jack. Every one of the eight bazaars is known for certain goods.

# Katchery Bazar is known for its mobile phones and accessories market. It is named for the session courts located adjacent to the street
# Rail Bazar is famous for its gold and cloth market.
# Kharkhana Bazaar is known for its spices and herbs.
# Montgomery Bazaar (also known as Sutar Mandi) is known for yarn and raw cloth trading.
# Jhang Bazaar is known for its fish, meat, vegetables and fruits.
# Bhawana Bazaar has all the commercial and industrial electrical goods.
# Aminpur Bazaar has some of the oldest books, stationery and interior décor boutiques.
# Chiniot Bazaar is known for allopathic and homoeopathic medicinal stores.

=== Industrial zones ===
Faisalabad Industrial Estate Development & Management Company (FIEDMC) was established by Federal Government to boost manufacturing in Faisalabad. Its objectives are to promote business and develop new clientele for the city's factories. It further supports businesses to find suitable land, infrastructure, provision of utilities and dedicated business support services.

'''Value Addition City (VAC)''' commonly known as Garment city is located at Sahianwala Road, near Khurrianwala. It is home to many garments and apparel factories.

'''M-3 Industrial City (M-3-IC)''' comprises 4356 acres of land and '''Allama Iqbal City (AllC)''' comprises more than 3300 acres. They house large scale manufacturing companies including textiles, yarn mills, pharmaceuticals, chemicals automotive, and spare parts, etc. [[Ruyi Masood Textile Park]] is located here.

'''Small Industrial Estate (SME)''' located at Punj Pullian Road houses small to medium-sized industries. It was provided by former Prime Minister, Mian Muhammad [[Nawaz Sharif]] to provide international grade services to small and medium-sized companies at promotional packages.

Faisalabad has received substantial funding from the [[Government of Punjab, Pakistan|government of Punjab]] and the city district government to improve infrastructure and roads to rural areas.<ref name="ET: Roads">{{cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/865137/benefiting-farmers-rs965m-allocated-for-roads-in-faisalabad-rural-areas|title=Benefiting farmers: Rs965m allocated for roads in Faisalabad rural areas|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=5 April 2015 | access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> In an effort to deal with the energy crisis, the FCCI has been working with private companies to develop renewable energy resources such as solar energy and the construction of dams within the district.<ref name="BR: Dams">{{cite news|title=FCCI chief calls for construction of dams|url=http://www.brecorder.com/top-stories/0/1189242/|access-date=7 June 2016|newspaper=Business Recorder|date=23 May 2015|archive-date=20 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920184344/http://www.brecorder.com/top-stories/0/1189242/|url-status=dead}}</ref> CAE, a German-based renewable energy company, has disclosed plans to establish the first solar panel manufacturing facility in Faisalabad, second of its kind in Asia, with intentions of investing upwards of €100 million (Rs 12.9 billion) for its development.<ref name="ET: Solar plant">{{cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/491194/renewable-energy-german-firm-to-set-up-first-solar-panel-plant-in-pakistan|last1=Rana|first1=Imran|title=Renewable energy: German firm to set up first solar panel plant in Pakistan|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=8 January 2013|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>

=== 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic ===

Pakistan entered a complete lockdown on 20 March 2020. All national and international travel was suspended. The industry in Faisalabad was hit hard. The federal government ordered complete closure of all industrial units.

Some industrial units are screening their workers for the coronavirus and making sure they follow the SOPs issued by the government as well. Punjab has reported more than 11,000 coronavirus cases so far.<ref>samaaenglish.tv {{cite news|title=Faisalabad textile industry reopens despite COVID-19 lockdown|url=https://www.samaaenglish.tv/news/2027236/pakistan-faisalabad-textile-industry-reopens-despite-covid-19-lockdown|newspaper= Samaa English|date=11 May 2020}}</ref>

=== 2022 Floods Impact ===

Pakistan saw a record flooding in the western and southern part of the country during the monsoon season in 2022. This resulted in a massive food shortage and provision of industrial raw materials such as cotton. Faisalabad's textile industry took a massive hit in the costs and availability of cotton.<ref>dw.com {{cite news|title=Pakistan: Millions of textile workers lose jobs amid crisis|url=https://www.dw.com/en/pakistan-millions-of-textile-workers-lose-jobs-amid-crisis/a-64420339|newspaper= DW.com|date=17 Jan 2023}}</ref>

== Education ==
{{Main|List of educational institutions in Faisalabad}}
{{multiple image
| align =right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Faisalabad, Pakistan.jpg
| caption1 =
| image2 = Faisalabad Pakistan PSSP 06.jpg
| caption2 = Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Agriculture.

}}

Faisalabad has several research and educational institutions. Faisalabad is considered a regional hub for of research and higher education, specializing in agriculture, medical sciences, chemical sciences, textile universities and economics.

There are many public funded institutions that offer scholarships and financing options to lower and middle income households. Many private schools, colleges and universities offer huge range of courses at various levels of education.

=== Education system ===
The education system is administered by the chief executive officer (CEO) of the District Education Authority of Faisalabad. The city district Government is responsible for funding, finances, management and resource allocation for public run institutions.
It falls under the [[Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training]] and the [[Minister for Education (Pakistan)|Minister for Education]].

=== High ranking institutions ===

'''Public funded'''
* [[Faisalabad Medical University]] (formerly: Punjab Medical College Faisalabad)
* [[Divisional Public School Faisalabad]]
* [[Divisional Public Schools and Colleges|Divisional Model School & College]], Faisalabad
* [[University of Agriculture, Faisalabad|University of Agriculture]]
* [[Government College University (Faisalabad)|Government College University Faisalabad]]
* [[Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology]]
* [[Government College Women University Faisalabad|Government College for Women University Faisalabad (GCWUF)]]
* [[University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore|University of Engineering & Technology of Lahore]]

'''Private funded'''
* [[National Textile University]]
* [[National University of Modern Languages]] (NUML)
* [[NFC Institute of Engineering and Fertilizer Research]] (NFC-IEFR)
* [[University of Faisalabad]]
* The Millennium Universal College Faisalabad Campus (TMUC Faisalabad)
* [[Beaconhouse School System]]
* [[The City School (Pakistan)|The City School]]
* Roots Ivy School
* Allied School
* [[Punjab Group of Colleges]]
* [[SKANS School of Accountancy]]

== Government and Administration ==

=== Civic Administration ===
Faisalabad was restructured into [[City Districts of Pakistan|city district]] status; a devolution promulgated by the 2001 [[Local government in Pakistan|local government ordinance]] (LGO).<ref name=PRC>{{cite report|url=http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/1671S-4.pdf|work=Pakistan Research Repository, Influence of the Development Plan on City Growth|publisher=Pakistan Higher Education Commission|title=Urban Management Initiatives in Pakistan|pages=84–85|access-date=19 January 2016|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011180514/http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/1671S-4.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is governed by the city district's seven departments: Agriculture, Community Development, Education, Finance and Planning, Health, Municipal Services, and Works and Services.<ref name=CDG>{{cite web|url=http://faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/Departments|title=CDG Faisalabad – Welcome...}}</ref> The [[district coordination officer]] of Faisalabad (DCO) is head of the city district government and responsible for co-ordinating and supervising the administrative units.<ref name=CDG/> Each of the seven departments has its own Executive District Officer who is charged with co-ordinating and overseeing the activities of their respective departments.

The aim of the city district government is to empower politics by improving governance which basically involved decentralising administrative authority with the establishment of different departments and respective department heads, all working under one platform. The stated vision and mission of the city district government of Faisalabad is to "establish an efficient, effective and accountable city district government, which is committed to respecting and upholding women, men and children's basic human rights, responsive towards people's needs, committed to poverty reduction and capable of meeting the challenges of the 21st century. Our actions will be driven by the concerns of local people."<ref name=CDG/>

=== Tehsil Municipal Administration ===
In 2005, Faisalabad was reorganised as a city district composed of eight Tehsil municipal administrations (TMAs) or towns as follows: Lyallpur, Madina, Jinnah, Iqbal, Chak Jhumra, Jaranwala, Samundari, and Tandlianwala.<ref name="faisalabad.gov: Towns">{{cite web|title=CDG Faisalabad|url=http://faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/Towns|website=faisalabad.gov.pk|publisher=Government of Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> The functions of the TMA include preparation of the spatial and land use plans, management of these development plans and exercise of control over land use, land sub-division, land development and zoning by public and private sectors, enforcement of municipal laws, rules and by-laws, provision and management of water, drainage waste and sanitation along with allied municipal services.<ref name="punjab.gov: TMA">{{cite web|title=TMA Faisalabad Division|url=http://lgcd.punjab.gov.pk/tma_faisalabad|website=lgcd.punjab.gov.pk|publisher=Government of Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>

There are 118 [[Union councils of Pakistan|union councils]] in Faisalabad. Their role is to collect and maintain statistical information for socio-economic surveys. They consolidate ward neighbourhood development needs and prioritise these into union-wide development proposals. The council identifies any deficiencies in the delivery of these services and makes recommendations for improvement to the TMA.<ref name=UCB>{{cite web | url=http://citypulse.com.pk/pakistangis/union-council-boundaries-of-faisalabad-city-2/ | title=Union Council Boundaries of Faisalabad City | publisher=Pakistan GIS | last=Bhalli | first=Nasar min Allah | work=Department of Geography, GUCF | date=22 January 2012 | access-date=17 June 2016 | archive-date=6 August 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806012535/https://citypulse.com.pk/pakistangis/union-council-boundaries-of-faisalabad-city-2/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Faisalabad Development Authority ===
The [[Faisalabad Development Authority]] (FDA) was validly established in October 1976 under The Punjab Development of Cities Act (1976) to regulate, supervise and implement development activities in its jurisdiction area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.urbanunit.gov.pk/PublicationDocs/28.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714064733/http://www.urbanunit.gov.pk/PublicationDocs/28.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Assessment of Land Development and Management Practices in Five Large Cities of Punjab|archive-date=14 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://punjablaws.gov.pk/laws/323.html|title=The Punjab Development of Cities Act, 1976|website=punjablaws.gov.pk}}</ref> The FDA acts as a policy-making body for the development of the city and is in charge of arranging and supervising major developments within the city. It is responsible for the administration of building regulations, management of parks and gardens and subsoil water management. The FDA works with the Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) to control and maintain the water supply, sewerage and drainage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pwon.org.pk/forms/Profile%20WASA%20Faisalabad.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805182019/http://pwon.org.pk/forms/Profile%20WASA%20Faisalabad.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 August 2016|title=Water And Sanitation Agency|access-date=8 June 2016}}</ref> The FDA works to improve conditions in the slums.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/9198176|title=Application of GIS in the Spatial Analysis of Slums in Faisalabad, Pakistan|access-date=8 June 2016|last1=Sajjad|first1=Muhammad}}</ref>

== Public Services ==

===Law enforcement===

====Punjab Police====

Law enforcement in Faisalabad is carried out by provincial police force officially called [[Punjab Police (Pakistan)|Punjab Police]]. Within the city of Faisalabad, it is under the command of the city police officer (CPO), an appointment by the provincial government appointments for Punjab Police.<ref name="Dawn-Feb 2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/233103/govt-puts-a-whole-new-complexion-on-police|title=Government Puts A Whole New Complexion on Police | publisher=Dawn | author= Hanif, Intikhab | date=16 February 2007 | access-date=8 June 2016}}</ref> The office of the CPO is located in the District Courts, Faisalabad.<ref name=FPD>{{cite web|url=http://faisalabadpolice.gov.pk/|title=Contact Us Faisalabad City Police|access-date=17 November 2015|archive-date=10 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210110015/http://www.faisalabadpolice.gov.pk/page.php?id=110|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Faisalabad Region is headed by an officer not less than the rank of Deputy Inspector-General of Police (DIG). [https://www.punjabpolice.gov.pk/fsbregion Faisalabad Police] is headed by a District Police Officer who is assisted by a varying number of Superintendents and Deputy Superintendents of Police.

====City Traffic Police Faisalabad====

[https://ctpfsd.gop.pk/ City Traffic Police] is a branch of Punjab Police which is a public funded entity of the provincial government of Punjab.

The department is responsible for maintaining the following within the district of Faisalabad:
* Conduct traffic safety and compliance
* Traffic signs
* Road signs and closures
* Road marking and planning
* Traffic signals and maintaining uninterrupted flow of traffic
* Traffic violation ticketing and penalty collection
* Issuance of [[Driving licence in Pakistan|driving license]]
* Conducting driving tests and provisional licensing

====District and Session Courts Faisalabad====

[https://dsjfaisalabad.gov.pk/ District and Sessions Court] in Faisalabad is an extension of the provincial bench of High Court in Lahore.

The offices are located at [http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=31.424891&lon=73.094144&z=15&m=w&show=/1351055/District-Courts&search=faisalabad District Courts Faisalabad].{{Coord|31|25|22|N|73|4|52|W|display=District Courts Faisalabad}}. Directions can also be found at Google Maps for [https://goo.gl/maps/AhZ2TaaFHqchjCFs6 Sessions Courts Faisalabad] and [https://goo.gl/maps/xnjTgpNcoPBaL5Ln8 District Courts Faisalabad].

====Special Offices====

Police formations including District Police, Elite Police, Punjab highway Patrol, Crime Investigation Branch, and Special Operations Branch have offices in the city.<ref name="Police Formations">{{cite web|url=http://faisalabadpolice.gov.pk|publisher=Faisalabad Police|access-date=8 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210110015/http://www.faisalabadpolice.gov.pk/page.php?id=110|title=Faisalabad Police | archive-date=10 February 2015}}</ref>

=== Taxation ===

'''Regional Tax Office''' is a field formation of the [[Federal Board of Revenue]] (FBR). It is situated at Regional Tax Office, Jail Road, Faisalabad and can be found at Google Maps [https://goo.gl/maps/ANcgCMUA3juGgxun9 Regional Tax Office].

This office is responsible for monitoring and collection of federal taxes imposed by the [[Government of Pakistan]]. This office has jurisdiction to send notices, research and execute legal notices for entities operating within the district of Faisalabad.

This office actively runs mass media campaigns to create awareness regarding taxation, legal rights of citizens and to facilitate voluntary tax compliance.

This office can provide information regarding Income Tax, Sales Tax (VAT), Corporation Tax and Zero-Tax rated services.

The website managed and operated by the [https://www.fbr.gov.pk/ FBR], is a reliable and up-to-date source of information for all tax related matters. [[Federal Board of Revenue|FBR]] does issue regular notices to ensure correct information is published and to disregard false information circulating in the market places by unverified sources.

'''Excise, Taxation and Narcotics Control Department''' is another department managed by the provincial Govt. of Punjab. This department is responsible for the following:

* Collection of property tax
* Issuance of property notices, and property taxes
* Motor vehicle registration
* Online verification of registered vehicles
* Online self assessment of property tax
* Motor vehicle clearance
* Control of regulated substances and prosecutions

The department can be accessed by its website [https://excise.punjab.gov.pk/ ETNC]. The office can be accessed by the Google Maps [https://goo.gl/maps/mvcxVbZxcakEMSB86 ETNC].

=== Water and Sanitation ===

The Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) is a subsidiary of Faisalabad Development Authority (FDA), established on 23 April 1978 under the Development of Cities Act 1976.<ref name="WASA: Water Supply">{{cite web|title=Water Supply|url=http://wasafaisalabad.gop.pk/Home/WaterService|website=wasafaisalabad.gop.pk|publisher=Water and Sanitation Agency Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> Estimates in indicate that the WASA provides about 72% of the city's sewerage services and about 60% of their water services.<ref name="WASA: Profile">{{cite web|title=The City Faisalabad|url=http://wasafaisalabad.gop.pk/Home/WASAProfile|website=wasafaisalabad.gop.pk|publisher=Water and Sanitation Agency Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> The existing production capacity of the WASA is {{convert|65|e6impgal/d|e6l/d|abbr=off}}, almost all of which is drawn from wells located in the old beds of the [[Chenab River]]. From the wells, water is pumped to a terminal reservoir located on Sargodha Road.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite report |author=Mahboob Elahi |date=12 June 2007 |title=Performance Benchmarking in WASA Faisalabad |url=http://www.asb.org.pk/WASA%20faisalabad.pdf |publisher=Anjuman Samaji Behbood |access-date=7 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081646/http://www.asb.org.pk/WASA%20faisalabad.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Water is normally supplied for a total of about 8 hours per day to the majority of the city.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has provided financial and hardware equipment to help improve the water and sanitation conditions in the city.<ref name="JICA: WASA">{{cite web|title=Japan gifts WASA Faisalabad with Equipment to improve Sewerage and Drainage system|url=http://www.jica.go.jp/pakistan/english/office/topics/press141017.html|website=www.jica.go.jp|publisher=Japan International Cooperation Agency|access-date=7 June 2016|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226015401/https://www.jica.go.jp/pakistan/english/office/topics/press141017.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Healthcare ==

=== Government Hospitals ===
Faisalabad is home to some large public hospitals within the district. [[Allied Hospital|Allied Hospital Faisalabad]] is the largest public funded and managed hospital within the city of Faisalabad as well as the district. It offers many advanced treatments and specialist care facilities.

Other notable government–run hospitals are [[DHQ Hospital Faisalabad|DHQ (District Headquarter) Hospital]], Institute of Child Care,<ref name="CDG: FICC">{{cite web|title=CDG Faisalabad|url=http://www.faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/ProjectDetail/4|website=www.faisalabad.gov.pk|publisher=City District Government Faisalabad|access-date=7 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512015947/http://www.faisalabad.gov.pk/Home/ProjectDetail/4|archive-date=12 May 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> PINUM Cancer Hospital, Govt. Children Hospital, [https://pessi.punjab.gov.pk/social%20security%20hospital%20faisalabad Punjab Social Security Hospital], Social Security Newborn and Children Hospital, Punjab Employees Maternity Ward, and Faisalabad Institute of Cardiology.

There are other government funded and managed general hospitals in Ghulam Muhammadabad, Samanabad and Peoples Colony No. 2.<ref name=FIC>{{cite web|url=http://www.fic.gop.pk/|title=FIC Official Website|publisher=FIC|access-date=22 November 2013}}</ref>

== Media ==
=== Television and radio ===
The [[Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority]] (PEMRA) is responsible for the regulation and monitoring of electronic media entertainment in the country.<ref name="PEMRA">{{cite web|url=http://www.pemra.gov.pk/|title=Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA)|publisher=Government of Pakistan|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref> [[Pakistan Television Corporation]], is the state-owned regulated television broadcasting network.<ref name="AMICC">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wo9YWvrWFcIC&q=history+of+Pakistan+Television+Corporation&pg=PA377 | last=Logan|first=Stephen|title=Asian Communication Handbook, 2008|year=2008|publisher=Asian Media Information and Communication Centre|location=New York, United States (United Nations Secretariat)|isbn=978-981-4136-10-5|pages=377–400|access-date= 13 June 2016}}</ref> The government began licensing private broadcasters in 2002.<ref name=Internews>{{cite web|url=https://www.internews.org/sites/default/files/resources/InfoasAid_Pakistan_MediaGuide.pdf| title=Pakistan Media and Telecoms Landscape Guide |publisher=InterNews|date=June 2012|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref>

The government of Pakistan installed the first radio transmitters in the city on 15 September 1982.<ref name="PBC: Radio Station">{{cite web|title=Chronology of PBC|url=http://www.radio.gov.pk/chronology-of-pbc|website=Radio Pakistan|publisher=Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> "[[Radio Pakistan]]" broadcasts three government regulated FM stations: "Radio Pakistan FM101, Radio Pakistan FM93 and Radio Pakistan Sautul Qur'an Channel FM93.4. FM101 became operational in 2002, FM93 went live in 2010 and FM93.4 Sautul Qur'an Channel went live in 2016; PBC all three stations are standard power KW 2.5.<ref name="PBC: FM Station">{{cite web|title=FM Station|url=http://www.radio.gov.pk/fm-station|website=Radio Pakistan|publisher=Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>

=== Telecommunications ===
[[Pakistan Telecommunication Authority]] is a government-owned organisation that is responsible for the establishment, operation and maintenance of telecommunications in the city.<ref name=PTA>{{cite web|url=http://www.pta.gov.pk/index.php?cur_t=vtext&option=com_content&task=view&id=523&catid=95&Itemid=229|title= Pakistan Telecommunication Authority|access-date=10 June 2016}}</ref> The organisation monitors and prevents illegal exchanges in the city.<ref name=PTA2005>{{cite web|url=http://www.pta.gov.pk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2033&catid=92&Itemid=1 |title=Illegal Gateway Exchange Raided in Faisalabad |date= 20 May 2005 |access-date=10 June 2016}}</ref>

[[PTCL|Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited]] is the main provider of fixed line, mobile and broadband services. Regional headquarters is located at the Central Telecom House in Chinot Bazaar.<ref name=PTCL>{{cite web|url=http://ptcl.com.pk/Home/PageDetail?ItemId=113&linkId=121|title=Telephone Exchanges in Punjab|access-date=10 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128170005/http://ptcl.com.pk/Home/PageDetail?ItemId=113&linkId=121|archive-date=28 January 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> With the deregulation of the telecommunication sector by the Ministry of Information Technology, a range of companies now offer [[List of mobile network operators in Pakistan|mobile]] and [[Internet in Pakistan|broadband]] services in the city.<ref name=WTO>{{cite web|url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/telecom_e/sym_feb08_e/siddiqui_e.pdf | title=Telecom Sector Liberalization & Deregulation in Pakistan: Economic and Social Benefits|author=Siddiqui, Zainab Hussain | access-date=10 June 2016}}</ref>

=== Film and theatre ===
In 2008, the Government of Pakistan lifted a forty-year ban on [[Bollywood]] films which allowed Indian films to be played in cinemas.<ref name=AT>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/JB08Df05.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514161639/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/JB08Df05.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=14 May 2008 |title=The Curtain Lifts For Bollywood in Pakistan | publisher= Asia Time | last=Ramachandran|first=Sudha|date=8 February 2008|access-date=18 June 2016}}</ref> The cinema industry has since seen the introduction of new cinemas such as Cinepax by Hotel One,<ref name=Cinepax>{{cite web|url=http://www.cinepax.com/cine/faislabad.php|title=Cinepax Faisalabad|access-date=18 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115224102/http://www.cinepax.com/cine/faislabad.php|archive-date=15 November 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and Cine Nagina.<ref name=NCF>{{cite web |url=http://cinenagina.com/ |title=Nagina Cinemas Faisalabad |publisher=Nagina Cinemas |access-date=18 June 2016 |archive-date=16 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616122525/http://www.cinenagina.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Government College University in Faisalabad encourages students from the University of Agriculture to hold workshops and explore themes of peace and tolerance which can be used in an engaging and entertaining way to communicate complex issues to different audiences.<ref name=CWSA>{{cite web | url=http://communityworldservice.asia/performing_for_peace/ | title=Performing for Peace: Theater Workshops Promote Peace and Tolerance | date=12 April 2016 | access-date=13 June 2016 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809180501/http://communityworldservice.asia/performing_for_peace/ | archive-date=9 August 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

== Recreation ==
{{multiple image
| align =right
| direction = vertical
| image1=Chenab_Club_View_2022_Clouds.jpg
| caption1=A view of Chenab Club in December 2020
| image2=Faisalabad D-Ground 02.jpg
| caption2=[[D Ground]] Central Park was rebuilt by the city district government and now includes miniatures of the [[National symbols of Pakistan|symbols of Pakistan]] such as the [[Mazar-e-Quaid]], [[Minar-e-Pakistan]], and [[Bab-e-Pakistan]].
| image3 = Iqbal Cricket Stadium Faisalabad PAKISTAN.jpg
| caption3 = [[Iqbal Stadium]], is an international cricket ground, home to the [[Faisalabad Wolves]] cricket team.
}}

=== Public parks ===
The Parks and Horticulture Authority (PHA) is responsible for running and managing all public parks within the district of Faisalabad.

Jinnah Gardens is the oldest and most established public park in the city. It serves as the city's central park, and a cultural hub. It is commonly known as "Company Bagh". A monument of Sir James Broadwood Lyall is situated at the eastern corner of the park.

Dhobi Ghat Park is a historic park, in the oldest part of the city. It is located on Kotwali Road, just next to the Government College University, Faisalabad. The park has a long history of rallies and protests. The park was chosen as a venue of choice by [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], [[Liaquat Ali Khan|Liaqat Ali Khan]], [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto|Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]], [[Benazir Bhutto]], [[Nawaz Sharif]], [[Shehbaz Sharif|Shebaz Sharif]], [[Maryam Nawaz]] and [[Imran Khan]].

Gatwala Park is located in the outskirts of the city, on the north-eastern side. It serves as a family park with amusements such as a zoo and a lake. The [[Gatwala Wildlife Park]] is a botanical natural reserve located next to the Gatwala Park. It that was renovated by the city district government.<ref name="punjab.gov: Gatwala">{{cite web|title=Gatwala Forest Park|url=http://www.fwf.punjab.gov.pk/gatwala_forest_wildlife_park|website=www.fwf.punjab.gov.pk|publisher=Government of the Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>

Pahari Grounds is located in Peoples Colony #2. It is a residential area popular locations such as Babar Chowk, Fawara Chowk and the old gates. A Pakistan Air Force retired F-86 Sabre is on display on a hilltop within this park. It is a local attraction.

D-Ground Park is located in the Peoples Colony #1 area, within the D-Ground shopping area. Several models of Pakistani monuments are on display in this park, all year round.

=== Sports ===
{{Main|List of sports venues in Faisalabad}}
[[Cricket]] is a popular sport in Faisalabad. Regional and international cricket matches are held in [[Iqbal Stadium]],<ref name = "ESPN">{{cite web | url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/America/content/ground/58927.html | title = Iqbal Stadium | publisher = ESPN Sports Media Ltd. | author = Andrew McGlashan | access-date = 20 December 2015}}</ref> named after Pakistani poet Sir [[Allama Muhammad Iqbal]].<ref name="NDTV: Iqbal Stadium">{{cite news|title=Iqbal Stadium, Faisalabad|url=http://sports.ndtv.com/cricket/grounds/2005-iqbal-stadium-faisalabad-groundprofile|access-date=7 June 2016|work=NDTVSports.com|publisher=NDTV}}</ref> The stadium is home to Faisalabad's local team, the [[Faisalabad Wolves]].<ref name=TNT>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenewstribe.com/2012/12/02/faisalabad-wolves-profile/|title=Faisalabad Wolves Profile|last=Ahmed|first=Hassam|publisher=The News Tribe|date=2 December 2012|access-date=13 June 2016|archive-date=12 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812075932/http://www.thenewstribe.com/2012/12/02/faisalabad-wolves-profile/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Iqbal Stadium hosted the [[1987 Cricket World Cup]],<ref name=CA>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/49/49317.html | title=Pakistan v Sri Lanka in 1987/88 |date=25 October 1987|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref> and the [[1996 Cricket World Cup]].<ref name=CA2>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/1/Wills_World_Cup_1995-96.html |title=Wills World Cup 1996: New Zealand v United Arab Emirates|publisher=Cricket Archive|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref>

The [[Faisalabad Hockey Stadium]], located on Susan Road, was constructed in 2002, and can accommodate 25,000 spectators. On 16 April 2003, the stadium was inaugurated by [[Khalid Maqbool]], governor of Punjab. It is the third-largest [[field hockey]] stadium in the country.<ref name=Dawn>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1232421 | title=Hockey Stadium in Faisalabad in Pathetic Condition|publisher=Dawn| last=Saleem|first=Mohammad|date=12 January 2016|access-date=13 June 2016}}</ref> The stadium has hosted [[field hockey]] matches for both national and international competition but by the beginning of 2016 was reported to be in "pathetic condition as its astroturf has completed its life span about eight years ago." Commissioner Naseem Nawaz advised that efforts were under way to maintain the stadium.<ref name=Dawn/>

In October 2002, the Government College University established a Directorate of Sports to promote university and national level sports for male and female players. Infrastructure and facilities are available for university players in [[Track (sport)|track]], hockey, tennis, basketball, table tennis, badminton and [[cricket pitch]].<ref name="GCUF-Sports">{{cite web | url=http://gcuf.edu.pk/directorates/sports/ |title=Directorate of Sports | publisher = Government College University Faisalabad |date=20 February 1996| access-date = 20 December 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327175622/http://gcuf.edu.pk/directorates/sports/|archive-date=27 March 2016}}</ref>

=== Public libraries and museums ===
There are two [[List of libraries in Pakistan|libraries]] that are open to the public: Allama Iqbal Library and Municipal Corporation Public Library. They are funded and regulated by the government of Punjab under the service sector.<ref name="punjab.gov: Libraries">{{cite web|url=https://www.punjab.gov.pk/node/625|website=Punjab Portal, Government of Punjab, Pakistan website|title=Faisalabad – Public libraries|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref>
* Allama Iqbal Library is located on University Road, opposite the District Courts. The library is housed in the 1911-built colonial building originally named "Coronation Library" during the rule of the British Empire. In 2012, the building came under control of the Lyallpur Heritage Foundation<ref name="ET: Museum">{{cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/427461/lyllpur-museum-body-formed-to-acquire-conserve-artifacts|access-date=28 October 2020|title=Lyllpur Museum: Body Formed To Acquire, Conserve Artifacts|newspaper=The Express Tribune (newspaper)|date=29 August 2012}}</ref> and the Punjab Archives and Libraries Department.<ref name="ET: Libraries">{{cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/516789/public-libraries-and-archive-department-formed|last1=Malik|first1=Sonia|title=Public Libraries and Archive Department formed|newspaper=The Express Tribune (newspaper)|date=6 March 2013|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref>
* [[Lyallpur Museum]] is located adjacent to the Allama Iqbal Library on University Road. It is a heritage museum and art gallery open to the public. The museum is primarily focused on regional history with a collection of artwork, artefacts and photographs.<ref name=HB>{{cite web|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-351537186.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911011028/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-351537186.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 September 2016 |title=BoG Approves Lyallpur Museum Regulations|publisher=The Nation (Karachi, Pakistan)|date=2 December 2013|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref>
* Municipal Library is located in Iqbal Park on Narwala Road, opposite the historical grounds of Dhobi Ghat.<ref name=ML>{{cite web|url=https://www.punjab.gov.pk/node/625|title= Faisalabad —- Public libraries|publisher=Punjab Portal, Government of Punjab, Pakistan website|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref> The library has a large collection of books, a photo gallery and a conference centre. In 2011, the library underwent a renovation costing 40 million rupees.<ref name="PT-2011">{{cite news|url=http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2011/03/24/national/municipal-library-building-to-be-reconstructed/ | title=Municipal Library Building To Be Reconstructed|newspaper=Pakistan Today|date=24 March 2011|access-date=18 June 2016}}</ref>
* The Forest Library at the Punjab Forestry Research Institute (PFRI) is one of two specialist libraries, the other being in Lahore.<ref name="punjab.gov: Forest Library">{{cite web|title=Libraries|url=http://fwf.punjab.gov.pk/libraries|website=fwf.punjab.gov.pk|publisher=Government of Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> Opened in 1986, the research library is based at the [[Gatwala Wildlife Park|Wildlife Research Center]] in Gatwala.<ref name="punjab.gov: WRC">{{cite web|url=http://fwf.punjab.gov.pk/WRC_gatwala|title=Wildlife Research Center Gatwala, Faisalabad|publisher=Government of Punjab|access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>

=== Social clubs ===
The Chenab Club, founded in 1910 is the oldest social club in Faisalabad. It was founded by the British armed forces serving in the area, during the British rule. Today it is a prestigious club offering sports, recreation, dining and cultural activities.

== Transportation ==
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = New terminal building at Faisalabad International Airport 16.jpg
| caption1 = Airside view of Faisalabad Airport
| image2 = Railway station of Faisalabad.JPG
| caption2 = The front entrance to the 19th century colonial railway station
| image3 = Faisalabad D-Ground Road.jpg
| caption3 = Roads in Faisalabad
| image4 =
| caption4 =
}}

=== Airport ===
[[Faisalabad International Airport]] is approximately {{convert|15|km}} from the city center. It is located at Faisalabad-Jhang Road. The airport underwent major renovations during between 2014 and 2017. The main termainal building was completed renovated. Major extensions were carried out as part of a major development initiative by the former [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]], Mian Muhammad [[Nawaz Sharif]]. It is a regional airport that serves domestic and international travel. The airport offers cargo, freight, passenger travel, private terminal, flying school, and military base to Pakistan Air Force. The airlines with operations at Faisalabad International Airport include [[Pakistan International Airlines]], [[FlyDubai]], [[Qatar Airways]], [[Air Arabia]], [[Gulf Air]] and [[SereneAir|Serene Air]].

=== Rail ===
The [[Faisalabad railway station]] is the central railway station in the city. The railway line forms part of the [[Khanewal–Wazirabad railway line]]. Rail services are operated by [[Pakistan Railways]], owned and operated by the [[Ministry of Railways (Pakistan)|Ministry of Railways]].<ref name=MoR>{{cite web|url=http://www.railways.gov.pk/gop/index.php?q=aHR0cDovLzE5Mi4xNjguNzAuMTM2L3JhaWx3YXlzd2ViLy4vZnJtRGV0YWlscy5hc3B4P29wdD1iYXNpYyZpZD0x|title=Ministry of Railways|work=Government of Pakistan|publisher=Ministry of Railways Government of Pakistan|access-date=12 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622210702/http://www.railways.gov.pk/gop/index.php?q=aHR0cDovLzE5Mi4xNjguNzAuMTM2L3JhaWx3YXlzd2ViLy4vZnJtRGV0YWlscy5hc3B4P29wdD1iYXNpYyZpZD0x|archive-date=22 June 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Cargo Express services are operated by Pakistan Railways which runs from Karachi to Faisalabad via Multan. Twenty-seven [[bogies]] compose the goods train, and are handled respectively by private contractors at the station.<ref name="Dawn: Railway">{{cite news|last1=Siddiqui|first1=Zaheer Mahmood|title=Karachi-Faisalabad route: Railways to resume cargo express|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1149270|access-date=7 June 2016|publisher=Dawn|date=7 December 2014}}</ref> The station has a special cargo facility operated by the Ministry of Railways (Pakistan) for handling various goods from the city to other regions of the country. An express parcel service runs from Karachi to Lahore via Faisalabad.<ref name="The Nation: Parcel Express">{{cite magazine|title=Railways to earn Rs 12b from freight trains|url=http://nation.com.pk/business/08-Feb-2016/railways-to-earn-rs12b-from-freight-trains|access-date=7 June 2016|magazine=The Nation|date=8 February 2016}}</ref>

=== Road network ===
{{Main|Roads in Faisalabad}}
Faisalabad has a highly developed road network. There are many access ways in and out of the city. It is well connected through motorways, dual-carriageways and highways.

==Sister cities==
Faisalabad is a globally recognized city due to its textiles export trade. Its [[sister cities]] are:

*{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Qingdao]], China
*{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Wuhan]], China
*{{flagicon|IRN}} [[Tabriz]], Iran
*{{flagdeco|IND}} [[Kanpur]], India
*{{flagicon|JPN}} [[Kobe]], Japan
*{{flagdeco|ESP}} [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], Spain
*{{flagicon|UAE}} [[Sharjah]], United Arab Emirates
*{{flagdeco|GRB}} [[Manchester]], United Kingdom
*{{flagicon|USA}} [[Los Angeles]], United States of America

== See also ==
* [[List of people from Faisalabad]]
* [[Faisalabad District]]
* [[Faisalabad Electric Supply Company]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Incubator|code=pnb/فیصل آباد| prefix=Wp|project=Wikipedia}}
{{Sister project links|Faisalabad}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060813061805/http://faisalabad.gov.pk/ Faisalabad City District]
* [http://www.punjab.gov.pk/ Punjab Government website]
* {{curlie|/Regional/Asia/Pakistan/Provinces/Punjab/Localities/Faisalabad|Faisalabad}}
* [https://postcodepk.com/postal-code/faisalabad/ Faisalabad Postal Codes (Complete List)]
* {{Wikivoyage inline|Faisalabad}}

{{Faisalabad|state=collapsed}}
{{Faisalabad District|state=collapsed}}
{{PakistanCities|state=collapsed}}
{{Pakistan topics|state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Faisalabad| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Faisalabad District]]
[[Category:Metropolitan areas of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Planned communities in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Populated places in Punjab, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Cities in Punjab (Pakistan)]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1892]]