Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Public Force of Costa Rica

2010-05-26T18:07:43Z

163.178.17.124: /* In popular culture */ The game has already been released

On December 1, 1948, [[List of Presidents of Costa Rica|President]] [[José Figueres Ferrer]] of [[Costa Rica]] abolished the '''military of Costa Rica''' after victory in [[Costa Rican Civil War|the civil war]] in that year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elespiritudel48.org/docu/h013.htm|author=El Espíritu del 48|title=Abolición del Ejército|accessdate=2008-03-09}} (Spanish)</ref>
In a ceremony in the ''Cuartel Bellavista'', Figueres broke a wall with a [[mallet]] symbolizing the end of Costa Rica's military spirit.
In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican Constitution.

[[Image:FigueresMuroCuartelBellavista.jpg|thumb|250px|[[José Figueres Ferrer]] breaking a wall of the ''Cuartel Bellavista'' symbolizing the abolition of the Military.]]

The budget previously dedicated to the military now is dedicated to security, education and culture; the country maintains Police Guard forces.
The museum ''Museo Nacional de Costa Rica'' was placed in the ''Cuartel Bellavista'' as a symbol of commitment to culture.

In 1986, President [[Oscar Arias Sánchez]] declared December 1 as the ''Día de la Abolición del Ejército'' (Military abolition day) with Law #8115.

Unlike its neighbors, Costa Rica has not endured a [[civil war]] since 1948.

Costa Rica maintains small forces capable of law enforcement and foreign peacekeeping, but has no permanent standing army.

==Ministry of Public Security's Public Force==
During 1996, the Ministry of Public Security established the ''Fuerza Pública'' or Public Force which reorganized and eliminated the [[Civil Guard (Costa Rica)|Civil Guard]], [[Rural Assistance Guard]], and [[Frontier Guard]]s as separate entities; they are now under the Ministry and operate on a geographic command basis performing ground security, law enforcement, counter-narcotics, and border patrol functions.

Outside the ''Fuerza Pública'', there is a small Special Forces Unit, the Unidad Especial de Intervencion (UEI) or Special Intervention Unit, which trains with special forces of Israel, and its namesake in Spain and other democratic nations, but is not part of the main police forces, instead it is part of the Intelligence and Security Directorate (DIS) which reports directly to the Minister of the Presidency.

==Weapons and equipment==
Weapons include [[M16 rifle|M16]]s, [[M4A1]]s, [[UZI]]s, [[MP5]]s and other weapons such as the [[M1911]] .45ACP and [[Beretta M9]] semiautomatic pistols.{{fact}}

==Aircraft inventory==
There are 11 aircraft on government support, law enforcement, and civil duties.

{{Standard table|0}}
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service<ref name="awst_20070115">"World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, ''[[Aviation Week & Space Technology]]'', January 15, 2007.</ref>
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes
|-----
| [[Aero Commander (aircraft)|Aero Commander]] || {{USA}} || utility transport || 695 || 1 ||
|-----
| [[Cessna 206]] || {{USA}} || utility || 206G || 2 ||
|-----
| [[Cessna 207]] || {{USA}} || utility || || 1 ||
|-----
| [[de Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou]] || {{CAN}} || tactical transport || || 1 ||
|-----
| [[MD Helicopters MD 500]] || {{USA}} || utility helicopter || MD 500E || 2 ||
|-----
| [[Piper PA-31 Navajo]] || {{USA}} || utility || || 3 ||
|-----
| [[Piper PA-34 Seneca]] || {{USA}} || utility || PA-34-200T || 1 ||
{{close table}}

==In popular culture==
* The ''[[Jurassic Park]]'' book and movie incorrectly portray Costa Rica as having a military [[Air Force]] in the timeframe of the book.
* The ''[[South Park]]'' episode "[[Rainforest Schmainforest]]" incorrectly portrays that Costa Rica has a military force in the timeframe of the series.
* The [[videogame]] ''[[Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker]]'' features Costa Rica's lack of military as a vital point in the history of the [[Cold War]].

==See also==
* [[List of countries without armed forces]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.msp.go.cr/ Ministerio de Seguridad Pública.]
* [http://www.elespiritudel48.org/docu/h013.htm El Espíritu del 48: Abolición del Ejército] A brief history of the abolition of the military in Costa Rica.
* [http://www.fas.org/asmp/campaigns/smallarms/lainven.html]

{{Military of North America}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Military Of Costa Rica}}
[[Category:Military of Costa Rica| ]]

[[nl:Krijgswezen van Costa Rica]]
[[sv:Costa Ricas polis- och militärväsende]]
[[zh-classical:哥斯大黎加軍事]]
[[zh:哥斯达黎加军事]]

Public Force of Costa Rica

2009-10-02T16:39:23Z

163.178.17.124: Added popular culture section

On December 1, 1948, [[List of Presidents of Costa Rica|President]] [[José Figueres Ferrer]] of [[Costa Rica]] abolished the country's army after victory in [[Costa Rican Civil War|the civil war]] in that year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elespiritudel48.org/docu/h013.htm|author=El Espíritu del 48|title=Abolición del Ejército|accessdate=2008-03-09}} (Spanish)</ref>
In a ceremony in the ''Cuartel Bellavista'', Figueres broke a wall with a [[mallet]] symbolizing the end of Costa Rica's military spirit.
In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican Constitution.

[[Image:FigueresMuroCuartelBellavista.jpg|thumb|250px|[[José Figueres Ferrer]] breaking a wall of the ''Cuartel Bellavista'' symbolizing the abolition of the Military.]]

The budget previously dedicated to the military now is dedicated to security, education and culture; the country maintains Police Guard forces.
The museum ''Museo Nacional de Costa Rica'' was placed in the ''Cuartel Bellavista'' as a symbol of commitment to culture.

In 1986, President [[Oscar Arias Sánchez]] declared [[December 1]] as the ''Día de la Abolición del Ejército'' (Military abolition day) with Law #8115.

Unlike its neighbors, Costa Rica has not endured a [[civil war]] since 1948.

==Ministry of Public Security's Public Force==
During 1996, the Ministry of Public Security established the Fuerza Pública or Public Force which reorganized and eliminated the Civil Guard, Rural Assistance Guard, and Frontier Guards as separate entities; they are now under the Ministry and operate on a geographic command basis performing ground security, law enforcement, counter-narcotics, and border patrol functions.

Outside the Fuerza Publica, there is a small Special Forces Unit, the Unidad Especial de Intervencion (UEI) or Special Intervention Unit, which trains with special forces of Israel, and its namesake in Spain and other democratic nations, but is not part of the main police forces, instead it is part of the Intelligence and Security Directorate (DIS) which reports directly to the Minister of the Presidency.

==Weapons and equipment==
Weapons include [[M16 rifle|M16]]s, [[M4A1]]s, [[UZI]]s, [[MP5]]s and other weapons such as the [[M1911]] .45ACP and [[Beretta M9]] semiautomatic pistols.

==Aircraft inventory==
There are 11 aircraft on government support, law enforcement, and civil duties.

{{Standard table|0}}
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service<ref name="awst_20070115">"World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, ''[[Aviation Week & Space Technology]]'', [[January 15]] [[2007]].</ref>
! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes
|-----
| [[Aero Commander (aircraft)|Aero Commander]] || {{USA}} || utility transport || 695 || 1 ||
|-----
| [[Cessna 206]] || {{USA}} || utility || 206G || 2 ||
|-----
| [[Cessna 207]] || {{USA}} || utility || || 1 ||
|-----
| [[de Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou]] || {{CAN}} || tactical transport || || 1 ||
|-----
| [[MD Helicopters MD 500]] || {{USA}} || utility helicopter || MD 500E || 2 ||
|-----
| [[Piper PA-31]] || {{USA}} || utility || || 3 ||
|-----
| [[Piper PA-34]] || {{USA}} || utility || PA-34-200T || 1 ||
|}

==In popular culture==
* The [[Jurassic Park]] book and movie incorrectly portray Costa Rica to have a military [[Air Force]] in the timeframe of the book.
* The [[South Park]] episode [[Rainforest Schmainforest]] incorrectly protrays that Costa Rica has a military force in the timeframe of the series.
* The upcoming [[videogame]] [[Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker]] will feature Costa Rica's lack of military as a vital point in the history of the [[Cold War]].

==See also==
* [[List of countries without armed forces]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.msp.go.cr/ Ministerio de Seguridad Pública.]
* [http://www.elespiritudel48.org/docu/h013.htm El Espíritu del 48: Abolición del Ejército] A brief history of the abolition of the military in Costa Rica.

{{Military of North America}}

[[Category:Military of Costa Rica| ]]

[[nl:Krijgswezen van Costa Rica]]
[[sv:Costa Ricas polis- och militärväsende]]
[[zh-classical:哥斯大黎加軍事]]
[[zh:哥斯达黎加军事]]

Rafael Ángel Calderón Fournier

2009-10-01T14:35:34Z

163.178.17.124:

{{Infobox Officeholder
|name = Rafael Ángel Calderón Fournier
|image =
|imagesize =
|smallimage =
|caption =
|order = 43th [[President of Costa Rica]]
|term_start = [[May 8]], [[1990]]
|term_end = [[May 8]], [[1994]]
|vicepresident =
|viceprimeminister =
|deputy =
|president =
|primeminister =
|predecessor = [[Óscar Arias Sánchez]]
|successor = [[José María Figueres]]
|order2 =
|term_start2 =
|term_end2 =
|vicepresident2 =
|viceprimeminister2 =
|deputy2 =
|president2 =
|primeminister2 =
|predecessor2 =
|successor2 =
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1949|03|14}}
|birth_place = [[Diriamba]], [[Nicaragua]]
|death_date =
|death_place =
|constituency =
|party = [[Social Christian Unity Party|PUSC]]
|spouse = Gloria Bejarano Almada
|profession = [[lawyer]], politician and thief
|religion =
|signature =
|footnotes =
}}
'''Rafael Ángel Calderón Fournier''' (born in [[Diriamba]], [[Nicaragua]], on [[14 March]] [[1949]]) served as [[President]] of [[Costa Rica]] from 1990 to 1994.

His father was [[Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia]], who was president from 1940 to 1944.

After an alleged corruption scandal he was incarcerated in October 2004. <ref>[http://www.nacion.com/ln_ee/ESPECIALES/ccss-fischel/n0905.html Sociedad de Calderón recibió $440.500 de grupo Fischel] (Spanish)</ref> <ref>[http://www.nacion.com/ln_ee/ESPECIALES/ccss-fischel/n1109.html Calderón refuta versión de dos imputados] (Spanish)</ref><ref>[http://www.teletica.com/archivo/tn7/nac/2004/10/21/calderon-nodecla.htm Rafael Angel Calderón no respondió preguntas de los fiscales] (Spanish)</ref> He was recently released from jail and currently lives under house arrest
<ref>[http://www.teletica.com/archivo/tn7/nac/2005/03/23/ex_presidente.htm Ex presidente Rafael Angel Calderón salió de la cárcel a purgar prisión domiciliaria] (Spanish)</ref>.

His trial started on November 3rd, 2008, and the hearings finished in September 2009, he currently waits for the veredict.

In spite of the charges, he has officially announced his candidacy for President of Costa Rica in 2010.

He is a 1991 recipient of an honorary doctoral degree from the [[University of Houston]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*A quick summary of Calderón's incarceration: [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2004/10/costa-rican-court-orders-former.php Jurist Legal News Brief]
*News Update: Calderón's Release [[19 October]] [[2005]]: [http://www.teletica.com/archivo/tn7/nac/2005/10/19/quedo.htm Teletica Report] (Spanish)

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of Costa Rica]]|before=[[Óscar Arias]]|after=[[José María Figueres]]|years=1990–1994}}
{{end box}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Calderon Fournier, Rafael}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Presidents of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Costa Ricans of Nicaraguan descent]]

{{CostaRica-politician-stub}}
{{CostaRica-bio-stub}}

[[de:Rafael Ángel Calderón Fournier]]
[[es:Rafael Ángel Calderón Fournier]]
[[io:Rafael Ángel Calderón Fournier]]
[[oc:Rafael Ángel Calderón Fournier]]
[[pt:Rafael Ángel Calderón Fournier]]

Culture of Costa Rica

2009-09-24T22:24:31Z

163.178.17.124: /* Painting */

{{Copyedit|date=September 2007}}'''
{{Original research|article|date=November 2007}}
'''[[Costa Rican]] culture''' is heavily influenced by [[Spanish culture]], with the exception of [[Limón]], which is predominantly [[Jamaicans of African ancestry|Black Jamaican]]s, and the [[Cordillera de Talamanca]].{{citation needed|date=September 2009}}
{{TOCright}}
When the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] [[conquistador|conquerors]] arrived in the 16th century, most of the settlements and cities were established in the southern-central part of the country that were less densely populated than the north, and where the European descendants became predominant. Although the actual population of Costa Rica is generally of mixed origins, the different makeups of these two regions is still evident. The northern plains ([[Guatuso]]) and the southern mountains (Talamanca) were relatively untouched during colonial times.

In the 19th century, the Caribbean region of Costa Rica received a considerable number of immigrants that came first as workers during the construction of the railroads to the eastern coast and later settled in the area. Most of them were blacks that came from the English-speaking Caribbean who gave a distinctive cultural and ethnic identity to the region. There was also an important number of [[China|Chinese]] immigrants, who came first to the port-towns of Limon and Puntarenas, later spreading in small numbers to most cities in the country. Immigrants from other areas, mainly Europe (Spain, Italy, Germany) and Lebanon, arrived during the early 20th century, causing a significant impact, mainly on the country's political and economic elite. All of these influences have developed the extremely varied ethnicity of the country.

== Language ==
Costa Ricans speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]], but they, like most other Latin American countries, over the years have developed distinct patterns in their language.

Costa Ricans usually utilize the respectful "Usted" form when addressing one another, this is somewhat formal and surprises some Spanish-speaking foreigners when they arrive. Also, when they do use the familiar form, they often use ''[[voseo|vos]]'' rather than "[[tú]]", which is used in most other Latin American countries. Unlike most Latin American countries the use of the word ''tú'' is considered obnoxious and impolite and the usage of the word is frowned upon by the majority of the population, regardless of social status.

Costa Ricans also have an accent very similar to that of Colombians and are often confused with them based on their accent.

== Ticos/Ticas ==

Costa Ricans have long called themselves [[Tico]]s, in reference to the use of [[diminutive]]s particular to Costa Rican speech. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] it's common to make diminutives by suffixing the '''-ito/ita''' [[morpheme]] [gender varies with: "o" or "a"]. This helps soften speech and appear more approachable when interacting with others.

== Religion ==
[[Catholicism]] is recognized as the official religion in Costa Rica and even though many Costa Ricans are Catholic, devotion varies among the population.{{citation needed|date=September 2009}}

A common practice among Latin American countries is the presence of a "Patrona". This represents a variation of the Virgin Mary and is unique for most countries. The "patrona" of Costa Rica is the "[[Virgen de los Angeles]]" also known as "La Negrita" (Little Black one). The Virgin is one of the most important Catholic symbols because it is country-specific and allows common people to identify with religion and feel a sense of direct contact with a saint to whom they can pray.

There are several religious festivals in the country but the most important{{citation needed|date=September 2009}} is the tradition known as ''La Romería'' in which some people from all over the country walk from their home to a cathedral dedicated to the Virgin in the city of [[Cartago Province|Cartago]] on [[August 2]]. When they arrive, followers visit a dark stone shaped like the Virgin [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]] that appeared in the 16th Century to a young girl on a hill located in Cartago, the same place where the Cathedral was built.

Other religions in Costa Rica include [[Jehovah's Witness]], [[Judaism]], [[Islam]], Hare Krishna and other smaller groups that practice traditions of their ancestry. Protestant forms of Christianity are common in Costa Rica, and make up 14% of Costa Rica's Christian population.{{citation needed|date=September 2009}}

== Education ==
Education is highly regarded in Costa Rica by most of the population. 6% of the country's resources are dedicated to education,{{citation needed|date=September 2009}} and it has been proved to have positive results as 96% of the population is literate.
Primary (1st-6th grade) and secondary (7th-11th or 12th) are mandatory for all; public schools are free. Those who can afford it often opt to send their children to private institutions.{{citation needed|date=September 2009}}

The country has four major public universities: The [[University of Costa Rica]] (UCR), the [[Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica]] (ITCR), The [[Universidad Nacional]] (UNA) and the [[Universidad de Educacion a Distancia]] (UNED), a correspondence institution.

== Painting ==
During the beginning of the 19th century, wealthy Costa Ricans used to have their portraits painted by famous foreigners, usually European, who went to the country for holidays<ref name="paint">http://www.infocostarica.com/culture/painting.html</ref>. It was not until some of these painters, like Bigot, Henry Etheridge, or Santiago Paramo settled in the country that Costa Ricans were taught techniques for drawing, oil painting and sculpture.<ref name="paint"/> These teachers directly influenced artists who lived in Costa Rica, such as Jose Maria Figueroa, Faustino Montes de Oca, or Felipe Valentini.

Later, at the end of the 19th century some local artists started to come out and became the basis of what Costa Rican painting is now. Some of these painters are Ezequiel Jimenez, Wenceslao de la Guardia, and Enrique Echandi. Current renown Costa Rican painters include [[Gonzalo Morales Sáurez]], [[Rafa Fernandez]], [[Fernando Carballo]].

A unique expression of paint was expressed in the typical [[bullock cart]]s.

== Music ==
{{main|Music of Costa Rica}}
Most of the music and representative folklore comes from the north of the country (the part that once had Mayan influence), including the [[Nicoya Peninsula]], and the Atlantic coast (Afro-Caribbean culture). [[Music of Costa Rica|Costa Rican music]] a rhythm known as [[tambito]] as well a distinctive musical genre known as ''punto''. Two examples are the ''punto guanacasteco'', which hails from [[Guanacaste Province]], and the '' sancarleño'', from San Carlos in [[Alajuela]] Province.

Nowadays, funk music is very popular.{{citation needed|date=September 2009}} The Costa Rican funk movement started around the 70's - 80's and bands today enjoy some popularity, especially among young people. Bands such as [[Gandhi (Costa Rica)|Gandhi]] and ''Evolucion'' (among others) are quite popular. This movement started in the early 80's with the pioneer work of the band [[Café con Leche]] and [[José Capmany]].{{citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Cuisine==
Costa Rican cuisine is a combination of Spanish, American, Caribbean and Southern American influences. This style of cuisine is shared by most of Central America, although local variations have appeared in each of the country.

One national dish is [[Gallo Pinto]] ("spotted rooster"), although the name has no relation to the ingredients. It is mainly a combination of black beans and white rice and is spiced with cilantro, onions, garlic, salt and a local condiment called Salsa Lizano (although not always). It is typically eaten at breakfast with eggs and sometimes natilla (sour cream). Fried [[plantains]] and either corn [[tortillas]] or bread are also common. Gallo pinto is a common and typical dish in both Costa Rica and Nicaragua, being widely consumed in both countries. The origin of the dish has been debated for many years.

Another typical dish is "Arroz con pollo" ("rice with chicken"). This dish basically consists of bite size chicken chunks mixed with rice and diced vegetables that include carrots, peas, corn and [[garbanzo bean]]s (chickpeas).

"Olla de Carne" is another typical dish which is mainly prepared on weekends.{{citation needed|date=September 2009}} It is basically a broth corn prepared by boiling water, meat and whole-to large sized vegetable pieces, with spices. Eating the soup usually requires a bowl with the broth, and separate plates for the vegetables and rice. Because preparation of the vegetables is tiresome and the size of the plate obligates using a large pot, it is prepared for family meetings and was usually prepared on Sundays after church.{{citation needed|date=September 2009}}

"[[Casado]]s" are also a typical dish. A casado is basically a one-plate meal, that at least includes black beans, rice, a meat and one or more side dishes. The meat can vary from chicken or beef, fish, tongue, liver, or hamburger patties. The side dishes can range from pasta salads, vegetable salads, fried eggs, potatoes, spaghetti, or "barbudos" (green beans wrapped in egg batter). Finally most casados include fried plantains.

A very common practice when sitting down to eat is to drink a fruit drink of some kind. These are called "refrescos", "frescos", "refrescos naturales" or "batidos" (smoothies). They are made with either water or milk and come in an endless variety: [[cantaloupe]], [[strawberry]], [[tamarind]], [[mango]], [[papaya]], [[lemon]], [[blackberry]] (mora), [[guanabana]], [[fruit punch]], [[horchata]], and a local favorite, [[cas]].

There are some regional differences. The Caribbean side of the country, because of its roots, enjoys Gallo pinto but adding Coconut milk. This is called "Rice an' Beans". This region also has "Pati", "Plantain tarts", "Rondon" and "Pan bon".{{citation needed|date=September 2009}} The north-western part of the country, has a strong tendency towards corn products and is famous for large, cheese filled tortillas, corn snacks and other dishes.

==Pura Vida==
Based on research, this expression, which is used widely all throughout [[Costa Rica]] originated in [[Mexico]], and came to Costa Rica through movies which were very popular during the [[1950s]]. This phrase is believed to have been coined by Mexican actor [[Antonio Espino]] AKA "Clavillazo". <ref>La Nacion, Fernando Gutierrez Coto, 4/12/07 http://www.nacion.com/ln_ee/2007/diciembre/04/opinion1339074.html</ref>

Pura Vida, literally translated means "Pure Life" but means contextually something approximate to "Full of Life", "Purified life", "This is living!", "Going great", or "Cool!"<ref name="term">Dictionary of Latin American Terms, http://www.asihablamos.com/word/palabra/Pura%20vida.php</ref> It can be used as a greeting, as a word of farewell, to express satisfaction, and in some instances to politely express indifference when describing something.<ref name="term"/> The phrase has become widely known; this highly flexible statement is used by many Costa Ricans (and expatriates) since 1956.<ref>http://www.costarica.com/Home/Culture/National_Symbols/National_Motto</ref> Some foreigners view the phrase as an expression of a leisurely lifestyle, of disregard for time and wanton friendliness. However, Costa Ricans use the phrase to express something akin to a philosophy of strong community, perseverance, resilience in overcoming difficulties with good spirits, and enjoying life slowly and celebrating good fortune of magnitudes small and large alike.

== See also ==
* [[Hispanic culture]]
* [[Latin American culture]]
* [[Teatro Nacional de Costa Rica]]

== References ==
<references/>

{{Latin America topic|Culture of|Latin American culture}}

[[Category:Costa Rican culture]]

[[fr:Culture du Costa Rica]]
[[pt:Cultura da Costa Rica]]
[[es:Cultura de Costa Rica]]
'''

Education in Costa Rica

2009-08-21T22:50:25Z

163.178.17.124:

{{Cleanup|date=March 2009}}

The '''education system in [[Costa Rica]]''' consists of three main levels. It is a duty of every citizen and an obligation to receive education, as such it is free and obligatory by [[law]].

==Education in the Costa Rican Constitution==

The [[literacy rate]] in Costa Rica is of 96% ([[CIA World Fact Book]], February 2007), one of the highest in [[Latin America]], and both elementary and high schools are found throughout the country in practically every community. This literacy rate is based on "The percentage of people aged 15+ who can, with understanding, both read and write a short, simple statement related to their everyday life ([[UN]] Common Database (UNESCO))."

According to art. 78 of the [[Constitution]]:

"Preschool education and general basic education are compulsory but not enforced. Though the system is said to be free, many cannot afford the required uniforms and rural schools have no books for students. The length of time daily spent in school is 3.5 hours since the school class schedule is divided into two sessions in order to accommodate the students. These levels and the diversified education level are, in the public system, free and supported by the Nation.
Public expenditure in State education, including higher education, shall not be less than six percent (6%) per annum of the gross domestic product, in accordance with the law, without detriment to the provisions of Articles 84 and 85 of this Constitution.
The State shall facilitate the pursuit of higher studies by persons who lack monetary resources. The Ministry of Public Education, through the organization established by law, shall be in charge of awarding scholarships and assistance."

==School==

Divided in six year grades and [[kindergarden]]. It covers all the basic knowledge in [[mathematics]], [[social studies]], [[language]] ([[Spanish]]), [[science]], and [[English]] as well as some minor topics as [[music]], [[religion]] ([[Christianism]]), and [[physical education]].

==High School==

High schools in Costa Rica continues the education with 5 more year-leves, finishing at 11th grade. There are only a few of schools in Costa Rica that go beyond the 12th grade, usually technical and professional high schools. Students who graduate receive a Costa Rican ''Bachillerato'' Diploma accredited by the Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education.

Some schools that offer classes to the 12th grade offer either the [[International Baccalaureate Diploma]], accredited by the [[IBO]] in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]] or a [[USA]] [[High School Diploma]], accredited by the [[Southern Association of Colleges and Schools]] (SACS).

==Private School==

There are also private schools and high schools in the country, which follows the basic guidelines of the Ministry of Public Education, and are able to give extended class periods, more topics, extra activities, and day-care services the public system lacks.

Some offer education with a US curriculum and English language. Opportunities available to students studying in private schools is the chance to take the SAT exams or partake and receive the IB diploma through special studies in their Junior and Senior years.

==University==

There are five public universities in Costa Rica:

* [[Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica]] (ITCR)
* [[Universidad de Costa Rica]] (UCR)
* [[Universidad Nacional]] (UNA)
* [[Universidad Nacional Estatal a Distancia]] (UNED)
* [[Universidad Técnica Nacional]] (UTN)

Public universities offer careers according to their specialty and by law, and manage their own central and regional campus. By Costa Rican law, two different public universities can't offer the same career.

There are also several private universities:

* [[Instituto Centroamericano de Administracion de Empresas]] (INCAE)
* [[United Nations University for Peace]]
* Universidad de EARTH
* Universidad de Iberoamerica (UNIBE)
* Universidad Autónoma de Centroamérica (UACA)
* Universidad Católica de Costa Rica
* Universidad Latina de Costa Rica
* Universidad Latinoamericana de Ciencia y Tecnología (ULACIT)

==External links==
* [http://www.oei.es/quipu/costarica/index.html Sistemas educativos en Costa Rica]
* [http://www.mep.go.cr/ Ministerio de Educación] -Government portal

[[Category:Education in Costa Rica| ]]

[[pt:Educação na Costa Rica]]

Tapir

2009-06-19T22:40:02Z

163.178.17.124: Added danta reference

{{Taxobox
| name = Tapir
| image = Tapirus_terrestris.jpg
| image_caption = [[Brazilian Tapir]]
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Early Eocene|Recent}}
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Perissodactyla]]
| superfamilia = [[Tapiroidea]]
| familia = '''Tapiridae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| genus = '''''Tapirus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Morten Thrane Brünnich|Brünnich]], 1772
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision =
See text.
}}

A '''tapir''' ({{pronEng|ˈteɪpər}} "taper", or {{IPA|/təˈpɪər/}} "ta-pier") is a large [[Herbivory|browsing]] [[mammal]], roughly pig-like in shape, with a short, [[prehensile]] snout. Tapirs inhabit jungle and forest regions of [[South America]], [[Central America]], and [[Southeast Asia]]. Also known as ''danta'' in some regions. There are four species of Tapirs, being the Brazilian tapir, the Malayan tapir, Baird's tapir and the mountain tapir. All four [[species]] of tapir are classified as [[Endangered species|endangered]] or vulnerable. Their closest relatives are the other [[odd-toed ungulate]]s, including [[horse]]s and [[rhinoceros]]es.

==Species==
There are five [[extant taxon|extant]] tapir species and a number of [[extinction|extinct]] species:
*[[Baird's Tapir]], ''Tapirus bairdii''
*[[Malayan Tapir]], ''Tapirus indicus''
*[[Mountain Tapir]], ''Tapirus pinchaque''
*[[Brazilian Tapir]] (also called Lowland Tapir), ''Tapirus terrestris''
*[[Black Dwarf Lowland Tapir]], ''[[Tapirus pygmaeus]]''<ref name = "Tpygmaeus">{{cite web
| last = van Roosmalen
| first = M. G. M.
| authorlink = Marc van Roosmalen
| coauthors =
| title = A New Species of Living Lowland Tapir (Mammalia: Tapiridae) From the Brazilian Amazon
| work = [http://www.marcvanroosmalen.org/ MarcvanRoosmalen.org]
| publisher =
| date =
| url = http://www.marcvanroosmalen.org/dwarftapir.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2009-02-07}}</ref> (validity questionable)
*''[[Tapirus polkensis]]'' †
*''[[Tapirus merriami]]'' †
*''[[Tapirus veroensis]]'' †
*''[[Tapirus copei]]'' †
*''[[Tapirus californicus]]'' †

==Hybrids==
[[Hybrid (biology)|Hybrid]] tapirs from the Baird's Tapir and the Brazilian Tapir were bred at the [[San Francisco Zoo]] around [[1969]] and produced a second generation around [[1970]].<ref>[http://www.tapirback.com/tapirgal/tbtap015.htm Pictures of ''T. bairdii x T. terrestris'' cross] taken by Sheryl Todd, The Tapir Gallery, web site of the Tapir Preservation Fund</ref>
[[Image:Central American Tapir-Belize20.jpg|thumb|A [[baird's tapir]] in [[Belize]]]]

==General appearance==
Size varies between types, but most tapirs are about 2 meters (7 ft) long, stand about a meter (3 ft) high at the shoulder, and weigh between 150 and 300 kg (330 to 700 lb). Coats are short and range in color from reddish-brown to grey to nearly black, with the notable exceptions of the [[Malayan Tapir]], which has a white saddle-shaped marking on its back, and the [[Mountain Tapir]], which has longer, woolly fur. All tapirs have oval, white-tipped ears, rounded, protruding rumps with stubby tails, and splayed, hoofed toes, with four toes on the front feet and three on the hind feet, which help them walk on muddy and soft ground. Baby tapirs of all types have striped-and-spotted coats for [[camouflage]]. Females have a single pair of mammary glands.<ref>Gorog, A. 2001. [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Tapirus_terrestris.html ''Tapirus terrestris''], Animal Diversity Web. Accessed June 19, 2006</ref>

==Physical characteristics==
[[Image:Tapirus.terrestris.flehmen.jpg|thumb|left|[[Flehmen response]]]]
The [[proboscis]] of the tapir is a highly flexible structure, able to move in all directions, allowing the animals to grab foliage that would otherwise be out of reach. Tapirs often exhibit the [[flehmen response]], a posture in which they raise their snouts and show their teeth, in order to detect scents. This response is frequently exhibited by bulls sniffing for signs of other males or females in [[oestrus]] in the area. Proboscis length varies among species; Malayan Tapirs have the longest snouts and Brazilian Tapirs have the shortest.<ref>Witmer, Lawrence, Scott D. Sampson, and Nikos Solounias. [http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-witmer/Downloads/Witmer%20et%20al%20-%20tapir.pdf “The proboscis of tapirs (Mammalia: Perissodactyla): a case study in novel narial anatomy”]. Journal of Zoology, 1999, The Zoological Society of London; page 251</ref> The evolution of tapir probosces, made up almost entirely of soft tissues rather than bony internal structures, gives the ''Tapiridae'' skull a unique form in comparison to other [[Odd-toed ungulate|perissodactyls]], with a larger [[sagittal crest]], orbits positioned more rostrally, a posteriorly telescoped [[cranium]], and a more elongated and retracted nasoincisive incisure.<ref>Witmer, page 249</ref><ref>Colbert, Dr. Matthew, 2002, [http://digimorph.org/specimens/Tapirus_terrestris/index.phtml ''"Tapirus terrestris"''] (On-line), Digital Morphology. Accessed June 20, 2006</ref>
[[Image:Tapirus terrestris skull.jpg|thumbnail|Sketch of the skull of a tapir, compared with a Malayan tapir shown in profile]]

Tapirs have brachyodont, or low-crowned, teeth that lack cement. Their [[Dentition|dental formula]] is {{dentition2|3.1.4.3|3.1.3-4.3}} totaling 42 to 44 teeth; this [[dentition]] is closer to that of equids, who may differ by one less canine, than their other perissodactyl relatives, rhinoceroses.<ref>Ballenger, L. and P. Myers. 2001. [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Tapiridae.html "Tapiridae"] (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed June 20, 2006</ref><ref>Huffman, Brent. [http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Perissodactyla.html Order Perissodactyla] at Ultimate Ungulate</ref> Their incisors are chisel-shaped, with the third large, conical upper incisor separated by a short gap from the considerably smaller canine. A much longer gap is found between the canines and premolars, the first of which may be absent.<ref>"[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/P/PE/PERISSODACTYLA.htm PERISSODACTYLA."] LoveToKnow 1911 Online Encyclopedia</ref> Tapirs are lophodonts, and their cheek teeth have distinct lophs (ridges) between protocones, paracones, metacones and hypocones.<ref>Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2006. [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/topics/mammal_anatomy/tooth_diversity.html The Diversity of Cheek Teeth.] The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed June 20, 2006</ref><ref>Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2006. [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/topics/mammal_anatomy/cheek_teeth_structure.html The Basic Structure of Cheek Teeth.] The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed June 20, 2006</ref>

Tapirs have brown eyes, often with a bluish cast to them which has been identified as [[cornea]]l cloudiness, a condition most commonly found in Malayan Tapirs. The exact etiology is unknown, but the cloudiness may be caused by excessive exposure to light or by trauma.<ref>[http://www.tapirback.com/tapirgal/describd.htm Tapirs Described], the Tapir Gallery</ref><ref>Janssen, Donald L., DVM, Dipl ACZM, Bruce A. Rideout, DVM, PhD, Dipl ACVP, Mark E. Edwards, PhD. [http://www.tapirback.com/reprints/aazv1.htm "Medical Management of Captive Tapirs ''(Tapirus sp.)''."] 1996 American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Proceedings. Nov 1996. Puerto Vallarta, Mexico. Pp. 1-11</ref> However, the tapir's sensitive ears and strong sense of smell help to compensate for deficiencies in vision.

==Lifecycle==
Young tapirs reach sexual maturity between three and five years of age, with females maturing earlier than males.<ref>[http://www.zoo.org/educate/fact_sheets/tapir/tapir.htm Woodland Park Zoo Animal Fact Sheet: Malayan Tapir ''(Tapirus indicus)'']</ref> Under good conditions, a healthy female tapir can reproduce every two years; a single youngster is born after a gestation of about 13 months. The natural lifespan of a tapir is approximately 25 to 30 years, both in the wild and in zoos.<ref>Morris, Dale. [http://www.tapirspecialistgroup.org/Downloads/news-articles/WL_MAR05_Tapir_FINAL.pdf “Face to face with big nose.”] ''BBC Wildlife,'' March 2005, page 37.</ref> Apart from mothers and their young offspring, tapirs lead almost exclusively solitary lives.

[[Image:Tapir hooves.jpg|thumbnail|right|The undersides of the front (left, with four toes) and back (right, with three toes) feet of a Malayan tapir at rest]]

==Behavior==
Although they frequently live in dryland forests, tapirs with access to rivers spend a good deal of time in and under the water, feeding on soft vegetation, taking refuge from [[predator]]s, and cooling off during hot periods. Tapirs near a water source will swim, sink to the bottom and walk along the riverbed to feed, and have been known to submerge themselves under water to allow small fish to pick parasites off their bulky bodies.<ref>Morris, page 36.</ref> Along with fresh water lounging, tapirs often wallow in mud pits, which also helps to keep them cool and free of insects.

In the wild, the tapir’s diet consists of [[fruit]], [[berry|berries]], and [[leaf|leaves]], particularly young, tender growth. Tapirs will spend many of their waking hours foraging along well-worn trails, snouts to the ground in search of food. Baird’s Tapirs have been observed to eat around 40 kilograms (85 pounds) of vegetation in one day.<ref>[http://www.tapirback.com/tapirgal/tpf-news/2001/tpfn0107.htm TPF News], Tapir Preservation Fund, Vol. 4, No. 7, July 2001. See section on study by Charles Foerster.</ref>

Tapirs are largely [[nocturnal]] and [[crepuscular]], although the smaller Mountain Tapir of the [[Andes]] is generally more active [[diurnal animal|during the day]] than its [[congener]]s. They have [[monocular vision]].

Copulation may occur in or out of water, and in captivity, mating pairs will often copulate multiple times during oestrus.<ref>[http://www.tapirs.org/Downloads/standards/tapir-TAG-min-hus-guide-eng.doc Minimum Husbandry Standards: Tapiridae (tapirs)]</ref><ref>[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Tapirus_terrestris.html Animal Diversity Web] fact sheet on Tapirus terrestris</ref>
[[Image:TapirAtSDZ.jpg||thumbnail|An adult Malayan Tapir at the San Diego Zoo]]

==Habitat, predation, and vulnerability==
Adult tapirs are large enough that they have few natural predators, and the thick skin on the backs of their necks helps to protect them from threats such as [[jaguar]]s, [[crocodile]]s, [[anaconda]]s, and [[tiger]]s. The creatures are also able to run fairly quickly, considering their size and cumbersome appearance, finding shelter in the thick undergrowth of the forest or in water. Hunting for meat and hides has substantially reduced their numbers and, more recently, massive habitat loss has resulted in the conservation watch-listing of all four species: both the Brazilian Tapir and the Malayan Tapir are classified as vulnerable; and the Baird’s Tapir and the Mountain Tapir are endangered. Tapirs tend to prefer [[old growth forest]]s and the food sources that can be found in them, making the preservation of primary woodlands a top priority for tapir conservationists.

==Evolution and Natural History==
The first tapirids, such as ''[[Heptodon]]'', appeared in the early [[Eocene]].<ref>Ballenger, L. and P. Myers. 2001. [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Tapiridae.html Family Tapiridae] (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed November 22, 2007.</ref> They appeared very similar to modern forms, but were about half the size, and lack the proboscis. The first true tapirs appeared in the [[Oligocene]], and by the [[Miocene]], such genera as ''[[Miotapirus]]'' were almost indistinguishable from the extant species. It is believed that Asian and American tapirs diverged around 20 to 30 million years ago, and that tapirs migrated from North America to South America around 3 million years ago, as part of the [[Great American Interchange]].<ref>Ashley, M.V., Norman, J.E. and Stross, L.: "Phylogenetic analysis of the perissodactylan family tapiridae using mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase (COII) sequences." ''Mammal Evolution.'' 3:315-326, 1996.</ref> For much of their history, tapirs were spread across the northern hemisphere, where they became extinct as recently as 10,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Palmer, D.|year=1999 |title= The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals|publisher= Marshall Editions|location=London|pages= 261|isbn= 1-84028-152-9}}</ref> The species ''T. polkensis'' became extinct duting the Miocene in Asia, while ''T. merriami'', ''veroensis'', ''copei'', and ''californicus'' became extinct during the [[Pleistocene]] in North America.

It is also believed by some scientists that the tapir may have evolved from the [[Hyracotherium]] (primitive horse).<ref>[http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fhc/hyraco3.htm Florida Museum of Natural History Fact Page]</ref>

==Genetics==
[[Image:Tapirbaby.jpg|thumbnail|A baby Brazilian Tapir with spots and stripes characteristic of all juvenile tapirs]]
The five species of tapir have the following [[Chromosome|chromosomal]] numbers:
 
 
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="margin-left:3em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: small" width="243">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th align="left">Malayan Tapir, ''T. indicus''</th><td>2n = 52</td>
</tr><tr>
<th align="left">Mountain Tapir, ''T. pinchaque''</th><td>2n = 76</td>
</tr><tr>
<th align="left">Baird's Tapir, ''T. bairdii''</th><td>2n = 80</td>
</tr><tr>
<th align="left">Brazilian Tapir, ''T. terrestris''</th><td>2n = 80</td>
</tr><tr>
<th align="left">Black Dwarf Lowland Tapir, ''T. pygmaeus''</th><td>?</td>
</tr>
</table>

The Malayan tapir, the species most isolated geographically from the rest of the genus, has a significantly smaller number of chromosomes and has been found to share fewer [[Homology (biology)|homologies]] with the three types of American tapirs. A number of conserved [[autosome]]s (13 between karyotypes of the Baird’s Tapir and Brazilian Tapir, and 15 between the Baird’s and Mountain Tapir) have also been found in the American species that are not found in the Asian animal. However, geographic proximity is not an absolute predictor of genetic similarity; for instance, [[Giemsa|G-banded]] preparations have revealed that Malayan, Baird’s and Brazilian Tapirs have identical [[X chromosome]]s, while Mountain Tapirs are separated by a heterochromatic addition/deletion.<ref>Houck, M.L., S.C. Kingswood, A.T. Kumamoto. [http://content.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=ShowFulltext&ProduktNr=224037&Ausgabe=225363&ArtikelNr=15587 “Comparative cytogenetics of tapirs, genus ''Tapirus'' (''Perissodactyla, Tapiridae'')]. ''Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics'' 2000; 89: 110-115 (DOI: 10.1159/000015587)</ref>

Lack of genetic diversity in tapir populations has become a major source of concern for conservationists. Habitat loss has isolated already small populations of wild tapirs, putting each group in greater danger of dying out completely. Even in zoos, genetic diversity is limited; all captive mountain tapirs, for example, are descended from only two founder individuals.<ref>[http://www.cmzoo.org/mountaintapir.html Mountain Tapir Conservation at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo]</ref>
[[Image:Malayan Tapir Sitting.jpg|thumbnail|right|An adult Malayan Tapir sitting]]

==Conservation==
There are a number of conservation projects around the world. The Tapir Specialist Group, a unit of the IUCN Species Survival Commission, strives to conserve biological diversity by stimulating, developing, and executing practical programs to study, save, restore, and manage the four species of tapir and their remaining habitats in Central and South America and Southeast Asia.<ref>[http://tapirs.org/about-tsg/index-about.html About the Tapir Specialist Group]</ref>

The Baird's Tapir Project of Costa Rica is the longest ongoing tapir project in the world, having started in 1994. It is currently led by Kendra Bauer and involves placing radio collars on tapirs in Costa Rica's Corcovado National Park to study their social systems and habitat preferences.<ref>[http://savetapirs.org/ Baird's Tapir Project of Costa Rica]</ref>

[[27 April]] [[2008]], is [[World Tapir Day]]. The day has been established to raise awareness about the four species of tapir that inhabit Central and South America and South-East Asia.<ref>[http://www.tapirday.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=50&Itemid=28 About World Tapir Day]</ref>

[[Image:Mountain Tapir.jpg|right|thumb|A mountain tapir. These are the most threatened of all the tapirs, and also the most woolly.]]
==Attacks on humans==
Tapirs are generally shy, but when they are scared they can defend themselves with their very powerful jaws. In 1998, a zookeeper in Oklahoma City was mauled and had an arm severed by a tapir bite, after she attempted to feed the attacking tapir's young.<ref>[http://www.igorilla.com/gorilla/animal/tapir_attack_in_Oklahoma_City_PartTwo.html "Woman's arm bitten off in zoo attack"], Associated Press report by Jay Hughes, 20 Nov 1998</ref> In 2006, a 46-year-old man (who was the Environmental Minister at the time) who was lost in the [[Corcovado National Park]] at Costa Rica was found by a search party with a "nasty bite" from a wild tapir.<ref>[http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/N22395861.htm "Lost Costa Rica minister found with tapir bite"], Reuters, 23 Apr 2006 01:11:51 GMT</ref> However, such examples are rare; for the most part, tapirs are likely to avoid confrontation in favor of running from predators, hiding, or, if possible, submerging themselves in nearby water until a threat is gone.<ref>Goudot, Justin. "Nouvelles observations sur le Tapir Pinchaque (Recent Observations on the Tapir Pinchaque)," ''Comptes Rendus,'' Paris 1843, vol. xvi, pages 331-334. Available [http://www.tapirback.com/reprints/goudot1.htm online] with English translation by Tracy Metz. Report contains accounts of wild Mountain Tapirs shying away from human contact at salt deposits after being hunted, and hiding. </ref>

==Cultural references==
{{Trivia|date=June 2008}}
In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Korean language|Korean]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]], the tapir is named after a beast from [[Chinese mythology]]. A feature of this mythical creature is a snout like that of an [[elephant]]. In Japanese folklore, tapirs can eat people's [[dream]]s. In Chinese, the name of this beast, subsequently the name of the tapir, is ''mò'' in [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] and ''mek'' in [[Yue Chinese|Cantonese]] (貘). The Korean equivalent is ''maek'' ([[Hangul]]: 맥, [[Hanja]]: 貊), while it is called ''[[baku (spirit)|baku]]'' (バク) in Japanese. The Chinese [[file hosting service]] [[Mofile]] has been referred to as the tapir by Chinese-speaking users.

The opening scene of the 2006 action-adventure film ''[[Apocalypto]]'' showcased the hunt of a [[Baird's tapir]] by [[Maya]] villagers.<ref>[http://www.tapirs.org/news/interviews/apocalypto-interview.html] The First Tapir Movie Star?</ref>

In the film, [[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]], in a prehistoric scene, a tapir is shown being killed by an ape. The tapir is assumed to represent an unknown primitive mammal in the film as there is no record of tapirs ever existing in Africa <ref>[http://www.tapirback.com/tapirgal/faq.htm]Tapirs in "2001: A Space Odyssey"</ref>.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.tapirs.org IUCN/SSC Tapir Specialist Group]
* [http://www.tapirback.com/tapirgal/ The Tapir Gallery at The Tapir Preservation Fund website]
* [http://www.tapirday.org/ World Tapir Day website]
* [http://www.tapirs.org/ Tapir Specialist Group website]
* [http://savetapirs.org/ Baird's Tapir Project of Costa Rica]

* [http://www.zoonews.ws/IZN/300/Tapir.html In the Name of the Tapir: Confusions and Conclusions] a paper by Stefan Seitz about misidentification of tapirs by zoo visitors, including a zoological description of tapirs in rhyme

{{Perissodactyla}}

[[Category:Odd-toed ungulates]]
[[Category:Tapirs]]

[[gn:Mborevi]]
[[bs:Tapir]]
[[bg:Тапири]]
[[ca:Tapir]]
[[cs:Tapírovití]]
[[de:Tapire]]
[[el:Τάπιρος]]
[[es:Tapirus]]
[[eo:Tapiro]]
[[fr:Tapir]]
[[gl:Tapir]]
[[ko:맥 (동물)]]
[[hr:Tapiri]]
[[io:Tapiro]]
[[it:Tapirus]]
[[he:טפיר]]
[[ka:ტაპირისებრნი]]
[[la:Tapirus]]
[[lv:Tapīri]]
[[lt:Tapyrai]]
[[hu:Tapírfélék]]
[[ms:Tenuk]]
[[nah:Tlalpitzotl]]
[[nl:Tapirs]]
[[ja:バク]]
[[no:Tapirer]]
[[nn:Tapir]]
[[pl:Tapiry]]
[[pt:Anta]]
[[ro:Tapir]]
[[qu:Sach'awaka]]
[[ru:Тапиры]]
[[simple:Tapir]]
[[fi:Tapiirit]]
[[sv:Tapirer]]
[[tl:Tapir]]
[[tr:Tapir]]
[[uk:Тапірові]]
[[vi:Họ Lợn vòi]]
[[yi:טאפיר]]
[[zh:貘]]

Danta, Sikar

2009-06-19T22:38:34Z

163.178.17.124: Danta is a common name for the tapir

{{dablink|Katyusha redirects here. For the animal, see [[Tapir]]}}
{{Unreferenced|date=June 2009}}
'''Danta''' is a village in [[Rajasthan]], [[India]]. Danta Fort is a historical site near the village.

{{Coord missing|India|date=June 2009}}

{{Short pages monitor}}

[[Category:Villages in Rajasthan]]

{{rajasthan-geo-stub}}

House of Lords

2009-06-05T22:52:15Z

163.178.17.124: /* See also */ What does is it even there?

{{otheruses1|the British House of Lords}}
{{Infobox Legislature
| background_color = #BC0101
| text_color = #FFFFFF
| name = The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled
| coa_pic = Crowned Portcullis red.svg
| coa-pic =
| session_room = House of Lords chamber - toward throne.jpg
| house_type = Upper House
| leader1_type = [[Lord Speaker]] 
| leader1 = [[Helene Hayman, Baroness Hayman|Baroness Hayman]]
| party1 = ([[Independent (politician)|Non-affiliated]])
| election1 = 4 July 2006
| leader2_type = [[Leader of the House of Lords|Leader]]
| leader2 = [[Janet Royall, Baroness Royall of Blaisdon|Baroness Royall of Blaisdon]]
| party2 = ([[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]])
| election2=3 October 2008
| leader3_type = [[Official opposition frontbench (UK)|Opposition Leader]]
| leader3 = [[Thomas Galbraith, 2nd Baron Strathclyde|Lord Strathclyde]]
| party3 = ([[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]])
| election3 = 3 December 1998
| members = 738<ref name="lords_composition"/>
| political_groups1 = [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] [[Crossbencher|Cross Benchers]] [[Liberal Democrats]] [[Lords Spiritual]] [[United Kingdom Independence Party]] 11 Non-affiliated peers
| meeting_place = House of Lords Chamber [[Palace of Westminster]] [[Westminster]] London United Kingdom
| website = http://www.parliament.uk/lords/
}}
The '''House of Lords''' (also known as '''House of peers''' for ceremonial purposes) is the upper house of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] and is also commonly referred to as "the Lords". Parliament comprises the [[British monarchy|Sovereign]], the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] (which is the [[lower house]] of Parliament and referred to as "the Commons"), and the Lords. Membership of the House of Lords was once a right of birth to [[hereditary peers]], but following a series of reforms the House now consists almost entirely of appointed members. {{As of|2009|May}} the House of Lords has 738 members, 92 more than the 646 seat House of Commons.<ref name="lords_composition">{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.uk/directories/house_of_lords_information_office/analysis_by_composition.cfm |title=House of Lords: Breakdown of Lords by party strength and type of peerage |accessdate=2009-01-19 |date=2009-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.uk/directories/hcio/stateparties.cfm |title=House of Commons: State of the parties |accessdate=2009-01-19|date=2008-11-21}}</ref> The House of Lords, like the House of Commons, assembles in the [[Palace of Westminster]].

The full, formal title of the House of Lords is '''The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled'''. {{Fact|date=May 2009}}

==History==
Today's Parliament of the United Kingdom largely descends, in practice, from the [[Parliament of England]], though the 1706 [[Treaty of Union]] and the [[Acts of Union, 1707|Acts of Union]] that ratified the Treaty created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the [[Parliament of Scotland]]. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland.

The Parliament of England developed from the council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, and representatives of the [[Counties of the United Kingdom|counties]] (afterwards, representatives of the [[Parliamentary borough|boroughs]] as well). The first Parliament is often considered to be the "[[Model Parliament]]" (held in 1295), which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined. For example, during much of the reign of [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] (1307–1327), the [[nobility]] was supreme, the [[The Crown|Crown]] weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1322, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, but by an authoritative statute, passed by Parliament itself. Further developments occurred during the reign of Edward II's successor, [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]. Most importantly, it was during this King's reign that Parliament clearly separated into two distinct chambers: the House of Commons (consisting of the shire and borough representatives) and the House of Lords (consisting of the senior clergy and the nobility). The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the early fifteenth century, both Houses exercised powers to an extent not seen before. The Lords were far more powerful than the Commons because of the great influence of the aristocrats and prelates of the realm.

The power of the nobility suffered a decline during the civil wars of the late fifteenth century, known as the [[Wars of the Roses]]. Much of the nobility was killed on the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown. Moreover, [[feudalism]] was dying, and the [[feudal]] armies controlled by the [[barons]] became obsolete. Henry VII (1485-1509) clearly established the supremacy of the monarch, symbolised by the 'Crown Imperial'. The domination of the Sovereign continued to grow during the reigns of the [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor monarchs]] in the 16th century. The Crown was at the height of its power during the reign of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] (1509-1547).

The House of Lords remained more powerful than the House of Commons, but the Lower House did continue to grow in influence, reaching a zenith in relation to the House of Lords during the middle 17th century. Conflicts between the King and the Parliament (for the most part, the House of Commons) ultimately led to the [[English Civil War]] during the 1640s. In 1649, after the defeat and execution of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]], a republic (the [[Commonwealth of England]]) was declared, but the nation was effectively under the overall control of [[Oliver Cromwell]], Lord Protector of England. The House of Lords was reduced to a largely powerless body, with Cromwell and his supporters in the Commons dominating the Government. On 19 March 1649, the House of Lords was abolished by an Act of Parliament, which declared that "The Commons of England [find] by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.constitution.org/eng/conpur089.htm |title=An Act abolishing the House of Lords |accessdate=2008-05-24 |date=1649-03-19}}</ref> The House of Lords did not assemble again until the [[Convention Parliament]] met in 1660 and the monarchy was restored. It returned to its former position as the more powerful chamber of Parliament—a position it would occupy until the 19th century.

[[File:Passing of the Parliament Bill, 1911 - Project Gutenberg eText 19609.jpg|400px|thumb|right| An important vote: the House of Lords voting for the [[Parliament Act 1911]].]]

The 19th century was marked by several changes to the House of Lords. The House, once a body of only about 50 members, had been greatly enlarged by the liberality of [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] and his successors in creating peerages. The individual influence of a Lord of Parliament was thus diminished. Moreover, the power of the House as a whole experienced a decrease, whilst that of the House of Commons grew. Particularly notable in the development of the Lower House's superiority was the [[Reform Act 1832|Reform Bill of 1832]]. The electoral system of the House of Commons was not, at the time, democratic: property qualifications greatly restricted the size of the electorate, and the boundaries of many constituencies had not been changed for centuries. Entire cities such as [[Manchester]] were not represented by a single individual in the House of Commons, but the 11 voters of [[Old Sarum]] retained their ancient right to elect two Members of Parliament. A small borough was susceptible to bribery, and was often under the control of a patron, whose nominee was guaranteed to win an election. Some aristocrats were patrons of numerous "[[rotten borough|pocket boroughs]]", and therefore controlled a considerable part of the membership of the House of Commons.

When, in 1831, the House of Commons passed a Reform Bill to correct some of these anomalies, the House of Lords rejected the proposal. The popular cause of reform, however, was not abandoned by the ministry, despite a second rejection of the bill in the Lords in 1832. The Prime Minister, [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey|Earl Grey]], then advised the King to overwhelm the opposition to the bill in the House of Lords by creating about 80 new pro-Reform peers. [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]] originally balked at the proposal, which effectively threatened the opposition of the House of Lords, but at length relented. Before the new peers were created, however, the Lords who opposed the bill admitted defeat, and abstained from the vote, allowing the passage of the bill. The crisis damaged the political influence of the House of Lords, but did not altogether end it. Over the course of the century, however, the power of the Upper House experienced further erosion, and the Commons gradually became the stronger House of Parliament.

[[Image:LloydGeorge.JPG|150px|thumb|right|The rejection of the [[People's Budget]], proposed by [[David Lloyd George]] (above), precipitated a political crisis in 1909.]]
The status of the House of Lords returned to the forefront of debate after the election of a Liberal Government in 1906. In 1909, the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], [[David Lloyd George]], introduced into the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] the "[[People's Budget]]", which proposed a land tax targeting wealthy landowners. The popular measure, however, was defeated in the heavily Conservative House of Lords. Having made the powers of the House of Lords a primary campaign issue, the Liberals were narrowly re-elected in January 1910. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the House of Lords be severely curtailed. After a general election in December 1910, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords. The [[Parliament Act 1911]] effectively abolished the power of the House of Lords to reject legislation, or to amend in a way unacceptable to the House of Commons: most bills could be delayed for no more than three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years. It was not meant to be a permanent solution; more comprehensive reforms were planned. Neither party, however, pursued the matter with much enthusiasm, and the House of Lords remained primarily hereditary. In 1949, the Parliament Act reduced the delaying power of the House of Lords further to two sessions or one year.

In 1958, the predominantly hereditary nature of the House of Lords was changed by the [[Life Peerages Act 1958]], which authorised the creation of life baronies, with no numerical limits. The number of Life Peers then gradually increased, though not at a constant rate.

The Labour Party had for most of the twentieth century a commitment, based on the party's historic opposition to class privilege, to abolish the House of Lords, or at least expel the hereditary element. In 1968, the Labour Government of [[Harold Wilson]] attempted to reform the House of Lords by introducing a system under which hereditary peers would be allowed to remain in the House and take part in debate, but would be unable to vote. This plan, however, was defeated in the House of Commons by a coalition of traditionalist Conservatives (such as [[Enoch Powell]]), and Labour members who continued to advocate the outright abolition of the Upper House (such as [[Michael Foot]]). When Michael Foot attained the leadership of the Labour Party, abolition of the House of Lords became a part of the party's agenda; under [[Neil Kinnock]], however, a reformed Upper House was proposed instead. In the meantime, the creation of hereditary peerages (except for members of the Royal Family) has been arrested, with the exception of three creations during the administration of the Conservative [[Margaret Thatcher]] in the 1980s.

Whilst some hereditary peers were at best apathetic the Labour Party's clear commitments were not lost on [[Merlin Hanbury-Tracy, 7th Baron Sudeley|Baron Sudeley]] who for decades had been considered an expert on the House of Lords. In December 1979 the [[Conservative Monday Club]] published his extensive paper entitled ''Lords Reform - Why tamper with the House of Lords?'' and in July 1980 [[International Monarchist League|''The Monarchist'']] (no. 57, p.27 - 34) carried another article by Lord Sudeley entitled ''Why Reform or Abolish the House of Lords?''. In 1990 he authored a further booklet for The Monday Club entitled ''The Preservation of the House of Lords''.

The Labour Party included in its 1997 General Election [[Manifesto]] a commitment to remove the hereditary peerage from the House of Lords. Their subsequent election victory in 1997 under [[Tony Blair]] finally heralded the demise of the traditional House of Lords. The Labour Government introduced legislation to expel all hereditary peers from the Upper House as a first step in Lords reform. As a part of a compromise, however, it agreed to permit 92 hereditary peers to remain until the reforms were complete. Thus all but 92 hereditary peers were expelled under the [[House of Lords Act 1999]] (see below for its provisions), making the House of Lords predominantly an appointed house.

Since 1999 however, no further reform has taken place (see [[Lords Reform]]). The [[Wakeham Commission]] proposed introducing a 20% elected element to the Lords, but this plan was widely criticised. A [[Joint Committee]] was established in 2001 to resolve the issue, but it reached no conclusion and instead gave Parliament seven options to choose from (fully appointed, 20% elected, 40% elected, 50% elected, 60% elected, 80%, and fully elected). In a confusing series of votes in February 2003, all of these options were defeated although the 80% elected option fell by just three votes in the Commons. Socialist MPs favouring outright abolition voted against all the options.

In 2005 a cross-party group of senior MPs ([[Ken Clarke]], [[Paul Tyler]], [[Tony Wright (Staffordshire politician)|Tony Wright]], [[Sir George Young, 6th Baronet|Sir George Young]] and the late [[Robin Cook]]) published a report proposing that 70% of members of the House of Lords should be elected - each member for a single long term - by the [[single transferable vote]] system. Most of the remainder were to be appointed by a Commission to ensure a mix of "skills, knowledge and experience". This proposal was also not implemented. A cross-party campaign initiative called "[[Elect the Lords]]" was set up to make the case for a predominantly elected Second Chamber in the run up to the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]].

At the 2005 election, the Labour Party proposed further reform of the Lords, but without specific details. The Conservative Party, which had, prior to 1997, opposed any tampering with the House of Lords, favoured an 80% elected Second Chamber, while the Liberal Democrats called for a fully elected [[Senate]]. During 2006, a cross-party committee discussed Lords reform, with the aim of reaching a consensus: its [[Reform of the House of Lords#2007 white paper|findings]] were published in early 2007.

On 7 March 2007, Members of the House of Commons voted ten times on a variety of alternative compositions for the upper chamber. Outright abolition, a wholly appointed house, a 20% elected house, a 40% elected house, a 50% elected house and a 60% elected house were all defeated in turn. Finally the vote for an 80% elected chamber was won by 305 votes to 267, and the vote for a wholly elected chamber was won by an even greater margin: 337 to 224. Significantly this last vote represented an overall majority of MPs, giving it huge political authority. Furthermore, examination of the names of MPs voting at each division shows that, of the 305 who voted for the 80% elected option, 211 went on to vote for the 100% elected option. Given that this vote took place after the vote on 80% – whose result was already known when the vote on 100% took place – this shows a clear preference for a fully elected upper house among those who voted for the only other option that passed. But this was nevertheless only an indicative vote and many political and legislative hurdles remained to be overcome for supporters of an elected second chamber. The House of Lords, soon after, rejected this proposal and voted for an entirely appointed House of Lords. In July 2008 [[Jack Straw]], the [[Secretary of State for Justice]] and [[Lord Chancellor]], introduced a [[white paper]] to the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] proposing to replace the House of Lords with an 80-100% elected chamber, with one third being elected at each general election, for a term of approximately 12–15 years. The [[white paper]] states that as the peerage would be totally separated from membership of the upper house, the name "House of Lords" would no longer be appropriate: It goes on to explain that there is cross-party consensus for the new chamber to be titled the Senate, however in order to ensure the debate remains on the role of the upper house rather than its title, the white paper is neutral on the title of the new house.

==Lords Spiritual==
{{PoliticsUK}}
{{main|Lords Spiritual}}
Members of the House of Lords who sit by virtue of their ecclesiastical offices are known as Lords Spiritual. Formerly, the Lords Spiritual were the majority in the House of Lords, including the [[Church of England]]'s [[archbishop]]s, [[bishop|diocesan bishops]], [[abbot]]s, and [[prior]]s. After 1539, however, only the archbishops and bishops continued to attend, for the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] suppressed the positions of abbot and prior. In 1642, during the [[English Civil War]], the Lords Spiritual were excluded altogether, but they returned under the [[Clergy Act 1661]]. The number of Lords Spiritual was further restricted by the [[Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847]], and by later acts. Now, there can be no more than 26 Lords Spiritual, always including the five most ancient dioceses of the Church: the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], the [[Archbishop of York]], the [[Bishop of London]], the [[Bishop of Durham]], and the [[Bishop of Winchester]]. Membership of the House of Lords also extends to the 21 longest-serving other diocesan bishops of the Church of England.

The [[Church of Scotland]] is not represented by any Lords Spiritual; being a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] institution, it has no archbishops or bishops. The [[Church of Ireland]] did obtain representation in the House of Lords after the union of Ireland and Great Britain in 1801. Of the Church of Ireland's ecclesiastics, four (one archbishop and three bishops) were to sit at any one time, with the members rotating at the end of every parliamentary session (which normally lasted approximately one year). The Church of Ireland, however, was disestablished in 1871, and ceased to be represented by Lords Spiritual. The same is true for the [[Church in Wales]] which was disestablished in 1920. The current Lords Spiritual, therefore, represent only the Church of England.

Other ecclesiastics have sat in the House of Lords in recent times: [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], while he was [[Chief Rabbi]], was appointed to the House of Lords with the consent of the Queen, who acted on the advice of Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]]. In recognition of his work at reconciliation and in the [[Northern Ireland peace process|Peace Process]], the [[Archbishop of Armagh (Church of Ireland)|Archbishop of Armagh]] (the senior Anglican bishop in [[Northern Ireland]]), [[Lord Eames]] was appointed to the Lords by [[John Major]]. Other clergymen appointed include Reverend [[Donald Soper]], Reverend [[Timothy Beaumont]], and some Scottish clerics. There have been no [[Roman Catholic]] clergymen appointed, though it was rumoured that [[Basil Cardinal Hume|Cardinal Basil Hume]] was offered a peerage, but refused, and accepted instead the [[Order of Merit (Commonwealth)|Order of Merit]], a personal appointment of the Queen, shortly before his death. Roman Catholics who have received Holy Orders are forbidden by [[Canon Law]] from holding offices connected with the government of any state other than the Holy See, so it is unlikely that any Catholic cleric will ever sit in the House of Lords.

In practice, although the Free Churches have never been represented by right in the Lords, some [[Methodist]] and other ministers sit as [[Lords Temporal]]. Other clerics such as the [[Chief Rabbi]] are also often elevated as [[Lords Temporal]]; and indeed the heads of various professions and learned societies, and notably the military, academic and legal professions, are customarily considered.

==Lords Temporal==
Since the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], the Lords Temporal have been the most numerous group in the House of Lords. Unlike the Lords Spiritual, they may be publicly partisan, aligning themselves with one or another of the political parties that dominate the House of Commons. Publicly non-partisan Lords are called [[cross-bencher]]s. Originally, the Lords Temporal included several hundred hereditary peers (that is, those whose peerages may be inherited), who ranked variously as [[duke]]s, [[marquess]]es, [[earl]]s, [[viscount]]s, and [[baron]]s (as well as Scottish [[Lords of Parliament]]). Such hereditary dignities can be created by the Crown, in modern times on the advice of the Prime Minister of the day.

In 1999, the Labour government brought forward the House of Lords Act expelling several hundred hereditary peers from the House. The Act provided a temporary measure that only 92 individuals may continue to sit in the Upper House by virtue of hereditary peerages.
Two hereditary peers remain in the House of Lords because they hold hereditary offices connected with Parliament: the [[Earl Marshal#England|Earl Marshal]] and the [[Lord Great Chamberlain]]. Of the remaining 90 hereditary peers in the House of Lords, 15 are elected by the whole House. Seventy-five hereditary peers are chosen by fellow hereditary in the House of Lords, grouped by party. The number of peers to be chosen by a party reflects the proportion of hereditary peers that belongs to that party (see [[#Current composition|current composition]] below). When an elected hereditary peer dies, a by-election is held, with a variant of the [[Alternative Vote]] system being used. If the recently deceased hereditary peer was elected by the whole House, then so is his or her replacement; a hereditary peer elected by a specific party is replaced by a vote of elected hereditary peers belonging to that party (whether elected as part of that party group or by the whole house).

The Lords Temporal also include the [[Lords of Appeal in Ordinary]], a group of individuals appointed to the House of Lords so that they may exercise its judicial functions. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, more commonly known as Law Lords, were first appointed under the [[Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876]]. They are selected by the Prime Minister, but are formally appointed by the Sovereign. A Lord of Appeal in Ordinary must retire at the age of 70, or, if his or her term is extended by the government, at the age of 75; after reaching such an age, the Law Lord cannot hear any further legal cases. The number of Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (excluding those who are no longer able to hear cases because of age restrictions) is limited to twelve, but may be changed by [[statutory instrument]]. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary traditionally do not participate in political debates, so as to maintain judicial independence. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary hold seats in the House of Lords for life, remaining members even after reaching the judicial retirement age of 70 or 75. Former Lord Chancellors and holders of other high judicial office may also sit as Law Lords under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, although in practice this right is infrequently exercised. After the coming into force of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the existing Lords of Appeal in Ordinary will become judges of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and will be barred from sitting or voting until they retire as judges. One of the main justifications for the new Supreme Court was the establish a separation of powers between the judiciary and the legislature. It is therefore unlikely that future appointees to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom will be made Lords of Appeal in Ordinary.

The largest group of Lords Temporal, and indeed of the whole House, are [[life peer]]s. Life peers with seats in the House of Lords rank only as barons or baronesses, and are created under the [[Life Peerages Act 1958]]. Like all other peers, life peers are created by the Sovereign, who acts on the advice of the Prime Minister. By convention, however, the Prime Minister allows leaders of other parties to select some life peers so as to maintain a political balance in the House of Lords. Moreover, some non-party life peers (the number being determined by the Prime Minister) are nominated by an independent House of Lords Appointments Commission. If an hereditary peer also holds a life peerage, he or she remains a member of the House of Lords without a need for an election. In 2000, the government announced it would set up an Independent Appointments Commission, under [[Lord Stevenson of Coddenham]], to select fifteen so-called "People's Peers" for life peerages. However, when the choices were announced in April 2001, from a list of 3,000 applicants, the choices were treated with criticism in the media, as all were distinguished in their field, and none were "ordinary people" as some had originally hoped.

In many historical instances, some peers were not permitted to sit in the Upper House. When Scotland united with England to form Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that the Scottish hereditary peers would only be able to elect 16 representative peers to sit in the House of Lords; the term of a representative was to extend until the next general election. A similar provision was enacted in respect of Ireland when that kingdom merged with Great Britain in 1801; the Irish peers were allowed to elect 28 representatives, who were to retain office for life. Elections for Irish representatives ended in 1922, when most of Ireland became an independent state; elections for Scottish representatives ended with the passage of the [[Peerage Act 1963]], under which all Scottish peers obtained seats in the Upper House.

==Qualifications==

Several different qualifications apply for membership of the House of Lords. No person may sit in the House of Lords if under the age of 21.<ref name="standing_orders1">{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld/ldstords/ldstords.htm |title=The Standing Orders of the House of Lords relating to Public Business |accessdate=2008-05-19 |date=2007-07-16|publisher=[[The Stationery Office]]}}</ref> Furthermore, only [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] citizens and citizens of the [[Republic of Ireland]] may sit in the House of Lords. The nationality restrictions were previously more stringent: under the [[Act of Settlement 1701]], and prior to the [[British Nationality Act 1948]], only natural-born subjects were qualified.

Additionally, some [[bankruptcy]]-related restrictions apply to members of the Upper House. A person may not sit in the House of Lords if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland). A final restriction bars an individual convicted of [[high treason]] from sitting in the House of Lords until completing his or her full term of imprisonment. An exception applies, however, if the individual convicted of high treason receives a full pardon. Note that an individual serving a prison sentence for an offence other than high treason is ''not'' automatically disqualified.

Finally, some qualifications apply only in the case of the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary. No person may be created a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary unless he or she has either held "high judicial office" for two years, or has been a practising [[barrister]] for fifteen years. The term "high judicial office" encompasses membership of the [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales]], of the [[Court of Session|Inner House of the Court of Session]] (Scotland), or of the [[Court of Appeal in Northern Ireland]].
Women were excluded from the House of Lords until the Life Peerages Act, passed in 1958 to address the declining number of active members, facilitated the creation of peerages for life. Women were immediately eligible and four were among the first life peers appointed. However, hereditary peeresses continued to be excluded until the passage of the Peerage Act 1963. Since the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999, hereditary peeresses remain eligible for election to the Upper House; there are three among the 92 hereditary who continue to sit.

==Officers==
Traditionally the House of Lords did not elect its own speaker, unlike the House of Commons; rather, the ''ex officio'' presiding officer was the [[Lord Chancellor]]. With the passage of the [[Constitutional Reform Act 2005]], the post of [[Lord Speaker]] was created, a position to which a peer is elected by the House and subsequently appointed by [[The Crown]]. The first Lord Speaker, elected on 4 May 2006, is [[Helene Hayman, Baroness Hayman|Baroness Hayman]], a former Labour peer. As the Speaker is expected to be an impartial presiding officer, Baroness Hayman has resigned from the Labour Party.

This reform of the post of Lord Chancellor was made due to the perceived constitutional anomalies inherent in the role. The Lord Chancellor was not only the Speaker of the House of Lords, but also a member of the Cabinet; his or her department, formerly the Lord Chancellor's Department, is now called the Ministry of Justice. The Lord Chancellor is no longer the head of the judiciary of England and Wales. Hitherto, the Lord Chancellor was part of all three branches of government: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The overlap of the legislative and executive roles is a characteristic of the [[Westminster system]], as the entire cabinet consists of members of the House of Commons or the House of Lords; however, in June 2003, the Blair Government announced its intention to abolish the post of Lord Chancellor because of the office's mixed executive and judicial responsibilities. The abolition of the office was rejected by the House of Lords, and the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 was thus amended to preserve the office of Lord Chancellor. The Act no longer guarantees that the office holder of Lord Chancellor is the presiding officer of the House of Lords, and therefore allows the House of Lords to elect a speaker of their own.

[[Image:Charles Pepys, 1st Earl of Cottenham by Charles Robert Leslie.jpg|thumb|left|The Lord Chancellor wore black and gold robes whilst presiding over the House of Lords.]]
The Lord Speaker may be replaced as presiding officer by one of his or her deputies. The Chairman of Committees, the Principal Deputy Chairman of Committees, and several Deputy Chairmen of Committees are all deputies to the Lord Speaker, and are all appointed by the House of Lords itself. By custom, the Crown appoints each Chairman, Principal Deputy Chairman, or Deputy Chairman to the additional office of Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords. There was previously no legal requirement that the Lord Chancellor or a Deputy Speaker be a member of the House of Lords, though the same has long been customary; thus the Woolsack upon which the Lord Chancellor sat was notionally not in the House of Lords, although situated in the middle of it.

Whilst presiding over the House of Lords, the Lord Chancellor traditionally wore ceremonial black and gold robes. This is no longer a requirement for the Speaker except for State occasions outside of the chamber. The Speaker or Deputy Speaker sits on the [[Woolsack]], a large red seat stuffed with wool, at the front of the Lords Chamber. When the House of Lords resolves itself into committee (see below), the Chairman or a Deputy Chairman presides, not from the Woolsack, but from a chair at the Table of the House. The presiding officer has little power compared to the [[Speaker of the United Kingdom House of Commons|Speaker of the House of Commons]]. He or she only acts as the mouthpiece of the House, performing duties such as announcing the results of votes. This is because, unlike in the House of Commons where all statements are directed to "Mr/Madam Speaker", in the House of Lords they are directed to "My Lords", i.e. the entire body of the House. The Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker cannot determine which members may speak, or discipline members for violating the rules of the House; these measures may be taken only by the House itself. Unlike the politically neutral Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor and Deputy Speakers originally remained members of their respective parties, and may participate in debate, however this is no longer true of the new role of Lord Speaker.

Another officer of the body is the [[Leader of the House of Lords]], a peer selected by the Prime Minister. The Leader of the House is responsible for steering Government bills through the House of Lords, and is a member of the Cabinet. The Leader also advises the House on proper procedure when necessary, but such advice is merely informal, rather than official and binding. A Deputy Leader is also appointed by the Prime Minister, and takes the place of an absent or unavailable Leader.

The [[Clerk of the Parliaments]] is the chief clerk and officer of the House of Lords (but is not a member of the House itself). The Clerk, who is appointed by the Crown, advises the presiding officer on the rules of the House, signs orders and official communications, endorses bills, and is the keeper of the official records of both Houses of Parliament. Moreover, the Clerk of the Parliaments is responsible for arranging by-elections of hereditary peers when necessary. The deputies of the Clerk of the Parliaments (the Clerk Assistant and the Reading Clerk) are appointed by the Lord Speaker, subject to the House's approval.

The [[Black Rod|Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod]] is also an officer of the House; he takes his title from the symbol of his office, a black rod. Black Rod (as the Gentleman Usher is normally known) is responsible for ceremonial arrangements, is in charge of the House's doorkeepers, and may (upon the order of the House) take action to end disorder or disturbance in the Chamber. Black Rod also holds the office of [[Serjeant-at-Arms]] of the House of Lords, and in this capacity attends upon the Lord Speaker. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod's duties may be delegated to the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod or to the Assistant Sergeant-at-Arms.

==Procedure==
[[Image:House of Lords.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Benches in the House of Lords Chamber are coloured red. In contrast, the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] is decorated in green.]]
:''See also the [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom#Stages of a bill|stages of a bill]] section in [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom]]''

The House of Lords and the House of Commons assemble in the [[Palace of Westminster]]. The Lords Chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modestly furnished Commons Chamber. Benches in the Lords Chamber are coloured red; thus, the House of Lords is sometimes referred to as the "Red Chamber". The Woolsack is at the front of the Chamber; supporters of the Government sit on benches on the right of the Woolsack, while members of the Opposition sit on the left. Neutral members, known as [[Cross-bencher]]s, sit on the benches immediately opposite the Woolsack.

The Lords Chamber is the site of many formal ceremonies, the most famous of which is the [[State Opening of Parliament]], held at the beginning of each new parliamentary session. During the State Opening, the [[British monarchy|Sovereign]], seated on the Throne in the Lords Chamber and in the presence of both Houses of Parliament, delivers a speech outlining the Government's agenda for the upcoming parliamentary session.

In the House of Lords, members need not seek the recognition of the presiding officer before speaking, as is done in the House of Commons. If two or more Lords simultaneously rise to speak, the House decides which one is to be heard by acclamation, or, if necessary, by voting on a motion. Often, however, the Leader of the House will suggest an order, which is thereafter generally followed. Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole ("My Lords") rather than to the presiding officer alone (as is the custom in the Lower House). Members may not refer to each other in the second person (as "you"), but rather use third person forms such as "the noble Duke", "the noble Earl", "the noble Lord", "my noble friend", "The most Reverend Primate" etc.

Each member may make no more than one speech on a motion, except that the mover of the motion may make one speech at the beginning of the debate and another at the end. Speeches are not subject to any time limits in the House; however, the House may put an end to a speech by approving a motion "that the noble Lord be no longer heard". It is also possible for the House to end the debate entirely, by approving a motion "that the Question be now put". This procedure is known as [[cloture|Closure]], and is extremely rare.

Once all speeches on a motion have concluded, or Closure invoked, the motion may be put to a vote. The House first votes by [[voice vote]]; the Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and the Lords respond either "Content" (in favour of the motion) or "Not-Content" (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his assessment is challenged by any Lord, a recorded vote known as a [[division (vote)|division]] follows. Members of the House enter one of two lobbies (the "Content" lobby or the "Not-Content" lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the Lords. The Lord Speaker may not take part in the vote. Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results thereof to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the motion is decided according to the following principles: legislation may proceed in its present form, unless there is a majority in favour of amending or rejecting it; any other motions are rejected, unless there is a majority in favour of approving it. The [[quorum]] of the House of Lords is just three members for a general or procedural vote, and 30 members for a vote on legislation. If fewer than three or 30 members (as appropriate) are present, the division is invalid.

==Committees==
The Parliament of the United Kingdom uses committees for a variety of purposes; one common use is for the review of bills. Committees of both Houses consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. In the House of Lords, the committee most commonly used for the consideration of bills is the Committee of the Whole House, which, as its name suggests, includes all members of the House. The Committee meets in the Lords Chamber, and is presided over not by the Lord Speaker, but by the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman. Different procedural rules apply in the Committee of the Whole House than in normal sessions of the Lords; in particular, members are allowed to make more than one speech each on a motion. Similar to the Committee of the Whole House are the Grand Committees, bodies in which any member of the House may participate. A Grand Committee does not meet in the Lords Chamber, but in a separate committee room. No divisions are held in Grand Committees, and any amendments to the bill require the unanimous consent of the body. Hence, the Grand Committee procedure is used only for uncontroversial bills.

Bills may also be committed to Public Bill Committees, which consist of between twelve and sixteen members each. A Public Bill Committee is specifically constituted for a particular bill. A bill may also be referred to a Special Public Bill Committee, which, unlike the Public Bill Committee, has the power to hold hearings and collect evidence. These committees are used much less frequently than the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees.

The House of Lords also has several [[Select Committee (Westminster System)|Select Committees]]. The members of these committees are appointed by the House at the beginning of each session, and continue to serve until the next parliamentary session begins. The House of Lords may appoint a chairman for a committee; if it does not do so, the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees may preside instead. Most Select Committees are permanent, but the House may also establish ''ad hoc'' committees, which cease to exist upon the completion of a particular task (for instance, investigating the reform of the House of Lords). The primary function of Select Committees is to scrutinise and investigate Government activities; to fulfil these aims, they are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Select Committees, but are more often sent to the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees.

The committee system of the House of Lords also includes several Domestic Committees, which supervise or consider the House's procedures and administration. One of the Domestic Committees is the Committee of Selection, which is responsible for assigning members to many of the House's other committees.

==Legislative functions==
{{see|Act of Parliament}}
[[Image:Palace of Westminster, London - Feb 2007.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The House of Lords meets in a lavishly decorated chamber, in [[Gothic architecture|the Gothic style]], in the Palace of Westminster (above).]]Most legislation may be introduced in either House, but, most commonly, is introduced in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]].

The power of the Lords to reject a bill passed by the House of Commons is severely restricted by the Parliament Acts. Under those Acts, certain types of bills may be presented for the [[Royal Assent]] without the consent of the House of Lords. The House of Lords cannot delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Other public bills cannot be delayed by the House of Lords for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons, and cannot have the effect of extending a parliamentary term beyond five years. A further restriction is a [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]] known as the [[Salisbury Convention]], which means that the House of Lords does not oppose legislation promised in the Government's election [[manifesto]].

By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, the House of Lords is further restrained insofar as financial bills are concerned. The House of Lords may neither originate a bill concerning taxation or Supply (supply of treasury or exchequer funds), nor amend a bill so as to insert a taxation or Supply-related provision. (The House of Commons, however, often waives its privileges and allows the Upper House to make amendments with financial implications.) Moreover, the Upper House may not amend any Supply Bill. The House of Lords formerly maintained the absolute power to reject a bill relating to revenue or Supply, but this power was curtailed by the Parliament Acts, as aforementioned.

Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the more powerful chamber of Parliament.

In March 2006, it was reported that, among other reforms, the Government are considering removing the ability of the Lords to delay legislation that arises as a result of manifesto commitments, and reducing their ability to delay other legislation to a period of 60 days.<ref>[http://www.epolitix.com/EN/News/200603/7f27b9d4-9773-4234-9c<A class=htc href="LiveCall:<A class=htc href="LiveCall:93-8014445">93-8014445</A>">93-8014445</A>fef7a.htm ePolitix.com - Lords reform moves up the agenda]</ref>

==Judicial functions==
{{main|Judicial functions of the House of Lords}}

The judicial functions of the House of Lords originate from the ancient role of the [[Curia Regis]] as a body that addressed the petitions of the King's subjects.

The judicial functions of the House of Lords are exercised not by the whole House, but by a committee of "Law Lords". The bulk of the House's judicial business is conducted by the twelve Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, who are specifically appointed for this purpose under the [[Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876]]. The judicial functions may also be exercised by Lords of Appeal (other members of the House who happen to have held high judicial office). No Lord of Appeal in Ordinary or Lord of Appeal may sit judicially beyond the age of seventy-five. The judicial business of the Lords is supervised by the Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary and his or her deputy, the Second Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary.

The jurisdiction of the House of Lords extends, in civil and in criminal cases, to appeals from the courts of England and Wales, and of Northern Ireland. From Scotland, appeals are possible only in civil cases; Scotland's [[High Court of Justiciary]] is the highest court in criminal matters. The House of Lords is not the United Kingdom's only court of last resort; in some cases, the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] performs such a function. The jurisdiction of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom, however, is narrower than that of the House of Lords; it encompasses appeals from [[ecclesiastical]] courts, issues related to [[devolution]], disputes under the [[House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975]], and a few other minor matters.

Not all Law Lords sit to hear cases; rather, since [[World War II]] cases have been heard by panels known as Appellate Committees, each of which normally consists of five members (selected by the Senior Lord). An Appellate Committee hearing an important case may consist of even more members. Though Appellate Committees meet in separate committee rooms, judgement is given in the Lords Chamber itself. No further appeal lies from the House of Lords, although the House of Lords may refer a "preliminary question" to the [[European Court of Justice]] in cases involving an element of [[European Union law]], and a case can be brought at the [[European Court of Human Rights]] if the House of Lords does not provide a satisfactory remedy in cases where the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] is relevant.

A distinct judicial function—one in which the whole House, rather than just the Law Lords, may participate—is that of trying [[impeachment]]s. Impeachments were brought by the House of Commons, and tried in the House of Lords; a conviction required only a majority of the Lords voting. Impeachments, however, are to all intents and purposes obsolete; the last impeachment was that of [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville]] in 1806.

Similarly, the House of Lords was once the court that tried peers charged with high [[treason]] or [[felony]]. The House would be presided over not by the [[Lord Chancellor]], but by the [[Lord High Steward]], an official especially appointed for the occasion of the trial. If Parliament was not in session, then peers could be tried in a separate court, known as the Lord High Steward's Court. Only peers, their wives, and their widows (unless remarried) were entitled to [[List of trials of peers in the House of Lords|trials in the House of Lords or the Lord High Steward's Court]]; the Lords Spiritual were tried in Ecclesiastical Courts. In 1948, the right of peers to be tried in such special courts was abolished; now, they are tried in the regular courts. The last such trial in the House was of [[Edward Southwell Russell, 26th Baron de Clifford]] in 1935.

The [[Constitutional Reform Act 2005]] will lead to the creation of a separate [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]], to which the judicial function of the House of Lords, and some of the judicial functions of the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], will be transferred. In addition, the office of Lord Chancellor has been reformed by the act, to remove his ability to act as both a government minister and a judge. This is motivated in part by concerns that the historical admixture of legislative, judicial, and executive power, may not be in conformance with the requirements of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (a judicial officer having legislative or executive power not being likely to be considered sufficiently impartial to provide a fair trial), and in any case are considered undesirable according to modern constitutional theory concerning the separation of powers. The new Supreme Court will be located in [[Middlesex Guildhall]].

==Disciplinary powers==

By contrast with the House of Commons, the House of Lords has not had an established procedure for putting sanctions on its members. When the [[Cash for Influence]] scandal was referred to the Committee of Privileges in January 2009, the [[Leader of the House of Lords]] also asked the Privileges Committee to report on what sanctions the House had against its members.<ref name="Reference to committee">"[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200809/ldselect/ldprivi/87/8703.htm The Powers of the House of Lords in respect of its Members]", First Report of the Privileges Committee in session 2008-09, paragraph 2.</ref> After seeking advice from the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] and the former [[Lord Chancellor]] [[James Mackay, Baron Mackay of Clashfern|Lord Mackay of Clashfern]], the committee decided that the House "possessed an inherent power" to suspend errant members, although not to withhold a [[Writ of summons]] nor to expel a member permanently.<ref name="Powers of suspension">"[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200809/ldselect/ldprivi/87/8703.htm The Powers of the House of Lords in respect of its Members]", First Report of the Privileges Committee in session 2008-09, paragraph 8.</ref> When the House subsequently suspended [[Peter Truscott, Baron Truscott|Lord Truscott]] and [[Thomas Taylor, Baron Taylor of Blackburn|Lord Taylor of Blackburn]] for their role in the scandal, they were the first to meet this fate since 1642.<ref name="Taylor and Truscott suspended">Andrew Sparrow, "'Sullied' members suspend two peers in first case since 1642", ''The Guardian'', 21 May 2009, p. 6.</ref>

There are two other motions which have grown up through custom and practice and which govern questionable conduct within the House. They are brought into play by a member standing up, possibly intervening on another member, and moving the motion without notice. When the debate is getting excessively heated, it is open to a member to move "that the Standing Order on Asperity of Speech be read by the Clerk". The motion can be debated,<ref name="Asperity of speech">"[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/ldctso06.htm#a61 Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the proceedings of the House of Lords]", October 2006, paragraph 4.58.</ref> but if agreed by the House the [[Clerk of the Parliaments]] will read out Standing Order 33 which provides "That all personal, sharp, or taxing speeches be forborn".<ref name="Standing Order 33">"[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldstords/147/14702.htm#a39 Standing Orders of the House of Lords]", printed 16 July 2007.</ref> The Journals of the House of Lords record only four instances on which the House has ordered the Standing Order to be read since the procedure was invented in 1871.<ref name="Asperity instances">See Lords Journal vol. CIII p. 629, vol. CIV p. 381, vol. 182 p. 90, and vol. 231 p. 644 and 648-9.</ref>

For more serious problems with an individual Lord, the option is available to move "That the noble Lord be no longer heard". This motion also is debatable, and the debate which ensues has sometimes offered a chance for the member whose conduct has brought it about to come to order so that the motion can be withdrawn. If the motion is passed, its effect is to prevent the member from continuing their speech on the motion then under debate.<ref name="No longer heard">"[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/ldctso06.htm#a62 Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the proceedings of the House of Lords]", October 2006, paragraphs 4.59 and 4.60.</ref> The Journals identify eleven occasions on which this motion has been moved since 1884; four were eventually withdrawn, one was voted down, and six were passed.<ref name="No longer heard instances">See Lords Journal vol. CXVI p. 162, vol. CXXIII p. 354, vol. 192 p. 231, vol. 215 p. 200-1, vol. 218 p. 119, vol. 221 p. 539, vol. 225 p. 194, vol. 226 p. 339, vol. 228 p. 308, vol. 229 p. 89, and vol. 233 p. 791.</ref>

==Relationship with the Government==
Unlike the House of Commons, the House of Lords does not control the term of the Prime Minister or of the Government. Only the Lower House may force the Prime Minister to resign or call elections by passing a motion of no-confidence or by [[Loss of Supply|withdrawing supply]]. Thus, the House of Lords' oversight of the government is limited.

Most Cabinet ministers are from the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords. In particular, all Prime Ministers since 1902 have been members of the Lower House. ([[Alec Douglas-Home]], who became Prime Minister in 1963 whilst still an Earl, disclaimed his peerage and was elected to the Commons soon after his term began.) In recent history, it has been very rare for major cabinet positions (except [[Lord Chancellor]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]]) to have been filled by peers. Exceptions include [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]], who was the [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] between 1979 and 1982, [[Lord Young of Graffham]] ([[Minister without Portfolio]], then [[Secretary of State for Employment]] and then [[Secretary of State for Trade and Industry]] from 1984 to 1989), [[Baroness Amos|The Lady Amos]] ([[International Development Secretary]], 2003) and currently [[Peter Mandelson|Lord Mandelson]], who is serving as [[Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform]] and [[President of the Board of Trade]]. [[Lord Cockfield]] and the [[Earl of Gowrie]] both held Cabinet posts while members of the House of Lords, and [[George Robertson]] was briefly a peer whilst serving as [[Secretary of State for Defence]].

The House of Lords does remain a source for junior ministers, such as [[Lord Malloch-Brown]] ([[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]]). Since 1999 the [[Attorney-General of the United Kingdom|Attorney-General]] has been a Lord; currently it is [[Baroness Scotland of Asthal|Lady Scotland of Asthal]]. The House of Lords also has a [[Chief Whip]] - currently [[Steve Bassam, Baron Bassam of Brighton|Lord Bassam]].

==Current composition==
{{main|Members of the House of Lords}}

The House of Lords, as of 1 May 2009:<ref name="lords_composition"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| align="center" rowspan="2" colspan="2"|'''Affiliation'''
| align="center" rowspan="2"|'''Life peers'''
| align="center" colspan="3"|'''Hereditary peers'''
| align="center" rowspan="2"|'''Lords spiritual'''
| align="center" rowspan="2"|'''Total'''
|-
| align="center"|'''Elected by party''' †
| align="center"|'''Elected by whole house'''
| align="center"|'''Royal office-holders'''
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Labour}}| 
| align="center"|[[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]
| align="center"|210
| align="center"|2
| align="center"|2
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|'''214'''
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Conservative}}| 
| align="center"|[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
| align="center"|148
| align="center"|39
| align="center"|9
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|'''196'''
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Liberal Democrat}}| 
| align="center"|[[Liberal Democrats]]
| align="center"|67
| align="center"|3
| align="center"|2
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|'''72'''
|-
| {{British politics/party colours/UKIP}}| 
| align="center"|[[United Kingdom Independence Party|UKIP]]
| align="center"|1
| align="center"|1
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|'''2'''
|-
| bgcolor="#999999"| 
| align="center"|[[Crossbencher]]s
| align="center"|169
| align="center"|29
| align="center"|2
| align="center"|2
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|'''202'''
|-
| bgcolor="#000000"| 
| align="center"|[[Lords Spiritual]]
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|26
| align="center"|'''26'''
|-
| bgcolor="gray"| 
| align="center"|Other
| align="center"|14
| align="center"|1
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|-
| align="center"|'''15'''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2"|'''Total'''
| align="center"|'''609'''
| align="center"|'''75'''
| align="center"|'''15'''
| align="center"|'''2'''
| align="center"|'''26'''
| align="center"|'''727'''
|}
''Note: These figures exclude 11 peers who are on leave of absence.''

†The number of hereditary peers "allocated" to each party, which is based on the proportion of hereditary peers that belongs to that party, is:<ref name="standing_orders1"/>
*Conservative Party: 39 peers (previously 42)
*Labour Party: 2 peers
*Liberal Democrats: 3 peers
*Crossbenchers: 28 peers

Of the initial 42 [[hereditary peers]] elected as Conservatives, one ([[Ivon Moore-Brabazon, 3rd Baron Brabazon of Tara|Lord Brabazon of Tara]]) now sits as a non-affiliated member, having become the House of Lords' Chairman of Committees, and another ([[Leopold Verney, 21st Baron Willoughby de Broke|Lord Willoughby de Broke]]) now sits as a UKIP member.

In a move that had not occurred since the 17th century, the House voted to suspend two Labour peers, Lord Truscott and Lord Taylor of Blackburn, on the 20 May 2009, for the period to the end of the current session of Parliament.<ref>[http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8060003.stm BBC News] Lords vote to suspend two peers</ref> They remain members of the House of Lords, but are suspended from its meetings and voting.

A report in 2007 stated that many members of the Lords (particularly the life peers) do not attend regularly - the average daily attendance was around 408.<ref>{{cite book |title=The House of Lords: Reform |url=http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm70/7027/7027.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-05-25|year=2007 |month=February |publisher=[[The Stationery Office]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-10-170272-0 |oclc=83593847 |pages=44 |quote=taking the 2005-2006 session, the average attendance was around 408, or 56% of members.}}</ref>

===Current political leaders in the Lords===
*[[Janet Royall, Baroness Royall of Blaisdon|Baroness Royall]] - [[Leader of the House of Lords]] and [[Lord President of the Council]] ([[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]])
*[[Thomas Galbraith, 2nd Baron Strathclyde|Lord Strathclyde]] - Shadow Leader of the House of Lords ([[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]])
*[[Thomas McNally, Baron McNally|Lord McNally]] - [[Liberal Democrats]]

==See also==
{{Wikibooks|UK Constitution and Government}}
*[[Speakership of the House of Lords]]
*[[Introduction (House of Lords)|Introduction ceremony]]
*[[Members of the House of Lords]]
*[[Reform of the House of Lords]]
*[[Wakeham Report]]
*[[Upper house|Upper House]]
*[[Constitution Committee (House of Lords)]]
*[[House of Lords Library]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*Carmichael, Paul, Brice Dickson, and Guy Peters. (1999). ''The House of Lords: Its Parliamentary and Judicial Role.'' Oxford: Hart Publishing.
*[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/compso.htm Davies, Michael. (2003). ''Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords'', 19th ed. London: HMSO.]
*Farnborough, T. E. May, 1st Baron. (1896). ''Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third'', 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
*Longford, Frank Pakenham, 7th Earl of. (1999). ''A History of the House of Lords.'' New edition. Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing.
*"Parliament" (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
*Raphael, D. D., Donald Limon, and W. R. McKay. (2004). ''Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice'', 23rd ed. London: Butterworths Tolley.

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|title=Liberalism and the House of Lords: The Story of the Veto Battle, 1832-1911|author=Harry Jones|date=1912|publisher=Methuen|location=London}}
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.parliament.uk/lords Official website]
** [http://www.parliament.uk/archives The Parliamentary Archives] holds the historic records of the House of Lords.
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6999646.stm Guide to the Lords] [[BBC]]
*[http://www.histparl.ac.uk History of Parliament]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/a-z_of_parliament/ The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005). "A–Z of Parliament."]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/lords/ ''The Guardian.'' (2005). "Special Report: House of Lords."]
*[http://www.parliament.uk/about_lords/about_lords.cfm The Parliament of the United Kingdom. House of Lords official website.]
*[http://www.parliamentlive.tv/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Parliament Live TV.]

{{coord|51|29|55.7|N|0|07|29.5|W|region:GB-WSM_scale:5000|display=title}}
{{National upper houses}}

[[Category:House of Lords| ]]
[[Category:National upper houses|United Kingdom]]

[[ar:مجلس اللوردات]]
[[br:Ti an Arlozed (Rouantelezh-Unanet)]]
[[ca:Cambra dels Lords]]
[[cs:Sněmovna lordů]]
[[cy:Tŷ'r Arglwyddi]]
[[da:Overhuset]]
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[[es:Cámara de los Lores]]
[[eu:Loren Ganbera]]
[[fr:Chambre des Lords]]
[[gd:Taigh nam Morairean]]
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[[he:בית הלורדים]]
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[[nl:Hogerhuis (Verenigd Koninkrijk)]]
[[ja:貴族院 (イギリス)]]
[[no:House of Lords]]
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[[pt:Câmara dos Lordes]]
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[[th:สภาขุนนาง]]
[[tr:Lordlar Kamarası]]
[[ur:دارالامرا]]
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[[zh:英國上議院]]

Guayabo National Monument

2009-06-03T14:05:44Z

163.178.17.124:

'''Guayabo''' is an archeological site located in Turrialba, [[Costa Rica]]. The site is of great archeological and cultural importance even though a very small portion of the [[city]] has actually been uncovered and studied. The [[monument]] covers 540 acres (218 ha) and is located on the forested southern slope of Volcán Turrialba. The settlement was occupied between [[1000]] B.C. and A.D. [[1400]] after which it was mysteriously abandoned. The reason is still unclear and the Spanish [[Conquistadors]] and [[settlers]] did not leave any record as to whether they found the ruins.

The [[pre-history]] and significance of the site are still unclear, however it seems to have been inhabited since 1000 BC. Guayabo's development peaked c800 AD with approximately 10,000 people living there. Abandoned by 1400 AD, Guayabo is believed to be an important cultural, political and religious center but specific details have yet to be discovered.

You will find a wide array of stone paved streets, round platforms which were the base for wooden structures, aqueducts, ponds, carved stone designs and drawings of animals.

On [[July 10]]th [[2009]], it will be declared a [[International Engineering Patrimony]] site by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]][http://www.cfia.or.cr/descargas%202009/noticias/guayabo.DOC].

==Guayabo Links==
*[http://www.lostcities.us/guayabo/ The Costa Rican Pre-Columbian City fo Guayabo]
*[http://www.costaricanarchaeology.com Costa Rican Archaeology]
*[http://www.precolumbiangold.com/ The largest online collection of Pre-Columbian Gold, including pieces from Guayabo]
*[http://www.precolumbianjade.com/ The largest online collection of Pre-Columbian Jade, including pieces from Guayabo]
*[http://www.wikicostarica.com:16080/index.php/Guayabo_National_Monument Article on Guayabo at WikiCostaRica]

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Former settlements in Central America]]

[[de:Nationalmonument Guayabo]]

Disability

2009-05-28T13:40:53Z

163.178.17.124: /* Government policies and support */ Added Costa Rica's stance

{{Redirect|Disabled|the poem by Wilfred Owen|Disabled (poem)}}
{{Redirect|Disabilities|the Middle Age restrictions|Disabilities (Jewish)}}

{{Refimprove|date=July 2007}}
[[Image:Handicapped Accessible sign.svg|thumb|[[International Symbol of Accessibility]]]]
'''Disability''' is defined by the [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]] as "a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities." <ref name="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990"> Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, http://www.ada.gov/cguide.htm </ref>
An individual may also qualify as disabled if he/she has had an impairment in the past or is seen as disabled based on a personal or group [[standard]] or [[norm]]. Such impairments may include physical, [[sense|sensory]], and [[cognitive impairment|cognitive]] or [[intellectual impairment]]s. [[Mental disorder]]s (also known as psychiatric or psychosocial disability) and various types of [[chronic disease]] may also be considered qualifying disabilities. A disability may occur during a person's lifetime or may be present from birth.

==Current issues==

Current issues and debates surrounding disability include social and political [[rights]], [[social inclusion]] and [[citizenship]]. In developed countries, the debate has moved beyond a concern about the perceived cost of maintaining dependent people with disabilities to an effort of finding effective ways to ensure that people with disabilities can participate in and contribute to society in all spheres of life.

Many are concerned, however, that the greatest need is in developing nations -- where the vast bulk of the estimated 650 million people with disabilities reside. A great deal of work is needed to address concerns ranging from accessibility and education to self-empowerment and self-supporting employment and beyond.

In the past few years, disability rights activists have also focused on obtaining full citizenship for the disabled.

== Disability Rights Movement ==

The [[disability rights movement]], led by individuals with disabilities, began in the 1970s. This [[self-advocacy]] is often seen as largely responsible for the shift toward [[Independent Living|independent living]] and [[accessibility]]. The term "Independent Living" was taken from 1959 [[California]] legislation which enabled people who had acquired a disability due to [[Poliomyelitis|polio]] to leave hospital wards and move back into the community with the help of cash benefits for the purchase of personal assistance with the activities of daily living.

With its origins in the US [[civil rights movements|civil rights]] and consumer movements of the late 1960s, the movement and its philosophy have since spread to other continents influencing self-perception, organization and social policy.

== Definitions and models ==

The [[International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health]] (ICF), produced by the [[World Health Organization]], distinguishes between body functions (physiological or psychological, e.g. vision) and body structures (anatomical parts, e.g. the eye and related structures). Impairment in bodily structure or function is defined as involving an anomaly, defect, loss or other significant deviation from certain generally accepted population standards, which may fluctuate over time. Activity is defined as the execution of a task or action. The ICF lists 9 broad domains of functioning which can be affected:

*Learning and applying knowledge
*General tasks and demands
*Communication
*Mobility
*Self-care
*Domestic life
*Interpersonal interactions and relationships
*Major life areas
*Community, social and civic life

(see also [[List of mental disorders]])

In concert with disability scholars, the introduction to the ICF states that a variety of conceptual models has been proposed to understand and explain disability and functioning, which it seeks to integrate. These models include the following:

=== The medical model===
{{mainarticle|Medical model of disability}}

The medical model is presented as viewing disability as a problem of the person, directly caused by disease, trauma, or other health condition which therefore requires sustained medical care provided in the form of individual treatment by professionals. In the medical model, management of the disability is aimed at a "cure," or the individual’s adjustment and behavioral change that would lead to an "almost-cure" or effective cure. In the medical model, medical care is viewed as the main issue, and at the political level, the principal response is that of modifying or reforming [[healthcare]] policy.

=== The social model===
{{mainarticle|Social model of disability}}

The social model of disability sees the issue of "disability" as a socially created problem and a matter of the full integration of individuals into society (see [[Inclusion (disability rights)]]). In this model, disability is not an attribute of an individual, but rather a complex collection of conditions, many of which are created by the social environment. Hence, the management of the problem requires [[social activist|social action]] and is the collective responsibility of society at large to make the environmental modifications necessary for the full participation of people with disabilities in all areas of social life. The issue is both [[cultural]] and [[ideological]], requiring individual, community, and large-scale social change. From this perspective, equal access for someone with an impairment/disability is a human rights issue of major concern.

=== The market model===

The market model of disability is a new model that builds on the social model in recognizing people with disabilities and their Stakeholders represent a large group of consumers, employees and voters. This model looks to personal identity to define disability and empowers people to chart their own destiny in everyday life, with a particular focus on economic empowerment. This model makes no judgements about ability, focusing on tangible and measurable results. Its mantra is 'results, at all levels, create value'. By this model, based on US Census data, there are 1.2 billion people in the world who consider themselves to have a disability. An additional two billion people are considered Stakeholders in disability (family/friends/employers), and when combined to the number of people without disabilities, represents 53% of the population. This model states that, due to the size of the demographic, companies and governments will serve the desires, pushed by demand as the message becomes prevalent in the cultural mainstream.<ref>[www.returnondisability.com]</ref>

===Other models===
* The '''spectrum model''' refers to the range of visibility, audibility and sensibility under which mankind functions. The model asserts that disability does not necessarily mean reduced spectrum of operations. Instead, it could also include distorted/shifted spectrum. For instance, a blind person may be extra sensitive to infrared or ultraviolet waves. See also [[Extra-sensory perception|ESP]].
* The '''moral model''' (Bowe, 1978) refers to the attitude that people are ''morally responsible'' for their own disability. For example, the disability may be seen as a result of bad actions of parents if [[congenital]], or as a result of practicing witchcraft if not. This attitude may also be viewed as a [[religious fundamentalist]] offshoot of the original [[animal]] roots of human beings when humans killed any baby that could not survive on its own in the wild.
* The '''expert/professional model''' has provided a traditional response to disability issues and can be seen as an offshoot of the Medical Model. Within its framework, professionals follow a process of identifying the impairment and its limitations (using the Medical Model), and taking the necessary action to improve the position of the disabled person. This has tended to produce a system in which an authoritarian, over-active service provider prescribes and acts for a passive client.
* The '''tragedy/charity model''' depicts disabled people as victims of circumstance who are deserving of [[pity]]. This, along with the Medical Model, are the models most used by non-disabled people to define and explain disability.
* The '''legitimacy model''' views disability as a value-based determination about which explanations for the atypical are legitimate for membership in the disability category. This viewpoint allows for multiple explanations and models to be considered as purposive and viable (DePoy & Gilson, 2004)([[Elizabeth DePoy]] & [[Stephen Gilson]]).
* The '''social adapted model''' states although a person’s disability poses some limitations in an able-bodied society, often times the surrounding society and environment are more limiting than the disability itself. <ref name="Research Gateway"> Research Gateway, http://waikato.researchgateway.ac.nz/bitstream/10289/460/1/content.pdf </ref>
* Economic Model {{Fact|date=April 2007}}
* The '''empowering model''' allows for the person with a disability and his/her family to decide the course of their treatment and what services they wish to benefit from. This, in turn, turns the professional into a service provider whose role is to offer guidance and carry out the client’s decisions. In other words, this model “empowers” the individual to pursue his/her own goals. <ref name="Research Gateway" />

== Terminology ==
=== People First Language ===
The [[American Psychological Association]] [[APA style|style guide]] states that, when identifying a person with an impairment, the person's name or pronoun should come first, and descriptions of the impairment/disability should be used so that the impairment is identified, but is not modifying the person. Improper examples would be "A [[Borderline personality disorder|Borderline]]," a "[[blindness|Blind]] Person," an "[[Autism|Autistic]] boy." More acceptable terminology may include: a woman with/who has [[Down syndrome]], a man with/who has [[schizophrenia]] (instead of a [[Schizophrenic]] man), and a girl with [[paraplegia]]/who is [[paraplegic]]. It also states that a person's adaptive equipment should be described functionally as something that assists a person, not as something that limits a person, e.g. "a woman who uses a wheelchair" rather than "a woman in/confined to a wheelchair."

A similar kind of 'people first' terminology is also used in the UK, but more often in the form 'people with impairments' (e.g. 'people with visual impairments', etc.). However, in the UK, the term 'disabled people' is generally preferred to 'people with disabilities'. It is argued under the [[Social model of disability|social model]] that while someone's impairment (e.g. having a spinal cord injury) is an individual property, 'disability' is something created by external societal factors such as a lack of wheelchair access to their workplace.<ref>e.g. http://www.gcil.org.uk/FileAccess.aspx?id=59</ref>. This distinction between the individual property of impairment and the social property of disability is central to the [[Social model of disability|social model]]. The term 'disabled people' as a political construction is also widely used by international organisations of disabled people, such as [[Disabled Peoples' International]] (DPI).

=== Literature ===
Many books on disability and [[disability rights]] point out that 'disabled' is an identity that one is not necessarily born with, as disabilities are more often acquired than [[congenital]]. Some disability rights activists use an acronym TAB, "Temporarily Able-Bodied", as a reminder that many people will develop disabilities at some point in their lives due to accidents, [[illness]] (physical, mental or emotional), or late-emerging effects of genetics.

==== Masculinity ====
According author Daniel J. Wilson, the characteristics of [[masculinity]] include strength, activeness, speed, endurance, and courage. These characteristics are often challenged when faced with a disability and the boy or man must reshape what it means to be masculine. For example, rather than define "being a man" through what one can physically do, one must re-define it by how one faces the world with a disability and all the obstacles and [[stereotypes]] that come with the disability. <ref name="Gendering Disability"> Gendering Disability, Bonnie G. Smith and Beth Hutchison, ed., (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2005). ISBN 0-8135-3373-2 </ref>

In Leonard Kriegel's book, ''Flying Solo'', he describes his fight with [[polio]] and the process of accepting his disability in a world that values able-bodiedness. He writes, "I had to learn to be my own hero, my own role model -- which is another way of saying that I had to learn to live with neither heroes nor role models" (pg. 40). <ref name="Flying Solo"> Flying Solo, Kriegel, Leonard. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1998). ISBN 0-8070-7230-3 </ref>

==== Femininity ====
Women who are disabled face what is called a "double handicap," meaning they must not only deal with the stereotypes and challenges posed by [[femininity]], but they must also deal with those posed by being disabled. Just as men are expected to be strong and courageous, women are expected to fill the social roles of mother and housewives. Culture also tends to view women as fragile and weaker than men, stereotypes which are only heightened when the woman has a disability. <ref name="Gendering Disability" />

According to the "Survey of Income and Program Participation," as described in the book ''Gendering Disability''," 74 percent of women participants and 90 percent of men participants without disabilities were employed. In comparison, of those with a form of disability, 41 percent of women and 51 percent of men were employed. Furthermore, the nondisabled women participants were paid approximately $4.00 less per hour than the nondisabled men participants. With a disability, women were paid approximately $1.00 less than the nondisabled women participants and the men were paid approximately $2.00 less than the nondisabled men participants. As these results suggest, women without disabilities face societal hardships against men, but then add disability to the equation and the hardships increase. <ref name="Gendering Disability" />

== Government policies and support ==
=== United Nations ===

On [[December 13]], [[2006]], the [[United Nations]] formally agreed on the [[Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities]], the first human rights treaty of the 21st century, to protect and enhance the rights and opportunities of the world's estimated 650 million disabled people.<ref>[http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/ ENABLE website] UN section on disability</ref> Countries that sign up to the convention will be required to adopt national laws, and remove old ones, so that persons with disabilities would, for example, have equal rights to education, employment, and cultural life; the right to own and inherit property; not be discriminated against in marriage, children, etc; not be unwilling subjects in medical experiments.

In 1976, the [[United Nations]] launched its International Year for Disabled Persons (1981), later re-named the [[International Year of Disabled Persons]]. The UN Decade of Disabled Persons (1983-1993) featured a World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Persons. In 1979, [[Frank Bowe]] was the only person with a disability representing any country in the planning of IYDP-1981. Today, many countries have named representatives who are themselves individuals with disabilities. The decade was closed in an address before the General Assembly by [[Robert Davila]]. Both Bowe and Davila are [[deaf]]. In 1984, [[UNESCO]] accepted [[sign language]] for use in education of deaf children and youth.

=== Costa Rica ===
Under the ''Ley de Igualdad de Oportunidades'' (Law of Equal Oportunities), no person can be discriminated by their disabilities if they are equally capable as another person. This law also promotes that public places and transport should have facilities that enable people with disabilities to access them.

May 28th is the ''Día Nacional de la Persona con Discapacidad'' (National Disabled People Day) to promote respect for these population.

Currently the political party ''[[Partido de Acceso Sin Exclusión]]'' (Access Without Exclusion Party) fights for the rights of handicapped persons, and one congressman, [[Oscar López]], who is blind.

=== United Kingdom ===
Under the [[Disability Discrimination Act 1995|Disability Discrimination Act (DDA)]] (1995, extended in 2005), it is unlawful for organisations to discriminate (treat a disabled person less favourably, for reasons related to the person's disability, without justification) in employment; access to goods, facilities, services; managing, buying or renting land or property; education. Businesses must make "reasonable adjustments" to their policies or practices, or physical aspects of their premises, to avoid indirect discrimination.[http://www.drc-gb.org/the_law/legislation__codes__regulation/dda_and_related_statutes.aspx]

A number of financial and care support services are available, including [[Incapacity Benefit]] and [[Disability Living Allowance]] [http://www.direct.gov.uk/DisabledPeople/FinancialSupport/fs/en].

====Employment====

The [[Employers' Forum on Disability]] (EFD) is a membership organisation of [[UK]] businesses. Following the introduction of the DDA the membership of EFD recognised the need for a tool with which they could measure their performance on disability year on year.

In 2005 80 organisations took part in the [[Disability Standard]] benchmark providing the first statistics highlighting the [[UK]]'s performance as a nation of [[employers]].

Following the success of the first [[benchmark]] Disability Standard 2007 saw the introduction of the Chief Executives' Diamond Awards for outstanding performance and 116 organisations taking the opportunity to compare trends across a large group of UK employers and monitor the progress they had made on disability.

2009 will see the third benchmark, [[Disability Standard]] 2009. EFD have promised that for the first time they will publish a list of the top ten performers who will be honoured at an award ceremony in December 2009.<ref>information on [[Employers' Forum on Disability]] (EFD) and Disability Standard edited from the official websites [http://www.efd.org.uk efd.org.uk] and [http://www.disabilitystandard.com disabilitystandard.com]</ref>

=== United States ===
====Discrimination in employment====

The US [[Rehabilitation Act of 1973]] requires all organizations that receive government funding to provide accessibility programs and services. A more recent law, the [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]] (ADA), which came into effect in 1992, prohibits private employers, state and local governments, employment agencies and labor unions from discriminating against qualified individuals with disabilities in [[application for employment|job application]] procedures, hiring, firing, advancement, compensation, job training, or in the terms, conditions and privileges of employment. This includes organizations like retail businesses, movie theaters, and restaurants. They must make "reasonable accommodation" to people with different needs. Protection is extended to anyone with (A) a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of an individual, (B) a record of such an impairment, or (C) being regarded as having such an impairment. The second and third critiera are seen as ensuring protection from unjust discrimination based on a perception of risk, just because someone has a record of impairment or appears to have a disability or illness (e.g. features which may be erroneously taken as signs of an illness).

====African Americans and disability====

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the African American community has the highest rate of disability at 20.8 percent,<ref name = "census.gov-disabil">[http://www.census.gov/population/www/pop-profile/disabil.html Disability] Disability rates vary by age, sex, race, and ethnicity.</ref> slightly higher than the overall disability rate of 19.4%.<ref name = "census.gov-disabil"/> Although people have come to better understand and accept different types of disability, there still remains a stigma attached to the disabled community. African Americans with a disability are subject to not only this stigma but also to the additional forces of race discrimination. African American women who have a disability face tremendous discrimination due to their condition, race, and gender. Doctor Eddie Glenn of Howard University describes this situation as the "triple jeopardy" syndrome. <ref name="African American Women with Disabilities"> African American Women with Disabilities: An Overview, http://www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/Us_Eu/ada_e/pres_com/pres-dd/glenn.html </ref>

====Social administration====

The US [[Social Security Administration]] defines disability in terms of inability to perform substantial gainful activity (SGA), by which it means “work paying minimum wage or better”. The agency pairs SGA with a "listing" of medical conditions that qualify individuals for benefits.

====Education====
Under the [[Individuals with Disabilities Education Act]], special educational support is limited to children and youth falling in to one of a dozen disability categories (e.g., specific learning disability) and adds that, to be eligible, students must require both special education (modified instruction) and related services (supports such as speech and language pathology).

====Insurance====

It is illegal for California insurers to refuse to provide [[vehicle insurance|car insurance]] to properly licensed drivers solely because they have a disability.<ref>[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cacodes/ins/11628-11629.5.html California Insurance Code Section 11628.5.]</ref> It is also illegal for them to refuse to provide car insurance "on the basis that the owner of the motor vehicle to be insured is blind," but they are allowed to exclude coverage for injuries and damages incurred while a blind unlicensed owner is actually operating the vehicle (the law is apparently structured to allow blind people to buy and insure cars which their friends, family, and caretakers can drive for them).<ref>[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cacodes/ins/11628-11629.5.html California Insurance Code Section 11628.7.]</ref>

== Demographics ==
===Difficulties in measuring===

The [[demography]] of disability is difficult. Counting persons with disabilities is challenging. That is because disability is not just a status condition, entirely contained within the individual. Rather, it is an interaction between medical status (say, having [[low vision]] or being blind) and the environment.{{Facts|date=December 2008}}

=== Estimates worldwide===
Estimates of worldwide and country-wide numbers of individuals with disabilities are problematic. The varying approaches taken to defining disability notwithstanding, demographers agree that the world population of individuals with disabilities is very large. For example, in 2004, the [[World Health Organization]] estimated a world population of 6.5 billion people, of those nearly two million were estimated to be moderately or severely disabled. <ref name="World Health Organization"> World Health Organization, 2004, http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GBD_report_2004update_part3.pdf </ref>
In the United States, Americans with disabilities constitute the third-largest minority (after persons of Hispanic origin and African Americans); all three of those minority groups number in the 30-some millions in America. <ref name="World Health Organization" /> According to the [[U.S. Bureau of the Census]], as of 2004, there were some 32 million disabled adults (aged 18 or over) in the United States, plus another 5 million children and youth (under age 18). If one were to add impairments -- or limitations that fall short of being disabilities -- Census estimates put the figure at 51 million. <ref name="U.S. Bureau of the Census"> U.S. Bureau of the Census, http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/STTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S1801&-ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_ </ref>

There is also widespread agreement among experts in the field that disability is more common in developing than in developed nations.

== Disability insurance—nationalized and private ==
Disability benefit, or [[disability pension]], is a major kind of [[disability insurance]], and is provided by government agencies to people who are temporarily or permanently unable to work due to a disability. In the U.S., disability benefit is provided within the category of [[Supplemental Security Income]], and in Canada, within the [[Canada Pension Plan]]. In other countries, disability benefit may be provided under [[Social security]] systems.

Costs of disability pensions are steadily growing in Western countries, mainly European and the United States. It was reported that in the UK, expenditure on disability pensions accounted for 0.9% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1980, but two decades later had reached 2.6% of GDP.<ref>OECD. Transforming disability into ability: Policies to promote work and income security for disabled people. Paris: OECD Publication Offices. 2003</ref><ref>Labriola M, Lund T. Self-reported sickness absence as a risk marker of future disability pension. Prospective findings from the DWECS/DREAM study 1990-2004. Int J Med Sci 2007; 4:153-158. http://www.medsci.org/v04p0153.htm</ref> Several studies have reported a link between increased absence from work due to sickness and elevated risk of future disability pension.<ref>Virtanen M, Kivimaki M, Vahtera J, Elovainio M, Sund R, Virtanen P, Ferrie JE. Sickness absence as a risk factor for job termination, unemployment, and disability pension among temporary and permanent employees. Occup Environ Med. 2006;63(3):212-7</ref>

A study by researchers in Denmark suggests that information on self-reported days of absence due to sickness can be used to effectively identify future potential groups for disability pension. [http://www.medsci.org/v04p0153.htm] These studies may provide useful information for policy makers, case managing authorities, employers, and physicians.

Private, for-profit disability insurance plays a role in providing incomes to disabled people, but the nationalized programs are the safety net that catch most claimants.

== Adaptations ==
===Assistive technology===
[[Image:Left hand bar control US 01 w sign.jpg|thumb|right|A hand-operated device allows normal driving for persons with leg disabilities in an [[Automatic transmission|automatic]] [[automobile|car]].]]
[[Assistive Technology]] (AT) is a generic term for devices and modifications (for a person or within a society) that help overcome or remove a disability. The first recorded example of the use of a [[prosthesis]] dates to at least 1800 BC.<ref>[http://www.disabilityhistory.org/timeline_new.html Disability Social History Project]</ref>

A more recent notable example is the [[wheelchair]], dating from the 17th century. The [[curb cut]] is a related structural innovation. Other modern examples are [[standing frames]], text [[telephones]], accessible [[keyboards]], [[large print]], [[Braille]], & [[speech recognition]] [[computer software]]. People with disabilities often develop personal or community adaptations, such as strategies to suppress tics in public (for example in [[Tourette's syndrome]]), or [[sign language]] in [[deaf]] communities. Assistive technology or interventions are sometimes controversial or rejected, for example in the controversy over [[cochlear implants]] for children.

A number of symbols are in use to indicate whether certain accessibility adaptations have been made[http://www.gag.org/resources/das.php].

===Adapted sports===
{{main|Disabled sports}}

The [[Paralympic Games]] (meaning 'alongside the Olympics') are now held after the (Summer and Winter) [[Olympics]]. The Paralympic Games include athletes who have a wide range of disabilities.

In 2006, the [[Extremity Games]] was formed for people with physical disabilities, specifically limb loss or limb difference, to be able to compete in [[extreme sports]]. The [http://www.college-park.com College Park Industries,]a manufacturer of prosthetic feet, organized this event to give disabled athletes a venue to compete in this increasingly popular sports genre also referred to as [[action sports]]. This annual event held in the summer in Orlando, FL includes competitions in skateboarding, wakeboarding, rock climbing, mountain biking, surfing, moto-x and kayaking. Non-Profit organizations have created programs to advance adaptive sports for regular recreation and sport opportunities.

===Accessible computing===
As the [[personal computer]] has become more [[ubiquity|ubiquitous]], various organizations have formed to [[software development|develop]] [[software]] and [[hardware]] to make computers more accessible for people with disabilities. Some software and hardware, such as [[SmartboxAT]]'s ''[[The Grid (software)|The Grid]]'', and [[Freedom Scientific]]'s ''[[JAWS (screen reader)|JAWS]]'' has been specifically designed for people with disabilities; other pieces of software and hardware, such as [[Nuance Communications|Nuance]]'s [[Dragon NaturallySpeaking]], were not developed specifically for people with disabilities, but can be used to increase accessibility.

Furthermore, organizations, such as [[AbilityNet]] and [[U Can Do IT]], provide assessment services that determine which assistive technologies will best assist an individual client. These organizations also train people with disabilities in how to use computer-based assistive technology.
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}

A [[New Zealand]] designed keyboard is also now available to disabled persons worldwide. It is designed specifically for disabled peoples needs. This keyboard is called [[LOMAK]].

Through the use of the internet, networking between groups and disability charities is now becoming more and more productive. It is now a widely held belief that should it be possible to unite various interest groups, primarily Physical, Sensory and Learning disabilities, it would be possible to turn what is considered to be a minority group, into a major force for change. However uniting such a diverse group of disabilities, often with conflicting interests, may prove difficult. For further information on disability organisations based in the UK, please see: [http://www.uhad2bthere.co.uk]

==Reference to==
Phrasing to be used only when necessary:<ref>[http://www.disabilityisnatural.com/peoplefirstlanguage.htm People First Language]</ref>
*People with disabilities
*Paul has a cognitive disability (diagnosis).
*Kate has cerebral palsy and so she used the wheelchair.
*Ryan has Down syndrome (or a diagnosis of...).
*Sara has a learning disability (diagnosis).
*Bob has a physical disability (diagnosis).
*Mary is of short stature/she’s a little person.
*Tom has a mental health condition.
*Nora uses a wheelchair/mobility chair.
*Steve receives special ed services.
*Tonya has a developmental delay.
*Children without disabilities
*She communicates with her eyes/device/etc.
*Customer
*Congenital disability
*Brain injury
*Accessible parking, hotel room, etc.
*She needs . . . or she uses . . .

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
*[[Accessible tourism]]
*[[Adaptive recreation]]
*[[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]]
*[[Assistive technology]]
*[[Developmental disability]]
*[[Disability discrimination act]]
*[[Disability etiquette]]
*[[Disability rights movement]]
*[[Disability studies]]
*[[Disabled robotics]]
*[[Disabled sports]]
*[[DisAbled Women's Network Canada]]
*[[Easter Seals]]
*[[Ergonomy]]
*[[Extremity Games]]
{{col-2}}
*[[Human variability]]
*[[Inclusive development]]
*[[Independent living]]
*[[International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health]]
*[[Invisible disability]]
*[[Learning disability]]
*[[List of disability rights organizations]]
*[[Orthopedics]]
*[[Paralympic Games]]
*[[Passing (disability)|Passing]]
*[[Post Secondary Transition For High School Students with Disabilities]]
*[[Psychophobia]]
*[[Sexuality and disability]]
*[[Special education]]
*[[United Cerebral Palsy]]
*[[Ticket to Work]]
*[[Gio-Key-Board|Word processor for disabled children (Gio-Key-Board)]]
*[[WORKink]]
{{col-end}}

== Supplement material ==

The following books are recommended to broaden your awareness and understanding on disabilities and women in American culture. In the book Voices from the Edge: Narratives about the Americans with Disabilities Act, it says people with a disability are governed individuals who are in the government and bureaucracies and are often able-bodied. The dominate group, which is based on race, gender and masculinity, holds most of the power and determine the laws that govern people with disabilities <ref> O’Brien, Ruth, ed. Voices from the Edge: Narratives about the Americans with Disabilities Act. New York: Oxford, 2004. pg. 164. ISBN 0-19-51687-0</ref>. “[P]eople without disabilities are deciding what people who have disabilities can and cannot do” <ref>O’Brien, Ruth, ed. Voices from the Edge: Narratives about the Americans with Disabilities Act. New York: Oxford, 2004. pg. 166. ISBN 0-19-51687-0</ref>.

“Federal agencies do not necessarily follow federal law” <ref>O’Brien, Ruth, ed. Voices from the Edge: Narratives about the Americans with Disabilities Act. New York: Oxford, 2004. pg. 199. ISBN 0-19-51687-0</ref>.

“Agencies like the Library of Congress [are] not covered by the public accommodations provisions of the American with Disabilities Act” <ref>O’Brien, Ruth, ed. Voices from the Edge: Narratives about the Americans with Disabilities Act. New York: Oxford, 2004. pg. 199. ISBN 0-19-51687-0</ref>.

==Footnotes==
{{commons|Category:Disabled people}}
{{reflist}}

== References ==
* DePoy, E., & Gilson, S.F. (2004). Rethinking disability: Principles for professional and social
change. Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0534549299
* Charlotte Pearson (2006) ''Direct Payments and Personalisation of Care'', Edinburgh, Dunedin Academic Press, ISBN 1903765625
* Frank Bowe, ''Handicapping America: Barriers to disabled people'', Harper & Row, 1978 ISBN 0-06-010422-8
*''Encyclopedia of disability'', general ed. Gary L. Albrecht, Thousand Oaks, Calif. [u.a.] : SAGE Publ., 2005
*David Johnstone, ''An Introduction to Disability Studies'', 2001, 2nd edition, ISBN 1-85346-726-X
*Michael Oliver, ''The Politics of Disablement'', St. Martin's Press 1997, ISBN 0-333-43293-2
*Nikora, L.; Karapu, R.; Hickey, H.; & Awekotuku, N. "[http://waikato.researchgateway.ac.nz/bitstream/10289/460/1/content.pdf]" , ''Disabled Maori and Disability Support Options'', 2004. Retrieved on [[April 19]], [[2009]].
*Tom Shakespeare, ''Genetic Politics: from Eugenics to Genome'', with Anne Kerr , New Clarion Press, 1999, ISBN 1-873797-25-7
*Kaushik, R.,1999, " Access Denied: Can we overcome disabling attitudes ," Museum International (UNESCO) , Vol. 51, No. 3, p. 48-52.
*Glenn, Eddie. March 20, 1997. "African American Women with Disabilities: An Overview."

== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Disability.ogg|2009-04-20|18.3 mega}}
{{wiktionary|disability}}
{{wikiquote}}
*{{dmoz|Society/Disabled}}
*[http://www.nichcy.org/Disabilities/Specific/Pages/Default.aspx Specific Disabilities] National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, [[NICHCY]]
*[http://www.dppi.org.uk/ Disability, Pregnancy & Parenthood International]
*[http://www.un.org/disabilities UN Enable]
*[http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/hlsaf2/MF2837.pdf Assistive Technology, suggestions for tools to help with housework, meals, clothing, etc. from Kansas State University]
*[http://internetreviewofbooks.com/sep08/7_wheelchairs.html Review of ''Seven Wheelchairs''--new memoir by a polio survivor]
*[http://wfnetwork.bc.edu/topic.php?id=40 Parents Caring for Children with Disabilities]
*[http://www.disabled-world.com/artman/publish/article_0060.shtml Well Known People with Disabilities]
*[http://www.ada.gov/cguide.htm A Guide to U.S. Disability Rights Laws]
*[http://www.issuelab.org/closeup/Feb_2009 Free Nonprofit Research Collection on Disability & Employment] Published on IssueLab

[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]
[[Category:Elderly and disabled]]
[[Category:Population]]

[[ar:إعاقة]]
[[ca:Discapacitat]]
[[cs:Invalidita]]
[[cy:Anabledd]]
[[da:Handicap]]
[[de:Behinderung]]
[[el:Αναπηρία]]
[[es:Discapacidad]]
[[eo:Malkapablo]]
[[fa:معلول]]
[[fr:Handicap]]
[[gl:Discapacidade]]
[[ko:장애인]]
[[io:Handikapo]]
[[id:Cacat]]
[[is:Fötlun]]
[[it:Handicap (medicina)]]
[[he:לקות]]
[[lt:Negalia]]
[[hu:Fogyatékosság]]
[[nl:Handicap (medisch)]]
[[ja:障害者]]
[[no:Funksjonshemning]]
[[oc:Discapacitat]]
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[[pt:Deficiência]]
[[ru:Инвалидность]]
[[simple:Disability]]
[[sr:Инвалидност]]
[[fi:Vammaisuus]]
[[sv:Funktionshinder]]
[[tl:Kapansanan]]
[[ta:ஊனம்]]
[[th:คนพิการ]]
[[tr:Engellilik]]
[[tk:Inwalidlik]]
[[uk:Інвалідність]]
[[wuu:残疾人]]
[[zh:身心障礙]]

Costa Rican páramo

2009-05-25T22:47:32Z

163.178.17.124: /* Setting */

The '''Costa Rican páramo''', also known as the '''Talamanca páramo''', is a [[montane grasslands and shrublands|montane grassland and shrubland]] of [[Costa Rica]] and western [[Panama]].

==Setting==
The Costa Rican páramo includes several enclaves on the highest peaks of the [[Cordillera de Talamanca]] in eastern Costa Rica and western Panama, with a total area of 31 km². The páramo is found above 3000-3100 meters elevation on the summits of [[Cerro de la Muerte]], [[Cerro Chirripó]], and [[Cerro Kamuk]] in Costa Rica, and [[Cerro Fábrega]], [[Cerro Itamut]], [[Cerro Echandi]] and [[Volcán Barú]] in Panama.

It is surrounded at lower elevations by the [[Talamancan montane forests]], and the [[World Wildlife Fund]] includes the Costa Rican páramo within the montane forests ecoregion, although the páramo has a distinct flora with affinities to the [[páramo]] of the Northern Andes.

==Flora==
The Costa Rican páramo can be divided into three zones. The subpáramo is a dwarf forest, dominated by the dwarf [[bamboo]] ''[[Chusquea subtessellata]]'', together with short shrubs.

The páramo proper lies above the subpáramo, and is dominated by grasses, rushes, herbs, and low shrubs of the families [[Gramineae]], [[Asteraceae]], [[Cyperaceae]], [[Rosaceae]] and [[Ericaceae]]. Above the páramo lies the superpáramo, a narrow zone with scarce vegetation between the grass páramo and the snow line.

==Fauna==
==Conservation and threats==
==References==
* Dinerstein, Eric; David Olson; Douglas J. Graham; et al. (1995). ''A Conservation Assessment of the Terrestrial Ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean.'' World Bank, Washington DC.

==External links==
*[http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0167_full.html Talamancan montane forests (World Wildlife Fund)]
* [http://www.nmnh.si.edu/botany/projects/cpd/ma/ma17.htm Data Sheet on La Amistad Biosphere Reserve]

{{coord missing|Costa Rica}}

[[Category:Montane grasslands and shrublands]]
[[Category:Neotropic]]
[[Category:Grasslands of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Grasslands of Panama]]

{{ecoregion-stub}}

List of Marist Brothers schools

2009-05-20T15:01:48Z

163.178.17.124: Added Costa Rica's

List of schools at all levels founded by the [[Marist Brothers]] [[Catholic]] [[religious order]].

{| class="wikitable" class="sortable" style="text-align:center" border="1" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
!width="200"| Name !! Founded !! City !! Country !!width="200"| Academic Level !!width="300"|Notes
|-
|[[Aquinas College, Adelaide]] || 1950 || [[North Adelaide]], South Australia || [[Australia]] || || Tertiary (university) residential college
|-
|[[Archbishop Molloy High School]] || 1892 || [[Briarwood, Queens|Briarwood, New York]] || [[United States|US]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[[Assumption College, Kilmore|Assumption College]] || 1893 || [[Kilmore, Victoria]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[[Bishop Donahue Memorial High School]] || 1955 || [[McMechen, West Virginia]] || [[United States|US]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[[Campion College, Gisborne|Campion College]] || 1960 || [[Gisborne, New Zealand|Gisborne]] || [[New Zealand]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[http://www.cc.sale.catholic.edu.au Catholic College Sale] || 1979 || [[Sale, Victoria]] || [[Australia]] || [[High school]] || Formed by merger of St. Patrick's College for Year 7 to Year 12 boys and Our Lady of Sion College for Year 7 to Year 12 girls
|-
|[[Catholic High School PJ, Malaysia|Catholic High School]] || 1956 || [[Petaling Jaya]] || [[Malaysia]] || ||
|-
|[[Central Catholic High School (Lawrence, Massachusetts)|Central Catholic High School]] || 1948 || [[Lawrence, Massachusetts]] || [[United States|US]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[[Champagnat Institute]] || || [[Suva, Fiji|Suva]] || [[Fiji]] || ||
|-
|[[Champagnat School]] || 1915 || [[Buenos Aires City]] || [[Argentina]] || Kindergaarten, Primary, Secondary, Tertiary ||
|-
|[[Christopher Columbus High School]] || 1958 || [[Westchester, Florida]] || [[United States|US]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[[Collège Laval]] || 1854 || [[Laval, Quebec]] || [[Canada]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[[Colegio Cervantes]] || 1937 || [[Guadalajara]] || [[Mexico]] || [[Primary and High school]] ||
|-
|[[Colegio Marista Guaynabo]] || 1963 || [[Guaynabo, Puerto Rico]] || [[United States|US]] || ||
|-
|[[Col·legi Maristes Valldemia ]] || 1856 || [[Mataró]], [[Barcelona]] || [[Spain]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[[Colegio San José del Parque ]] || 1967 || [[Madrid]], [[Madrid]] || [[Spain]] || [[Primary and High school]] ||
|-
|[http://www.maristas.org.br Colégio Marista Champagnat] || || [[Porto Alegre]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]] || [[Brazil]] || ||
|-
|[[Hato Petera College, Auckland|Hato Petera College]] || 1928 || [[Auckland]] || [[New Zealand]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[[Instituto Alonso de Ercilla]] || 1929 || [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]] || [[Chile]] || ||
|-
|[[Institute of the Marist Brothers]] || || [[Toulon, France|Toulon]] || [[France]] || ||
|-
|[[Instituto Juan XXIII]] || || [[Punto Fijo]] || [[Venezuela]] || ||
|-
|[[Instituto O'Higgins]] || 1915 || [[Rancagua]] || [[Chile]] || Primary and secondary ||
|-
|[[Kutama College]] || || [[Norton, Zimbabwe|Norton]] || [[Zimbabwe]] || ||
|-
|[http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liceo_Salvadore%C3%B1o Liceo Salvadoreño] || || [[San Salvador]] || [[El Salvador]] || ||
|-
|[[Lycée Léonin]] || 1838 || [[Athens]] || [[Greece]] || ||
|-
|[[Marcellin College, Auckland|Marcellin College]] || 1958 || [[Auckland]] || [[New Zealand]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[[Marcellin College Randwick]] || 1923 || [[Randwick, New South Wales]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[[Marcellin College]] || 1950 || [[Bulleen, Victoria]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary || Original campus in [[Camberwell, Victoria]]. Dual campuses from 1963 to 1993.
|-
|[[Marian College (Dublin)|Marian College]] || 1954 || [[Dublin]] || [[Ireland]] || ||
|-
|[[Maris Stella College]] || || [[Negombo]] || [[Sri Lanka]] || ||
|-
|[[Maris Stella High School]] || 1958 || || [[Singapore]] || Primary and Secondary ||
|-
|[[Marist Brothers College]] || || [[Dete]] || [[Zimbabwe]] || ||
|-
|[[Marist Brothers High School (Fiji)|Marist Brothers High School]] || || Suva || [[Fiji]] || ||
|-
|[[Marist Brothers Juniorate]] || || [[San Salvador]] || [[El Salvador]] || ||
|-
|[[Marist Brothers' Juniorate, Uturu, Okigwe, Nigeria|Marist Brothers' Juniorate]] || || Uturu, [[Okigwe]] || [[Nigeria]] || [[Secondary]] ||
|-
|[[Marist Brothers Primary School]] || || Suva || [[Fiji]] || Primary ||
|-
|[[Marist College Ashgrove]] || 1940 || [[Ashgrove, Queensland]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary with primary years from 5-7 ||
|-
|[[Marist College Canberra]] || 1968 || [[Pearce, Australian Capital Territory]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary and 4-6 ||
|-
|[[Marist College Eastwood]] || 1937 || [[Eastwood, New South Wales]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary ||
|-
|Marist College || 1925 || [[Kingston upon Hull]], [[Humberside]] || [[England]] || [[Secondary]] || Closed 1988 ||
|-
|[[Marist College Kogarah]] || 1909 || [[Kogarah, New South Wales]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[[Marist College North Shore]] || 1888 || [[North Sydney, New South Wales]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[[Marist College Penshurst]] || || [[Mortdale, New South Wales]] || [[Australia]] || ||
|-
|[[Marist College Rosalie]] || || Rosalie, [[Paddington, Queensland]] || [[Australia]] || ||
|-
|[[Marist College, Athlone|Marist College]] || 1884 || [[Athlone]] || [[Ireland]] ||Secondary| ||Famous past pupils include [[John McCormack]] and [[Brian Lenihan, Snr|Brian Lenihan]]
|-
|[[Marist College]] || 1905 || [[Poughkeepsie (city), New York|Poughkeepsie, New York]] || [[United States|US]] || College ||
|-
|[[Marist Comprehensive Academy, Uturu, Okigwe, Nigeria|Marist Comprehensive Academy]] || || Uturu, [[Okigwe]] || [[Nigeria]] || [[Secondary]] ||
|-
|[[Marist High School (Georgia)|Marist High School]] || 1901 || [[Atlanta, Georgia]] || [[United States|US]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[[Marist High School (Illinois)|Marist High School]] || 1963 || [[Chicago, Illinois]] || [[United States|US]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[[Marist High School (New Jersey)|Marist High School]] || 1958 || [[Bayonne, New Jersey]] || [[United States|US]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[[Marist High School (Oregon)|Marist High School]] || 1968 || [[Eugene, Oregon]] || [[United States|US]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[[Marist Regional College]] || 1972 || [[Burnie, Tasmania]] || [[Australia]] || || Founded by merger of Stella Maris Regional College and Marist College (Burnie)
|-
|[[Marist School - Marikina]] || 1962 || [[Marikina City|Marikina]] || [[Philippines]] || Preparatory/High school ||
|-
|[[Mount Saint Michael Academy]] || 1926 || [[Bronx, New York]] || [[United States|US]] || ||
|-
|[[Moyle Park College]] || 1957 || [[Clondalkin]] || [[Ireland]] || ||
|-
|[[Mtendere Secondary School]] || || [[Dedza]] || [[Malawi]] || ||
|-
|[[Mt Maria College]] || Enoggera: 1970, Mitchelton: 1978, Amalgamated: 2006 || [[Enoggera, Queensland]] and [[Mitchelton, Queensland]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary || Was founded on two separate sites, then become one college in 2006 ||
|-
|[[Newman College (Perth)|Newman College]] || || [[Floreat, Western Australia]] [[Churchlands, Western Australia]] || [[Australia]] || Primary and secondary || Three campuses
|-
|[[Notre Dame of Cotabato, Inc. , Sinsuat Ave. , Cotabato City, Philippines|Notre Dame of Cotabato, Inc. ]] || || Sinsuat Ave. , [[Cotabato City]] || [[Philippines]] || [[Secondary]] ||
|-
|[[Notre Dame of Marbel University]] , [[Koronadal City, Philippines|Notre Dame of Marbel University ]] || || [[koronadal City]] || [[Philippines]] || [[Primary/ Secondary/ Tertiary]] ||
|-
|[[Nyanga High School, Marist Brothers|Nyanga High School]] || || || [[Zimbabwe]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|Our Lady and St. Chad Sports College || 1928 || [[Wolverhampton]], [[West Midlands (county)|West Midlands]] || [[United Kingdom|UK]] || [[Secondary School]] || The original school founded in 1928 was a boy's grammar school called St. Chad's College. Around 1978 it amalgamated with its 'sister' school for girls and became Our Lady and St. Chad comprehensive school. Some years later, it was renamed [http://www.olsc.org.uk/ Our Lady and St. Chad Catholic Sports College] ||
|-
|[[Our Lady of Lourdes High School]] || 1958 || [[Poughkeepsie (town), New York|Poughkeepsie, New York]] || [[United States|US]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[http://www.parramarist.nsw.edu.au Parramatta Marist High School] || 1820 || [[Westmead, New South Wales]] || [[Australia]] || || The oldest and most computered marist school.
|-
|[[Red Bend Catholic College]] || 1926 || [[Forbes, New South Wales]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[[Sacred Heart College, Auckland]] || 1903 || [[Auckland]] || [[New Zealand]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[[Sacred Heart College, Somerton Park]] || 1897 || [[Somerton Park, South Australia]] || [[Australia]] || College ||
|-
|[[Saint Joseph Academy]] || 1865 || [[Brownsville, Texas]] || [[United States|US]] || ||
|-
|[[Samaritan Catholic College]] || 2000 || [[Preston, Victoria]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary || Founded by merger of St. Joseph's College and Redden Catholic College
|-
|[[St Augustines College]] || || [[Cairns, Queensland]] || [[Australia]] || ||
|-
|[[St. Agnes Boys High School]] || 1914 || [[New York City, New York]] || [[United States|US]] || [[High school]] ||
|-
|[[St Bernard's College, Lower Hutt]] || 1946 || [[Lower Hutt]] || [[New Zealand]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[[St David's Marist Inanda]] || 1941 || [[Inanda]], [[Gauteng]] || [[South Africa]] || [[Prep and High School]] ||
|-
|[[St. Francis Xavier's College]] || 1955 || [[Tai Kok Tsui]] || [[Hong Kong]] || [[Secondary School]] ||
|-
|[[St. Francis Xavier's School (Tsuen Wan)|St. Francis Xavier's School]] || 1963 || [[Tsuen Wan]] || [[Hong Kong]] || [[Secondary School]] ||
|-
|[[St. Henry's Marist Brothers' College]] || 1929 || [[Durban]] || [[South Africa]] || ||
|-
|[[St. John's College, Hamilton|St John's College]] || 1960 || [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]] || [[New Zealand]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[[St John's RC High School]] || 1931 || [[Dundee]] || [[Scotland]] || [[High_school#Scotland| Secondary School]] ||
|-
|St. John's National School || 1898 || [[Sligo]] || [[Ireland]] || [[Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland#Primary_education|Primary School]] || Boys only school running from second class to sixth class
|-
|[[St. Joseph's College, Dumfries|St. Joseph's College]] || 1875 || [[Dumfries]] || [[Scotland]] || ||
|-
|[[St. Joseph's College, Hunters Hill]] || 1881 || [[Hunters Hill, New South Wales]] || [[Australia]] || ||
|-
|[[St. Joseph's College, Alafua]] || 1912 || [[Alafua]] || [[Samoa]] || Secondary ||
|-
|St. Joseph's Juniorate || 1924 || [[Tyngsboro, Massachusetts]] || [[United States|US]] || [[Seminary]] || Sold to the [[Wang Institute of Graduate Studies]] in 1977
|-
|[[St. Mungo's Academy]] || 1858 || [[Glasgow]] || [[Scotland]] || ||
|-
|[[St. Paul's College, Auckland|St Paul's College]] || 1955 || [[Auckland]] || [[New Zealand]] || Secondary ||
|-
|[[Trinity Catholic College]] || 1995 || [[Regents Park, New South Wales]] [[Auburn, New South Wales]] || [[Australia]] || Secondary || Two campuses. Founded by the merger of Benedict College (Auburn), St John's Girls' High (Auburn), and St Peter Chanel Girls' High
|-
|[[Colegio Marista]] || 1960s || [[Alajuela]] || [[Costa Rica]] || Primary and Secondary|| Also houses a support program for youths with ''special'' needs
|-
|[http://www.colegiochampagnat.e12.ve/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1 Unidad Educativa Colegio Champagnat] || || [[Caracas]] || [[Venezuela]] || ||
|}

[[Category:Marist Brothers schools]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic teaching orders]]

Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em

2009-05-19T22:38:08Z

163.178.17.124: /* Cultural references */ Its Episode 3, not 1

{{Infobox Simpsons episode
| episode_name = Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em
| image = [[Image:PleaseHomerDontHammerEm.png|220px]]
| image_caption = Homer eats while Marge does the real work.
| episode_no = 381
| prod_code = HABF20
| airdate = [[September 24]], [[2006]]
| show runner = [[Al Jean]]
| writer = [[Matt Warburton]]
| director = [[Mike B. Anderson]] Ralph Sosa
| guest_star =
| blackboard =
| couch_gag = The couch is replaced by a vending machine filled with various characters; [[Ralph Wiggum]] selects a Homer figurine and eats his head.<ref name="Futon">{{cite web|url=http://www.thefutoncritic.com/listings.aspx?id=20070329fox16|title=The Simpsons: "Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em"|accessdate=2008-05-25|publisher=The Futon Critic}}</ref>
| season = 18
}}

"'''Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em'''"<ref name="Futon"/> is the third episode ''[[The Simpsons]]''’ [[The Simpsons (season 18)|eighteenth season]] and first aired [[September 24]], [[2006]].<ref name="Futon"/> After buying a series of carpenter books, [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] refuses to actually build anything, prompting [[Marge Simpson|Marge]] to become a carpenter. But as many residents in [[Springfield (The Simpsons)|Springfield]] don't want a female carpenter, Marge decides she would use Homer as a front, while she would be doing the real work.

It was written by [[Matt Warburton]] and double-directed by [[Mike B. Anderson]] and Ralph Sosa.<ref name="Futon"/> In its original run, the episode received 9.72 million viewers.<ref name="Ratings">[http://www.simpsonschannel.com/news/monthly-archive-9-2006.html Simpsons Channel ratings: "Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em"]</ref>

==Plot==
On a trip to the extremely poor Springfield Mall, very similar to the [[Dixie Square Mall]], [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] happens across the [[Time Life]] Carpenter's Library, and [[Marge Simpson|Marge]] encourages him to buy them. Homer's interest in carpentry fades, and Marge decides to use them herself to fix up the house, starting with her broken nightstand. She begins to learn more and more about carpentry and [[Lisa Simpson|Lisa]] suggests to Marge that she try to earn some money as a handyman, thus opening up 'Simpsons Carpentry'. However, potential clients ([[Superintendent Chalmers]] and [[Krusty the Clown]]) turn her down, dismissing the idea of a female carpenter. Commenting on how people expect carpenters male, Marge develops a plan. She uses Homer as a front to the customers, while Marge, hiding in an accompanied red tool chest, does the all of the work as Homer rests in the tool box, and switching back when the costumers come to check on Homer's work. Meanwhile, a note is sent out from the school, informing parents that someone at the school has a [[peanut]] allergy so peanuts will no longer be allowed on school premises. An indignant [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] claims it to be unfair not to disclose the identity of the "kid," but he soon discovers the "kid" is actually [[Principal Skinner]] with the help of GroundsKeeper Willie. With this newfound knowledge, and with the assistance of a peanut on a stick, Bart makes Skinner do his bidding.

While business is going great, Marge becomes a bit discouraged by [[Helen Lovejoy]] and [[Lindsay Naegle]] when she is out buying supplies, who taunt her for being Homer's "helper". That night, Marge tells Homer that she feels he is taking too much credit and wishes she would get some recognition for the work. Homer, however, does not want to be humiliated by revealing his wife did everything. After an incident in which Homer mocks Marge's carpentry skills with Lenny and Carl, Marge becomes enraged and quits, leaving Homer alone to do his biggest commission yet: repairing Springfield's old wooden roller coaster, "The Zoominator". Homer tries to fake his way through being a foreman in front of his newly hired construction crew, but they eventually abandon him when he reveals he can't pay them and doesn't know anything about construction. Late one night, after being advised by [[Comic Book Guy]] the only way to stop Bart is to find his '[[kryptonite]]', Skinner searches through medical records of Bart. He finds out that Bart is allergic to [[shrimp]]. The next day, Skinner counters Bart's peanut stick with his own: a shrimp on a stick. Bart and Skinner clash with their respective “sticks,” eventually leading them into into a [[Thai food]] factory in the "Little [[Bangkok]]" section of town. They battle over a rickety catwalk, until it gives way, plunging them both into a vat of peanut shrimp, setting off both of their sensitive allergies.

[[Image:PeanutShrimp.png|thumb|left|220px|Bart fights Skinner.<ref name="Futon"/>]]
The big reopening day arrives, and Homer stands in front of a crowd gathered to witness the unveiling of the refurbished roller coaster. Marge has a video camera at the ready, so she can catch Homer being exposed as a fraud on tape. When revealed, the crowd is in awe at the seemingly repaired roller coaster, but with a hit from Homer's popped cork from his champagne, the coaster collapses, becoming as rundown as it had been before. Still not wanting to admit the truth, Homer proves the coaster is safe by riding it himself, even though there are large gaps in the track. Acting quickly, Marge repairs each broken piece just before Homer's cart runs over it. While riding, Homer announces to the crowd that Marge did all the handiwork. The crowd applauds as the coaster comes to a stop at the beginning, and just as Marge is about to tell Homer that she loves him, the entire roller coaster structure comes crashing down on top, injuring Homer. At the hospital, Marge visits Homer, who is immobilized in a full body cast. Bart and Skinner rest in their respective hospital beds in the same room as Homer; Skinner is outraged to hear Bart is pretending that he saved Skinner's life, and the two proceed to throw shrimp and peanuts at each other to set off their respective allergies again.<ref name="Futon"/>

==Reception==
In its original run, the episode received 9.72 million viewers.<ref name="Ratings">[http://www.simpsonschannel.com/news/monthly-archive-9-2006.html Simpsons Channel ratings: "Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em"]</ref> Dan Iverson of [[IGN]] calls it a brilliant episode; despite the fact the Simpsons have tunneled down a similar storyline, he quotes they've done better in making this plot unique. He gives it a final rating of 7.5/10, better than the previous episodes.<ref name="IGN">[http://tv.ign.com/articles/735/735064p1.html IGN: "Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em Review]</ref> Adam Finley of [[TV Squad]], like Iverson, enjoyed the episode's secondary plot with Bart vs. Skinner.<ref>[http://www.tvsquad.com/2006/09/25/the-simpsons-please-homer-dont-hammer-em/ TVSQUAD: "Please Homer, Do't Hammer 'Em"]</ref>

==Cultural references==
The title of the episode is a reference to [[MC Hammer]]'s album, ''[[Please Hammer Don't Hurt 'Em]]''.<ref name="IMDB">[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0858310/movieconnections Cultural references for "Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em"]</ref> The premise of this episode references the 1980s U.S. television series ''[[Remington Steele]]'', in which a woman uses a man as a front to make her services more marketable.<ref name="IMDB"/> The writers acknowledge the source of the premise by including a fictitious ''Remington Steele'' video game in the background when Bart is shown playing in the mall's video arcade. Also shown in the arcade is a machine marked "[[Polybius (game)|Polybius]]", a name referenced from an [[urban legend]] involving an arcade game of the same name. To further spoof this urban legend, the machine is marked "Property of the U.S. Government."<ref name="IMDB"/> Bart and Skinner's peanut/shrimp fight along with the music, Duel of the Fates, being played is a reference to the climactic fight at the end of [[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith]]<ref name="IMDB"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{wikiquote|The_Simpsons#Please_Homer.2C_Don.27t_Hammer_.27Em....22_.5B18.03.5D|"Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em..."}}
{{portal|The Simpsons}}

[[Category:The Simpsons episodes, season 18]]
[[Category:2006 television episodes]]

[[es:Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em...]]
[[fr:C'est moi qui l'ai fait !]]
[[ru:Please Homer, Don't Hammer 'Em...]]

Talk:Geographical indication

2009-04-02T22:02:40Z

163.178.17.124:

== Registration ==

I took this from the current entry- ''Article 22 of the TRIPS Agreement says that all governments must provide legal opportunities in their own laws for the owner of a GI registered in that country to prevent the use of marks that mislead the public as to the geographical origin of the good.''

This is, to my understsanding, incorrect. TRIPS itself does not require Geographical Indications to be registered in the host country, or any other country for that matter. Rather, the international (and particular national) register system is merely something to be negotiated, pursuant to Article 24 of the TRIPS Agreement. I'm going to double check this, but isn't this the case?

== Examples needed ==
This needs examples. Would, say, Florida orange juice be one? if not, the article also needs clarification. —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:24.91.43.225|24.91.43.225]] ([[User talk:24.91.43.225|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/24.91.43.225|contribs]]) 12:26, 2 July 2005 (UTC{{{3|}}})
:There article currently has examples (e.g. Bordeaux and parmigiano). --[[User:Swift|Swift]] 22:58, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

== Indian statutory provisions ==

Attention users/WPedians/Admns

Some Anon has pasted provisions of Indian Stautes on GI's word by word, probably because he is unaware of WP's policies and the needs of the article. The article needs immediate cleanup by the administrators....'''Anon Alleged vandal of Diamirza article''''(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dia_Mirza) —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:218.248.32.114|218.248.32.114]] ([[User talk:218.248.32.114|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/218.248.32.114|contribs]]) 14:21, 12 July 2006 (UTC{{{3|}}})
:I've removed the statutes. --[[User:Swift|Swift]] 22:58, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

== Suggestions ==

Points which may be included

1.A GI is something more than 'indication of source' and less than 'appellation of origin'. The article can draw the distinction between the related concepts of 'indication of source' and appellation of origin and 'GI'.

2. The prevailing practice of some countries to facilitate GI protection through means other than 'special GI legislations' like through 'legislations against unfair trade competition', 'legislations of certification marks', 'legislations on consumer protection' and sometimes merely relying on 'judicial precedents'.

3.The popularity of GI and related protection regimes in some countries owing to their respective environmetnal, natural and cultural factors ..(France, italy, and other such countries who have got the largest number of GI's and the very small number of GIs for countries like UK etc.)

4.The special status of 'Wines and spirits', 'special Cheese conventions' in european markets and their efforts to provide stronger protection to them.

..'''Anon, Alleged Vandal of DiaMirza article''' (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dia_Mirza) —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:202.141.128.131|202.141.128.131]] ([[User talk:202.141.128.131|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/202.141.128.131|contribs]]) 12:08, 27 July 2006 (UTC{{{3|}}})

== Lisbon System ==
Why is there no mention of this system? Why doesn't it even have a wiki of its own?

A Storm of Swords

2009-02-26T22:06:13Z

163.178.17.124: Broken link

{{infobox Book | 
| name = A Storm of Swords
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:AStormOfSwords.jpg|200px]]
| image_caption = US Hardcover Edition
| author = [[George R. R. Martin]]
| cover_artist = [[Steve Youll]]
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series = [[A Song of Ice and Fire]]
| genre = [[Fantasy]]
| publisher = [[Bantam Books]] (US) & [[Voyager Books]] (UK)
| release_date = August 2000 (UK) & November 2000 (US)
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages = 973 (US Hardback), 976 (UK Hardback), 1216 (US Paperback)
| isbn = ISBN 0-553-10663-5 (US Hardback), ISBN 0-00-224586-8 (UK Hardback), ISBN 0-553-57342-X (US Paperback)
| preceded_by = [[A Clash of Kings]]
| followed_by = [[A Feast for Crows]]
}}

'''''A Storm of Swords''''' is the third of seven planned novels in '''''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]''''', an [[epic fantasy]] series by American author [[George R. R. Martin]]. It was first published on [[8 August]] [[2000]] in the [[United Kingdom]], with a [[United States]] edition following in November 2000. Its publication was preceded by a novella called ''Path of the Dragon'', which collects some of the Daenerys Targaryen chapters from the novel into a single book.

To date, ''A Storm of Swords'' is the longest novel in the series. It was so long that in the UK its paperback edition was split in half, Part 1 being published as ''Steel and Snow'' in June 2001 (with the one-volume cover) and Part 2 as ''Blood and Gold'' in August 2001 (with a specially-commissioned new cover). In France, the decision was made to cut the novel into four separate editions.

''A Storm of Swords'' won the 2001 [[Locus Award]] and 2002 [[Geffen Award]] for Best Novel and was nominated for the 2002 [[Nebula Award]] for Best Novel. Significantly, it was the first novel in the series to be nominated for the [[Hugo Award]], one of the two most prestigious awards in [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]] publishing, although it lost to [[JK Rowling]]'s novel ''[[Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire]]''.

[[Meisha Merlin]], who had previously issued limited, illustrated editions of both ''[[A Game of Thrones]]'' and ''[[A Clash of Kings]]'', were planning to release a similar version for ''A Storm of Swords'' in two volumes. However, lengthy delays on the release of ''A Clash of Kings'' caused Meisha Merlin to lose the printing rights for the book, which were picked up by [[Subterranean Press]] instead. This edition, fully illustrated by [[Charles Vess]], was released in the summer of 2006.

''A Storm of Swords'' is also the name of the second expansion to the [[board game]] [[A Game of Thrones (board game)|"A Game of Thrones]]", released in July 2006.

==Plot introduction==
''A Storm of Swords'' is set in a fictitious world reminiscent of [[Medieval]] Europe (primarily on a continent called [[Westeros]]), except for the fact that in this world, seasons can last for years, sometimes decades.

==Plot summary==


''A Storm of Swords'' picks up the story slightly before ''A Clash of Kings'' ended. The Seven Kingdoms are still in the grip of the [[War of the Five Kings]], with [[House Stark#Robb|Robb Stark]], [[House Greyjoy#Balon|Balon Greyjoy]], [[House Baratheon#Joffrey|Joffrey Baratheon]], [[House Baratheon#Stannis|Stannis Baratheon]] and [[House Baratheon#Renly|Renly Baratheon]] fighting to secure their crowns. Stannis Baratheon's attempt to take King's Landing has been defeated by the new alliance between [[House Lannister]] (backing Joffrey) and [[House Tyrell]], and [[House Martell]] has also pledged its support to the Lannisters though the forces of [[Westeros#Dorne|Dorne]] have yet to take the field. Meanwhile, a large host of wildlings is marching on the Wall under [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Mance Rayder|Mance Rayder]], with only the tiny force of the [[Night's Watch]] in its path; and in the distant east, [[Daenerys Targaryen]] is on her way back to [[Free Cities (A Song of Ice and Fire)#Pentos|Pentos]] in the hope of raising forces to retake the Iron Throne.

The novel begins in the final months of 299 After the Landing and carries on into the year 300 AL.

===In the Seven Kingdoms===
====The North / The Riverlands====
[[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Brienne of Tarth|Brienne of Tarth]] escorts [[House Lannister#Jaime|Jaime Lannister]] from [[Strongholds of A Song of Ice and Fire#Riverrun|Riverrun]] by boat, Jaime having been released at [[House Tully#Catelyn|Catelyn Stark]]'s order. Brienne is to take Jaime back to [[Cities in A Song of Ice and Fire#King.27s Landing|King's Landing]] and ensure that [[House Stark#Sansa|Sansa]] and [[House Stark#Arya|Arya Stark]] are returned in his place. They are pursued by [[House Tully|Tully]] bannermen, as [[House Tully#Edmure|Edmure Tully]] has let it be known that Jaime is an escaped fugitive. Jaime spends most of his time insulting Brienne, despite her great size and strength with a sword. They are forced to abandon the river and take to the countryside, but are waylaid by mercenaries from the eastern continent known as [[Organizations in A Song of Ice and Fire#The Brave Companions|The Brave Companions]] (now in the service of [[House Bolton#Roose|Roose Bolton]], having swapped sides from the Lannisters) and taken to [[Strongholds of A Song of Ice and Fire#Harrenhal|Harrenhal]], which is now under their command. The leader of the Companions, Vargo Hoat, chops off Jaime's sword hand, but Roose Bolton is unimpressed by his liege man's behavior and sends Jaime back to King's Landing with compliments to [[House Lannister#Tywin|Lord Tywin]], which strikes both travelers as an odd thing to do. Brienne, unfortunately, is left to Hoat's mercies. Jaime has a change of heart and comes back to rescue her, helping save her from a bear pit. As Jaime leaves, he tells Bolton to "Send [[House Stark#Robb|Robb Stark]] my regards."

Robb's army returns to Riverrun in triumph, having smashed several [[House Lannister|Lannister]] forces in the Westerlands and won great victories. However, Robb is furious with his uncle Edmure: Robb's plan was for Tywin to come west and into a trap Robb was preparing, but Edmure's over-zealous defense of Riverrun spoiled the surprise. Catelyn is horrified when Robb reveals that he has married [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Jeyne|Jeyne Westerling]] of the Crag, violating his oath of betrothal to [[House Frey]] and thus losing their support. This is further aggravated by the fact that the garrison Robb had left behind in the Twins(Frey castle) to ensure their loyalty was withdrawn by Edmure to fight in the Riverlands. Robb claims he had no choice: Jeyne 'comforted' him after he learned of the burning of [[Strongholds of A Song of Ice and Fire#Winterfell|Winterfell]] and the deaths of [[House Stark#Bran|Bran]] and [[House Stark#Rickon|Rickon]]. The King in the North is in dire straits: his forces are dwindling due to the loss of the Freys as well as the Karstarks, whose lord Rickard murders two Lannister [[prisoner of war|POW]]s and is executed as a traitor, not to mention a botched attack on Duskendale ordered by Roose Bolton; the force of foot, led by Robett Glover, is caught between Lord [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Randyll Tarly|Randyll Tarly]] and Ser [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Gregor Clegane|Gregor Clegane]], leading to the slaughter of a third of Robb's strength. He cannot retreat for more men, as the [[House Greyjoy|Greyjoys]] now hold his home territory. Nevertheless, Robb has a new plan to outflank and take [[Strongholds of A Song of Ice and Fire#Moat Cailin|Moat Cailin]] (via the marshlands surrounding it) from the Greyjoys and allow them to return to the North. Unfortunately, the Riverlords will have to fight on for themselves. Catelyn agrees to this plan, but it hinges on winning the support of the Freys once more, which they are now unlikely to give. Robb is angry that Catelyn let Jaime go, but cunningly uses her guilt at this in order to get her to approve of his marriage to Jeyne Westerling. Not long after this, Lord [[House Tully#Hoster|Hoster Tully]] finally dies and Edmure becomes Lord of Riverrun.

[[House Stark#Arya|Arya Stark]] and her friends encounter a group of men known as the [[Brotherhood Without Banners]], led by Lord [[Brotherhood Without Banners#Beric Dondarrion|Beric Dondarrion]] and the red priest [[Brotherhood Without Banners#Thoros of Myr|Thoros of Myr]]. Beric's group was originally sent out by [[House Stark#Eddard|Lord Eddard]] to put down the Lannister raids, but have evolved into a [[Robin Hood]]-esque organization, defending the smallfolk of the war-torn Riverlands. The group encounters [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Sandor Clegane|Sandor Clegane]], Joffrey's former bodyguard who fled the Battle of the Blackwater, and offer him [[trial by combat|trial by battle]], which he wins (killing Lord Beric) and is set free. To Arya's amazement, Thoros is able to resurrect Beric using what he calls a gift from R'hllor. Arya eventually tires of following the Brotherhood and tries to break free, but is captured by Sandor Clegane instead. Clegane decides to take her back to her family in exchange for some kind of service, and they head north.

Robb Stark's host, now reinforced by Lord Roose Bolton's army from Harrenhal, reaches [[Strongholds of A Song of Ice and Fire#The Twins|The Twins]], where Robb parleys with [[House Frey#Lord Walder|Lord Walder Frey]]. Frey agrees to forgive Robb on the condition that Lord Edmure Tully weds one of Frey's daughters in Robb's place. Edmure's new bride, Roslin, turns out to be an attractive and gentle woman, which surprises Catelyn: the "late Lord Walder" is known for his tetchiness, and could easily have forced Edmure to marry a lackwit or an ugly girl instead. The wedding celebration is held and a great party takes place afterwards, though the food and musicians are described as being terrible. This is forced into perspective when they begin playing "''The Rains of Castamere''", a song celebrating [[House Lannister#Tywin|Tywin Lannister]]'s eradication of an unfaithful vassal, produce crossbows and fire into the Stark supporters. The Boltons and Freys, armed and armored, cut down many of the Stark bannermen present, killing [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Dacey Mormont|Dacey Mormont]] and [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#.22Smalljon.22|Smalljon Umber]] among them. Catelyn takes one of Walder Frey's grandsons, the halfwit [[House Frey#Aegon|Aegon]], hostage with a knife, and threatens to kill him should Robb be harmed, but a man wearing the colours of House Bolton cuts Robb down anyway, saying "Jaime Lannister sends his regards." Catelyn kills her hostage, but in turn is restrained and her throat cut. In mockery of the Tully burial rites, she is dumped into the river and Robb has his head chopped off and the head of his direwolf, Grey Wind, sewn into its place (as foretold by a vision Daenerys had in the house of the Undying). Many of the northern lords are either killed or taken prisoner, but there are two missing: Robb had sent Lady [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Maege Mormont|Maege Mormont]] and Lord Galbart Glover to win the allegiance of Lord Howland Reed of [[Strongholds of A Song of Ice and Fire#Greywater Watch|Greywater Watch]] for their planned attack on Moat Cailin since only the crannogmen know how to navigate through the swamp.

Arya and Sandor are in the outskirts of the castle when the "Red Wedding" takes place, and though Arya attempts to enter the castle and rescue her mother, Sandor knocks her unconscious with an axe and takes her downriver. Arya then has a dream in which she is actually her long-missing direwolf, Nymeria, who now leads a huge pack of wolves in the Riverlands. In the dream, Nymeria finds the corpse of a woman floating in the Green Fork south of the Twins and pulls it ashore, only to flee as a group of men approach. After this, Arya gives up on her mother, tells The Hound that, in her dream, Catelyn was dead. This is not the first time Arya has had this dream though the other instances are less important.

Arya and Sandor run afoul of some of Gregor Clegane's men in an inn, the Tickler and Polliver along with a squire. There is a fight and the freeriders (two of whom are on Arya's list) are killed, but Sandor is wounded. His wound is infected and Arya refuses to give him the gift of mercy and leaves him dying under a tree and goes to the nearby port town of Saltpans, on the Trident. She finds a ship from the [[Free Cities (A Song of Ice and Fire)#Braavos|Free City of Braavos]] there, but they refuse to take her north. She pulls out the coin [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Jaqen H.27ghar|Jaqen H'ghar]] gave her and the ship crew suddenly become more cooperative. They won't take her north, but agree to take her back to Braavos with them. Arya agrees.

====The South / King's Landing====
[[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Davos Seaworth|Davos Seaworth]] is washed ashore on a rocky island in the Narrow Sea, having been nearly killed in the epic Battle of the Blackwater. He is found by bannermen loyal to [[House Baratheon#Stannis|Stannis]] and taken back to [[Strongholds of A Song of Ice and Fire#Dragonstone|Dragonstone]]. Along the way Davos comes to blame the red priestess [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Melisandre|Melisandre]] for Stannis' defeat and resolves to murder her. Upon his arrival he is immediately locked up for treason: Melisandre saw his intent in her flames. Melisandre talks to Davos and reveals that Stannis was defeated because she was not at the battle (at his bannermen's request), and asks for Davos simply to be true to his king. She also tells him that there are not seven gods but two: R'hllor, Lord of Light and Fire, and his enemy, the Great Other, Lord of Darkness and Cold, whose war has raged since the dawn of time. Stannis releases Davos and asks him to serve as his Hand. Davos agrees and begins to learn to read and write to better fulfill his office.

[[Cities in A Song of Ice and Fire#King.27s Landing|King's Landing]] is rejoicing for their deliverance from the threat of Stannis Baratheon and the [[House Tyrell|Tyrells]] are welcomed as liberators. [[House Baratheon#Joffrey|King Joffrey]] agrees to set aside his betrothal to [[House Stark#sansa|Sansa Stark]], daughter of a House attainted of treason, and promises to marry Lady [[House Tyrell#Margaery|Margaery Tyrell]] instead. Sansa's freedom is short-lived, however, as she is soon forced to marry [[House Lannister#Tyrion|Tyrion Lannister]]. Tyrion was badly injured in the battle, losing his nose and suffering other wounds to his face, but he treats Sansa gently and refuses to consummate the marriage against her will. Tyrion himself is unimpressed with the turn of events, particularly as his father has taken up his role as Hand, reducing Tyrion to an advisory role, although he is later made master of coin to replace [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Petyr Baelish|Petyr "Littlefinger" Baelish]] (who has been named Lord of Harrenhal for his role in securing the Lannister-Tyrell alliance). [[House Greyjoy#Balon|Balon Greyjoy]], styling himself King of [[Westeros#The Iron Islands|the Iron Islands]] and [[Westeros#The North|the North]], sends an offer of an alliance to Tywin, but Tywin spurns it, as he has another plan that does not involve selling off half the realm. He also comments that he should not pay for what the Greyjoys are already doing for free, that is fighting the Starks.

On Dragonstone Davos meets Edric Storm, one of King Robert's many bastards whom Stannis is keeping safe from the Lannisters. Davos is horrified to learn that Melisandre wants to sacrifice Edric and his royal blood to her fires to awaken the 'stone dragons,' which she thinks are the great statues that guard the castle. Stannis rejects this decision and instead gives some of his blood to the fires instead, naming the names of three men that he wants dead: Balon Greyjoy, Joffrey Baratheon and Robb Stark. (Chronologically, this happens shortly before the Red Wedding.)

Littlefinger, fresh from his diplomatic victory in gaining the alliance of the Tyrells and the titular Lord of Harrenhal, departs King's Landing for [[Strongholds of A Song of Ice and Fire#The Eyrie|the Eyrie]] with a new scheme: to woo [[House Tully#Lysa|Lady Lysa Arryn]] into marriage and support of King Joffrey. Tyrion is suspicious of Littlefinger's growing power but is no longer in a position to stop him.

Word reaches King's Landing of the death of King Robb Stark at the Red Wedding, closely followed by news that King Balon Greyjoy has died as well, swept over a bridge in Pyke by a strong wave. Joffrey is exultant, particularly keen on the gory detail that Robb's direwolf's head was sewn on his body, and Catelyn's body was hurled naked into the Green Fork. Margaery and Joffrey's wedding is held, but Joffrey spends more time tormenting his uncle Tyrion than paying attention to his wife. Suddenly Joffrey starts choking and dies in a fit on the floor. Tyrion suspects poison and inspects Joffrey's goblet before realizing he could be blamed for the crime. He throws the goblet away, but is seen by several witnesses. His sister [[House Lannister#Cersei|Cersei]] has him arrested and put on trial. Sansa Stark is smuggled out of the castle by Ser Dontos, whom she still believes will put her on a ship home. Instead, she discovers that he has sold her to Littlefinger, who plans to take her to Eyrie with him. Littlefinger also admits to being the mastermind behind Joffrey's death.

Davos Seaworth learns to read and write. One of the letters he receives is from the Night's Watch, who sent missives to all the kings begging for aid against [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Mance Rayder|Mance Rayder]] and the wights. The success of Melisandre's spell has convinced Stannis to sacrifice Edric Storm to the flames to wake the dragons, but Davos smuggles Edric to safety. Stannis prepares to execute Davos for treason, but Davos is allowed to read the letter that lately arrived from the Wall. The news stuns Stannis and, more importantly, Melisandre.

[[House Lannister#Jaime|Jaime Lannister]] and [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Brienne of Tarth|Brienne of Tarth]] reach King's Landing to find the situation volatile. Joffrey's brother [[House Baratheon#Tommen|Tommen]] has inherited the throne but is not yet crowned, Tyrion is on trial, and the Tyrell bannermen blame Brienne for King Renly's death, particularly Renly's close friend Ser [[House Tyrell#Loras|Loras Tyrell]]. She is thrown in a dungeon. Jaime takes up the rank of Lord Commander of the [[Kingsguard]] and finds that his journey and the loss of his hand has made him more willing to fulfil his duties. He refuses his father when he offers to remove him from the Kingsguard and make him heir to [[Strongholds of A Song of Ice and Fire#Casterly Rock|Casterly Rock]], and refuses to believe Cersei's claims that Tyrion killed Joffrey. He rejects her advances, deciding to remain true to his vows.

Tyrion is seemingly doomed, as his sister Cersei, convinced of his guilt, has recruited many to give evidence against him, including Varys (master of whisperers, equivalent of the head of intelligence) and [[Shae]] (Tyrion's whore). [[House Martell#Oberyn|Lord Oberyn Martell]] of Dorne, who is in the city representing his brother [[House Martell#Doran|Prince Doran]], harbors a desire for vengeance against [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Gregor Clegane|Gregor Clegane]], who killed and raped his sister [[House Martell#Elia|Elia]] (the late wife of [[House Targaryen#Rhaegar|Prince Rhaegar Targaryen]]) and her children during the Sack of King's Landing. However, Tyrion is approached by Lord Oberyn Martell, who offers to fight for him in a trial of combat against Cersei's champion, who they both know will be Ser Gergor Clegane, "the Mountain that Rides". The battle is fought and Oberyn apparently emerges victorious after knocking the giant Gregor down with a poisoned spear. Unfortunately, he spends too much time gloating and Gregor kills him. Tyrion is condemned to death, but escapes with the help of Jaime and [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Varys|Varys]]. On his way out of the castle, Jaime reveals that Tyrion's first wife had not been a prostitute, as their father had told him, but had actually been a crofter's daughter as she appeared. Tyrion sees this as unforgivable betrayal from both his father and his brother; he swears vengeance against both, and carries out the former by stopping at his father's chamber and shooting him with a [[crossbow]]. Since Shae has taken his father as a lover, he kills her too, strangling her with the chain of the king's Hand.

Jaime frees Brienne from imprisonment after persuading Loras to reconsider, giving her the sword Lord Tywin had reforged out of Eddard Stark's Valyrian steel blade (since after being maimed by Vargo Hoat, is much worse at fighting so the blade is wasted on him). He tells her to fulfil the oath he gave to Lady Catelyn, to find Arya and Sansa and return them home. He also tells her that the real reason he betrayed his oath and murdered King Aerys was because Aerys had hidden wildfire barrels all over King's Landing and planned to destroy the city during the Sack. He carried out his most infamous act to save the innocent, not that anyone would believe him. Brienne departs on her quest.

At the Eyrie, Sansa lives in fear of her increasingly psychotic aunt, who eventually goes mad and tries to kill her after she sees Littlefinger kiss her (for which she blames Sansa, not Littlefinger). Littlefinger intervenes to save Sansa, and then pushes Lysa out of the 'moon door' of the Eyrie to her death hundreds of feet below and blaming Lysa's minstrel for the crime. However, before he does this, Lysa reveals that Littlefinger told her to poison Jon Arryn and blame the Lannisters.

In the epilogue, [[House Frey#Merrett|Merrett Frey]] goes to a parley with a group from the Brotherhood Without Banners, who have taken one of his brothers "Petyr Pimple" captive and are demanding a ransom. During the parley the Brothers reveal that they have executed the other Frey. They point out to the panicking Merrett that he was at the Red Wedding and helped in the murder of the guests. He demands that they prove it by providing a witness. In response a battered figure appears and points at him. Merrett Frey is hanged next to the corpses of his family, whilst the broken form of Catelyn Stark watches, and hates.

===On the Wall===
The bulk of the strength of the Night's Watch sits on the Fist of the First Men, awaiting word from Qhorin Halfhand and [[House Stark#Jon Snow|Jon Snow]]. Suddenly three blasts are sounded on a watchman's horn, which means something not heard in nearly eight thousand years: Others. The Watch comes under attack by wights and the fabled ice demons of ancient history, but manages to withdraw in something approaching good order. [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Samwell Tarly|Samwell Tarly]] kills one of the Others with a strange blade Jon Snow fashioned for him from [[obsidian]], or "dragonglass," he found near the Fist. The Watch regroups at Craster's Keep, but some of the less respectable members of the Watch mutiny and kill Lord Commander [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Jeor Mormont|Jeor Mormont]]. Sam escapes in the chaos with the help of one of Craster's daughter-wives, Gilly, and they make their way south towards the Wall. They meet and are helped by a strange figure riding an elk, who Sam calls 'Coldhands'.

Jon Snow is taken to [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Mance Rayder|Mance Rayder]] and is able to convince him that he has truly turned his cloak. He learns that the fabled Others have returned and are driving the wildlings south towards the Wall. Mance has been seeking the legendary Horn of Winter which will shatter the Wall when sounded, but has been unable to find it. Jon is unsure of this story. Eventually, Jon is sent south on a mission to scale the Wall, circle around, and attack Castle Black from the south to allow the wildlings through the gates. Jon instead flees from the wildlings and reaches Castle Black to warn them of the threat. He learns that Bowen Marsh has taken the most of the remainding garrison with him as he attempts to repel wildling attacks all along the Wall (that are really feints). With many of the other Watch members dead or missing, Jon is forced to command a skeleton defense along with villagers fleeing from Mole Town against the wildlings, but nevertheless defeats them. Among the dead is Ygritte, who had been Jon's lover for a time.

[[House Stark#Bran|Bran Stark]] and [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Jojen Reed|Jojen]] and [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Meera Reed|Meera Reed]], fleeing the ruins of [[Strongholds of A Song of Ice and Fire#Winterfell|Winterfell]], are guided north by Bran's strange dreams of a three-eyed crow. They reach the Wall at the abandoned castle of the Nightfort, but cannot pass it. Suddenly the gate opens and they meet Samwell Tarly and Gilly. Sam guides them to Coldhands, who will take them north, whilst Sam returns to Castle Black, agreeing to keep the truth of their survival a secret.

The wildling army, over forty thousand strong, reaches Castle Black and assaults the Wall at that location. Jon leads a tenacious defence which sees hundreds of wildlings killed, but it seems that the Watch must be overrun. Things get worse when Janos Slynt, the former commander of King's Landing's City Guard who was exiled by a suspicious Tyrion Lannister, arrives. As one of the betrayers of Eddard Stark, Slynt takes an instant dislike to Jon Snow and accuses him of being a traitor. He has Jon sent out to parley with Mance Rayder. Jon expects to be killed, but Rayder is more understanding of his betrayal. Jon is shocked to learn that Rayder found the Horn of Winter, but would rather climb the Wall with it than melt it: with the Wall gone, what will stop the Others? Suddenly horns are heard in the east and a great strength of cavalry attacks the wildling army, plunging it into chaos and putting it to rout. To Jon's disbelief, the surviving army of King [[House Baratheon#Stannis|Stannis Baratheon]] has arrived. Rayder is captured and imprisoned. Stannis reveals that he received word of the Wall's dire straits (the letter [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Davos Seaworth|Ser Davos Seaworth]] read) and that [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Melisandre|Melisandre]] believes the wildling invasion to be the forerunner of the return of The Other, the sworn foe of the red god R'hllor. Stannis resolves to forge a new kingdom out of the shattered, leaderless North, and as part of this plan offers to make Jon Snow rightful heir to the North, removing his bastardy and anointing him the Lord of Winterfell. Jon is torn over this offer, which would grant him what has always been his deepest desire - to be a Stark. In place, he would have to cast out the old gods he has worshiped all his life. However, his internal debate is rendered moot when the Night's Watch chooses its new Lord Commander. Through the clever machinations of Samwell Tarly, Jon Snow is elected Lord Commander of the Night's Watch.

===In the East===
Returning to [[Free Cities (A Song of Ice and Fire)#Pentos|Pentos]] by sea, [[Daenerys Targaryen]] learns from [[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Jorah Mormont|Ser Jorah Mormont]] that large slave armies can be bought in the cities of Slaver's Bay in the region of [[Ghis]]: [[Ghis#Meereen|Meereen]], [[Ghis#Astapor|Astapor]] and [[Ghis#Yunkai|Yunkai]]. To Arstan Whitebeard's disgust—slavery has been illegal in the Seven Kingdoms for millennia—Daenerys buys the services of the [[Organizations in A Song of Ice and Fire#Unsullied|Unsullied]], the feared warrior-[[eunuch]]s of Astapor. After the command is given to the slaves declaring Daenerys their new master the slave lords of Astapor try to take one of Daenerys' dragons as payment and Daenerys has them burned alive. The Unsullied agree to serve her, whilst Daenerys has the slaves of Astapor set free. She leads a strong force north to Yunkai which forces the lords of the city to release their slaves into Daenerys' service. However, the lords of Meereen choose to antagonise Daenerys by killing 163 of their child slaves and leaving each corpses staked at every mile along the road to the city while using the scorched earth technique to deny her resources. Daenerys besieges the city to no avail.

Daenerys discovers two traitors in her camp: Ser Jorah Mormont and Arstan Whitebeard. However, the nature of their treachery is very different. Mormont was selling information about her to Robert Baratheon up until they reached Qarth. Arstan Whitebeard is actually an alias of [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Barristan Selmy|Ser Barristan Selmy]], former Lord Commander of the [[Kingsguard]]. Barristan wanted to right the ancient wrong of accepting Robert as his king by finding the true Targaryen heir to Westeros, but wanted to make sure the taint of madness had not affected her as her father. Daenerys offers both men the chance to make amends: by sneaking into Meereen through its sewers and opening the gates. At the meantime, she uses her three ships to make battering rams. While the defenders are distracted, Barristan and Jorah free the slaves in the fighting pits resulting in an uprising and Meereen falls soon after. She forgives Barristan Selmy and makes him Lord Commander of her Queensguard. However, she finds she still cannot trust Mormont and has him banished from her presence. Learning that Astapor has fallen under the control of a brutal dictator who moved to fill the power vacuum she left behind, Daenerys decides she cannot allow that to happen to Meereen and resolves to stay, and rule, and learn to be the queen that Westeros needs her to be.

==Characters==
The tale is told through the eyes of 10 main characters, a one-off prologue POV and a one-off epilogue POV character (the only time this has been done in the series so far):

*Prologue: Chett, a brother and hound-keeper of the Night's Watch.
*Ser [[House Lannister#Jaime|Jaime Lannister]], eldest son of Tywin Lannister, brother of Tyrion Lannister, Lord Commander of the Kingsguard and Warden of the East, held captive by the King in the North at Riverrun
*[[Jon Snow (A Song of Ice and Fire)|Jon Snow]], bastard son of Eddard Stark. A sworn brother of the Night's Watch
*Lady [[House Tully#Catelyn|Catelyn Stark]], of [[House Tully]], widow of Lord Eddard Stark
*[[House Lannister#Tyrion|Tyrion Lannister]], youngest son of Tywin Lannister, a dwarf, brother of Ser Jaime Lannister
*[[House Stark#Sansa|Sansa Stark]], eldest daughter of Eddard Stark and Catelyn Stark, held captive by the King on the Iron Throne at King's Landing
*[[House Stark#Arya|Arya Stark]], youngest daughter of Eddard and Catelyn Stark, missing and presumed dead
*[[House Stark#Bran|Bran Stark]], son of Eddard and Catelyn Stark, Prince of Winterfell, heir to the North, believed dead
*[[Minor houses in A Song of Ice and Fire#Samwell Tarly|Samwell Tarly]], son of Lord Tarly and a sworn brother of the Night's Watch and former heir to Horn Hill
*Ser [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Davos Seaworth|Davos Seaworth]], a smuggler turned knight in the service of King Stannis Baratheon
*Queen [[Daenerys Targaryen]], Stormborn, of the [[House Targaryen|Targaryen]] Dynasty
*Epilogue: Ser Merrett [[House Frey|Frey]], a member of the numerous Frey family.

==Notes==
George R. R. Martin did not write the Red Wedding chapters until the very end of the book and having completed every other chapter, as he felt it was a painful experience to write.

George R. R. Martin lost the [[2001]] [[Hugo Award]] for [[Best Novel]] to [[JK Rowling]]. Afterwards he made this comment about his fans: "Eat your heart out, Rowling. Maybe you have billions of dollars and my Hugo, but you don't have readers like these."[http://www.bwbfanclub.com/fr_grrm.php]

The [[Brotherhood Without Banners]], introduced in ''A Storm of Swords'' (although referenced earlier), also lends its name to the official George R. R. Martin [[fan group]]. The name was adopted in the first half of 2001 and the group held its first major gathering at the 2001 [[World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[Philadelphia]].

==Translations==
*Bulgarian
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 重庆出版社(2007): ''"{{lang|zh|:冰雨的风暴}}"''.
*[[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''"Oluja mačeva"''
*Czech
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]]: Two volumes, Luitingh-Sijthoff (2001, 2002): ''"{{lang|nl|Een storm van zwaarden 3A}}"'', ''"{{lang|nl|Een storm van zwaarden 3B}}"''
*[[Finnish language|Finnish]]: Two volumes, Kirjava (2005, 2006): ''"{{lang|fi|Miekkamyrsky 1}}"'', ''"{{lang|fi|Miekkamyrsky 2}}"''
*[[French language|French]]: Four volumes (Hardcover: Pygmalion (2001, 2002, 2003); paperback: J'ai Lu (2003, 2004)): ''"{{lang|fr|Les brigands}}"'' (hardcover) / ''"{{lang|fr|Intrigues à Port-Réal}}"'' (paperback), ''"{{lang|fr|L'épée de feu}}"'', ''"{{lang|fr|Les noces pourpres}}"'', ''"{{lang|fr|La loi du régicide}}"''
*[[German language|German]]: Single volume, Fantasy Productions (2005): ''"{{lang|de|Schwertgewitter}}"''. Two volumes, Blanvalet (2001, 2002): ''"{{lang|de|Sturm der Schwerter}}"'', ''"{{lang|de|Die Königin der Drachen}}"''.
*Greek
*[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{lang|he|סופת החרבות}} (Two volumes)
*[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: Single volume, Alexandra: ''"{{lang|hu|Kardok vihara}}"''
*[[Italian language|Italian]]: Three volumes, Mondadori (2002, 2003): ''"{{lang|it|Tempesta di spade}}"'', ''"{{lang|it|I fiumi della guerra}}"'', ''"{{lang|it|Il portale delle tenebre}}"''.
*Japanese
*Korean
*Polish: Two volumes, Zysk i Ska (both 2002): ''"{{lang|pl|Nawałnica mieczy: Stal i śnieg}}"'', ''"{{lang|pl|Nawałnica mieczy: Krew i złoto}}"''
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: Two volumes: Saída de Emergência ([[2008]]): ''"{{lang|pt|A Tormenta de Espadas}}"'', ''"{{lang|pt|A Glória dos Traidores}}"''
*[[Russian language|Russian]]: ''"{{lang|ru|Буря мечей}}"''
*Serbian: ''"{{lang|sr|Oluja mačeva}}"''
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]]: Two volumes, Gilgamesh (2005): ''"{{lang|es|Tormenta de espadas I}}"'', ''"{{lang|es|Tormenta de espadas II}}"''.
*[[Swedish language|Swedish]]: Three volumes,''"Kampen om Järntronen" '' (1997, 2005), ''"Kungarnas Krig"'' (2006), ''"Svärdets makt"'' (2007)

==Awards and nominations==
*[[Hugo Award]] – Best Novel (Nominated) – (2001)
*[[Locus Award]] – Best Novel (Fantasy) (Won) – (2001)
*[[Nebula Award]] – Best Novel (Nominated) – (2002)
*[[Geffen Award]] – Best Fantasy Book (Won) – (2002)
*Ignotus Award – Best Novel (Foreign) (Won) – (2006)

==External links==
* [http://awoiaf.westeros.org/index.php/Main_Page A Wiki Of Ice And Fire] Wiki dedicated to A Song of Ice and Fire
*{{IBList |type=book|id=235|name=A Storm of Swords}}

{{ASOIAF}}
{{GRRM}}
[[Category:2000 novels|Storm of Swords, A]]
[[Category:A Song of Ice and Fire books|Storm of Swords, A]]
[[Category:Fantasy novels|Storm of Swords, A]]
[[Category:Novels by George R. R. Martin|Storm of Swords, A]]

[[es:Tormenta de Espadas]]
[[it:I fiumi della guerra]]
[[simple:A Storm of Swords]]

Mango

2009-02-20T21:04:38Z

163.178.17.124: /* Elsewhere */

{{Split|Mango|Mangifera|date=September 2008}}
{{about|the fruit|other meanings of the word|mango (disambiguation)}}
{{taxobox
|name = Mango
|image = Black mango unripe.jpg
|image_caption = Immature Black Mango fruit
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]]
|ordo = [[Sapindales]]
|familia = [[Anacardiaceae]]
|genus = '''''Mangifera'''''
|genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = More than 50 species; see listing
|}}

'''Mangoes''' belong to the genus '''''Mangifera''''', consisting of numerous species of tropical fruiting [[tree]]s in the [[flowering plant]] family [[Anacardiaceae]]. The mango is indigenous to [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[India]] and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>[http://www.horticultureworld.net/botany-taxonomy.htm Mango: botany and taxonomy, HorticultureWorld]</ref> Cultivated in many tropical regions and distributed widely in the world, mango is one of the most extensively exploited fruits for food, [[juice]], [[flavor]], [[fragrance]] and [[color]], making it a common ingredient in new [[functional food]]s often called [[superfruit]]s. Its leaves are ritually used as floral decorations at [[wedding]]s and religious ceremonies.
==Etymology==
The name ''mango'' is ultimately either from the [[Kodagu]] ''mange'', the [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] ''manga'', or the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ''mangai'', and was loaned into Portuguese in the early 16th century as ''manga'', and from Portuguese passed into English. The ending in ''-o'' appears in English and is of unclear origin.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary mango, n. 1</ref>

== Description ==
[[Image:Mango flower.jpg|thumb|left|Mango flowers]][[Image:Mangos criollos y pera.JPG|thumb|right|''Reole'' mangoes from Venezuela ("bocao" variety) with a pear to compare sizes]] Mango trees (''Mangifera indica L.'') reach 35-40 m in height, with a crown radius of 10 m. The tree is long-lived with some specimens known to be over 300 years old and still fruiting. In deep soil the taproot descends to a depth of 20 ft, and the profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots also send down many anchor roots which penetrate for several feet. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[evergreen]], alternate, simple, 15-35 cm long and 6-16 cm broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark glossy red, then dark green as they mature. The [[flower]]s are produced in terminal [[panicle]]s 10-40 cm long; each flower is small and white with five petals 5-10 mm long, with a mild sweet odor suggestive of [[lily of the valley]]. The fruit takes from three to six months to ripen.
[[Image:GntMango2.jpg|thumb|right|Riped Banganpalli mangoes from [[Guntur]], [[India]]]]

The ripe fruit is variable in size and color, and may be yellow, orange, red or green when ripe, depending on the cultivar. When ripe, the unpeeled fruit gives off a distinctive [[resin]]ous sweet smell. In its center is a single flat oblong seed that can be [[fibre|fibrous]] or hairy on the surface, depending on the cultivar. Inside the seed coat 1-2 mm thick is a thin lining covering a single [[embryo]], 4-7 cm long, 3-4 cm wide, and 1 cm thick.

[[File:Mango and cross sections.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Mango fruits are often cut into a "hedgehog" style for eating (left). A cross section of a mango can be seen on the right]]

== Cultivation and uses ==
[[Image:Mango blossoms.jpg|thumb|right|Mango tree with flowers]]
Mangoes have been cultivated in the [[Indian subcontinent]] for thousands of years<ref name=EE>Ensminger 1994: 1373</ref> and reached [[East Asia]] between the 5th-4th century BC. By the 10th century AD, they were transported to [[East Africa]]<ref name=EE/> and subsequently introduced to [[Brazil]], [[West Indies]] and [[Mexico]], where climate allows its appropriate growth.<ref name=EE/> The 14th century Muslim traveler, [[Ibn Battuta]], reported it at [[Mogadishu]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Watson, Andrew J. |title=Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world: the diffusion of crops and farming techniques, 700-1100 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1983 |pages=72–3 |isbn=0-521-24711-X }}</ref>

Mango is now cultivated as a fruit tree in [[frost]]-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates like that of the [[Indian subcontinent]]; nearly half of the world's mangoes are cultivated in India alone.<ref name=jedele>Jedele S, Hau AM, von Oppen M. An analysis of the world market for mangoes and its importance for developing countries. Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development, 2003[http://www.tropentag.de/2003/abstracts/full/162.pdf]</ref><ref name=rediff04>[http://www.rediff.com/money/2004/apr/21india.htm India world's largest producer of mangoes, Rediff India Abroad, April 21, 2004]</ref><ref>[http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/india/article.cfm?articleid=4201 Mad About mangoes: As exports to the U.S. resume, a juicy business opportunity ripens, India Knowledge@Wharton Network, June 14, 2007]</ref>

Other regions where mango is cultivated include [[North America|North]], [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]], the [[Caribbean]], south and central [[Africa]], [[Australia]], [[China]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. It is easily [[agriculture|cultivated]] yielding more than 1,000 [[cultivar]]s, ranging from the "turpentine mango" (named for its strong taste of [[turpentine]], which according to the ''Oxford Companion to Food'' some varieties actually contain) to the ''huevos de toro'' ("eggs of the bull", a euphemism for "[[Cattle|bull]]'s [[testicle]]s", referring to the shape and size).

[[Image:Alphonso mango.jpg|thumb|Nicknamed "king of mangoes", the [[Alphonso (mango)|Alphonso]] grown mainly in India and favored there, is now popular in the United States.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/10/travel/10mumbailetter.html?ei=5087&en=fa4b9b80768c5253&ex=1147665600&pagewanted=all Allen J. Mango mania in India, New York Times, May 10, 2006]</ref><ref>[http://www.nydailynews.com/lifestyle/food/2007/05/13/2007-05-13_plump_it_up-1.html Black R. Plump it up. Sweet, juicy mangoes are at their peak, with seasonal varieties ripe for the picking, New York Daily News, May 13, 2007]</ref>]]

Though India is the largest producer of mangoes in the world, it accounts for less than one percent of the global mango trade.<ref>[http://www.usaid.gov/in/newsroom/press_releases/may03_6p.htm USAID helps Indian mango farmers access new markets, USAID-India, May 3, 2006]</ref>

Dwarf or semi-dwarf varieties serve as [[ornamental plant]]s and can be grown in containers.

=== Diseases ===
{{Main|List of mango diseases}}

===Food===

A ripe mango is sweet, with a unique taste that nevertheless varies from variety to variety. The texture of the flesh varies between cultivars, some having a soft, pulpy texture similar to an over-ripe [[plum]], while others have firmer flesh like a [[cantaloupe]] or [[avocado]]. In some cultivars, the flesh has a fibrous texture.
[[Image:Mango Powder.JPG|right|thumb|A pack of ''amchur'' (or dry mango) powder in India.]]

===In [[Indian cuisine]]===

In western recipes of 'Chutney', ripe mangoes are often used, but chutney in the [[Indian subcontinent]] is usually made with sour, unripe mangoes and hot [[chile pepper|chili]]s or [[Lime (Citrus aurantifolia)|limes]]. In India, ripe mangoes are often cut into thin layers, [[desiccate]]d, folded, and then cut. These bars, known as ''aampapdi'',' ''amavat'' or ''halva'' in Hindi, are similar to dried [[guava]] fruit bars available in Colombia. In many parts of India, people eat squeezed mango juice (called ''ras'') on a variety of bread. This is part of the meal rather than a dessert. Unripe mangoes (which are extremely sour) are eaten with salt, and in regions where food is hotter, with salt and chili.

In Kerala, ripe mangoes are used in a dish called ''[[mambazha kaalan]]''.

In Maharashtra,''moramba'' (a kind of preserve, made from jaggery and mango) and ''aamrus'' (Pulp/Thick Juice made of mangoes, with a bit of sugar if needed and milk at times) are famous. A spicy, sweet and sour semi-liquid side-dish called ''meth-amba'' is made from unripe mango slices called ''kairi'', jaggery and fenugreek seeds. They can be enjoyed with poories and polies, like jam.

In India mango is used as [[Indian pickles|pickle]] (''aachar''), ''amawat'', ''murraba'', ''sukhawata'' & ''chatni''or [[chutney]].

During the hot summer months, a cooling summer drink called ''panha'' (in Marathi) and ''panna'' (across north India) is made with raw mango. Mango [[lassi]] is made by adding mango pulp to the North Indian yoghurt drink lassi.

The fruit is also used in a variety of cereal products, in particular muesli and oat granola.
''
Dried and powdered unripe mango is known as ''amchur'' (sometimes spelled ''amchoor'') in India and ''ambi'' in Urdu. ''Amb'' is a [[Sindhi]], ''aamba'' a [[Marathi]], and ''aam'' a [[Hindi]]/[[Urdu]]/[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] word for mango.

===Elsewhere===

In the [[Philippines]], unripe mango is eaten with [[bagoong]]. Dried strips of sweet, ripe mango are also popular, with those from [[Cebu]] exported worldwide. [[Guimaras]] produces a delicious mango.

[[Image:Fresh mangoes and bananas.JPG|thumb|right|Freshly harvested mangoes and [[banana]]s at a fruit stand on the island of [[Maui]], [[Hawaii]]]]

In [[Mexico]], mango is used to make [[juices]], [[smoothie]]s, [[ice cream]], [[fruit bar]]s, [[raspado]]s, [[aguas frescas]], [[pie]]s and sweet [[chili sauce]], or mixed with [[chamoy]], a sweet and spicy chili paste. It is popular on a stick or also as a main ingredient in fresh fruit combinations.

Pieces of mango can be mashed and used as a topping on [[ice cream]] or blended with milk and ice as milkshakes. In [[Thailand]] and other South East Asian countries, sweet glutinous rice is flavored with coconut then served with sliced mango as a dessert.

In other parts of [[South-east Asia]], mangoes are pickled with [[fish sauce]] and rice vinegar.

In Taiwan, mango is a topping that can be added to shaved ice along with condensed milk.

The sweet bell pepper ([[capsicum]]) was once known as mango in parts of the [[United States]].<ref>[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/mango Merriam-Webster Dictionary Definition]. </ref>

In [[Costa Rica]], mango is either eaten green with salt, or ripe in various forms; ripe mangoes are called ''manga'' to differentiate them.

=== Nutrient and antioxidant properties ===
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Mango, raw | kJ= 272| protein=.51 g | fat=0.27 g | carbs=17.00 g | fiber=1.8 g | | sugars=14.8 g | iron_mg=0.13| calcium_mg=10 | magnesium_mg=9 | phosphorus_mg=11 | potassium_mg=156 | zinc_mg=0.04 | vitA_ug = 38 | betacarotene_ug=445 | vitC_mg=27.7 | pantothenic_mg=0.160 | vitB6_mg=0.134 | folate_ug=14 | thiamin_mg=0.058 | riboflavin_mg=0.057 | niacin_mg=0.584 | right=1 | source_usda=1 |note=}}

Mango is rich in a variety of [[phytochemical]]s and [[nutrient]]s that qualify it as a model "[[superfruit]]", a term used to highlight potential health value of certain edible [[fruit]]s. The fruit is high in [[prebiotic]] [[dietary fiber]], [[vitamin C]], [[polyphenol]]s and [[carotenoid]]s.<ref>[http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-C00001-01c20VU.html, Nutrient profile for mango, Nutritiondata.com]</ref>

Mango contains essential [[vitamin]]s and [[dietary mineral]]s. The [[antioxidant]] vitamins [[vitamin A|A]], [[vitamin C|C]] and [[vitamin E|E]] comprise 25%, 76% and 9% of the [[Dietary Reference Intake]] (DRI) in a 165 g serving. [[Vitamin B6]] (pyridoxine, 11% DRI), vitamin K (9% DRI), other [[B vitamins]] and [[essential nutrients]] such as [[potassium]], [[copper]] and 17 [[amino acid]]s are at good levels. Mango [[peel (fruit)|peel]] and pulp contain other [[phytonutrient]]s, such as the [[pigment]] [[antioxidant]]s - carotenoids and polyphenols - and [[omega-3]] and -6 [[polyunsaturated fatty acid]]s.

The edible mango peel has considerable value as a source of [[dietary fiber]] and antioxidant pigments.<ref>[http://nutraingredients-usa.com/news/ng.asp?n=78399-mango-antioxidant-polyphenol Mango peel extract shows functional food potential]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rocha Ribeiro SM, Queiroz JH, Lopes Ribeiro de Queiroz ME, Campos FM, Pinheiro Sant'ana HM |title=Antioxidant in mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp |journal=Plant Foods Hum Nutr. |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=13–7 |year=2007 |month=Mar|pmid=17243011 |doi=10.1007/s11130-006-0035-3 |quote=However, the mango peel has properties similar to sumac or poison ivy, resulting in allergic rashes around the mouth, eyes, cheeks, and genitalia if the urushiol oil is spread. Washing the affected area five minutes after contact should prevent some of the symptoms. Symptoms can be swelling, formation of yellow sores, redness, and if unmaintained, may be subjected to bacterial infection.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Ajila CM, Prasada Rao UJ |title=Protection against hydrogen peroxide induced oxidative damage in rat erythrocytes by Mangifera indica L. peel extract |journal=Food Chem Toxicol. |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=303–9 |year=2008 |month=Jan |pmid=17919803 |doi=10.1016/j.fct.2007.08.024 }}</ref> Contained within the peel and pulp are rich contents of [[polysaccharide]]s as fiber sources, especially [[starch]] and [[pectin]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Iagher F, Reicher F, Ganter JL |title=Structural and rheological properties of polysaccharides from mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp |journal=Int J Biol Macromol. |volume=31 |issue=1-3 |pages=9–17 |year=2002 |month=Dec |pmid=12559422 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0141813002000442 |doi=10.1016/S0141-8130(02)00044-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Berardini N, Fezer R, Conrad J, Beifuss U, Carle R, Schieber A |title=Screening of mango (Mangifera indica L.) cultivars for their contents of flavonol O- and xanthone C-glycosides, anthocyanins, and pectin |journal=J Agric Food Chem. |volume=53 |issue=5 |pages=1563–70 |year=2005 |month=Mar |pmid=15740041 |doi=10.1021/jf0484069 }}</ref>

[[Antioxidant]]s of the peel and pulp include carotenoids, such as the [[provitamin A]] compound, [[beta-carotene]], [[lutein]] and [[alpha-carotene]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gouado I, Schweigert FJ, Ejoh RA, Tchouanguep MF, Camp JV |title=Systemic levels of carotenoids from mangoes and papaya consumed in three forms (juice, fresh and dry slice) |journal=Eur J Clin Nutr. |volume=61 |issue=10 |pages=1180–8 |year=2007 |month=Oct |pmid=17637601 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602841 }}</ref> polyphenols<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mahattanatawee K, Manthey JA, Luzio G, Talcott ST, Goodner K, Baldwin EA |title=Total antioxidant activity and fiber content of select Florida-grown tropical fruits |journal=J Agric Food Chem. |volume=54 |issue=19 |pages=7355–63 |year=2006 |month=Sep |pmid=16968105 |doi=10.1021/jf060566s }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Singh UP, Singh DP, Singh M, ''et al'' |title=Characterization of phenolic compounds in some Indian mango cultivars |journal=Int J Food Sci Nutr. |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=163–9 |year=2004 |month=Mar |pmid=14985189 |doi=10.1080/09637480410001666441 }}</ref> such as [[quercetin]], [[kaempferol]], [[gallic acid]], [[caffeic acid]], [[catechin]]s, [[tannin]]s, and the unique mango [[xanthone]], mangiferin,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Andreu GL, Delgado R, Velho JA, Curti C, Vercesi AE |title=Mangiferin, a natural occurring glucosyl xanthone, increases susceptibility of rat liver mitochondria to calcium-induced permeability transition |journal=Arch Biochem Biophys. |volume=439 |issue=2 |pages=184–93 |year=2005 |month=Jul |pmid=15979560 |doi=10.1016/j.abb.2005.05.015 }}</ref> any of which may counteract [[free radicals]] in various disease mechanisms as revealed in preliminary research.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Percival SS, Talcott ST, Chin ST, Mallak AC, Lounds-Singleton A, Pettit-Moore J |title=Neoplastic transformation of BALB/3T3 cells and cell cycle of HL-60 cells are inhibited by mango (Mangifera indica L.) juice and mango juice extracts |journal=J Nutr. |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1300–4 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16614420 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16614420 |day=01}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rodríguez J, Di Pierro D, Gioia M, ''et al'' |title=Effects of a natural extract from Mangifera indica L, and its active compound, mangiferin, on energy state and lipid peroxidation of red blood cells |journal=Biochim Biophys Acta. |volume=1760 |issue=9 |pages=1333–42 |year=2006 |month=Sep |pmid=16860486 |doi=10.1016/j.bbagen.2006.04.005 }}</ref> Contents of these phytochemicals and nutrients appear to vary across different mango species.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rocha Ribeiro SM, Queiroz JH, Lopes Ribeiro de Queiroz ME, Campos FM, Pinheiro Sant'ana HM |title=Antioxidant in mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp |journal=Plant Foods Hum Nutr. |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=13–7 |year=2007 |month=Mar |pmid=17243011 |doi=10.1007/s11130-006-0035-3 }}</ref> Up to 25 different carotenoids have been isolated from mango pulp, the densest content for which was [[beta-carotene]] accounting for the yellow-orange [[pigmentation]] of most mango species.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chen JP, Tai CY, Chen BH |title=Improved liquid chromatographic method for determination of carotenoids in Taiwanese mango (Mangifera indica L.) |journal=J Chromatogr A. |volume=1054 |issue=1-2 |pages=261–8 |year=2004 |month=Oct |pmid=15553152 }}</ref> Peel and leaves also have significant content of polyphenols, including [[xanthone]]s, mangiferin and [[gallic acid]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Barreto JC, Trevisan MT, Hull WE, ''et al'' |title=Characterization and quantitation of polyphenolic compounds in bark, kernel, leaves, and peel of mango (Mangifera indica L.) |journal=J Agric Food Chem. |volume=56 |issue=14 |pages=5599–610 |year=2008 |month=Jul |pmid=18558692 |doi=10.1021/jf800738r }}</ref>

The mango [[triterpene]], lupeol<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chaturvedi PK, Bhui K, Shukla Y |title=Lupeol: connotations for chemoprevention |journal=Cancer Lett. |volume=263 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |year=2008 |month=May |pmid=18359153 |doi=10.1016/j.canlet.2008.01.047 }}</ref> is an effective inhibitor in laboratory models of prostate and skin cancers<ref>{{cite journal |author=Prasad S, Kalra N, Singh M, Shukla Y |title=Protective effects of lupeol and mango extract against androgen induced oxidative stress in Swiss albino mice |journal=Asian J Androl. |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=313–8 |year=2008 |month=Mar |pmid=18097535 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-7262.2008.00313.x }}</ref>.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nigam N, Prasad S, Shukla Y |title=Preventive effects of lupeol on DMBA induced DNA alkylation damage in mouse skin |journal=Food Chem Toxicol. |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=2331–5 |year=2007 |month=Nov |pmid=17637493 |doi=10.1016/j.fct.2007.06.002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Saleem M, Afaq F, Adhami VM, Mukhtar H |title=Lupeol modulates NF-kappaB and PI3K/Akt pathways and inhibits skin cancer in CD-1 mice |journal=Oncogene |volume=23 |issue=30 |pages=5203–14 |year=2004 |month=Jul |pmid=15122342 |doi=10.1038/sj.onc.1207641 }}</ref> An extract of mango branch bark called Vimang, isolated by Cuban scientists, contains numerous [[polyphenol]]s with antioxidant properties [[in vitro]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rodeiro I, Cancino L, González JE, ''et al'' |title=Evaluation of the genotoxic potential of Mangifera indica L. extract (Vimang), a new natural product with antioxidant activity |journal=Food Chem Toxicol. |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=1707–13 |year=2006 |month=Oct |pmid=16857303 |doi=10.1016/j.fct.2006.05.009 }}</ref> and on blood parameters of elderly humans.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pardo-Andreu GL, Philip SJ, Riaño A, ''et al'' |title=Mangifera indica L. (Vimang) protection against serum oxidative stress in elderly humans |journal=Arch Med Res. |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=158–64 |year=2006 |month=Jan |pmid=16314203 |doi=10.1016/j.arcmed.2005.04.017 }}</ref>

The pigment [[euxanthin]], known as [[Indian yellow]], is often thought to be produced from the urine of cows fed mango leaves; the practice is described as having been outlawed in 1908 due to malnutrition of the cows and possible [[urushiol]] poisoning.<ref>[http://webexhibits.org/pigments/indiv/history/indianyellow.html History of Indian yellow, Pigments Through the Ages]</ref> One author<ref>{{cite book |author=Finlay, Victoria |title=Color : A Natural History of the Palette |publisher=Random House Trade Paperbacks |location=New York |year=2003|isbn=0-8129-7142-6 }}</ref> claims these descriptions of the pigment's origin rely on a single anecdotal source and Indian legal records do not mention such a practice being outlawed.

== Production and consumption ==
[[Image:GntMango.jpg|thumb|left|Banganpalli mangoes sold at [[Guntur]], [[India]]]]
Mangoes account for approximately fifty percent of all tropical fruits produced worldwide. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates worldwide production of mangoes at more than 23 million tons in 2001.<ref name=jedele/> With 12 million tons produced annually (2002-3 data), India<ref name=rediff04/> accounts for almost half of the world production, followed by China (3 million tons), Pakistan (2.25 million tons), Mexico (1.5 million tons) and Thailand (1.35 million tons). The aggregate production of 10 countries is responsible for roughly 80% of the entire world mango production.
[[Image:Hedgehog mangoes.JPG|thumb|left|A mango cut using the "hedgehog" method]]
[[Alphonso (mango)|Alphonso]], Benishan or Benishaan (Banganpalli in Telugu and Tamil) and Kesar mango varieties are considered among the best mangoes in the Southern states whereas Dussehri and Langda varieties are most popular in the Northern states of [[India]]. Commonly exported, the [[Alphonso]] cultivar is grown exclusively in the Konkan region of [[Maharashtra]]. Alphonso is named after [[Afonso de Albuquerque|Afonso De Albuquerque]] who reputedly brought the [[drupe]] on his journeys to [[Goa]].{{Fact|date=April 2008}} The locals took to calling this Aphoos in [[Konkani language|Konkani]] and in Maharashtra the pronunciation got further corrupted to Hapoos. This variety then was taken to the Konkan region of Maharashtra and other parts of India. [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Karnataka]] states in the south, [[Gujarat]] in western India, and [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bihar]] in the north are major producers of mangoes harvested especially to make spicy mango pickles having regional differences in taste. In [[Pakistan]] the popular mangoes are the Sindhri and Chaunsa, besides other varieties like ''Langra, Anwar Ratoal and Malva''. The Sindhri mango is primarily produced in the province of Sindh and can measure up to half a foot in length. It is generally considered one of the best mangoes in the world.
Generally, once ripe, mangoes have an orange-yellow or reddish peel and are juicy for eating while those intended for export are often picked while under-ripe with green peels. Although producing [[ethylene]] while ripening, unripened exported mangoes do not have the same juiciness or flavor as fresh fruit.
[[Image:Mango maracay.JPG|thumb|right|A woman selling mangoes in Venezuela]]

[[Image:Green mango.jpg|thumb|right|Native green mangoes from the Philippines]]

Mangoes are popular throughout [[Latin America]]. In [[Mexico]], sliced mango is eaten with [[chili powder]] and/or salt. Street vendors sometimes sell whole mangoes on a stick, dipped in the chili-salt mixture. In [[Indonesia]] and [[Thailand]], green mango is sold by street vendors with sugar and salt and/or chili, or used in a sour salad called ''rujak'' or ''[[rojak]]'' in [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]]. [[Ayurveda]] considers ripe mango sweet and heating, balancing all three [[Doshas|doshas (humors)]], while also providing energy. Powdered raw mango is sometimes a condiment in various [[cuisine]]s.

Like other [[Drupe|drupaceous fruits]], mangoes come in both [[Drupe|freestone]] and [[Drupe|clingstone]] varieties.

'''Area harvested of mangoes by country as of 2007'''<ref>http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor</ref>:
# India : 2,143,000 hectares
# China : 445,000 hectares
# Thailand : 285,000 hectares
# Indonesia : 266,000 hectares
# Pakistan : 215,000 hectares
# Mexico : 200,000 hectares
# Philippines : 181,000 hectares
# Nigeria : 126,500 hectares
# Brazil : 89,800 hectares
# Guinea : 82,000 hectares
# Viet Nam : 52,000 hectares
# Bangladesh : 51,000 hectares

{| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="100%" class="wikitable" align=left style="clear:left"
! colspan=3|Top Ten Mangoes Producers — 2007
|-
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="25%" | Country
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="15%" | Production ([[Tonne]]s)
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="10%" | Footnote
|-
| {{IND}} || align=right |13501000|| align=right |
|-
| {{PRC}} || align=right |3752000 || align=right | F
|-
| {{PAK}} || align=right |2250000 || align=right | F
|-
| {{MEX}} || align=right |2050000 || align=right | F
|-
| {{THA}} || align=right |1800000 || align=right | F
|-
| {{IDN}} || align=right |1620000 || align=right | F
|-
| {{BRA}} || align=right |1546000 || align=right | F
|-
| {{PHI}} || align=right |975000 || align=right | F
|-
| {{NGA}} || align=right |734000 || align=right | F
|-
| {{VNM}} || align=right |370000 || align=right | F
|-
| bgcolor=#cccccc| '''{{flag|World}}'''
| bgcolor=#cccccc align=right | '''33445279'''
| bgcolor=#cccccc align=right | '''A'''
|-
|colspan=5 style="font-size:.7em"|No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate(may include official, semi-official or estimates); 
Source: [http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision]
|}
{{-}}

== Cultivars ==
{{main|List of mango cultivars}}

Many hundreds of named mango [[cultivar]]s exist. In mango [[orchard]]s, several cultivars are often intermixed to improve cross-pollination. Many desired cultivars are [[mono-embryonic]] and need to be propogated by [[grafting]] methods or else they will not be true-to-type.

A common (mono-embryonic) cultivar is [[Alphonso (mango)|Alphonso]] known in Asia under its original name, Hapoos. As it is extremely popular, even outside the Indian subcontinent, Alphonso is an important export product.

Other popular cultivars are mentioned in the list (link above).

Cultivars excelling in one climate may fail to achieve elsewhere. For example, the cultivar Julie, a Jamaican favorite, and Alphonso have not been successfully grown in Florida.

The current world market is dominated by the cultivar [[Tommy Atkins (mango)|Tommy Atkins]], a seedling of Haden which first fruited in 1940 in southern Florida, USA. Despite being initially rejected commercially by Florida researchers{{Fact|date=April 2008}}, Tommy Atkins is now a favorite worldwide. For example, 80% of mangoes in [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[supermarket]]s are Tommy Atkins. Despite its fibrous flesh and fair taste, growers worldwide have embraced the cultivar for its exceptional production and disease resistance, the [[shelf-life]] of its fruit, their transportability as well as size and appealing color. Tommy Atkins is predominant in the USA as well, although other cultivars, such Kent, Keitt, the Haitian grown Madame Francis and the Mexican grown Champagne are widely available.

In urban areas of southern Florida, small gardens, or lack thereof, have fueled the desire for [[dwarfing|dwarf]] mango trees. The [[Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden]] has promoted "condo mangoes" which produce at a height below 2-2.5 m.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}

A list of additional leading cultivars can be found at the cultivar list in the external links below.

There is an Australian variety of mango known as [http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5443.html R2E2], a name based on the orchard row location of the original plant.

== Species ==
There are many species of mango, including:
{|
|
*''[[Mangifera acutigemma]]''
*''[[Mangifera altissima]]''
*''[[Mangifera andamanica]]''
*''[[Mangifera austro-indica]]''
*''[[Mangifera austro-yunnanensis]]''
*''[[Mangifera blommesteinii]]''
*''[[Mangifera bullata]]''
*''[[Mangifera caesia]]''
*''[[Mangifera camptosperma]]''
*''[[Mangifera campnospermoides]]''
|
*''[[Mangifera casturi]]''
*''[[Mangifera collina]]''
*''[[Mangifera decandra]]'
*''[[Mangifera dewildei]]''
*''[[Mangifera dongnaiensis]]''
*''[[Mangifera flava]]''
*''[[Mangifera foetida]]''
*''[[Mangifera gedebe]]''
*''[[Mangifera gracilipes]]''
*''[[Mangifera griffithii]]''
*''[[Mangifera hiemalis]]''
|
*''[[Mangifera indica]]''
*''[[Mangifera kemanga]]''
*''[[Mangifera lalijiwa]]''
*''[[Mangifera laurina]]''
*''[[Mangifera longipes]]''
*''[[Mangifera macrocarpa]]''
*''[[Mangifera magnifica]]''
*''[[Mangifera mekongensis]]''
*''[[Mangifera minutifolia]]''
*''[[Mangifera monandra]]''
*''[[Mangifera nicobarica]]''
|
*''[[Mangifera odorata]]''
*''[[Mangifera orophila]]''
*''[[Mangifera pajang]]''
*''[[Mangifera paludosa]]''
*''[[Mangifera parvifolia]]''
*''[[Mangifera pedicellata]]''
*''[[Mangifera pentandra]]''
*''[[Mangifera persiciformis]]''
*''[[Mangifera quadrifida]]''
*''[[Mangifera rubropetala]]''
*''[[Mangifera rufocostata]]''
|
*''[[Mangifera siamensis]]''
*''[[Mangifera similis]]''
*''[[Mangifera sumbawaensis]]''
*''[[Mangifera superba]]''
*''[[Mangifera swintonioides]]''
*''[[Mangifera sylvatica]]''
*''[[Mangifera taipa]]''
*''[[Mangifera torquenda]]''
*''[[Mangifera transversalis]]''
*''[[Mangifera zeylanica]]''
|}

==See also==
*[[Recalcitrant seed]]
*[[Mango oil]]
*[[Poison ivy]] family ([[Anacardiaceae]])
*[[Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis]]

== Notes ==

{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{cite book| last = Ensminger| first = Audrey H. | coauthors = Ensminger, Marion E. | title = Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia| publisher = CRC Press| year = 1994| pages = 1373| isbn = 0849389801}}
* {{cite book| last = Ensminger| first = Audrey H. | coauthors = et al.| title = The Concise Encyclopedia of Foods & Nutrition| publisher = CRC Press| year = 1995| pages = 651| isbn = 0849344557}}

== External links ==
{{Wikispecies|Mangifera}}
{{Commonscat}}
* [http://culturesheet.org/anacardiaceae:mangifera:indica Mango Culture & Care] on CultureSheet.org
* [http://www.yuu-guxhaa.com.mx/ Mexican Mango]
* [http://www.mango.org/ National Mango Board]
* [http://www.plantcultures.org/activities/handson_mango.html How to grow a Mango]
* [http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Mangifera.html Sorting ''Mangifera'' species]
* [http://www.plantcultures.org/plants/mango_landing.html Plant Cultures: botany, history and uses of mango]
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mango_ars.html Mango]
* [http://www.pesgce.com/toxicodendrondermatitis/derm.asp Toxicodendron Dermatitis: Information on allergic reactions to plants such as Mangos]
* [http://li.defined.net/cgi-bin/pika.exe/html?sid=223674381&iso3=IDN&html=ctry/pl_nd_list.htm&dbkey=species_fk&dbval=33296 List of Mangifera species native to Indonesia]
* [http://www.sajaforum.org/2007/05/usindia_affairs.html SAJAforum.org on historic arrival of Indian mangoes to the U.S.]
* [http://www.bioversityinternational.org/Publications/pubfile.asp?ID_PUB=107 Descriptors for Mango (Mangifera indica L.)]
* [http://www.mangifera.org/ Mango Information System]
* [http://www.horticultureworld.net/botany-taxonomy.htm#The%20Genus%20Mangifera Common Mango]

{{National symbols of Pakistan}}

[[Category:Mangifera]]
[[Category:Fruits originating in Asia]]
[[Category:Tropical fruit]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
[[Category:Tamil words and phrases]]
[[Category:National symbols of India]]
[[Category:National symbols of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Flora of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Vietnamese cuisine]]
[[Category:Native crops of India]]
[[Category:Flora of the Maldives]]

[[ar:مانجو]]
[[ay:Catuña]]
[[bn:আম]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sōaiⁿ-á]]
[[bs:Mango]]
[[bg:Манго]]
[[ca:Mango]]
[[cs:Mango]]
[[ch:Mangga]]
[[da:Mango]]
[[de:Mangos]]
[[el:Μάνγκο]]
[[es:Mango]]
[[eo:Mangifero]]
[[eu:Mango]]
[[fr:Mangifera]]
[[gl:Mango]]
[[gu:કેરી]]
[[hi:लंगड़ा आम]]
[[id:Mangga]]
[[he:מנגו]]
[[kn:ಮಾವು]]
[[la:Mangifera]]
[[lb:Mango]]
[[lt:Mangas]]
[[ln:Língoló]]
[[ml:മാങ്ങ]]
[[mr:आंबा]]
[[ms:Mangga]]
[[nl:Mangifera]]
[[ja:マンゴー]]
[[no:Mango]]
[[ug:مانگو]]
[[pl:Mango]]
[[pt:Mangifera]]
[[ro:Mango]]
[[ru:Манго]]
[[scn:Mànicu]]
[[si:අඹ]]
[[simple:Mango]]
[[sl:Mangovec]]
[[sr:Манго]]
[[fi:Mango]]
[[sv:Mangosläktet]]
[[ta:மாம்பழம்]]
[[te:మామిడి]]
[[th:มะม่วง]]
[[vi:Xoài]]
[[to:Mango (ʻakau)]]
[[uk:Манго]]
[[ur:آم]]
[[zh-yue:芒果]]
[[zh:芒果]]

Rosary

2009-01-30T21:47:52Z

163.178.17.124: /* Rosary as a family prayer */

{{dablink|This article is about the [[RCMariology|Catholic Marian]] devotion. For other forms of the Christian rosary please see [[Rosary based prayers]]. For prayer beads in other religions see [[Prayer beads]].}}
[[Image:LdyLourd.jpg|right|180px|thumbnail|[[Our Lady of Lourdes]] appearing at [[Lourdes]] with Rosary beads.]]
The '''Rosary''' (from [[Latin]] ''rosarium'', meaning "rose garden"<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Rosary "Rosary." ''Online Etymology Dictionary''. Douglas Harper. 03 May. 2008.]</ref> or "garland of roses"<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=eqkFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA544&dq=rosarius+garland&as_brr=1 "Rosary". Wedgewood, Hensleigh. ''A Dictionary of English Etymology. 2nd ed. London: Trubner & Co., 1872. pg 544.]</ref>) is a popular traditional Roman [[Catholic devotion]]. The term denotes both a set of [[prayer beads]] and the devotional prayer itself, which combines vocal (or silent) [[prayer]] and [[meditation]]. The prayers consist of repeated sequences of the [[Lord's Prayer]] followed by ten praying of the [[Hail Mary]] and a single praying of "[[Glory Be to the Father]]"; each of these sequences is known as a ''tricade''. The praying of each decade is accompanied by meditation on one of the [[:Category:Mysteries of the Rosary|Mysteries of the Rosary]], which are events in the lives of [[Jesus Christ]] and his mother, the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]].

The traditional 15 [[:Category:Mysteries of the Rosary|Mysteries of the Rosary]] were finalized by the 16th century. The mysteries are grouped into three sets: the joyful mysteries, the sorrowful mysteries, and the glorious mysteries. In 2002, Pope John Paul II announced five new optional mysteries, the luminous mysteries, bringing the total number of mysteries to 20.

The term has come to be used to refer to similar beads in other religions.<ref>[http://www.thefreedictionary.com/rosary rosary - definition of rosary by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia]</ref>

== Theological relevance ==
{{RC Mariology}}

The rosary is part of the Catholic [[Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholic)|veneration of Mary]], which has been promoted by numerous popes, especially [[Leo XIII]], known as "The [[Rosary Pope]]", who issued eleven encyclicals on the rosary and created the feast, ''Mary, Queen of the Holy Rosary.'' [[Pope Pius V]], introduced the rosary into the [[Roman Catholic calendar of saints|Roman Catholic liturgical calendar]] as the Feast of [[Our Lady of the Rosary]], celebrated on [[October 7]]. Most recently, on May 3, 2008, [[Pope Benedict XVI]] stated, that the Rosary is experiencing a new Springtime. ''It is one of the most eloquent signs of love that the young generation nourish for Jesus and his Mother''.<ref name="autogenerated5">ihmhermitage.stblogs.com/2008/05/15/benedict-xvi-on-the-rosary/</ref> To Benedict XVI, the rosary is a meditation on all important moments of salvation history.<ref name="autogenerated5" /> Before him, [[Pope John Paul II]]'s Apostolic Letter ''[[Rosarium Virginis Mariae]]''<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_20021016_rosarium-virginis-mariae_en.html [[Pope John Paul II|Pope John Paul II's]] [[Apostolic Letter]] ''[[Rosarium Virginis Mariae]]'']</ref> built on the "total Marian devotion" pioneered by [[Saint Louis de Montfort]]. [[Pope Pius XII]] and his successors actively promoted the veneration of the Virgin in [[Lourdes]] and [[Fatima]], which is credited with a new resurgence of the rosary within the Catholic Church.<ref name="autogenerated2">Heinz, 555</ref>

The theologian [[Romano Guardini]] defined the [[Roman Catholic]] emphasis on the rosary as “participation in the life of Mary, whose focus was Christ”.<ref>A Heinz, Rosenkranz, Marienlexikon, Eos, St.Ottilien, 1993, 555</ref> His statement echoed the view that in [[Roman Catholic Mariology]] the path to Christ is through Mary, with [[Roman Catholic Mariology|Mariology]] being inherent in [[Christology]]; a sentiment also expressed by saints such as [[Louis de Montfort]] who was a strong rosary advocate.<ref>''Mariology Is Christology'' in Vittorio Messori, "The Mary Hypothesis" Rome, 2005</ref><ref>Louis de Montfort, in [[God Alone]]</ref>
Pope [[Leo XIII]] also viewed the rosary as a vital means to participate in the life of Mary and to find the way to Christ (see the section on ''Rosary Pope'' below).<ref name="autogenerated3">Encyclical Jucunda Semper 8.9.1894 quoted in Marienlexikon,Eos St. Ottilien, 1988 42</ref>

Many similar prayer practices exist in popular Roman Catholicism, each with its own set of prescribed prayers and its own form of [[prayer beads]], such as the [[prayer rope]] in [[Eastern Orthodox]] Christianity. These other devotions and their associated beads are usually referred to as "[[Chaplet (Prayer)|chaplets]]." The rosary is sometimes used by other [[Christian]]s, especially in the [[Anglican Communion]] and the [[Old Catholic Church]], and also by some [[Lutheran]]s. [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Protestant]]s, however, such as [[Baptist]]s and [[Presbyterian]]s do not use it and actively discourage their members from using this method of prayer.

== History ==
[[Image:Bartolomé Esteban Perez Murillo 020.jpg|thumb|right|170px|"Madonna with the Rosary" by [[Bartolomé Esteban Murillo|Murrillo]], 1650, an example of [[Roman Catholic Marian art]] featuring the rosary.]]
There are differing views on the history of the rosary. According to tradition, the rosary was given to [[Saint Dominic]] in an [[Marian apparition|apparition]] by the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] in the year 1214 in the church of [[Prouille]]. This [[Marian apparition]] received the title of [[Our Lady of the Rosary]].<ref name="autogenerated6">Catherine Beebe, ''St. Dominic and the Rosary'' ISBN 0898705185 </ref> However, most scholarly research suggests a more gradual and organic development of the rosary.<ref name=encycrosary>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13184b.htm|title=New Advent CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: The Rosary|accessdate=2008-04-17}}</ref>

Prayers with beads like the rosary may have begun as a practice by the [[laity]] to imitate the [[Christian monasticism|monastic]] [[Liturgy of the Hours]], during the course of which the [[monk]]s prayed the 150 [[Psalms]] daily. As many of the laity and even [[lay brother|lay monastics]] could not read, they substituted 150 repetitions of the [[Our Father]] (''Pater noster'' in Latin) for the Psalms, sometimes using a cord with knots on it to keep an accurate count.<ref name=encycrosary/> During the [[middle ages]], evidence suggests that both the Our Father and the [[Hail Mary]] were recited with prayer beads. In the 7th century, [[Saint Eligius]] wrote of using a counting device to keep track of the 150 Hail Marys of the ''Psalter of Mary''.<ref name="autogenerated4">[http://books.google.com/books?q=one+hundred+and+fifty+gold+and+silver+nails%2C+that+by+the+signs+of+the+nails+she+might+repeat+the+Psalter+of+Blessed+Mary.&btnG=Search+Books O'Reilly, Bernard. ''True Men as We Need Them: A Book of Instruction for Men in the World.'' New York: P.J. Kennedy and Sons. (1878) p. 217.]</ref> In 13th century [[Paris]], four [[trade guild]]s existed of prayer bead makers, who were referred to as ''paternosterers'', and the beads were referred to as ''paternosters'', suggesting a continued link between the Our Father (''Pater noster'' in Latin) and the prayer beads.<ref name=encycrosary/> In the 12th century, the rule of the English [[anchorites]], the ''[[Ancrene Wisse]]'', specified how groups of 50 Hail Marys were to be broken into five decades of ten Hail Marys each.<ref name=encycrosary/> Gradually, the Hail Mary came to replace the Our Father as the prayer most associated with beads. Eventually, each decade came to be preceded by an Our Father, which further mirrored the structure of the monastic Liturgy of the Hours.

The practice of meditation during the praying of the [[Hail Mary]]s is attributed to [[Dominic of Prussia]] (1382-1460), a [[Carthusian]] [[monk]], who called it "Life of Jesus Rosary" <ref name="autogenerated2" /> The [[Germany|German]] monk from [[Trier]] added a sentence to each of the 50 Hail Marys already popular at his time, using quotes from scriptures. Promoted by his superior [[Adolf von Essen]] and others, his practice became popular among [[Benedictine]]s and [[Carthusian]]s from Trier to adjoining [[Belgium]] and [[France]], <ref name="autogenerated2" /> where it was greatly promoted by the preaching of the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[priest]] [[Alan de Rupe]], who helped to spread the devotion in [[France]], [[Flanders]], and the [[Netherlands]] between 1460 and his death in 1475.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01246a.htm McNicholas, J.T. "Alanus de Rupe". ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907.]</ref> From the 16th to the early 20th century, the structure of the rosary remained essentially unchanged.<ref name=encycrosary/> There were 15 mysteries, one for each of the 15 decades. In the 20th century the addition of the [[Fatima Prayer]] to the end of each decade became popular. There were no other changes until 2002 when [[John Paul II]] instituted five optional new [[Luminous Mysteries#Luminous Mysteries|Luminous Mysteries]].

Since the 17th century, the Rosary began to appear as an element in key pieces of [[Roman Catholic Marian art]], often in art that depicts the Virgin Mary. Key examples include [[Bartolomé Esteban Murillo|Murrillo]]'s ''Madonna with the Rosary'' at the [[Museo del Prado]] in Spain, and the statute of ''Madonna with Rosary'' at the church of [[San Nazaro Maggiore]] in Milan. Several [[Roman Catholic Marian churches]] around the world have also been named after the rosary, e.g. ''[[Our Lady of the Rosary]] Basilica'', in Rosario [[Argentina]], the ''[[Rosary Basilica]]'' in [[Lourdes]] and ''Nossa Senhora do Rosário'' in [[Porto Alegre]], [[Brazil]].

=== Key dates ===
{{Marian prayers}}
The following table are key dates in the development of the rosary.
*4th century [[prayer rope]] used by the [[Desert Fathers]] to count repetitions of the [[Jesus Prayer]]
*In the 7th century, [[St. Eligius]] (c.588-660) wrote of making a chair adorned with 150 gold and silver nails to aid in the praying of the ''Psalter of Blessed Mary'', which substituted one [[Hail Mary]] for each of the [[Psalms]]. <ref name="autogenerated4" />
*In the early 8th century, [[Venerable Bede]] (d. 733) attests that churches and public places in France and England had prayer beads available for the faithful to use. <ref name="autogenerated4" />
*c. 1075 [[Lady Godiva]] refers in her will to "the circlet of precious stones which she had threaded on a cord in order that by fingering them one after another she might count her prayers exactly" (Malmesbury, "Gesta Pont.", [[Rolls Series]] 311)<ref name=encycrosary/>
*A rule for [[anchorites]] in mid-12th century England gives directions on how 50 Hail Marys are to be said divided into sets of ten, with prostrations and other marks of reverence.<ref name=encycrosary/>
*It is recorded in 12th century Mary-legends (Marien-legenden) that a certain Eulalia was told to pray five decades slowly and devoutly instead of 15 decades in a hurry.<ref name=encycrosary/>
*It is recorded by a contemporary biographer that [[St. Aibert]], who died in 1140, recited 150 Hail Marys daily, 100 with genuflexions and 50 with prostrations.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?q=St.+Albert+%28d.+1140%29+by+his+contemporary+biographer%2C+who+tells+us&btnG=Search+Books CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Rosary]</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?q=St.+Aybert%2C+in+the+twelfth+century%2C+it+is+recorded+that+he+recited+150+Hail+Marys+d&btnG=Search+Books CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hail Mary]</ref>
*1160 [[Saint Rosalia]] is buried with a string of prayer beads<ref name=encycrosary/>
*1214 traditional date of the [[legend]] of [[Saint Dominic]]'s reception of the rosary from the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]] as [[Our Lady of the Rosary]]<ref name="autogenerated6" />
*It is recorded of [[Louis IX of France|St. Louis]] of France (1214-70) that "without counting his other prayers the holy King knelt down every evening 50 times and each time he stood upright then knelt again and repeated slowly an Ave Maria." <ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07110b.htm New Advent CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hail Mary]</ref>
*Mid-13th century word "Rosary" first used (by Thomas of Champitre, in De apibus, ii. 13),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rosary|title=Rosary - LoveToKnow 1911|accessdate=2007-02-10}}</ref> not referring to prayer beads but in a Marian context.
*1268 A reference to guild of "paternosterers" in Paris in "Livre des métiers" of Stephen Boyleau.<ref name=encycrosary/>
*Early 15th century, [[Dominic of Prussia]], a [[Carthusian]], introduces 50 mysteries, one for each Ave Maria<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/hashanayobel/homilies/pensieri/Rosary1.htm Mysteries of the life of]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05112b.htm|title=New Advent CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Dominic of Prussia|accessdate=2007-02-10}}</ref>
*c. 1514 Hail Mary prayer attains its current form.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07110b.htm|title=New Advent CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hail Mary|accessdate=2007-02-10}}</ref>
*1569 Pope [[Pius V]] established the current form of the original 15 mysteries<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/P5CONSUE.HTM|title=CONSUEVERUNT ROMANI Pope Pius V|accessdate=2007-02-10}}</ref>
*1587 A Book on the Rosary entitled ''Rosario della Sacratissima Vergine Maria'' by Ven. [[Luis de Granada]] is published in Italian, which uses a similar method to the fourth method of the five [[methods of praying the rosary]] by St. Louis-Marie de Montfort.<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=QnsEXlVs-uwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:Luis+inauthor:Granada+Rosario&as_brr=1&ei=EvgHSPuwD5yMjAGp0Zi8Dg</ref>
*1597 first recorded use of the term "rosary" to refer to prayer beads.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=rosary|title=Online Etymology Dictionary - Rosary|accessdate=2007-02-10}}</ref>
*1917 [[Our Lady of Fatima]] is said to ask that the [[Fatima Prayer]] be added to the Rosary. Her [[Lúcia Santos|visionaries]] state that she also asks for the Rosary to be said to stop the war, and as part of the [[Immaculate Heart]]'s reparation.
*1974 Pope [[Paul VI]] issues the [[Apostolic Letter]] ''[[Marialis Cultus]]'' which devotes 14 sections to the use of the rosary within the [[Roman Catholic]] Church.<ref>Pope Paul VI's Apostolic Letter [[Marialis Cultus]] http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_p-vi_exh_19740202_marialis-cultus_en.html</ref>
*2002 Pope [[John Paul II]] introduces the [[Rosary#Luminous Mysteries|Luminous Mysteries]] as an option for Roman Catholics in an Apostolic Letter on the Rosary, ''[[Rosarium Virginis Mariae]]''.<ref name="John Paul II">{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_20021016_rosarium-virginis-mariae_en.html|title=Apostolic Letter Rosarium Virginis Mariae|accessdate=2007-02-10}}</ref>

== Rosary beads ==
[[Image:CarvedRosary.JPG|right|thumbnail|200px|Rosary beads]]

A rosary provides a physical method of keeping track of the number of [[Hail Mary]]s said. The fingers are moved along the beads as the prayers are recited. By not having to keep track of the count mentally, the mind is more able to meditate on the mysteries. A five decade rosary contains five groups of ten beads (a decade), with additional large beads before each decade. The [[Hail Mary]] is said on the ten beads within a decade, while the [[Our Father]] is said on the large bead before each decade. A new mystery is meditated upon at each of the large beads. Some rosaries, particularly those used by [[religious orders]], contain 15 decades, corresponding to the traditional 15 mysteries of the rosary. Both five and 15 decade rosaries are attached to a shorter strand, which starts with a [[crucifix]] followed by one large, three small, and one large beads before connecting to the rest of the rosary. The praying of the rosary is started on the short strand, reciting the [[Apostle's Creed]] at the [[crucifix]], an Our Father at the first large bead, three Hail Marys on the next three beads, then a [[Glory be to the Father]] on the next large bead. The praying of the decades then follows. Although counting the prayers on a string of beads is customary, the prayers of the rosary do not actually require a set of beads, but can be said using any type of counting device, by counting on one's fingers, or by counting by oneself without any device at all.

The beads can be made from a wide variety of materials including wood, bone, glass, crushed flowers, semi-precious stones such as agate, jet, amber, or jasper, or precious materials including [[Coral (precious)|coral]], crystal, silver, and gold. Rosaries are sometimes made from the seeds of the "rosary pea" or "[[bead tree]]". Today, the vast majority of rosary beads are made of glass, plastic, or wood. Early rosaries were strung on strong thread, often silk, but modern ones are more often made as a series of chain-linked beads. [[Our Lady's Rosary Makers]] produce some 7 million rosaries annually that are distributed to those in economic and spiritual need.<ref>[http://www.olrm.org/ "Our Lady's Rosary Makers" website. <www.olrm.org>. Access date: 15 May 2008.]</ref>

It is especially common for beads to be made of material with some special significance, such as jet from the shrine of [[St. James the Greater|St. James]] at [[Santiago de Compostela]], or olive seeds from the [[Garden of Gethsemane]]. Beads are sometimes made to enclose sacred [[relic]]s, or drops of [[holy water]]. A set of blessed rosary beads is a [[Sacramentals|sacramental]].

In addition to a string of beads the rosary comes in other forms for ease of use. A ring rosary is a finger ring with eleven knobs on it, ten round ones and one crucifix. A rosary bracelet is one with ten beads and often a cross or medal as well. The most modern form is the rosary card. A rosary card is either one with a "handle" that moves like a [[slide rule]] to count the decade, or it has a whole rosary with bumps similar to [[Braille]].

===Rosary beads for other prayers===
{{main|Rosary based prayers}}
Rosary beads are at times used to say [[Roman Catholic]] [[rosary based prayers]] which do not primarily involve the Hail Mary and the mysteries of the rosary. Examples include the [[Chaplet of Divine Mercy]] introduced by [[Faustina Kowalska|Saint Faustina Kowalska]] and the [[Rosary of the Holy Wounds]] introduced by the [[Venerable]] Sister [[Mary Martha Chambon]].<ref name="autogenerated1">Ann Ball, 2003 ''Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices'' ISBN 087973910X</ref> These prayers often use rosary beads, but their words and format do not correspond to the usual mysteries. Both Saint Faustina Kowalska and the Venerable Sister Mary Martha Chambon attributed these prayers to Jesus as part of their [[Visions of Jesus and Mary|visions of Jesus Christ]].<ref>Michael Freze, 1993, ''Voices, Visions, and Apparitions'', OSV Publishing ISBN 087973454X</ref>

== The Mysteries ==
[[Image:Sorrow5crop.jpg|100px|right|thumbnail|[[The Crucifixion of Jesus]] - the fifth of the Sorrowful Mysteries]]



The praying of the Rosary is traditionally dedicated to one of three sets of "Mysteries" to be said in sequence, one per day: the ''Joyful'' (sometimes ''Joyous'') ''Mysteries''; the ''Sorrowful Mysteries''; and the ''Glorious Mysteries''. Each of these three sets of Mysteries has within it five different themes to be meditated on, one for each decade of ten Hail Marys. [[Pope John Paul II]], in his apostolic letter ''Rosarium Virginis Mariae'' (October 2002), recommended an additional set called the ''Luminous Mysteries'' (or the "Mysteries of Light").<ref name ="John Paul II"/> Catholic faithful who prefer the original 15 mysteries point to the belief that the Rosary is Mary's Psalter, containing 150 Hail Marys in its body for the 150 [[Psalms]].<ref>[http://sicutincaelo.org/y15.html St. Louis-Marie de Montfort explains this correlation]</ref> The ''Luminous Mysteries'' make the total 200, but incorporate Christ's ministry.

In addition to meditating upon the events of the mysteries, many people associate certain [[Seven virtues|virtues]], or fruits, with each mystery.
''(The following list of mysteries and the fruits associated with them<ref>[http://www.montfort.org.uk/Writings/MSR.html St. Louis-Marie de Montfort, Methods for saying the rosary, first and third method]</ref> corresponds to moments in the life, [[Passion (Christianity)|passion]], and death of [[Jesus]] and [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary's]] participation in them chronologically.)''

=== Joyful Mysteries ===
# The [[Annunciation]]. Fruit of the Mystery: [[Humility]]
# The [[Visitation (Catholic)|Visitation]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Love of Neighbor
# The [[Nativity of Jesus|Nativity]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Poverty (poor in spirit), Detachment from the things of the world, Contempt of Riches, Love of the Poor
# The [[Presentation of Jesus at the Temple]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Purity
# The [[Finding in the Temple|Finding of the Child Jesus in the Temple]]. Fruit of the Mystery: True Wisdom and True Conversion.

=== Sorrowful Mysteries ===
# The [[Agony in the Garden]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Sorrow for Sin, Uniformity with the will of God
# The [[Passion (Christianity)|Scourging at the Pillar]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Mortification
# The [[Crown of Thorns|Crowning with Thorns]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Contempt of the world
# The [[Passion (Christianity)|Carrying of the Cross]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Patience
# The [[Passion (Christianity)|Crucifixion]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Salvation

=== Glorious Mysteries ===
# The [[Death and Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Faith
# The [[Ascension of Jesus Christ|Ascension]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Hope and desire for Heaven
# The [[Pentecost|Descent of the Holy Spirit]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Holy Wisdom to know the truth and share with everyone
# The [[Assumption of Mary]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Grace of a Happy Death and True Devotion towards Mary
# The [[Coronation of the Virgin|Coronation]] of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Perseverance and Crown of Glory

=== Luminous Mysteries ===
# The [[Baptism of Jesus in the Jordan]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Openness to the Holy Spirit
# The [[Marriage at Cana|Wedding at Cana]]. Fruit of the Mystery: To Jesus through Mary
# Jesus' Proclamation of the [[Kingdom of God]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Repentance and Trust in God
# The [[Transfiguration of Jesus|Transfiguration]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Desire for Holiness
# The [[Last Supper|Institution of the Eucharist]]. Fruit of the Mystery: Adoration

== Days of praying==
{| class=wikitable
! Day of praying!! With the Luminous Mysteries !! Without the Luminous Mysteries
|-
| Sunday || The Glorious Mysteries ||
[[Advent]]: The Joyful Mysteries 
[[Lent]] to [[Palm Sunday]]: The Sorrowful Mysteries 
[[Ordinary Time]], [[Easter]] to Sunday before Advent: The Glorious Mysteries
|-
| Monday || The Joyful Mysteries || The Joyful Mysteries
|-
| Tuesday || The Sorrowful Mysteries || The Sorrowful Mysteries
|-
| Wednesday || The Glorious Mysteries || The Glorious Mysteries
|-
| Thursday || The Luminous Mysteries || The Joyful Mysteries
|-
| Friday || The Sorrowful Mysteries || The Sorrowful Mysteries
|-
| Saturday || The Joyful Mysteries || The Glorious Mysteries
|}

== Approved form ==
* A [[sign of the cross]] on the Crucifix and then the "[[Apostles' Creed]]";
* An "[[Our Father]]" on the first large bead;
* A "[[Hail Mary]]" on each of the three small beads with the following intentions (the theological virtues):
*# For the increase of faith
*# For the increase of hope
*# For the increase of charity
* A "[[Glory Be to the Father]]";
* Announce the mystery
* An "Our Father" on the large bead
* A "Hail Mary" on each of the adjacent ten small beads;
* A "Glory Be to the Father";
* Again an Our Father on the next large bead, followed by ten Hail Marys on the small beads, the Glory Be to the Father, (and [[Fatima Prayer]], cf. below) for each of the following decades;
* In conclusion, "[[Hail Holy Queen]]" and a sign of the cross.

=== Common pious additions ===
Many people add a praying of the [[Fatima Prayers|Fatima Decade Prayer]] at the end of each Decade. Others add a praying of a pious [[Eucharistic]] prayer "O Sacrament Most Holy, O Sacrament Divine, All praise and all thanksgiving be every moment thine" at the end of each decade in honor of [[Jesus]] in the [[Blessed Sacrament]]. In the practice of the [[Brothers of the Christian Schools]], they have an additional decade for the intentions of the students or the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]].

A pious German custom is to insert a phrase in the middle of each Hail Mary (after "... blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus ... "), which refers to the specific mystery being meditated upon. <ref>[http://rosarycreations.com/rosaryprayersgerman.htm Rosary Prayers in German]</ref><ref>[http://www.pacifier.com/~rosarweb/rosaryprayers.htm Rosary Prayers in Several Languages]</ref>
This custom was incorporated into [[St. Louis de Montfort]]'s second method out of his five [[Methods of Praying the Rosary]].<ref>[http://www.montfort.org.uk/Writings/MSR.html Methods for Saying the Rosary]</ref>

In the practice of the [[Dominican Order]], the opening prayers of the rosary mirror the opening of the [[Liturgy of the Hours|Divine Office]]:

# In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen.
# Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee.
# Blessed art thou among women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus.
# O Lord, open my lips.
# And my mouth will proclaim your praise.
# Incline your aid to me, O God.
# O Lord, make haste to help me.
# Glory to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be, world without end. Amen.

=== Rosary as a family prayer===
Rosary is usually prayed in Church during afternoon or evening hours. Many Catholics pray the rosary on their own, or on special occasions like the removal of the [[Nativity Scene]], [[mourning]] after a [[funeral]], etc. But the rosary is also an old family prayer. This specific family devotion has been supported be several popes including [[Pope Pius XII]] in his encyclical [[Ingruentium Malorum]]:

<blockquote>The custom of the family praying of the Holy Rosary is a most efficacious means. What a sweet sight - most pleasing to God - when, at eventide, the Christian home resounds with the frequent repetition of praises in honor of the High Queen of Heaven! Then the Rosary, recited in the family, assembled before the image of the Virgin, in an admirable union of hearts, the parents and their children, who come back from their daily work. It unites them piously with those absent and those dead. It links all more tightly in a sweet bond of love, with the most Holy Virgin, who, like a loving mother, in the circle of her children, will be there bestowing upon them an abundance of the gifts of concord and family peace. <ref>Ingruentium Marlorum 13</ref></blockquote>

==Rosary in Marian apparitions==
The need to pray the rosary and its power has been reported in [[Marian apparition]]s for centuries. As a recent example, in the reported messages of [[Our Lady of Akita]], Sister [[Agnes Sasagawa]] stated that in 1973 she was told by the Virgin Mary: "''Pray very much the prayers of the Rosary. I alone am able still to save you from the calamities which approach.''" In 1988 Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (later [[Pope Benedict XVI]]) gave definitive judgement on [[Our Lady of Akita]] messages as reliable and worthy of belief.<ref>EWTN on Akita apparitions [http://www.ewtn.com/library/mary/akita.htm]</ref>

The rosary was also prominently featured in the [[Lourdes apparition]]s in 1858, where Saint [[Bernadette Soubirous]] stated that in the initial meeting of [[Our Lady of Lourdes]]: "''The Lady took the rosary that she held in her hands and she made the sign of the cross''".

The apparitions of [[Our Lady of Fátima]] are sometimes also called ''Our Lady of the Rosary'' because the children related that the Lady in the apparition specifically identified Herself as "the Lady of the Rosary." The three children at [[Our Lady of Fátima]] stated that the Lady asked them to say the Rosary every day, reiterating many times that the Rosary was the key to personal and world peace. She had also asked that it be prayed every day, and that its mysteries be meditated on.

==The Rosary Pope==
One of the forces that drove the spread of the rosary during the 19th century among Roman Catholics was the influence of the ''[[Rosary Pope]]'', a title given to [[Pope Leo XIII]] (1878-1903) because he issued a record eleven [[encyclicals]] on the rosary, instituted the Catholic custom of daily rosary prayer during the month of October, and in 1883 created the Feast of ''Queen of the Holy Rosary''. <ref>in Lauretanische Litanei, Marienlexikon, Eos, St. Ottilien, 1988, p.41</ref>

[[Leo XIII]], the [[Rosary Pope]], explained the importance of the rosary as the one road to God, from the father to the Son, to his Mother, and from her to the human race. He emphasized that no human creature can change this and therefore there exists only one road for the faithful, to the mother and from her to Christ and through Christ to the father. The rosary is a vital means to participate in the life of Mary and to find the way to Christ. <ref name="autogenerated3" /> This emphasis on the path ''through Mary to Christ'' (which was also a basis for some of [[Louis de Montfort]]'s writings) has since been a key direction in [[Roman Catholic Mariology]], with [[Roman Catholic Mariology|Mariology]] being viewed as inherent in [[Christology]], and the rosary paving that path.<ref>At the center of this mystery, in the midst of this wonderment of faith, stands Mary. As the loving Mother of the Redeemer, she was the first to experience it: "To the wonderment of nature you bore your Creator"! Pope John Paul II, in Redemptoris Mater, 51</ref><ref>See Pius XII ''Mystici corporis Christi''; John Henry Newman: ''Mariology is always christocentric'', in Michael Testa, Mary: The Virgin Mary in the Life and Writings of John Henry Newman 2001; ''Mariology Is Christology'' in Vittorio Messori, "The Mary Hypothesis" Rome, 2005</ref>

== Single-decade rosaries ==

[[Image:Irish penal rosary.svg|thumb|[[Irish penal rosary]]]]
[[Image:Ringrosary.JPG|thumb|right|100px|A Single-decade [[finger ring|ring]] rosary]]
[[Image:Finger rosary.GIF|thumb|right|100px|An alternative design.]]

[[England]] and [[Ireland]] were severed from Rome under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] by 1540. In Ireland, where separate allegiance to Rome still existed, severe [[Penal_Laws_(Ireland)#Ascendancy_rule_1691-1778|legal penalties]] were prescribed against practicing Roman Catholics. Small, easily hidden rosaries were used to avoid identification. Sometimes rather than a cross, other symbols of specific meanings were used:
* Hammer: nails of the cross;
* Nails: crucifixion;
* Spear: wound;
* Halo: crown of thorns;
* Cords: scourging;
* Chalice: Last Supper;
* Rooster: crowing/resurrection.

These rosaries, especially the smaller ring-type, have since become known as soldiers' rosaries, because they were often taken into battle by soldiers, most notably during WWI. These single-decade rosary variations can be worn as a ring or carried easily and are still popular. A rosary ring is a ring worn around the finger with 10 indentations and a cross on the surface, representing one decade of a rosary. This is often worn as jewelry, and used through the day. Some ring rosaries use a small bearing on the inside of the ring to permit easy turning. A finger rosary is similar to a ring, but is a bit larger. Rosaries like these are used by either rotating or just holding them between a finger and thumb while praying. A hand rosary is a decade in a complete loop, with one bead separated from ten other beads, this is meant to be carried while walking or running, so as not to entangle the larger type. Credit card-sized Rosaries have also appeared, especially among members of militaries, where holes or bumps represent the prayers and the persons praying move their fingers along the bumps to count prayers.

Single-decade rosaries are also called chaplets.

==Wearing of the Rosary==
Wearing of a Rosary that one actually uses to pray is neither uncommon nor sacrilegious in various Roman Catholic-adherent cultures and was a common practice in the [[Medieval]] and [[Renaissance]] periods, particularly among religious ([[monk]]s, [[nun]]s, and friars). Rosaries are also worn hanging from or looped over a belt, particularly with some [[religious habit]]s, pinned to and hanging from a shoulder or neckline, or wrapped around a wrist or arm as a bracelet. Some Christians feel that it is sacrilegious for a non-believer to wear a rosary around the neck. This is particularly true in Roman Catholic cultures that have histories of persecution, particularly among the Irish and English Catholics. Because Irish Catholic tradition is often seen as normative in the United States and Canada, this has been the source of some conflict in the past. The Roman Catholic Church states: "Sacred objects, set aside for divine worship by dedication or blessing, are to be treated with reverence. They are not to be made over to secular or inappropriate use, even though they may belong to private persons"<ref>[http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/2004/0410qq.asp Quick Questions (This Rock: October 2004)]</ref>. Thus it is acceptable to wear a rosary if one is doing so to show veneration, however it is not acceptable if one is wearing the rosary irreverently, such as wearing it as a piece of jewelry. Many saints have worn their rosary around the neck, and in the [[Secret of the Rosary]], it is mentioned that a person put his rosary around his neck to keep devils away from him.

Rosaries or rosary-like necklaces are often worn for non-religious purposes as a fashion or jewelry item, and are sold in different variations in popular jewelry and clothing stores. Such ornamental use, especially the wearing of a rosary around the neck, was heavily popularized by singer [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] in the early 1980s and has experienced a come-back in recent years. Wearing a rosary around the neck can be considered disrespectful if the person wearing it does not affiliate with the Christian religion. Ornate or medieval-style rosary sets are occasionally featured in [[goth subculture|goth]] fashion.

== As penance or reparation ==
Praying the rosary may be prescribed by priests as a form of [[penance]] after [[Sacrament of Penance (Catholic Church)|confession]]. Penance in this form is not generally intended as a "punishment"; rather, it is meant to encourage reflection upon and spiritual growth from past sins.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

Some forms of the Roman Catholic rosary are aimed at reparation ''for the sins of others''. An example is the [[Rosary of the Holy Wounds]] first introduced at the beginning of the 20th century by the [[Venerable]] Sister [[Marie Martha Chambon|Mary Martha Chambon]], a [[Roman Catholic]] nun of the ''Monastery of the Visitation Order'' in [[Chambery]], [[France]]. <ref name="autogenerated1" /> This rosary is somewhat similar in structure to the [[Chaplet of Divine Mercy]], is said on the usual rosary beads and is intended as an [[Act of Reparation to Jesus Christ]] for the sins of the world.<ref>Michael Freze, 1993, ''Voices, Visions, and Apparitions'', OSV Publishing ISBN
087973454X</ref>

==Power of the Rosary==
The rosary has been featured in the writings of Roman Catholic figures from [[saint]]s to [[pope]]s and continues to be mentioned in reported [[Marian apparitions]], with a number of promises attributed to the [[power of the rosary]].

As early as the 15th century, [[legend]] alleged that through [[Saint Dominic]] and [[Blessed]] [[Alan de Rupe]] the [[Virgin Mary| Blessed Virgin Mary ]] made 15 specific promises to Christians who pray the rosary.<ref>Dominican Fathers on the Rosary http://www.rosary-center.org/nconobl.htm</ref>
The [[Fifteen rosary promises]] range from protection from misfortune to meriting a high degree of glory in heaven.<ref>Holyrosary.org http://www.theholyrosary.org/power.html</ref> In support of this statement [[Patrick Cardinal Hayes]] of [[New York]] provided his [[imprimatur]] to this effect.<ref>Rosary promises http://www.catholic.org/clife/mary/promises.php</ref>

In the 18th century, the French priest [[Louis de Montfort]] elaborated on the importance of the rosary and its power in his widely read book the [[Secret of the Rosary]].<ref>Saint [[Louis de Montfort]] http://www.themontfortacademy.org/Pages/BioStLouisdeMontfort1.html</ref> He emphasized the [[power of the rosary]] and provided specific instructions on how it should be prayed, e.g. with ''attention'', ''devotion'' and ''modesty (reverence),'' with reflective pauses <ref>[http://www.montfort.org.uk/Writings/Rosary.html De Montfort, St. Louis-Marie. Secret of the Rosary, Forty-Fourth Rose (paragraph 127)]</ref> between the beads and smaller pauses between phrases of the prayers.<ref>Writings of Saint [[Louis de Montfort]] http://www.montfort.org.uk/Writings/MontWork.html</ref>

== Rosary manufacturing and distribution ==
Rosaries are in rare cases made of expensive materials from [[gold]] and [[silver]] to [[mother of pearl]] and [[Swarovski]] black diamond designs. Yet most rosaries used in the world today for praying are made of simple [[plastic]] or wooden beads connected by cords or strings. Roman Catholic missionaries in [[Africa]] have reported that rosaries made of tree [[bark]] have been used there for praying for the lack of conventional rosaries. It is widely reported that the demand for rosaries in third world countries far outweighs the supply.

Plastic beads are inexpensive to make, but not easy to assemble. Hence the major cost component for making simple rosaries is the assembly effort. A large number of inexpensive rosary beads are manufactured in the Asia, specially in [[China]] and [[Taiwan]], although [[Italy]] has a strong manufacturing presence in moderate cost and high end rosaries.

Assembled rosaries are often purchased as retail religious items. Yet literally hundreds of millions of rosaries have been made and distributed free of charge by Roman Catholic volunteers worldwide. A number of rosary making clubs exist around the world for the purpose of making and distributing rosaries to missions, hospitals, prisons, etc. free of charge. The largest such non-profit organization in the United States is [[Our Lady's Rosary Makers]] whose 17,000 members annually distribute roughly 7 million free rosaries. A good number of other volunteer-based clubs and groups exist worldwide and distribute tens of millions of free rosaries every year.

== Gallery of Rosary in [[Roman Catholic Marian art|Marian art]] ==
The rosary has been featured in a number of works of [[Roman Catholic Marian art]] and rosary statutes appear in many [[Roman Catholic Marian churches]].

<gallery>
Image:Madonnadelrosario Nicola Porta.jpg|Madonna and rosary by Nicola Porta
Image:Guido Reni 057.jpg|Madonna with rosary, by Guido Reni, 1596
Image:Maria Anger - Seitenaltar 2.jpg|Madonna offering Saint Norbert a rosary by August Palme, 1860
Image:Bartolomé Esteban Perez Murillo 020.jpg|Madonna with the Rosary by [[Bartolomé Esteban Murillo|Murillo]], 1650
Image:545px-Madonna del Rosario formiello - particolare.JPG|Madonna of the Rosary statute, [[Naples, Italy]]
Image:N-s-dos-passos-14.jpg|Rosary Madonna, [[Porto Alegre]], Brazil
Image:Rosary-Madonna-Atzwang.jpg|Madonna with Rosary, Italy
Image:Rosary-Madonna-Mersa.jpg|Madonna with Rosary by Josef Mersa, Italy
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{wiktionarypar|rosary}}
* [[Rosary based prayers]]
* [[Methods of praying the rosary]]
* [[Rosary Pope]]
* [[Angelus|The Angelus]]
* [[Prayer rope]]
* [[Prayer beads]]
* [[Our Lady's Rosary Makers]]
* Saint [[Louis de Montfort]]'s [[Secret of the Rosary]]
* [[Legion of Mary]]
* [[Encyclical]] [[Ingruentium Malorum]] by [[Pope Pius XII]]
* [[Apostolic Letter]] [[Rosarium Virginis Mariae]] by [[Pope John Paul II]]
* [[Western Rite Orthodoxy]] and prayer of the [http://www.westernorthodox.com/rosary.html "O Hail, Mother of God and Virgin"]
* [[Japa mala]] or [[Juzu]] for Asian prayer beads
* [[Tasbeeh]] for Islamic prayer beads
* [[Anglican devotions]]
* [[Catholic devotions]]
* [[Roman Catholic Marian art]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* ''Five for Sorrow, Ten for Joy: A Consideration of the Rosary'' by J. Neville Ward (Doubleday, 1973); revised as ''Five for Sorrow, Ten for Joy: Meditations on the Rosary'' (Seabury Classics, 2005) - an ecumenical Methodist minister's book on the Rosary. [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=1596280123 ISBN 1596280123]
* ''Rosary of Our Lady of Sorrows'', Friar Servants of Mary, Chicago, Illinois, 1990.
* "Stories of the Rose: The Making of the Rosary in the Middle Ages" by Anne Winston-Allen (1997, Pennsylvania State University Press) - the most current source in English on the history and development of the Rosary in its earliest years. [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=1596280123 ISBN 0-2710-1631-0]
* ''The Lourdes Pilgrim'', by Oliver Todd, Matthew James Publishing, 2003, p. 41.
* ''God Alone: The Collected Writings of St. Louis Marie De Montfort'', by [[Saint Louis de Montfort]], Montfort Publications, 1995 ISBN 0910984557
* [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xii/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xii_enc_15091951_ingruentium-malorum_en.html Pope Pius XII Rosary encyclical '''''Ingruentium Malorum ''''' on the Vatican website]
* [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_20021016_rosarium-virginis-mariae_en.html Pope John Paul II Apostolic Letter '''''Rosarium Virginis Mariae'''''on the Vatican website]

==External links==
{{wikisource|Rosary of the Blessed Virgin Mary}}
* [http://www.sistersofcarmel.com/rosaryinfo.php The Holy Rosary - Its History, Essence, and Spiritual Fruits (includes the Fifteen Promises)]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13184b.htm "Rosary" from the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'']
* [http://www.geocities.com/micmcatholic/HolyRosary.html The Holy Rosary]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/images/rosary.pdf How to recite the Holy Rosary] Printer-friendly PDF document (includes prayers, bead use, mysteries)
* [http://www.sicutincaelo.org/booklets.html#rosary Handy PDF Downloadable Rosary Pamphlets] The Traditional 15 Mysteries.
* [http://www.pray-the-rosary.net/index.html PDF Rosary Downloads with Meditations] Traditional 15 plus 5 Luminous Mysteries.
* [http://www.rosaryprayerguide.com/index.php?q=Steps-to-Praying-the-Rosary Rosary Prayer Guide: How to Pray the Rosary]
* [http://www.kenrickparish.com/jgeerling/articles/religion/knot-rosary.html Guide to Making a Knot Rosary]
* [http://cul.detmich.com/rosary.html Perpetual Web Rosary] A continuing and interactive online rosary

{{Catholic Prayers}}
{{Catholicism|uncollapsed}}

[[Category:Marian Devotions]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic prayers]]
[[Category:Rosary]]

[[ar:مسبحة (عقد)]]
[[gn:Ñembo'esyrỹi]]
[[be-x-old:Ружанец]]
[[br:Juzu]]
[[ca:Rosari]]
[[cs:Růženec]]
[[cy:Llaswyr]]
[[da:Bedekrans]]
[[de:Rosenkranz]]
[[el:Ροζάριο]]
[[es:Rosario (cristianismo)]]
[[eo:Rozario]]
[[fa:تسبیح]]
[[fr:Rosaire]]
[[gd:Paidirean]]
[[ko:로사리오]]
[[hr:Krunica]]
[[id:Doa Rosario]]
[[it:Rosario]]
[[la:Rosarium (oratio)]]
[[lt:Rožinys]]
[[li:Roazekrans]]
[[hu:Rózsafüzér]]
[[nl:Rozenkrans]]
[[nds-nl:Rozenkrans]]
[[ja:ロザリオ]]
[[no:Rosenkrans]]
[[nn:Rosenkrans]]
[[pl:Różaniec]]
[[pt:Santo Rosário]]
[[qu:Rusaryu]]
[[ru:Розарий]]
[[sq:Rruzarja]]
[[scn:Rosariu]]
[[simple:Rosary]]
[[sk:Ruženec (modlitba)]]
[[sl:Rožni venec]]
[[tl:Rosaryo]]
[[fi:Ruusukko]]
[[sv:Radband]]
[[bat-smg:Rožončios]]
[[zh:玫瑰经]]

Clodomiro Picado Twight

2009-01-26T19:05:27Z

163.178.17.124: /* Honors and recognition */

{{Infobox Scientist
|name = Clodomiro Picado Twight
|image = Clodomiro serpiente.jpg
|image_size = 150px
|caption =
|birth_date = April 17, 1887
|birth_place = [[San Marcos, Nicaragua|San Marcos]], [[Nicaragua]]
|death_date = May 16, 1944
|death_place = [[San José, Costa Rica]]
|residence =
|nationality = [[Costa Rican]]
|field =
|work_institution =
|alma_mater = [[La Sorbonne]], [[Paris]]
|doctoral_advisor =
|doctoral_students =
|known_for =
|prizes =
|religion =
|footnotes =
}}

'''Clodomiro Picado Twight''' ([[April 17]], [[1887]] - [[May 16]], [[1944]]), also known as '''"Clorito Picado"''', was a [[Nicaraguan]]-born [[scientist]], citizen of [[Costa Rica]], who was recognized for his research and discoveries. He was pioneer in the researching snakes and serpent venoms; his internationally recognized achievement was the development of various anti-venom serums. He was one of the precursors of the discovery of [[penicillin]], which he used to treat patients a couple of years before the formal [[discovery of penicillin]] by [[Alexander Fleming]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nacion.com/ln_ee/ESPECIALES/tiempo2000/figuras2.html|title= El legado de Clorito|author=La Nación Digital|accessdate=2008-02-25}}</ref> He wrote over 115 works, mainly books and [[monographs]].

==Biography==
===Early life===
Picado was born on April 1887 in [[San Marcos, Carazo|San Marcos]] in [[Nicaragua]] to his parents, Clodomiro Picado Lara and Carlota Twight Umaña, who both had Costa Rican citizenship. In 1890, Picado, at the age of 3, and his parents, moved to [[Cartago, Costa Rica|Cartago]], Costa Rica. He attended the Liceo de Costa Rica, where he received his [[bachelors]] in 1906. Due to his excellent qualifications he was granted a [[scholarship]] to study in [[France]], where he later studied at the University of La Sorbona and received his diploma in [[Zoology]] in 1909. In 1910 he returned to Costa Rica, but left shortly after to continue his studies. He received his diploma with superior studies in [[Botany]]. Picado received the [[Academic rank in France|academic rank]] of [[Doctor]] in science in 1913, that same year he was admitted in the [[Pasteur Institute]] and the Colonial Institute of Paris. in 1915 he published ''"Anales del Hospital de San José"'', a quarterly medical publication in Costa Rica.<ref>[http://www.icp.ucr.ac.cr/biografi.htm Dr. Clodomiro Picado Twight: Biografía]</ref>

===Death===
In 1944, after a [[ailment]] Picado passed away.<ref>{{cite news | title=Biografía del Dr. Clodomiro Picado Twigth | url =http://www.micit.go.cr/programas/premio_biografia.htm | work =Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología | accessdate = 2008-03-02 | language = Spanish }}</ref> Dr. Picado Twight was declared "Meritorious of the Motherland" ({{lang-es|Benemérito de la Patria}}) by the Costa Rican Congress, by means of decree no. 34 of 21 of December of 1943.<ref>{{cite news | title=Clodomiro Picado Twight | url =http://196.40.23.180/galeria/beneme/picado_t.htm | work =Asamblea Legislativa de Costa Rica | accessdate = 2008-02-27 | language = Spanish }}</ref>

==Investigation and findings==

The scientific work of Dr. Picado was prolific and very extensive; it is calculated that he wrote about 115 research papers in his lifetime, delving into nearly all aspects of his environment: soil, flora, fauna, human tissues,water, and others.<ref name="CP">{{cite news | title=Dr. Clodomiro Picado Twight Honored with WIPO medal | url =http://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/pdf/2000/wipo_pub_121_2000_07-08.pdf | work =WIPO Magazine | pages =11 | accessdate = 2008-03-02|format=PDF}}</ref> Among them are included books and monographs. For example, he performed zoological studies of animals in the bromeliaceae, about serpents (ophidism), on the physiology and vegetable phytopathology and industrial microbiology, on the medical microbiology and in the field of immunology.

In March 2000, doctors from the San Juan de Dios Hospital in [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]], the capital of Costa Rica, published his manuscripts, in which he explains his experiences between 1915 and 1927 with the inhibiting action of fungi of the "Penicillin sp" genre in the growth of staphylococci and streptococci (bacteria that cause a series of infections). In 1927, he demonstrated the inhibitory action of the bacillus genus penicillium sp on the proliferation of the bacteria staphylococcus and streptococcus. Although, the discovery of penicillin has been attributed to [[Alexander Fleming]], Picados' old laboratory notebooks from 1923 show records of the antibiosis of penicillium sp.<ref name="CP"/>

For this reason he is renowned as one of the precursors of the penicillin antibiotic, discovered by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[biologist]] and [[pharmacologist]], [[Alexander Fleming]], in 1928. The report with the results of the treatments performed with penicillin by Dr. Picado were published by the Biology Society of Paris in 1927.<ref>{{cite news | first=Enrique | last=Tovar | title=El legado de Clorito | url =http://www.nacion.com/ln_ee/ESPECIALES/tiempo2000/figuras2.html | work =Nacion | pages = | accessdate = 2008-03-02 | language = Spanish}}</ref>

==Honors and recognition==
[[Image:Premio Clodomiro Picado 07.JPG|thumb|right|175px|Statuette awarded to the winners of the [[Costa Rican]] National Award of Science and Technology "Clodomiro Picado Twight"]]
In memory of Dr. Picado's outstanding scientific work, since 1977 the [[Costa Rican]] Ministry of Science and Technology (MICIT), together with the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sport (MCJD) grant annually the National Award of Science and Technology "Clodomiro Picado Twight", as stimulus and recognition for the prominent scientific and technological work of Costa Rican citizens.<ref>{{cite news | title=Premio Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología “Clodomiro Picado | url =http://www.micit.go.cr/docs/gal_lomonte.pdf | work =Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología | accessdate = 2008-03-02 | language = Spanish|format=PDF}}</ref> The prize was modified in June 2000, and divided into the following two categories a year later:
*National Award of Science "Clodomiro Picado Twight"
*National Award of Technology "Clodomiro Picado Twight"
Both prizes are awarded annually. The winners become creditors of a commemorative statuette of Dr. Picado, a parchment and a prize in cash.

Picado is featured on the 2,000 [[Costa Rican colón|colón]] banknote of Costa Rica.

In 2000, Picado’s daughter-in-law, Lolita González Picado, accepted the Gold Medal awarded posthumously to Picado by the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO).<ref name="CP"/>

There are several institutions and places in [[Costa Rica]] named after Picado's memory:
* [[Clodomiro Picado Research Institute]]<ref>[http://www.icp.ucr.ac.cr/ '''Instituto de Investigación Clodomiro Picado''']</ref> in [[Dulce Nombre]], [[Coronado]], San José. Established in 1970, the institute is a research unit of the [[Universidad de Costa Rica]], responsible for the production of snake antiophidic serums and scientific research on serpents and their venoms, as well as educational and extension programs in rural areas and hospitals.
* Clodomiro Picado Twight High School (known also as I.E.T.), in [[Turrialba]], [[Cartago]].
* Clodomiro Picado Medical Clinic, in [[Cinco Esquinas]], [[Tibás]], San José.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.conicit.go.cr/cientificos/especialistas/bioclodo.html Complete Biography edited by CONICIT]
*[http://www.icp.ucr.ac.cr/ Clodomiro Picado Institute, Costa Rica ]
*[http://www.conicit.go.cr/servicios/incentivos/otros_reconocimientos/docotrosrec/ganapreclodo.html Official website of the National Awards of Science and Technology "Clodomiro Picado Twight", CONICIT]
*[http://www.conicit.go.cr/servicios/incentivos/otros_reconocimientos/docotrosrec/ganapreclodo.html Winner's list of the National Awards of Science and Technology "Clodomiro Picado Twight", CONICIT]

{{Nicaragua topics}}

[[Category:Nicaraguan people]]
[[Category:Costa Ricans of Nicaraguan descent]]
[[Category:Costa Rican scientists]]

[[es:Clodomiro Picado Twight]]
[[simple:Clodomiro Picado]]

Battlestar Galactica (miniseries)

2009-01-16T17:56:23Z

163.178.17.124: /* Cast */

{{dablink|This article is about the 2003 Battlestar Galactica miniseries. For the subsequent television show, see [[Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)]].}}
{{Infobox Television
| show_name = Battlestar Galactica
| image =[[Image:BattlestarGalactica2003.jpg|150px]]
| caption =
| format = [[Science Fiction]], [[Drama]]
| picture_format = [[1080i]] ([[HDTV]])
| runtime = 240 min. (183 min. without adverts)
| creator = [[Ronald D. Moore]]
| starring = ''See [[#Cast|Cast and characters]]''
| country = [[United States]]
| network = [[Sky One]] [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci Fi Channel]]
| first_aired = December 8
| last_aired = 9, 2003
| num_episodes = 2
| list_episodes = List of Battlestar Galactica (reimagined series) episodes#Miniseries
| followed_by = [[33 (Battlestar Galactica)|33]] [[Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)]]
| website = http://www.scifi.com/battlestar/
| imdb_id = 0314979
}}

'''''Battlestar Galactica''''' is a four-hour [[miniseries]] written and produced by [[Ronald D. Moore]] and directed by [[Michael Rymer]]. It was the first part of the ''[[Battlestar Galactica (reimagining)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' reimagining based on the [[Battlestar Galactica (1978 TV series)|1978 ''Battlestar Galactica'']] television series, and served as a [[backdoor pilot]] for the [[Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)|2004 television series]]. The miniseries originally aired on the [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci Fi Channel]] in the [[United States]] starting on [[8 December]] [[2003]]. The two parts of the miniseries earned, respectively, a 3.2<ref>Battlestar Wiki. [http://en.battlestarwiki.org/wiki/Miniseries,_Night_1 Miniseries, Night 1]</ref> and 3.8<ref>Battlestar Wiki. [http://en.battlestarwiki.org/wiki/Miniseries,_Night_2 Miniseries, Night 2]</ref> [[Nielsen Ratings|Nielsen rating]], making the miniseries the third most-watched program on the [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci Fi Channel]] ever.<ref>NBC. [http://www.thefutoncritic.com/news.aspx?id=20041206nbc04 "NBC SPOTLIGHTS SCI FI CHANNEL MINISERIES HIT 'BATTLESTAR GALACTICA' IN SPECIAL PRESENTATION ON SATURDAY, JANUARY 8"],"The Futon Critic", [[6 December]] [[2004]]. Accessed [[November 11]] [[2007]].</ref>

==Plot==

The miniseries opens with the following text, during a scene in which the Cylons make their first appearance in over forty years at a remote space station, the Armistice station:

:''The [[Cylon (Battlestar Galactica)|Cylons]] were created by Man.''
:''They were created to make life easier on the [[Twelve Colonies]].''
:''And then the day came when the Cylons decided to kill their masters.''
:''After a long and bloody struggle, an armistice was declared.''
:''The Cylons left for another world to call their own.''
:''A remote space station was built...''
:''...where Cylon and Human could meet and maintain diplomatic relations.''
:''Every year, the Colonials send an officer.''
:''The Cylons send no one.''
:''No one has seen or heard from the Cylons in over forty years.''

It is revealed that the Cylons have gained the ability to mimic the human form. They proceed to destroy the space station.

The Cylons return from their forty-year absence in an attempt to [[genocide|exterminate]] the human race, beginning with a sudden, unexpected and simultaneous nuclear bombardment of the Twelve Colonies. The attack is made possible by the Cylons' infiltration of the Colonies' [[Defense (military)|defense]] [[Mainframe computer|mainframe]], through a Cylon agent known as [[Number Six (Battlestar Galactica)|Number Six]] who mimics a human woman both physically and behaviorally. Number Six poses as an agent of a company seeking defense contracts and is able to seduce a scientist working for the Colonial military, [[Gaius Baltar|Dr. Gaius Baltar]]. In exchange for his access to government mainframes she helps him design a navigation program used by Colonial warships, covertly creating [[Backdoor (computing)|backdoor]]s in the program. When the Cylons attack, they are able to penetrate software security [[Firewall (networking)|firewall]]s, disabling entire fighter squadrons outright and sabotaging vital capital-ship systems. (In one incident, an entire battlestar loses power, enabling the Cylons to destroy it easily).

[[Image:Caprica burning.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Caprica]] under bombardment during the Cylon attack.]]
The computer systems of the Battlestar ''Galactica'' are not networked and are unaffected by the sabotage. It was in the process of being decommissioned and converted into a museum to honor its role in the first Cylon war, when it receives news of the attack and learns that fleet headquarters, and a significant portion of the colonial fleet, have been destroyed. [[William Adama|Commander Adama]], ''Galactica''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s commanding officer, assumes command of the fleet after hearing that Admiral Nagala has been killed.

To avoid Cylon forces, ''Galactica'' makes a [[FTL (Battlestar Galactica)|'faster-than-light' (FTL) jump]] - an instantaneous teleportation - to Ragnar Anchorage, where it can restock on ammunition. Meanwhile, ''Colonial Heavy 798'', which was carrying Secretary of Education [[Laura Roslin]] back to Caprica following ''Galactica''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s decommissioning ceremony, learns that Caprica City has been destroyed by the nuclear attack. When all 42 government officials ahead of her in the presidential line of succession fail to check in per emergency procedures, Roslin assumes the presidency and ''Colonial Heavy 798'' becomes ''[[Colonial One]]''. In the aftermath of the attack, surviving civilian ships turn to Roslin for leadership. Dr. Baltar manages to escape Caprica when [[Karl Agathon|Lt. Karl "Helo" Agathon]] trades his spot on a [[Colonial Raptor]] with him. Karl's partner, [[Sharon Valerii|Lt. j.g. Sharon Valerii]], reluctantly consents and flies back to join ''Galactica'' and the ragtag fleet. Fearing an attack after they are spotted by a [[Cylon Raider]], Roslin orders those civilian ships with hyperjump capability to rendezvous with ''Galactica'' at Ragnar. She makes the agonizing decision to leave behind those ships (and consequently the people in the ships) with only sublight engines, including the ship (a Geminon Botanical Cruiser) of a little girl she had just met. Her decision is proven correct when the Cylons promptly appear and destroy every ship left behind just as they hyperjump to safety.

Roslin eventually convinces Adama that the war is lost. He finally agrees that the best course of action is to escort the civilian fleet and find a new world on which to rebuild civilization. The stockpiles at Ragnar Anchorage are used to rearm ''Galactica'' and resupply the fleet. However, the ships cannot jump safely from the immediate vicinity of the base, which is surrounded by a radioactive gas cloud. The Cylons, more vulnerable to the radiation, besiege the cloud and wait for the fleet to emerge. Adama devises a plan: ''Galactica'' holds off the Cylon attacks long enough for the civilian ships to exit the cloud and jump to the Prolmar Sector, then joins them.

Afterwards, during the mass funeral for the dead, Adama lifts his crew's morale by claiming that he knows the location of the legendary thirteenth colony known as Earth.

In the final scenes of the miniseries, Number Six warns Baltar that Cylon agents, who may even be programmed to believe that they are human, could still be within the fleet. Adama finds a cryptic message in his quarters reading simply, "There are only 12 Cylon models." On Ragnar, a group of humanoid Cylons free [[Aaron Doral]] (''Galactica''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s tour guide, who was left behind after Baltar "discovered" he was a Cylon). The last Cylon to enter the room is another copy of [[Sharon Valerii|Lt. j.g. Sharon Valerii]], revealing that the one on the ''Galactica'' is a Cylon as well.

==Cast==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Actor !! Role !! Notes
|-
| [[Edward James Olmos]]
| Commander [[William Adama]]
| Leader of the fleet after [[The Destruction of the Twelve Colonies]]; commander of the [[Battlestar Galactica (ship)|Battlestar ''Galactica'']]
|-
| [[Mary McDonnell]]
| [[Laura Roslin]]
| President of the colonies after [[The Destruction of the Twelve Colonies]]
|-
| [[Katee Sackhoff]]
| Lieutenant [[Kara Thrace|Kara "Starbuck" Thrace]]
| [[Colonial Viper]] pilot
|-
| [[Jamie Bamber]]
| Captain [[Lee Adama|Lee "Apollo" Adama]]
| [[Colonial Viper]] pilot
|-
| [[James Callis]]
| Dr. [[Gaius Baltar]]
| Scientist and defense researcher
|-
| [[Grace Park (actress)|Grace Park]]
| Lieutenant Junior Grade [[Sharon Valerii|Sharon "Boomer" Valerii]]
| [[Colonial Raptor]] pilot teamed with Helo, Cylon
|-
| [[Michael Hogan (Canadian actor)|Michael Hogan]]
| Colonel [[Saul Tigh]]
| [[Executive officer]] of the [[Battlestar Galactica (ship)|Battlestar ''Galactica'']], Cylon
|-
| [[Paul Campbell (Canadian actor)|Paul Campbell]]
| [[Billy Keikeya]]
| Roslin's aide
|-
| [[Aaron Douglas (actor)|Aaron Douglas]]
| Chief Petty Officer [[Galen Tyrol]]
| In charge of maintenance of [[Colonial Viper]]s and [[Colonial Raptor]]s, Cylon
|-
| [[Nicki Clyne]]
| Specialist [[Cally Tyrol|Cally]]
| Repairs [[Colonial Viper]]s and [[Colonial Raptor]]s under Chief Tyrol
|-
| [[Tahmoh Penikett]]
| Lieutenant [[Karl Agathon|Karl "Helo" Agathon]]
| [[Electronic countermeasures]] officer teamed with Boomer
|-
| [[Kandyse McClure]]
| Petty Officer Second Class [[Anastasia Dualla|Anastasia "Dee" Dualla]]
| Communications on the [[Battlestar Galactica (ship)|Battlestar ''Galactica'']]
|-
| [[Alessandro Juliani]]
| Lieutenant [[Felix Gaeta]]
| Tactical officer on the [[Battlestar Galactica (ship)|Battlestar ''Galactica'']]
|-
| [[Tricia Helfer]]
| [[Number Six (Battlestar Galactica)|Number Six]]
| Cylon
|-
| [[Matthew Bennett]]
| [[Aaron Doral]]
| Cylon
|-
| [[Callum Keith Rennie]]
| [[Leoben Conoy]]
| Cylon
|-
|}

==Awards==
{{seealso|Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)#Awards}}
===Wins===
* 2004 '' [[Saturn Awards]]'', Best Television Presentation
* 2004 '' [[Visual Effects Society Awards|VES Awards]]'', Outstanding Visual Effects in a Television Miniseries, Movie or a Special

===Nominations===
* 2004 '' [[Emmy Awards]]'', Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special (''Miniseries, Night 1'')
* 2004 '' [[Emmy Awards]]'', Outstanding Sound Editing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special (''Miniseries, Night 2'')
* 2004 '' [[Emmy Awards]]'', Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special (''Miniseries, Night 1'')
* 2004 '' [[Saturn Awards]]'', Best Supporting Actress on Television, Katie Sackhoff
* 2004 '' [[Visual Effects Society Awards|VES Awards]]'', Outstanding Compositing in a Televised Program, Music Video or Commercial
* 2004 '' [[Visual Effects Society Awards|VES Awards]]'', Outstanding Models and Miniatures in a Televised Program, Music Video or Commercial

==Tie-in novel==
In 2006, [[Tor Books]] published ''Battlestar Galactica'' (the miniseries), by [[Jeffrey Carver|Jeffrey A. Carver]] — a novelization of the 2003 miniseries. The book incorporates deleted scenes and gives background information not seen on screen. Because much of this information conflicts with much of what is later revealed in the series, the novelization is not considered [[canon (fiction)|canon]].

==See also==
{{Wikiquote|Battlestar Galactica (2003)}}
* [[Music of Battlestar Galactica (re-imagining)]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.scifi.com/battlestar/about/index.php?sub=miniseries Battlestar Galactica miniseries site at SCIFI.com]
* {{imdb title|id=0314979|title=Battlestar Galactica}}
* {{Tv.com show|id=23557|title=Battlestar Galactica}}
* [[BattlestarWiki:Miniseries, Night 1|Miniseries, Night 1]] at the [[Battlestar Wiki]]
* [[BattlestarWiki:Miniseries, Night 2|Miniseries, Night 2]] at the [[Battlestar Wiki]]
* [http://www.battlestargalactica.com/ BattlestarGalactica.com]

{{BattlestarGalacticaTopics}}

[[Category:2000s American television series]]
[[Category:2003 television series debuts]]
[[Category:2003 television series endings]]
[[Category:Battlestar Galactica (2004) episodes]]
[[Category:Science fiction television series]]
[[Category:Battlestar Galactica]]
[[Category:Sky One programmes]]
[[Category:American television miniseries]]

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[[fi:Taisteluplaneetta Galactica (2003)]]
[[sv:Battlestar Galactica]]
[[zh:太空堡垒卡拉狄加]]

2009 Cinchona earthquake

2009-01-12T21:35:38Z

163.178.17.124: /* Aftermath */

{{current}}
{{Earthquake
|title = 2009 Costa Rica earthquake
|date = {{Start date|2009|01|08}}
|map = 2009 Costa Rica Earthquake shakemap.jpg
|magnitude = 6.1 [[Moment magnitude scale|Mw]] (6.2 [[Richter magnitude scale|ML]])
|depth = {{convert|4.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="USGS">{{cite web|url=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/recenteqsww/Quakes/us2009bpba.php#details|title=Magnitude 6.1 - COSTA RICA|date=2008-01-09|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|accessdate=2009-01-09}}</ref>
|location = {{coord|10.197|N|84.159|W|display=inline,title}}
|countries affected = {{flagcountry|Costa Rica}}, {{flagcountry|Nicaragua}}
|casualties = 34 dead, 91 injured<ref name="grafic">{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Costa Rica contabiliza 18 muertos y 56 desaparecidos por terremoto|url=http://www.laprensagrafica.com/index.php/internacionales/mundo/11435.html |work= |publisher=[[La Prensa Gráfica]] |date=2009-01-10 |accessdate=January 2009 }}</ref>, 56 missing
}}
The '''2009 Costa Rica earthquake''' occurred at 1:21:34 pm [[UTC-6|local time]] (19:21:34 [[UTC]]) on January 8, 2009. The epicenter of the 6.1 [[Moment magnitude scale|Mw]] [[earthquake]] was in northern [[Costa Rica]], {{convert|30|km|mi}} [[north-northwest]] of [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]].<ref name="USGS"/> The earthquake was felt all over Costa Rica as well as in southern central [[Nicaragua]].<ref name="USGS"/>

==Damage==
The earthquake killed at least 34 people,<ref name="CNN">{{cite news |title=34 dead, dozens missing from Costa Rica quake |work=CNN News |date=11 January 2009 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/americas/01/10/crica.quake/index.html }}</ref> including at least three children, left about 64 missing<ref name="CNN"/>, and injured at least 91.<ref name="grafic"/> Hundreds of people are trapped and two villages have been cut off.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.theage.com.au/world/four-killed-in-strong-costa-rica-quake-tourists-trapped-20090110-7ds2.html|title=Four killed in strong Costa Rica quake, tourists trapped|date=2009-01-09|publisher=The Age|accessdate=2009-01-09}}</ref> Most of the victims died when a landslide occurred near the [[La Paz Waterfall, Costa Rica|La Paz waterfall]] by the [[Poás Volcano]], and 452 people including 369 tourists were evacuated from the area in helicopters.<ref name="reuters">{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/homepageCrisis/idUKN09283823._CH_.2420|title=Tourists evacuated after fatal Costa Rica quake|last=Benavides|first=Roger|date=2009-01-09|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=2009-01-09}}</ref> 1,244 people were displaced, and 1,078 people are living in shelters.<ref name="CNN"/><ref name=Bloom>{{cite news|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601086&sid=aeYPxZS53OA0&refer=latin_america|title=Costa Rica Earthquake Rescuers Try to Help Thousands (Update1) |last=Sabo|first=Eric|coauthors=Robin Stringer|date=2008-01-09|publisher=Bloomberg|accessdate=2009-01-09}}</ref> In addition, a hotel, houses, roads, and vehicles were damaged, and a couple of bridges were destroyed.<ref name="reuters"/> The town of Cinchona was heavily hit, and all of the buildings there were heavily damaged.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5j6U3SIe2xtJQdfeJ9zln57FfmRLQD95JOUFO1|title=Death toll in Costa Rica quake rises to 5 victims|last=Jimenez|first=Marianela|date=2008-01-09|publisher=AP|accessdate=2009-01-09}}</ref> Power was temporarily disrupted in [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]].<ref name="USGS"/>

==Aftermath==
The Costa Rican [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]] sent 400 personnel to assist in the recovery.<ref name="Bloom"/> The agency said, "Some 42 communities were affected and sustained serious impacts on civil and electrical infrastructure... [They] are going to need a lot of help."<ref name="Bloom"/>
Four [[helicopter]]s were also dispatched in order to help aid efforts.<ref name="Bloom"/> The [[Comisión Nacional de Emergencias]] (National Emergency Commission) also requested for private helicopters to help with the aid.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://insidecostarica.com/dailynews/2009/january/09/nac01.htm|title=13 Dead, Many More Missing In Afternoon 6.2 Earthquake|date=2009-01-09|publisher=InsideCostaRica|accessdate=2009-01-09}}</ref> Additionally, the [[United States]] and [[Colombia]] dispatched helicopters with aid to assist with the relief and recovery efforts.<ref>[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123130924 US Assistance]</ref>

About 2,000 [[aftershock]]s have been felt throughout [[Costa Rica]].<ref name="CNN"/>

On January 12th, the president declared National Grieving of 3 days on respect of the victims, and asked the organizers of the ''Fiestas de [[Palmares]]'' to postpone them.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==

[[Category:2009 in Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]
[[Category:2009 earthquakes|Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Geography of Costa Rica]]

[[es:Terremoto de Costa Rica de 2009]]
[[id:Gempa bumi Kosta Rika 2009]]

Cédula de identidad

2008-11-26T19:42:06Z

163.178.17.124: Too centered on Chile

{{Confusing}}
{{Cleanup-rewrite}}

'''Cédula de Identidad''' is the valid form of [[ID Card]] in certain [[Latin America]]n [[countries]]. In certain countries as [[Chile]] and [[Costa Rica]], it is the only valid ID document; for example, a [[driving license]] or [[passport]], is not valid to open a [[bank account]].

Currently a ''Cédula de Identidad'', is a [[credit card]] sized [[plastic]] card. On one side it includes a [[photo]] of the person, a personal identification number, and the card's owner peronal information (complete [[name]], [[gender]], [[birth]] date, and others), and the user's [[signature]]. On the reverse it may include additional information such as the date when the ID card was granted, expiration date of the ID card, and other such as their [[fingerprint]]s, and all the owner's information in [[matrix code]].

The cards may includes several security measures, including the use of ultraviolet coating.

In the near future, in Costa Rica the [[cédulas de identidad]] will also be used in the [[digital signature]] process.

==External links==
*[http://www.tse.go.cr/caractcedula.html Costa Rican Cédula de Identidad structure]
*[http://www.registrocivil.cl/Servicios/6.Cedula_Identidad/5.Medidas_de_Seguridad/medidas_de_seguridad.htm Security measures in Chile]

[[Category:Personal identification]]
[[Category:Government of Chile]]
[[Category:Government of Costa Rica]]

Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples

2008-11-14T19:47:07Z

163.178.17.124: /* Support */

The [[United Nations]] '''Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples''' was adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] during its 62nd session at [[UN Headquarters]] in [[New York City]] on [[13 September]] [[2007]].
While as a General Assembly Declaration it is not a legally binding instrument under [[international law]], according to a UN press release, it does "represent the dynamic development of international legal norms and it reflects the commitment of the UN's member states to move in certain directions"; the UN describes it as setting "an important standard for the treatment of [[indigenous people]]s that will undoubtedly be a significant tool towards eliminating [[human rights violations]] against the planet's 370 million indigenous people and assisting them in combating discrimination and marginalisation."<ref name="FAQ">[http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/FAQsindigenousdeclaration.pdf Frequently Asked Questions: Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples] United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues.</ref>
{{Wikisourcepar|Draft United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples}}

==Purpose==
The Declaration sets out the individual and collective rights of indigenous peoples, as well as their rights to culture, identity, language, employment, health, education and other issues. It also "emphasizes the rights of indigenous peoples to maintain and strengthen their own institutions, cultures and traditions, and to pursue their development in keeping with their own needs and aspirations".<ref name="FAQ"/> It "prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples", and it "promotes their full and effective participation in all matters that concern them and their right to remain distinct and to pursue their own visions of economic and social development".<ref name="FAQ"/><ref>[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=23794&Cr=indigenous&Cr1= United Nations adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples] United Nations News Centre, 13 September 2007.</ref>

==Negotiation and ratification==
The Declaration was over 22 years in the making. The idea originated in 1982 when the UN [[Economic and Social Council]] (ECOSOC) set up its [[Working Group on Indigenous Populations]] (WGIP), established as a result of a study by [[Special Rapporteur]] [[José R. Martínez Cobo]] on the problem of discrimination faced by indigenous peoples. Tasked with developing human rights standards that would protect indigenous peoples, in 1985 the Working Group began working on drafting the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The draft was finished in 1993 and was submitted to the [[Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities]], which gave its approval the following year.

The Draft Declaration was then referred to the [[Commission on Human Rights]], which established another Working Group to examine its terms. Over the following years this Working Group met on 11 occasions to examine and fine-tune the Draft Declaration and its provisions. Progress was slow because of certain states' concerns regarding some key provisions of the Declaration, such as indigenous peoples' right to self-determination and the control over natural resources existing on indigenous peoples' traditional lands.<ref>[http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/declaration.html Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: Adopted by the Human Rights Council on 29 June 2006] United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues.</ref>
The final version of the Declaration was adopted on [[29 June]] [[2006]] by the 47-member [[Human Rights Council]] (the successor body to the Commission on Human Rights), with 30 member states in favour, two against, 12 abstentions, and three absentees.<ref>[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=19056&Cr=rights&Cr1=council UN Human Rights Council adopts documents on disappearances and indigenous peoples] United Nations News Centre, 29 June 2006.</ref>

The Declaration was then referred to the General Assembly, which voted on the adoption of the proposal on [[13 September]] [[2007]] during its 61st regular session. The vote was 143 countries in favour, four against, and 11 abstaining.<ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6993776.stm Indigenous rights outlined by UN] BBC News, 13 September 2007.</ref> The four member states that voted against were [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United States]], each of which have significant indigenous populations. The abstaining countries were [[Azerbaijan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], [[Burundi]], [[Colombia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Kenya]], [[Nigeria]], [[Russia|Russian Federation]], [[Samoa]] and [[Ukraine]]; another 34 member states were absent from the vote.<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/ga10612.doc.htm UN adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples] United Nations News Centre, 13 September 2007.</ref>

==Reaction==
===Support===
In contrast to the Declaration's rejection by Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States, United Nations officials and other world leaders noted their pleasure at its adoption. [[UNSG|Secretary-General]] [[Ban Ki-Moon]] described it as a "historic moment when UN Member States and indigenous peoples have reconciled with their painful histories and are resolved to move forward together on the path of human rights, justice and development for all." [[Louise Arbour]], a former justice of the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] then serving as the UN's [[High Commissioner for Human Rights]], expressed satisfaction at the hard work and perseverance that had finally "borne fruit in the most comprehensive statement to date of indigenous peoples' rights."<ref>[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=23794&Cr=indigenous&Cr1= United Nations adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples] United Nations News Centre, 13 September 2007.</ref> Similarly, news of the Declaration's adoption was greeted with jubilation in Africa<ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/200709131047.html Africa: Jubilation as UN Approves Indigenous Peoples Declaration] AllAfrica.com, 13 September 2007.</ref> and, present at the General Assembly session in New York, [[Bolivia]]n [[foreign minister]] [[David Choquehuanca]] said that he hoped the member states that had voted against or abstained would reconsider their refusal to support a document he described as being as important as the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]].<ref>[http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/448939.html Aprueba ONU declaración de derechos indígenas] ''El Universal,'' 13 September 2007.</ref> Bolivia has become the first country to approve the U.N. declaration of indigenous rights. [[Evo Morales]], [[President]] of Bolivia, stated, "We are the first country to turn this declaration into a law and that is important, brothers and sisters. We recognize and salute the work of our representatives. But if we were to remember the indigenous fight clearly, many of us who are sensitive would end up crying in remembering the discrimination, the scorn."

===Criticism===
Prior to the adoption of the Declaration, and throughout the 62nd. session of the General Assembly, a number of countries expressed concern about some key issues, such as [[self-determination]], access to lands, territories and resources and the lack of a clear definition of the term ''indigenous''. These concerns were expressed by a group of African countries, in addition to the final four that voted against the adoption of the declaration. Ultimately, after agreeing on some adjustments to the Draft Declaration, a vast majority of states recognized that these issues could be addressed by each country at the national level.

The four states that voted against – all with significant indigenous populations – continued to express serious reservations about the final text of the Declaration as placed before the General Assembly.

====Australia====
[[Australia]]'s [[Mal Brough]], [[Department of Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs (Australia)|Minister for Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs]], referring to the provision regarding the upholding of indigenous peoples' customary legal systems, said that, "There should only be one law for all Australians and we should not enshrine in law practices that are not acceptable in the modern world."<ref name="BBC"/>

[[Marise Payne]], [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] [[Australian Senate|Senator]] for [[New South Wales]], further elaborated on the Australian government's objections to the Declaration in a speech to the Senate as:<ref name="Matters">[http://parlinfoweb.aph.gov.au/piweb//view_document.aspx?TABLE=HANSARDS&ID=2481341 Matters of Urgency: United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples] Senate Hansards, 10 September 2007.</ref>
*Concerns about references to self-determination and their potential to be misconstrued.
*Ignorance of contemporary realities concerning land and resources. "They seem, to many readers, to require the recognition of Indigenous rights to lands which are now lawfully owned by other citizens, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous, and therefore to have some quite significant potential to impact on the rights of third parties."<ref name="Matters"/>
*Concerns over the extension of Indigenous intellectual property rights under the declaration as unnecessary under current international and Australian law.
*The potential abuse of the right under the Declaration for indigenous peoples to unqualified consent on matters affecting them, "which implies to some readers that they may then be able to exercise a right of veto over all matters of state, which would include national laws and other administrative measures."<ref name="Matters"/>
*The exclusivity of indigenous rights over intellectual, real and cultural property, that "does not acknowledge the rights of third parties – in particular, their rights to access Indigenous land and heritage and cultural objects where appropriate under national law."<ref name="Matters"/> Furthermore, that the Declaration "fails to consider the different types of ownership and use that can be accorded to Indigenous people and the rights of third parties to property in that regard."<ref name="Matters"/>
*Concerns that the Declaration places indigenous customary law in a superior position to national law, and that this may "permit the exercise of practices which would not be acceptable across the broad",<ref name="Matters"/> such as customary corporal and capital punishments.

In October 2007, former Australian Prime Minister [[John Howard]] pledged to hold a referendum on changing the constitution to recognise indigenous Australians if re-elected. He said that the distinctiveness of people's identity and their rights to preserve their heritage should be acknowledged.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7039823.stm BBC News, Oct 2007 - Howard vows Aborigine rights vote]</ref> With Howard's loss in the [[2007 Australian federal election|2007 election]], it is unknown what the Rudd government's response will be.

====Canada====
[[Canada]] said that while it supported the spirit of the Declaration, it contained elements that were "fundamentally incompatible with Canada's constitutional framework".<ref name="BBC"/> In particular, the Canadian government had problems with Article 19 (which appears to require governments to secure the consent of indigenous peoples regarding matters of general public policy), and Articles 26 and 28 (which could allow for the re-opening or repudiation of historically settled land claims).<ref>[http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=eec0b550-e95a-492b-8801-6ede20a2d35e Factbox: What is the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples?] ''National Post,'' 13 September 2007.</ref>

[[Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development]] [[Chuck Strahl]] described the document as "unworkable in a Western democracy under a constitutional government."<ref>[http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=23df9769-3423-4f43-b828-a755725c2719&k=23677 Native rights declaration inconsistent with legal tradition: Strahl] ''National Post,'' 13 September 2007.</ref> Strahl elaborated, saying "In Canada, you are balancing individual rights vs. collective rights, and (this) document ... has none of that. By signing on, you default to this document by saying that the only rights in play here are the rights of the First Nations. And, of course, in Canada, that's inconsistent with our constitution." He gave an example: "In Canada ... you negotiate on this ... because (native rights) don't trump all other rights in the country. You need also to consider the people who have sometimes also lived on those lands for two or three hundred years, and have hunted and fished alongside the First Nations."<ref>[http://www.canada.com/montrealgazette/news/story.html?id=5a03839b-6ee5-4391-8cd8-fe9338ac7baf Tories defend 'no' in native rights vote], Canwest News Service, 14 September 2007.</ref>

The [[Assembly of First Nations]] passed a resolution in mid-December to invite Presidents [[Hugo Chávez]] and [[Evo Morales]] to Canada to put pressure on the Conservative government to sign the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, calling the two heads of state "visionary leaders" and demanding Canada resign its membership on the [[UN]] [[Human Rights Council]].<ref>[http://www.handsoffvenezuela.org/canadian_indigenous_leaders_invite_chavez.htm AFN plans to invite "visionary" Chavez to visit Canada], Canwest News Service, 7 February 2008.</ref>

====New Zealand====
[[New Zealand]]'s [[Minister of Māori Affairs]] [[Parekura Horomia]] described the Declaration as "toothless", and said, "There are four provisions we have problems with, which make the declaration fundamentally incompatible with New Zealand's constitutional and legal arrangements." Article 26 in particular, he said, "appears to require recognition of rights to lands now lawfully owned by other citizens, both indigenous and non-indigenous. This ignores contemporary reality and would be impossible to implement."<ref>[http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/PA0709/S00272.htm Māori Party’s head in the clouds] New Zealand government press release, via scoop.co.nz, 14 September 2007.</ref>

In response, [[Māori Party]] leader [[Pita Sharples]] said it was "shameful to the extreme that New Zealand voted against the outlawing of discrimination against indigenous people; voted against justice, dignity and fundamental freedoms for all."<ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/4202223a8153.html NZ indigenous rights stance 'shameful' - Maori Party] stuff.co.nz, 14 September 2007.</ref>

====United States====
Speaking for the [[United States]] mission to the UN, spokesman [[Benjamin Chang]] said, "What was done today is not clear. The way it stands now is subject to multiple interpretations and doesn't establish a clear universal principle."<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/09/13/news/UN-GEN-UN-Indigenous-Peoples.php UN adopts declaration on rights for indigenous peoples worldwide] ''International Herald Tribune,'' 13 September 2007.</ref> The U.S. mission also issued a floor document, "Observations of the United States with respect to the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples", setting out its objections to the Declaration. Most of these are based on the same points as the other three countries' rejections but, in addition, the United States drew attention to the Declaration's failure to provide a clear definition of exactly whom the term "indigenous peoples" is intended to cover.<ref>[http://www.un.int/usa/press_releases/20070913_204.html Explanation of vote on the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples] United States Mission to the United Nations press release, 13 September 2007.</ref>

====United Kingdom====
Speaking on behalf of the United Kingdom government, UK Ambassador and Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Karen Pierce, "emphasized that the Declaration was non-legally binding and did not propose to have any retroactive application on historical episodes. National minority groups and other ethnic groups within the territory of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories did not fall within the scope of the indigenous peoples to which the Declaration applied. The United Kingdom had, however, long provided political and financial support to the socio-economic and political development of indigenous peoples around the world."<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/ga10612.doc.htm GENERAL ASSEMBLY ADOPTS DECLARATION ON RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES;] at www.un.org</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/drip.html United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples as Adopted by the General Assembly, 13 September 2007] Full text of the Declaration.
*[http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/declaration.html United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Adopted by the Human Rights Council on 29 June 2006] Briefing from the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) on the adoption of the Declaration.
*[http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/LTD/N07/498/30/PDF/N0749830.pdf United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples] Resolution of the Human Rights Council containing the final Declaration text.
*[http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/FAQsindigenousdeclaration.pdf FAQs on the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples] From UNPFII.
*[http://worldinbalance.net/agreements/2007-indigenouspeoples.html easy-to-read version of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples] at the Center for a World in Balance
*[http://geo.international.gc.ca/canada_un/new_york/whats_new/default-en.asp?id=10382&content_type=2 Position of Canada] Statement by Ambassador John McNee to the General Assembly.
*[http://www.nzembassy.com/info.cfm?CFID=7908039&CFTOKEN=28311805&c=51&l=124&s=to&p=63315 Position of New Zealand] Explanation of vote by Permanent Representative Rosemary Banks.
*[http://www.un.int/usa/press_releases/20070913_204.html Position of the United States] Explanation of vote by Advisor Robert Hagen and document "Observations of the United States with respect to the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples".
*[http://www.fpif.org/fpiftxt/4615 Annotate This: The UN Declaration of Rights of Indigenous Peoples] Foreign Policy in Focus, 5 October 2007.



{{Human rights}}

[[Category:Indigenous politics]]
[[Category:United Nations]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Human rights instruments]]

[[es:Declaración sobre los Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas]]
[[fr:Déclaration des droits des peuples autochtones]]
[[id:Deklarasi PBB tentang Hak-Hak Penduduk Asli]]
[[ja:先住民族の権利に関する国際連合宣言]]
[[pl:Deklaracja praw ludów tubylczych]]
[[sv:FN:s urfolksdeklaration]]

Crab

2008-11-14T15:30:15Z

163.178.17.124: /* Cultural influences of the crab */

{{Taxobox
| name = Crabs
| image = Blue crab on market in Piraeus - Callinectes sapidus Rathbun 20020819-317.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''[[Blue crab|Callinectes sapidus]]''
| regnum = [[Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| subphylum = [[Crustacean|Crustacea]]
| classis = [[Malacostraca]]
| ordo = [[Decapoda]]
| subordo = [[Pleocyemata]]
| infraordo = '''Brachyura'''
| infraordo_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Superfamilies
| subdivision =
* '''Section [[Podotremata]]'''
**[[Cyclodorippoidea]]
**[[Homolodromidae|Homolodromioidea]]
**[[Dromioidea]]
**[[Homoloidea]]
**[[Raninoidea]]
* '''Section [[Eubrachyura]]'''
**'''Subsection [[Heterotremata]]'''
***[[Dorippoidea]]
***[[Calappoidea]]
***[[Leucosioidea]]
***[[Majoidea]]
***[[Hymenosomatidae|Hymenosomatoidea]]
***[[Parthenopoidea]]
***[[Retroplumidae|Retroplumoidea]]
***[[Cancroidea]]
***[[Portunoidea]]
***[[Bythograeidae|Bythograeoidea]]
***[[Xanthoidea]]
***[[Belliidae|Bellioidea]]
***[[Potamoidea]]
***[[Pseudothelphusidae|Pseudothelphusoidea]]
***[[Gecarcinucoidea]]
***[[Cryptochiridae|Cryptochiroidea]]
**'''Subsection [[Thoracotremata]]'''
***[[Pinnotheridae|Pinnotheroidea]]
***[[Ocypodoidea]]
***[[Grapsoidea]]
}}

'''Crabs''' are [[Decapoda|decapod]] [[crustacean]]s of the infraorder '''Brachyura''', which typically have a very short projecting "tail" ({{lang-el|βραχύ''/''brachy}} = short, ''ουρά''/''οura'' = tail), or where the reduced abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax. They are generally covered with a thick [[exoskeleton]], and armed with a single pair of [[claw|chelae]] (claws). 6,793 species are known.<ref>Walters, Martin & Johnson, Jinny. ''The World of Animals''. [[Bath, Somerset]]: [[Parragon]], 2007.</ref> Crabs are found in all of the world's oceans. Additionally, there are also many [[fresh water|freshwater]] and [[Land crab|terrestrial crabs]], particularly in tropical regions. Crabs vary in size from the [[pea crab]], only a few [[millimetre]]s wide, to the [[Japanese spider crab]], with a leg span of up to 4 [[metre|m]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oceanlink.island.net/records.html |title=Biggest, Smallest, Fastest, Deepest: Marine Animal Records |publisher=OceanLink |accessmonthday=September 22 |accessyear=2006}}</ref>

==Diet==
Crabs are decapods—ten-legged omnivores—but the front pair of legs are specialised with enlarged claws, so they are often described as eight-legged. Some species feed primarily on algae, while others take any type of food, including mollusks, worms, other crustaceans, fungi, bacteria, and detritus, depending on availability and on the species of crab. For many species, a mixed diet of plant and animal matter results in the fastest growth and greatest fitness.

==Crab Fishery==
{{Main|Crab fisheries}}
[[Image:Sorting Crabs Ffionphort.jpg|350px|thumb|left|[[Edible crab]]s being sorted by fishermen at [[Fionnphort]], [[Scotland]]]]
Crabs make up 20% of all marine [[crustacean]]s caught and farmed worldwide, with over 1½ million [[tonne]]s being consumed annually. Of that total, one species accounts for one fifth: ''[[Portunus trituberculatus]]''. Other important [[taxon|taxa]] include ''[[Portunus pelagicus]]'', several species in the genus ''[[Chionoecetes]]'', the [[blue crab]] (''Callinectes sapidus''), ''[[Charybdis (genus)|Charybdis spp.]]'', ''[[Edible crab|Cancer pagurus]]'', the [[Dungeness crab]] (''Cancer magister)'' and ''[[Scylla serrata]]'', each of which provides more than 20,000 tonnes annually <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/figis/servlet/TabLandArea?tb_ds=Capture&tb_mode=TABLE&tb_act=SELECT&tb_grp=COUNTRY |title=Global Capture Production 1950-2004 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] |accessmonthday=August 26 |accessyear=2006}}</ref>.
 

==Evolution and classification==
[[Image:Dungeness crab face closeup.jpg|thumb|left|The face of a [[dungeness crab]]. The two [[eye]]s sit on eyestalks, with two [[antennule]]s on either side of the [[rostrum (anatomy)|rostrum]] (center, above the mouth).]]
The infraorder Brachyura contains about 93 [[family (biology)|families]]<ref>[http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/s17/s17rbz.pdf Systema Brachyurorum: Part 1. An Annotated checklist of extant Brachyuran crabs of the world] ''Raffles Bulletin of Zoology'', 2008, 286pp.</ref>, as many as the remainder of the [[Decapoda]].<ref name="Martin & Davis">{{cite book |url=http://www.nhm.org/research/publications/CrustaceaClassification.pdf |title=An Updated Classification of the Recent Crustacea |author=Martin, J. W. & G. E. Davis |year=2001 |pages=132 pp. |publisher=Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]}}</ref> The evolution of crabs is characterised by an increasing robustness of the body, and a reduction in the abdomen. Although many other groups have also undergone similar processes of [[carcinisation]], it is most advanced in crabs. The [[telson]] is no longer functional in crabs, and the [[uropod]]s are absent, having probably evolved into small devices for holding the reduced abdomen tight against the sternum.<ref>{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=Guinot, D & J.–M. Bouchard |year=1998 |title=Evolution of the abdominal holding systems of brachyuran crabs (Crustacea, Decapoda, Brachyura) |journal=[[Zoosystema]] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=613–694 |url=http://www.mnhn.fr/publication/zoosyst/z98n4a4.html |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]}}</ref>

In most decapodes, the [[gonopore]]s (sexual openings) are found on the legs. However, since crabs use the first two pairs of [[pleopod]]s (abdominal appendages) for [[sperm transfer]], this arrangement has changed. As the male abdomen evolved into a narrower shape, the gonopores have moved towards the midline, away from the legs, and onto the [[Sternum (arthropod)|sternum]].<ref>{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=De Saint Laurent, M. |year=1980 |title=Sur la classification et la phylogénie des Crustacés Décapodes Brachyoures. II. Heterotremata et Thoracotremata Guinto, 1977 |journal=[[C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris]] |volume=t. 290 |pages=1317–1320}}</ref> A similar change occurred, independently, with the female gonopores. The movement of the female gonopore to the sternum defines the [[clade]] [[Eubrachyura]], and the later change in the position of the male gonopore defines the [[Thoracotremata]]. It is still a subject of debate whether those crabs where the female, but not male, gonopores are situated on the sternum form a [[Monophyly|monophyletic group]].<ref name="Martin & Davis"/>

The earliest unambiguous crab [[fossil]]s date from the [[Jurassic]], although the [[Carboniferous]] ''[[Imocaris]]'', known only from its [[carapace]] is thought to be a primitive crab.<ref>{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=[[Frederick Schram|Schram, F. R.]] & R. Mapes |year=1984 |title=''Imocaris tuberculata'', n. gen., n. sp. (Crustacea: Decapoda) fro the upper Mississippian Imo Formation, Arkansas |journal=[[Transactions of the San Diego Society of Natural History]] |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=165–168}}</ref> The [[Adaptive radiation|radiation]] of crabs in the [[Cretaceous]] and afterwards may be linked either to the break-up of [[Gondwana]] or to the concurrent radiation of [[Osteichthyes|bony fish]], the main [[predator]]s of crabs.<ref>{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=Wägele, J. W. |year=1989 |title=On the influence of fishes on the evolution of benthic crustaceans |journal=J. Zool. Syst. Evolut.-forsch. |volume=27 |pages=297–309}}</ref>

About 850 species<ref>{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=Sternberg, R. von & N. Cumberlidge |year=2001 |title=On the heterotreme-thoracotreme distinction in the Eubrachyura De Saint Laurent, 1980 (Decapoda: Brachyura) |journal=[[Crustaceana]] |volume=74 |pages=321–338 |doi=10.1163/156854001300104417}}</ref> of crab are freshwater or (semi-)terrestrial species; they are found throughout the world's [[tropic]]al and [[Subtropics|semi-tropical]] regions. They were previously thought to be a closely related group, but are now believed to represent at least two distinct [[Lineage (evolution)|lineages]], one in the [[Old World]] and one in the [[New World]].<ref>{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=Sternberg, R. von, N. Cumberlidge & G. Rodriguez |year=1999 |title=On the marine sister groups of the freshwater crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura) |journal=[[J. Zool. Syst. Evol. Research]] |volume=37 |pages=19–38 |doi=10.1046/j.1439-0469.1999.95092.x}}</ref>

==Cultural influences of the crab==
[[Image:Vasija mochica crustáceo (M. América Inv.1409) 01.jpg|thumb|120px|right|Moche vessel representing a crab.]]

The [[Moche]] people of ancient [[Peru]] worshipped nature, especially the sea.<ref> Benson, Elizabeth, The Mochica: A Culture of Peru. New York, NY: Praeger Press. 1972</ref> They placed emphasis on animals and often depicted crabs in their art.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref>

The [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer Constellation]] is one of the 12 [[Zodiac signs]].

==Nutrition==
{{Expand|section|date=September 2008}}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Corystes cassivelaunus.jpg|[[Masked crab]], ''Corystes cassivelaunus''
Image:Liocarcinus vernalis.jpg|''[[Liocarcinus vernalis]]''
Image:Atelecyclus rotundatus.jpg|[[Circular crab]], ''Atelecyclus rotundatus''
Image:Gecarcinus ruricola.jpg|The terrestrial [[halloween crab]], ''Geocarcinus ruricola''
Image:Stenorhynchus seticornis 2.jpg|[[Arrow crab]] ''Stenorhynchus seticornis''
Image:Grapsus grapsus.JPG|"[[Sally Light Foot]]", ''Grapsus grapsus''
Image:Thia scutellata.jpg|[[Thumbnail crab]], ''Thia scutellata''
Image:Spider crabs at the Kaiyukan Aquarium in Osaka close.jpg|[[Japanese spider crab]], ''Macrocheira kaempferi''
Image:Ocypode quadrata (2).jpg|[[Ghost crab]], ''Ocypode quadrata''
Image:Fiddler crab.jpg|[[Fiddler crab]], ''Uca pugnax''
Image:Lyreidus tridentatus.jpg|''Lyreidus tridentatus'', a [[Raninidae|raninid]]
Image:Hepatus epheliticus.jpg|''Hepatus epheliticus'', a calico crab
Image:Cardisoma_guanhumi.jpg|Blue Land Crab, ''[[Cardisoma guanhumi]]''
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-4}}
* [[Arrow crab]]
* [[Blue Crab]]
* [[Calappa (crab)|Calappa crab]]
* [[Cancer (astrology)| Cancer]]
* [[Chinese mitten crab]]
* [[Dungeness crab]]
* [[Edible crab]]
* [[Emerald Crab]]
* [[Florida stone crab]]
{{col-4}}
* [[Ghost crab]]
* [[Halloween crab]]
* [[Hippoidea]]
* [[Horsehair crab]]
* [[Horseshoe crab]]
* [[Jonah crab]]
* [[Lady crab]]
{{col-4}}
* [[Land crab]]
* [[Mangrove crab]]
* [[Mud crab]]
* ''[[Paralithodes camtschaticus]]''
* [[Red crab]]
* [[Sand bubbler crab]]
* [[Seaweed decorator crab]]
{{col-4}}
* [[Soft-shell crab]]
* [[Soldier crab]]
* [[Spider crab]]
* [[Stilt crab]]
* [[Strawberry crab]]
* [[Tasmanian giant crab]]
* [[Tomalley]]
* [[Velvet crab]]
{{col-end}}

==External links==
{{commonscat-inline|Brachyura}}
{{Wikispecies-inline|Brachyura}}

{{fisheries and fishing}}

[[Category:Crabs| ]]
[[Category:Edible crustaceans]]
[[Category:Commercial crustaceans]]

[[ar:سرطان (حيوان)]]
[[ang:Crabba (dēor)]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hē]]
[[ca:Cranc]]
[[cs:Krabi]]
[[da:Krabbe]]
[[de:Krabben]]
[[et:Krabilised]]
[[el:Κάβουρας]]
[[es:Brachyura]]
[[eo:Krabo]]
[[fr:Brachyura]]
[[gd:Partan]]
[[ko:게]]
[[hr:Rakovi]]
[[id:Kepiting]]
[[it:Brachyura]]
[[ht:Krab]]
[[la:Cancer]]
[[lt:Krabas]]
[[mg:Foza]]
[[ms:Ketam]]
[[nah:Tecuicihtli]]
[[nl:Krabben]]
[[ja:カニ]]
[[no:Krabber]]
[[nn:Krabbe]]
[[pl:Kraby]]
[[pt:Caranguejo]]
[[ro:Crab]]
[[ru:Крабы]]
[[simple:Crab]]
[[sr:Краба]]
[[fi:Taskuravut]]
[[sv:Krabbor]]
[[tl:Alimango]]
[[ta:நண்டு]]
[[th:ปู]]
[[vi:Cận bộ Cua]]
[[tr:Yengeç]]
[[uk:Краби]]
[[vls:Krabbe]]
[[zh:螃蟹]]

Papaya

2008-11-13T16:04:36Z

163.178.17.124: /* Cultivation and uses of papaya */ Why is the Hawaiian papaya thing first?

{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| name = Papaya
| image = Koeh-029.jpg
| image_caption = Papaya tree and fruit, from Koehler's ''Medicinal-Plants'' (1887)
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
| unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
| unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]]
| ordo = [[Brassicales]]
| familia = [[Caricaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Carica]]''
| species = '''''C. papaya'''''
| binomial = ''Carica papaya''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}

The '''papaya''' (from [[Carib]] via [[Spanish language|Spanish]]), is the [[fruit]] of the [[plant]] ''Carica papaya'', in the genus ''[[Carica]]''. It is native to the tropics of the Americas, and was cultivated in [[Mexico]] several centuries before the emergence of the [[Mesoamerica|Mesoamerican classic cultures]]. It is sometimes called "big melon" or "pay
paw," but the North American [[pawpaw]] is a different species, in the genus ''[[Asimina]]''.

It is a large tree-like plant, the single stem growing from 5 to 10 meters tall, with spirally arranged [[leaf|leaves]] confined to the top of the trunk; the lower trunk is conspicuously scarred where leaves and fruit were borne. The leaves are large, 50-70 cm diameter, deeply palmately lobed with 7 lobes. The tree is usually unbranched if unlopped. The [[flower]]s are similar in shape to the flowers of the ''[[Plumeria]]'' but are much smaller and wax like. They appear on the axils of the leaves, maturing into the large 15-45 cm long, 10-30 cm diameter fruit. The fruit is ripe when it feels soft (like a ripe [[avocado]] or a bit softer) and its skin has attained an amber to orange hue. The fruit's taste is vaguely similar to [[pineapple]] and [[peach]], although much milder without the tartness.

It is the first fruit tree to have its genome deciphered.<ref>[http://prensa.ugr.es/prensa/research/verNota/prensa.php?nota=537 University of Granada]</ref>

==Cultivation and uses of papaya==
Originally from southern [[Mexico]], [[Central America]] and northern [[South America]], the papaya is now cultivated in most countries with a [[Tropics|tropical climate]], such as [[Brazil]], [[India]], [[South Africa]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Southeast Asia]].

The [[ripe]] fruit is usually eaten [[raw]], without the [[skin]] or [[seeds]]. The unripe green fruit of papaya can be eaten [[cook]]ed, usually in [[curry|curries]], [[salad]]s and [[stew]]s. It also has a relatively high amount of [[pectin]], which can be used to makes [[jelly|jellies]].

Green papaya fruit and the tree's [[latex]] are both rich in an enzyme called [[papain]], a [[protease]] which is useful in [[Tenderize|tenderizing]] [[meat]] and other proteins. Its ability to break down tough meat [[fiber]]s was utilized for thousands of years by [[indigenous]] Americans. It is included as a component in powdered meat tenderizers, and is also marketed in tablet form to remedy [[digestion|digestive]] problems. Green papaya is used in [[Thai cuisine]], both raw and cooked.<ref>[http://www.thaitable.com/Thai/recipes/Green_Papaya_Salad.htm Green Papaya Salad Recipe - ThaiTable.com]</ref>
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Papaya, raw | kJ= 163 | protein= 0.61 g | carbs= 9.81 g | sugars= 5.90 g| fibre=1.8 g | fat= 0.14 g | thiamin_mg=0.04 | riboflavin_mg=0.05 | vitB6_mg=0.1 | vitA_ug= 55| betacarotene_ug=276 | vitC_mg=61.8 | niacin_mg= 0.338 | iron_mg= 0.10 | calcium_mg= 24 | magnesium_mg=10 | phosphorus_mg=5 | potassium_mg= 257| sodium_mg= 3 | right=1 }}

[[Papain]] is also popular (in countries where it grows) as a topical application in the treatment of cuts, rashes, stings and burns. Papain [[ointment]] is commonly made from fermented papaya flesh, and is applied as a gel-like paste. [[Harrison Ford]] was treated for a [[Spinal disc herniation|ruptured disc]] incurred during filming of ''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom]]'' by having papain injected into his back.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=QQPpRUYPdr0C&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=harrison+ford+papaya&source=web&ots=Nf46sJ5art&sig=VkDhLMszaxrakJiPiSqx_p3MEWg Entry on Harrison Ford's back treatment].</ref>

[[Women]] in India, [[Pakistan]], Sri Lanka, and other parts of the world have long used green papaya as a [[folk remedy]] for [[contraception]] and [[abortion]].{{Fact|date=March 2007}} Medical research in animals has confirmed the contraceptive and abortifacient capability of papaya, and also found that papaya seeds have contraceptive effects in adult male [[langur monkey]]s, possibly in adult male humans as well.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Lohiya | first = N. K. | coauthors = B. Manivannan, P. K. Mishra, N. Pathak, S. Sriram, S. S. Bhande, and S. Panneerdoss | year = 2002 | month = March | title = Chloroform extract of ''Carica papaya'' seeds induces long-term reversible azoospermia in langur monkey | journal = Asian Journal of Andrology | volume = 4 | pages = 17–26 | doi = | url = http://asiaandro.com/1008-682X/4/17.htm | accessdate = 2006-11-18 | format = {{dead link|date=June 2008}} – [http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3ALohiya+intitle%3AChloroform+extract+of+%27%27Carica+papaya%27%27+seeds+induces+long-term+reversible+azoospermia+in+langur+monkey&as_publication=Asian+Journal+of+Andrology&as_ylo=2002&as_yhi=2002&btnG=Search Scholar search] }}</ref> Unripe papaya is especially effective in large amounts or high doses. Papaya is not [[teratogenic]] and will not cause [[miscarriage]] in small, ripe amounts. [[Phytochemicals]] in papaya may suppress the effects of [[progesterone]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Oderinde, O|title=Abortifacient properties of Carica papaya (Linn) seeds in female Sprague-Dawley rats|journal=Niger Postgrad Medical Journal|pmid=12163882}}</ref>

The black seeds are edible and have a sharp, [[spicy]] taste. They are sometimes ground up and used as a substitute for [[black pepper]]. In some parts of Asia the young [[leaf|leaves]] of papaya are [[steam]]ed and eaten like [[spinach]]. In parts of the world papaya leaves are made into tea as a preventative for Malaria, though there is no real scientific evidence for the effectiveness of this treatment. <ref>http://www.echotech.org/network/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=576</ref>

The papaya fruit is susceptible to the [[Papaya Fruit Fly]]. This wasp-like fly lays its eggs in young fruit. In cultivation it grows rapidly fruiting within 3 years, however is it highly frost sensitive.

In [[Hawaii]], two varieties of [[Genetically modified food|genetically-modified]] papayas, SunUp and Rainbow, have been grown by several growers since their development in the 1990s.[http://www.hawaiipapaya.com/rainbow.htm] By 2004, non-genetically modified and organic papayas throughout Hawaii had experienced widespread contamination from the genetically-modified varieties.[http://www.grain.org/research/contamination.cfm?id=165]

==Allergies and side-effects==
Caution should be taken when harvesting, as papaya is known to release a latex fluid when not quite ripe, which can cause irritation and provoke allergic reaction in some people. The papaya fruit, seeds, latex, and leaves also contains [[carpaine]], an [[anthelmintic]] [[alkaloid]] which could be dangerous in high doses.

Excessive consumption of papaya, as of carrots, can cause [[carotenemia]], the yellowing of soles and palms which is otherwise harmless.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} 

==Ethnomedical uses==
[[Image:MochepapayaLMC.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Papaya. Moche Culture. [[Larco Museum|Larco Museum Collection.]] The [[Moche]] often depicted papayas in their ceramics.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref>]]
*The mature (ripe) fruit treats [[ringworm]], green fruits treat [[high blood pressure]], and is used as an [[aphrodisiac]].
*The fruit can be directly applied topically to skin sores [1].
*The juice of the fruit (specifically the enzymes within it) are used to reduce gastrointestinal gas, useful to sufferers of [[Irritable bowel syndrome|IBS]].
*The seeds are [[anti-inflammatory]], [[anthelmintic]], and [[analgesic]], and they are used to treat [[stomachache]] and [[fungal infection]]s[1].
*The leaves are used as a heart tonic, analgesic, and to treat stomachache[1].
*The roots are used as an analgesic[2].

===Diseases===
{{Main|List of papaya diseases}}

==Names in other languages==
*[[Assamese language|Assamese]] - ''Amita''
*[[Bengali language|Bengali]] - ''PePe'' ({{lang-bn|পেঁপে}}),
*[[Ewe]] - ''pawpo''{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*[[Filipino]] - ''Papaya''
*[[Indonesian]] - ''pepaya'' (the word ''papaya'' originated from this word)
*[[Jamaica]] - ''Papaw''
*[[Javanese language|Javanese]] - ''kates''
*[[Malay]]- ''betik''
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] - ''mamão'' (Brazil)
*[[Sinhala]] - ''papol''', ''guslabu'' (literally "tree melon")
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]] - ''papaya''
**[[Cuba]] - ''fruta bomba''
**[[Dominican Republic]], [[Puerto Rico]], and [[Venezuela]] - ''Lechosa''
*[[Swahili]] -''Papai''
*[[Sri Lankan English]] - ''papaw''
*[[Thai language|Thai]] - ''malakau'' ([[wikt:มะละกอ|มะละกอ]])
*[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] - ''đu đủ''
*[[Polish language|Polish]] - ''melonowiec właściwy''
*[[Hindi]] - ''papita''
*[[Kannada]] - ''pappayi''
*[[Marathi language|Marathi]] - ''papai''
*[[Tamil language|Tamil]] - ''papaali''
*[[Telugu]] - ''Boppayi''
*[[Gujarati]] - ''Pappayu''
*[[Malayalam]] - ''papaya, omakai''
*[[Swahili]] - ''papayu''
*[[Oriya]]- Amrut Bhanda..
*[[Mandarin Chinese]] - ''Mu Gua|木瓜''

==See also==

Hausa Gwaddar gida

==Photo gallery==

<gallery>
Image:Papaya tree.jpg|Papaya tree
Image:Carica papaya - Papaya - var-tropical dwarf papaya - desc-leaf.jpg|Papaya leaf
Image:carica_papaya_bloem.jpg|female flowers
Image:Carica papaya dsc07806.jpg|Papaya
Image:Carica papaya - papaya - var-tropical dwarf papaya - desc-fruit.jpg|Papaya trunk with immature fruit
Image:Koeh-028.jpg|tree and flowers, from Koehler's ''Medicinal-Plants'' (1887)
Image:Papaya.jpg|Hawaiian papaya (with lilies and ginger)
Image:D80-2007-03-29 7.JPG|Tanzanian Papaya tree
Image:indian_papaya.jpg|An Indian papaya tree
Image:Papaya in kerala India.jpg|A variety of yellow papaya in [[Kerala]]-India, the non-ripen fruit have even yellow skin, looks like ripe papaya.
</gallery>

==References==

<references />

==External links==
{{Commons|Carica papaya}}
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/papaya_ars.html Fruits of Warm Climates: Papaya and Related Species]
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Carica_papaya.html Carica papaya]
* [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/papaya.html California Rare Fruit Growers: Papaya Fruit Facts].
* [http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-B00001-01c20W1.html Papaya Fruit Nutrition]
* [http://www.ansci.cornell.edu/plants/medicinal/papaya.html Treating Livestock with Medicinal Plants: Beneficial or Toxic? Carica papaya]

[[Category:Caricaceae]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
[[Category:Abortifacients]]
[[Category:Fruit]]
[[Category:Native crops of Mexico]]
[[Category:Flora of Florida]]
[[Category:Flora of Belize]]
[[Category:Flora of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Flora of El Salvador]]
[[Category:Flora of Guatemala]]
[[Category:Flora of Honduras]]
[[Category:Flora of Nicaragua]]
[[Category:Flora of Panama]]
[[Category:Flora of the Bahamas]]
[[Category:Flora of Cuba]]
[[Category:Flora of the Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Flora of Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Flora of Haiti]]
[[Category:Flora of Jamaica]]
[[Category:Flora of Martinique]]
[[Category:Flora of Puerto Rico]]
[[Category:Flora of Trinidad and Tobago]]
[[Category:Flora of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Flora of Guyana]]
[[Category:Flora of Suriname]]
[[Category:Flora of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Native crops of Brazil]]
[[Category:Native crops of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Native crops of Colombia]]
[[Category:Native crops of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Native crops of Peru]]
[[Category:Native crops of Argentina]]
[[Category:Flora of Paraguay]]

[[ar:بابايا]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bo̍k-koe]]
[[bg:Папая]]
[[ca:Papaia]]
[[da:Melontræ]]
[[de:Papaya]]
[[es:Carica papaya]]
[[eo:Papajo]]
[[fa:پاپایا]]
[[fr:Papaye]]
[[id:Pepaya]]
[[it:Carica papaya]]
[[he:פפאיה]]
[[ht:Papay]]
[[lt:Papaja]]
[[ml:പപ്പായ]]
[[ms:Pokok Betik]]
[[nl:Papaja]]
[[ja:パパイア]]
[[pl:Melonowiec właściwy]]
[[pt:Mamão]]
[[ro:Papaya]]
[[qu:Papaya]]
[[ru:Папайя]]
[[simple:Papaya]]
[[fi:Papaija]]
[[sv:Papaya]]
[[ta:பப்பாளி]]
[[te:బొప్పాయి]]
[[th:มะละกอ]]
[[vi:Đu đủ]]
[[to:Lesi]]
[[zh:番木瓜]]

Kaja Foglio

2008-11-06T22:42:47Z

163.178.17.124: /* External links */

'''Kaja Foglio''' (née Murphy, born 1970) is a [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]]-based [[writer]], [[artist]], and [[publisher]].

{{Unreferenced|date=November 2007}}

{{Infobox Person
| name = Kaja Foglio
| image = Phil and Kaja Foglio Gen Con 2007.jpg
| image_size =200px
| caption = Kaja and [[Phil Foglio]] at [[Gen Con]] Indy 2007.
| birth_date = January 12, 1970
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| education =
| occupation = writer, artist
| spouse = [[Phil Foglio]]
| parents =
| children =
}}

==Biography==
Foglio graduated from [[Juanita High School]] in [[Kirkland, Washington]] in 1988. She attended the [[University of Washington]], where she was heavily involved with the local chapter of the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]]. After graduating, she married [[Phil Foglio]] and they founded [[Studio Foglio|Studio Foglio, LLC]] in 1995. The studio became the venue for her art prints, many produced as cards for [[Magic: The Gathering]]. Studio activities quickly expanded into the broader publishing field. The artist co-writes and illustrates the [[comic book]] ''[[Girl Genius]]'' with her husband, [[Phil Foglio|Phil]]. She is also the chief graphic designer and Web-mistress for the Studio Foglio and [[Airship Entertainment]] web sites.

Foglio has also illustrated the omnibus edition of [[Barry Hughart|Barry Hughart's]] ''[[The Chronicles of Master Li and Number Ten Ox]]''.

==Works illustrated==

* ''[[The Chronicles of Master Li and Number Ten Ox]]'' (1998)
* ''What's new with Phil and Dixie'' (1999) (OCLC {{OCLC search link|60348876}})
* ''Agatha Heterodyne and the airship city'' (2001) (OCLC {{OCLC search link|60448325}})
* ''Agatha Heterodyne and the monster engine'' (2002) (OCLC {{OCLC search link|58676074}})
* ''Agatha Heterodyne and the Circus of Dreams'' (2005) (OCLC {{OCLC search link|71833596}})
* ''Agatha Heterodyne and the beetleburg clank'' (2005) (OCLC {{OCLC search link|58456205}})
* ''Agatha Heterodyne and the Clockwork Princess'' (2006) (OCLC {{OCLC search link|154697336}})

==See also==

* [[Phil Foglio]]

==External links==
* [http://hometown.aol.com/deverawords/Collections/Kaja.html The Glorious Works of Kaja Foglio] (Non-commercial external fan site with images of some of her work)
* [http://www.talkshoe.com/tc/7022 The Biblio-File: Audio interview with Phil and Kaja Foglio; January 27, 2008]
* [http://ww2.wizards.com/gatherer/index.aspx?term=kaja%20foglio&Field_Name=on&Field_Rules=on&Field_Type=on&Field_Artist=on&setfilter=All%20sets&output=Spoiler List of Magic the Gathering cards illustrated by Kaja Foglio]

{{Persondata
|NAME= Foglio, Kaja
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Kaja Murphy
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= writer, cartoonist
|DATE OF BIRTH=1970
|PLACE OF BIRTH=
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Foglio, Kaja}}
[[Category:1970 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Comic book publishers (people)]]
[[Category:Game artists]]
[[Category:People from Seattle, Washington]]
[[Category:American webcomic authors]]
[[Category:Studio Foglio| ]]

Phil Foglio

2008-11-06T22:40:23Z

163.178.17.124: /* References */

{{Infobox Person
| name = Phil Foglio
| image = Phil Foglio.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Phil Foglio at [[Gen Con]] Indy 2007. [[Aaron Williams (comics creator)|Aaron Williams]] is visible in the background left.
| birth_date = [[May 1]] [[1956]]
| birth_place = [[Mount Vernon, New York]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| education = [[DePaul University]]
| occupation = cartoonist, artist
| spouse = [[Kaja Foglio]]
| parents =
| children =
}}

'''Philip "Phil" Foglio''' (b 1956)<ref name="autobio">''Stanley and His Monster'' #2 (March 1993): Autobiographical page</ref> is a [[cartoonist]] and [[comic book]] artist best known for his humorous [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]] work.

==Biography==
===Early life and career===
'''Phil Foglio''' was born on [[May 1]] [[1956]] in [[Mount Vernon, New York]] and moved with his family to [[Hartsdale, New York]], where he lived until he was 17.<ref name="autobio" /> He attended the [[Chicago Academy of Fine Arts]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]], and was a member of the university's [[science fiction]] club, art-directing & co-editing the group's [[science fiction fanzine|fanzine]], ''Effen Essef''.<ref>[http://www.comicbookdb.com/creator.php?ID=2996 Comic Book Database listing for Phil Foglio]</ref>. He was nominated for the [[Hugo Award for Best Fan Artist]] ''and'' the [[Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation]], in 1976<ref>[http://www.thehugoawards.org/?page_id=43 1976 Hugo Awards]</ref>, and won ''Best Fan Artist'' in 1977<ref>[http://www.thehugoawards.org/?page_id=42 1977 Hugo Awards]</ref> and 1978<ref>[http://www.thehugoawards.org/?page_id=41 1978 Hugo Awards]</ref>. After living in the DePaul dorms for a few years, Phil moved to the [[Rogers Park]] neighborhood of Chicago, and hosted weekly Thursday Night Meetings of Chicago-area [[science fiction fandom|science fiction fans]]. He drew the first known [[Unix]] [[BSD daemon|daemons]] for a limited series of [[T-shirt]]s in 1979.<ref>[http://minnie.tuhs.org/Seminars/Saving_Unix/ "Saving UNIX from /dev/null" by Warren Toomey (January 19, 1999)]</ref><ref>[http://www.mckusick.com/beastie/shirts/usenix.html]</ref>

Beginning in 1980, Foglio wrote and illustrated the [[comic strip]] ''[[What's New with Phil & Dixie]]'' for ''[[Dragon (magazine)|Dragon Magazine]]'' from [[Tactical Studies Rules|TSR Games]], satirizing the world of [[role-playing game]]s. The strip ran monthly for three years. In the early 1980s, after some time in Chicago attempting to find work doing [[science fiction]] magazine and book illustration, Foglio moved to [[New York City]]<ref name="autobio" />. He formed the independent [[comic-book]] company fantasy factory with science-fiction writer-artist [[Freff]] and SF book editor Melissa Ann Singer.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} Working with editorial input from [[Chris Claremont]],{{Fact|date=October 2007}} Foglio and Freff wrote and drew a single issue of a science-fiction/historical title called ''D'Arc Tangent'' before ending their collaboration in 1984.

He eventually returned to the Rogers Park neighborhood of Chicago, and continued fantasy and science fiction art.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} For publisher [[Donning/Starblaze]], Foglio illustrated the ''[[MythAdventures]]'' series of fantasy novels by [[Robert Lynn Asprin]], and later adapted the first book, ''[[Another Fine Myth]]'', into an eight-issue comic-book series from [[WaRP Graphics]]. The WaRP work eventually led to comic-book assignments from [[DC Comics]] (''[[Angel and the Ape]]'', ''[[Plastic Man]]'' and ''[[Stanley and His Monster]]'' miniseries), [[Marvel Comics]], and [[First Comics]] (issues of ''[[GrimJack]]'' and ''[[Dynamo Joe]]''.) He also joined the Moebius theatre group, and held regular meetings and poker parties for the local science fiction community.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}

Foglio initiated his long-running character [[Buck Godot]] for the publication ''Just Imagine'', published by Denny Misinger.<ref name="autobio" /> Basing the humorous science-fiction detective on a real-life friend, John Buckley, Foglio "did a couple of those in the black-and-whites and then Donning said they wanted Buck Godot [[graphic novel]]s", two of which followed.

===Later work===
[[Image:Phil and Kaja Foglio Gen Con 2007.jpg|thumb|left|Phil and [[Kaja Foglio]] at [[Gen Con]] Indy 2007.]]
In the 1990s, Foglio met and married his wife, [[Kaja Foglio|Kaja]]. The two contributed art to the [[collectible card game]] ''[[Magic: The Gathering]]'', from [[Wizards of the Coast]], and resurrected the comic strip ''[[What's New with Phil & Dixie|What's New?]]'' for that company's ''[[Duelist]]'' magazine. During this decade, Foglio co-founded [[Palliard Press]] and published additional comics, including a new Buck Godot series and the whimsical [[erotic]] series ''[[XXXenophile]]''. The Foglios later founded Studio Foglio and began to produce the retro-fantasy series ''[[Girl Genius]]''.

In April 2005, the Foglios abandoned publishing periodical-style comic books and began publishing ''Girl Genius'' online as a free [[webcomic]], updated three times a week.<ref name="comixtalk">[http://comixtalk.com/node/2357 ComixTalk.com: "Foglio's ''Girl Genius'' Goes Online" (April 19, 2005)]</ref> Foglio told an interviewer that as of November 2005, "[W]e've quadrupled our number of readers, and tripled our sales" of traditional comics and related merchandise.<ref>[http://comixtalk.com/comixpedias_list_of_25_people_in_webcomics_for_2005?page=0%252C4 ComixTalk.com: "Comixpedia's List of 25 People Of Webcomics for 2005: #5 - Phil and Kaja Foglio" (December 2005)]</ref>

==Other work==
Phil Foglio has a recurring role as the [[emcee]] of [[Comic-Con International]]'s [[masquerade (competition)|masquerade]] event.

==Awards==
Foglio won two [[Hugo Award]]s for [[Hugo Award for Best Fan Artist|Best Fan Artist]] in 1977 and 1978.

He has been nominated for [[Hugo Award for Best Professional Artist|Best Professional Artist]] in 2008.<ref>http://www.scifi.com/scifiwire/index.php?id=50770</ref>

==Bibliography==
His bibliography includes:

* ''[[What's New with Phil & Dixie]]'' (comic strip) in ''[[Dragon (magazine)|Dragon Magazine]]'' #49-84 (1980s) and ''[[Duelist]]'' (1990s), collected in three comic book volumes (now available online).
* ''[[What's New with Phil & Dixie]]'' (comic strip) in ''[[Dragon (magazine)|Dragon Magazine]]'' #266-311 & 359 (2000s)
* ''[[MythAdventures]]'' series of novels by [[Robert Lynn Asprin]] (illustrations) (Donning/Starblaze editions only):
** ''[[Another Fine Myth]]'' ISBN 978-0-91-544254-6
** ''[[Myth Conceptions]]'' ISBN 978-0-91-544294-2
** ''[[Myth Directions]]'' ISBN 978-0-89-865250-5
** ''[[Hit or Myth]]'' ISBN 978-0-89-865331-1
** ''[[Myth-ing Persons]]'' ISBN 978-0-89-865379-3
** ''[[Little Myth Marker]]'' ISBN 978-0-89-865413-4
** ''[[M.Y.T.H. Inc. Link]]'' ISBN 978-0-89-865472-1
** ''[[Myth-nomers and Im-perv-ections]]'' ISBN 978-0-89-865529-2
** ''[[M.Y.T.H. Inc. in Action]]'' ISBN 978-0-89-865787-6
** ''[[Sweet Myth-tery of Life]]'' ISBN 978-0-89-865859-0
** ''[[Myth-taken Identity]]'' ISBN 978-1-59-222029-8
** ''[[Class Dis-Mythed]]'' ISBN 978-1-59-222092-2
** ''[[Myth-Gotten Gains]]'' ISBN 978-1-59-222105-9
* ''MythAdventures'' Omnibus editions
** ''[[Robert Asprin's Myth Adventures Volume 1]]'' ISBN 978-1-59-222111-0
** ''[[Robert Asprin's Myth Adventures Volume 2]]'' ISBN 978-1-59-222113-4

* ''[[MythFortunes]]'': the MythAdventures board game
* ffantasy ffactory comic book:
** ''D'Arc Tangent'' #1 of a planned 16-issue series (no other issues were ever released). Collaboration with [[Freff]], Lucie Chin, and Melissa Ann Singer.
* [[WaRP Graphics]] comic books:
** ''[[MythAdventures]]!'' #1-8 (1980s) (after #8 Foglio left and the series was continued with other artists)
*** Reprinted as two graphic novels, in color and with additional art
* [[First Comics]] comic books:
** ''[[GrimJack]]'' #15, 23, 40
** ''[[Dynamo Joe]]'' #4-15, Special (script)
* [[DC Comics]] comic books:
** ''[[Angel and the Ape]]'' #1-4 (Feb.-May 1993), miniseries
** ''[[Plastic Man]]'' miniseries (script)
** ''[[Stanley and His Monster]]'' miniseries
* [[Buck Godot]] comic books:
** ''Buck Godot: Zap Gun for Hire'' graphic novel
** ''Buck Godot: Psmith'' graphic novel
** ''Buck Godot: The Gallimaufry'' series #1-8
* Cards from the collectible card game [[Magic: The Gathering]]
* Metal miniatures and covers to the [[board game]] [[Robo Rally]]
* ''[[XXXenophile]]'' comic books #1-10, collected volumes 1-6
* ''[[Girl Genius]]'' comic book series #1-(ongoing)
* Illustrations for several games by [[Spiderweb Software]]
* Novel ''[[Illegal Aliens (novel)|Illegal Aliens]]'' with [[Nick Pollotta]]
* ''That Darn Squid God!'', Fantasy/Humor novel, as James Clay with [[Nick Pollotta]]
* Cover of ''[[Bureau 13: Stalking the Night Fantastic]]'' by [[Tri Tac Games]]
* Co-author of ''[[Dealer's Choice: The Complete Handbook of Saturday Night Poker]]'', with [[James Ernest]] and [[Mike Selinker]]
* Illustrated [[GURPS Illuminati University]] (aka GURPS IOU) with [[Kaja Foglio]]. The dark to humorous [[Illuminati]] University setting for [[Steve Jackson Games]] [[GURPS]] [[Role-playing game|Role Playing Game]] system.
* Illustrated cards for [[SPANC]], Fade Manley's game published by [[Steve Jackson Games]]
* Illustrated CD album cover for [[Beatnik Turtle|Beatnik Turtle's]] ''[[Beatnik Turtle#The Cheapass Album|The Cheapass Album]]'' for [[James Ernest]]'s [[Cheapass Games]]
* Illustrated the "Rawk! Nice Chest!" card in [[Munchkin_(card_game)|Munchkin]] Booty

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* [http://www.studiofoglio.com/ Airship Entertainment] (official site)
* [http://www.thugdome.com/slagblah_gallimaufry.html The Phil Foglio Gallimaufry] (fan-site checklist)
* [http://ww2.wizards.com/gatherer/index.aspx?term=phil%20foglio&Field_Name=on&Field_Rules=on&Field_Type=on&Field_Artist=on&setfilter=All%20sets&output=Spoiler List of Magic the Gathering cards illustrated by Phil Foglio]

==External links==
*[http://independentpropaganda.com/ip_wp/interview-from-print-to-the-web-with-phil-foglio-of-girl-genius-web-comic/ Independent Propaganda: "INTERVIEW: From Print To The Web with Phil Foglio of GIRL GENIUS Web Comic" (June 18, 2006)]

{{Persondata
| NAME = Foglio, Phil
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = cartoonist, artist
| DATE OF BIRTH = May 1, 1956
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Mount Vernon, New York]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Foglio, Phil}}
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Science fiction fans]]
[[Category:DePaul University alumni]]
[[Category:Comic strip cartoonists]]
[[Category:Comic book publishers (people)]]
[[Category:Game artists]]
[[Category:People from Chicago, Illinois]]
[[Category:People from Seattle, Washington]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning artists]]
[[Category:American webcomic authors]]
[[Category:Studio Foglio| ]]
[[Category:People from New York]]
[[Category:School of the Art Institute of Chicago alumni]]

[[fr:Phil Foglio]]
[[it:Phil Foglio]]
[[nn:Studio Foglio]]

Rice and beans

2008-10-13T20:25:30Z

163.178.17.124: /* See also */

{{mergefrom|Rice and peas|Talk:Rice and peas#Merger proposal|date=September 2008}}{{for|the [[Korean cuisine|Korean]] rice and beans dish|Kongbap}}

[[Image:Rice and beans, Hotel in Itatiaia.jpeg|thumb|300px|right|Rice and brown beans, as served in a [[hotel]] in the southeast [[Brazil]]ian [[countryside]]. The dish may be accompanied by [[meat]], [[bread]], [[egg (food)|egg]]s, [[vegetables]], etc.]]

'''Rice and beans''' (called ''arroz y habas'', ''arroz con habichuelas'', ''arroz con frijoles'' or similar in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''arroz e feijão'' or ''feijão com arroz'', in [[Brazilian Portuguese]], ''diri ak pwa'' in [[Haitian Creole language|Haitian Creole]], etc.) is a very popular [[recipe|dish]] throughout [[Latin America]] and the [[Caribbean]] as well as in communities of [[Latino]] and Caribbean people elsewhere.

Given the basic nature of its ingredients, rice and bean dishes exists in many regions of the world. This article, however, is primarily concerned with [[the Americas]].

==Description==

The dish usually consists of [[white rice]] accompanied by brown, red or black, dry [[bean]]s (typically ''[[Common bean|Phaseolus vulgaris]]'' or ''[[Cowpea|Vigna unguiculata]]'') and [[seasoning|seasoned]] in various ways. Different regions have different preferences. In [[Brazil]], for example, black beans are more popular in [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]], while in most other parts of the country these are mostly only used in [[feijoada]]s. The [[New Orleans]] specialty known as "[[red beans and rice]]" is often accompanied by a side of smoked [[sausage]] or a fried [[pork chop]].

In many areas, rice and beans are often served side by side rather than mixed together. Either way, they may be considered a meal or as a [[side dish]] to accompany a main dish of [[meat]] or [[chicken]]. Meat or other ingredients are sometimes placed atop rice and beans or (less often) mixed into it.<ref>[http://users.aol.com/boriken01/arroz.htm] Puerto Rican White Rice and Kidney Beans </ref>

==Importance==
While simple, the dish is very nutritious. Rice is rich in [[starch]], an excellent source of energy. Rice also has [[iron]], [[vitamin B]] and [[protein]]. Beans are also protein-rich, and contain a good amount of [[iron]] and other necessary minerals, and both offer an important and basic kind of [[protein]]. One authority writes:<blockquote>
Rice and beans are an inseparable pair of [[staple food]]s for millions of Latin Americans, parts of Central America, the Caribbean, and the [[Andes|Andean Mountain]] zone. Whether consumed separately or together, these crops figure importantly in the human diet and in national economies across the entire region, and trends in their production are a matter of immediate relevance to practically all of its inhabitants.<ref>[http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/webciat/impact/Abstracts/ricelati.htm] Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical 2001 </ref>
</blockquote>

Often available even when times are hard, a [[Nicaragua]]n explained life after [[Hurricane Mitch]] by saying:

<blockquote>
For breakfast, we have beans and rice. For lunch, we have rice and beans. For supper, we have rice and beans mixed together.<ref>[http://www.thefigtree.org/april08/bearfruit.html] 'Stories Bear Fruit: Sustenance for the Journey' is the theme for supporters' testimonies at The Fig Tree's 2008 Benefit</ref>
</blockquote>

== Culture==
The dish has been part of culture in the Caribbean and Latin America for over 400 years. The later introduction of beans into local agriculture resulted in the pairing of both as a common, cheap and affordable dish.<ref>[http://www.mediumgrainrice.com/aboutrice/about.asp] What is rice?</ref>

In discussing [[Puerto Rican cuisine]], a food critic wrote:<blockquote>
Rice and beans are sacred [[...]]. They are our "daily bread," our comfort food. When you mess with someone's rice & beans, you mess with their mind. Rice & beans are soul food [...] I ordered ''Arroz con habichuelas'' and when they arrived, I poured the entire bowl of beans over the plate of rice and mixed them thoroughly to absorb the [[gravy]]. I mention mixing because rice & beans are eaten together in the same bite and not, as I saw the uninitiated do, eaten separately in isolated mouthfuls. It's a synergistic dish and makes a deliciously healthy block of complete protein when combined together.
<ref>[http://www.tablespr.com/mojili.asp] ''Tables'' magazine.</ref>
</blockquote>

Today, the term "rice and beans" is used as a [[metonym]] for basic needs of food and phrases such as "the poor can't afford their rice and beans" are frequent. It is also used more generally for anything that is basic, fundamental, or simple in phrases like "just do the rice and beans and you'll succeed". The term is also used to describe any pairing that works together well, such as "they're like rice and beans".<ref>[http://www.goal.com/en/Articolo.aspx?ContenutoId=407670] Scolari On Alves, Rice, Beans, Maniche & Ronaldo</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Cuisine of Puerto Rico]]
*[[Cuban Cuisine]]
*[[Haitian Cuisine]]
*[[List of Brazilian dishes]]
*[[Louisiana Creole cuisine]]
*[[Gallo pinto]], a Nicaraguan/Costa Rican version of rice and beans; although in [[Limón]] the term ''rice and beans'' applies to a different dish
*[[Platillo Moros y Cristianos]], a Cuban version of rice and beans

==Citations==
<references/>

==Other references ==
*Embrapa, ''[http://www.cnpaf.embrapa.br/arroz/historia.htm Origem e História do Arroz]'' and ''[http://www.cnpaf.embrapa.br/feijao/historia.htm Origem e História do Feijão]'' (in Portuguese)
*''[http://www.camaquaalimentos.com.br/arroz_feijao.html Arroz e Feijão: Uma dupla infalível]'', Camaquã Alimentos (in Portuguese)

== External links ==
*[http://www.cnpaf.embrapa.br/english/index.htm Embrapa - Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária] (in English)
*[http://www.beabree.com/2007-05/rochelles-easy-brazilian-black-beans-and-rice-recipe Brazilian Rice and Beans Recipe]

[[Category:Puerto Rican cuisine]]
[[Category:Haitian cuisine]]
[[Category:Brazilian cuisine]]
[[Category:Rice dishes]]
[[Category:Legume dishes]]
[[Category:New Orleans cuisine]]

Sancocho

2008-10-03T21:55:23Z

163.178.17.124:

'''Sancocho''' is a traditional soup (often considered a [[stew]]) in several Spanish and Latin American cuisines. Variations represent popular [[national dishes]] in the [[Canary Islands]] of [[Spain]], [[Colombia]], [[Panama]], [[Argentina]], [[Venezuela]], [[Dominican Republic]] and [[Puerto Rico]]. It usually consists of large pieces of meat and vegetables served in a broth. Similar dishes exist in other countries, such as [[Bouillon (soup)|Bouillon]] in [[Haiti]].

In the [[Canary Islands]] of [[Spain]], the dish is usually made with [[fish]]. The fish is usually cooked whole. It is called ''Sancocho Canario'' and is usually eaten with [[gofio]]. ''Sancocho'' in [[Latin America]], especially the [[Caribbean]], evolved from both [[Puchero Canario]] and Sancocho of the [[Canary Islands]], which were brought with "Canarios" -- [[Canary Islanders]] who emigrated to Latin America.

In the Caribbean, Sancocho is considered a fairly rustic dish. Ingredients usually include chicken, fish, [[plantain]]s, [[yuca]], [[coriander|cilantro]] , [[yam]]s, [[corn]], and [[potato]]es. Sancocho made with chicken is called ''Sancocho de gallina''.

In Colombia, Sancocho is made with almost any kind of meat, along with large pieces of [[plantain]], [[potato]], [[yuca]] and/or other vegetables depending on the region.

In the [[Dominican Republic]], there is a variant called ''Sancocho cruzado'' or ''Sancocho de siete carnes'' which includes [[chicken]], [[beef]] and [[pork]] along with other meats. "Sancocho de siete carnes" means "Seven meat Sancocho," and represents the seven islands of the Canary Islands. In the Dominican republic, [[Longaniza]] (a type of pork sausage) is also used. Sancocho de gallina is common as well, often made for special occasions or on weekends.

In [[Costa Rica]], there is a similar dish, although it is called [[olla carne]] (meat pot).

==Biggest stew==
On [[September 15]], [[2007]], chefs from [[Caracas]], [[Venezuela]] broke the [[Guinness World Record]] for the largest bowl of [[stew]] by serving 15,000 litres of Sancocho, enough to feed 70,000 people. It cooked for 13 hours in a five meter-high pot, prepared by 100 assistants. It used 7,000 kilograms of vegetables and 5,000 kilograms of meat. It broke the old record, held by [[Mexico]] and set in July of 2007.
<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6996104.stm BBC NEWS, Venezuela serves up record stew]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Canarian cuisine]]
[[Category:Dominican Republic cuisine]]
[[Category:Venezuelan cuisine]]
[[Category:Colombian cuisine]]
[[Category:National dishes]]

{{cuisine-stub}}

[[ca:Sancocho]]
[[es:Sancocho]]

List of universities in Costa Rica

2008-10-01T19:35:38Z

163.178.17.124: Categories, and alphabetic order

==Public Universities==

Currently [[Costa Rica]] has four public universities detailed, each assigned to cover specifics areas of knowledge and academic methods. A fifth university known as ''Universidad Técnica'' (UTCR, Technological University) is still being developed. All public universities are members of the [[Consejo Nacional de Rectores]] (CONARE, National University Presidents Council) and are well known to cooperate among themselves in various activities.

*[[Costa Rica Institute of Technology|Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica (ITCR, Costa Rican Institute of Technology)]]: also known as the TEC, is located in Cartago, Costa Rica. It has the mission of: "To contribute to the integral development of the country, by means of the formation of human resources, research and extension; keeping the scientific-technical leadership, the academic excellence and the strict attachment to the ethical, environmental and humanists norms, from a state university perspective of quality and competitiveness at national and international level". The ITCR has a partnership with [[Intel]] which allowed the Institute to upgrade its curricula and place its best students within the company.

*[[University of Costa Rica|Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR, University of Costa Rica)]]: its main campus is located in [[San Pedro, Costa Rica|San Pedro]], in the province of San José. It is the oldest, largest, and most prestigious institution of higher learning in Costa Rica. Approximately 40,000 students attend UCR throughout the year.[http://www.ucr.ac.cr/]

*[[Distance State University|Universidad Estatal a Distancia (UNED, Distance State University)]]: focused on [[distance learning]] it is well known to have its main offices in [[Sabanilla]] and many local branch campuses for classes and exams.

*[[National University of Costa Rica|Universidad Nacional (UNA, National University)]]: this university located in [[Heredia]] has a strong department of life sciences.

==Private Universities==

* UAM (Universidad Americana): Universidad Americana (UAM) offers a wide range of study possibilities, all approved by Conesup. Its main campus is located in Los Yoses, Montes de Oca. Where the Goethe Institut used to be. It was created in 1997 and started officially in 1998 in San José and Cartago simultaneously, after a few months another campus opened in Heredia. [http://www.uamcr.com]

*[[UCIMED]] (Universidad de Ciencias Medicas): Universidad de Ciencias Medicas (UCIMED) is a famous medical school{{Fact|date=April 2007}} located at San Jose,Costa Rica. UCIMED was founded in 1978 and has had a legacy of excellency in the teachings of medicine{{Fact|date=April 2007}}

*[[Universidad EARTH]]: Located in Pocora, Limon. Specialises in Agriculture and the Environment. Approximately 400-500 students. It attracts a whole range of nationalities including American and British interns who often study at the university for a semester to a year. The web page can be located at www.earth.ac.cr

*[[Universidad Hispanoamerica]]: The Universidad Hispanoamerica is private university dedicated to medical studies - specifically driven towards doctors and nurses. The programs, techniques, and facilities are modern - creating driven professionals with internationally recognised bachelor degrees. Based in San Jose, Universidad Hispanoamerica has campuses in several other provinces including Cartago and Heredia. [http://www.uhispanoamericana.ac.cr/home.php]

*[[Universidad Latina]]:The Universidad Latina (abbreviated ULatina) is a private university located in Costa Rica. The university has several campuses around Costa Rica, although the main campus is located in San Pedro, in San José. As most private universities in Costa Rica it has remained solely as a teaching university. It does not have an admission exam and even admits students who have not passed the "Bachillerato" exams (basic education exams high school stuents must aprove in order to graduate).

*[[University for Peace]]: The University for Peace was created in 1980 by the [[United Nations]] “to provide humanity with an international institution of higher education for peace with the aim of promoting among all human beings the spirit of understanding, tolerance and peaceful coexistence, to stimulate cooperation among peoples and to help lessen obstacles and threats to world peace and progress, in keeping with the noble aspirations proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations.” It is the only University in the UN family able to grant degrees and it has eight master's programs related to conflict resolution and peace building. Its main campus is in Ciudad Colon, Costa Rica, about 40 minutes outside of San Jose. [http://www.upeace.org]

{{CostaRica-stub}}
{{CentralAm-university-stub}}

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges|Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Universities in Costa Rica]]

Dominican Republic

2008-09-24T14:55:05Z

163.178.17.124: /* Name */ Who was EVER called USA American Republic?

{{distinguish2|[[Dominica]]}}
{{Infobox Country
|native_name = ''República Dominicana''
|conventional_long_name = Dominican Republic
|common_name = the Dominican Republic
|image_flag = Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of the Dominican Republic.svg
|image_map = LocationDominicanRepublic.svg
|national_motto = ''"Dios, Patria, Libertad"''{{spaces|2}}([[Spanish language|Spanish]]) "God, Homeland, Liberty"
|national_anthem = ''[[Himno Nacional]]''
|official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
|ethnic_groups = 73% [[Multiracial]], 16% [[White people|White]] ([[Spanish people|Spaniards]], [[Italian people|Italians]], [[British people|Britons]], [[French people|French]], others), 11% [[Black people|Black]]
|demonym = Dominican
|capital = [[Santo Domingo de Guzmán]]
|latd=18|latm=30 |latNS=N |longd=69 |longm=59 |longEW=W
|largest_city = capital
|government_type = [[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[List of Presidents of the Dominican Republic|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Leonel Fernández]]
|leader_title2 = [[List of Vice Presidents of the Dominican Republic|Vice President]]
|leader_name2 = [[Rafael Alburquerque]]
|leader_title3 =
|leader_name3 =
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = From [[Haiti]]
|established_event1 = Date
|established_date1 = February 27, 1844
|area_rank = 130th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area_km2 = 48730
|area_sq_mi = 
|percent_water = 1.6
|population_estimate = 9,904,000
|population_estimate_rank = 82nd
|population_estimate_year = 2008
|population_census = 9,365,818
|population_census_year = 2000
|population_density_km2 = 201
|population_density_sq_mi = 523 
|population_density_rank = 38th
|GDP_PPP = $61,792 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 76nd
|GDP_PPP_year = 2007
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $7,041
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 89th
|Gini = 51.7
|Gini_year = 2003
|Gini_category = high
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.779
|HDI_rank = 79th
|HDI_year = 2005
|HDI_category = medium
|currency = [[Dominican peso|Peso]]
|currency_code = DOP
|country_code =
|time_zone = Atlantic
|utc_offset = -4
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.do]]
|calling_code = 1
|calling_code_note = spec. [[Area code 809|1-809]] and +[[Area code 829|1-829]]
}}

The '''Dominican Republic''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República Dominicana'', {{IPA-es|re̞ˈpuβ̞lika ð̞o̞miniˈkana}}) is a nation located in the [[Caribbean]] region and shares the island of [[Hispaniola]] with Haiti. Part of the [[Greater Antilles]] archipelago, Hispaniola lies west of [[Puerto Rico]] and east of [[Cuba]] and [[Jamaica]].<ref name="CIADemo">{{cite web
| title = CIA- The World Factbook – Dominican Republic
| publisher = [[CIA]]
| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/dr.html
| accessdate = 2007-06-04 }}</ref> Its western third is the nation of [[Haiti]], making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are [[List of divided islands|occupied by two countries]], [[Saint Martin]] being the other. The demonym or adjective of the country is "Dominican", which is the exact same as that of [[Dominica]].

The Dominican Republic is the site of the first permanent [[European colonization of the Americas|European settlement]] in the [[Americas]]; its capital [[Santo Domingo]] was also the first colonial capital in the Americas.<ref name="ramos">{{cite web
| last = Ramos
| first = Ruth
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Esther Ramos
| title = Dominican Republic History
| work =
| publisher = Visiting the Dominican Republic.com
| year= 2005
| url = http://www.visiting-the-dominican-republic.com/dominican_republic_history.html
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-05-29 }}</ref> It is the site of the first cathedral,<ref name=Columbia>{{cite web
| title = Santo Domingo, city, Dominican Republic
| work = The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition
| publisher = Bartleby.com
| year= 2005
| url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/sn/SntoDom-city.html
| accessdate = 2007-06-03 }}</ref> [[Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo|university]], European-built road, European-built fortress, and more.

For most of its independent history, the nation experienced political turmoil and unrest, suffering through many non-representative and tyrannical governments. Since the death of military dictator [[Rafael Trujillo|Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina]] in 1961, the Dominican Republic has moved toward a liberal economic model which has made it the largest economy in the region and a [[representative democracy]].

== History ==
{{main|History of the Dominican Republic|Colony of Santo Domingo}}

=== The Taínos ===
Hispaniola was inhabited by the [[Taíno]]s, an [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan-speaking]] people who may have arrived around A.D. 600, displacing earlier inhabitants.<ref name=kacike/> The Taínos called the island ''Kiskeya'' or ''Quisqueya'', meaning "highest land", as well as Haití or ''Aytí'', and ''Bohio''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indio.net/taino/main/language/Tisland.htm |title=Taino Name for the Islands |accessdate=2008-06-19}}</ref> They engaged in farming and fishing,<ref name="Encarta">{{cite web |url= http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563569_7/Dominican_Republic.html#s31 |title= Dominican Republic |accessdate= 2007-06-06 |work= Encarta Encyclopedia |publisher= Microsoft Corporation }}</ref> and hunting and gathering.<ref name=kacike/> There are widely varying estimates of the population of Hispaniola in 1492, including one hundred thousand,<ref name=transat>{{cite book|last=Rawley|first=James A.|coauthors=Behrendt, Stephen D.|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2005|pages=49|isbn=0803239610|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Sn5pK8rbR5MC&pg=PA49&lpg=PA49&dq=sugar+plantation+hispaniola&source=web&ots=T7KRe0jwdT&sig=X2RriGI4nqDC6djF5uwfpuZNpL0&output=html}}</ref> three hundred thousand,<ref name=kacike>{{cite web |url=http://www.kacike.org/CalderonEspanol.html |title=ADN Mitocondrial Taino en la República Dominicana |accessdate=2008-06-19}}</ref> and 400,000 to 2 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/ant/KEEGAN08.ANT |title=Death Toll |last=Keegan |first=William |accessdate=2008=06-19 |publisher=[[Millersville University]], from [[Archaeology (magazine)|Archaeology]] (January/February 1992, p. 55)}}</ref> By 1492 Hispaniola was divided into five chiefdoms.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yale.edu/dsa/history.htm |title=Dominican Students At Yale - Home |accessdate=2008-06-19 |publisher=[[Yale University]]; Dominican Student Association}}</ref>
Within a few short years following the arrival of European explorers the population of Tainos had declined due to a change in their lifestyle, the introduction of diseases such as smallpox, and enslavement. In the mid-1700's in "''The Globe encyclopaedia of universal information''" it accounted for 21,000 pure indigenous natives that still lived in the Dominican Republic.<ref>http://www.centrelink.org/EstevezCronos.html</ref> The last record of pure [[Taino]] natives in the country was from a 1864 account by a [[Spaniard]] soldier who wrote of Tainos shooting their soldiers and fleeing, during the restoration period. Their cave paintings can still be seen in a variety of caves around the country.<ref>http://www.centrelink.org/EstevezCronos.html</ref>

===Spanish rule===
[[Christopher Columbus]] landed at [[Môle Saint-Nicolas]], in northwest present-day [[Haiti]], on December 5, 1492, during his first voyage. He claimed the island for Spain and named it ''La Española''. Nineteen days later his flagship the [[Santa María (ship)|''Santa Maria'']] ran aground near the present site of [[Cap-Haitien]]. Columbus was forced to leave 39 men, who founded the settlement of [[La Navidad]]. He then moved east, exploring the northern coast of what is now the Dominican Republic, after which he returned to spain. He sailed back to America three more times.

After initially friendly relations, the Taínos resisted the conquest. One of the earliest leaders to fight against the Spanish was the female Chief [[Anacaona]] of Xaragua, in the southwest, who married Chief Caonabo of Maguana in the center and south of the island. She was captured by the Spanish and executed in front of her people. Other notables who resisted include Chief [[Guacanagari]], Chief [[Guamá]], and Chief [[Hatuey]], who later fled to Cuba and helped fight the Spaniards there. Chief [[Enriquillo]] fought victoriously against the Spaniards in the [[Baoruco Mountain Range]], in the southwest, to gain freedom for himself and his people in a part of the island for a time.

By the late-1500s, the majority of Taíno people had died from the introduction of infectious diseases to which they had no immunity, mistreatment, suicide, the breakup of family unity, starvation,<ref name=kacike/> forced labor, torture, and war with the Spaniards. Most scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, [[infectious disease]] was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the indigenous people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html |title=The Story Of... Smallpox—and other Deadly Eurasian Germs |accessdate=2008-06-19}}</ref> The Taíno survived mostly in racially mixed form, and today most [[Demographics of the Dominican Republic|Dominicans]] have Taíno ancestry.<ref name=Guitar>{{cite web |url=http://www.kacike.org/GuitarEnglish.html |title=Documenting the Myth of Taíno Extinction |accessdate=2008-06-19 |last=Guitar |first= Lynne |year=2002 |publisher=KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology [On-line Journal], Special Issue, Lynne Guitar, Ed.}}</ref><ref name=Martinez>{{cite web |url=http://www.kacike.org/MartinezEnglish.html |title=The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean: Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic |accessdate=2008-06-19 |last=Martínez Cruzado |first=Juan C. |year=2002 |publisher=KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology [On-line Journal], Special Issue, Lynne Guitar, Ed}}</ref>

Some scholars believe that [[Bartolomé de las Casas]] exaggerated<ref>{{cite book|title=A People's History of the United States 1492 - Present|last=Zinn|first=Howard|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2003|isbn=0060528427|pages=7}}</ref> the Indian population decline in an effort to persuade [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|King Carlos]] to intervene, and that [[Encomienda|encomenderos]] also exaggerated it, in order to receive permission to import more African slaves. Moreover, censuses of the time did not account for the number of Indians who fled into remote communities,<ref name=Guitar/> where they often joined with runaway Africans, called [[Maroon (people)|''cimarrones'']], producing [[zambo]]s. There were also confusing issues with racial categorization, as Mestizos who were culturally Spanish were counted as Spaniards. In addition some Zambos were caterogized as black and some Indians as [[Mulattos]]<ref name=Guitar/>

In 1496 [[Bartolomeo Columbus]], Christopher's brother, built the city of Nueva Isabela (New Isabella), now [[Santo Domingo]], in the south of Hispaniola. It was one of the first [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish settlements]], and became Europe's first permanent settlement in the "[[New World]]".

The Spaniards created a plantation economy on Hispaniola, particularly from the second half of the 16th century.<ref name=transat/> The island became a springboard for European conquest of the Caribbean islands, called [[Antilles]], and soon after, the [[Americas|American]] mainland.

For decades, Santo Domingo colony was the headquarters of Spanish colonial power in the New World. With the Spanish conquest of the mainland empires of the [[Aztec]]s and [[Inca Empire|Inca]]s, the importance of Hispaniola declined and Spain paid less attention to it. French [[bucaneer]]s settled in the western part of the island. By the 1697 [[Treaty of Ryswick]], Spain ceded that part of Hispaniola to France. With colonial settlement and the development of a plantation economy dependent on slave labor, it grew into the wealthy colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), with four times (500,000 vs. 125,000) greater population as Spanish Santo Domingo by the end of the 18th century. Enslaved Africans outnumbered whites by ten to one. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/3.htm |title=U.S. Library of Congress Dominican Republic - THE FIRST COLONY |accessdate=2008-06-19 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref>

===French rule===
France came to own the whole island in 1795, when by the [[Peace of Basel|Treaty of Basel]] Spain ceded Santo Domingo as a consequence of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]. At the time, slaves led by [[Toussaint Louverture]] in the western part (Haiti) were in revolt against France. In 1801 [[Toussaint Louverture]] captured Santo Domingo from the French and took control of the entire island.

In 1802 an army sent by [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] captured [[Toussaint Louverture]] and sent him to France as prisoner. [[Toussaint Louverture]]'s successors, and yellow fever, succeeded in expelling the French again from Saint-Domingue. The nation declared independence as [[Haiti]] in 1804.

France went on to recover Spanish Santo Domingo. In 1808, following [[Peninsular War|Napoleon's invasion of Spain]], the [[Criollo (people)|''criollos'']] of Santo Domingo revolted against French rule. With the aid of [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] (Spain's ally) and [[Haiti]], <ref>[http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/4.htm Library of Congress Country Studies; Dominican Republic - HAITI AND SANTO DOMINGO]</ref> Santo Domingo was returned to Spanish control.<ref name=Britannica>{{cite web
|url= http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117380/Dominican-Republic
|title= Dominican Republic
|accessdate= 2007-06-20
|work= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
|publisher= [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]}}</ref>

===Ephemeral independence and Haitian rule===
After a dozen years of Spanish rule and failed independence plots by various groups, former Spanish Lieutenant-Governor [[José Núñez de Cáceres]] declared the colony's independence as the state of [[Haití Español]] (Spanish Haiti) on November 30, 1821. He requested admission to [[Simón Bolívar]]'s nation of [[Gran Colombia]]. But the new nation's independence was short-lived. Haitian forces, led by [[Jean-Pierre Boyer]], invaded just nine weeks later in February 1822.<ref name="guitar">{{cite web
| last = Guitar
| first = Lynne
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = History of the Dominican Republic
| work =
| publisher = Hispaniola.com
| date =
| url = http://www.hispaniola.com/dominican_republic/info/history.php
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-05-29 }}</ref>

As Toussaint Louverture had done the first time, the Haitians abolished slavery. But they nationalized all public property; most private property, including all the property of landowners who had left in the wake of the invasion; much [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]] property; as well as all property belonging to the former rulers, the [[Spanish monarchy|Spanish Crown]]. All levels of education suffered collapse; the university was shut down, as it was starved of resources and all Dominican men from 16 to 25-years-old were drafted into the Haitian army. Haiti imposed a "heavy tribute" on the Dominican people.<ref name=Matibag>{{cite book |last=Matibag |first=Eugenio |title=Haitian-Dominican Counterpoint: Nation, State, and Race on Hispaniola |year=2003 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0312294328}}</ref> Many whites fled Santo Domingo for [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Cuba]] — both still under Spanish rule, [[Venezuela]], and elsewhere.

Boyer changed the Dominican economic system to place more emphasis on [[cash crop]]s to be grown on large plantations, reformed the [[Taxation|tax system]], and allowed [[foreign trade]]. But the new system was widely opposed by Dominican farmers, although it produced a boom in sugar and coffee production. Boyer's troops, which included many Dominicans, were unpaid, and had to "forage and sack" from Dominican civilians. In the end the economy faltered and taxation became more onerous. Rebellions occurred even by freed Dominican slaves, while Dominicans and Haitians worked together to oust Boyer from power. Anti–Haitian movements of several kinds — pro–independence, pro–Spanish, pro–French, pro–British, pro–United States — gathered force following the overthrow of Boyer in 1843.<ref name=Matibag/>

===Independence===
In 1838 [[Juan Pablo Duarte]] founded a secret society called [[La Trinitaria]] that sought pure and simple independence of Santo Domingo without any foreign intervention.<ref name="pons">{{cite book
| last = Moya Pons
| first = Frank
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = The Dominican Republic, A National History
| publisher =
| date =
| location =
| pages = 147-149
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}</ref> [[Matías Ramón Mella]] and [[Francisco del Rosario Sánchez]] (the latter of partly African ancestry),<ref name="27febrero">http://www.27febrero.com/duarte.htm Francisco del Rosario Sánchez</ref> despite not being among the founding members of Trinitaria, were decisive in the fight for independence. They are now hailed, together with Duarte, as the Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic. On February 27, 1844, the ''Trinitarios'', as the members of La Trinitaria were known, declared independence from Haiti. They were backed by [[Pedro Santana]], a wealthy cattle-rancher from [[El Seibo]] who became general of the army of the nascent Republic and is known as "El Liberador". The Dominican Republic's first Constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844, and was modeled after the [[United States Constitution]].<ref name=Encarta />

The decades that followed were filled with tyranny, factionalism, economic difficulties, rapid changes of government, and exile for political opponents. Threatening the nation's independence were renewed Haitian invasions occurring in 1844, 1845-49, 1849-55, and 1855-56.<ref name=Matibag/>

Meanwhile, archrivals Santana and [[Buenaventura Báez]] held power most of the time, both ruling arbitrarily. They promoted competing plans to annex the new nation to another power: Santana favored Spain, and Báez the United States.

===The voluntary colony and the Restoration republic===
[[Image:GregorioLuperon.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Gregorio Luperón|General Gregorio Luperón]], Restoration Hero.]]
In 1861, after silencing or exiling many of his opponents and due to political and economic reasons, Santana signed a pact with the Spanish Crown and reverted the Dominican nation to colonial status,<ref name=Sagas>{{cite web
| last = Sagas
| first = Ernesto
| title = An Apparent Contradiction? - Popular Perceptions of Haiti and the Foreign Policy of the Dominican Republic
| work = Sixth Annual Conference of the Haitian Studies Association, Boston, MA
| publisher = [[Webster University]]
| date= October 14-15, 1994
| url = http://www.websterfl.edu/~corbetre/haiti//misctopic/dominican/conception.htm
| accessdate = 2007-06-06 }}</ref> the only Latin American country to do so. Opponents launched the [[Dominican Restoration War|War of the Restoration]] in 1863, led by a group of men including [[Santiago Rodríguez]] and [[Benito Monción]] among others. General [[Gregorio Luperón]] distinguished himself at the end of the war. Haitian authorities, fearful of the re-establishment of Spain as colonial power on their border, gave refuge and supplies to Dominican revolutionaries to re-establish independence.<ref name=Sagas /> The United States, then fighting its own [[American Civil War|Civil War]], vigorously protested the Spanish action. After two years of fighting, the Spanish troops abandoned the island.<ref name="Sagas" /> The Restoration was proclaimed on August 16, 1863.

Political strife again prevailed in the years that followed; warlords ruled, military revolts were extremely common, and the nation amassed debt. In 1869 it was the turn of Báez to act on his plan of annexing the country to the United States,<ref name="guitar" /> with a payment of 1.5 million dollars by the U.S. as part of the deal, in order to alleviate the Dominican Republic's debts.<ref>http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Treaties.htm#5 U.S. Senate: Art & History Home > Origins & Development > Powers & Procedures > Treaties]</ref><ref name=Encarta/> U.S. President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] supported this plan, but the United States Senate refused on June 30, 1870,<ref name="guitar"/> albeit by just one vote. One reason why President Grant supported the annexation was that he thought the former colony could provide a destination for freedmen to allow them to live in peace, free of harassment by Southern whites.<ref name=PBS>{{cite web
| title = Ulysses S. Grant
| work = American Experience
| publisher = [[Public Broadcasting Service]]
| year= 2006
| url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/grant/peopleevents/p_sumner.html
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-06-06 }}</ref>

[[Image:Heureaux2.gif|thumb|right|[[Ulises Heureaux|Ulises 'Lilís' Heureaux]], [[President of the Dominican Republic]] 1882-84, 1886-99]]

Báez was toppled in 1874, returned, and was toppled for good in 1878. A new generation was then entirely in charge, with the passing of Santana (he died in 1864) and Báez from the scene. Relative peace came to the country in the 1880s,<ref>http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/8.htm Dominican Republic - ULISES HEUREAUX, 1882-99]</ref> which saw the coming to power of [[Ulises Heureaux|General Ulises Heureaux]].

The new president was initially popular.<ref name=countrystudies>{{cite web|title=Dominican Republic - ULISES HEUREAUX, 1882-99|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/8.htm|accessdate=2007-12-23}}</ref> He was, however, "a consummate dissembler", who put the nation deep into debt while using much of the proceeds for his personal use and to maintain his police state.<ref name=countrystudies/> Heureaux's rule became more despotic with time and he all the more unpopular.<ref>{{cite book|last=Langley|first=Lester D.|title=The Banana Wars|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=0842050477|pages=p. 20|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Xc1RBfZd3pcC&pg=PA20&lpg=PA20&dq=despotic+heureaux+dominican&source=web&ots=5ssCqIoUR8&sig=vsKIQvRbM5LoZMdVv-og8Xw_9rs&output=html}}</ref><ref name=countrystudies/> In 1899 he was assassinated. However, the unprecentedly long calm over which he had presided allowed for some improvement in the Dominican economy. The sugar industry was modernized,<ref>Hall, Michael R.; ''Sugar and Power in the Dominican Republic''; Greenwood Press; 2000; ISBN 0313311277; p. 10</ref> and the country attracted foreign workers and immigrants, both from the [[Old World]] and the [[New World|New]].

From 1902 on, short-lived governments were again the norm and provincial leaders held much of the power. Furthermore, the national government was bankrupt and, unable to pay its debts, faced the threat of military intervention by France and other European powers' seeking repayment.

===U.S. intervention===
U.S. President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] sought to prevent European intervention, in part to protect the vicinity of the [[Panama Canal]], which was then under construction.<ref name=countrystudies/> He made a small military intervention to ward off the European powers, and proclaimed his famous [[Roosevelt Corollary]] to the [[Monroe Doctrine]]. In 1906 the Dominican Republic and the United States entered into a 50-year treaty giving control of customs administration to the United States.<ref name=Encarta /> In exchange, the United States agreed to use the customs proceeds to help reduce the immense foreign debt of the Dominican Republic,<ref name=Encarta /> and assumed responsibility for said debt.<ref name=countrystudies/>

In 1914, the United States, due to extreme internal political instability in the Dominican Republic (inability to elect a president), expressed concern. It stated that a leader must be elected, or the United States would impose one.<ref name="congress">{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Dominican Republic: Occupation by the United States, 1916-1924
| work =
| publisher = U.S. Library of Congress
| date =
| url = http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/10.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-05-29 }}</ref> As a result, [[Ramón Báez Machado]] was elected provisional president on August 27, 1914.<ref name="congress"/> Presidential elections held on October 25 returned [[Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra]] to the presidency. Despite his victory, however, Jimenes felt impelled to appoint leaders and prominent members of the various political factions to positions in his government in an effort to broaden its support. The internecine conflicts that resulted had quite the opposite effect, weakening the government and the President and emboldening Secretary of War [[Desiderio Arias]] to take control of both the armed forces and the [[Congress of the Dominican Republic|Congress]]. Arias compelled the Congress to impeach Jimenes for violation of the constitution and the laws. Although the United States ambassador offered military support to his government, Jimenes opted to step down on May 7, 1916.

Arias never assumed the presidency formally. The United States government decided to take more direct action. By this time, U.S. forces were occupying Haiti. The initial military administrator of Haiti, Rear Admiral [[William Caperton]], had actually forced Arias to retreat from Santo Domingo by threatening the city with naval bombardment on May 13, 1916.

===U.S. occupation===
[[Image:Ocupacion-1916.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The 1916 occupation by U.S. Marines]]
The first [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]] landed three days later, on May 19, 1916. Although they established effective control of the country within two months, the United States forces did not proclaim a [[United States occupation of the Dominican Republic|military government]] until November. Most Dominican laws and institutions remained intact under military rule, although the shortage of Dominicans willing to serve in the Cabinet forced the military governor, [[Harry Shepard Knapp]], to fill a number of portfolios with United States [[United States Navy|naval]] officers. The press and radio were censored for most of the occupation, and public speech was limited.

Other effects of the occupation were positive. The Marines restored order throughout most of the republic (with the exception of the eastern region); the country's budget was balanced, its debt was diminished, and economic growth resumed. Infrastructure projects produced new roads that linked all the country's regions for the first time in its history. A professional military organization, the Dominican Constabulary Guard, replaced the partisan forces that had waged a seemingly endless struggle for power. Most Dominicans, however, greatly resented the loss of their sovereignty to foreigners, few of whom spoke Spanish or displayed much real concern for the welfare of the republic.

The most intense opposition to the occupation arose in the eastern provinces of [[El Seibo Province|El Seibo]] and [[San Pedro de Macorís]]. From 1917 to 1921, the United States forces battled a guerrilla movement in that area known as the ''gavilleros''. The guerrillas enjoyed considerable support among the population, and they benefited from a superior knowledge of the terrain. The movement survived the capture and the execution of its leader, [[Vicente Evangelista]], and some initially fierce encounters with the Marines. However, the gavilleros finally yielded to the occupying forces' superior firepower, air power (a squadron of six [[Curtiss JN-4|Curtis Jennies]]), and determined (often brutal) [[counter-insurgency]] methods.

After [[World War I]], public opinion in the United States began to run against the occupation. U.S. President [[Warren G. Harding]], who succeeded [[Woodrow Wilson]] in March 1921, had campaigned against the occupations of both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. In June 1921, United States representatives presented a withdrawal proposal, known as the Harding Plan, which called for Dominican ratification of all acts of the military government, approval of a loan of US$2.5 million for public works and other expenses, the acceptance of United States officers for the constabulary — now known as the Guardia Nacional (National Guard) — and the holding of elections under United States supervision.

Popular reaction to the plan was overwhelmingly negative. Moderate Dominican leaders, however, used the plan as the basis for further negotiations that resulted in an agreement allowing for the selection of a provisional president to rule until elections could be organized. Under the supervision of High Commissioner [[Sumner Welles]], [[Juan Bautista Vicini Burgos]] assumed the provisional presidency on October 21, 1922.

In the presidential election of March 15, 1924, former President [[Horacio Vásquez|Horacio Vásquez Lajara]] handily defeated [[Francisco J. Peynado]]. Vásquez's Alliance Party (Partido Alianza) also won a comfortable majority in both houses of Congress. With his inauguration on July 13, control of the republic returned to Dominican hands. He gave the country six years of good government, in which political and civil rights were respected and the economy grew strongly, in an atmosphere of peace.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/11.htm U.S. Library of Congress; Dominican Republic - THE ERA OF TRUJILLO]</ref>

===Trujillo era===
[[Image:Rafael Leonidas Trujillo.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Rafael Trujillo]]

The Dominican Republic was ruled by dictator [[Rafael Trujillo|Rafael Leonidas Trujillo]] from 1930 until his assassination in 1961. [[Rafael Trujillo|Trujillo]] ruled with an iron fist, persecuting anyone who opposed his regime. There was considerable economic growth during his rule, although a great deal of the wealth was taken by the dictator and other regime elements. He renamed many towns and provinces after himself and members of his family, including the capital city [[Santo Domingo]], renamed Ciudad Trujillo (Trujillo City).

In 1937 [[Rafael Trujillo|Trujillo]] (who was himself one-quarter Haitian),<ref name="killer">{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Rafael Trujillo: Killer File
| work =
| publisher = Moreorless.com
| date =
| url = http://www.moreorless.au.com/killers/trujillo.html
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-05-29 }}</ref> in an event known as the [[Parsley Massacre]] or in the Dominican Republic as El Corte (The Cutting),<ref name="Wucker">{{cite web
| last = Wucker
| first = Michele
| title = Why the Cocks Fight: Dominicans, Haitians and the Struggle for Hispaniola
| work = Windows on Haiti
| url = http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/wucker.html
| accessdate = 2007-12-26 }}</ref> ordered the Army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border. The Army killed an estimated 17,000 to 35,000 Haitians over five days, from the night of October 2, 1937 through October 8, 1937. They cut down Haitians with machetes.<ref name="killer"/><ref name="guitar"/> The soldiers of Trujillo were said to interrogate anyone with dark skin, using the pronunciation of ''perejil'' ([[parsley]]) to tell Haitians from Dominicans.<ref name="Wucker"/> Critics alleged the massacre was an attempt to seize money and property from Haitians living on the border.<ref>http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti-archive/msg00235.html #219: Temwayaj Kout Kouto, 1937: Eyewitnesses to the Genocide (fwd)]</ref> As a result of the massacre, the Dominican Republic agreed to pay Haiti US $750,000, later reduced to $525,000.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/11.htm Dominican Republic - THE ERA OF TRUJILLO]</ref><ref name="Sagas" /> On November 25, 1960 Trujillo killed 3/4 [[Mirabal sisters]], called the Butterflies (Las Mariposas). Patricia Mercedes Mirabal (February 27, 1924- November 25, 1960) Argentina Minerva Mirabal (March 12, 1926 – November 25, 1960) and Antonia María Teresa Mirabal (October 15, 1935 – November 25, 1960) Minerva was an aspiring lawyer and was extremely against Trujillo's dictatorship since Trujillo began to make rude and sexual advances towards her. Since their death, they have received many honors posthumously. They have many memorials in various cities in the Dominican Republic and Salcedo, a province in the Dominican Republic and home to the Mirabal sisters, changed its name to the [[Hermanas Mirabal Province]].

For a long time, the US supported the Trujillo government, as did<ref>http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,826562,00.html Time Magazine; September 5, 1960; Retrieved December 26, 2007</ref> the Catholic Church, and the Dominican elite. This support persisted despite the assassinations of political opposition and the massacre of border Haitians. The US believed Trujillo was the lesser of two or more evils.<ref name="Wucker"/> Trujillo was assassinated on May 30, 1961 in Santo Domingo.

===Post-Trujillo===
A democratically elected government under leftist [[Juan Bosch]] took office in 1963, but was overthrown later in the year. After nineteen months of military rule, a pro-Bosch revolt took place in 1965. US Marines arrived in the Dominican Republic to restore order in [[Operation Powerpack]], later to be joined by forces from the [[Organization of American States]].<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/13.htm U.S. Library of Congress; Dominican Republic - Civil War and United States Intervention, 1965]</ref> They remained in the country for over a year and left after supervising elections won by [[Joaquín Balaguer]], who had been Trujillo's last puppet president.

Balaguer remained in power as president for 12 years. His tenure was a period of repression of civil liberties, presumably to prevent pro-Cuba or pro-[[communist]] parties from gaining power in the country. His rule was criticized for a growing disparity between rich and poor. It was praised for an ambitious infrastructure program, which included construction of housing, theaters, museums, aqueducts, roads, highways and the massive [[Columbus' Lighthouse]], completed in a subsequent tenure in 1992.

===1978 to present===
In 1978, Balaguer was succeeded in the presidency by opposition candidate [[Antonio Guzmán Fernández]], of the [[Dominican Revolutionary Party]] (PRD). From 1978 to 1986, the Dominican Republic experienced a period of relative freedom and basic human rights. Balaguer regained the presidency in 1986, and was re-elected in 1990 and 1994, defeating PRD candidate [[José Francisco Peña Gómez]], a former mayor of Santo Domingo. Both the national and international communities generally viewed these elections as a major fraud, leading to political pressure for Balaguer to step down.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Balaguer responded by scheduling another presidential contest in 1996, which was won by Bosch's [[Dominican Liberation Party]] for the first time, with [[Leonel Fernández]] as its candidate.

In 2000 [[Hipólito Mejía]] won the election when opposing candidates [[Danilo Medina]] and a very old [[Joaquín Balaguer]] decided not to force a runoff after Mejía got 49.8% of the votes. In 2004 Leonel Fernández was elected again, with 57% of the votes, defeating then-incumbent president Mejía.

In 2008, President [[Leonel Fernández]] was reelected with 53.83% of the vote against Miguel Vargas Maldonado of the [[Dominican Revolutionary Party]] (PRD), a former minister under [[Hipólito Mejía]]'s government, who achieved a 40.48%. Amable Aristy of [[Joaquin Balaguer]]'s once prosperous [[Social Christian Reformist Party]] (Partido Reformista Social Cristiano) achieved a mere 4.59% of the vote. Other minority candidates, which include former Attorney General [[Guillermo Moreno]] from the [[Movement for Independence, Unity and Change]] (Movimiento Independencia, Unidad y Cambio aka MIUCA) and [[Social Christian Reformist Party]] (Partido Reformista Social Cristiano) former presidential candidate and defector [[Eduardo Estrella]], obtained less than 1% of the vote.

==Government and politics==
[[Image:Palacio Nacional-Republica Dominicana.jpg|thumb|240px|Palacio Nacional in Santo Domingo.]]
{{main|Government of the Dominican Republic}}
The Dominican Republic is a [[representative democracy]], with national powers divided among independent [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[Legislature|legislative]], and [[Judiciary|judicial branches]]. The [[President of the Dominican Republic]] appoints the cabinet, executes laws passed by the [[Congress of the Dominican Republic|legislative branch]], and is commander in chief of the [[Military of the Dominican Republic|armed forces]]. The president and vice president run for office on the same ticket and are elected by direct vote for 4-year terms. Legislative power is exercised by a bicameral Congress composed of the [[Senate of the Dominican Republic|Senate]] (with 32 members) and the [[Chamber of Deputies of the Dominican Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] (with 178 members).

The Dominican Republic has a multi-party political system with [[Elections in the Dominican Republic|national elections]] every 2 years (alternating between presidential elections and congressional/municipal elections). Presidential elections are held in years evenly divisible by four. Congressional and municipal elections are held in even numbered years not divisible by four. International observers have found that presidential and congressional elections since 1996 have been generally free and fair. Elections are supervised by a Central Elections Board (JCE) of 9 members chosen for a four-year term by the newly elected Senate. JCE decisions on electoral matters are final.

Under the constitutional reforms negotiated after the 1994 elections, the 16-member [[Government of the Dominican Republic#Judicial branch|Supreme Court of Justice]] is appointed by a National Judicial Council, which comprises the President, the leaders of both houses of Congress, the President of the Supreme Court, and an opposition or non-governing-party member. One other Supreme Court Justice acts as secretary of the Council, a non-voting position. The Supreme Court has sole authority over managing the court system and in hearing actions against the president, designated members of his cabinet, and members of Congress when the legislature is in session.

The Supreme Court hears appeals from lower courts and chooses members of lower courts. Each of the 31 provinces is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Mayors and municipal councils to administer the 124 municipal districts and the National District (Santo Domingo) are elected at the same time as congressional representatives.<ref>[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35639.htm Dominican Republic (11/07)]</ref>

===Politics===
The Dominican Republic holds elections every four years at the congressional levels as well as every four years at the presidential levels. The country becomes highly politicized, as millions of dollars are spent in propaganda and campaigning. The political system is characterized by [[clientelism]], which has corrupted the system throughout the years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saxakali.com/caribbean/elangston.htm |title=Crisis in Dominican Republic}}</ref>

There are [[List of political parties in the Dominican Republic|many political parties]] and [[interest group]]s and, new in this scenario, [[Non-governmental organization|civil organizations]]. The three major parties are the [[Conservatism|conservative]] [[Social Christian Reformist Party]] (Spanish: Partido Reformista Social Cristiano [PRSC]), in power 1966–78 and 1986–96; the [[Social democracy|social democratic]] [[Dominican Revolutionary Party]] (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Dominicano [PRD]), in power in 1963, 1978–86, and 2000–04); and the increasingly conservative [[Dominican Liberation Party]] (Spanish: Partido de la Liberación Dominicana [PLD]), in power 1996–2000 and since 2004.

The [[Dominican Republic presidential election, 2008|presidential elections of 2008]] were held on May 16, 2008, with incumbent Leonel Fernandez winning with 53% of the vote.<ref>{{cite news |title=Election propels Dominican president to third term |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/16/AR2008051603346.html?hpid=sec-world |first=Tom |last=Brown |work=[[Washington Post]] |date=2008-05-17 |accessdate=2008-05-20}}</ref> This would be Fernández's third, and his second consecutive, term. Fernández and the PLD are credited with a number of initiatives that have moved the country forward technologically, with the completion in 2008 of the [[Santo Domingo Metro|Metro Railway ("El Metro")]] in the Dominican Republic, although this has yet to be made available for public use, despite its supposed completion.

==Name==
For most of its history (up to independence) the colony was known by the name of its present capital, Santo Domingo. At present, it is one of the few countries in the world with a [[demonym]]-based description serving as a name. For example, the [[French Republic]] is known as France, but the Dominican Republic has no such equivalent.

==Provinces and municipalities==
{{main|Provinces of the Dominican Republic|Municipalities of the Dominican Republic}}

The Dominican Republic is divided into 31 [[Provinces of the Dominican Republic|provinces]]. Additionally, the national capital, [[Santo Domingo]], is contained within its own [[Distrito Nacional]] (National District).

The provinces are divided into [[Municipality|municipalities]] (''[[municipio]]s''; singular ''municipio''). They are the second–level political and [[Administrative division|administrative subdivisions]] of the country.

<center>[[Image:DominicanRepublicSubdivisions2008.png|450px|center|Provinces of the Dominican Republic.]] 
{|
| align="left"|
# [[Image:Flag of the Province of Azua.JPG|25px]] [[Azua Province|Azua]]
# [[Image:Flag of the Province of Baoruco.JPG|25px]] [[Baoruco Province|Bahoruco]]
# [[Image:Flag of the Province of Barahona.JPG|25px]] [[Barahona Province|Barahona]]
# [[Image:Flag of the Province of Dajabón.JPG|25px]] [[Dajabón Province|Dajabón]]
#[[Image:Flag of the Distrito Nacional.JPG|25px]] [[Distrito Nacional]]
#[[Image:Flag of the Province of Duarte.JPG|25px]] [[Duarte Province|Duarte]]
# [[Image:Flag of the Province of Elías Piña.JPG|25px]] [[Elías Piña Province|Elías Piña]]
# [[Image:Flag of the Province of El Seibo.JPG|25px]] [[El Seibo Province|El Seibo]]
# [[Image:Flag of the Province of Espaillat.JPG|25px]] [[Espaillat Province|Espaillat]]
# [[Image:Flag of the Province of Hato Mayor.JPG|25px]] [[Hato Mayor Province|Hato Mayor]]
# [[Image:Flag of the Province of Hermanas Mirabal.JPG|25px]] [[Hermanas Mirabal Province|Hermanas Mirabal]]
# [[Image:Flag of the Province of Independencia.JPG|25px]] [[Independencia Province|Independencia]]
|
| align="left"|
<ol start=13>
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of La Altagracia.JPG|25px]] [[La Altagracia Province|La Altagracia]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of La Romana.JPG|25px]] [[La Romana Province|La Romana]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of La Vega.JPG|25px]] [[La Vega Province|La Vega]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of María Trinidad Sánchez.JPG|25px]] [[María Trinidad Sánchez Province|María Trinidad Sánchez]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Monseñor Nouel.JPG|25px]] [[Monseñor Nouel Province|Monseñor Nouel]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Monte Cristi.JPG|25px]] [[Monte Cristi Province|Monte Cristi]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Monte Plata.JPG|25px]] [[Monte Plata Province|Monte Plata]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Pedernales.JPG|25px]] [[Pedernales Province|Pedernales]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Peravia.JPG|25px]] [[Peravia Province|Peravia]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Puerto Plata.JPG|25px]] [[Puerto Plata Province|Puerto Plata]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Samaná.JPG|25px]] [[Samaná Province|Samaná]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Sánchez Ramírez.JPG|25px]] [[Sánchez Ramírez Province|Sánchez Ramírez]]
|
| align="left"|
<ol start=25>
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of San Cristóbal.JPG|25px]] [[San Cristóbal Province|San Cristóbal]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of San José de Ocoa.JPG|25px]] [[San José de Ocoa Province|San José de Ocoa]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of San Juan de la Maguana.JPG|25px]] [[San Juan Province (Dominican Republic)|San Juan]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of San Pedro de Macorís.JPG|25px]] [[San Pedro de Macorís Province|San Pedro de Macorís]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Santiago de los Caballeros.JPG|25px]] [[Santiago Province (Dominican Republic)|Santiago]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Santiago Rodríguez.JPG|25px]] [[Santiago Rodríguez Province|Santiago Rodríguez]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Santo Domingo.JPG|25px]] [[Santo Domingo Province|Santo Domingo]]
<li> [[Image:Flag of the Province of Valverde.JPG|25px]] [[Valverde Province|Valverde]] 
</ol>
|}
* The national capital, also known as [[Distrito Nacional, Dominican Republic|Distrito Nacional]] (D.N.), is the city of [[Santo Domingo]].
</center>

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of the Dominican Republic}}
{{seealso|Hydroelectricity and dams in the Dominican Republic}}
[[Image:Dr-map.gif|thumb|left|250px|Map of the Dominican Republic]]

The Dominican Republic is situated on the eastern part of the second-largest island in the [[Greater Antilles]], [[Hispaniola]]. The Dominican Republic shares the island roughly at a 2:1 ratio with [[Haiti]]. The whole country measures an area of 48,730 km² (or 48,921 km²),<ref>Hispaniola.com [http://www.hispaniola.com/dominican_republic/info/nature_georaphy.php Geography of the Dominican Republic] Retrieved [[2008-01-19]]</ref> making it the second largest country in the [[Antilles]], after [[Cuba]].<ref name="CIADemo" /> The country's capital and greatest metropolitan area, [[Santo Domingo]], is located on the southern coast.

To the north, at a distance between 100 and 200 km, are three extensive, largely submerged banks, which geographically are a southeast continuation of the [[Bahamas]]: [[Navidad Bank]], [[Silver Bank]] and [[Mouchoir Bank]]. Navidad Bank and Silver Bank have been officially claimed by the Dominican Republic.

The country's mainland has four important mountain ranges. The most northerly of these ranges is the ''Cordillera Septentrional'' ("Northern Mountain Range"), which extends from the northwestern coastal town of Monte Cristi, near the Haitian border, to the Samaná Peninsula in the east, running parallel to the Atlantic coast. The highest range in the Dominican Republic — indeed, in the whole of the West Indies — is the ''Cordillera Central'' ("Central Mountain Range") (in Haiti known as the Massif du Nord). It gradually bends southwards and finishes near the town of Azua de Compostela on the Caribbean coast. The Cordillera Central is home to the four highest peaks in the West Indies: [[Pico Duarte]] (3,098 m / 10,164 ft above [[sea level]]), La Pelona (3,094m), La Rucilla (3,049m) and Pico Yaque (2,760m).

[[Image:IMG 1281.jpg|thumb|right|right|250px|Bust of Duarte on top of Pico Duarte, with La Pelona in the background.]]
In the southwest corner of the country, south of the Cordillera Central, there are two other ranges. The more northerly of the two is the ''Sierra de Neiba'', while in the south the ''Sierra de Bahoruco'' is a continuation of the [[Massif de la Selle]] in Haiti.

There are other minor mountain ranges, such as the ''Cordillera Oriental'' ("Eastern Mountain Range"), ''Sierra Martín García'', ''Sierra de Yamasá'' and ''Sierra de Samaná''.

With mountain ranges running parallel to each other, the Dominican Republic boasts a number of valleys and [[plain]]s. In between the Central and Septentrional mountain ranges lies the rich and fertile [[Cibao]] valley. This major valley is home to the city of [[Santiago de los Caballeros]] and to most of the farming areas in the nation. Rather less productive is the semi-arid San Juan Valley, south of the Cordillera Central and extending westward into Haiti. Still more arid is the Neiba Valley, tucked between the Sierra de Neiba and the Sierra de Bahoruco. This valley is also known in Haiti as the Cul-de-Sac. Much of the land in the Enriquillo Basin is below sea level, with a hot, arid, desert-like environment. There are other smaller valleys in the mountains such as the Constanza, Jarabacoa, Villa Altagracia and Bonao valleys.
[[Image:DomRep Bacardi Insel.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Cayo Levantado in [[Samana Bay]] is one of the many cays in the D.R.]]

There are many small offshore islands and [[cay]]s that are part of the Dominican territory. The two largest islands near shore are [[Saona Island|Saona]] in the southeast and Beata in the southwest.

The ''Llano Costero del Caribe'' ("Caribbean Coastal Plain") is the largest of the plains in the Dominican Republic. Stretching north and east of [[Santo Domingo]], it contains many sugar plantations in the [[savannah]]s that are common here. West of Santo Domingo its width is reduced to 10 km as it hugs the coast, finishing at the mouth of the Ocoa River. Another large plain is the ''Plena de Azua'' ("Azua Plain"), a very dry region in the [[Azua Province]].

A few other small coastal plains are in the northern coast and in the Pedernales Peninsula.
[[Image:07-05-11LagoEnriquilloDR.jpg|thumb|right|250px|South shore of Lake Enriquillo, looking northward to the Sierra de Neiba]]

Four major rivers drain the numerous mountains of the Dominican Republic. The [[Yaque del Norte River|Yaque del Norte]] carries excess water down from the Cibao Valley and empties into Monte Cristi Bay. Likewise, the [[Yuna River]] serves the Vega Real and empties into Samaná Bay. Drainage of the San Juan Valley is provided by the San Juan River, [[tributary]] of the [[Yaque del Sur]], which empties into the Caribbean. The [[Artibonite River|Artibonito]] is the longest river of [[Hispaniola]] and flows into Haiti. The Yaque del Norte is the longest and most important Dominican river.

There are many lakes and coastal [[lagoon]]s; the largest lake is [[Lago Enriquillo]], a [[saline lake]] at 40 m below sea level, the lowest point in the [[West Indies]]. Other important lakes are Laguna de Rincón or Cabral, with [[freshwater]], and Laguna de Oviedo, a lagoon with [[brackish water]].

===Climate===
[[Image:Isla Saona.jpg|thumb|450px|A beach on [[Saona Island]]]]

The country is a [[tropical]], [[maritime nation]]. [[Wet season]] is from May to November, and periodic [[hurricanes]] between June and November. Most rain falls in the northern and eastern regions. The average [[rainfall]] is 1346 mm, with extremes of 2500 mm in the northeast and 500 mm in the west. The main annual [[temperature]] ranges from 21 °C in the mountainous regions to 25 °C on the plains and the coast. The average temperature in [[Santo Domingo]] in January is 25 °C and 30 °C in July. Nonetheless, the highest mountaintops are covered in [[Hispaniolan pine forests|pine forests]] and have temperatures that can go several degrees below freezing during winter nights.

===Environmental issues===
[[Bajos de Haina]], {{convert|12|mi|km|0}} west of Santo Domingo, was included on the [[Blacksmith Institute]]'s list of the world's 10 most polluted places, released in October 2006, due to lead poisoning by a battery recycling smelter closed in 1999. As the site never was cleaned up, children continue to be born with high lead levels causing learning disabilities, impaired physical growth and kidney damage.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Pina
| first = Diógenes
| title = Hell in 'God's Paradise'
| publisher = Inter Press Service News Agency
| date= 2007-01-26
| url = http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=36323
| accessdate = 2007-06-04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| last = Robles
| first = Francis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Pollution sickens children in Dominican Republic
| work =
| publisher = Miami Herald
| date= 2007-03-13
| url = http://www.miamiherald.com/949/story/39816.html
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-05-29 }}</ref>

== Symbols==
Some of the important symbols include the [[flag of the Dominican Republic]], [[Coat of arms of the Dominican Republic|the coat of arms]], and the national anthem, titled ''[[Himno Nacional]]''. The flag has a large white cross that divides it into four quarters. Two quarters are red and two are blue. Red represents the blood shed by the liberators. Blue expresses God's protection over the nation. The white cross symbolizes the struggle of the liberators to bequeath future generations a free nation. An alternate interpretation is that blue represents the ideals of progress and liberty, whereas white symbolizes peace and union amongst Dominicans.<ref>[http://www.ejercito.rd.mil.do/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=110&Itemid=9 National Army of the Dominican Republic; National Flag]</ref> In the center of the cross is the Dominican coat of arms, in the same colors as the national flag.

The national flower is the flower of the [[Swietenia mahagoni|West Indies Mahogany]]<ref>http://www.agricultura.gov.do/Publicaciones/anuario2004/capitulo1.pdf</ref> The national bird is the ''Cigua Palmera'' or [[Palmchat]].<ref name=depaul>[http://un.cti.depaul.edu/public/DominicanRepublic/1/Spanish/ Republica Dominicana - Permanent Mission to the United Nations]</ref>

==Economy==
===Recent years===
[[Image:Edificiosok052.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Santo Domingo([[D.N]]), the capital of the Republic and its biggest city.]]
{{seealso|Economy of the Dominican Republic}}
{{seealso|Dominican Peso}}

The Dominican Republic is the largest economy in the Central American and Caribbean region. It is a lower middle-income<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20421402~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html#Lower_middle_income The World Bank; Data - Country Groups]</ref> [[developing country]] primarily dependent on natural resources and government services. Although the service sector has recently overtaken agriculture as the leading employer of Dominicans (due principally to growth in tourism and [[Free Trade Zones]]), agriculture remains the most important sector in terms of domestic consumption and is in second place, behind [[mining]], in terms of [[export]] earnings. [[Real estate]] tourism alone accounted for $1.5 billion in annual earnings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2007/7/19/24747/Dominican-real-estate-tourism-boom-US15-billion-in-2007-US30-billion |title=Dominican real estate tourism boom: US$1.5 billion in 2007, US$3.0 billion in 3 years |accessdate=2008-06-10 |publisher=Dominican Today |date=2007-07-19}}</ref> Free Trade Zone earnings and tourism are the fastest-growing export sectors. [[Remittances from overseas|Remittances]] ("remesas") from Dominicans living abroad are estimated to be more than $2 billion dollars per year.
[[Image:Santodomingosd.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Sector of Piantini]]

Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) fell by up to 5% and consumer price [[inflation]] reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of moderate growth and declining inflation until 2002, after which the economy entered a [[recession]]. This recession followed the collapse of the second-largest [[commercial bank]] of the country ([[Baninter]]), linked to a major incident of [[fraud]] valued at $3.5 billion during the administration of President [[Hipolito Mejia]] (2000-2004). The Baninter fraud had a devastating effect on the Dominican economy, with GDP dropping by 1% in 2003 while inflation ballooned by over 27%. All defendants, including the star of the trial, Ramon Baez Figueroa, were found guilty and convicted, save one subpoena which failed to be delivered upon the United States denial of extradition.

Despite a widening merchandise [[trade deficit]], tourism earnings and remittances have helped build [[foreign exchange reserves]]. The Dominican Republic is current on foreign [[Consumer debt|private debt]], and has agreed to pay arrears of about $130 million to the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture|U.S. Department of Agriculture's]] [[Commodity Credit Corporation]].

According to the 2005 Annual Report of the United Nations Subcommittee on Human Development in the Dominican Republic, the country is ranked #71 in the world for resource availability, # 79 for human development, and #14 in the world for resource mismanagement. These statistics emphasize national government corruption, foreign economic interference in the country, and the rift between the rich and poor.
[[Image:SantiagoCityDominicanRep.JPG|thumb|left|240px|[[Santiago de los Caballeros]], the second largest city in the country]]

The Dominican Republic has become a trans-shipment point for South American drugs to Europe as well as the United States and Canada.<ref name="CIADemo" /> Money laundering is favored by [[Colombia]]n drug cartels via the Dominican Republic for the ease of illicit financial transactions.<ref name="CIADemo" />
[[Image:SantiagoCitySkyline2.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Santiago De Los Caballeros; La Trinitaria, area of increasing development.]]
The Dominican Republic enjoys a growing economy and a 2007 [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita of $9,208, in [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]] terms, which is relatively high in Latin America. In the trimester of January - March 2007 it experienced an exceptional growth of 9.1% in its GDP, below the previous year's 10.9% in the same period. Growth was led by [[import]]s, followed by exports, with finance and foreign investment the next largest factors.<ref>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Dominican Economy grows 9.1% slightly less than before| date= 2007-05-14 | publisher=Diariolibre | url =http://diariolibre.com/app/article.aspx?id=105628| work = | pages = | accessdate = 2007-05-24 | language = }}</ref> The service sector in general has experienced growth in recent years, as has construction. Economic growth takes place in spite of a chronic energy shortage,<ref>[http://www.cne.gov.do/Page.asp?key=89 Fernández Zucco anuncia celebración Semana Internacional de la Energía]</ref> which causes frequent blackouts and very high prices.

Santo Domingo, the capital of the Republic is the source of most of is GDP and has become one of the leading cities of the Caribbean. The biggest tourist center in the country is the region of [[Bávaro]].

===Currency===
The [[Dominican peso]] (DOP) is the national currency of the country, although [[US dollar]]s (USD) and [[euro]]s (EUR) are accepted at most tourist sites. The peso was worth the same as the USD until the 1980s, but has depreciated. The exchange rate in 1993 was 14.00 pesos per USD and 16.00 pesos in 2000, but it jumped to 53.00 pesos per USD in 2003. In 2004, the exchange rate was back down to around 31.00 pesos per USD.

The U.S. dollar is implicated in almost all commercial transactions of the Dominican Republic; such [[dollarization]] is common in high inflation economies. On February 2005, 1.32 USD = one € = 29 DR pesos; in October 2005, 1.19 USD = one € = 32 DR pesos. As of September 2007 the value of the peso is 1 USD=0.7006 EUR=33.430 DOP.<ref>[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=USD&to=DOP&submit=Convert Yahoo! Finance Currency Converter; US dollar to Peso]</ref><ref>[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&from=USD&to=EUR&submit=Convert Yahoo! Finance Currency Converter; US dollar to Euro]</ref>

===Tourism===
Tourism is fueling the Dominican Republic's economic growth. For example, the contribution of travel and tourism to employment is expected to rise from 550,000 jobs in 2008 — 14.4% of total employment or 1 in every 6.9 jobs — to 743,000 jobs — 14.2% of total employment or 1 in every 7.1 jobs by 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wttc.travel/eng/Tourism_Research/Tourism_Satellite_Accounting/TSA_Country_Reports/Dominican_Republic/ |title=World Travel & Tourism Council - Dominican Republic |accessdate=2008-05-07 |publisher=[[World Travel and Tourism Council]]}}</ref>With the construction of Projects like [[Cap Cana]], and San Souci Port in Santo Domingo the Dominican Republic expects increased touristic activity in the next upcoming year. Ecotourism has been a topic increasingly important in the nation with towns like Jarabacoa, and locations like the [[Pico Duarte]] becoming more significant in attempts to increase direct benefits from tourist.

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of the Dominican Republic}}

===Population===
The population of Dominican Republic in 2008 was estimated by the Joshua Project and the United Nations at 9,905,000,<ref>http://www.joshuaproject.net/countries.php</ref><ref>http://www.ohchr.org/EN/countries/LACRegion/Pages/DOIndex.aspx</ref> which placed it as number 82 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2006 approximately 5% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 35% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 103 males for every 100 females in the country in 2007.<ref name="CIADemo"/> According to the UN, the annual population growth rate for 2006–2007 is 1.5%, with the projected population for the year 2015 at 10,121,000.

It was estimated by the Dominican government that the population density in 2007 was 192 per km² (498 per sq mi), and 63% of the population lived in urban areas.<ref name=conapofa>[http://www.conapofa.gov.do/estimaciones.asp Población en Tiempo Real] Consejo Nacional de Población y Familia; Estimaciones. Retrieved [[2008-01-13]]</ref> The southern coastal plains and the Cibao Valley are the most densely populated areas of the country. The capital city, Santo Domingo, had a population of 3,014,000 in 2007. Other important cities are [[Santiago de los Caballeros]] (pop. 756,098), [[La Romana, Dominican Republic|La Romana]] (pop. 250,000), [[San Pedro de Macorís]], [[San Francisco de Macorís]], [[San Felipe de Puerto Plata]], and [[Concepción de la Vega]]. According to the United Nations, the urban population growth rate for 2000–2005 was 2.3%.<ref>[http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Americas/Dominican-Republic-POPULATION.html Dominican Republic - Population] Encyclopedia of the Nations</ref>

===Ethnic composition===
[[Image:Carnival 002 4412.JPG|Right|300px|thumb|Dominican girls at carnival in Taíno garments and makeup (2005)]]

According to the CIA [[World Fact Book]], the ethnic composition of the Dominican population is 73% mixed race, 16% white and 11% black.<ref name="CIADemo"/> The mixed population is a racial mixture of either White, Black, and/or [[Taino]] heritage. <ref name=Guitar/> Other ethnic groups in the Dominican Republic include [[Demographics of Haiti|Haitians]], [[Germans]], [[Italians]], Portuguese, Irish, Corsicians, [[French people|French]], [[Spanish people|Spaniards]], and [[United States|Americans]]. A smaller yet significant presence of [[East Asia]]ns (primarily [[Overseas Chinese|ethnic Chinese]] and Japanese) and [[Middle East]]erners, primarily [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] and [[Jew]]s can be found throughout the population.

===Racial issues===
As elsewhere in the [[Spanish Empire]], the original Spanish colony of Hispaniola employed a social system known as [[casta]], wherein [[Peninsulares]] (Spaniards born in Spain) occupied the highest echelon. These were followed, in descending order of status, by: [[criollo (people)|criollos]], [[castizo]]s, [[mestizo]]s, [[mulatto]]es, [[Native peoples of the Americas|Indians]], [[zambo]]s, and lastly, [[Negro|black slaves]].<ref name="Casta">{{cite web
| last = Soong
| first = Roland
| title = Racial Classifications in Latin America
| publisher = Zona Latina
| month = August | year = 1999
| url = http://www.zonalatina.com/Zldata55.htm
| accessdate = 2007-12-22 }}</ref><ref name="Criollos">{{cite web
| last = Guitar
| first = Lynne
| title = Criollos: The Birth of a Dynamic New Indo - Afro - European People and Culture on Hispaniola.
| publisher = KACIKE: Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology
| month = March | year = 2000
| url = http://www.kacike.org/LynneGuitar.html
| accessdate = 2007-12-23 }}</ref> The stigma of these social strata persisted for many years, reaching its culmination in the Trujillo regime, as the dictator used racial persecution and nationalistic fervor against Haitians.<ref name="Shadow">{{cite web
| last = McLaughlin
| first = John J.
| title = The shadow of Trujillo.
| work = VIEWPOINT - racism fuels political violence in Dominican Republic
| publisher = National Catholic Reporter
| month = September | year = 2006
| url = http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-151974298.html
| accessdate = 2007-12-22 }}</ref><ref name="Wucker"/>

According to a study by the [[City University of New York|CUNY]] Dominican Studies Institute, about 70% of the contemporary Dominican population has African ancestry.<ref name="CUNY">{{cite web
| last = Torres-Saillant
| first = Silvio
| title = The Tribulations of Blackness: Stages in Dominican Racial Identity
| work = Latin American Perspectives, Issue 100
| publisher = CUNY Dominican Studies Institute
| month = May | year = 1998
| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0094-582X(199805)25%3A3%3C126%3ATTOBSI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W
| accessdate = 2007-06-04 }}</ref> Most Dominicans self-identify as being of mixed-race rather than black in contrast to African identity movements in the United States. A variety of terms are used to represent a range of skintones depending on ancestry such as "morena" (brown), "canela" (red/brown), "india" (Indian), "blanca oscura" (dark white), and "trigueño" (wheat colored),<ref name="kiiniiburasalaam">{{cite web
| last = Salaam
| first = Kiini Ibura
| title = There's No Racism Here? - A Black Woman in the Dominican Republic
| work = Eyeball Literary Magazine
| publisher = ChickenBones: A Journal
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.nathanielturner.com/kiiniiburasalaam2.htm
| accessdate = 2007-06-07 }}</ref> among others.

Many have claimed that this represents a reluctance to self-identify with African descent and the culture of the freed slaves. According to Dr. Miguel Anibal Perdomo, professor of Dominican Identity and Literature at [[Hunter College]] in New York City, "There was a sense of 'deculturación' among the African slaves of Hispaniola. [There was] an attempt to erase any vestiges of African culture from the Dominican Republic. We were, in some way, brainwashed and we've become westernized."<ref name=worldpress>{{cite web
| last = Zahka
| first = Jeffrey
| title = Anti-Haitian Bias Rooted in Dominican History
| publisher = Worldpress.org
| date = 2006-02-28
| url = http://www.worldpress.org/Americas/2276.cfm
| accessdate = 2007-06-06 }}</ref>

However, this view is not universal, as many also claim that Dominican culture is simply different and rejects the racial categorizations of other regions. Ramona Hernández, director of the Dominican Studies Institute at [[City College of New York]] asserts that the terms were originally an act of defiance in a time when being mulatto was stigmatized. "During the Trujillo regime, people who were dark skinned were rejected, so they created their own mechanism to fight it." She went on to explain, "When you ask, 'What are you?' they don't give you the answer you want ... saying we don't want to deal with our blackness is simply what you want to hear."<ref name=miamiherald>{{cite web
| last = Robles
| first = Frances
| title = Black Denial
| work = A Rising Voice: Afro-Latin Americans
| publisher = The Miami Herald
| date = 2007-06-13
| url = http://www.miamiherald.com/multimedia/news/afrolatin/part2/index.html
| accessdate = 2007-06-15 }}</ref> The Dominican Republic is not unique in this respect either. In a 1976 census survey conducted in [[Brazil]], respondents described their skin color in 136 distinct terms.<ref name=miamiherald /><ref>[http://www.zonalatina.com/Zldata55.htm Racial Classifications in Latin America] Zona Latina</ref>

===Religions===
{{main|Religion in the Dominican Republic}}

The Dominican Republic is almost uniformly [[Christian]]. More than 90% of the population adheres to [[Christianity]], mostly [[Roman Catholicism]], followed by a growing contingent of [[Protestant]] groups such as [[Seventh-day Adventist]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and [[Pentecostals]]. Recent but small scale immigration has brought other religions, which make up small percentages of the population: [[Spiritist]]: 2.2%, [[Mormons]]: 1.0%, [[Buddhist]]: 0.10%, [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]]: 0.07%, [[Muslim]]: 0.02%, [[Jewish]]: 0.01%, and [[Chinese Folk Religion]]: 0.01%.<ref>{{citeweb |url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Dominican_Republic/rbodies.html |name=name needed}}</ref>.

[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] was introduced by [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] and Spanish missionaries. Religion wasn’t really the foundation of their entire society, as it was in other parts of the world at the time, and most of the population didn’t attend church on a regular basis. Nonetheless, most of the education in the country was based upon the [[Catholic]] religion, as the [[Bible]] was required in the curriculum in all public schools. Children would use religious based dialogue when greeting a relative or parent. For example: a child would say “Bless me, mother”, and the mother would reply “May God bless you”. Most Dominicans are Roman Catholic.

The nation has two patroness saints: ''Nuestra Señora de la Altagracia'' (Our Lady Of High Grace) is the patroness of the Dominican people, and ''Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes'' (Our Lady Of Mercy) is the patroness of the Dominican Republic.

Eventually the [[Catholic Church]] began to lose popularity in the late 1800s. This was due to a lack of funding, priests, and support programs. During the same time, the [[Protestant]] [[Evangelism|evangelical]] movement began to gain support. Religious tension between Catholics and Protestants in the country has tended to be minimal.

There has always been religious freedom throughout the entire country. Not until the 1950s were restrictions were placed upon churches by [[Hector Trujillo|Trujillo]]. Letters of protest were sent against the mass arrests of government adversaries. Trujillo began a campaign against the church and planned to arrest priests and bishops who preached against the government. This campaign ended before it was even put into place, with his assassination.

[[Judaism]] appeared in the Dominican Republic in the late 1930s. During [[World War II]], a group of [[Jews]] escaping [[Nazi]] Germany fled to the Dominican Republic and founded the city of [[Sosua]]. It has remained the center of the Jewish population since.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Haggerty
| first = Richard
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Dominican Republic - Religion
| work = Dominican Republic: A Country Study
| publisher = U.S. Library of Congress
| year= 1989
| url = http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/33.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-05-21 }}</ref>

===Education===
Primary education is officially free and compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 14, although those who live in isolated areas have limited access to schooling. Primary schooling is followed by a two-year intermediate school and a four-year secondary course, after which a diploma called the ''bachillerato'' (high school diploma) is awarded. Relatively few lower-income students succeed in reaching this level due to financial hardships and limitation due to location. Most wealthier students choose to attend private schools, which are frequently sponsored by religious institutions. Some public and private vocational education is available, particularly in the field of agriculture, but this too reaches only a tiny percentage of the population.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-54444/Dominican-Republic Dominican Republic:: Education – Britannica Online Encyclopedia]</ref>

=== Health statistics===
In 2007 the Dominican Republic had a [[birth rate]] of 22.91 per 1000, and a [[death rate]] of 5.32 per 1000.<ref name="CIADemo"/> [[Dengue]] and [[malaria]] are endemic to the country.<ref>[http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1103.html United States Department of State: Country Specific Information]</ref> There is currently a mission based in the United States to combat the [[AIDS]] rate in the Dominican Republic.<ref>[http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/46098.pdf The President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief; April 2005 Newsletter] OFFICE OF THE U.S. GLOBAL AIDS COORDINATOR.</ref>

==Immigration==
[[Image:DR-Haiti-border.jpg|thumb|right|A border [[watch tower]] to control illegal immigration from [[Haiti]] located in the [[Cordillera Central, Hispaniola|Cordillera Central]] of the Dominican Republic]]During Haitian rule over the island of Hispaniola (1822-1844), the government invited free blacks and fugitives from the United States to settle there. There was little substantial immigration from the United States<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Juan Bosch - Government Officials
| work =
| publisher =
| date =
| url = http://www.afiwi.com/people2.asp?id=162
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-05-29 }}</ref> and Joaquín Balaguer<ref> [http://dr1.com/news/2002/dnews073002.shtml DR1 - Daily News July 30, 2002] DR1.com</ref><ref>[http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/dominican-republic/bosch-dies.htm Dominican Juan Bosch dies] NANCY SAN MARTIN AND DON BOHNING; The Miami Herald; November 2, 2001</ref> had Puerto Rican parents.

During the first decades of the 20th century, many [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Arabs]] (primarily from [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]]), [[Japanese people|Japanese]] and to a lesser degree [[Koreans]] settled in the country, descendants of agricultural laborers and merchants. Waves Of Chinese immigrants arrived and worked mines and rairoads, the latter waves were of immigrants fleeing the [[PLA]]. The current population consists of a total of 15,000 Chinese. The Arab Community is also rising at an increasing rate estimates are at 3,400. Japanese Immigrants who mostly work in the bussines districts and markets are at an estimate of 1,900 living in the country. The Korean presence is minor but evident at a Population of 500. In addition the descendants of immigrants who came from [[St. Kitts and Nevis]], [[Dominica]], [[Antigua]], [[St. Vincent]], [[Montserrat]], [[Tortola]], [[St. Croix]] and [[St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. Thomas]] to work in sugarcane plantations and Docks and settled in the cities of [[San Pedro de Macoris]] and [[Puerto Plata]] along with families from [[Martinique]] and [[Guadeloupe]] who settled there in the 1900's known and referred to as [[Cocolo]] are believed to number 28,000 of the population. Immigration from Europe and the United States is at an all time high, according to the Joshua Project and [[BBC]] 1,400 [[British people|British]] reside on the island in addition to 800 [[Germans]], 4,000 [[Italians]] (Unofficially, the number is estimated to be as high as 40,000), 1,900 [[French people|French]], 88,000 [[Spaniards]] and 80,000 [[United States|Americans]].<ref>http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.php</ref><ref>http://www.aca.ch/amabroad.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.mclink.it/com/inform/art/08n01933.htm</ref> The town of [[Sosúa]] has many Jews who immigrated before or during [[World War II]]. The country is now home to 100 [[Jews]].<ref>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=CCNY Jewish Studies Class to Visit Dominican Village that Provided Refuge to European Jews During World War II | date= | publisher=City College of New York | url =http://www1.ccny.cuny.edu/advancement/pr/Sosua-Jewish-Studies.cfm |accessdate = 2007-05-22 }}</ref><ref>http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.php</ref><ref>http://dr1.com/articles/chinese.shtml</ref><ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/brits_abroad/html/caribbean.stm</ref>

With recent decades of unrest and poverty in [[Haiti]] immigration from Haiti has increased once again. Some Haitian immigrants arrive in the Dominican Republic illegally and work at low-paying, unskilled labor jobs, including construction work, household cleaning, and in sugar plantations.<ref name=ferguson>[http://www.oas.org/atip/Regional%20Reports/MigrationintheCaribbean.pdf Migration in the Caribbean: Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Beyond] James Ferguson. Minority Rights Group International. Retrieved [[2008-01-14]]</ref> Current estimates put the Haitian-born population in the Dominican Republic as high as 1 million.<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Illegal people
| work =
| publisher = Human Rights Watch
| date =
| url = http://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/domrep/domrep0402-02.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-05-29 }}</ref> Working conditions on these [[sugar]] [[plantation]]s have caused controversy, including allegations that they border on [[slavery]].<ref name="hiltz">{{cite web
| last = Hiltz
| first = Wayne
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Slavery in paradise
| work =
| publisher = Montreal Mirror
| year= 1998
| url = http://www.montrealmirror.com/ARCHIVES/1998/121098/news5.html
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-05-29 }}</ref> Moreover, the children of illegal Haitian immigrants are denied citizenship<ref name=ferguson/><ref>{{cite web
| last = Grossman
| first = Andrew
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Birthright citizenship as nationality of convenience
| work = Proceedings of the Third Conference on Nationality
| publisher = Council of Europe
| date= 2004-10-11
| url = http://www.uniset.ca/naty/maternity/
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-06-03 }}</ref> and basic health care,<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Dominican Republic, Haiti, and the United States: Protect rights, reduce statelessness
| work =
| publisher = Reuters
| date= 2007-01-19
| url = http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/cgi-script/csArticles/articles/000052/005242.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-05-29 }}</ref> and there are frequent physical attacks and roundups on adult immigrants.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Garcia
| first = Michelle
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = No Papers, No Rights
| work =
| publisher = Amnesty International
| year= 2006
| url = http://www.amnestyusa.org/Fall_2006/No_Papers_No_Rights/page.do?id=1105216&n1=2&n2=19&n3=358
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-05-29 }}</ref>
Some Dominican and Haitian officials deny such accusations of slavery, with the Haitian ambassador Fritz Cineas stating, "I still have not received any complaint of violation of human rights against the Haitian immigrants in the country."<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Haiti’s ambassador also denies Dominican “slavery”
| work =
| publisher = Dominican Today
| date= 2007-05-25
| url = http://dominicantoday.com/app/article.aspx?id=24051
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-06-03 }}</ref> However, the President of the Dominican Republic, Leonel Fernández, stated publicly during a seminar on immigration policy in 2005 that collective expulsions of Haitians were carried out "in an abusive and inhuman way."<ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Dominican Republic: A Life in Transit
| work =
| publisher = Amnesty International
| date= 2007-03-21
| url = http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR270012007
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-06-03 }}</ref> Selective enforcement of deportation rules is much criticized in Haiti. Some critics say that "the Dominicans could help heal many of Haiti's open political wounds by extraditing back to Haiti many of the criminals of the 1991 coup d'état and the Duvalier dictatorship who enjoy de facto political asylum in the Dominican Republic."<ref name=hwp>[http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43/111.html Fernandez visit: Haitian masses not impressed] Hartford Web Publishing, reprinted from Haiti Progres</ref> When asked for a response to the current situation, Fernandez stated, "There must exist an extradition treaty between the Dominican Republic and Haiti, but there isn't one between our two countries."<ref name=hwp/>

==== Illegal Haitian Immigration====
Haiti, with nearly as many people but half the land area, is much poorer than the Dominican Republic. Dictatorships failed to provide for education and training, political unrest kept the country in turmoil, and population pressure through subsistence farming has stripped the landscape. In 2002 less than half of the Haitian population had formal jobs; in 2003 nearly half of the Haitian population was illiterate, and 80% of all Haitians were living poor and in poverty.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html |title=CIA - The World Factbook – Haiti |accessdate=2008-03-18}}</ref> Facing stark prospects for survival, many Haitians cross the border to Dominican soil without authorization in search of better living conditions. But, as is usual for [[Illegal immigration|illegal immigrants]] in nearly all nations, they are relegated to working class status, largely in farming, often sugar cane plantations, and house construction<ref name="Vivirlatino">{{cite web
| last = Woodard Maderazo
| first = Jennifer
| title = Racism and abuse in the Dominican Republic
| publisher = Vivirlatino.com
| month= November | year= 2005
| url = http://vivirlatino.com/2005/11/23/racism-and-abuse-in-the-dominican-republic.php
| accessdate = 2007-12-23 }}</ref> with poor housing and poor schools for their children. Any person born on Dominican soil is a Dominican citizen if one of his or her parents is a legal resident of the country, per the Dominican constitution, and any legally residing person in the Dominican Republic can theoretically become a citizen, many children of Haitian ancestors are stateless, as their parents are denied Dominican citizenship because they are deemed to be transient or have an illegal or undocumented residency status, or are unable to obtain Haitian citizenship for lack of proper documents or witnesses:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.refugeesinternational.org/content/article/detail/9770/ |title=Dominican Republic, Haiti, and the United States: Protect Rights, Reduce Statelessness |publisher=Refugees International}}</ref> note that Haiti's Constitution states in Title II, Article 11 that "''Any person born of a Haitian father or Haitian mother who are themselves native-born Haitians and have never renounced their nationality possesses Haitian nationality at the time of birth''".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Haiti/haiti1987.html |title=Political Database of the Americas. Constitutions: Republic of Haiti}}</ref>

A large number of Haitian women cross the border to Dominican soil during their last weeks of pregnancy to obtain much-needed medical attention for [[childbirth]], often arriving with several health problems, since Dominican public hospitals do not refuse medical services based on nationality or legal status. Statistics from a hospital in Santo Domingo report that over 22% of childbirths are by Haitian mothers.<ref>{{cite news |title=La República - El 22% de los nacimientos son de madres haitianas |url=http://listin.com.do/app/article.aspx?id=45034 |first=Doris |last=Pantaleón |publisher=Editora Listin Diario |date=2008-01-21 |accessdate=2008-03-18 |language=Spanish}}</ref>

Competition for jobs has led to the deportation of many Haitians in an effort to save native Dominican rights.

Unofficially there are 800,000 illegal Haitians (other estimates place this figure around 1 million) living in the Dominican Republic, which accounts for about 10% of the national population.<ref>[http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=37018 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Deport Thy (Darker-Skinned) Neighbour] Diógenes Pina. Inter Press Service (IPS). Retrieved [[2008-01-14]]</ref> After a UN delegation issued a preliminary report stating that it found a profound problem of racism and discrimination against people of Haitian origins, Dominican [[Foreign Minister]] [[Carlos Morales Troncoso]] issued a formal statement denouncing it and asserting that "Our border with Haiti has its problems, this is our reality and it must be understood. It is important not to confuse national sovereignty with indifference, and not to confuse security with xenophobia..."<ref>[http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=39867 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Gov’t Turns Deaf Ear to UN Experts on Racism] Diógenes Pina. Inter Press Service (IPS). Retrieved [[2008-01-14]]</ref>

=== Emigration ===
{{main|Dominican American}}
{{main|Dominican immigration to Puerto Rico}}
The Dominican Republic has experienced three distinct waves of emigration in the second half of the twentieth century. The first period began in 1961, when a coalition of high-ranking Dominicans, with assistance from the CIA, assassinated General Rafael Trujillo, the nation's military dictator.<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB222/family_jewels_wilderotter.pdf Justice Department Memo, 1975;] [[National Security Archive]]</ref> In the wake of his death, fear of retaliation by Trujillo's allies, and political uncertainty in general, spurred migration from the island. In 1965, the United States began a military occupation of the Dominican Republic and eased travel restrictions, making it easier for Dominicans to obtain American visas.<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0197-9183(198224)16%3A4%3C819%3AIMITDR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-D International Migration in the Dominican Republic]; Thomas K. Morrison, Richard Sinkin; International Migration Review, Vol. 16, No. 4, Special Issue: International Migration and Development (Winter, 1982), pp. 819-836; doi:10.2307/2546161</ref> From 1966 to 1978, the exodus continued, fueled by high unemployment and political repression. Communities established by the first wave of immigrants to the U.S. created a network that assisted subsequent arrivals. In the early 1980s, underemployment, inflation, and the rise in value of the dollar all contributed to a third wave of migration from the island nation. Today, emigration from the Dominican Republic remains high, facilitated by the social networks of now-established Dominican communities in the United States.<ref>[http://www.learner.org/channel/libraries/socialstudies/9_12/weir/background.html Migration Trends in Six Latin American Countries]</ref>

=== Crime ===
The Dominican Republic has served as a transportation hub for Colombian drug cartels.<ref>[http://www.racematters.org/harlemcopsdontdiscussrace.htm Why Harlem Drug Cops Don't Discuss Race]; RaceMatters.org (2001)</ref><ref name="CIADemo"/> In 2004 it was estimated that 8% of all cocaine smuggled into the United States has come through the Dominican Republic.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Ribando
| first = Claire
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Dominican Republic: Political and Economic Conditions and Relations with the United States.
| work =
| publisher = CRS Report for Congress
| date= 2005-03-05
| url = http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/46402.pdf
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-05-29 }}</ref> The Dominican Republic responded with increased efforts to seize drug shipments, arrest and extradite those involved, and combat money-laundering. A 1995 report stated that social pressures and increasing poverty — which was then increasing — have led to a rise in prostitution within the Dominican Republic. Though prostitution is [[Prostitution in the Dominican Republic|legal]] within the country and the [[age of consent]] is 18, child prostitution is a growing phenomenon in impoverished areas. In an environment where young girls are often denied employment opportunities offered to boys, prostitution frequently becomes a source of supplementary income{{Fact|date=March 2008}}. [[UNICEF]] estimated in 1994 that at least 25,000 children were involved in the Dominican sex trade, 63% of that figure being girls.<ref name="ecpat">{{cite web
| last = O'Connell Davidson
| first = Julia
| title = Child Prostitution and Sex Tourism - Dominican Republic
| publisher = ECPAT
| month= December | year= 1995
| url = http://www.ecpat.net/eng/ecpat_inter/Publication/Other/English/Pdf_page/ecpat_sex_tourism_dom_rebublic.pdf
| accessdate = 2007-06-07 |format=PDF}}</ref>

==Culture==
[[Image:Carnaval Vegano.jpg|thumb|300px|Carnaval of La Vega, one of the most famous carnivals in the country.]]
{{main|Culture of the Dominican Republic}}
{{main|Dominican Spanish}}
The culture of the Dominican Republic, like its [[Caribbean]] neighbors, is a blend of the European colonists, Africans, and Taínos, and their cultural legacies. [[Spanish language|Spanish]], also known as ''Castellano'' (Castilian) is the official language. Other languages such as [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are also spoken to varying degrees. European, African and Taíno cultural elements are most prominent in food, family structure, religion and music. Many Arawak/Taíno names and words are used in daily conversation and for many foods native to the DR.<ref name="CIADemo" />

===Cuisine===
{{main|Cuisine of the Dominican Republic}}
Dominican Republic cuisine is predominantly made up of a combination of Spanish, Taino and African influences over the last few centuries. Typical cuisine is quite similar to what can be found in other Latin American countries but, many of the names of dishes are different. Breakfast usually consists of eggs and ''mangú'' (mashed, boiled plantain). For heartier versions, these are accompanied by deep-fried meat (typically Dominican salami) and/or cheese. Similar to Spain, lunch is generally the largest and most important meal of the day. Lunch usually consists of some type of meat (chicken, pork or fish), rice and beans, and a side portion of salad. "La Bandera" (literally, The Flag), the most popular lunch dish, consists of broiled chicken, white rice and red beans.

Typical Dominican cuisine usually accommodates all four food groups, incorporating meat or seafood; rice, potatoes or plantains; and is accompanied by some other type of vegetable or salad. However, meals usually heavily favor meats and starches and less dairy products and vegetables. Many dishes are made with ''sofrito'', which is a mix of local herbs and spices sautéed to bring out all of the dish's flavors. Throughout the south-central coast, bulgur, or whole wheat, is a main ingredient in ''quipes'' or ''tipili'' (bulgur salad). Other favorite Dominican dishes include ''chicharrón'', yucca, ''casave'', and ''pastelitos'' (empanadas), ''batata'', ''pasteles en hoja'', ''[[chimichurris]]'', ''platanos maduros'' and ''tostones''.

Some treats Dominicans enjoy are ''[[Rice pudding|arroz con dulce]]'' (or ''arroz con leche''), ''bizcocho dominicano'' (lit. Dominican cake), ''habichuelas con dulce'' (sweet creamed beans), [[flan]], ''[[Snow cone|frío frío]]'' (snow cones), [[dulce de leche]], and ''caña'' ([[sugarcane]]).

The beverages Dominicans enjoy include ''[[Morir Soñando]]'', [[rum]], [[beer]], ''[[Mama Juana]]'', ''batida'' (smoothie), ''[[Eggnog|ponche]]'', ''[[Mauby|mabí]]'', and coffee.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hispaniola.com/dominican_republic/info/society_cuisine.php |title=Dominican Republic Cuisine by Hispaniola.com}}</ref>

===Music===
{{main|Music of the Dominican Republic}}

Musically, the Dominican Republic is known for the creation of the musical style called ''[[merengue]]'',<ref>{{cite book
| last = Harvey
| first = Sean
| authorlink = Sean Harvey
| coauthors =
| title = The Rough Guide to The Dominican Republic
| publisher = Rough Guides
| month= January | year= 2006
| location =
| pages = 376-7
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 1-84353-497-5}}</ref> a type of lively, fast-paced rhythm and dance music consisting of a tempo of about 120 to 160 beats per minute (it varies wildly) based on musical elements like drums, brass, and chorded instruments, as well as some elements unique to the music style of the DR. It includes the use of the ''tambora'' (Dominican drum), accordion, and ''guira''. Its [[Syncopation|syncopated beats]] use [[Latin percussion]], [[brass instruments]], [[Bass guitar|bass]], and [[piano]] or [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]]. Well-known merengue singers include singer/songwriter [[Juan Luis Guerra]], [[Fernando Villalona]], [[Eddy Herrera]], [[Sergio Vargas]], [[Toño Rosario]], [[Johnny Ventura]], and [[Milly Quezada]]. Merengue became popular mostly on the east coast of the United States during the 1980s and 90s,<ref>{{cite book
| last = Harvey
| first = Sean
| authorlink = Sean Harvey
| coauthors =
| title = The Rough Guide to The Dominican Republic
| publisher = Rough Guides
| month= January | year= 2006
| location =
| pages = 375
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 1-84353-497-5}}</ref> when many Dominican artists such as Victor Roque y La Gran Manzana, Henry Hierro, Milly, Jocelyn Y Los Vecinos, etc. residing in the U.S. (particularly New York,) started performing in the Latin club scene and gained radio airplay. The emergence of ''[[bachata]]'' along with an increase in the number of Dominicans living among other Latino groups in [[New York]], [[New Jersey]], and [[Florida]] have contributed to Dominican music's overall growth in popularity.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Harvey
| first = Sean
| authorlink = Sean Harvey
| coauthors =
| title = The Rough Guide to The Dominican Republic
| publisher = Rough Guides
| month= January | year= 2006
| location =
| pages = 378
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 1-84353-497-5}}</ref>

[[Bachata]], a form of music and dance that originated in the countryside and rural marginal neighborhoods of the Dominican Republic, has become quite popular in recent years. Its subjects are often romantic; especially prevalent are tales of heartbreak and sadness. In fact, the original term used to name the genre was ''amargue'' ("bitterness," or "bitter music"), until the rather ambiguous (and mood-neutral) term ''bachata'' became popular. Bachata grew out of, and is still closely related to, the pan-Latin American romantic style called ''[[bolero]]''. Over time, it has been influenced by merengue and by a variety of Latin American guitar styles.

Another genre of music that has been growing in popularity in recent years in the Dominican Republic is [[Dominican rock]]. Dominican rock, (known as ''rock Dominicano'' in Dominican Republic), is rock music created by Dominican groups and soloists. Originating in the 1980s with the start of Luis Dias, successful bands such as Tribu Del Sol, Toque Profundo and Tabu-Tek began to emerge. Dominican rock is listened to by the youth, who have embraced the music, sometimes over merengue and bachata, as well as salsa, and most recently ''reggaeton''.

===Sports===

Dominican Republic received the [[2003 Pan American Games]] in [[Santo Domingo]].
[[Baseball]] is by far the most popular sport in the Dominican Republic today.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Harvey
| first = Sean
| authorlink = Sean Harvey
| title = The Rough Guide to The Dominican Republic
| publisher = Rough Guides
| month= January | year= 2006
| pages = 59
| isbn = 1-84353-497-5}}</ref> After the United States, the Dominican Republic has the second-highest number of baseball players in [[Major League Baseball]] (MLB). Some of the Dominican players have been regarded as among the best in the game. Following are a few players born in the Dominican Republic:
* [[Carlos Peña]], [[first baseman]] for the [[Tampa Bay Rays]]
* [[Sammy Sosa]], 1998 [[Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award|National League MVP Award winner]] and member of the exclusive (only 6 other players have reached the mark) [[600 home run club]]
*[[Juan Cruz (baseball)|Juan Cruz]], pitcher for the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]]
*[[Carlos Villanueva]], pitcher for the [[Milwaukee Brewers]]
* [[Albert Pujols]], 2001 [[Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award]] and 2005 National League MVP Award winner
* [[Pedro Martínez]], three–time [[Cy Young Award]] winner and considered one of the greatest pitchers in baseball history
* [[Vladimir Guerrero]], 2004 [[Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award|American League MVP Award]] winner and 2007 [[Home Run Derby]] winner
* [[David Ortiz]], first baseman and [[designated hitter]] for the [[Boston Red Sox]]
* [[José Reyes]], 2007 MLB [[Stolen Base]] Leader played for the New York Mets
* [[Manny Ramírez]], [[outfielder]] for the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
* [[Miguel Tejada]], [[shortstop]] for the [[Houston Astros]]
* [[Alfonso Soriano]], [[infielder]]/[[outfielder]] for the [[Chicago Cubs]]
* [[Héctor Luna]], infielder for the [[Toronto Blue Jays]]
* [[Robinson Canó]], [[second baseman]] for the [[New York Yankees]]
* [[Melky Cabrera]], [[center fielder]] for the New York Yankees
* [[Hanley Ramírez]], shortstop for the [[Florida Marlins]]

[[Image:Ortiz and Hall2.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Dominican Native and [[Major League Baseball]] player [[David Ortiz]]]]
Historically, the Dominican Republic has been linked to MLB since [[Ozzie Virgil, Sr.]] became the first Dominican to play there. Other very notable players were [[Juan Marichal]], [[Felipe Alou]], [[Rico Carty]], [[George Bell (outfielder)|George Bell]], [[Jose Rijo]] and [[Stan Javier]], among many others.

The Dominican Republic also has its own baseball league, the [[Dominican Winter Baseball League]], which runs its season from October to January. It comprises six teams: [[Águilas Cibaeñas]] (Cibao Eagles), [[Azucareros del Este]] (Eastern Sugar-makers), [[Estrellas Orientales]] (Eastern Stars), [[Gigantes del Cibao]] (Cibao Giants), [[Leones del Escogido]] (Escogido Lions), and [[Tigres del Licey]] (Licey Tigers). Many MLB and [[Minor league baseball|minor league]] players play in the Dominican League during their own off-season. As such, the Dominican Winter League serves as an important "training ground" for these leagues.

The Dominican Republic has participated in the [[Baseball World Cup]], winning one Gold (1948), three Silver (1942, 1950, 1952), and two Bronze (1943, 1969), placing it seventh, right after [[Puerto Rico]]'s one Gold, four Silver, and four Bronze. ([[Cuba]] holds a record twenty-five Gold, two Silver and two Bronze.)

The country also participated in the [[2006 World Baseball Classic]], the inaugural tournament, in which they finished semi–finalists along with [[South Korea|Korea]].

[[Olympic Games|Olympic]] gold medalist and world champion over 400 m hurdles [[Félix Sánchez]] hails from the Dominican Republic, as does current [[defensive end]] for the [[San Diego Chargers]] ([[National Football League]] [NFL]), [[Luis Castillo (football player)|Luis Castillo]]. Castillo was the cover athlete for the [[Spanish language]] version of [[Madden NFL 08]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Shanahan |first=Tom |title=Sports at Lunch, [[Luis Castillo (football player)|]] and Felix Sanchez |publisher=San Diego Hall of Champions |date=2007-03-24 |url=http://www.sdhoc.com/main/articles/sportsatlunch/Sportsatlunch2007/Sanchezcastillo |accessdate=2007-05-29}}</ref>

The [[National Basketball Association]] (NBA), also has players from the Dominican Republic, such as:
* [[Charlie Villanueva]], [[Power forward (basketball)|power forward]], seventh overall pick by the [[Toronto Raptors]] in the [[2005 NBA Draft]]
* [[Francisco García]], [[Basketball position|guard–forward]] for the [[Sacramento Kings]]; first round pick in the [[2005 NBA Draft]]
* [[Al Horford]], [[Power forward (basketball)|power forward]], third overall pick by the [[Atlanta Hawks]] in the [[2007 NBA Draft]]
* [[Felipe López (basketball)|Felipe López]], former [[shooting guard]] for several teams

[[Boxing]] is one of the more important sports after baseball, and the country has produced scores of world-class fighters and world champions, among them [[Carlos Teo Cruz]], [[Leo Cruz]], [[Julio César Green]], [[Joan Guzmán]], and [[Juan Carlos Payano]].

==Holidays==
{| class="wikitable"
! Date !! Name
!
|-
| January 1 || [[New Year's Day]]
|style="font-size:95%;"| Non-working day.
|-
| January 6 || [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] day of the [[Epiphany (Christian)|Epiphany]]
|style="font-size:95%;"| Movable.
|-
| January 21 || ''Virgen de la Altagracia''
|style="font-size:95%;"| Non-working day. [[Patron Saint|Patroness Day]] (Catholic).
|-
| January 26 || [[Juan Pablo Duarte|Duarte]]'s Day
|style="font-size:95%;"| Movable. Founding Father.
|-
| February 27 || [[Independence Day]]
|style="font-size:95%;"| Non-working day. [[National Day]].
|-
| (Variable date) || [[Holy Week]]
|style="font-size:95%;"| Working days, except [[Good Friday]]. A [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] holiday.
|-
| May 1 || [[Labour Day]]
|style="font-size:95%;"| Movable.
|-
| (Variable date) || Catholic [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]]
|style="font-size:95%;"| Non-working day. A Thursday in May or June (60 days after Easter Sunday).
|-
| August 16 || [[Dominican Restoration War|Restoration Day]]
|style="font-size:95%;"| Non-working day.
|-
| September 24 || ''Virgen de las Mercedes''
|style="font-size:95%;"| Non-working day. A [[Patron Saint|Patroness Day]] (Catholic)
|-
| November 6 || [[Constitution Day]]
|style="font-size:95%;"| Movable.
|-
| December 25 || [[Christmas|Christmas Day]]
|style="font-size:95%;"| Non-working day. Birth of Jesus Christ
|}
''Notes'':
* ''Non-working holidays are not moved to another day.''
* ''If a movable holiday falls on Saturday, Sunday or Monday then it is not moved to another day. If it falls on Tuesday or Wednesday, the holiday is moved to the previous Monday. It falls on Thursday or Friday, the holiday is moved to the next Monday.''

==Military ==
{{main|Military of the Dominican Republic}}

[[Congress of the Dominican Republic|Congress]] authorizes a combined military force of 44,000 active duty personnel. Actual active duty strength is approximately 32,000. However, approximately 50% of those are used for non-military activities such as security providers for government-owned non-military facilities, highway toll stations, prisons, forestry work, state enterprises, and private businesses. The Commander in Chief of the military is the President. The principal missions are to defend the nation and protect the territorial integrity of the country. The army, larger than the other services combined with approximately 20,000 active duty personnel, consists of six infantry [[brigade]]s, a combat support brigade, and a combat service support brigade. The air force operates two main [[military base|bases]], one in the southern region near Santo Domingo and one in the northern region near Puerto Plata. The navy operates two major naval bases, one in Santo Domingo and one in Las Calderas on the southwestern coast, and maintains 12 operational vessels. In the Caribbean, only Cuba has a larger military force.

The armed forces have organized a Specialized Airport Security Corps (CESA) and a Specialized Port Security Corps (CESEP) to meet international security needs in these areas. The Secretary of the Armed Forces has also announced plans to form a specialized border corps (CESEF). Additionally, the armed forces provide 75% of personnel to the National Investigations Directorate (DNI) and the Counter-Drug Directorate (DNCD).

The Dominican National Police force contains 32,000 agents. The police are not part of the Dominican armed forces, but share some overlapping security functions. Sixty-three percent of the force serve in areas outside traditional police functions, similar to the situation of their military counterparts.<ref name=ussdnote>U.S. State Department (November, 2007) [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35639.htm Background Note: Dominican Republic] Retrieved [[2008-01-18]]</ref>

==Services and transportation==
{{main|Transportation in the Dominican Republic}}
{{See also|List of airports in the Dominican Republic}}

There are two transportation services in the Dominican Republic, one controlled by the government through the Oficina Técnica de Transito Terrestre (O.T.T.T.) and the Oficina Metropolitana de Servicios de Autobuses (OMSA), and the other controlled by private business, among them, Federación Nacional de Transporte La Nueva Opción (FENATRANO) and the Confederacion Nacional de Transporte (CONATRA).

The government transportation system covers large routes in metropolitan areas, such as [[Santo Domingo]] and [[Santiago de los Caballeros|Santiago]], for very inexpensive prices. In December 2006, the price was DOP$5.00(US$0.15), and air-conditioned bus rides were priced at DOP$10 (US$0.30). It should be noted that most OMSA buses are currently in very poor condition, and OMSA has been criticized for its incapability to fully meet the people's needs.<ref>{{cite news |first=Niza |last=Campos |title=Millonarias inversiones para un precario servicio |url=http://www.diariolibre.com/app/article.aspx?id=124138 |work=Diario Libre |publisher= |date=2007-10-16 |accessdate=2008-02-02|language=Spanish}}</ref>

FENATRANO and CONATRA offer their services with ''voladoras'' (vans) or ''conchos'' (cars), which have routes in most parts of the cities. These cars have roofs painted in yellow or green in order to identify them. The cars have scheduled days to work, depending on the color of the roof, and have been described as unsafe.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.visiting-the-dominican-republic.com/publicos.html |title=Guaguas, publicos and motoconchos - getting around the Dominican Republic |accessdate=2008-02-02}}</ref>

===Communications===
{{main|Communications in the Dominican Republic}}
The Dominican Republic has a well developed telecommunications infrastructure, with extensive [[mobile phone]] services and [[landline]] services. The [[telecommunications]] regulator in the country is INDOTEL, Instituto Dominicano De Telecomunicaciones. The Dominican Republic offers [[cable internet]] and [[DSL]] in most parts of the country, and many [[ISP]]s provide [[3G]] wireless internet service. Projects to extend [[Wi-Fi]] hot spots have been made in Santo Domingo. As of October 2007 a new service was introduced in the country via [[WiMax]], by [[OneMax]], [[Wind Telecom]], Tricom, and the former Codetel, now Claro, that provides telephony over [[Internet Protocol|IP]] as well as nation-wide [[broadband]] services to both residential and commercial users. In fact the DR is the only country in all Latin America to have this kind of service up to this date at a national level.

Numerous television channels are available, including digital cable Telecable Nacional, [[Aster (cable)|Aster]] and [[Wind Telecom]]. Many other companies provide digital television services with channels from Latin America and the world. The reported speeds are from 256 kbit/s /128 kbit/s for residential services and up to 4 MB / 2 MB for commercial and residential service. (Each set of numbers denotes [[Cable internet|downstream/upstream speed]].)

The Dominican Republic's commercial radio stations and tv stations are in the process of transferring to the digital spectrum via [[HD Radio]] and [[HDTV]].

As of May 2008, there are six major communication companies: [[CODETEL]], [[Orange SA|Orange]], [[TRICOM]], [[Trilogy Dominicana]], [[Onemax]] and [[Wind Telecom]].

On February 1, 2007, [[Verizon]] changed the names of its wireless services to Claro and [[CODETEL]]. The company has been owned since 2006 by [[Carlos Slim Helú]]'s [[América Móvil]]. [[Claro (mobile phone network)|Claro]] is now the official name of the Wireless Division and [[CODETEL]] (the original Compañia Dominicana de Teléfonos) is the updated name for the [[Verizon Dominicana]] landline and broadband market.

===Highways===
{{main|Highways and Routes in the Dominican Republic}}
The Dominican Republic has five major highways, which take travelers to every important town in the country. The three major highways are [[Autopista Duarte]], [[DR-3|Autopista del Este]], and [[Autopista del Sur]], which go to the north, east, and western side of the country. A new 106 kilometer toll road that connects Santo Domingo with the country’s northeastern peninsula is now operating. Travelers can now arrive in the beautiful Samana Peninsula in less than 2 hours. Most of routes interconnecting small towns in the country, are unpaved and are getting improved.

===Ports===
{{main|Port of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: Sans Souci}}
The Port of Santo Domingo, with its location at the west of the Caribbean is well suited for flexible itinerary planning and has excellent support, road and airport infrastructure within the Santo Domingo region, which facilitate access and transfers. The port is suitable for both turnaround and transit calls.

===Electricity===

Electrical services in the country have been a headache for the population, as well as the business and other areas for more than 40 years. Due to the extreme corruption within the government, no administration has been able to cope with this problem. In 1998, three regional electricity distribution systems were privatized via sale of 50% of shares to foreign operators; in an unexpected decision, the Mejía administration repurchased all foreign-owned shares in two of these systems in late 2003. The third, serving the eastern provinces, is operated by U.S. concerns and is 50% U.S.-owned. Industry experts estimated distribution losses for 2006 surpassed 40%, primarily due to low collection rates, theft, and corruption. At the close of 2006, the government had exceeded its budget for electricity subsidies, spending close to U.S. $650 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.traveldocs.com/do/economy.htm |title=Dominican Republic Economy |accessdate=2008-02-02 |work=Travel Document Systems}} </ref>

Household and general electrical service is delivered at 110 [[volt]]s alternating at 60 [[Hertz|Hz]]; electrically-powered items from the United States work with no modifications. The majority of the country has access to electricity. Still, in 2007 some areas have outages lasting as long as 20 hours a day. Tourist areas tend to have more reliable power, as do business, travel, healthcare, and vital infrastructure. The situation improved in 2006, with 200 circuits (40% of the total) providing permanent electricity, as 85% of electric demand overall was met and blackouts were reduced from 6.3 hours per day to 3.7.<ref>{{cite news |title=Informe dice mejoró en 2006 la oferta energética |date=2007-01-19 |publisher= Grupo Omnimedia |url=http://diariolibre.com/app/article.aspx?id=93445 |work=Diario Libre |accessdate=2008-02-02 |language=Spanish}}</ref> Concentrated efforts were announced to increase efficiency of delivery to places where the collection rate reached 70%.<ref>{{cite news |title=Los apagones toman fuerza en circuitos de barrios PRA |date=2007-04-11 |publisher=Editora Listin Diario|url=http://listin.com.do/app/article.aspx?id=9006 |work=listindiario.com |accessdate=2007-05-24 |language=Spanish}}</ref> The electricity sector is highly politicized, and with 2008 presidential election campaigning already in motion the prospect of further effective reforms of the sector is poor. Debts, including government debt, amount to more than U.S. $500 million. Some generating companies are undercapitalized and at times unable to purchase adequate fuel supplies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35639.htm |title=Background Note: Dominican Republic |accessdate=2008-02-02 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Dominican National Team]]
*[[Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic]]
*[[Law of the Dominican Republic]]
*[[List of people from the Dominican Republic]]
*[[List of players from Dominican Republic in Major League Baseball]]
*[[List of universities in the Dominican Republic]]
*[[List of wettest tropical cyclones by country#Dominican Republic|List of wettest known tropical cyclones in the Dominican Republic]]
*[[Military of the Dominican Republic]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
== External links ==
{{portal|Dominican Republic|Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg}}
{{sisterlinks}}
* [http://www.bancomundial.org.do/ World Bank Dominican Republic]
* [http://www.dominicanwebcams.com www.dominicanwebcams.com / Live and timelapse webcam images from the Dominican Republic]
* [http://www.dominicanweather.info www.dominicanweather.info / Dominican Republic Weather Information]
* [http://www.dominicansearch.info www.dominicansearch.info / Dominican Republic Search Engine]
* [http://www.flydominicanrepublic.com www.flydominicanrepublic.com / Dominican Republic Pilots Guide]
* [http://www.godominicanrepublic.com/ Official Website of the Ministry of Tourism of the Dominican Republic]
* [http://www.aei.org.do Real Estate Association- Asociación de Empresas Inmobiliarias 'AEI']
* [http://www.lastminutedom.de/dom-rep-urlaubsziele-reisen/ Dominican Republic Holiday]
* [http://www.toursdominican.com Dominican Republic Vacations]
* [http://www.lastminutedom.de Dom Rep Expert]
* [http://www.puntacanalife.com Lifestyle Real Estate]
* [http://www.drlawyer.com Dominican Republic Lawyers]
* [http://www.presidencia.gov.do Presidency of the Dominican Republic] {{es}}
* [http://www.kelbi.de/lastminute-billig-dom-rep-buchen/ Dominican Republic Travel Tips]
* [http://www.godominicanrepublic.com Ministry of Tourism of the Dominican Republic]
* {{wikiatlas|the Dominican Republic}}
* {{wikitravel}}
* {{wikia|world:Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/Caribbean/Dominican_Republic/}}
* {{CIA World Factbook link|dr|Dominican Republic}}
* [http://www.eleccionesdominicanas.com Dominican Republic Politics and Elections] {{es}}
* [http://www.casadelasanas.com Dominican Republic - Moncion Village] {{es}}
* [http://www.vipdominicana.ru/Photos-Gallery-001 Dominican Republic Photos Gallery ]
{{Template group
|title = Geographic locale
|list =
{{Provinces of the Dominican Republic}}
{{Countries and territories of the Caribbean}}
{{Countries of North America}}
}}
{{Template group
|title = International membership
|list =
{{Organization of American States (OAS)}}
{{Latin Union}}
{{Caribbean Community (CARICOM)|state=collapsed}}
}}


[[Category:Dominican Republic| ]]
[[Category:Former Spanish colonies]]
[[Category:Island countries]]
[[Category:Spanish-speaking countries]]



[[af:Dominikaanse Republiek]]
[[ar:جمهورية الدومنيكان]]
[[an:Republica Dominicana]]
[[frp:Rèpublica domeniquêna]]
[[ast:República Dominicana]]
[[az:Dominikan Respublikası]]
[[bn:ডোমিনিকান প্রজাতন্ত্র]]
[[zh-min-nan:Dominic Kiōng-hô-kok]]
[[be-x-old:Дамініканская Рэспубліка]]
[[bs:Dominikanska Republika]]
[[br:Republik Dominikan]]
[[bg:Доминиканска република]]
[[ca:República Dominicana]]
[[ceb:Republikang Dominicano]]
[[cs:Dominikánská republika]]
[[cy:Gweriniaeth Dominica]]
[[da:Dominikanske Republik]]
[[de:Dominikanische Republik]]
[[dv:ޑޮމިނިކަން ޖުމްހޫރިއްޔާ]]
[[dsb:Dominikana]]
[[et:Dominikaani Vabariik]]
[[el:Δομινικανή Δημοκρατία]]
[[es:República Dominicana]]
[[eo:Domingo]]
[[eu:Dominikar Errepublika]]
[[fa:جمهوری دومینیکن]]
[[fo:Dominikanalýðveldið]]
[[fr:République dominicaine]]
[[fy:Dominikaanske Republyk]]
[[ga:An Phoblacht Dhoiminiceach]]
[[gv:Yn Phobblaght Ghominicagh]]
[[gd:Poblachd Dhoiminicia]]
[[gl:República Dominicana]]
[[ko:도미니카 공화국]]
[[hi:डोमिनिकन गणराज्य]]
[[hr:Dominikanska Republika]]
[[io:Dominikana Republiko]]
[[bpy:ডোমিনিকান প্রজাতন্ত্র]]
[[id:Republik Dominika]]
[[ia:Republica Dominican]]
[[os:Доминиканаг Республикæ]]
[[is:Dóminíska lýðveldið]]
[[it:Repubblica Dominicana]]
[[he:הרפובליקה הדומיניקנית]]
[[jv:Republik Dominika]]
[[pam:Dominican Republic]]
[[ka:დომინიკელთა რესპუბლიკა]]
[[ks:डोमोनिकन रिपब्लिक]]
[[kk:Доминикан Республикасы]]
[[kw:Repoblek Dhominikanek]]
[[sw:Jamhuri ya Dominika]]
[[ht:Repiblik dominikàn]]
[[ku:Komara Domînîk]]
[[la:Respublica Dominicana]]
[[lv:Dominikāna]]
[[lb:Dominikanesch Republik]]
[[lt:Dominikos Respublika]]
[[lij:Repubbrica Dominicann-a]]
[[hu:Dominikai Köztársaság]]
[[mk:Доминиканска Република]]
[[mr:डॉमिनिकन प्रजासत्ताक]]
[[ms:Republik Dominika]]
[[nah:Tlācatlahtohcāyōtl Dominicatēcatl]]
[[na:Republik Dominica]]
[[nl:Dominicaanse Republiek]]
[[ja:ドミニカ共和国]]
[[no:Den dominikanske republikk]]
[[nn:Den dominikanske republikken]]
[[nov:Dominikal Republike]]
[[oc:Republica Dominicana]]
[[uz:Dominika Respublikasi]]
[[ps:ډومنيکان جمهوريت]]
[[pms:Repùblica Dominican-a]]
[[nds:Dominikaansche Republiek]]
[[pl:Dominikana]]
[[pt:República Dominicana]]
[[crh:Dominikan Cumhuriyeti]]
[[ro:Republica Dominicană]]
[[qu:Duminikana]]
[[ru:Доминиканская Республика]]
[[sa:डोमोनिकन रिपब्लिक]]
[[sq:Republika Dominikane]]
[[scn:Ripùbbrica Duminicana]]
[[simple:Dominican Republic]]
[[sk:Dominikánska republika]]
[[sl:Dominikanska republika]]
[[sr:Доминиканска Република]]
[[sh:Dominikanska Republika]]
[[fi:Dominikaaninen tasavalta]]
[[sv:Dominikanska republiken]]
[[tl:Republikang Dominikano]]
[[ta:டொமினிக்கன் குடியரசு]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐโดมินิกัน]]
[[vi:Cộng hòa Dominicana]]
[[tg:Ҷумҳурии Доминикана]]
[[tr:Dominik Cumhuriyeti]]
[[uk:Домініканська Республіка]]
[[ur:جمہوریہ ڈومینیکا]]
[[vec:Repùblica Dominicana]]
[[vo:Repüblikän Dominiganik]]
[[wo:Réewum Dominik]]
[[yi:דאמיניקאנישע רעפובליק]]
[[diq:Cumurêtê Dominiki]]
[[bat-smg:Duomėnė̅kas Respoblėka]]
[[zh:多明尼加共和國]]

Cup-and-ball

2008-09-19T22:04:38Z

163.178.17.124: /* Popular culture */

{{sources|date=September 2008}}
{{Infobox Game
| title = Ball in a cup
| subtitle = Balero
| image_link = [[Image:Ballinacup.jpg|240px]]
| image_caption = Typical ball in a cup toy
| players = 1
| ages = 3+
| setup_time = None
| playing_time = About 30 seconds to a few minutes per round
| random_chance = Low
| skills = [[Eye-hand coordination|Hand-eye coordination]]
| footnotes = Often played by young children.
}}
:''Not to be confused with the dance [[Bolero]].''

A '''Ball in a cup''' is a traditional children's [[toy]], consisting of a wooden cup with a [[handle (grip)|handle]], and a [[ball]] which is attached to a [[rope|string]], which is in turn attached to the cup. It is popular in [[Latin American]] countries, where it is called "'''balero'''". In [[Ireland]] it is known as "arty".{{fact|date=September 2008}}

The ball in a cup is a common toy in Latin America. The name varies across many countries — in [[Argentina]], [[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]] and [[Mexico]] it is called "balero"; in [[Spain]] it is "boliche"; in [[Brazil]] it is called "bilboquê"; in [[Chile]] it is "boliche" or "emboque" and in [[Venezuela]] the game has many names such as "boliche", "perinola" and "juego de la coca".<ref name="CIVILA">{{cite web |author=Civila|title=El balero|publisher=Open Publishing|language=Spanish|url=http://www.educar.org/infantiles/Juegos/tradicionales/balero.asp|accessdate=2008-09-03}}</ref>

==Construction==
The ball in a cup is a ball of roughly seven centimeters, usually made of wood. It is connected to the handle of the cup by a string of 35 to 40 centimeters. The cup is shaped to fit the ball.<ref name="CIVILA"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Balero|publisher=Open Publishing|language=Spanish|url= http://www.juguetesmexicanos.com/balero.htm|accessdate=2008-09-03}}</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Balero tipico mexicano.JPG|thumb|A typical Mexican ball in a cup.]]
The ball in a cup has its origins in [[France]] in the sixteenth century. The game was loved by [[Henry III of France|King Henry III of France]]. This frivolous monarch was often seen playing in public. After his death, the game went out of fashion. For 100 years the game was only remembered by a small number of enthusiasts such as the Marquis de Biévre.{{fact|date=September 2008}}

The game had its golden age during the reign of [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] — among the upper classes people owned baleros made of ivory. Actors also sometimes appeared with them in scenes. Following this period, the game went out of fashion again, at least in [[Europe]].

Inside [[Brazil]]’s [[rain forest]], the indigenous people sometimes utilized the [[turtle]] [[skull]]s as balls for the balero.{{fact|date=September 2008}}

The game was reborn around [[1910]] in [[France]]. The game became more modern as the shape and materials were changed to add more variety. Some of the new forms were “the cup”, “the cube”, “the bottle”, “the hat’s mold”, “the bicycle’s guide” and “feather duster”.{{fact|date=September 2008}} The names of the shapes made reference to the object used as the ball.

The sizes was also varied, ranging from the “horror”, which had a ball as big as a [[watermelon]] and a weight of five kilograms, to the “bibí”, with a ball as small as a [[cherry]], and the “costaud”, made from a [[pearl]] with a handle smaller than a [[match]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Bilboquet o Balero - Juegos Tradicionales|publisher=Open Publishing|language=Spanish|url=http://acanomas.com/DatoMuestra.php?Id=174|accessdate=2008-09-03 }}</ref>

==Game play==
The main goal of the game is to get the ball in the cup. While the concept is very easy, mastering the game sometimes requires many hours of practice. To play, the player holds the cup by the handle and lets the ball hang freely. The player then tosses the ball upward by jerking the arm holding the toy, attempting to catch the ball in the cup.

There are several styles of gameplay such as “la simple”, “la doble”, “la vertical”, "la mariquita”, “la puñalada” and “la porteña”. Some tricks that can be done are “capirucho”, “por atrás” and “media vuelta”.<ref name="CIVILA"/>

==Rules==
*The player must not use any body part other than their handle-holding arm to catch the ball.
*The player must not purposefully bounce the ball off their body to change its [[trajectory]].

==Popular culture==
* The [[Chavo del ocho]] usually plays with one, in the homonimous tv show.
* The toy was parodied in the episode [[Marge Be Not Proud]] from [[The Simpsons]].
* The episode [[The Fat Guy Strangler]] from the [[United States|American]] [[animated television series]] [[Family Guy]] included a humorous [[Television advertisement|TV commercial]] featuring the toy, saying it has been Mexico's favorite toy for 340 years. The gag was referred to in a later episode, [[Padre de Familia (Family Guy episode)|Padre de Familia]].
* In the "Sign Language!" episode of [[Oobi]], a deaf girl named Amy impresses Oobi and Kako with her technique, to the point of being dubbed "Cup-Ball Queen". She takes a deep breath, then gets the ball into the cup with a brusque flick of her wrist.

==See also==
*[[Kendama]] — a [[Japan|Japanese]] version of the game.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Games of physical skill]]

Social Christian Unity Party

2008-09-17T16:42:55Z

163.178.17.124:

The '''Social Christian Unity Party''' (''Partido de Unidad Socialcristiana'') is a [[political party]] in [[Costa Rica]].

PUSC considers itself a [[Christian Democracy|Christian Democratic Party]] and, as such, is a member of the Christian Democrat and People's Parties International.

==2002 election==
In the [[Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica|legislative]] [[elections in Costa Rica|elections]] held on [[3 February]] [[2002]], the party won 29.8% of the popular vote and 19 out of 57 seats. In the presidential election, held concurrently with the legislative vote, its candidate, [[Abel Pacheco de la Espriella]] won 38.6% of the vote. He was subsequently elected to the presidency in a runoff election on [[7 April]] with 58.0% of the vote.

==Corruption scandals==
During Pacheco's presidency, news media revealed corruption scandals regarding former presidents [[Miguel Angel Rodríguez Echeverría]], and [[Rafael Angel Calderón Fournier]] which costed greatly to the Party in the next election (see below).

==2006 election==
In the [[Costa Rica presidential elections, 2006|2006 general election]], PUSC presidential candidate [[Ricardo Toledo]] secured around 3.5% of the national vote.

In the 5 February 2006 parliamentary election, the party won 5 out of 57 seats.

http://www.partidounidadsocialcristiana.com/

{{Costa Rican political parties}}
{{CostaRica-stub}}
{{party-stub}}

[[Category:Political parties in Costa Rica]]

[[es:Partido Unidad Social Cristiana]]
[[fr:Parti Unité sociale-chrétienne (Costa Rica)]]
[[it:Partido Unidad Social Cristiana]]

Politics of Costa Rica

2008-09-17T16:39:24Z

163.178.17.124: /* Political conditions */

{{Unreferenced|date=January 2008}}
{{Cleanup|date=January 2008}}
{{Politics of Costa Rica}}
The politics of [[Costa Rica]] take place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Costa Rica]] is both the [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a [[multi-party system]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the president and his cabinet. [[Legislative power]] is vested in the [[Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica|Legislative Assembly]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. [[Costa Rica]] is a [[republic]] with a strong system of constitutional checks and balances.

==Political conditions ==
Costa Rica's current leading [[Political party|political parties]] are Partido Liberación Nacional (PLN, [[Social Democracy|social democratic]]), [[Partido Acción Ciudadana]] (PAC, Reformist, largely but not exclusively left and center left), [[Partido Movimiento Libertario]] (ML, [[Libertarianism|libertarian]]) and the Partido Unidad Social Cristiana (PUSC, [[Christian Democracy|christian democratic]]). Other minor parties with congressional representation include [[Partido Restauración Nacional]] (PRN, Christian), [[Partido Frente Amplio]] (FA, left), [[Partido Accesibilidad Sin Exclusión]] (PASE, fights for disabled people) and [[Partido Unión Nacional]] (PUN, center right) . Several new parties participated for the first time in the 2006 elections, including [[Partido Unión Patriótica]], [[Partido Unión para el Cambio]], [[Partido Patria Primero]], and [[Partido Alianza Democrática Nacionalista]] but their results were mostly poor.

In the February [[1998]] national election, PUSC candidate [[Miguel Ángel Rodríguez]] won the presidency over PLN nominee [[Jose Miguel Corrales]]. President Rodriguez assumed office [[8 May]] [[1998]]. The PUSC also obtained 27 seats in the 57-member Legislative Assembly, for a plurality, while the PLN gained 23 and five minor parties won seven. Social Christian in philosophy, the PUSC generally favors neoliberalism, conservative fiscal policies, and government reform. President Rodriguez pledged to reduce the country's large [[internal debt]], privatize state-owned utilities, attract additional foreign investment, eliminate social welfare programs, and promote the creation of jobs with decent salaries. The reforms he tried to promote found opposition from several parties, including his own, and he asserted several times the country was "ungovernable". In particular, an attempt by the Legislative Assembly to approve a law that opened up the electricity and telecommunication markets (contolled by a monopoly of the Costa Rican Institute of Electricity - ICE) to market competition, known as the "Combo" law was met with strong social opposition. Supported by both major parties at the time, the PLN and PUSC, as well as by President Rodriguez, the first of three required legislative votes to approve the Combo law provoked the largest protest demonstrations the country had seen since 1970. The government quickly resolved to shelf the initiative. President Rodríguez's approval would reach an all-time low, and he was indicted by the Attorney General after leaving office on corruption charges.

In the [[2002]] national election, a new party founded by former PLN Congressman and government Minister [[Ottón Solís]] captured 26% of the vote, forcing a runoff election for the first time in the country's history. Abel Pacheco was elected President, under a national unity platform, but continuing most of the neoliberal and conservative policies of [[Miguel Ángel Rodríguez]]. This election was also important because new parties won several seats in Congress, more than ever. The PUSC obtained 19 seats, PLN 17 seats, PAC 14 seats, PML 6 seats and PRC one seat.

During the year 2004, several high profile corruption scandals shattered the foundations of PUSC. Two former Presidents from the party, Miguel Ángel Rodríguez and [[Rafael Ángel Calderón]] were arrested on corruption charges and are currently waiting for the investigation to end and trial to begin. Also involved in scandals has been [[José María Figueres]], former President from PLN and former head of the [[World Economic Forum]].

The [[2006]] national election was expected to be a landslide for former President (1986-1990) and PLN's candidate [[Óscar Arias]], but it turned out to be the closest in modern history. Although polls just a week before the election gave Arias a comfortable lead of at least 12% (and up to 20%), preliminary election results gave him only a .4% lead over rival [[Ottón Solís]] and prompted a manual recount of all ballots. After a month long recount and several appeals from different parties, Arias was declared the official winner with 40.9% of the votes against 39.8% for Solís.

Since Óscar Arias returned to office, the political climate has been characterized by an increased polarization of public debate, mainly centered on whether to approve or reject [[CAFTA]]. Main supporters of the approval include the President's PLN, which has established a coalition with PUSC and ML in Congress in order to approve the implementation laws in Congress, as well as different business chambers, while the main opposition to CAFTA comes from PAC, labor unions, environmental organizations and public universities. In April 2007, former PLN Presidential candidate and CAFTA opponent José Miguel Corrales won a legal battle at the Supreme Electoral Tribunal, which authorized him to gather over 100 thousand signatures in order to send CAFTA to a referendum and let the people decide the fate of the controversial agreement. As the February 28, 2008 deadline to approve or reject CAFTA loomed, Arias decided to call for the referendum himself, and it took take place on October 7, 2007. In the intercourse, Vicepresident [[Kevin Casas]] quitted from his position due to a compromising [[memorandum]] he wrote.

In spite of winning the referendum, each new law had to be analyzed and approved individually which has caused delays in Costa Rica's compliance to CAFTA. As of September 2008, only one law was remaining to be approved, but was delayed because it had a faulty procedure to be approved. The president expressed in a recent speech to be "tired", regarding the opposition parties who "do not let me accomplish my goals".

==Executive branch==
[[Image:OscarArias.jpg|thumb|[[Óscar Arias]], Nobel Peace Prize winner, President of Costa Rica (1986-1990, 2006-present)]]
Executive responsibilities are vested in a [[List of Presidents of Costa Rica|president]], who is the country's center of power. There also are two vice presidents and the president's cabinet composed of his ministers [http://www.go.cr/consejo_gob_costarica.htm]. The president and 57 [[Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica|Legislative Assembly]] deputies are elected for 4-year terms. A constitutional amendment approved in [[1969]] limits presidents and deputies to one term, although a deputy may run again for an Assembly seat after sitting out a term. The prohibition was officially recognized as anti-constitutional in April 2003, allowing [[Óscar Arias]] to run for President a second time in the [[Costa Rica presidential elections, 2006|2006 Costa Rican presidential elections]].
The offices of the Comptroller General of the Republic, the Procurator General of the Public, and the Ombudsman exercise autonomous oversight of the government. The Comptroller General's office has a statutory responsibility to scrutinize all but the smallest contracts of the public sector and strictly enforces procedural requirements.

The position of governor of the seven provinces was abolished in 1998 [http://www.nacion.com/ln_ee/2007/junio/29/pais1150113.html]. There are no provincial legislatures. Autonomous state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence; they include the telecommunications and electrical power monopoly, the nationalized commercial banks, the state insurance monopoly, and the social security agency. Costa Rica has no military but maintains domestic Police and armed National Guard forces securing its interests.

{{office-table}}
|[[President of Costa Rica]]
|[[Óscar Arias]]
|[[National Liberation Party (Costa Rica)|PLN]]
|[[8 May]] [[2006]]
|}

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Costa Rica|Elections in Costa Rica}}
The electoral process is supervised by an independent Supreme Electoral Tribunal – a commission of three principal magistrates and six alternates selected by the [[Supreme Court]] of Justice.
{{main|Costa Rican presidential election, 2006}}
{{Costa Rica presidential election, 2006}}
{{main|Costa Rican parliamentary election, 2006}}
{{Costa Rica parliamentary election, 2006}}

==Judicial branch==
Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice, composed of 22 magistrates selected for renewable 8-year terms by the Legislative Assembly, and subsidiary courts. A Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court, established in 1989, reviews the constitutionality of legislation and executive decrees and all habeas corpus warrants.
{{North America topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Costa Rica| ]]

[[es:Política de Costa Rica]]
[[fr:Politique du Costa Rica]]
[[it:Politica della Costa Rica]]
[[pt:Política da Costa Rica]]

Children's Day

2008-09-09T18:57:47Z

163.178.17.124: /* Costa Rica */ Eliminated spam

{{intro-missing}}
== Universal Children's Day==

In [[1954]] the [[United Nations General Assembly]] suggested that all nations should observe a Universal Children's Day as a day of worldwide fraternity and understanding between children and of activity promoting the welfare of the world's children.<ref name="UN_ARES836IX">{{UN document |docid=A-RES-836(IX) |type=Resolution |body=General Assembly |session=9 |resolution_number=836 |accessdate=2008-08-22|title=Universal Children's Day|date=[[14 December]] [[1954]]}}</ref>

The date of [[20 November]] marks the day in [[1959]] when the Assembly adopted the [[Declaration of the Rights of the Child]], and the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] in [[1989]], and is often the day chosen by countries as their own designated day to observe Universal Children's Day.

State governments are responsible for passing legislation providing a day and name appropriate for their compliance with the United Nations General Assembly resolution. [http://www.ohchr.org United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights / UN Committee on the Rights of the Child]

== United Nations - Universal Children's Day observance around the world ==
{{Refimprove|date=June 2008}}

=== Australia ===
Australia celebrates Children's Day on the fourth Wednesday of October. In 2008, it falls on the 22nd of October. It is part of a week long celebration of "Children's Week". Although a large majority  of the population know that it is children's week there are very few celebrations and gifts are rarely given out

=== Argentina ===
Children's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of August.

=== Brazil ===
Children's Day is celebrated on [[October 12]], which is also the day of [[Our Lady of Aparecida]], a [[Public holidays in Brazil|public holiday in Brazil]].

=== Bangladesh ===
In '''Bangladesh''', Children's Day hasn't been celebrated in a manner that may let know the community know about the importance of Child Rights. However on '''November 20''' YCM(Youth Change Makers) plans to inform people of Children Day by holding huge children competitions and fashion show, although it will not be considered as a holiday.

In 1996-2000 Bangladesh government observed national child day at the birth day of the fahter of nation Bangabandhu Shekh Mujibur Rahman on 20th March. But in BNP reigme(2001-2006) they stopped this celebration and observed only universal child day following by UNICEF.

===Canada===
Canada's "National Child Day" is held November 20th each year as enacted in Bill C-371, otherwise known as the Child Day Act, by the Parliament of Canada in 1993 to fulfill Canada's commitment to the United Nations General Assembly's recommendation to observe a Universal Children's Day.[http://www.canadiancrc.com/National_Child_Day.aspx Canadian Children's Rights Council] It is not a holiday in Canada.

In Bangladesh context your delivered information is not very acqurate.In 1996-2000 Bangladesh government observed national child day at the birth day of the fahter of nation Bangabandhu Shekh Mujibur Rahman on 20th March. But in BNP reigme(2001-2006) the stopped this celebration and observed only universal child day following by UNICEF.

===Central Africa===
On [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo DR]], [[Cameroon]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]], [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] Children's Day is celebrated in this country on the [[December 25]] to honour all the children.

===Chile===
Children's Day is celebrated the second Sunday of August.

===Colombia===
In [[Colombia]] Children's Day is celebrated in the last weekend of April.

===Costa Rica===
Children's day is celebrated on [[September 9]] in [[Costa Rica]].

===Cuba===
Children's day is celebrated in [[Cuba]] on the third Sunday of July.

===Czech Republic===
The International Children's Day is celebrated on [[June 1]].

===El Salvador===
In [[El Salvador]], Children's Day is celebrated on [[October 1]].

===Former and current Communist and Socialist countries===
In [[Russia]], as well as other former [[Soviet Union]] states, including [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Belarus]], [[Estonia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Moldova]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], other former or current [[Communism|communist]] states, [[Albania]], [[Angola]], [[Benin]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Cambodia]], [[Croatia]], [[Cuba]], [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]], [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]], [[German Democratic Republic|Germany]], [[Laos]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Mongolia]], [[Montenegro]], [[Mozambique]], [[Poland]], [[Serbia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Tanzania]], [[South Yemen|Yemen]], Children's Day is celebrated on [[June 1]].
This list includes 25 countries which regained independence from [[Soviet Union|USSR]], seceded from [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia Federation]], as well as [[Czechoslovakia]], [[People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] after their respective splits.

===Germany===
During the [[Cold War]], Children's Day (Kindertag) was handled quite differently in the two states. The date was different ([[East Germany|GDR]]: June 1, [[West Germany|FRG]]: September 20), the name was slightly different (GDR: "International Children's Day" ("Internationaler Kindertag"), FRG: "World Children's Day" ("Weltkindertag")), and most notably: the [[convention (norm)|custom]]s.

In the GDR, the holiday was introduced in 1950, and was from then on a yearly highlight for the children. On this day of the year, one typically received congratulations and presents from one's parents and did special activities in [[school]], such as field trips and the like. In the FRG, Children's Day did not have such meaning to the children, and was even mostly unknown to many people.

Since the affiliation in 1990, the date and name used in the FRG have become the official ones for the former GDR as well. This however was not accepted by large parts of the former GDR population, so that still many parents celebrate with their kids on the former date, June 1, and even Children's Day public events take place on the old date.

===Guatemala===
In Guatemala Children's day is celebrated on the first day of October.

===Honduras===
In [[Honduras]] Children's Day (Día del Niño) is celebrated on [[September 10]].

===Hong Kong===
Children's Day is celebrated on [[April 4]] each year (the same day as the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) since ROC established the Children's Day on April 4 in 1931. The ROC government combined Women’s Day with Children’s Day on April 4 in 1993, officially calling it Women’s and Children’s Day, making it a day for women, mothers, and children. The practice is still observed by both the [[Hong Kong Government|Hong Kong SAR Government]] and the public after the handover in 1997, though this festival has not been a public holiday before the handover. [http://www.news.gov.hk/tc/hkforkids/default/050404/html/050404tc50001.htm], [http://www.police.gov.hk/police/offbeat/794/chi/h14.htm], [http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200603/30/P200603300161.htm]

===Hungary===
In 1931, Children's day started although then it was called Children's Week, but since 1950 it has only been a day technically the last Sunday in May.

===India===
In '''India''' Children's Day is celebrated on [[November 14]] every year. This date marks the birth anniversary of independent India’s first Prime Minister, [[Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru]] as he was very fond of children. Children's day is celebrated on this day in recognition of his lifelong passion and work for children.

===Israel===
Children's Day is celebrated on April the 9th.

===''Japan===
[[Image:Koinobori4797.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese families fly carp kites on Children's Day.]]
[[May 05]] is Children's Day, called {{nihongo|こどもの日|[[Kodomo no hi|"Kodomo no hi"]]|}} in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]; the festivities used to be called Boy's Day , called {{nihongo|端午の節句|Tango no Sekku}} in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] , to distinguish it from Girls' Day, called {{nihongo|桃の節句|Momo no Sekku}}, {{nihongo|ひな祭り|[[Hinamatsuri]]}} in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] , [[March 3]]). Both of these days are marked with a lot of [http://living.in-japan.jp/2007/05/girls_festival_and_boys_festiv.html activities for children]. On this day, children display samurai swords, armor, and [[Kintarō]] dolls. Two important symbols of Children's day are carps and irises. Traditionally, families fly carp kites with a carp representing each son.

===Kazakhstan===
Also known as the Day of Children's Safety, Children's Day is celebrated on 1 June.

===Malaysia===
Children's Day is celebrated on October the First. School is suspended on this day.
===Mexico===
In Mexico Children's day is celebrated on the 30th of April.

===New Zealand===
Children's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of March each year. Children's Day provides New Zealanders with a special opportunity to spend time with their children, create positive memories, and take part in fun activities that start new traditions as well as continue old ones. The vision of Children's Day is to see children celebrated, nurtured and treasured by all.

===Nigeria===
Children's Day is celebrated on the 27th of May.

===North Korea===
North Korean Children's Day is celebrated on [[June 1]] (국제 아동절). Before 1945 it was celebrated on [[May 1]], But in 1945, it was changed to its current date.

===South Korea===
In South Korea, 5th of May is officially the Children's Day.

===Pakistan===
In [[Pakistan]], Children's Day is celebrated on [[November 20]]. There is no holiday on this day but it is observed by NGO working on Child Rights.

===Peru===
In [[Peru]], Children's Day is celebrated on [[August 17]].

===Paraguay===
In Paraguay, Children's Day is celebrated on [[August 16]], day of the infamous [[Battle of Acosta Ñu]], where 20,000 thousand men of the [[Brazilian Army]] crushed a Paraguayan battle made up of 3,500 children ages six to fifteen - even though Paraguay had been already completely defeated (see more in [[War of the Triple Alliance]]). It's a national holiday, used to remember the atrocities the Brazilians committed during the five-year war.

===People's Republic of China===
In the [[People's Republic of China]], Children's Day is celebrated on [[June 1]] and is formally known as "the June 1st International Children's Day" ([[Simplified Chinese]]: {{lang|zh-cn|六一国际儿童节}}; [[pinyin]]: lìuyīguójì’értóngjié). When the People's Republic of China was first established in 1949, the State Council (Cabinet) designated a half-day holiday for all primary schools on [[June 1]]. This was later made into a full day's break in 1956 with ''The Announcement by the State Council to make [[June 1]] Children's Day a One-Day Holiday''<ref>[http://www.yfzs.gov.cn/gb/info/LawData/gjf2001q/gwyfg/2003-07/14/1532482085.html 国务院关于“六一儿童节”改为放假一天的通知]</ref>. Schools usually hold activities such as camping trips or free movies on Children's Day to allow students to have fun, and children of civil servants might also receive small gifts from the government. Entrance ceremonies of the [[Young Pioneers of China]] (similar to boy scouts in the West) are usually held on [[June 1]] as well. However on June 1, 2008 the day was made even more memorable, as many people remembered the children who died in the earthquake just a few weeks before.

===Poland===
Children's Day (''Dzień Dziecka'', literally "child's day") is celebrated in Poland on June 1. The International Children's Day was introduced in Poland in 1952. It coincides with the beginning of summer and it is usually treated as a holiday, as it takes place near the end of the school year. Schools usually organize special activities for the day of the celebration, and the first week of June is a time of festivities organized in parks and entertainment centers for children. Parents usually buy small gifts for their children.

===Portugal and former colonies===
In [[Portugal]], and also at some of its former colonies - [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Macau]], [[Cape Verde]], [[East Timor]], [[Angola]] - the Children's Day is celebrated on [[June 1]].

===Romania===
In [[Romania]] the Day is celebrated on [[June 1]].

===Singapore===
[[October 1]] is the day which [[Singapore]] officially celebrates Children's Day, a similar event celebrated every year is [[Youth Day]] which is celebrated on the first Sunday of July each year. Children in Singapore do not have to attend school on this day.

===Slovakia===
In Slovakia, the day is called International Children's Day and is celebrated on June 1.

===Sri Lanka===
The Universal Children's Day is celebrated on the [[1 October]].

===Sweden===
The International Children's Day is celebrated on [[October 2]], though there are very few actual celebrations.

=== Taiwan ===
The [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]) designates [[April 4]] as Children's Day ({{zh-t|t=兒童節}}), pursuant to Article 5 of the ''Order to Implement Commemoration Days and Holidays''.<ref>[http://law.moj.gov.tw/Scripts/Query4A.asp?FullDoc=all&Fcode=D0020033 紀念日及節日實施辦法]</ref> Despite not being a legal holiday, schools often hold special activities in order to celebrate the occasion. Due to pressure from parents that demanded to accompany their children in the celebration, the ROC government recognized Women’s Day with Children’s Day on [[April 4]], [[1993]]. Thus, the celebration is technically called Women’s and Children’s Day.

===Thailand===
The second Saturday of January is Children's Day in [[Thailand]].

===Turkey===
In [[Turkey]], Children's Day has been celebrated on April 23rd since 1935. It originated from the first gathering of Grand National Assembly on [[April 23]], [[1920]], during the Turkish Independence War.

After the Ottomans were defeated during World War I, Turkish land had been occupied by other European countries such as England, Italy and France. [[Ataturk]], an Ottoman commander, broke his ties with the dying Empire and started the war for independence against Allied forces and the old Ottoman regime. After years of fighting [[Turkey]] won full independence.

Turks consider [[Ataturk]] to be "The Father of Modern [[Turkey]]". After the war, [[Ataturk]] refused the role of Sultan or King and established a modern Republic instead. He gifted April 23rd to the children for the country, so that they would cherish the independence that cost so much, but at the same time walk the path of "Peace at Home, Peace in the World"

On April 23rd children from around the world come to [[Turkey]]. They're hosted by families who have children of a similar age. Festivities last over a week and the visiting and Turkish children spend a lot of time together. Many children, often not even speaking the same language, create lifelong friendships. Several of the events are broadcast on television, showing the children in their traditional national outfits, dancing singing and exchanging gifts. The United Nations participates the events.

Every year on April 23rd, the seats of Parliament are held by children, and a child becomes President for a day. The child President delivers a speech on national television.

===United States of America===
Children’s Day observations in the United States predate both [[Mother’s Day|Mother’s]] and [[Father’s Day]].

The celebration of a special Children’s Day in America dates from the 1860s and earlier.

In 1856, Rev. Charles H. Leonard, D.D., then pastor of the First [[Unitarian Universalist Association|Universalist Church]] of [[Chelsea, Massachusetts|Chelsea]], [[Massachusetts|Mass.]], set apart a Sunday for the dedication of children to the Christian life, and for the re-dedication of parents and guardians to bringing-up their children in Christian nurture. This service was first observed the second Sunday in June.<ref> {{cite encyclopedia | last = McFarland | first =John T. | coauthor = | author link = John T. McFarland | title = Children’s Day | encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of Sunday School and Religious Education | volume = 1 | pages = 237 | publisher = Thomas Nelson & Sons | location = New York | date = 1915 | url = http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=yLoMAAAAIAAJ&dq=encyclopedia+of+sunday+school&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=VV1WFhesXo&sig=hodNbxkNFA2FP8pm29zAK191-Yw#PPA237,M1 | access date = 2008-03-03 }}</ref>

The [[Unitarian Universalist Association| Universalist]] Convention at Baltimore in September, 1867, passed a resolution commending churches to set apart one Sunday in each year as Children’s Day.<ref name="multiple"> McFarland, ''The Encyclopedia of Sunday School and Religious Education'', vol.1, p. 238.</ref>

The [[Methodist Episcopal Church]] at the [[Methodist]] Conference of 1868 recommended that second Sunday in June be annually observed as Children’s Day.<ref name="multiple" />

The General Assembly of the [[Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)| Presbyterian Church]] in 1883 designated the “the second Sabbath in June as Children’s Day.”<ref>{{cite journal| last = Moorehead | first = James H. | title = Our Documentary History: Children’s Sunday in the Presbyterian Church | journal = The Journal of Presbyterian History | volume = 83 | issue = 1
| pages = 85 | date = Spring/Summer 2005 | author = link = James H. Moorehead}}</ref>

Also in 1883, the National Council of [[Congregational Churches]] and nearly all the state bodies of that denomination in the United States passed resolutions commending the observance of the day. About this time many other denominations adopted similar recommendations.<ref name="multiple" />

''Chase’s Calendar of Events'' cites Children’s Sunday and notes that The Commonwealth of Massachusetts issues an [http://www.mass.gov/legis/laws/mgl/6-12u.htm annual proclamation] for the second Sunday in June.

Numerous churches and denominations currently observe the second Sunday in June including the [[African Methodist Episcopal Church]]<ref>[http://www.ame-church.com/ African Methodist Episcopal Church official website]</ref> and the [[Church of the Nazarene]]<ref>[http://www.nazarene.org/ Church of the Nazarene official website]</ref>.

Children's Day, was [http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/new/html/Tue_Oct_10_120420_2000.html proclaimed] by President Bill Clinton in October 2000. He declared that it be held on November 16th.

"National Child's Day" was proclaimed by the President of the United States of America, George W. Bush, as June 3, 2001 and in subsequent years on dates in early June. In 2003, he proclaimed [[June 1]]. In 2004, he proclaimed June 6th. In 2005, he proclaimed June 5th. In 2006, he proclaimed June 4th. In 2007, he proclaimed June 3rd. [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/06/20010604.html The White House Proclamation by the President of the United States of America, 2001]

Nowhere in any of the proclamations did the President refer to the United Nations or the UN Resolution about Universal Child Day. It is important to note that The United States of America is one of only two countries in the world that have not ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. As of November 2007, 193 countries have ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, (UNCRC). The only other country that has not ratified the UNCRC is Somalia. [http://www.canadiancrc.com/UN_CRC/US_Convention.aspx United States position on the UNCRC]

In 2007, Illinois Governor Rod R. Blagojevich issued a proclamation proclaiming the second Sunday in June as Children's Day. The mayors of Aurora and Batavia, Illinois, also issued proclamations.<ref>[http://www.nationalchildrensday.us NationalChildrensDay.us website]</ref>

===Uruguay===
Children's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of August.

===Venezuela===
In [[Venezuela]] Children's Day is celebrated the third Sunday of July.

===Vietnam===
Children's Day is celebrated on [[June 1]] as ICD and on the full moon of the 8th lunar month during the [[Mid-Autumn Festival]].

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Holidays in the Soviet Union]]

[[ar:عيد الطفولة]]
[[bg:Ден на децата]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní den dětí]]
[[de:Kindertag]]
[[es:Día del Niño]]
[[gl:Día do Neno]]
[[ko:어린이날]]
[[kn:ಮಕ್ಕಳ ದಿನಾಚರಣೆ]]
[[kk:Балаларды қорғау халықаралық күні]]
[[hu:Gyermeknap]]
[[nl:Kinderdag]]
[[nds:Kinnerdag]]
[[pl:Dzień Dziecka]]
[[pt:Dia Mundial da Criança]]
[[ru:Всемирный день ребёнка]]
[[sv:Internationella barndagen]]
[[ta:குழந்தைகள் நாள்]]
[[vi:Ngày Quốc tế Thiếu nhi]]
[[tg:Рӯзи бачаҳо]]
[[zh:兒童節]]

September 9

2008-09-09T18:57:09Z

163.178.17.124: /* Holidays and observances */

{| style="float:right;"
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==Events==
*[[1000]] - [[Battle of Svolder]], [[Viking Age]].
*[[1379]] - [[Treaty of Neuberg]], splitting the [[Austria]]n [[Habsburg]] lands between the [[Habsburg]] [[Duke]]s [[Albert III of Austria|Albert III]] and [[Leopold III of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold III]].
*[[1493]] - [[Battle of Krbava field]], a decisive defeat of [[Croats]] in [[Croatia in the union with Hungary|Croatian]] struggle against the [[Ottoman Empire]] invasion.
*[[1513]] - [[James IV of Scotland]] is defeated and dies in the [[Battle of Flodden Field]], ending [[Scotland]]'s involvement in the [[War of the League of Cambrai]].
*[[1543]] - [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Stuart]], at nine months old, is [[coronation|crowned]] "[[Queen of Scots]]" in the central [[Scotland|Scottish]] town of [[Stirling]].
*[[1739]] - [[Stono Rebellion]], the largest slave uprising in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]]s mainland [[North America]]n colonies prior to the [[American Revolution]], erupts near [[Charleston, South Carolina]].
*[[1776]] - The [[Continental Congress]] officially names their new [[Political union|union]] of [[sovereignty|sovereign]] states the [[United States]].
*[[1791]] - [[Washington, D.C.]], the capital of the United States, is named after President [[George Washington]].
*[[1839]] - [[John Herschel]] takes the first glass plate [[photograph]].
*[[1850]] - [[California]] is admitted as the thirty-first [[U.S. state]].
* 1850 - The [[Compromise of 1850]] strips [[Texas]] of a third of its claimed territory (now parts of [[Colorado]], [[Kansas]], [[New Mexico]], [[Oklahoma]], and [[Wyoming]]) in return for the [[U.S.]] federal government assuming $10 million of [[Texas]]'s pre-annexation [[debt]].
*[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Union Army]] enters [[Chattanooga, Tennessee]].
*[[1886]] - The [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]] is finalized.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: The creation of the [[Canadian Automobile Machine Gun Brigade]], the first fully mechanized unit in the [[British Army]].
*[[1922]] - [[Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922]] has ended with Turkish victory over the Greeks.
*[[1923]] - [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], the founder of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]], founds the [[Republican People's Party (Turkey)|Republican People's Party]] (CHP).
*[[1924]] - [[Hanapepe Massacre]] occurs on [[Kauai]], [[Hawaii]].
*[[1926]] - The [[U.S.]] [[National Broadcasting Company]] formed.
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: A [[Japan]]ese floatplane drops an incendiary bomb on [[Oregon]].
*[[1943]] - World War II: The [[Allies]] land at [[Operation Avalanche|Salerno]] and [[Operation Slapstick|Taranto]], [[Italy]].
*[[1944]] - World War II: The [[Fatherland Front (Bulgaria)|Fatherland Front]] takes power in [[Bulgaria]] [[Bulgarian coup d'état of 1944|through a military coup]] in the capital and armed rebellion in the country. A new pro-[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] government is established.
*[[1945]] - [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]: [[Japan]] formally surrenders to [[Republic of China|China]].
*[[1947]] - First actual case of a [[computer bug]] being found: a [[moth]] lodges in a [[relay]] of a [[Harvard Mark II]] computer at [[Harvard University]].
*[[1948]] - The [[Republic Day]] of [[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea]].
*[[1956]] - [[Elvis Presley]] appears on ''[[The Ed Sullivan Show]]'' for the first time.
*[[1965]] - The [[United States Department of Housing and Urban Development]] is established.
* 1965 - [[Hurricane Betsy]] makes its second landfall near [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], leaving 76 dead and $1.42 billion ($10-12 billion in 2005 dollars) in damages, becoming the first hurricane to top $1 billion in unadjusted damages.
*[[1966]] - The [[National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act]] is signed into [[law]] by [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Lyndon B. Johnson]].
*[[1969]] - [[Allegheny Airlines Flight 853]] [[Douglas DC-9|DC-9]] collides in flight with a [[Piper Cherokee|Piper PA-28]] and crashes near [[Fairland, Indiana|Fairland]], [[Indiana]].
*[[1970]] - A [[United Kingdom|British]] airliner is hijacked by the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] ([[PFLP]]) and flown to [[Dawson's Field]] in [[Jordan]].
*[[1971]] - The four-day [[Attica Prison riot]] begins, which eventually results in 39 dead, most killed by [[New York State Police|state troopers]] retaking the [[Attica Correctional Facility|prison]].
*[[1991]] - [[Tajikstan]] gains independence from the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1993]] - The [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] officially recognizes [[Israel]] as a legitimate state.
*[[2001]] - [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]], leader of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance|Northern Alliance]], is assassinated in [[Afghanistan]].
*[[2004]] - [[2004 Australian embassy bombing]]: A [[bomb]] explodes outside the [[Australia]]n [[embassy]] in [[Jakarta]], killing 10 people.

==Births==
* [[214]] - [[Aurelian]], Roman Emperor (d. [[275]])
* [[384]] - [[Honorius (emperor)|Flavius Honorius]], Roman Emperor (d. [[423]])
*[[1349]] - Duke [[Albert III of Austria]] (d. [[1395]])
*[[1427]] - [[Thomas de Ros, 10th Baron de Ros]], English politician (d. [[1464]])
*[[1466]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshitane]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1523]])
*[[1558]] - [[Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercoeur]], French soldier (d. [[1602]])
*[[1585]] - [[Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu]], French statesman (d. [[1642]])
*[[1629]] - [[Cornelis Tromp]], Dutch admiral (d. [[1691]])
*[[1700]] - [[Princess Anna Sophie of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt]] (d. [[1780]])
*[[1711]] - [[Thomas Hutchinson (governor)|Thomas Hutchinson]], American politician (d. [[1780]])
*[[1731]] - [[Francisco Javier Clavijero]], Mexican writer (d. [[1787]])
*[[1737]] - [[Luigi Galvani]], Italian physician and physicist (d. [[1798]])
*[[1754]] - [[William Bligh]], British naval officer (d. [[1817]])
*[[1755]] - [[Benjamin Bourne]], American politician (d. [[1808]])
*[[1828]] - [[Leo Tolstoy]], Russian novelist (d. [[1910]])
*[[1834]] - [[Joseph Henry Shorthouse]], English novelist (d. [[1903]])
*[[1853]] - [[Fred Spofforth]], Australian cricketer (d. [[1926]])
*[[1855]] - [[Anthony Francis Lucas]] Croatian-born oil exploration pioneer (d. [[1921]])
*[[1868]] - [[Mary Hunter Austin]], American writer (d. [[1934]])
*[[1873]] - [[Max Reinhardt (theatre director)|Max Reinhardt]], German film director and actor (d. [[1943]])
*[[1877]] - [[Frank Chance]], American baseball player (d. [[1924]])
*[[1878]] - [[Adelaide Crapsey]], American poet (d. [[1914]])
* 1878 - [[Sergio Osmeña]], 4th [[President of the Philippines]] (d. [[1961]])
*[[1887]] - [[Alf Landon]], American politician (d. [[1987]])
*[[1882]] - [[Clem McCarthy]], American sportscaster (d. [[1962]])
*[[1890]] - [[Harland Sanders]], American fast-food entrepreneur (d. [[1980]])
*[[1892]] - [[Tsuru Aoki]], Japanese-born American actress (d. [[1961]])
*[[1894]] - [[Arthur Freed]], American songwriter and film producer (d. [[1973]])
* 1894 - [[Bert Oldfield]], Australian cricketer (d. [[1976]])
*[[1898]] - [[Frankie Frisch]], American baseball player (d. [[1973]])
*[[1899]] - [[Waite Hoyt]], American baseball player (d. [[1984]])
* 1899 - [[Neil Hamilton (actor)|Neil Hamilton]], American actor (d. [[1984]])
*[[1899]] - [[Bruno E. Jacob]], Founder of the [[National Forensics League]] (d. [[1979]])
*[[1900]] - [[James Hilton]], English novelist (d. [[1954]])
*[[1903]] - [[Phyllis Whitney]], American writer (d. [[2008]])
*[[1904]] - [[Feroze Khan (field hockey player)|Feroze Khan]], Pakistani field hockey player (d. [[2005]])
*[[1905]] - [[Brahmarishi Hussain Sha|Hussain Sha]] - Indian Saint, Philosopher ,[[Pithapuram]]
*[[1908]] - [[Cesare Pavese]], Italian poet and novelist (d. [[1950]])
*[[1911]] - [[John Gorton]], Australian politician (d. [[2002]])
* 1911 - [[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], American poet and writer (d. [[1972]])
*[[1917]] - [[Rolf Wenkhaus]], German actor (d. [[1942]])
*[[1919]] - [[Jimmy Snyder|Jimmy "the Greek" Snyder]], American bookmaker and sports commentator (d. [[1996]])
* 1919 - [[Gottfried Dienst]], German football referee
*[[1920]] - [[Aldo Parisot]], American cellist and teacher
* 1920 - [[Robert Wood Johnson III]], American philanthropist (d. [[1970]])
* 1920 - [[Feng Kang]], Chinese mathematician (d. [[1993]])
*[[1922]] - [[Hans Georg Dehmelt]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate
* 1922 - [[Manolis Glezos]], Greek politician and writer
* 1922 - [[Hoyt Curtin]], American songwriter (d. [[2000]])
*[[1923]] - [[Daniel Carleton Gajdusek]], American virologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1924]] - [[Jane Greer]], American actress (d. [[2001]])
* 1924 - [[Russell M. Nelson]], [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS]] [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|apostle]] and [[cardiac surgery]] pioneer
* 1924 - [[Rik Van Steenbergen]], Belgian cyclist (d. [[2003]])
*[[1925]] - [[Cliff Robertson]], American actor
*[[1926]] - [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]], prominent Egypt Muslim cleric
*[[1927]] - [[Elvin Jones]], American jazz drummer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1929]] - [[Claude Nougaro]], French singer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1930]] - [[Frank Lucas (drug lord)|Frank Lucas]], Drug Lord
*[[1932]] - [[Sylvia Miles]], American actress
*[[1935]] - [[Chaim Topol]], Israeli actor
*[[1935]] - [[Gopal Baratham]], Singaporean author
*[[1939]] - [[Bruce Gray]], Puerto Rican actor
* 1939 - [[Ron McDole]], American football player
* 1939 - [[Carlos Ortiz]], Puerto Rican boxer
* 1941 - [[Otis Redding]], American singer and songwriter (d. [[1967]])
* 1941 - [[Dennis Ritchie]], American computer scientist
*[[1942]] - [[Inez and Charlie Foxx|Inez Foxx]], American R&B singer
*[[1943]] - [[Art LaFleur]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Dee Dee Sharp]], American R&B singer
*[[1946]] - [[Bruce Palmer]], Canadian musician ([[Buffalo Springfield]]) (d. [[2004]])
*[[1946]] - [[Doug Ingle]], American musician ([[Iron Butterfly]])
*[[1947]] - [[David Rosenboom]], American composer
*[[1949]] - [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]], Indonesian politician
* 1949 - [[Garry Maddox]], American baseball player
* 1949 - [[Joe Theismann]], American football player and commentator
*[[1951]] - [[Alexander Downer]], Australian politician
* 1951 - [[Tom Wopat]], American actor and singer
*[[1952]] - [[Angela Cartwright]], American actress
* 1952 - [[Manuel Göttsching]], German musician ([[Ash Ra Tempel]])
* 1952 - [[David A. Stewart]], English musician ([[Eurythmics]])
*[[1954]] - [[Jeffrey Combs]], American actor
*[[1955]] - [[John Kricfalusi]], Canadian animator
*[[1957]] - [[Pierre-Laurent Aimard]], French pianist
* 1957 - [[Gabriele Tredozi]], Italian engineer
*[[1959]] - [[Eric Serra]], French composer
*[[1960]] - [[Hugh Grant]], English actor
* 1960 - [[Mario Batali]], American chef and restaurateur
* 1960 - [[Bob Stoops]], American football coach
*[[1963]] - [[Roberto Donadoni]], Italian football player and manager
*[[1965]] - [[Dan Majerle]], American basketball player
*[[1966]] - [[Georg Hackl]], German luger
* 1966 - [[Adam Sandler]], American actor and comedian
*[[1967]] - [[Akshay Kumar]], Indian Actor
* 1967 - [[Anna Malle]], American porn star (d. [[2006]])
* 1967 - [[B. J. Armstrong]], American basketball player
* 1967 - [[Chris Caffery]], American guitarist and singer
*[[1968]] - [[Francois Botha]], South African boxer
* 1968 - [[Jon Drummond]], American former sprinter
* 1968 - [[Julia Sawalha]], English actress
* 1968 - [[Clive Mendonca]], English Footballer
*[[1969]] - [[Rachel Hunter]], New Zealand model and actress
* 1969 - [[Constance Marie]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Natalia Streignard]], Venezuelan actress
*[[1971]] - [[Henry Thomas]], American actor and musician
*[[1972]] - [[James Farmer]], American educator and artist
* 1972 - [[Mike Hampton]], American baseball player
* 1972 - [[Natasha Kaplinsky]], British newsreader
* 1972 - [[Félix Rodríguez (baseball)|Félix Rodríguez]], Dominican baseball player
* 1972 - [[Goran Višnjić]], Croatian actor
*[[1973]] - [[Kazuhisa Ishii]], Japanese baseball player
*[[1974]] - [[Shane Crawford]], Australian rules footballer
* 1974 - [[Mathias Färm]], Swedish guitarist ([[Millencolin]])
* 1974 - [[Vikram Batra]], Officer of the Indian Army
* 1974 - [[Ana Carolina]], Brazilian singer, composer and musician
*[[1975]] - [[Michael Bublé]], Canadian singer and actor
*[[1976]] - [[Emma de Caunes]], French film actress
* 1976 - [[Chace Ambrose]], American actor and writer
* 1976 - [[Kristoffer Rygg]], Norwegian musician ([[Ulver]], ex-[[Borknagar]])
* 1976 - [[Juan A. Baptista]], Venezuelan actor
* 1976 - [[Aki Riihilahti]], Finnish footballer
*[[1977]] - [[Chae Jung-an]], South Korean actress and singer
* 1977 - [[Soulja Slim]], American rapper (d. [[2003]])
* 1977 - [[Kyle Snyder]], Major League Baseball pitcher
*[[1978]] - [[Kurt Ainsworth]], Major League Baseball pitcher
* 1978 - [[Shane Battier]], American basketball player
* 1978 - [[Mariano Puerta]], Argentine tennis player
*[[1979]] - [[Nikki DeLoach]], American actress and singer
*[[1980]] - [[Todd Coffey]], American baseball player
* 1980 - [[Michelle Williams (actress)|Michelle Williams]], American actress
*[[1981]] - [[Julie Gonzalo]], Argentinian actress
*[[1982]] - [[Ai Otsuka]], Japanese singer and songwriter
*[[1983]] - [[Kyle Davies]], American baseball player
* 1983 - [[Edwin Jackson]], Major League Baseball pitcher
* 1983 - [[Sam Hollenbach]], National Football League quarterback
* 1983 - [[Cleveland Taylor]], International footballer
* 1984 - [[James Hildreth]], English Cricketer
*[[1985]] - [[J.R. Smith]], American basketball player
* 1985 - [[Luka Modrić]], Croatian footballer
*[[1986]] - [[Justice Chibhabha]], Zimbabwean cricketer
* 1986 - [[Luc Richard Mbah a Moute]], Cameroonian basketball player
* 1986 - [[Michael Bowden (baseball)|Michael Bowden]], American baseball player
*[[1987]] - [[Alexandre Song]], Cameroonian footballer
*[[1990]] - [[Melody Klaver]], Dutch actress
*[[2000]] - [[Victoria Federica de Marichalar y de Borbón]], granddaughter of king Juan Carlos I of Spain


==Deaths==
*c. [[546]] - [[Ciarán of Clonmacnoise|St. Ciarán of Clonmacnoise]], Irish bishop
* [[701]] - [[Pope Sergius I]]
*[[1000]] - [[Olaf I of Norway]]
*[[1087]] - King [[William I of England]]
*[[1398]] - King [[James I of Cyprus]] (b. [[1334]])
*[[1487]] - [[Chenghua Emperor|Chenghua]], Emperor of China (b. [[1447]])
*[[1488]] - [[Francis II, Duke of Brittany]] ([[list of horse accidents|fell from a horse]]) (b. [[1433]])
*[[1513]] - King [[James IV of Scotland]] (b. [[1473]])
*[[1569]] - [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]], Flemish painter
*[[1596]] - [[Anna Jagiellon]], Polish Queen
*[[1612]] - [[Nakagawa Hidenari]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1570]])
*[[1676]] - [[Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve]], French army officer and founder of [[Montreal]] (b. [[1612]])
*[[1680]] - [[Henry Marten (regicide)|Henry Marten]], English regicide (b. [[1602]])
*[[1755]] - [[Johann Lorenz von Mosheim]], German historian (b. [[1694]])
*[[1806]] - [[William Paterson (jurist)|William Paterson]], Signer of the [[U.S. Constitution]], Governor of New Jersey (b. [[1745]])
*[[1815]] - [[John Singleton Copley]], American painter (b. [[1738]])
*[[1841]] - [[A. P. de Candolle]], Swiss botanist (b. [[1778]])
*[[1891]] - [[Jules Grévy]], President of France (b. [[1813]])
*[[1898]] - [[Stéphane Mallarmé]], French poet (b. [[1842]])
*[[1901]] - [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]], French painter (b. [[1864]])
*[[1907]] - [[Ernest Roland Wilberforce]], English bishop (b. [[1840]])
*[[1909]] - [[Edward Henry Harriman]], American railroad entrepreneur (b. [[1848]])
*[[1915]] - [[Albert Spalding]], American baseball player and sporting goods manufacturer (b. [[1850]])
*[[1941]] - [[Hans Spemann]], German embryologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1869]])
*[[1960]] - [[Jussi Björling]], Swedish tenor (b. [[1911]])
*[[1969]] - [[Willy Mairesse]], Belgian racing driver (b. [[1928]])
*[[1976]] - [[Mao Zedong]], Founder and first leader of the People's Republic of China (b. [[1893]])
*[[1978]] - [[Hugh MacDiarmid]], Scottish poet (b. [[1892]])
* 1978 - [[Jack Warner]], Canadian-born film studio founder (b. [[1892]])
*[[1980]] - [[John Howard Griffin]], American writer (b. [[1920]])
*[[1981]] - [[Jacques Lacan]], French psychoanalyst (b. [[1901]])
*[[1985]] - [[Paul Flory]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1910]])
*[[1990]] - [[Doc Cramer]], American baseball player (b. [[1905]])
* 1990 - [[Samuel Doe]], [[President of Liberia]] (b. [[1951]])
*[[1994]] - [[Patrick O'Neal]], American actor (b. [[1927]])
*[[1996]] - [[Bill Monroe]], American [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]] singer and composer (b. [[1911]])
*[[1997]] - [[Richie Ashburn]], American baseball player (b. [[1927]])
* 1997 - [[Burgess Meredith]], American actor (b. [[1907]])
*[[1998]] - [[Bill Cratty]], American modern dancer and choreographer (b. [[1951]])
*[[1999]] - [[Catfish Hunter|Jim "Catfish" Hunter]], American baseball player (b. [[1946]])
* 1999 - [[Ruth Roman]], American actress (b. [[1922]])
*[[2000]] - [[Julian Critchley]], British politician (b. [[1930]])
*[[2001]] - [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]], Afghani military leader (b. [[1953]])
*[[2003]] - [[Larry Hovis]], American actor (b. [[1936]])
* 2003 - [[Edward Teller]], Hungarian-born physicist (b. [[1908]])
*[[2004]] - [[Roland Sherwood "Ernie" Ball]], American businessman (b. [[1930]])
*[[2005]] - [[John Wayne Glover]], English [[serial killer]] (b. [[1932]])
*[[2006]] - [[Gérard Brach]], French screenwriter (b. [[1927]])
* 2006 - [[Richard Burmer]], American composer, sound designer and electronic musician (b. [[1955]])
* 2006 - [[Matt Gadsby]], English [[Football (soccer)|footballer]] (b. [[1979]])
* 2006 - [[William B. Ziff, Jr.]], American publishing executive (b. [[1930]])
* 2007 - [[Hughie Thomasson]], Noted American musician (b. [[1952]])


==Holidays and observances==
* [[California]] - Admission Day (to commemorate the state's admission to the [[United States|USA]]).
* [[Ciarán of Clonmacnoise|Saint Ciarán of Clonmacnoise]]
* [[Costa Rica]] - [[Childrens' Day]].
* [[September 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|Eastern Orthodoxy]] - Synaxis of the Theopatores Joachim and Anna.
* [[Japanese calendar#National holidays|Japan]] - [[Chrysanthemum]] Day (''Kiku no Sekku'').
* [[North Korea]] - [[Republic Day]] ([[1948]]).
* [[Tajikistan]] - [[Independence Day]] (from [[USSR]], [[1991]]).

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/9 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month=09|day=09}}
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Sep&day=09 On This Day in Canada]
----
{{months}}
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[[af:9 September]]
[[ar:9 سبتمبر]]
[[an:9 de setiembre]]
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[[az:9 sentyabr]]
[[bn:সেপ্টেম্বর ৯]]
[[be:9 верасня]]
[[be-x-old:9 верасьня]]
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[[br:9 Gwengolo]]
[[bg:9 септември]]
[[ca:9 de setembre]]
[[cv:Авăн, 9]]
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[[co:9 di settembre]]
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[[et:9. september]]
[[el:9 Σεπτεμβρίου]]
[[es:9 de septiembre]]
[[eo:9-a de septembro]]
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[[fa:۹ سپتامبر]]
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[[fur:9 di Setembar]]
[[ga:9 Meán Fómhair]]
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[[gd:9 an t-Sultain]]
[[gl:9 de setembro]]
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[[hr:9. rujna]]
[[io:9 di septembro]]
[[bpy:সেপ্টেম্বর ৯]]
[[id:9 September]]
[[ia:9 de septembre]]
[[is:9. september]]
[[it:9 settembre]]
[[he:9 בספטמבר]]
[[jv:9 September]]
[[pam:Septiembri 9]]
[[kn:ಸೆಪ್ಟೆಂಬರ್ ೯]]
[[ka:9 სექტემბერი]]
[[csb:9 séwnika]]
[[kk:Қыркүйектің 9]]
[[sw:9 Septemba]]
[[ht:9 septanm]]
[[ku:9'ê rezberê]]
[[la:9 Septembris]]
[[lb:9. September]]
[[lt:Rugsėjo 9]]
[[li:9 september]]
[[lmo:09 09]]
[[hu:Szeptember 9.]]
[[mk:9 септември]]
[[ml:സെപ്റ്റംബര്‍ 9]]
[[mr:सप्टेंबर ९]]
[[ms:9 September]]
[[nah:Tlachiucnāuhti 9]]
[[nl:9 september]]
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[[pl:9 września]]
[[pt:9 de Setembro]]
[[ksh:9. Sepptämmber]]
[[ro:9 septembrie]]
[[ru:9 сентября]]
[[se:Čakčamánu 9.]]
[[sco:9 September]]
[[sq:9 Shtator]]
[[scn:9 di sittèmmiru]]
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[[su:9 Séptémber]]
[[fi:9. syyskuuta]]
[[sv:9 september]]
[[tl:Setyembre 9]]
[[ta:செப்டம்பர் 9]]
[[tt:9. Sentäber]]
[[te:సెప్టెంబర్ 9]]
[[th:9 กันยายน]]
[[vi:9 tháng 9]]
[[tg:9 сентябр]]
[[tr:9 Eylül]]
[[uk:9 вересня]]
[[vec:9 de setenbre]]
[[vo:Setul 9]]
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[[wa:9 di setimbe]]
[[vls:9 september]]
[[war:Septyembre 9]]
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[[zh-yue:9月9號]]
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[[zh:9月9日]]

El Chavo del Ocho

2008-09-09T14:54:54Z

163.178.17.124: /* Impact */

{{refimprove|date=August 2008}}
{{Infobox Television
| show_name = El Chavo del Ocho
| image = [[Image:El Chavo Cast.jpg|220px|]]
| caption = Main cast of the show. From left to right: Mr. Barriga, Miss Florinda, Professor Jirafales, Don Ramón, Miss Clotilde, Chilindrina and The Kid (''El Chavo'').
| format = [[Sitcom]]
| runtime = 30 minutes (with adds)
| creator = [[Roberto Gómez Bolaños]]
| starring = [[Roberto Gómez Bolaños]] [[Carlos Villagrán]] [[Ramón Valdés]] [[Florinda Meza]] [[Rubén Aguirre]] [[Angelines Fernández]] [[Edgar Vivar]] [[María Antonieta de las Nieves]] [[Horácio Gómez Bolaños]] [[Raúl Padilla]]
| country = {{MEX}}
| network = {{flagicon|Mexico}} [[Televisa]] {{flagicon|United States}} [[Galavisión (USA)|Galavisión]] (animated series on [[Univision]]) {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Sistema Brasileiro de Televisão|SBT]] (animated series also on [[Sistema Brasileiro de Televisão|SBT]])

| first_aired = 1971
| last_aired = 1980 (''[[El Chavo#The new "Chespirito" show (1980-1992)|1992]])''
| num_episodes = about 420 (including shorts)
| tv_com_id =
| imdb_id = 0229889
}}

'''''El Chavo del Ocho''''' (Mexican Spanish for ''The Kid From The [apartment number] 8"'') (sometimes shortened to '''''El Chavo''''') is a [[Mexico|Mexican]] television show that has gained a great amount of popularity in [[Latin America]] as well as in [[Spain]] and other countries. It focuses around the adventures and tribulations of the title character, an orphan (played by the series' creator, [[Roberto Gómez Bolaños|Roberto Gómez Bolaños, "Chespirito"]]) and other inhabitants of a fictional [[Mexico City, Mexico|Mexico City]] condominium/apartments building, or as called in Mexico, ''vecindad''.

The shows traces back to [[June 20]], [[1971]], where it appeared as a sketch in the "Chespirito" show, broadcast on Mexico's channel 8. In 1973, ''El Chavo'' moved to [[Televisa]] and became a weekly half-hour series. The show was cancelled in 1980, but shorts were still produced in "Chespirito" from that year until 1992.

At its peak of popularity during the mid-1970s, ''El Chavo'', having 350 million viewers worldwide, was the most-watched show in Mexican television. The frequent occurrence of Mexican idiomatic expressions makes ''El Chavo'' very hard to translate into other languages. An exception is the Portuguese language which is very similar to Spanish. Thus the Portuguese-spoken version of ''El Chavo'' is still very popular in Brazil, where the series is known as ''Chaves'' and is still broadcast by [[Sistema Brasileiro de Televisão|SBT]].

==Characters and cast==
*'''El Chavo del ocho''' ([[Roberto Gómez Bolaños]]), an eight-year-old orphan, is the main character of the series. "Chavo" is a Mexican Spanish slang for "kid"; Chavo's real name is not known, but in some episodes he calls himself ''Chente'', short for ''Vicente'', after a friend who died in the orphan home in which he was abandoned. Generally Chavo is enthusiastic, creative and good-natured, but on the other hand he is also rather naïve and very gullible. He is not particularly bright (which Roberto Gómez Bolaños insinuated on the launch of [[#Animated series (2006-present)|the animated series]] may be consequence of poor nutrition) and is remarkably clumsy, often hitting Quico, Don Ramón and Señor Barriga with balls, shoes, hammers, bricks, chairs and other objects. Chavo arrived at the neighborhood at the age of four and apparently lives in apartment #8 with an elderly woman (who is never seen, but mentioned in the novel ''El diario de El Chavo del 8''). After her death, Chavo spends most of his time inside an abandoned barrel that he calls his "secret hideout". He has a craving for [[ham]] [[tortas]], a popular kind of sandwich in Mexico.

*'''Kiko''' ([[Carlos Villagrán]]) (short for ''Federico'', pronounced ''KEE-KOH''), is a spoiled, overprotected 9-year-old boy, son of Doña Florinda and a late naval captain (also named Federico) who reportedly died when his vessel was swallowed by a whale. Arrogant, manipulatory and envious, Quico always wants to draw everyone's attention to himself, either by screaming loudly or by showing off his newest toy. Partially due to his mother's influence (and former wealth and status as the wife of a naval officer), he believes that he and his mother are superior to everyone else in the neighborhood. However, he still finds time to play with the, as he and his mother call them, ''chusma'' ("[[riffraff]]"), namely Chavo, Chilindrina and Don Ramón. Quico is also noticeable for his black sailor "dress blue" top (probably a memento from his father), his rainbow patterned [[beanie]] cap, his enormous cheeks, and his minuscule intelligence, often responding to the Spanish words for idiot, stupid, dummy, etc.. In 1978, Quico went off to live with his godmother, reportedly unable to stand the riffraff anymore. Villagran's character, Kiko, starred in a rather short-lived [[Spin-off (media)|spin-off]] series, ''Ay, Que Kiko!'' in the late 1980s which attempted to revive the series using a "Hip-hop" twist and gave Villagran's character a slight wardrobe make-over.

*'''Don Ramón''' ([[Ramón Valdés]]) (who is also call ron Damón by El Chavo del Ocho) is
[[Image:Stencil_Don_Ramon.svg|thumb|150px|Image of "Don Ramón" in the estation of the [[Mexico]].]]

an unemployed widower. His greatest aspiration seems to be living an uncomplicated life, but in the ''vecindad'' this seems impossible. He is constantly hounded for the rent which he has neglected to pay for fourteen months (a figure that seems to be static since Señor Barriga forgives several months off of his rent in several episodes). His daughter (Chilindrina) is a perennial headache and his neighbor Doña Florinda's response to any imposition on her lifestyle is a loud slap on his face. Although rather high-strung and quick-tempered, Don Ramón manages to keep a fairly upbeat attitude and to (just barely) make a living doing odd jobs. He's also a fan of all sports and pretends to be knowledgeable in them (having demonstrated [[boxing]], [[bowling]], [[American football]] and even [[bullfighting]] [with a dummy bull] to the kids), but due to the kids' own shortcomings, he always comes up short. Chavo often mispronounces his name as ''Ron Damón'', which he is implying that he is a drunkard (''ron'' means "rum" in Spanish). One quote popularized by himself is "There is no terrible work, the terrible is to have to work". He is a fan of [[Club Necaxa]], which in the day was generally know as a perennial mid-table also-ran, per Don Ramón's quote "Yo le voy al Necaxa", meaning that he neither wished glory nor suffering.

*'''Doña Florinda''' ([[Florinda Meza]]), mother of Quico and love interest of Profesor Jirafales. She is a widow; her late husband, after which Quico was named, was a naval officer who died at sea and is often said by Quico that he ''descansa en pez'' (a pun on "rest in peace", literally meaning "rests in fish", indicating that he was swallowed by a shark). Her full name is Florinda Corcuera y Villalpando, viuda de (widow of) La Regueira. Doña Florinda has deluded herself into believing she's socially, morally and economically superior to her neighbors (and it is suggested that at one time she was well-off). She is so fiercely protective of Quico that whenever he is upset, she'll beat up Don Ramón without seeking explanation. She likes the cleanliness and order and also likes to cook and for that reason she become famous among her neighbours and one time she accepted a partnership selling [[churros]] (a tipe of pastry in Mexico) with Don Ramón, she watches in TV: "La cocina de Chepina Peralta" (Chepina Peralta's kitchen) She is easily recognized by the fact that she always keeps her hair in curlers (except in some early episodes), even at work or on vacation in Acapulco. In later episodes, she opens a restaurant called "Restaurante Doña Florinda". Derisively, the kids call her "Vieja Chancluda" ("vieja" being "old lady", and "chancluda" as someone who uses "chanclas", sandals).

*'''Profesor Jirafales''' ([[Rubén Aguirre]]), the school teacher. Highly educated but naïve, although single he carries on a ludicrously innocent relationship with Doña Florinda and patiently teaches way above the heads of his 8-year-old students. He is a teacher with lots of patience and professionally ethical. When angered, he shouts "Ta-ta-ta-taaaaa-TAH!!!". His last name is a reference to his height ("jirafa" is Spanish for giraffe; the closest English equivalent would be Giraffald). The children (and sometimes adults, most notably Don Ramón) refer to him as "Maestro Longaniza" (being "maestro" an alternative for "profesor", both meaning "teacher", and "longaniza" a long kind of [[sausage]]).

*'''Doña Clotilde''' ('''"La Bruja del 71"''') ([[Angelines Fernández]]), a retired woman who chases after Don Ramón. Because she is old and somewhat eccentric, the kids think she is a witch, and refer to her as "The Old Witch of the (Apartment) 71". Some adults also refer her like that, often by mistake, due to the kids frequently calling her "witch". She refers herself as ''señorita'' (miss) because she has never been married, which also she gets upset when anyone call her ''señora''(Mrs.), meaning that she is a married woman. She is a single woman, thirsty for love, and frequently seeks it with Don Ramón, who is a widower. Because she never wants people to know her accurate age, she is always saying the number of candles (40 candles) she had to use in her "last" birthday's cake. (She never says more than 49) Even with that people never believe that, mostly because she also acts like a senior woman. She has always been in love with Don Ramón, her neighbor. But he is not interested in her, so Doña Clotilde wants him and does everything she can to conquer him like bringing him food from the store, buying him medicine when he can't sleep, baking cakes for him, or lending him luggage. In fact, all the times that Don Ramón is "interested" in her is when she faints in the middle of the yard and was going to bring him something from the store or just when being polite with her is his only choice. She is always dressed with a blue or pink hat (50's style) with "leaves", blue gown, and black shoes. In the beginning of the series she had also a black sweater.

*'''Señor Barriga''' ([[Edgar Vivar]]), the ''vecindad''{{'}}s landlord. Rarely succeeds in collecting rent from Don Ramón and is greeted upon his every arrival by being (accidentally) kicked, tripped, beaten, or hit by a flying object thrown by El Chavo. His last name is a reference to his obesity ("barriga" is Spanish and Portuguese for "belly", but the surname actually exists). In the episode where Doña Florinda first sets up a restaurant, his full name is revealed to be "Zenón Barriga y Pesado" (literally "Zenón Belly and Heavy", Pesado is an real surname too), being "Zenón" a pun on "Cenón" ("dining man" or "big dinner"). He is also well known because of his patience with Don Ramón and his unpunctual rent payments and all the kids'(mostly Chavo's) misbehavior like punching him or nicknaming him (always making fun of his body).

*'''La Chilindrina''' ([[María Antonieta de las Nieves]]), daughter of Don Ramón. "Precocious" is probably the best way to describe Don Ramón's intelligent and mischievous daughter, who likes to take advantage of her slow-witted friends to play pranks on them and take their toys or snacks. She wears thick-framed glasses, after a few years her wardrobe consisted of a short green-pattern dress and a red sweater that was always twisted on the back. She has freckles and two ponytails that are always uneven, one significantly higher than the other one, just like her socks. "Chilindrina" is the name of a typical Mexican bun, with chocolate sparkles on top, reminiscent of the character's freckles. In early episodes, La Chilindrina has longer ponytails which are cut by El Chavo.

After Villagrán and Valdés left the program in the late 1970s, several characters began to appear more frequently. These include:

*'''Popis''' (Florinda Meza). Doña Florinda's niece and Quico's cousin. Cutesy and dumb, Popis was usually only present in schoolroom scenes until after Quico left the series, when she filled in for his character in remakes of old episodes. She frequently would say "Acúsalo con tu mamá" ("Tell on him with your mom") sometimes at inappropriate moments, such as when Profesor Jirafales told Quico he gave the wrong answer. Whenever she says or does something wrong, she blames it to her doll, Serafina, which she loved as a daughter.

*'''Ñoño''' ([[Edgar Vivar]]) (pronounced NYO-NYO, as in ''yo-yo''). Señor Barriga's son, he is as fat as his father, and thus is always the butt of the classroom fat jokes. Ñoño was another classmate, but often appeared around the neighborhood if any scenes needed an extra kid. He is well-studied and good-hearted, but like most of the other kids, naïve to say the very least, so he is often taken advantage of. He also substituted for Quico in the later years.

*'''Godínez''' ([[Horacio Gómez Bolaños]]). An overall and baseball cap-wearing kid who usually keeps to himself and tries to dodge questions in the classroom so he can focus on drawing and playing musical instruments. Godínez is his surname; his given name is unknown. He seems to be a capable student but is totally uninterested. Godínez appears only rarely but is very funny. Horácio Bolaños directed the show for a period. He is brother to Roberto, creator and writer of the series.

*'''Jaimito, el cartero''' ([[Raúl Padilla]]). A sociable, but forgetful and negligent postal worker who appears in a few of the last episodes and takes over for Don Ramón and Quico in the Chavo segments on the hourlong "Chespirito". Whenever he enters the ''vecindad'', he is seen carrying an old bicycle, which he cannot ride because he couldn't learn. Jaimito also is rather lazy and tends to avoid carrying out tasks with the excuse of "avoiding fatigue". He hails from [[Tangamandapio]] which, although being a real location in Mexico, is thought by fans of being just a coincidental joke (Jaimito once said that "Tangamandapio is bigger than [[New York City|New York]]; it's so big, it doesn't appear in any maps").

*'''Doña Nieves''' (María Antonieta de las Nieves). Chilindrina's great-grandmother, who has character traits of both Don Ramón and Chilindrina. In some late "Chavo" episodes and early "Chespirito" episodes, she also takes over for her grandson Don Ramón. María Antonieta de las Nieves had been playing a nameless character similar to Doña Nieves for years in a variety of sketches, but she did not work particularly well in the Don Ramón role; for one thing, it was awkward that Doña Nieves and Chilindrina could not appear in scenes together except via special effects. By the late 1980s, her character had virtually disappeared from "El Chavo".

Some '''short-lived characters''', who appeared in a few episodes and were never mentioned again, are:

*'''Doña Eduviges''' (Janet Arceo). For two episodes, Doña Eduviges lives in the upstairs apartment of the ''vecindad'' and interacts with the other characters. Except for dressing differently and living in a different apartment, she acts exactly the same as Doña Clotilde, right down to her heavy-handed flirting with Don Ramón. But obviously she was crazy, because one time she said that she dyed her hair white just because it was fashionable. The kids even call her ''"La Loca de la Escalera"'' ("The crazy lady upstairs"). In the very next episode, Doña Clotilde is back and Doña Eduviges is never mentioned again. Jaimito the mailman is assumed to have moved into her apartment or one next to it, since he usually came from the same direction.

*'''Patty''' and '''Gloria'''. At various times in the show's history, Patty (who is Chavo's age) and her aunt Gloria (who is Don Ramón's) move into the upstairs apartment. The men and boys of the ''vecindad'' immediately fall in love with them. The 1978 Patty (Ana Lilian de la Macorra) became a regular character, appearing in many episodes of the half-hour version's last season.

*'''Malicha''' (Maria Luisa Alcalá), Don Ramón's god-daughter. During María Antonieta de las Nieves' absence, Malicha briefly replaced her. Much like Doña Eduviges, she disappeared after a small number of episodes and was barely missed.

*'''Don Román''' ([[Germán Robles]]). In one early episode, Don Román takes Don Ramón's place; he is said to be Don Ramón's cousin.

*'''Señor Hurtado''' (José Antonio Mena, Ricardo de Pascual and [[Benny Ibarra (father)|Benny Ibarra]]). A suspicious man (actually a thief) who moves to the ''vecindad'' for a few episodes. His felonies are charged to Chavo by mistake, but he ultimately returns the stolen goods, restoring Chavo's innocence towards his neighbors. Hurtado, however, never does claim the robberies himself. His name is reference to the Spanish word "''hurtado''", implying he's, in fact, a thief ("hurtar" is Spanish for "to steal").

Other personages who appear in the school

*'''Iara''' ([[Angélica María]]), She is one of the personages most strange, and frightful of the seriado one. It appeared in only one lesson of teacher Girafales. When the teacher asked to which a name of the aboriginal tribe it answered tamoios, and all had looked at scared. It asked for to go to the bathroom and the series did not come back more. It appears dressed of blue and alone she said seven words.

*'''Higino''' (Pablo Rodríguez) Another strange personage, who also appears only in the school. It seats of the right side of Godínez, and of time in when he makes small appearances. It does not say nothing, as well as all the other mysterious personages of the school and it was never called in the list of names as well as Iara.

==Plot and setting==
''El Chavo del Ocho'' follows El Chavo and the other inhabitants of the ''vecindad'', as they go about in their everyday lives.

The show explores, in a comic manner, the problems that many homeless children face on a daily basis, such as hunger, sadness and not having someone responsible to watch over them. One episode, for example, had Chavo sitting on the steps of the ''vecindad'' at night, dreaming of all the toys he wished he could have and how he'd play with them. It ended with him returning to the present, sighing wistfully, then pulling out a [[ball in a cup|balero]] (the only toy he'd ever had on a regular basis) made of a stick, a tin can, and a piece of string. He begins to play with it as the camera slowly fades out. Some episodes also have educational endings, teaching for example that it's good take a shower and to not judge a book for its cover.

===Stages===
The main [[patio]], or front yard, is where El Chavo's barrel is located and where the main action takes place. The alleyway on the right leads into another yard ("el otro patio"), which has a fountain in the middle. Objects thrown from this yard go over Don Ramón's apartment and into the main yard.

On the outside, often the [[sidewalk]] is the main stage shown, where El Chavo sometimes sells fruit juices. In the later seasons, sometimes an unnamed park was shown.

Also, several episodes take place at a school classroom, where Profesor Jirafales teaches. All child characters in the show are in the same classroom.

Two episodes of the series were set on [[Acapulco]]. All the cast traveled there for a vacation.

==Humor style==
The show relies heavily upon [[physical comedy]] and [[running gag]]s in order to amuse the audience. Perhaps the best-known examples are:

'''Doña Florinda's ruthless defense of Quico.''' Usually Quico suffers some minor catastrophe (often caused by El Chavo) and screams "Mommy!", which immediately brings Florinda running. Quico then tells her what happened to him and she assumes Don Ramón (who either has also come running to Quico's aid or just happens to be standing nearby, sometimes holding incriminating evidence) is responsible and she smacks him loudly on the cheek. Don Ramón spins comically from the impact and looks surprised at the camera while Doña Florinda says to Quico "Let's go, sweetheart. Don't hang around with this riffraff", to which Quico always replies "Yes, mommy. Riffraff, riffraff!" and pushes Don Ramón while doing a [[Raspberry (sound)|raspberry]]. Every once in a while, before leaving, Doña Florinda tells Don Ramón "And next time, go break your ''grandmother's'' toys!" (or other phrase referencing Don Ramón's grandmother). Don Ramón, angered, throws his hat to the ground and stomps it. El Chavo walks over to him and says something like "Don Ramón, don't break your grandmother's toys. Why don't you give them to me instead?"; in response, Don Ramón hits El Chavo on the head (producing a bell sound effect), making Chavo cry (with a high-pitched "Pipipipipi!") and go hide in his barrel. Don Ramón follows him and conclude sarcastically, "''Pipipipipi''. And I don't hit you again just because... my grandmother worked in a toy factory!" (or some other unrelated reason - most of the times, the sentence is left incomplete) before marching towards his house. Florinda only rarely gets angry at Quico, and often denotes it by calling him by his full name, Federico, at which Quico also begins to cry.

'''The encounters between Profesor Jirafales and Doña Florinda.''' Profesor Jirafales enters, and Doña Florinda stops whatever she's doing to go over to him as if spell-bound, sighing "Profesor Jirafales", to which he replies "Doña Florinda". 
"What miracle brings you here?" 
"I came to bring you this humble gift." (roses) 
"Oh, thank you. They're lovely. Wouldn't you like to come on in and have a cup of coffee?" 
"If it wouldn't be too much to ask..." 
"No, not at all. Come on in." 
"After you."

This usually is interrupted or followed by something said by the character involved in whatever Doña Florinda was doing before Professor Jirafales arrived, to which they pay no attention. In addition, Profesor Jirafales can be extremely scatterbrained and therefore sometimes replaces Florinda's name in this dialogue with the name of something he was just talking about or is otherwise on his mind; this is usually something fairly unflattering. ("Doña [[Mule|Mula]]") Florinda gets confused and sometimes starts misusing the same word herself. These exchanges, whether they go smoothly or not, are always accompanied by Tchaikovsky's "Romeo and Juliet", a gushing piece of classical music. If something happens to disrupt their reverie, the music will slow down to a halt as if someone had unplugged the record player. In spite of their intense feelings for each other, their relationship is assumed to be completely platonic.

'''Señor Barriga and El Chavo.''' Whenever Señor Barriga entered the ''vecindad'', El Chavo hit him one way or another. Señor Barriga even congratulated El Chavo when he didn't hit him, to which El Chavo would say "You hear that, Quico? This is the first time that I didn't hit Señor Barriga..." and then would turn around, or drop whatever he was holding, ironically hitting Señor Barriga.

'''Mysteries surrounding Chavo.''' Characters occasionally ask what Chavo's real name is, where he lives, and who he lives with. Every time he is about to answer, there is an interruption and the subject is never brought up again. However, he once mentioned he lived in the apartment No. 8 of the neighborhood and being called "del Ocho" ("from the eight") for that same reason.

'''Crying.''' Almost all the characters have specific and strange ways of crying. Chavo, as said before, goes "Pipipipipi!" in a very high-pitched voice. Quico makes an odd, gargling wail and always leans against a wall near the entrance of the ''vecindad''. Chilindrina spreads out her elbows and then repeatedly pumps her fists inward, screeching "Wehhhhh! Wehhhhhh! Weh, weh, wehhhhhh!" (she is often faking it, but she does cry realistically if she is sincerely upset). Chilindrina may also add a rubbing of her backside as if soothing a spanking which in most cases never takes place. Under extreme duress, Don Ramón also cries, holding his fist next to one eye, and then the other, going "Reeeeeeeeeeeeeee! Reeeeeeeeeeeeeee! Ree, ree, reeeeeeeeeeeeeee!". Doña Florinda cries almost like Quico. She walks towards the entrance of the ''vecindad'' and bellows "Ahhh!" loudly. She may also cry without walking towards the entrance. (In some episodes, she cries garglingly like Quico.) Ñoño cries by repeating a hicupping sound "Ahic!" as he rubs one of his eyes, while Señor Barriga uses a lower-pitched variant "Ahee".

'''El Chavo getting scared.''' Whenever something spooks El Chavo out instead of running or screaming or fainting like the others from the vencidad, he performs a type of stance (while producing a sound effect 4 times) with his knees bended, back slouched, left arm dropping down & right arm hanging out with only his hand dropping downward.

==Famous phrases==
''Chespirito'' created several words and phrases that nowadays are widely used as part of the Spanish language, at least in Mexico City and country:

'''¡Chanfle!''': Is a word used mainly by El Chavo, but also used by other characters like ''[[El Chapulín Colorado]]''. It is a word that shows surprise or incredulity, like "My God!". Is probably the most famous and used word by ''Chespirito'', mainly because it became the main character's nickname for the soccer movies of the same name ''[[El Chanfle]]'' and ''[[El Chanfle II]]''.

'''¡Ta ta ta taaaaa TA!''': It is the angry expression shouted by Profesor Jirafales when he loses his temper. When he does that everybody gets quiet, except for El Chavo, who usually is saying something inappropriate about Profesor Jirafales, believing that nobody is listening.

'''Fue sin querer queriendo.''': Something like "I meant to, but didn't mean to [do it]" or "I didn't want to want to do it", is usually used by El Chavo when he does something wrong.

'''¡Tenía que ser el Chavo del 8!''': Translated as "It had to be El Chavo again!", is used by all the victims of El Chavo jokes, mistakes or misunderstandings (mostly Señor Barriga and Don Ramón).

'''Fíjate fíjate fíjate fíjate.''': Which could be translated as "Really really really really" or "Yep yep yep yep yep" (though literally means "Look closer look closer look closer") is a phrase that Chilindrina uses every time she's gossiping.

'''Es que no me tienen paciencia.''': Used by El Chavo when he has to explain misconduct. It means "It's because no one is patient with me!".

'''¡No me simpatizas!''': Used by Quico when he is angry or hurt. He usually holds the person's ear when he says it. It means "I don't like you!" or even "You don't like me!".

'''Eso eso eso eso''': Meaning more or less "That's it, that's it, that's it", is often used by El Chavo as a way of saying "Yes", along with moving his index finger up and down, as if it were a person nodding.

'''Bueno, pero no se enoje.''': El Chavo says it in a pleading tone when someone is mad at him. It means "Okay, but don't get mad or angry".

'''¡Se me chispotió!''': El Chavo says it in a surprising tone when he says something insulting to anyone who is an adult present when he is in a group argument. It means "It slipped away (from me)" or "I messed up!", "I just screwed it?"

'''¡Miralo eh, miralo eh!''': Meaning "Look at him, look at him", El Chavo and other kids (mostly Ñoño) will say it when they catch someone else in the patio misbehaving or doing something wrong or to deflect the blame to someone else.

'''¡Ah, ya cállate, cállate, cállate, que me desesperas!''': It means "Ah, shut up, shut up, shut up, that you upset me!" or even "Ah, shut up, shut up, shut up, 'cause you drive me crazy!". Used by Quico when Chavo or other characters start to talk to him and interrupt repeatedly whatever activity they are doing. Sometimes he shouts when there is a loud discussion between to characters at the moment.

'''¡Que pasó, que pasó, vamos hay!''': Translated more or less as "What's happening, what's happening, what's going on?", is a phrase used by Don Ramón whenever he wants to know the reason of a confusion happening in the moment.

==Criticism==

Chavo's creators (Roberto Gómez Bolaños and others), producers and Televisa have been critized for presenting horrible social situations as "funny", and for exploiting the most negative aspects of human behavior. The most frequent target of all these negative traits is an 8 year old homeless boy, who does not eat a regular meal, and whose only "friends" are precisely the individuals who torment him on a daily basis.

'''[[Some of the most recurrent examples are:]]'''

'''Violence:''' the characters routinely hit each other, with blunt objects, balls and with their fists. This includes child abuse. The character "Don Ramón", frequently abuses not only his daughter, but also Kiko, and most importantly, Chavo. Almost all of them resort to physical violence at one point or another.

'''Verbal abuse:''' derogatory nicknames are a cornerstone of the show. Children make fun of almost any perceived physical defect, the most common being obesity, "uglyness", etc.

'''Selfishness:''' children exhibit toys, food and other goods in front of others, and tempt them, offer to share only to say no later, etc. Again, the target usually is the poor 8 year old, and this is particularly effective because the perpetrators and the victim know that he does not have access to any toys or food.

'''Bad behavior:''' children (and adults) are unruly, fresh, and disrespectful to the teacher during class, and generally to all adults in the show.

'''Lying:''' All the children are compulsive liars. At times they seemed to be rewarded by this. The show itself always made an untrue statement at the begining of each episode.

The gags are always followed by laughter cues, perhaps because at least initially the producers needed to point to the audience the moments that otherwise might not be recognized as "funny". With time though, this was not necessary, since the gags were always the same. Notably, at the begining of each episode, a voice informs us that "this program does not have recorded laughter", which was evidently not true, since the laughter always sounded the same way. Frequently, the laughter cue came after a child started crying.

There are many anectodal reports of adults who state that they coudn't wait to get to school the next day to act out all the negative behavior seen in the show the previous evening.

Recently, the NGO "Participación Ciudadana (Citizenship Envolvement)" released a survey of parents in Ecuador, which found "El Chavo del 8" as the most violent program in Ecuadorian television amongst the 109 considered, beating even "Walker, Texas Ranger", various Japanese anime shows, and "The Sopranos". [http://www.eluniverso.com/2008/08/03/0001/1066/1AEA2B202A734640938D06BBF299858F.html]

The quality of the show has also been criticized. The gags are repetitive, and there are few new situations. Viewers are able to predict outcomes and lines by various characters.

==History==
===The early years (1971-1972)===
By 1971, [[Chespirito]] was already well-known in Mexico for his self-titled [[sketch comedy]] show, which aired on [[Televisa|Televisión Independiente de México]]. He had already introduced ''[[El Chapulín Colorado]]'' and other famous characters.

''[[Chespirito]]'' was the show's main creator and star. He called [[Florinda Meza]] to act in the show first; Chespirito and Meza later married. [[Edgar Vivar]] was the second actor chosen for the show. ''Chespirito'' recruited [[Ramón Valdés]] because he had known Valdés for years; Valdés, brother of ''[[Tin-Tan]]'' and ''[[Manuel Valdés|El Loco Valdés]]'' uncle and father of [[Cristian Castro]] respectively, had made multiple movies ''Chespirito'' had seen. Then, [[Rubén Aguirre]] was cast in the show as the character of "Profesor Jirafales". Aguirre and ''Chespirito'' had been working on scripts together for years, and Aguirre had already been playing the character of Profesor Jirafales on another Chespirito show, ''Supergénios de la Mesa Cuadrada'' ("Supergeniuses of the Square Table"), which spoofed current events panel discussion (also known as round-table talks, which the name obviously spoofs). [[Carlos Villagrán]] just happened to be a friend of Aguirre who was a newspaper reporter, and he went to a party hosted by Aguirre. Villagrán did a comedy step where he blew his cheeks out of proportion, and Aguirre told ''Chespirito'' about his friend's hidden talent. Villagrán was promptly hired for the show. [[María Antonieta de las Nieves]] was a voice-over only actress who used to go to Televisa to do announcements. Upon hearing her voice, ''Chespirito'' thought she was perfect for the show. The last ones to be added to the show were [[Angelines Fernández]], a former [[telenovela]] actress and [[Horacio Gómez Bolaños]], ''Chespirito'' 's brother and who had never considered acting before; he was originally to oversee the show's marketing.

The first ''El Chavo'' short appeared on [[June 20]], [[1971]] and featured El Chavo, Chilindrina and Don Ramón.

Several "Chavo" sketches produced before the start of the half-hour series were grouped into half-hour segments and are shown before the "official" half-hour episodes in syndication. Many of these were also re-written and re-shot as half-hour long shows later in the show's life.

===The TV series (1973-1979)===
In early 1973, [[Telesistema Mexicano]] and TIM merged to become [[Televisa]]. After the merger, ''El Chavo del Ocho'' became a weekly half-hour TV series.

Until about 1975, many of the early episodes were shorter than 30 minutes and had a sketch (known as ''[[Hors d'œuvre|entremés]]'') at the beginning, featuring Dr. Chapatin, El Chómpiras, or one of Chespirito's other characters. In these episodes, María Antonieta de las Nieves generally played the female leads and was the first actor credited after Chespirito. After she left Chespirito's shows in 1973, Florinda Meza took over the female roles, and De las Nieves was given "distinctive" last billing when she returned in 1975. After Valdés and Villagrán left, she was moved to top billing after Chespirito again; by that time all episodes lasted the full 30 minutes. On the hour-long "Chespirito", De las Nieves was often given third billing behind Chespirito and Florinda Meza if playing another character besides Chilindrina; otherwise she always got the special final credit ("...and María Antonieta de las Nieves as La Chilindrina!").

When Carlos Villagrán left the show, it was explained that Quico had gone to live with his godmother. "He couldn't stand the riffraff anymore", Doña Florinda explained. Not long after, Ramón Valdés also left the series, but no explanation was given as to where Don Ramón had gone.

The weekly series ''El Chavo'' was cancelled by Televisa in 1980.

===The new "Chespirito" show (1980-1992)===
Starting in 1980, the "Chespirito" show began to air again, featuring ''El Chavo'', ''El Chapulín'' and other sketches. The debut of ''El Chavo'' in this new program was auspicious, with a wealth of new episodes being produced (as opposed to many late episodes of the series, which were remakes of early shows). Moreover, in 1981, Valdés returned to the cast, after starring in some unsuccessful shows alongside Villagrán. However, he left again at the end of the year (Chilindrina said he had left the country to look for work and wouldn't come back until he was rich - the implication being that he was unlikely ever to be seen again).
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the number (and, according to fans, the quality) of new episodes began to decline; once again, many early episodes were remade (with Jaimito and Popis taking the roles of Don Ramón and Quico, respectively). In addition, as Chespirito grew older, he no longer considered adequate to play the role of an 8-year-old kid. As a result, production of ''El Chavo'' was stopped in 1992, three years before the cancellation of the "Chespirito" show.

===Animated series (2006-present)===
After several years of successful reruns, [[Televisa]] launched simultaneously in all Latin America an animated version of the program made by [http://www.animaestudios.com Ánima Estudios] on October 21, 2006. As a background, a 3D computer model was used, though for the characters, 2D drawings were used, created with [[Adobe Flash|Flash]] technology. A huge program was made to launch it in on a scenario made to imitate the computerized background. Some things about the original program were reminescenced and they showed how the animated series was made.

The cartoon also allowed depicting the children to the right scale. Previously, since the children were played by adults in the live action version, the feel was given to the character through their way of dressing, speaking, and mainly through giving them oversized toys. However, this was not the first attempt to animate it. Previously, during the credits, [[claymation]] sequences could be watched.

In this animated series, La Chilindrina doesn't appear due to on-going disputes between María Antonieta de las Nieves and Roberto Gómez Bolaños on rights of "La Chilindrina". De las Nieves feels she should be entitled to monetary compensation if "La Chilindrina", the character she brought to life in the television series, appears in the animated series. Roberto Gómez Bolaños claims that since he created the character (De las Nieves only portrayed it), only he owns the rights to such character. This dispute still hasn't been resolved.

===List of episodes of the animated series===
====1st season====
* "Los globos" '''(The balloons)'''
* "Insomnio" '''(Sleeplessness)'''
* "Una mosca en el café" '''(A fly on the coffee)'''
* "Satanás" '''(The dog Satan)'''
* "Los yeseros" '''(The plasterers)'''
* "Falta de agua" '''(Need of water)'''
* "El juego de beisbol" '''(A game of baseball)'''
* "La venta de churros" '''(''Churros'' on sale)'''
* "Toques a ritmo de vals" '''(Takings to the rhythm of the dance)'''
* "El Chavo lavacoches" '''(The Kid washing cars)'''
* "Fútbol americano" '''(American football)'''
* "Un ratero en la vecindad" '''(A thief in the neighborhood)'''
* "La mascota de Quico" '''(Quico's new pet)'''
* "Fotos buenas, regulares e peores" '''(Good, so-so and bad pictures)'''
* "El amor llegó a la vecindad" '''(The love is in the neighborhood)'''
* "Una broma de gran peso" '''(A fool of big weight)'''
* "Cúentame una de fantasmas" '''(Tell me all of witches and phantoms)'''
* "Classes de box" '''(Box lessons)'''
* "Deudas a pagar y sillas a pegar" '''(Jaimito and Don Ramón's problem)'''
* "Los bomberos" '''(The firemen)'''
* "Limpieza en la vecindad" '''(Time to clean the neighborhood)'''
* "Pintando la vecindad" '''(Painting the neighborhood)'''
* "El desayuno del Chavo" '''(The Kid's breakfast)'''
* "La casita del Chavo" '''(The Kid's little house)'''
* "Sonámbulos" '''(The sleepwalkers)'''
* "Vacaciones en Acapulco" '''(Let's go everyone to Acapulco)'''

====2nd season (yet to come in Brazil and USA)====
* "El gran premio de la vecindad"
* "El justiciero enmascarado"
* "Las historias de terror"
* "¡Como suben los alimentos!"
* "Dinero perdido"
* "Cuidemos el agua"
* "Don Ramón enamorado"
* "Amar a los enemigos"
* "Regalo de Navidad"
* "El hombre invisible"
* "Las aguas frescas"
* "Don Ramón lechero"
* "La vecindad em guerra"
* "Carrera de coches"
* "Se busca"
* "Canta, Chavo"
* "¡Esas llantitas, Señor Barriga!"
* "Invasión extraterrestre"
* "El campamento"
* "Los dientes de leche"
* "La novia del Chavo"
* "Un bebé en la vecindad"
* "Vamos al circo"
* "Las Olimpiadas"
* "Juguetes de papel"
* "Llega la Chilindrina"
* "Los piratas"
* "Las mujeres son perfectas y hombres apestan"

===Voice cast===
*[[Jesús Guzmán]] - El Chavo / Godínez
*[[Víctor Delgado]] - Señor Barriga
*[[Sebastián Llapur]] - Quico
*[[Erica Edwards]] - Doña Florinda / Popis
*[[Mario Castañeda]] - Don Ramón / Ñoño
*[[Erika Mireles]] - Doña Clotilde
*[[Juan Carlos Tinoco]] - Profesor Jirafales
*[[Leonardo García]] - Jaimito

==Impact==
The show is the most translated Latin-American show in history, after being shown in several countries. It is the most popular sitcom in the history of Mexican television [http://www.slate.com/id/2129387/?nav=tap3] and lasted for 1,300 episodes. It has been rerun on several TV stations since the 1970s.

Surprisingly, ''El Chavo del Ocho'' is also quite popular in [[Brazil]] (the only [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]-speaking country of the Americas), broadcasted by [[SBT]] since the beginning of the 1980s.

In the [[United States]], the show is still shown, on [[Galavisión (USA)|Galavisión]]. The show in the United States is consistently the No. 1-rated Spanish-language cable program. [http://www.slate.com/id/2129387/?nav=tap3] It also inspired [[List of celebrities in The Simpsons#Bumblebee Man|a character in ''The Simpsons'']].

The show was so popular in other parts of Latin America and among the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] speaking community of the [[United States]] that in [[Peru]] and [[Uruguay]], other shows involving the main actors of ''El Chavo del Ocho'' began to be televised, in [[Argentina]]. Rubén Aguirre has been able to enjoy some success playing his character at a [[Circus (performing art)|circus]], and in [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Colombia]], many of the phrases El Chavo and his friends used have become normal part of their every day dialogue.

''Chespirito'' has established legal battles with former ''El Chavo del Ocho'' actors out of a desire to prevent them from using the show's characters in Mexico without his permission. Aguirre moved to Argentina in order to use his character's name on his shows (''Chespirito'' is not copyrighted in Argentina).

Episodes of the show were released on DVD in 2003.

There have also being internet fads regarding the show, editing images and replacing them with the character's heads, in particular the ''Chavo Matrix'' which tried to modify the story of [[The Matrix]] using them. The character that has most images edited this way is Don Ramón featuring many different instances.

==External links==
;In Spanish
*[http://www.chavodel8.com/ Chavo del 8, Chapulin Colorado y Chespirito]
*[http://www.vecindaddelchavo.com/ Chespirito's Fan]
*[http://www.chavodelocho.tk/ Homenaje a El Chavo del Ocho]
*[http://www.geocities.com/TelevisionCity/Station/4917/chavito.html ¡El sensacional Chavo del Ocho!]

;In English
*[http://www.slate.com/id/2129387/?nav=tap3 ''Slate'' article on its popularity in the United States]

;In Portuguese
*[http://www.chavesweb.com/ Chaves Web]
*[http://www.forumch.com.br/ Fórum Único Chespirito]
*[http://www.chespiritobr.com/ Chespirito Brasil]
*[http://www.turmach.com/ Turma CH]
*[http://www.turmadochaves.com Turma do Chaves]
*[http://www.clubedochaves.com.br/ Clube do Chaves]
*[http://tinhaqueserochaves.50webs.com/ Tinha que Ser o Chaves]
*[http://sbt.com.br/infantil/?nome=chaves/ Chaves Homepage in SBT website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chavo del Ocho, El}}
[[Category:Chespirito characters]]
[[Category:Televisa network shows]]
[[Category:Fictional Mexicans]]
[[Category:1972 television series debuts]]
[[Category:1980 television series endings]]
[[Category:Fictional orphans]]

[[de:El Chavo del Ocho]]
[[es:El Chavo del Ocho (serie de TV)]]
[[nl:El Chavo del Ocho]]
[[pt:El Chavo del Ocho]]

Billy the Puppet

2008-08-12T22:52:14Z

163.178.17.124: /* Appearances */

{| class="infobox" style="width: 21em; font-size: 90%; text-align: left"
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | ''[[Saw (film series)|Saw]]'' prop
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[Image:BillyPuppt.JPG]]
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size: larger; background-color: #001; color: #ffa;" | Billy aka the Magician
|-
! Gender:
| [[Male]] design
|-
! Relationships:
| [[Jigsaw Killer|John Kramer]] (creator and voice actor)
|-
! Purpose:
| To deliver messages to subjects of Jigsaw
|-
! Status:
| Inanimate
|-
! First Appearance:
| ''[[Saw (film)|Saw]]''
|
|}

'''Billy''' is a puppet that has appeared in the [[Saw (film series)|''Saw'' films]]. He was used by the series' primary antagonist John Kramer, the [[Jigsaw Killer]], to communicate with his victims. Although he has never been identified in the actual films themselves, ''Billy'' is the name by which he is referred to by writers, directors and members of the cast and crew on documentaries and interviews. The name was given to him by his real-life creator [[James Wan]], who is the director and co-writer of ''Saw''. There is disagreement that the name is spelled ''Billie'', although Wan himself spells it ''Billy''.<ref name=SawUncut>Saw: Uncut special features</ref>

The main purpose of Billy is to deliver recorded messages to victims of Jigsaw's, often appearing on a television screen to distribute the details of the [[List of traps in the Saw film series|sadistic traps]] and the means of which the victims can survive.

Recently, a line of replica ''Billy'' dolls has been released for consumer purchase, mainly through off-beat gift-stores. It retains the main characteristics of the doll, though is much cleaner in appearance. ''Billy'' Halloween masks have also been released for general consumer purchase.

== Characteristics ==

Billy appears to be a [[Ventriloquism|ventriloquist's dummy]], as his jaw is movable in order to give the suggestion that he is talking, although he is not used in the same manner, instead being seen moving "on his own". His face is white, and he has a protruding brow and cheeks that have red spirals painted on them. His red lips form a grin. His eyes are black, with red irises, and his head is topped with black, messy hair.

Billy is always depicted as wearing a black tuxedo, with a white undershirt and gloves, red bow tie, and red handkerchief in the breast pocket. He also has red [[Mary Jane (shoe)|Mary-Janes]] for shoes. In the short film, he is seen wearing a green [[bowler hat]]. He is often seen riding an old-fashioned, red tricycle. The only sound delivered "directly" by him is a generic electronic cackle much like one would find in a Halloween-type toy.

It was revealed in ''[[Saw IV]]'' that Billy's design was taken from a smaller, slightly different, version that John had shown to his then-wife, [[List of Saw characters#Jill Tuck|Jill]].

== Construction ==

[[Image:OriginalBilly.JPG|thumb|right|100px|Original concept art for Billy]]

According to Wan, the construction of the original puppet's face for ''[[Saw (film)|Saw]]'' involved clay, papier-maché, and black ping-pong balls with the irises painted in for the eyes. He's also said to have paper-towel rolls somewhere part of him.<ref name=Saw1DVD>Saw DVD special features</ref> To make him move, the puppeteers pulled him along on a fishing line.

For ''[[Saw II]]'', Billy was redesigned with mechanical features that could be controlled by a remote control, including his unhinged jaw and his eyes.

For ''[[Saw III]]'', the prop crew was given the original puppet, but found it unfit to work, as time had damaged it. Instead, they recreated Billy, using water-jet-cut foam for his body instead of fiberglass, equipped with plates to hold the puppet together and magnets to attach him to his tricycle. The back of his head was removable, as to make it easier to slide the animatronic pieces in.

For ''[[Saw IV]]'', the prop crew again made the body of water-jet-cut foam, held together by metal rods. They used strong magnets to make a flat rear for the puppet, so that it could be easily positioned on any metal surface. The resin-filled ping-pong ball eyes were controlled with a remote control, as was the mouth.<ref name=eBayBidding>[http://cgi.ebay.com/THE-SAW-4-PUPPET_W0QQitemZ260173415303QQihZ016QQcategoryZ60360QQssPageNameZWDVWQQrdZ1QQcmdZViewItem eBay description]</ref>
{{-}}

== Appearances ==

=== In the ''Saw'' films ===

[[Image:SawBillyDoll.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Billy congratulates Amanda for surviving her test]]

In the first ''Saw'' movie, Billy is seen on a television set by [[Amanda Young|Amanda]], telling her about the [[List of traps in the Saw film series#Jaw splitter (a.k.a: Reverse bear trap)|contraption]] wired into her jaws. Once Jigsaw explains where she must find the key to unlock the trap, Billy is seen again, congratulating Amanda on her success, wheeling into the room on his tricycle to deliver the message of her freedom.

Later, [[Adam Faulkner|Adam]] remembers seeing the puppet in his apartment when the lights went out. While searching through the dark rooms using his camera flash, the puppet's eerie laugh rings through the apartment, and Adam hits it with his bat until it stops.

When [[List of Saw characters#David Tapp|Detectives Tapp]] and [[List of Saw characters#Steven Sing|Sing]] uncover Jigsaw's latest hideout, they snoop around his desk, pulling off many blankets to reveal the different contraptions of the sick mastermind. The two detectives are shocked when they find the Billy puppet staring back at them under one of the blankets.

In the second ''Saw'' movie, Billy is seen on the screen at the beginning of the film, giving [[List of Saw characters#Michael|Michael]] hints about the [[List of traps in the Saw film series#Head trap|death mask]] he's wearing.

Later, when the detectives discover Jigsaw's new hideout, several officers rush up a [[List of traps in the Saw film series#Electrified staircase|caged staircase]], and are greeted by Billy, who wheels into sight at the top of the stairs on his tricycle, where he lets off his laugh. The fence around the stairs then becomes electrified after one of the rigged steps sets off the trap.
{{-}}

[[Image:Jigsawpaintbrushmouth.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Jigsaw constructing Billy]]

In the third movie, Jigsaw can be seen constructing Billy in a flashback, painting the puppet's face. Later, Billy is used to inform both [[List of Saw characters#Troy|Troy]] and [[Allison Kerry|Kerry]] of their respective traps. The puppet is also seen in the background of a flashback that features Jigsaw and Amanda discussing her loyalty.

He is also used to remind [[Reinhart family#Jeff Reinhart|Jeff Reinhart]] of his dead son at one point, by being laid down next to his bike (in the same position as Jeff's son when he was killed). He then lets off a mocking laugh.
After Jeff cuts Jigsaw's throat, a reflection of Billy can be seen on Jigsaw's heart rate moniter for a split second.

Before ''Saw III'''s release, Billy was used in videos to promote the film on such sites as [[YouTube]] and [[MySpace]].
{{-}}

[[Image:Billy'sFaceGoesBoom.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Billy's face is blown apart as part of a trap.]]

Billy is first seen in ''Saw IV'' when [[Rigg (Saw)|Rigg]] awakes after being attacked in his apartment and rendered unconscious. Rigg opens his bathroom door, pulling a trigger-wire from a TV set. Billy appears on the screen to explain Rigg's game. Upon leaving the room, Rigg is greeted by another message concerning his first test, referring to [[List of Saw characters#Brenda|a woman]] Jigsaw deemed to be a criminal that was stuck in a machine that would scalp her.

Agents [[List of Saw characters#Peter Strahm|Strahm]] and [[List of Saw characters#Lindsey Perez|Perez]] later find Billy in a [[List of traps in the Saw film series#Lindsey and Peter's tests|room in a school]], sitting on a chair surrounded by candles. Billy then tells Agent Perez that her partner would end up killing an innocent man (who would later be found out to be Jeff) and also that her next move is critical. Billy's eyes begin turning, and Perez leans in to examine them, at which point the face of the puppet explodes, blowing shrapnel into her face and neck. She is brought to the hospital in critical condition.

There is also a flashback of Jigsaw giving an early version of Billy to [[List of Saw characters#Jill Tuck|Jill]] as a gift, looking less menacing than the most recent version.<ref name=BobbyThePuppet>[http://cgi.ebay.com/BOBBY-PUPPET-PHOTO-USED-IN-SAW-4-HOFFMAN-INTERROGATION_W0QQitemZ260201446305QQihZ016QQcategoryZ60360QQssPageNameZWDVWQQrdZ1QQcmdZViewItem Bobby, the original Billy]</ref> An interview with Tobin Bell has revealed that this was the beginning of a storyline concerning the origins of Billy, as well as his tricycle, to be explored in future ''Saw'' films.<ref name=SawVBilly>[http://www.rabiddoll.com/index.php?p=102 'Saw V' To Explain Billy The Puppet]</ref>

Before ''Saw IV'''s release, Billy was used in videos to promote the film on such sites as YouTube and MySpace.

=== In other films by Wan and Whannell ===

Leigh Whannell stated at the world premiere of ''Dead Silence'' that he was going to put Billy in every movie he made from now on, but its presence might not be obvious.

==== ''Dead Silence'' ====

[[Image:BillyDeadSilence.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Billy at the bottom of the screen]]

In the 2007 film ''[[Dead Silence]]'' (which is made by James Wan and [[Leigh Whannell]], the creators of the ''Saw'' films), one of the puppets, who appears on the film's poster and wears the same outfit as Jigsaw's puppet, is named Billy. The ''Saw'' puppet is also seen in the movie for a brief second, in a shot that reveals all of Mary Shaw's puppets in the attic above the theater.

==== ''Death Sentence'' ====

In ''[[Death Sentence (film)|Death Sentence]]'' (which was directed by James Wan), Billy's face can be seen spray-painted on a wall in the background in two of the scenes.

=== ''Scary Movie 4'' ===

In [[Scary Movie 4]], Billy is represented as a [[alien]] race responsible for most of the events of the movie.

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{Saw Series}}

[[Category:Saw characters]]
[[Category:Horror film characters]]
[[Category:Fictional objects]]
[[Category:Fictional puppets]]

[[sv:Billy (Saw)]]

Talk:Isaac Mendez

2008-07-30T17:39:16Z

163.178.17.124: /* Something to watch for in the future */

{{Heroes discussion}}
{{talkheader}}
{{WikiProject Heroes}}

==Isaac's death==

Although it seems likely that Isaac is a [[Kurt Cobain]] analog, I don't think that he killed himself. The symbol that appears on the Indian guy's computer and Isaac's room was also found at the crime scene where the LAPD officer discovers his powers. Also, Isaac was killed in a similar way to the man at the crime scene--half his head sawed off, with his brains totally missing. I think that Isaac was murdered.

I know, I edited this information into the article, (where was it at the crime scenes, by the way the killer is named "Sellers"). -- [[User:Psi edit|Psi edit]] 02:33, 3 October 2006 (UTC)
:Page 3 of the [http://www.nbc.com/Heroes/novels/novel_001.shtml graphic novel #1 ("Monsters")] on the NBC site calls him "Sylar". Closed Captions also used the "Sylar" spelling consistently. —[[User:Laserion|Laserion]] 00:12, 9 October 2006 (UTC)
::Plus, the name "Sylar" is on the tape Mohinder found in episode one. Also, the article erroneously claims that Isaac doesn't appear alive in this episode. I'm off to fix that. [[User:Hydragon|Hydragon]] 06:13, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

==Categories==

Wait, wait... are we ready to classify Issac as a Superhero? --[[User:DJ Chair|DJ Chair]] 18:20, 4 October 2006 (UTC)

He seems like a neutral character since he only wants to save soimone- Redspiderman

==The Helix Symbol==

Why has all those painting of the helix symbol in Isaac's apartment five weeks ago not been mentioned? I saw it was earlier, but it seems ot have been deleted. [[User:Hydragon|Hydragon]] 06:13, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

:''Removed'', for now. Until we get a handle on what the symbol is/means, if anything, I'd rather not invite speculation. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|ACS (Wikipedian)]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|Talk to the Ace]]. [[Special:Contributions/Ace Class Shadow|See what I've edited]]. 07:27, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

==Art work==

'''Split''' I suggest that we split this section to [[List of Isaac Mendez's art work]]. It might get very large and over come this article after just one season. This list already takes up a large amount of the article after just four episodes. --[[User:Pinkkeith|Pinkkeith]] 16:15, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

:'''Disagree'''. We don't need an entry for every little thing that he has in his apartment. [[User:EvilCouch|EvilCouch]] 16:20, 18 October 2006 (UTC)
::'''Comment'''. I'm not saying that everything in his apartment should be placed in a list, just his artwork. It is notable to the character since this is his power. --[[User:Pinkkeith|Pinkkeith]] 18:14, 18 October 2006 (UTC)
:'''Agree'''. So far, all but a few paintings (glass filled with bubbling liquid) have been significant. Furthermore, I believe that the paintings are going to play a very large importance to the story. --[[User:DJ Chair|DJ Chair]] 17:20, 18 October 2006 (UTC)
:I '''Agree''', I guess. The sectioning would certainly be easier. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 18:41, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

:I'd prefer the title [[Art work of Isaac Mendez]], though. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 22:47, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

::Actually, I think [[Powers and equipment of Isaac Mendez]] would be best. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 18:46, 25 October 2006 (UTC)
:'''Agree''', any title will be fine for me.--[[User:Ac1983fan/esperanza|A]][[User:Ac1983fan|c1983fan]][[User_talk:Ac1983fan|(yell at me)]] 12:11, 27 October 2006 (UTC)
:'''Disagree''' The article isn't long enough (yet) that it needs to be split up. Why require the reader to make an additional mouseclick? [[User:Primogen|Primogen]] 21:05, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

<s>It seems the consensus favors the splitting of this page, but it obviously never happened. Do you guys think there have been enough paintings to warrant the splitting of [[Artwork of Isaac Mendez]]? We can take screenshots of the paintings and put them into a gallery.</s> {{:User:Anticrash/Sig}} 17:56, 9 February 2007 (UTC)
::Started [[Artwork of Isaac Mendez]]. {{:User:Anticrash/Sig}} 18:12, 9 February 2007 (UTC)

==Heroin-induced precognition??==

I tend to think its just plain precognition because in Hiros Peter finished the painting, and wasn't on anything... [[User:EnsRedShirt|EnsRedShirt]] 15:08, 24 October 2006 (UTC)

Isaac believes it's heroin-induced only and has not been able to paint without it. He's bound to test the theory, but as far as we know, he's right. Peter is a separate character and he how mimics other people's powers is irrelevant. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 18:37, 24 October 2006 (UTC)

===Moved from [[Talk:Heroes (TV series)]]===

I editted Isaac's power entry to 'Morphine-induced precognition'. Peter duplicated this power, when he was in the hospital in the second episode. Obviously, the hospital didn't give him heroin, but morphine's a possibility. In addition, heroin breaks down into morphine in the body, so it must be morphine that's doing the trick.[[User:64.247.206.184|64.247.206.184]] 18:32, 16 October 2006 (UTC)
:Do we know FOR SURE that it's JUST morphine? For all we know, he could have a few Red Bulls and blackout and paint the future. he could have a bottle of Jaegermeister and do the same. He could smoke some weed and do it. Has the show or the creator of the show said implicitly that it is morphine-induced only? [[User:Rihk]] 19:25, 16, October 2006 (UTC)
::Peter also drew the future. He didn't take heroin. He was in a hospital. Morphine is the logical link between Peter in his situation and Isaac's heroin.[[User:64.247.206.184|64.247.206.184]] 22:14, 17 October 2006 (UTC)
:::The question is, why does it have to just be the one drug that can trigger the ability? Who says it can't be triggered by ANY drug that alters his mental state? I think more information is needed before we can say for certain that morphine/heroin is narrowly responsible for the visions. [[User:Applejuicefool|Applejuicefool]] 15:56, 19 October 2006 (UTC)
::::Isn't to because it's the only time we've seen any precognition? Don't get me wrong, I'm open to leave it at precognition, but that would be speculating above and beyond what the characters know, and what the viewers know. --[[User:DJ Chair|DJ Chair]] 16:14, 19 October 2006 (UTC)
:::::I think it would be speculating to say he has just "precognition", just as it would be speculating to say he has "morphine-triggered precognition". We know that morphine and/or heroin are triggers, but we don't know for certain that they are the only triggers. I think it's likely that the altered mental state is what actually triggers the precognition, not narrow chemical triggers related to one specific drug. [[User:Applejuicefool|Applejuicefool]] 20:16, 19 October 2006 (UTC)
::::::It's really not drug enduced. This episode proves it, since neither character was on anything. Just because Isaac doesn't know this yet, doesn't make it not true.
:::::::Peter Petrelli doesn't need any kind of mental stimulation to see the future. Since he just copies Isaac's "superpower", we can ensure that Isaac thinks he needs the drugs, but it isn't true. He is blocked because he doesn't believe in his own habilities, so he needs heroin to free himself from his doubts. --[[User:KesheR|KesheR]] 20:42, 25 October 2006 (UTC)
::::::::That conclusion, which seems reasonable, coupled with the TV Guide citation, means that until such time as Isaac demonstrates that he can use the power without the drugs, it should, and will, stay as 'heroin-induced', despite the repeated attacks by a couple of GIPU editors. [[User:ThuranX|ThuranX]] 23:04, 26 October 2006 (UTC)
:::::It's not speculation to say that Isaac has precognition -- there is ample evidence that he has that ability. The debate is whether that ability is influenced to any degree by drugs. I think that a detail such as this, which is still being argued by fans of the show, belongs, if anywhere, in the Isaac article. The activating agent of Isaac's precognition (whether actual, apparent, or formerly believed) doesn't belong in the main article, and certainly not in the table. Make it easy on the reader, and just say what Isaac's power is. [[User:Primogen|Primogen]] 23:25, 26 October 2006 (UTC)
::::::Dude, we tried that. The way I see it, the show is popular and there's always going to be some sort of conflict. If we tried to keep it as precognition now after all the time it was "heroin-induced", it'd be like we were saying it was ''only'' precognition. It's been stated in the cited TV Guide article, press releases, et cetera. It's considered a vital detail and removing it would seem like agreeing with the speculators. More importantly, a lot of these powers have extra details to them. Proximity-based power mimicry, split personality—which, by itself, is not a real superpower.—("with unknown powers"), etc. The last thing I'd want is to push for an unnecessary addition, but leaving out "[[Heroin]]-induced" is agreeing with them. Same thing with Claire's power. No compromise that I can see. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 23:37, 26 October 2006 (UTC)
:::::::I'm not saying take it out. I'm saying take it elsewhere. Put the whole heroin-induced thing in the Isaac article, where you can cite the facts: "In episode x, Issac experienced prognitiion when y, while in episode a, Issac experienced precognition when b". Or "Article d said e about Isaac's precognition." [[User:Primogen|Primogen]] 00:02, 27 October 2006 (UTC)
:::::::::Consistency and status quo are key. It can't be listed one way in one place and not another. Right in his HCB it says "Heroin-induced". That's part of the summary. I admit excessive detail isn't good, but this is the accepted summary of his powers. The only reason to change it now is if it was proven incorrect. That's not happened. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 00:16, 27 October 2006 (UTC)
::::::::::I agree with Ace. Isaac hasn't used his ability without drugs. Peter Petrelli has, but that could be an effect of ''Peter's'' power, not Isaac's. Or it could be that the ability's user has to be relatively comfortable and pain-free - Isaac on drugs, Peter off. Whatever the case, it seems at this point that Isaac (not Peter) needs the drugs for his ability to operate. [[User:Applejuicefool|Applejuicefool]] 01:54, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

:::::::::::Exactly. Peters powers are like a [[leech]]. He can grab onto another persons powers for a short amount of time. For now, all we know is that Isaac can only see the future when he's high. Saying anything else at this point in the story is inaccurate. [[User:Dposse|dposse]] 22:30, 29 October 2006 (UTC)

Someone should go change superman's powers to "Earth's Yellow Sun induced". I mean, its been proven beyond a shadow of a doubt that superman is only powered as long as he has stored energy from the sun, so doesn't that mean that his powers only work because of the sun? shouldn't that be more important than just, i dunno, stating he has powers, and what they are? This arguement is stupid. Heroin induced precognition is not a superpower, precognition is a superpower, heroin induced is just a way of accessing the power. Sure, maybe isaac can't see the future without drugs, maybe he never will, but that doesn't mean his superpower is heroin-induced precognition. Also, the people who keep saying "hey, we don't know how peters powers work" we know he copies other peoples super powers and i am yet to see him copy "heroin-induced precognition". Now, its an article about a tv show, so get over your proprietous attitudes. [[User:WookMuff|WookMuff]] 12:55, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

Seeing that we've now had two confirmed occasions of Isaac using his powers without heroin, I think it's fair to remove the "heroin-induced" qualifier. [[User:66.25.120.166|66.25.120.166]] 03:27, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

===Temporary Solution===

Ok guys the revert war has to stop, here is the solution I am offering. For now lets leave at at Heroine induced pre-cognition. I have a strong feeling that in the comming weeks we will learn he doesn't need the heroine but untill that happens lets just leave it as is. --[[User:Argash|''' Argash ''']] | [[User_talk:Argash|''' talk ''']] | [[Special:Contributions/Argash|''' contribs ''']] 03:14, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

:HEROIN!! NOT HEROINE!!! [[User:ThuranX|ThuranX]] 22:34, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

::Easy, X. [[Wikipedia:Civil|Civility]]. It's a common mistake. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 22:56, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

:::It's a mistake we've addressed repeatedly. Illiteracy is a detraction to wikipedia, and editors who suffer from it bring wikipedia down. I have a hard time taking seriously someone who cannot even properly speak about the issue in question. It's like trying to take Pres. Bush seriously when he calls them 'nookyooler wepinz' and thinks he's smart. There. A civil reply explaining my position on the issue. [[User:ThuranX|ThuranX]] 03:09, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

::::Oh...kay. Thank you, X. Still, haven't we all made a spelling mistake now and then? Even I have in a few article edits. While I can understand your point, Argash's typing isn't the issue here. And I'm sure your...um...assertive voicing of your opinion will stir him into typing more accurately. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 06:20, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

:::::Since it is unknown whether or not Issacs powers are drug induced, people should not assume one way or the other. His powers should not be listed as, "Precognition[8] (currently Heroin-induced)", but as "Precognition[8] ('''possibly''' Heroin-induced)". It is not a good idea to assume things that are not known for sure. Using "possibly" instead of "curently" shows that we do not have all the facts surrounding his power. If more information is revealed in the future it can be updated once there is proof one way or the other. [[User:arrow61095|arrow61095]] 17:17, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

::::::Uh...there is proof. Are you new? He's been using heroin for weeks. It's cited. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 20:35, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

:::::::So what that he uses heroin (which I never denied, because I have watched every show so far). There is no proof that the usage of the heroin is connected to the precognition. I ate an apple today, I also walk - That doesn't mean that apples cause me to walk. Maybee the heroin is connected to the precognition, maybee not - there is no way for you to know. It is ignorant to assume that just because a theory fits the facts, that the theory is correct. There is a good enough possibility that Issac simply thinks that the heroin is what makes him see the future because it gives him an excuse to use (People with addictions tend to believe anything that will give them an excuse to stay addicted). It all comes down to - "YOU DON'T KNOW", so you think Issac's preminitions are "heroin induced" - that is your opinion, but it is not fact and thus should not be in the article as this is supposed to be an encyclopedia entry (based on fact) and not someone's blog (based on opinion). [[User:arrow61095|arrow61095]] 21:59, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

::::::::There is a flaw in your logic. You probably have been able to walk without eating apples, but Isaac has never been able to see the future without using heroin. Now, correlation is not causation, but Isaac says that he needs to use heroin to see the future, and until the show or other official source tells us otherwise, then that's what the facts are. It may be that he will later be able to the see future without using heroin, but that hasn't been the case so far. [[User:Primogen|Primogen]] 22:22, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

:::::::::So what, Issac would say he was the president of the United States if he thought it could enable him to get/use more heroin or give him an excuse. And, as you said correlation is not causation, so isn't it better to admit that the precognition is "possibly" heroin induced rather then saying that it is definatelly heroin induced and having to change it later if you are proved wrong. There is no fact or hard evidence that it is heroin induced (aka The writers of the show did not come out and say it or post it on the official website). Also, the fact that peter did not need to use heroin when he used Issac's power leaves more reasonable doubt. There are many possibilities. But saying that Issac's precognition is definatelly heroin induced is like when our ancestors claimed that the world was flat (they came to that conclusion based on several correlations too), you are making a judgement without all of the facts. I am simply saying that the article's contents should be based on fact not correlation. [[User:arrow61095|arrow61095]] 22:34, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

::::::::::For reporting on a TV show, I think it's reasonable to use characters' own descriptions of themselves as authoritative sources without needing outside, secondary sources as confirmation. For example, if a TV character claims to like vanilla ice cream or knows how to play the harmonica, it's reasonable to report that as factual information about a character without adding qualifiers like "possibly". I understand your position that Isaac might lie to get heroin, but that doesn't mean that he is indeed lying. And while I believe that we'll eventually learn that he doesn't really need heroin to see the future, that's pure speculation on my part. What matters is whether we are accurately reporting what has happened in the show thus far, and at this point, the show has consistantly portrayed him as requiring heroin to see the future, and nothing else contracts that. On the other hand, I favor dropping "heroin induced" entirely from the infobox as being unnecessary detail (after all, we don't say Hiro's ability is "wince-induced time manipulation", nor did Eden find it necessary to specify Isaac as being a "heroin-induced precog" to Mr. Bennet) so long the body text makes it clear that heroin usage thus far has been a prerequisite for Isaac's abilities. [[User:Primogen|Primogen]] 23:24, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

:::::::::::I'd rather not change the terminology, either. We've tried that and it never seems to work out. Plus, TV Guide used the words "Heroin-induced" just like we are now. Writing it in parenthesis or with qualifers like "currently", "possibly", "usually", et cetera isn't a great idea. And the slightly exaggerated facial expressions or physical reactions/conditions the others might have don't count the same way. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 23:45, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

::::::::::::I'd rather go with heroin-induced precognition rather than saying it's possibly heroin-induced. As Prime said, correlation is not causation. When Issac takes the heroin, he goes into his trance-like, glossed eyes state, and only AFTER he takes the heroin (so far). Peter got it without using, but that's probably a side-effect of Peter's proximity power. The fact that TV Guide has gone with it as well practically confirms it is heroin-induced. Until we know more, I say we keep it heroin-induced precognition. -- [[User:142.222.98.128|142.222.98.128]] 20:53, 1 November 2006 (UTC)
::::::::::::Agh... that was me. Sorry. -- [[User:Doran|Doran]] 20:53, 1 November 2006 (UTC)
:::::::::::::First, there is no proof that Peter not having to use the heroin is part of his power of mimicry. Is it possible-yes-but so are a lot of things. As for "The fact that TV Guide has gone with it as well practically confirms it is heroin-induced." - Because we all know that media never gets anything wrong (look up the Sago Mine disaster). As far as the character descriptions in that particular TV guide, I did not see any direct refrence to the writers of the show. It looked more like something that someone extrapolated from a show description. Example: Writer at TV Guide reads --"In the first episode of Heroes, Issac Mendez is able to paint the future while he is using Heroin." -- Writer needs to describe the powers of the different heroes for an upcoming issue and in an attempting to make the descriptions more concise writes "herion induced precognition" which is descriptive of the times (so far) that we have seen Issac use his power on screen, but is inaccurate in that it biases readers into believing that there is no possible way that Issac could see the future if he were not on heroin. [[User:arrow61095|arrow61095]] 22:17, 1 November 2006 (UTC)
:::::::::::::::So far, that's what we know to be true, reinforced by Isaac's own words. Should this turn out to be ''proven'' incorrcct, the information will be changed. However, we are not going qualify, second guess or [[Wikipedia:avoid weasel words|weaselized]] the current information. Wikipedia presents facts. Being wrong is better than being afraid to claim correctness. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 22:47, 1 November 2006 (UTC)
::::::::::::::::I guess we will have to agree to disagree then. Since I believe that encyclopedias should only contain proven facts. --I would not be very happy if I looked something up in an encyclopedia only to find out later that it was wrong; I would rather know from the beginning that the source may or may not be dubious.-- And as far as questioning, I agree with Arthur C. Clarke, "I don't pretend we have all the answers. But the questions are certainly worth thinking about." [[User:arrow61095|arrow61095]] 14:02, 2 November 2006 (UTC)

::::::::::::::::In specific regards to this discussion, I was most concerned with the fact that the words "herion induced" describing Issac's precognition may bias people into believing it is not possible that Issac could be able to see the future without using herion (which has not been proven one way or the other yet). While I do recognize that there are certain issues with using "weasel words", I believe that writing the article from a [[Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view|Neutral point of view]] is every bit as important. [[User:arrow61095|arrow61095]] 17:24, 2 November 2006 (UTC)

Okay, that's it. This article, like any Wikipedia-quality entry, is written NPOV. Insinuations otherwise are not appreciated. The requirement of heroin has been proven, even if not to your satisfaction. As data changing, it happens. Especially when dealing with fiction, one cannot assume everything is set in stone. [[Comic books]], [[retcon]]s, misdirects, plot twists. Even an encyclopedia article cannot be expected to, say, do what Isaac does. The [[Spider-Man 3]] could not have been expected to list [[Venom (comics)|Venom]] as a confirmed character back in May, 2006. Now, I think I'm done. Something about baseless accusations always seems to sour me on a conversation. [[User:Ace Class Shadow|Ace Class Shadow]]; [[User talk:Ace Class Shadow|My talk]]. 18:59, 2 November 2006 (UTC)

:Your Spiderman 3 reference makes me beleive that you may be misunderstanding something. There would be no problem with Venom not being listed back in May 2006 as a confirmed character as this would be unknown and not printed. The problem would be if they listed Carnage as a confirmed character back in May 2006, and then you find out later that he isn't going to be in the movie. This creates a problem because it was printed before anyone knew if it was true or not. As far as this article point is concerned, all I am asking is that all conflicting views on this subject are presented in the article and the Reader is allowed to make their own informed decision after realizing the possible media bias from the TV Guide article not being a direct reference of the writers of the show and the possible bias of a heroin addict claiming he needs heroin. I realize that the bias of a heroin addict wanting heroin may be easily recognized by readers of an average intelligence, but the possible media bias of the TV guide issue could easily by missed by someone who either does not have the TV Guide issue or has it and tends to believe that everything they read is straight from the creators of heroes' mouths. If these details are somewhere in the article and I just happened to miss them, I sincerely apologize. [[User:arrow61095|arrow61095]] 19:40, 2 November 2006 (UTC)

::I agree with you, Arrow. Dude, let's just have it as "precognition". That's wat better. Plus, it's not really saying his powers ''can't'' be heroin-induced. [[User:Izzy Dot|Izzy Dot]] ([[User talk:Izzy Dot|talk]] | [[Special:Contributions/Izzy Dot|contribs]]) 20:51, 2 November 2006 (UTC)

:::Until he figures out that he can see the future without using heroin, not adding that fact is mis-stating the nature of his powers. – [[User:Someguy0830|Someguy0830]] ([[User talk:Someguy0830|T]] | [[Special:Contributions/Someguy0830|C]]) 02:55, 3 November 2006 (UTC)

::::Not adding is preferrable to adding something that may or may not be wrong. It did not say it was not heroin induced. I do truely believe that the only way to stop this "Reversion War" is to represent both viewpoints (View 1:that it is heroin induced, View 2: that we do not know for sure yet and thus should not tell people that it is because we may be wrong) in the article in accordance with the [[Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view|Neutral point of view]] and let each individual reader decide, otherwise people will just keep changing back and forth. --[[User:arrow61095|arrow61095]] 14:07, 3 November 2006 (UTC)

:::::Both the show and that TV Guide magazine article about the show present only one point of view: that Isaac's precognitive abilities are heroin induced. The only ones presenting a different point of view are various Wikipedia editors (including myself), but it is against Wikipedia policy to present our own point of views here -- that is best done on another website such as a fan forum. That the show may later reveal that Isaac's precognition is not heroin-induced after all should not be a cause of concern, as this article should only cover what has actually happened in the show thus far and what authoritative sources (including newspapers and magazines, regardless of their inherent bias) reveal what the future plans for the show are. Now, if you can cite a reference that suggests the precognition is not heroin-induced after all, then that's another matter. But all I'm seeing here is people expressing their own opinions, experiences, deductions, and fears. [[User:Primogen|Primogen]] 17:43, 3 November 2006 (UTC)

::::::Primogen hit the nail on the head. Unless you can find some proof that he can use his powers without using heroin, and citing Peter's ability to do so is just conjecture since he mimics powers, then you're just guessing. The article already notes he'll attempt ti, but nowhere does it say that he'll succeed. – [[User:Someguy0830|Someguy0830]] ([[User talk:Someguy0830|T]] | [[Special:Contributions/Someguy0830|C]]) 20:58, 3 November 2006 (UTC)

== Bubbling Liquid Painting ==

From the new trailer on NBC's website, it appears to be Isaac that is causing it to bubble, while he is being detained or something.[[User:ParalysedBeaver|ParalysedBeaver]] 04:11, 30 October 2006 (UTC)
:Let's wait until the episode airs tonight before adding that to the article. Promos may contain misleading information, or may present unrelated clips next to each other. --[[User:Psiphiorg|Psiphiorg]] 13:43, 30 October 2006 (UTC)
::I wasnt gonna add to it until i knew for sure that it was him and that it is in the next episode.[[User:83.70.109.171|83.70.109.171]] 23:07, 30 October 2006 (UTC)
To clarify, apparently this was a remnant of the unaired version of the pilot where "The Engineer" who could cause his hands to shed radiation boiled a cup of water while handcuffed. They re-used many of these elements for Theodore Sprague. [[User:Rihk|Rihk]] 02:16, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

== Uluru ==

[[Uluru]] is the [[Pitjantjatjara]] people's name for the Australian Tourist Attraction Ayer's Rock, a large solitary rock formation in the centre of Australia. Maybe its my inherent Australocentric POV, but a giant rock monster named Uluru just seems to say "Include this". But i won't, because its totally OR and POV. But if anyone could think of a way to like add this in the uluru section just as like trivia, not claiming any connection, that would be awesome. [[User:WookMuff|WookMuff]] 09:47, 22 November 2006 (UTC)

If there is no connection, then it's not notable enough to add, even as trivia. However, if there is a connection, then evidence of that connection will probably turn up in time, so that it can be added. [[User:Primogen|Primogen]] 14:27, 22 November 2006 (UTC)

Cool cool, like i said the only connection i can see (and its totally speculative) is that uluru appears to be a giant rock monster. But yeah, i am interested in seeing if there IS a conncetion, get some aussies in there with the japanese indian and american of it all [[User:WookMuff|WookMuff]] 05:30, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

== Hiro vs The dinosaur ==
In Isaac's painting of Hiro and the dinosaur doesn't already come to pass in Godsend? Here are the photos to compare just use this link http://pg.photos.yahoo.com/ph/froggerzero/detail?.dir=b156re2&.dnm=7d64re2.jpg —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[Special:Contributions/69.154.79.159|69.154.79.159]] ([[User talk:69.154.79.159|talk]]) 03:56, 24 January 2007 (UTC).

Shouldn't Isaac's painting of Hiro and the dinosar comes to pass in Godsend?

I don't think so, due mostly to the sword appearing to be unsheathed, but thats just my opinion. But yeah, i think that we should wait and see on this front. [[User:WookMuff|WookMuff]] 07:11, 29 January 2007 (UTC)

== Painting paradox ==

Should it be mentioned somewhere that some of the events Isaac depicts in his paintings/sketches only happen because he drew them? Namely the girl getting hit by the bus, Peter jumping off the roof, the paintings of Peter in Texas, both of Hiro's 9th Wonders and Isaac and Simone embracing on her father's rooftop. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:AWarriorStill|AWarriorStill]] ([[User talk:AWarriorStill|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/AWarriorStill|contribs]]) 22:17, 13 September 2007 (UTC) 
:I think I speak for several people here when I say - Huh? How did Isaac drawing Peter influence Peter to jump off a roof? [[User:Padillah|Padillah]] 16:09, 14 September 2007 (UTC)
::Because after he stared at the painting he went up to a rooftop, thought for a while, and then jumped off. And earlier when Nathan told him to jump off a bridge, Pete said said he should "start off with something smaller, like learning to walk." The girl who got hit by a bus got hit because she freaked out and ran away after she saw the painting at a gallery. Pete wouldn't have even known to go to Texas if he didn't see the painting of his death. Hiro and Ando tried to stop the girl from getting hit by a truck, but the only reason it almost hit her was because Ando tried to stop it, and then they flew to LA in coach, got a Nissan Versa and headed for Las Vegas all because the comic said so. In Five Years Gone, Mohinder killed the Haitian because he read it in the comic. Isaac and Simone both went to the roof after they saw the painting of it. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:AWarriorStill|AWarriorStill]] ([[User talk:AWarriorStill|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/AWarriorStill|contribs]]) 16:50, 26 September 2007 (UTC) 

:::Most of those are casual, not causal. Besides, Sylar didn't impersonate Nathan and stand next to his desk because he saw Isaak's painting. Hiro wasn't spooked by the dinosaur in the museum because he saw the painting. There are several examples of Isaak's paintings not influencing outcomes. That characters believed in his power and trusted what the paintings showed does not mean the paintings caused the things to happen. But, then again, that's why it's a paradox. [[User:Padillah|Padillah]] 16:57, 26 September 2007 (UTC)
::::I said some of the paintings caused the events depicted, not all. How are most of my examples not causal?[[User:AWarriorStill|AWarriorStill]] 06:01, 28 September 2007 (UTC)

:::::This would have to get into a discussion of whether knowledge of a future outcome affects a persons response to that outcome and is WAY past the scope of this discussion page.
:::::We'd have to discuss whether, when Isaac saw the future, he saw the true future or the "unaffected" future. And if he saw the unaffected future is that really "seeing" the future (I can tell the unaffected future, "I'm going home at 3:30 today" but does that count? I could get hit by a car.) And if Isaac tells me I'm going to get hit by a car do I drive differently and thus cause my own accident. (i.e. Matrix: Breaking the Vase)

:::::Like I said, ''WAY'' out of the scope of this talk page.

:::::As for referencing the phenomenon I suppose there's cause but we'd have to find a citation for the phenomenon and make sure we simply mention that this is a phenomenon of Precognition and, like you mentioned above, it doesn't always happen or help. I think something like this should be referenced in Hiro's page as well because his power suffers from a similar phenomenon. [[User:Padillah|Padillah]] 13:16, 28 September 2007 (UTC)

== Something to watch for in the future ==

There's not enough yet to be notable enough for the article, but it could be significant that one of the Group of 12 is named Carlos '''Mendez'''. [http://heroeswiki.com/Image:Group_of_12_postitnotes.jpg] —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Pennyforth|Pennyforth]] ([[User talk:Pennyforth|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pennyforth|contribs]]) 11:20, 21 November 2007 (UTC) 

*Since many characters are sons of the Company's founding members, it wouldn't surprise me if he was his son.--[[Special:Contributions/163.178.17.124|163.178.17.124]] ([[User talk:163.178.17.124|talk]]) 17:39, 30 July 2008 (UTC)

== Based on real-life psychic painter? ==

Anyone know if this character was based on real life psychic painter, David Mandell? Here's some info:
#[http://www.geocities.com/hairybobby2000/dreammandell.html The psychic dreams of David Mandell]
#[http://unclesirbobby.110mb.com/davidmandell.php David Mandell's Psychic Paintings]
#[http://www.spr.ac.uk/confprogramme.php3?year=2003 An investigation into precognitive dreaming: David Mandell - the man who paints the future?]
Thoughts?
[[User:Curt Wilhelm VonSavage|Curt Wilhelm VonSavage]] ([[User talk:Curt Wilhelm VonSavage|talk]]) 14:14, 23 November 2007 (UTC).

ThunderCats (1985 TV series)

2008-07-29T19:16:15Z

163.178.17.124: /* Cultural references */

{{Refimprove|date=July 2008}}

{{Infobox Television
| show_name = ThunderCats
| image = [[Image:Thundercats Logo.JPG|300px]]
| caption = The official logo for ''ThunderCats''.
| format = [[Animated television series]]
| runtime = 22 minutes
| creator = [[Tobin Wolf|Ted Wolf]]
| voices= [[Earl Hammond]] [[Earle Hyman]] [[Larry Kenney]] [[Lynne Lipton]] [[Bob McFadden]] [[Peter Newman (actor)|Peter Newman]] Doug Preis Gerianne Raphael 
| country = {{USA}}
| network = [[broadcast syndication|first-run syndication]]
| first_aired = [[January 23]], [[1985]]
| last_aired = 1989
| num_episodes = 130
| list_episodes = List of ThunderCats episodes
| website = http://www.rankinbass.com/thundercatshome.html
| imdb_id = 0088631
| tv_com_id = 10078
}}

'''''ThunderCats''''' is an [[United States|American]] [[animated television series]] that was developed and produced by [[Rankin/Bass]] Productions, debuting in 1985, based on the characters created by [[Tobin Wolf|Tobin "Ted" Wolf]]. The animation was provided by Pacific Animation Corporation, the working name for a collective of Japanese studios prominently including [[Topcraft]], a group who would later go on to form [[Studio Ghibli]]. [[List of ThunderCats episodes#Season 1: 1985|Season 1]] of the show aired in 1985 (65 episodes), followed by a TV movie entitled ''[[List of ThunderCats episodes#ThunderCats - HO!: 1986|ThunderCats - HO!]]'' in 1986. Seasons [[List of ThunderCats episodes#Season 2: 1987-1988|2]], [[List of ThunderCats episodes#Season 3: 1988-1989|3]], and [[List of ThunderCats episodes#Season 4: 1989-1990|4]] followed a new format of twenty episodes each, starting with a five-part story; these aired from 1987 to 1988, 1988 to 1989, and 1989 to 1990, respectively.

The series was originally distributed by [[Telepictures|Telepictures Corporation]] which would later merge with [[Lorimar|Lorimar Productions]]. Near the end of 1988, [[Lorimar-Telepictures]] was purchased by [[Warner Bros.]], whose [[Warner Bros. Television Distribution|television syndication arm]] would eventually assume distribution of the show; Warner Bros. would eventually gain rights to the series from that point on.

On [[March 17]], [[1997]], ''ThunderCats'' was the first series seen on (Warner Bros' [[Time Warner|corporate sibling]]) [[Cartoon Network]]'s new action-animation afternoon block, [[Toonami]]. The series would depart and return in various timeslots including [[Saturday morning cartoons|Saturday mornings]] and late night [[marathon (television)|marathons]] until 2002.{{Fact|date=July 2008}}

There were also several comic-book series produced: [[Marvel Comics]]' version, 1985 to 1988; and two series by [[Wildstorm]], an imprint of [[DC Comics]] (another Warner Bros. [[Time Warner|corporate sibling]]), beginning in 2003. Items of clothing featuring the ThunderCats [[logo]] and DVD boxsets of the original series have enjoyed a resurgence in recent years as nostalgia for the former childrens favorite has grown.

It was announced on [[June 5]], [[2007]], that Warner Brothers is making a CGI-animated feature film of ''ThunderCats'', based on a script written by Paul Sopocy. In October 2007, [[Variety magazine]] revealed that [[Jerry O'Flaherty]], veteran video game art director ([[Gears of War]]), had signed on to direct. The film is being produced by Spring Creek Productions. It is set for a summer 2010 release.{{Fact|date=July 2008}}

== Plot ==

''ThunderCats'' follows the adventures of the eponymous team of heroes, cat-like humanoid aliens from the planet of [[Thundera]]. The series pilot pays homage to the origin of [[Superman]], as the dying Thundera meets its end, forcing the ThunderCats (a sort of Thunderan special police force) to flee their homeworld. The fleet is attacked by the Thunderans' enemies, the Mutants of Plun-Darr, who destroy all crafts save for the flagship containing the young Lord of the Thundercats, Lion-O, his protectors, and the mystical Eye of Thundera, the source of the ThunderCats' power, embedded in the hilt of the legendary Sword of Omens. Although the Mutants damage the flagship, they are driven back by the power of the Eye, and Lion-O's elderly guardian, Jaga, pilots the ship to the safety of the world of "Third Earth," but perishes in the process.

When the ThunderCats awake from their suspended animation on Third Earth, Lion-O discovers that his suspension capsule has failed to inhibit his aging, and he is now a child in the body of a man. Together, the ThunderCats and the friendly natives of Third Earth construct the "Cat's Lair" their new home and headquarters, but before long, the Mutants track them down to Third Earth. The intrusion of these two alien races upon the world does not go unnoticed, however - the demonic, mummified sorcerer, [[Mumm-Ra the Ever-Living|Mumm-Ra]], recruits the Mutants to aid him in his campaign to acquire the Eye of Thundera and destroy the ThunderCats so that his evil might continue to hold sway over Third Earth.

This status quo holds strong for the first season of the show, and serves as the basis for a vast array of stories that freely mixed elements of [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]] into a traditional good-versus-evil tale that steadily introduced more and more recurring allies and villains into the world of the ''ThunderCats''. Futuristic technology is just as central to the series as magic and myth, but even in the midst of all this action, the series never under-emphasizes the importance of moral values in solving problems. Each episode would normally include a short denouement, featuring the characters recuperating after the events of the story and taking the time to single out a personal value or wholesome approach that helped save the day, or could have done so if they hadn't overlooked it.

The first half of Season 1 featured a gentle continuity, with early episodes following on from one another and establishing recurring concepts, although this became a little less common as the season transitioned into its second half, which was mostly comprised of incidental one-shot adventures. Tying the second season together was the over-arcing five-part adventure, "Lion-O's Anointment," in which the hero battled the other ThunderCats to truly earn his title as Lord of the ThunderCats. Although intended to be viewed consecutively (as the adventures depicted occurred one day after the other), the five parts of the mini-series were erroneously aired (and released on DVD) with multiple other episodes between each installment.

The 1986 TV movie "ThunderCats - Ho!" featured the first major shake-up to the status quo of the series, introducing three new ThunderCats who had also survived the destruction of Thundera. A massive cast of returning heroes and villains were incorporated into the story to make it the most epic ''ThunderCats'' adventure yet produced, and it concluded with the apparent destruction of Mumm-Ra. When the series returned in 1987, however, this was quickly proven not to be the case in the opening mini-series, "Mumm-Ra Lives!", as the evil wizard survived his fate. "Mumm-Ra Lives!" set the pattern for the show's final three seasons, which each began with a five-part mini-series that established the new characters and concepts that would go on to influence the rest of the season. In the case of "Mumm-Ra Lives!", these concepts included the debut of the villainous Lunataks, who became a third faction that existed for the rest of the series, and the new team of ThunderCats from "ThunderCats - Ho!" being given their own headquarters, vehicles and so forth.

The 1988 season began with "ThunderCubs," a miniseries named for its plot about the ThunderCats being transformed into children, but which was principally about Mumm-Ra reconstructing Thundera in order to retrieve the weapon that had destroyed it, the Sword of Plun-Darr, and the legendary Treasure of Thundera. In the course of the adventure, the treasure - containing the Book of Omens, a tome holding all the secrets of the ThunderCats, and many other mystical items - was scattered across the New Thundera, ushering in a new concept for the series: a season with an actual story arc. Continuity between episodes became tighter as the ThunderCats, Mutants, Lunataks and Mumm-Ra alternated their adventures between Third Earth and New Thundera, searching for the treasure and exploiting its powers. The season also featured the running theme of the Ancient Spirits of Evil having to take a more active hand in pushing Mumm-Ra into action, culminating in another unique feature of the season - an actual finale episode, "The Last Day," in which the spirits give Mumm-Ra one last chance to destroy the ThunderCats. Ultimately, the villain failed, and was banished to the farthest corner of the universe by the spirits.

However, the 1989 season proved that you can never keep a good villain down. In the opening miniseries, "Return to Thundera!", the ThunderCats returned to New Thundera to rebuild their society, but before departing, they destroyed Mumm-Ra's pyramid, enraging the Ancient Spirits of Evil to the point that they brough Mumm-Ra back, and installed him within a new pyramid on New Thundera. The season proved to be quite divorced from what had gone before, with adventures consigned almost entirely to the wild and wonderful locales of New Thundera, and most villainous oppoistion coming from either Mumm-Ra or assorted new villains. The Mutants, Lunataks and Captain Cracker all returned for one episode each, however, and at the conclusion of the series, the mystery of the Book of Omens was at last solved, and the tumultous and terrifying environment of Thundera was at last rendered peaceful and pristine.

==Characters==
[[Image:ThunderCats logo.svg|right|175px|thumb|The Eye of Thundera, Insignia of the ThunderCats]]

===Heroes===

* '''Lion-O''' ([[Larry Kenney]]) — The leader, and the hereditary "Lord of the ThunderCats." Lion-O, based on the [[lion]], wields the legendary Sword of Omens, able to fire bolts of energy and allow Lion-O to see across great distances with its power of "Sight Beyond Sight," and the Claw Shield, a gauntlet that launches grappling lines from its claws. A mere child of twelve years old at the time of Thundera's destruction, Lion-O aged to adulthood during the trip to Third Earth when his suspension capsule failed to prevent his aging. Although cunning and skillfull, he is truly a child in a man's body, and throughout the series, must learn what it takes to become a true leader and gain true maturity. In the latter half of the show's first season, Lion-O has to put all that he has learned to use in the "Anointment Trials"{{mdash}}contests of strength, speed, cunning and intelligence against each of the other ThunderCats. Ultimately triumphing over Mumm-Ra in a final battle in the heart of the villain's pyramid, Lion-O is crowned the true Lord of the ThunderCats in an august ceremony attended by nearly every inhabitant of Third Earth. Lion-O also has the ability as Lord of the ThunderCats to command all cats, as he demonstrated in his battle with the Snowman of Hook Mountain when he commanded Snowmeow to halt.

* '''Jaga''' ([[Earl Hammond]]) — Known as “Jaga the Wise”, based on the [[jaguar]], this elder warrior was once regarded as the greatest of all ThunderCats. An adviser and protector of the Lord’s family, it was Jaga who gathered the nobles of the ThunderCats to escort Lion-O and the Eye of Thundera to safety, but in his aged condition, he did not survive the trip to Third Earth. However, Jaga does reappear on Third Earth as a spirit — seen only by Lion-O at first, to guide him in his lessons and adventures. At times, he appears before the other ThunderCats as well, such as when facing down Grune the Destroyer, and when the ThunderCats need to rescue their fellow Thunderans. When he was alive, Jaga also wielded the Sword of Omens and was a formidable fighter in combat.

* '''Tygra''' ([[Peter Newman (actor)|Peter Newman]]) — A staunch, level-headed warrior, based on the [[tiger]], Tygra is known as the ThunderCat architect and scientist. He is the one Lion-O often turns to as second-in-command and for counsel. He is responsible for the design of all of the ThunderCat structures on Third Earth — Cat’s Lair and the Tower of Omens. He is also gifted with ‘mind-power’ — the ability to create life-like illusions in other people’s minds; he used this for Lion-O’s Anointment Trial, but it puts a great strain on him. He uses a [[bolas]] in combat, with which he can render himself invisible to the naked eye. In the episode "All that Glitters", Lion-O instructs Tygra, "If I do not return, you will be the new Lord of the ThunderCats" verifying that indeed, Tygra is the second-in-command. Where creators described Panthro's character as being based on "strength" & Cheetara's character as being based on "speed", Tygra's character was described as being based on "integrity."

* '''Panthro''' ([[Earle Hyman]]) — The next noble and also the eldest (after Jaga), based on the [[Black panther|panther]], this warrior is the chief mechanic/engineer and pilot for the ThunderCats. He’s also physically the strongest and is a cunning warrior in combat. With Tygra’s help, he builds all of the vehicles the ThunderCats use on Third Earth — including the ThunderTank, the Feliner and the ThunderClaw, ThunderStrike and HoverCat. A jovial soul, he’s also quick to lose his temper and has a paralyzing fear of bats and a dislike of spiders. In combat he uses a pair of chained fighting sticks ([[nunchaku]]) which house several chemical spray-compounds that he can use against foes. The spikes on his chest bands can be used like projectile weapons or as rappelling lines.

* '''Cheetara''' ([[Lynne Lipton]]) — A female warrior, based on the [[cheetah]], who is the only adult female ThunderCat (until the later appearance of Pumyra). She is as lovely as she is brave and caring. Often a voice of reason, she is also the bearer of a budding ‘sixth-sense’, detecting when something is unsafe or if evil is near. This precognitive sense, which Cheetara regards as a curse for the most part, also allows her to perceive visions — whether involuntary or by forcing herself — but this drains her and she may require days or weeks to recover. She has incredible speed — once clocked at speeds of 120mph on a morning jog. She can only maintain this top speed for a short moment, but with it, she can move very fast in combat. Her weapon of choice is a battlestaff that can grow or shrink to variable lengths, with which she can vault or leap over enemies. When not in use, it is attached to the armband on her left arm.

* '''WilyKat and WilyKit''' (Peter Newman and Lynne Lipton) — Twin siblings (Kat the boy & Kit the girl) who are the youngest members of the ThunderCat team, both based on the [[wildcat]]. They are the mischief-makers, and often have their own lessons to learn alongside Lion-O while they live on Third Earth, where they frequently use tricks and traps to combat evil. Kit is the more adventurous, while Kat usually errs on the side of caution. Kit is also the more agile, and at times employs a rolling-attack against the enemy. Their agility is often displayed when they ride their "space boards" — specially designed flying devices shaped like Earth surfboards that can carry them over long distances. Each uses special capsules, balls and other gimmick weapons carried in pouches on their belts. They sometimes use slingshots to fire these at the Mutants or other foes. They also carry trick lariats, with which they can either tangle and ensnare foes, or use to pull themselves out of danger.

==== New ThunderCats ====

At the start of the series' second season, it was revealed to Lion-O (after having a recurring [[dream]] about the final moments of the destruction of Thundera) that there are three more Thunderans living on Third Earth. They survived the cataclysm when rescued by a Ro-Bear Berbil scoutship piloted by two Berbils. The ship, damaged in the final explosion of the planet, made it to Third Earth, landing on an unknown island somewhere in the northern sea.

After Mumm-Ra tries to capture them to use as bait to destroy the others, these three are rescued and brought back to the Cat’s Lair, where Lion-O anoints them as new ThunderCats. They initially come to live in Cat's Lair, but after the arrival of the Lunataks, they are stationed at the Tower of Omens.

* '''Ben-Gali''' (Peter Newman) — One of two younger Thunderans among the trio, named after the [[bengal tiger]] but more resembling a [[white tiger]], this warrior is a skilled blacksmith like his father before him. This talent proves valuable after the Sword of Omens is once again broken. Fast and agile like Tygra, Ben-Gali is called ‘brother’ by him, but it is unclear if they share a true familial bond or if the greeting is merely meant as a term of endearment (given that the new ThunderCats repeatedly call the originals "Nobles" while referring to themselves as "mere Thunderans", it seems unlikely that there is any family relationship between the two). Another possibility is that because they are both tigers, the Ben-Gal clan may be cousins to the Tygra clan, even though one is considered nobility while the other is not. In combat, Ben-Gali wields a weapon called the Hammer of Thundera. It can shoot energy blasts, and carries smoke pellets in its handle, to allow him to cause confusion and provide cover for withdrawal from a fight.

* '''Pumyra''' (Gerrianne Raphael)— Another female Thunderian — along with Cheetara and WilyKit — this young woman, based on the [[puma]], is a talented healer and medic. She uses her knowledge of Thunderan medicine, combined with the wide range of medicinal supplies to be found on Third Earth to help heal and cure her fellow ThunderCats. Her compassionate nature lends to offering an alternative perspective, solving problems or conflict without fighting by using compromise and understanding. Possibly the most agile ThunderCat next to the ThunderKittens, Pumyra employs an incredible leaping ability — often able to vault higher than even great jumpers like Tygra or the ThunderKittens. In combat, she uses a special whipcord, which resembles a ‘cat’s tail’, that can launch special pellets and spheres like an ancient-type sling.

* '''Lynx-O''' (Bob McFadden) — The oldest of the trio, based on the [[lynx]], Lynx-O was spared the sight of the destruction of their homeworld by a cruel twist of fate: a blast of intense heat and fire blinded him moments before he and his two younger companions were rescued. Because of this injury, Lynx-O has had to adapt to survive on Third Earth, and has done so by honing his other senses to superhuman levels. His sense of touch, smell, taste and hearing are far above those of the other ThunderCats, and this affords him a type of ‘sixth-sense’ (although not like the one Cheetara employs). Though blind, Lynx-O is still a formidable fighter. His sense of touch allows him to find pressure points on a foe’s body to knock them off balance or stun them. He can also feel vibrations, which allow him to evade attacks and capture, and can use a Sonic Reflector as a weapon in combat. His greatest skill comes in utilizing a special "braille board" — a device that allows him to translate information coming from sensor systems inside the Tower of Omens, enabling him to see into the gloom of Dark Side. This same device also allows him to pilot the Thunderstrike aircraft through the Valley of Mists when the ThunderCats need to find a way through to Dark Side.

==== On New Thundera ====
When the planet of Thundera is reformed in Season Two of the series, the ThunderCats must work to stabilize the planet before it can tear itself apart again. It is here that they discover another ThunderCat.

* '''Jaguara''' (Gerrianne Raphael) — Found deep within the core of New Thundera, this powerful, ancient ThunderCat, based on the jaguar like Jaga, is an immortal sorceress. Her duty is to guard the massive [[gyroscope]] that keeps the planet intact. She uses the powers of levitation, teleportation and psychokinesis to perform her tasks, and to defend the gyroscope from attackers. It is noted by Jaga (no relation) that she has been acting in this capacity for countless years.

==== The Snarfs ====

A race of intelligent cat-like creatures, Snarfs are plump, fuzzy and kind. Snarfs are native to Thundera, living in the Valley of Snarfs, and many of their number act as servants to Thunderan nobility, happily working as cooks, nursemaids, squires and so forth. When Thundera was destroyed, forty-nine Snarfs were able to commandeer a Mutant tanker and made their way to an uninhabited planet which they took as their own, dubbing it the "Planet of Snarfs". Later, when Mumm-Ra recreated Thundera, he captured the Snarfs and brought them back to their home planet, putting them to work searching for the Treasure of Thundera. Subsequently liberated by the ThunderCats, the Snarfs returned to living happily on Thundera.

Snarfs are the only creatures in the universe incapable of evil (except while possessed). Quick and clever, a Snarf is a loyal friend, though their small size often makes them a target for Mutants or other evil creatures. The Snarfs have proved to be valuable allies to the ThunderCats in times of peril. Though their fighting skills are more than wanting, the Snarfs have an inherent invulnerability/resistance to many (but not all) forms of magic & mind-control. This ability has enabled the Snarfs to save the other ThunderCats on several occasions. Snarfs are known to end their sentences with the squeaking exclamation for which they are named - "snarf, snarf!"

In the series, several are named prominently.

* '''Snarf''' (Bob McFadden) — An elder snarf, properly known by his name Osbert (which he hates), Snarf served as a nursemaid and [[legal guardian|protector]] for Lion-O when he was a boy. After Lion-O grew up, Snarf found that often Lion-O didn’t want to have him ‘mothering’ or protecting him. Still, Snarf has remained loyal to Lion-O and the other ThunderCats. At times, he does come through in a pinch with an idea and takes action when it is needed. Despite his age, he does keep up with the others. Even though not a fighter by skill or nature, Snarf is very agile (he boasts he can outplay anyone at tailbail or kick-the-bucket). He also can communicate with other animals on Third Earth to enlist their help in his tasks and adventures.

* '''Snarfer''' (Bob McFadden) — Young and excitable, Snarfer is Snarf’s young nephew. He was thought lost when Thundera exploded, but was one of the surviving Snarfs that made it to the Planet of Snarfs. Slightly more aggressive than his uncle, Snarfer is a keen mechanic and pilot in his own right, having been educated at "Snarf College" (Snarf once said he was a ‘college boy’). He does tend to babble when over-excited, but at times he can be just as level-headed as Tygra. Though smaller than Snarf, he doesn’t let that get in his way when he wants to help friends. It was through him that the ThunderCats learned that Snarf's real name was Osbert.

* '''Snarf Oswald''' (Earle Hyman) and '''Snarf Eggbert''' (Larry Kenney) — Two of the Snarfs who survived the destruction of Thundera, this duo became the ThunderCats main Snarf "contacts" on New Thundera. Oswald was originally mentioned by Snarf during the first season, noting that he owed him "fifty thunder-dollars."

====Allies and natives of Third Earth====

* '''The Ro-Bear Berbils''' — Partly-furred robot-[[bear]]s from the planet Ro-Bear. Because their homeworld is so tiny, they must form other colonies on distant worlds to survive. Small and harmless looking, the Berbills are steadfast, hardy workers and skilled farmers, cooks and craftsmen. It was thanks to them that Tygra was able to build Cat’s Lair — and later the Tower Of Omens — so quickly. Apparently, the Ro-Bear Berbils are [[Cyborg|Cybernetic organisms]], as they are able to eat and digest organic food.

** '''Ro-Ber-Bill''' and '''Ro-Ber-Belle''' — Leaders of the nearby Ro-Bear Berbil village, these robot-bears are the first to befriend the ThunderCats and often supply information about local places, people and phenomena on Third Earth. Through their fields and forests of Fruit Trees, they are also able to provide the Thunderians with new foodstuffs.

* '''The Warrior Maidens''' — A race of [[Amazon]] [[women]] who live in the forests of what is called the Tree-Top Kingdom. They are fierce fighters and very territorial. At first distrustful of the ThunderCats — whom they view as [[alien]]s — the Warrior Maidens soon treat them as friends. Often, Nayda and Willa are the two that have the most contact with the ThunderCats.

** '''Willa''' and '''Nayda''' (both Lynne Lipton) — Sisters, both members of the Warrior Maidens, who live in the Tree-Top Kingdom. Willa is their leader, while Nayda is a scout and second-in-command. Both are expert markswomen with bows and arrows, and are very agile and fleet among the branches of their forest home. Often distrustful of outsiders, both become friends of the ThunderCats and by their example, the rest of their people treat them as allies. They often help the Thunderians by showing them paths around Third Earth and using special tricks (like Bushy, a giant tree-top spider) to aid them on their quests and missions.

* '''Wollows''' — Small, furry people who have small villages all around the habitable places of Third Earth. Farmers, carpenters and fishermen, they are gentle folk who often turn to the ThunderCats for protection.

* '''Bolkens''' — [[Sheep]]-like people, similar to the Wollows. They are herdspeople and farmers, who are just as likely to call for help from the ThunderCats.

* '''Mandora the Evil-Chaser''' (Lynne Lipton) — An intergalactic [[police officer]], who works in conjunction with a series of law enforcers to protect the peaceful people of the galaxy. She works in part to run the Great Penal Planet — which houses some of the galaxy’s nastiest criminals — and routinely comes to Third Earth as part of her patrols. When one of these criminals, a robotic pickpocket named Quik-Pik, helps her and Lion-O against Captain Cracker, she makes him an Evil Chaser assistant. She travels on a specially-equipped hoverbike — called the Electro-Charger — and uses a weapon called the “enzyme catalyzer” (a spray gun that uses a chemical — "a closely guarded secret, once called soap").

* '''Hachiman''' (Peter Newman) — A [[samurai]] [[warrior]] and master swordsman from Ancient [[Japan]]. Summoned to Third Earth by Mumm-Ra, he was tricked into fighting Lion-O, but thanks to his code of [[Bushido]], he became an ally to the ThunderCats and the Warrior Maidens of the Tree-Top Kingdom. He wields a sword known as “The Thunder-Cutter”, a [[katana]]-blade that, with his skill, can cut through solid stone. Hachiman has saved the lives of various ThunderCats on multiple occasions. He is the only character in the entire series whom Lion-O believed could have defeated him in battle (see the episode "Thunder-Cutter"). Hachiman is also the only character to physically battle with the Ancient Spirits of Evil.

* '''Snowman of Hook Mountain''' (Earl Hammond) — A [[yeti]]-like chivalrous [[knight]], who rules over the Kingdom of the Snowmen on the frigid heights of Hook Mountain. He once tried to fight Lion-O for possession of a meteor that fell onto the slopes of his mountain kingdom, but they became friends after Lion-O rescued him from a Mutant attack. He can craft weapons out of ice, seemingly at will, and fights mounted on a great snow cat, Snowmeow.

* '''Turmagar''' (Earl Hammond) — Leader of the [[walrus]]-like Tuska Warriors who live near the source of the river that serves as Third Earth’s natural water supply. Very skilled as a warrior and leader, Turmagar is also a crafty pilot who flies the Gomplin —- a vehicle/creature hybrid resembling a dragon. It is Turmagar whom often helps the ThunderCats with air support before they crafted their own air-vehicles (it is worth noting that the Tuska Warriors are among the few factions in the series to employ firearms, as opposed to melee weapons and/or bows and arrows).

* '''Dr. DomeTome''' (Bob McFadden) — One of Third Earth’s great thinkers, scientists and gentlemen. He is the chief protector of the Great Oceanic Plug, a massive engineering project built to seal a crack in the ocean floor to prevent the planet’s oceans from flooding its core. He is a small man but very chivalrous, and a skilled pilot of Hercules (aka "Herky"), a giant [[frog]]-shaped robot used to guard the sea floor.

* '''Wizz-Ra''' — A powerful wizard from Ancient [[Egypt]], banished to an alternate dimension after he lost a battle to Mumm-Ra. His helmet has the ability of mind-control and is sought by Mumm-Ra after it’s discovered that the wall of the Seventh Dimension is weak enough (after 7,000 years) for him to appear in Cheetara’s bedchamber. He aids the ThunderCats after they help him to recover his helmet, and then is forced to return to his dimension prison, though not before promising Cheetara they would meet again in her dreams.

* '''Mumm-Rana''' — An ancient sorceress for good, and counterpart to Mumm-Ra. She lives in the White Pyramid, where her powers keep her from traveling too far. She at one time battled Queen Luna (grandmother to the Lunitac Luna), to stop her rampage across Third Earth. She did so by stripping Queen Luna of her magical belt, which she later lost to Luna (which was destroyed eventually). Much like Mumm-Ra, her powers limit the time she can spend outside of her pyramid home.

* '''The League of Third Earth''' — In season two, once the Mutants, Luanatacs & Mumm-ra had been removed from Third Earth, the ThunderCats left to re-settle New Thundera. They left several of their allies in charge, calling them "The League of Third Earth." This league included, Mandora the Evil Chaser, The Snowman of Hook Mountain & his cat Snow-Meow, The warrior maidens Willa & Nada, and the Rober-Berbills: Rober-Bill & Rober-Belle. The Tuska warriors were not included (no reason given) but seemed obvious choices, especially over Mandora who was not a native of Third Earth and spent most of her time in off the planet.

===Villains===



*[[Mumm-Ra the Ever-Living|Mumm-Ra]] (Earl Hammond) - The chief villain and antagonist against the ThunderCats, '''Mumm-Ra''' is the self-proclaimed "ever-living source of evil" on Third Earth, having powers of sorcery and an apparently unlimited lifespan. He is, in fact, a bound servant to the Ancient Spirits of Evil (represented by four anthropomorphic statues within the burial chamber of his pyramid), who provide him with increased power and virtual immortality to further his pursuit of spreading their dark influence throughout Third Earth.
Residing within the Black Pyramid amid the ruins of what appears to be an [[ancient Egypt]]ian civilization, Mumm-Ra exists in a decayed, weakened form that must return to a stone sarcophagus to replenish his energy. When leaving the pyramid, he can summon the power to transform himself into a more vigorous form: Mumm-Ra, the Ever-Living by reciting the famous incantation: ''“Ancient spirits of evil, transform this decayed form to Mumm-Ra, the Ever-Living!”'' While in this form, Mumm-Ra possesses superhuman strength, the ability to fly, as well as fortification of his mystical might — casting spells, throwing energy bolts, etc. — to battle his foes. He can also alter his physical form into a variety of alter-egos to deceive his enemies. 
Seemingly invincible in whatever form he chooses, Mumm-Ra appears to have a singular weakness: seeing his own hideous reflection neutralizes his ability to remain outside the Black Pyramid and forces him to withdraw there in his emaciated mummy form. However, as the second season began, the Ancient Spirits of Evil eventually overcame this shortcoming to make Mumm-Ra even more formidable. Above all, Mumm-Ra is a master of deception, and will use whatever means necessary to fight against the forces of good. 
In the second season he is given a [[dog]] companion, '''Ma-Mutt''', an undead bulldog-like canine with the ability to fly and to breathe poisonous gas.

====Mutants====

These creatures are the first villains seen in the series, originating from the planet Plun-Darr. They are the long-time enemies of the Thunderans. Later in the series, it is revealed that events stemming from their invasion of Thundera ultimately lead to the destruction of that planet.

Not content to see the Thunderians lose their homeworld, the Mutants chased after the survivors, using their spaceships to devastate the Thunderian fleet and seeming to destroy the majority of the doomed planet's escaping populace. They then boarded the flagship — which carried the ThunderCat nobles, Jaga the Wise and the young Lion-O — in attempting to capture the Eye of Thundera. They were repelled and retreated to later relocate the crashed flagship on Third Earth.

It was here that Mumm-Ra’s power grounded the Mutant ship, and they were forced to follow his demands once he sank their vessel beneath the desert sands. Though they exhibit an extraordinary incompetence (characteristic of most cartoon villains), the Mutants manage to construct their own fortress called Castle Plun-Darr (named after their homeworld) and salvage equipment from their downed spaceship to build weapons and vehicles that they use on Third Earth (e.g., the Skycutters, the Nosediver, etc.).

The Mutant group is comprised of a diverse mix of races, including:

* '''Reptilians''' — [[Bipedal]] [[lizard]]-men. Their brutish leader, '''[[Slithe]]''' (Bob McFadden), is the best example of these creatures. Domineering and impatient, Slithe often must browbeat the other Mutants into going along with his plans. He pilots the Nosediver.

* '''Simians''' — [[Ape]] men whose leader is '''[[Monkian]]''' (Peter Newman), a shifty no-good who makes a habit of eavesdropping. He often plays the role of scout for the Mutants, and is frequently the first to run from danger. He pilots one of the Skycutters.

* '''Jackalmen''' — Canine scavengers. Their leader is '''[[Jackalman]]''' (Larry Kenney), a distrustful coward who leaps at taking any advantage he can get — so long as no risk is involved. He most often sides with Slithe, if only to keep from being the scapegoat when plans fail. He also pilots a Skycutter.

Other Mutants are:

* '''Vultureman''' (Earl Hammond) — This crafty, avian opportunist is the chief inventor and mechanical know-it-all for the Mutants. His skills with both machines and science make him often indispensable, but he’s more often than not blamed when his devices or machines fail to live up to Slithe’s expectations. Much later, he decides to work for his own gains, and often strikes solo deals with Mumm-Ra. He pilots a vulture-styled Flying Machine, and later commands weapons like the Mutank and Thundrainium Cannon. Unlike the other mutants, Vultureman was not introduced in the opening episode of the series.

* '''Ratar-O''' (Bob McFadden) — A General in the Mutant armies, this portly rodent is considered the most cunning and evil of all the Mutants. He comes to Third Earth at the behest of Vultureman to aid them in defeating the ThunderCats. His flagship, the Ratstar, is a powerful war machine, and though it crashes, Ratar-O salvages parts to make a Mutank to continue the fight. He is strong, and wields the Rat’s Eye — a pair of criss-style daggers which have two mystical gems embedded in their hilts — that he can use to fire energy blasts, levitate foes and even fly through the air. Ratar-O resembles Ratilla the Terrible, the former holder of the Sword of Plundarr, but it is unknown if they share a family relation.

====Lunataks====
Hailing from the Moons of Plun-Darr, these vile beings were once feared criminals in ancient times. They dwell in Dark Side, a volcanic region on the far side of Fire-Rock Mountain. They were encased in molten rock by Mumm-Ra when they attempted to take control of Third Earth. Mumm-Ra later released them on the condition that they work for him to battle the ThunderCats. However, the Lunataks form their own 'third column' based in Dark Side, building a massive, floating fortress called Sky Tomb from which they strike against all of Third Earth. Their numbers consist of:

* '''Luna''' (Lynne Lipton) — A diminutive sorceress, now the leader and chief strategist of the Lunataks. Because of her small form, she is carried around and cared for by Amuk, her servant. Cruel and caustic, Luna at one time recovered the magical belt once worn by her grandmother, Queen Luna, and used its power to grow tall and mobile again, but reverted in size when the belt was later destroyed.

* '''Amuk''' (Earl Hammond) — Luna’s loyal servant and bodyguard, also her chief mode of transportation. A hulking, dog-like brute having limited capacity for vocalization, Amuk is strong and fast but also displays enough cunning to exact revenge against Luna for abandoning him when she recovers Queen Luna’s magical belt.

* '''Tug Mug''' (Bob McFadden) — A Lunatak from one of Plun-Darr’s moons with strong gravity, Tug Mug proves extremely powerful in the lesser gravity of Third Earth. He can use his tripod ‘legs’ to leap great distances, and his strength is so impressive that he once snapped the blade of the Sword of Omens with his bare hands (later repaired by the ThunderCat blacksmith, Bengali). Combative by nature, Tug Mug can use a "gravity carbine" in battle whose beams can make a person or object light as air or as heavy as stone.

* '''Chilla''' (Gerrianne Rapahel) — This female Lunatak from the ice moon of Plun-Darr has command over cold and heat by the power of her expelled breath, blowing to freeze the air around a target in seconds to immobilize them, or heating it to incite flames to burn them. She has little regard for life and sometimes uses her powers willfully out of spite. Out of all the Lunataks, Chilla is the most humanoid.

* '''Red-Eye''' (Earle Hyman) — A Lunatak from the dark moon of Plun-Darr, this hulking brute has enhanced vision capabilities, allowing him to see things in infra-red and even to detect the ThunderCat Tygra when invisible. A loyal follower of Luna, Red-Eye uses a spinning discus (stored in his armored chestplate) to battle his foes. He is often the engineer and pilot of Sky Tomb.

* '''Alluro''' (Doug Preis) — A [[gangrel]]-creature with a slimey personality, Alluro is a master of mind-games and psychological warfare. He’s not much of a fighter, but he uses a powerful weapon called a Psyche-Club to immobilize his foes. The crystal ball launched from his club focuses his mental powers onto a foe, allowing him to manipulate their minds with illusions or to command them to do his bidding.

====Hammerhand and the Berserkers====
This odd band of pirates first appeared pillaging the northern shores of the Unicorn Forest (in the episode ''The Terror of Hammerhand''). They have a habit of repeating certain words or phrases three times. The original Berserkers were apparently all killed when their ship was sank, but Hammerhand was later mystically resurrected by Mumm-Ra, who summoned up his spirit to animate a clone of Panthro which he had created. When the plan failed, Hammerhand's spirit broke Mumm-Ra's control, and the clone body shifted into Hammerhand's original form before departing. When he next appeared, in the Season 2 mini-series, "ThunderCats-Ho!", Hammerhand had reformed the Berserkers with new members endowed with cybernetic bodies and powers like his own. The Berserkers are:

* '''Hammerhand''' (Earl Hammond) — The leader, who has a cybernetic arm that can punch and pound with great force.

* '''Topspinner''' (Bob McFadden) — A warrior who can spin at high speeds to deflect missile objects or smash opponents. His spinning can also make him dizzy.

* '''Ram Bam''' (Peter Newman) — Rolling by the wheel embedded in his chest, this fighter can launch himself along the ground at high speeds to smash through objects like a battering ram. He also has rollers on his feet to help him move fast.

* '''Cruncher''' (Earle Hyman) — A hulking pirate whose sheer strength can crush buildings and boulders with ease.

====Other villains====

* '''Grune the Destroyer''' (Bob McFadden) — An anthropomorphized [[Saber-toothed cat|saber-toothed tiger]] in appearance, this former ThunderCat noble was once a good friend to Jaga the Wise on Thundera. His lust for power and greed turned him renegade against his fellow ThunderCats, forcing Jaga to fight him in a titanic battle that lasted for days. Grune was defeated by Jaga, then banished and sent into exile in space. Eventually his spacecraft landed on Third Earth and he began terrorizing its natives until, many years later, he was defeated (by unknown means) and sealed away inside a tomb (which was covered with a stone slab and a tree to prevent others from opening it). A tablet held the seal in place, until centuries later, a pair of Bolkens accidentally released his spirit. Once freed, the ghost of Grune seeks out the ThunderCats, attacking them to draw out Jaga, whose spirit ultimately defeats him using both Lion-O’s strength and the Eye of Thundera. However, Grune would return later when summoned by Mumm-Ra to stop Jaga’s spirit from obtaining the Star of Thundera (which was needed to help free three more Thunderians — Pumyra, Bengali and Lynx-O — from the Mutant prisons at Fire-Rock Mountain).

When the ThunderCats return to New Thundera, Grune is resurrected by Mumm-Ra. Grune is initially successful against Lion-O, breaking the Sword of Omens and chaining Lion-O and Cheetara up on the Churning Rocks. However, Snarf gathers the pieces of the sword and while attempting to take them to Bengali for repair, he is captured by Char, who repairs the sword, wanting to keep it for himself. Sensing the sword is repaired, Lion-O calls for it and uses it to free himself and Cheetara. Grune attempts to defeat Lion-O, but fails and is banished back to Third Earth.

* '''Safari Joe''' (Larry Kenney) — An [[intergalactic]] [[big-game hunter]] (with an Australian accent) who ventures to Third Earth to hunt the ThunderCats. He uses a rifle that has a variable arsenal of weapons (capture claws, fire rounds, missiles, etc.), and has a robot assistant named Mule (whose head is shaped like a train) who helps to assemble traps, using a computerized analyzer to provide information on his prey. Safari Joe manages to capture all the ThunderCats and imprison them in cages made of thundranium, a substance that weakens ThunderCats. Safari Joe fails to capture Lion-O thanks to Snarf supplying a distraction. When Safari Joe finds himself out of ammunition, he is revealed to be nothing more than a coward. Safari Joe was made to promise that he would never hunt again, and Mule was reprogrammed to ensure he kept his word.

* '''The Demolisher''' (Peter Newman) — Only appearing in a single episode, Demolisher is one of the more powerful foes to challenge the ThunderCats. Similar to Safari Joe, his motives are not power but glory. A dog-like being, the Demolisher travels from planet to planet seeking a worthy opponent to battle with his arsenal of high-tech weapons. The Demolisher travels with his stumpy, drummer companion "Dirge" who serves the role of a cheerleader/herald and is somewhat of a 'Snarf' to Demolisher's 'Lion-o.' Demolisher originally lands on Third Earth to battle Mumm-ra. Mumm-ra is defeated by the galactic warrior but convinces him that Lion-o is a far worthier conquest. Demolishers seeks out and engages Lion-o in battle but is eventually overcome. Defeated, Demolisher flees Third Earth in shame, Lion-o laments that such a strong & courageous warrior must live without a cause to fight for, stating "..I wish he had joined us in our fight to spread the code of Thundera."

* '''Captain Cracker''' (Earl Hammond) — A robotic space pirate who captains a starship named the ''Jolly Roger''. He raids the Great Penal Planet to release a criminal contingent to help him take over the space-ways. He has a robot parrot named Polly.

* '''Captain Shiner''' (Bob McFadden) — A [[monocle]]-wearing, doglike space-faring alien mercenary commanding a starship named ''The Vertus'' and its sizeable crew. He is summoned on more than one occasion to carry out Mumm-Ra's bidding (for a substantial fee).

* '''Mongor''' (Bob McFadden) — A demonic goat-like being believed to be the personification of fear on Third Earth. For three centuries, Mumm-Ra had unsuccessfully tried to locate his tomb and free him, but the Thunderkittens accidentally freed Mongor, allowing him to attack and subdue the other ThunderCats. He feeds from his opponents' fears to grow larger and more powerful. His only weakness is for his foes to not look directly at him, which takes away his power (as Lion-O, Wilykit and Wilykat discover to defeat him).

* '''Driller''' (Bob McFadden) — A metallic humanoid being who has a drill in place of legs. He also has changeable drill bits on his head, which allows him to drill through the sand, rock and dirt in the deep desert. His services are for hire; his chief price is diamonds, which he needs to keep his drill points sharp. He once captured Panthro for Mumm-Ra, and appeared again to drill a tunnel from Acid Lake to the Cat's Lair. Driller wasn't one of the most popular characters in the show, for he only starred in three episodes.

* '''The Shadowmaster''' — A wizard on Thundera who used a cloak of darkness to conjure his magical powers and attempted to take over the planet. He was defeated by both Jaga and Lion-O's father, Claudis, and was then banished to the 'Shadow Realm', but he managed to escape years later, kidnapping Claudis just before Thundera was destroyed. Through a sequence of nightmares, Lion-O eventually learns of his father's imprisonment in the Shadow Realm and is able to rescue him. The Shadowmaster is the only villain, other than Mumm-ra, known to be allied with the Ancient Spirits of Evil. Shadowmaster has arguably come closer to defeating the ThunderCats than anyone else. In his one-time assault on the ThunderCats, Shadowmaster would have succeeded had Mumm-ra not interfered for fear that Shadowmaster would replace him as the chief servant to the Ancient Spirits of Evil.

* '''Zaxx'''-A four-armed avian sorcerer who unsuccessfully fought Mumm-Ra for control of Third Earth in the distant past. Zaxx was left without form as his essence was trapped within a magical medallion; any creature later wearing the medallion acquires his fantastic power but is progressively transformed to permanently become Zaxx, who requires a host body for retribution against his ancient foe.

* '''The Mad Bubbler'''- A reptilian phantom that inhabits the Hook Mountain thundrylium mines. Bears an uncanny resemblance to the bubble dragons from [[Bubble Bobble]].

==Cast==

Despite its large cast of characters, ''ThunderCats'' featured a rather small circle of voice actors, with only six actors providing voices for the entire first season. Every actor provided multiple voices, although the incredibly distinctive baritone of Earle Hyman (Panthro) left the actor providing only very occasional guest voices in comparison with his fellow performers. In particular, as the first season's only female actor, Lynne Lipton (Cheetara and Wilykit) provided voices for every single female character that appeared in the season. Above all others, however, actor Bob McFadden would most regularly provide the voices of guest characters, with his two diametrically-opposed main roles - the timid, high-pitched Snarf and the rumbling, sibiliant Slithe - showcasing the variation that ensured he was up to the job.

Despite introducing a large number of new regular characters, the show's second season brought in only two new actors. Gerrianne Raphael provided the voice of Pumyra, and was able to provide Lynne Lipton with some relief by added new female voices. Conversely, actor Doug Preis is regularly credited on the Internet as the voice of Lynx-O, but this is incorrect - it does not take a particularly alert ear to recognise Bob McFadden providing Lynx-O's vocals. Preis, it would appear, is the voice of Lunatac Alluro, the only member of the cast who does not appear to be voiced by any of the first season cast members.

{| class="wikitable" width=70%
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
|width=10% align="center" | '''Voice actor'''
|width=25% align="center" | '''Regular characters'''
|-
| [[Earl Hammond]] || Mumm-Ra, Jaga, Vultureman, Amok
|-
| [[Earle Hyman]] || Panthro, Red-Eye
|-
| [[Larry Kenney]] || Lion-O, Jackalman
|-
| [[Lynne Lipton]] || Cheetara, WilyKit, Luna
|-
| [[Bob McFadden]] || Snarf, Slithe, Lynx-O, Tug-Mug, Snarfer,
|-
| [[Peter Newman (actor)|Peter Newman]] || Tygra, WilyKat, Ben-Gali, Monkian
|-
| [[Doug Preis]] || Alluro
|-
| [[Gerrianne Raphael]] || Pumyra, Chilla, Jaguara
|}

==Action figures and other merchandise==
[[LJN]] produced the ThunderCats [[action figures]] from 1985–1987. The ThunderCats line was based on the animated series which was actually created in 1982. Due to difficulties, it wouldn't air until 1985. Each figure had an action feature of some sort, and the line also included a unique "laser" light-up feature that interacted between the Cats Lair playset, some figures, and some accessories. Lion-O's head and Mumm-Ra's eyes would illuminate when a special key ring that came with the figure was pressed into a slot in their backs. PVC companions were packaged with some figures in 1986, including WilyKat with Tygra, WilyKit with Cheetara, Snarf with Lion-O, and Ma-Mutt with Mumm-Ra. The PVC companion figures were also produced as full size articulated figures.

LJN did produce a few variant figures including the young Tygra version and the silver rat-eye daggers for Rataro. There are also a few slight color variations of Lion-O, such as red and orange-haired versions. The third series of figures from 1987 are harder to find along with the Tongue-A-Saurus and Astral Moat Monster. Driller and Stinger are the toughest figures to track down; Stinger's wings are very fragile, making it next to impossible to find a loose, complete figure.

An unproduced final series of figures would have included The Mad Bubbler, Redeye of the Lunatacs, Cannon-Blaster, and Quick-Jaws from the Bezerkers as well as the Feliner, Thunderstrike, and Luna Tacker. The Mad Bubbler is rumored to have been produced, but this has yet to be proven. Photos of these were featured in the 1987 LJN catalog.

In 1987, [[Elite Systems]] released the game ''[[ThunderCats:The Lost Eye of Thundera]]'', for [[Commodore 64|Commodore64/128]] and [[Sinclair ZX Spectrum]] personal computer systems. Many years later, [[Cartoon Network]]'s official website featured a game that allowed visitors to play as Lion-O and rescue fellow ThunderCats while venturing into Mumm-Ra's tomb.

Other ThunderCats merchandise of the 1980s included, among other items, a [[board game]], [[TV tray]], tin [[lunchbox]], and apparel. A [[retro]] spurt occurred in the 2000s which saw a handful of new ThunderCats items like T-shirts and [[sweatband]]s make their way to shelves.

There is currently an online petition to get Warner Bros. to release an official soundtrack containing the music from the series, which was written and performed by Bernard Hoffer. The petition can be found at http://www.thundercatsfans.org/tcfans/petition/index.php

==Comic books==
{{main|ThunderCats (comics)}}

In 1985, a ''[[ThunderCats (comics)|ThunderCats]]'' series was published by [[Marvel Comics]] through its Star imprint. It ended with issue #24 in 1988. The following year, a new series was published by [[Marvel UK]]. The series consisted of 129 issues and was published for three years.

In 2002, [[DC Comics]], owned by [[Warner Bros.]] (who acquired the rights for the franchise due to its 1989 purchase of Lorimar-Telepictures), published a ''ThunderCats'' sourcebook through its Wildstorm imprint. In 2003, a wave of [[limited series|mini-series]] and [[one-shot (comics)|one-shots]] were published.

The original mini-series, ''Reclaiming Thundera'' (written by [[Ford Gilmore]] with various artists contributing), published in 2003, formed a series of loosely connected "episodes" that saw Lion-0 continue his struggle against Mumm-Ra and The Mutants, a major plot point was the slow corruption of WilyKat by Mumm-Ra, which would play a major role in later storylines.

After another fateful battle with Grune, Lion-O entered the Book of Omens to begin his training and claim his rightful place as Lord of the ThunderCats, but Mumm-Ra uses a powerful spell to keep Lion-O trapped in the book for several years in real time, not "Book" time, and seizes control of Thundera afterwards.

In the follow-up mini-series ''The Return'' (written by Gilmore, and illustrated by Benes, Pimental, and Lea), Lion-O returned to Thundera to find it enslaved to Mumm-Ra. Several of the ThunderCats are scattered, held prisoner, or enslaved to his enemies. This storyline was distinctly more mature than many episodes of the series, with much harsher language such as "Bastard" used by Mumm-Ra. Cheetara is depicted as holding a grudge against Lion-O for "abandoning" his friends for such a long time, and WilyKat's corruption in the earlier mini-series takes greater form. Realizing he has betrayed his friends, the older Cub flees when the mini-series concludes, Lion-O and the ThunderCats emerge triumphant over Mumm-Ra once again.

By the third mini-series, ''The Dogs of War'', (written by [[John Lyman]], illustrated by Vriens, Heling and Campus of [[Udon Studios]]) many years have passed and Thundera has prospered. Lion-O is now an aged and experianced commander of his countrymen. An invasion of Dogstar forces ultimately lead Lion-O to ally with Mumm-Ra himself (when Ma-Mutt even turns against him). Along the way, WilyKit finds true love and WilyKat redeems himself. The storyline concludes with Mumm-Ra offering Lion-O an elixir of youth so that they may continue their struggle against one another.

The remaining mini-series were all prequels, set during the events of the animated series. These were ''"Hammerhand's Revenge"'' (written by [[Fiona Avery]], illustrayed by [[D'Anda]], and ''Enemy's Pride'', (written by Layman and illustrated by Virens, Hellig and Campus), which was published in 2004.

Several one-shots were also published. Two crossovers with [[Battle of the Planets (comics)|Battle of the Planets]], one crossover with [[Superman]], and three "Origins" issues that established more of the backstories. These were published in 2003 and 2004.

==Movies==
In 1986, [http://www.retrojunk.com/details_movies/2325-thundercats-ho--the-movie/ ThunderCats - HO The Movie] was released on VHS in the UK and North America. It was later edited into the five episodes which ultimately led to season 2.

Warner Bros. is in the process of creating a [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] animated film based on ''ThunderCats''. It will be an original story expanding on the events of the first episode. Expected release circa 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117966320.html?categoryid=13&cs=1|title=Warner purrs for ThunderCats|publisher=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|date=5 June 2007|accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref>

==Cultural references==
* ''[[Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story]]'' has [[Larry Kenney]] and [[Lynne Lipton]] reprising their roles as Lion-O and Cheetara in a ThunderCats parody.
* [[Stan Smith]] from [[American Dad!]] names his second wife ''Thundercat'', claiming he can't pronounce her real name.
* ThunderCats [[action figures]] have appeared in the ''[[Robot Chicken]]'' episodes "[[Toys in the Hood]]," "[[Toy Meets Girl]]," "[[Federated Resources]]."
*In the ''[[Drawn Together]]'' episode "[[The Lemon-AIDS Walk]]," [[Captain Hero]] visits an underground facility where Panthro is seen working out.
*In the ''[[South Park]]'' episode "[[Imaginationland]]," Cheetara and Snarf are present among numerous fictional characters. Snarf (along with the [[Lollipop King]]) accompanies [[Butters]] on a journey.
*The [[Relient K]] song "I'm Lion-O" is about ThunderCats.
*In the 2007 movie ''[[Juno (film)|Juno]]'', the title character calls out "ThunderCats are go!" just after her water breaks.
*The song "Touch the Sky" by Kanye West featuring Lupe Fiasco contains the line "I'm tryin' to stop lyin like I'm Mumm-Ra"
*The band [[Mumm-ra]] from [[Bexhill-on-Sea]] take their name directly from the chief villian of Thunder Cats. They have appeared on stage with a replica model.
*In the movie [[Y tu mama tambien]], one of the main actors is reminded by his relatives about [[Thundercats]] toys while memorizing the childhood.

==DVD releases==
[[Warner Home Video]] have released the entire ''ThunderCats'' series in a number of volumes in the following order:
{| class="wikitable"
!DVD Name
!Ep #
!Region 1 release date
!Region 2 release date
!Additional Information
|-
| Season 1, Volume 1
| 33
| [[August 9]] [[2005]]
| [[January 15]] [[2007]]
|
* "Feel the Magic, Hear the Roar: ThunderCats Fans Speak Out": an interview featurette in which Wil Wheaton (of ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'') and other loyal fans give their memories and support to this animation classic
|-
| Season 1, Volume 2
| 32
| [[December 6]] [[2005]]
| [[August 13]] [[2007]]
|
* ThunderCats Ho! The Making of a Pop Culture Phenomenon: Executive Producer Arthur Rankin Jr. Shares Secrets from the Show
|-
| Season 2, Volume 1
| 34
| [[April 18]] [[2006]]
| [[April 14]] [[2008]]
|
* Featurette on the series' composer, Bernie Hoffner
* Music video of the show's theme song performed by [[The Rembrandts]]
|-
| Season 2, Volume 2
| 31
| [[November 28]] [[2006]]
| [[June 2]] [[2008]] <ref>{{cite web|url=http://hmv.com/hmvweb/displayProductDetails.do?ctx=280;-1;-1;-1&sku=801038|title=ThunderCats Season Two Part Two Release Date|publisher=[[HMV]]|date=5 May 2008|accessdate=2008-05-07}}</ref>
|
*Features ThunderCats Ultimate Adventure Challenge on Disc 12
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.thundercatslair.org/ ThunderCatsLair.org] - ''ThunderCats''' Comprehensive website. Includes toys, animation cel gallery, and forums
* [http://360style.net/stylecast/?p=42 360 Stylecast] : From Gears of War to ThunderCats the Movie Exclusive Director Interview
* [http://www2.warnerbros.com/warnervideo/classiccartoons/thundercats.html ''ThunderCats'' DVD official web site]
* [http://www2.warnerbros.com/warnervideo/classiccartoons/thundercats2/index.html ''ThunderCats'' DVD official web site for Volume 2]
* [http://www.insomniacmania.com/interview_default.php?id=15 Interview with Larry Kenney II] - Text interview by Insomnia Mania.com.
* [http://www.thundercatsfans.org/ Return to Thundera] - ''ThunderCats'' fansite with scans of scripts, comics, and other rare printed material, cast interviews, fan works, forum, screen shots, episode guide. 
* [http://tcats.shipunderground.com/ Mumm-Ra's Pyramid] - One of the original ThunderCats fansites. Episode guide, fan fiction, character bios.
* [http://thundercats-the-movie.net ThunderCats The Movie] - All the news and gossip surrounding the upcoming ThunderCats movie which is to be released in 2010.
* [http://www.purrsiathunder.net/thunderpedia/ Thunderpedia wiki]
* [http://www.thundercatsfans.org/tcfans/petition/index.php/ ThunderCats Soundtrack Petition] - An online petition created to get Warner Bros. to release a soundtrack of music from the 80's cartoon series.

[[Category:Toys of the 1980s]]
[[Category:1980s American animated television series]]
[[Category:1985 television series debuts]]
[[Category:1994 television series endings]]
[[Category:First-run syndicated television programs in the United States]]
[[Category:Superhero television programs]]
[[Category:Television programs featuring anthropomorphic characters]]
[[Category:Science fiction television series]]
[[Category:Fantasy television series]]
[[Category:Anime-influenced animation]]
[[Category:Television series by Warner Bros. Television]]
[[Category:Action figures]]
[[Category:Fictional cats]]

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ThunderCats (1985 TV series)

2008-07-29T18:59:57Z

163.178.17.124: /* Allies and natives of Third Earth */

{{Refimprove|date=July 2008}}

{{Infobox Television
| show_name = ThunderCats
| image = [[Image:Thundercats Logo.JPG|300px]]
| caption = The official logo for ''ThunderCats''.
| format = [[Animated television series]]
| runtime = 22 minutes
| creator = [[Tobin Wolf|Ted Wolf]]
| voices= [[Earl Hammond]] [[Earle Hyman]] [[Larry Kenney]] [[Lynne Lipton]] [[Bob McFadden]] [[Peter Newman (actor)|Peter Newman]] Doug Preis Gerianne Raphael 
| country = {{USA}}
| network = [[broadcast syndication|first-run syndication]]
| first_aired = [[January 23]], [[1985]]
| last_aired = 1989
| num_episodes = 130
| list_episodes = List of ThunderCats episodes
| website = http://www.rankinbass.com/thundercatshome.html
| imdb_id = 0088631
| tv_com_id = 10078
}}

'''''ThunderCats''''' is an [[United States|American]] [[animated television series]] that was developed and produced by [[Rankin/Bass]] Productions, debuting in 1985, based on the characters created by [[Tobin Wolf|Tobin "Ted" Wolf]]. The animation was provided by Pacific Animation Corporation, the working name for a collective of Japanese studios prominently including [[Topcraft]], a group who would later go on to form [[Studio Ghibli]]. [[List of ThunderCats episodes#Season 1: 1985|Season 1]] of the show aired in 1985 (65 episodes), followed by a TV movie entitled ''[[List of ThunderCats episodes#ThunderCats - HO!: 1986|ThunderCats - HO!]]'' in 1986. Seasons [[List of ThunderCats episodes#Season 2: 1987-1988|2]], [[List of ThunderCats episodes#Season 3: 1988-1989|3]], and [[List of ThunderCats episodes#Season 4: 1989-1990|4]] followed a new format of twenty episodes each, starting with a five-part story; these aired from 1987 to 1988, 1988 to 1989, and 1989 to 1990, respectively.

The series was originally distributed by [[Telepictures|Telepictures Corporation]] which would later merge with [[Lorimar|Lorimar Productions]]. Near the end of 1988, [[Lorimar-Telepictures]] was purchased by [[Warner Bros.]], whose [[Warner Bros. Television Distribution|television syndication arm]] would eventually assume distribution of the show; Warner Bros. would eventually gain rights to the series from that point on.

On [[March 17]], [[1997]], ''ThunderCats'' was the first series seen on (Warner Bros' [[Time Warner|corporate sibling]]) [[Cartoon Network]]'s new action-animation afternoon block, [[Toonami]]. The series would depart and return in various timeslots including [[Saturday morning cartoons|Saturday mornings]] and late night [[marathon (television)|marathons]] until 2002.{{Fact|date=July 2008}}

There were also several comic-book series produced: [[Marvel Comics]]' version, 1985 to 1988; and two series by [[Wildstorm]], an imprint of [[DC Comics]] (another Warner Bros. [[Time Warner|corporate sibling]]), beginning in 2003. Items of clothing featuring the ThunderCats [[logo]] and DVD boxsets of the original series have enjoyed a resurgence in recent years as nostalgia for the former childrens favorite has grown.

It was announced on [[June 5]], [[2007]], that Warner Brothers is making a CGI-animated feature film of ''ThunderCats'', based on a script written by Paul Sopocy. In October 2007, [[Variety magazine]] revealed that [[Jerry O'Flaherty]], veteran video game art director ([[Gears of War]]), had signed on to direct. The film is being produced by Spring Creek Productions. It is set for a summer 2010 release.{{Fact|date=July 2008}}

== Plot ==

''ThunderCats'' follows the adventures of the eponymous team of heroes, cat-like humanoid aliens from the planet of [[Thundera]]. The series pilot pays homage to the origin of [[Superman]], as the dying Thundera meets its end, forcing the ThunderCats (a sort of Thunderan special police force) to flee their homeworld. The fleet is attacked by the Thunderans' enemies, the Mutants of Plun-Darr, who destroy all crafts save for the flagship containing the young Lord of the Thundercats, Lion-O, his protectors, and the mystical Eye of Thundera, the source of the ThunderCats' power, embedded in the hilt of the legendary Sword of Omens. Although the Mutants damage the flagship, they are driven back by the power of the Eye, and Lion-O's elderly guardian, Jaga, pilots the ship to the safety of the world of "Third Earth," but perishes in the process.

When the ThunderCats awake from their suspended animation on Third Earth, Lion-O discovers that his suspension capsule has failed to inhibit his aging, and he is now a child in the body of a man. Together, the ThunderCats and the friendly natives of Third Earth construct the "Cat's Lair" their new home and headquarters, but before long, the Mutants track them down to Third Earth. The intrusion of these two alien races upon the world does not go unnoticed, however - the demonic, mummified sorcerer, [[Mumm-Ra the Ever-Living|Mumm-Ra]], recruits the Mutants to aid him in his campaign to acquire the Eye of Thundera and destroy the ThunderCats so that his evil might continue to hold sway over Third Earth.

This status quo holds strong for the first season of the show, and serves as the basis for a vast array of stories that freely mixed elements of [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]] into a traditional good-versus-evil tale that steadily introduced more and more recurring allies and villains into the world of the ''ThunderCats''. Futuristic technology is just as central to the series as magic and myth, but even in the midst of all this action, the series never under-emphasizes the importance of moral values in solving problems. Each episode would normally include a short denouement, featuring the characters recuperating after the events of the story and taking the time to single out a personal value or wholesome approach that helped save the day, or could have done so if they hadn't overlooked it.

The first half of Season 1 featured a gentle continuity, with early episodes following on from one another and establishing recurring concepts, although this became a little less common as the season transitioned into its second half, which was mostly comprised of incidental one-shot adventures. Tying the second season together was the over-arcing five-part adventure, "Lion-O's Anointment," in which the hero battled the other ThunderCats to truly earn his title as Lord of the ThunderCats. Although intended to be viewed consecutively (as the adventures depicted occurred one day after the other), the five parts of the mini-series were erroneously aired (and released on DVD) with multiple other episodes between each installment.

The 1986 TV movie "ThunderCats - Ho!" featured the first major shake-up to the status quo of the series, introducing three new ThunderCats who had also survived the destruction of Thundera. A massive cast of returning heroes and villains were incorporated into the story to make it the most epic ''ThunderCats'' adventure yet produced, and it concluded with the apparent destruction of Mumm-Ra. When the series returned in 1987, however, this was quickly proven not to be the case in the opening mini-series, "Mumm-Ra Lives!", as the evil wizard survived his fate. "Mumm-Ra Lives!" set the pattern for the show's final three seasons, which each began with a five-part mini-series that established the new characters and concepts that would go on to influence the rest of the season. In the case of "Mumm-Ra Lives!", these concepts included the debut of the villainous Lunataks, who became a third faction that existed for the rest of the series, and the new team of ThunderCats from "ThunderCats - Ho!" being given their own headquarters, vehicles and so forth.

The 1988 season began with "ThunderCubs," a miniseries named for its plot about the ThunderCats being transformed into children, but which was principally about Mumm-Ra reconstructing Thundera in order to retrieve the weapon that had destroyed it, the Sword of Plun-Darr, and the legendary Treasure of Thundera. In the course of the adventure, the treasure - containing the Book of Omens, a tome holding all the secrets of the ThunderCats, and many other mystical items - was scattered across the New Thundera, ushering in a new concept for the series: a season with an actual story arc. Continuity between episodes became tighter as the ThunderCats, Mutants, Lunataks and Mumm-Ra alternated their adventures between Third Earth and New Thundera, searching for the treasure and exploiting its powers. The season also featured the running theme of the Ancient Spirits of Evil having to take a more active hand in pushing Mumm-Ra into action, culminating in another unique feature of the season - an actual finale episode, "The Last Day," in which the spirits give Mumm-Ra one last chance to destroy the ThunderCats. Ultimately, the villain failed, and was banished to the farthest corner of the universe by the spirits.

However, the 1989 season proved that you can never keep a good villain down. In the opening miniseries, "Return to Thundera!", the ThunderCats returned to New Thundera to rebuild their society, but before departing, they destroyed Mumm-Ra's pyramid, enraging the Ancient Spirits of Evil to the point that they brough Mumm-Ra back, and installed him within a new pyramid on New Thundera. The season proved to be quite divorced from what had gone before, with adventures consigned almost entirely to the wild and wonderful locales of New Thundera, and most villainous oppoistion coming from either Mumm-Ra or assorted new villains. The Mutants, Lunataks and Captain Cracker all returned for one episode each, however, and at the conclusion of the series, the mystery of the Book of Omens was at last solved, and the tumultous and terrifying environment of Thundera was at last rendered peaceful and pristine.

==Characters==
[[Image:ThunderCats logo.svg|right|175px|thumb|The Eye of Thundera, Insignia of the ThunderCats]]

===Heroes===

* '''Lion-O''' ([[Larry Kenney]]) — The leader, and the hereditary "Lord of the ThunderCats." Lion-O, based on the [[lion]], wields the legendary Sword of Omens, able to fire bolts of energy and allow Lion-O to see across great distances with its power of "Sight Beyond Sight," and the Claw Shield, a gauntlet that launches grappling lines from its claws. A mere child of twelve years old at the time of Thundera's destruction, Lion-O aged to adulthood during the trip to Third Earth when his suspension capsule failed to prevent his aging. Although cunning and skillfull, he is truly a child in a man's body, and throughout the series, must learn what it takes to become a true leader and gain true maturity. In the latter half of the show's first season, Lion-O has to put all that he has learned to use in the "Anointment Trials"{{mdash}}contests of strength, speed, cunning and intelligence against each of the other ThunderCats. Ultimately triumphing over Mumm-Ra in a final battle in the heart of the villain's pyramid, Lion-O is crowned the true Lord of the ThunderCats in an august ceremony attended by nearly every inhabitant of Third Earth. Lion-O also has the ability as Lord of the ThunderCats to command all cats, as he demonstrated in his battle with the Snowman of Hook Mountain when he commanded Snowmeow to halt.

* '''Jaga''' ([[Earl Hammond]]) — Known as “Jaga the Wise”, based on the [[jaguar]], this elder warrior was once regarded as the greatest of all ThunderCats. An adviser and protector of the Lord’s family, it was Jaga who gathered the nobles of the ThunderCats to escort Lion-O and the Eye of Thundera to safety, but in his aged condition, he did not survive the trip to Third Earth. However, Jaga does reappear on Third Earth as a spirit — seen only by Lion-O at first, to guide him in his lessons and adventures. At times, he appears before the other ThunderCats as well, such as when facing down Grune the Destroyer, and when the ThunderCats need to rescue their fellow Thunderans. When he was alive, Jaga also wielded the Sword of Omens and was a formidable fighter in combat.

* '''Tygra''' ([[Peter Newman (actor)|Peter Newman]]) — A staunch, level-headed warrior, based on the [[tiger]], Tygra is known as the ThunderCat architect and scientist. He is the one Lion-O often turns to as second-in-command and for counsel. He is responsible for the design of all of the ThunderCat structures on Third Earth — Cat’s Lair and the Tower of Omens. He is also gifted with ‘mind-power’ — the ability to create life-like illusions in other people’s minds; he used this for Lion-O’s Anointment Trial, but it puts a great strain on him. He uses a [[bolas]] in combat, with which he can render himself invisible to the naked eye. In the episode "All that Glitters", Lion-O instructs Tygra, "If I do not return, you will be the new Lord of the ThunderCats" verifying that indeed, Tygra is the second-in-command. Where creators described Panthro's character as being based on "strength" & Cheetara's character as being based on "speed", Tygra's character was described as being based on "integrity."

* '''Panthro''' ([[Earle Hyman]]) — The next noble and also the eldest (after Jaga), based on the [[Black panther|panther]], this warrior is the chief mechanic/engineer and pilot for the ThunderCats. He’s also physically the strongest and is a cunning warrior in combat. With Tygra’s help, he builds all of the vehicles the ThunderCats use on Third Earth — including the ThunderTank, the Feliner and the ThunderClaw, ThunderStrike and HoverCat. A jovial soul, he’s also quick to lose his temper and has a paralyzing fear of bats and a dislike of spiders. In combat he uses a pair of chained fighting sticks ([[nunchaku]]) which house several chemical spray-compounds that he can use against foes. The spikes on his chest bands can be used like projectile weapons or as rappelling lines.

* '''Cheetara''' ([[Lynne Lipton]]) — A female warrior, based on the [[cheetah]], who is the only adult female ThunderCat (until the later appearance of Pumyra). She is as lovely as she is brave and caring. Often a voice of reason, she is also the bearer of a budding ‘sixth-sense’, detecting when something is unsafe or if evil is near. This precognitive sense, which Cheetara regards as a curse for the most part, also allows her to perceive visions — whether involuntary or by forcing herself — but this drains her and she may require days or weeks to recover. She has incredible speed — once clocked at speeds of 120mph on a morning jog. She can only maintain this top speed for a short moment, but with it, she can move very fast in combat. Her weapon of choice is a battlestaff that can grow or shrink to variable lengths, with which she can vault or leap over enemies. When not in use, it is attached to the armband on her left arm.

* '''WilyKat and WilyKit''' (Peter Newman and Lynne Lipton) — Twin siblings (Kat the boy & Kit the girl) who are the youngest members of the ThunderCat team, both based on the [[wildcat]]. They are the mischief-makers, and often have their own lessons to learn alongside Lion-O while they live on Third Earth, where they frequently use tricks and traps to combat evil. Kit is the more adventurous, while Kat usually errs on the side of caution. Kit is also the more agile, and at times employs a rolling-attack against the enemy. Their agility is often displayed when they ride their "space boards" — specially designed flying devices shaped like Earth surfboards that can carry them over long distances. Each uses special capsules, balls and other gimmick weapons carried in pouches on their belts. They sometimes use slingshots to fire these at the Mutants or other foes. They also carry trick lariats, with which they can either tangle and ensnare foes, or use to pull themselves out of danger.

==== New ThunderCats ====

At the start of the series' second season, it was revealed to Lion-O (after having a recurring [[dream]] about the final moments of the destruction of Thundera) that there are three more Thunderans living on Third Earth. They survived the cataclysm when rescued by a Ro-Bear Berbil scoutship piloted by two Berbils. The ship, damaged in the final explosion of the planet, made it to Third Earth, landing on an unknown island somewhere in the northern sea.

After Mumm-Ra tries to capture them to use as bait to destroy the others, these three are rescued and brought back to the Cat’s Lair, where Lion-O anoints them as new ThunderCats. They initially come to live in Cat's Lair, but after the arrival of the Lunataks, they are stationed at the Tower of Omens.

* '''Ben-Gali''' (Peter Newman) — One of two younger Thunderans among the trio, named after the [[bengal tiger]] but more resembling a [[white tiger]], this warrior is a skilled blacksmith like his father before him. This talent proves valuable after the Sword of Omens is once again broken. Fast and agile like Tygra, Ben-Gali is called ‘brother’ by him, but it is unclear if they share a true familial bond or if the greeting is merely meant as a term of endearment (given that the new ThunderCats repeatedly call the originals "Nobles" while referring to themselves as "mere Thunderans", it seems unlikely that there is any family relationship between the two). Another possibility is that because they are both tigers, the Ben-Gal clan may be cousins to the Tygra clan, even though one is considered nobility while the other is not. In combat, Ben-Gali wields a weapon called the Hammer of Thundera. It can shoot energy blasts, and carries smoke pellets in its handle, to allow him to cause confusion and provide cover for withdrawal from a fight.

* '''Pumyra''' (Gerrianne Raphael)— Another female Thunderian — along with Cheetara and WilyKit — this young woman, based on the [[puma]], is a talented healer and medic. She uses her knowledge of Thunderan medicine, combined with the wide range of medicinal supplies to be found on Third Earth to help heal and cure her fellow ThunderCats. Her compassionate nature lends to offering an alternative perspective, solving problems or conflict without fighting by using compromise and understanding. Possibly the most agile ThunderCat next to the ThunderKittens, Pumyra employs an incredible leaping ability — often able to vault higher than even great jumpers like Tygra or the ThunderKittens. In combat, she uses a special whipcord, which resembles a ‘cat’s tail’, that can launch special pellets and spheres like an ancient-type sling.

* '''Lynx-O''' (Bob McFadden) — The oldest of the trio, based on the [[lynx]], Lynx-O was spared the sight of the destruction of their homeworld by a cruel twist of fate: a blast of intense heat and fire blinded him moments before he and his two younger companions were rescued. Because of this injury, Lynx-O has had to adapt to survive on Third Earth, and has done so by honing his other senses to superhuman levels. His sense of touch, smell, taste and hearing are far above those of the other ThunderCats, and this affords him a type of ‘sixth-sense’ (although not like the one Cheetara employs). Though blind, Lynx-O is still a formidable fighter. His sense of touch allows him to find pressure points on a foe’s body to knock them off balance or stun them. He can also feel vibrations, which allow him to evade attacks and capture, and can use a Sonic Reflector as a weapon in combat. His greatest skill comes in utilizing a special "braille board" — a device that allows him to translate information coming from sensor systems inside the Tower of Omens, enabling him to see into the gloom of Dark Side. This same device also allows him to pilot the Thunderstrike aircraft through the Valley of Mists when the ThunderCats need to find a way through to Dark Side.

==== On New Thundera ====
When the planet of Thundera is reformed in Season Two of the series, the ThunderCats must work to stabilize the planet before it can tear itself apart again. It is here that they discover another ThunderCat.

* '''Jaguara''' (Gerrianne Raphael) — Found deep within the core of New Thundera, this powerful, ancient ThunderCat, based on the jaguar like Jaga, is an immortal sorceress. Her duty is to guard the massive [[gyroscope]] that keeps the planet intact. She uses the powers of levitation, teleportation and psychokinesis to perform her tasks, and to defend the gyroscope from attackers. It is noted by Jaga (no relation) that she has been acting in this capacity for countless years.

==== The Snarfs ====

A race of intelligent cat-like creatures, Snarfs are plump, fuzzy and kind. Snarfs are native to Thundera, living in the Valley of Snarfs, and many of their number act as servants to Thunderan nobility, happily working as cooks, nursemaids, squires and so forth. When Thundera was destroyed, forty-nine Snarfs were able to commandeer a Mutant tanker and made their way to an uninhabited planet which they took as their own, dubbing it the "Planet of Snarfs". Later, when Mumm-Ra recreated Thundera, he captured the Snarfs and brought them back to their home planet, putting them to work searching for the Treasure of Thundera. Subsequently liberated by the ThunderCats, the Snarfs returned to living happily on Thundera.

Snarfs are the only creatures in the universe incapable of evil (except while possessed). Quick and clever, a Snarf is a loyal friend, though their small size often makes them a target for Mutants or other evil creatures. The Snarfs have proved to be valuable allies to the ThunderCats in times of peril. Though their fighting skills are more than wanting, the Snarfs have an inherent invulnerability/resistance to many (but not all) forms of magic & mind-control. This ability has enabled the Snarfs to save the other ThunderCats on several occasions. Snarfs are known to end their sentences with the squeaking exclamation for which they are named - "snarf, snarf!"

In the series, several are named prominently.

* '''Snarf''' (Bob McFadden) — An elder snarf, properly known by his name Osbert (which he hates), Snarf served as a nursemaid and [[legal guardian|protector]] for Lion-O when he was a boy. After Lion-O grew up, Snarf found that often Lion-O didn’t want to have him ‘mothering’ or protecting him. Still, Snarf has remained loyal to Lion-O and the other ThunderCats. At times, he does come through in a pinch with an idea and takes action when it is needed. Despite his age, he does keep up with the others. Even though not a fighter by skill or nature, Snarf is very agile (he boasts he can outplay anyone at tailbail or kick-the-bucket). He also can communicate with other animals on Third Earth to enlist their help in his tasks and adventures.

* '''Snarfer''' (Bob McFadden) — Young and excitable, Snarfer is Snarf’s young nephew. He was thought lost when Thundera exploded, but was one of the surviving Snarfs that made it to the Planet of Snarfs. Slightly more aggressive than his uncle, Snarfer is a keen mechanic and pilot in his own right, having been educated at "Snarf College" (Snarf once said he was a ‘college boy’). He does tend to babble when over-excited, but at times he can be just as level-headed as Tygra. Though smaller than Snarf, he doesn’t let that get in his way when he wants to help friends. It was through him that the ThunderCats learned that Snarf's real name was Osbert.

* '''Snarf Oswald''' (Earle Hyman) and '''Snarf Eggbert''' (Larry Kenney) — Two of the Snarfs who survived the destruction of Thundera, this duo became the ThunderCats main Snarf "contacts" on New Thundera. Oswald was originally mentioned by Snarf during the first season, noting that he owed him "fifty thunder-dollars."

====Allies and natives of Third Earth====

* '''The Ro-Bear Berbils''' — Partly-furred robot-[[bear]]s from the planet Ro-Bear. Because their homeworld is so tiny, they must form other colonies on distant worlds to survive. Small and harmless looking, the Berbills are steadfast, hardy workers and skilled farmers, cooks and craftsmen. It was thanks to them that Tygra was able to build Cat’s Lair — and later the Tower Of Omens — so quickly. Apparently, the Ro-Bear Berbils are [[Cyborg|Cybernetic organisms]], as they are able to eat and digest organic food.

** '''Ro-Ber-Bill''' and '''Ro-Ber-Belle''' — Leaders of the nearby Ro-Bear Berbil village, these robot-bears are the first to befriend the ThunderCats and often supply information about local places, people and phenomena on Third Earth. Through their fields and forests of Fruit Trees, they are also able to provide the Thunderians with new foodstuffs.

* '''The Warrior Maidens''' — A race of [[Amazon]] [[women]] who live in the forests of what is called the Tree-Top Kingdom. They are fierce fighters and very territorial. At first distrustful of the ThunderCats — whom they view as [[alien]]s — the Warrior Maidens soon treat them as friends. Often, Nayda and Willa are the two that have the most contact with the ThunderCats.

** '''Willa''' and '''Nayda''' (both Lynne Lipton) — Sisters, both members of the Warrior Maidens, who live in the Tree-Top Kingdom. Willa is their leader, while Nayda is a scout and second-in-command. Both are expert markswomen with bows and arrows, and are very agile and fleet among the branches of their forest home. Often distrustful of outsiders, both become friends of the ThunderCats and by their example, the rest of their people treat them as allies. They often help the Thunderians by showing them paths around Third Earth and using special tricks (like Bushy, a giant tree-top spider) to aid them on their quests and missions.

* '''Wollows''' — Small, furry people who have small villages all around the habitable places of Third Earth. Farmers, carpenters and fishermen, they are gentle folk who often turn to the ThunderCats for protection.

* '''Bolkens''' — [[Sheep]]-like people, similar to the Wollows. They are herdspeople and farmers, who are just as likely to call for help from the ThunderCats.

* '''Mandora the Evil-Chaser''' (Lynne Lipton) — An intergalactic [[police officer]], who works in conjunction with a series of law enforcers to protect the peaceful people of the galaxy. She works in part to run the Great Penal Planet — which houses some of the galaxy’s nastiest criminals — and routinely comes to Third Earth as part of her patrols. When one of these criminals, a robotic pickpocket named Quik-Pik, helps her and Lion-O against Captain Cracker, she makes him an Evil Chaser assistant. She travels on a specially-equipped hoverbike — called the Electro-Charger — and uses a weapon called the “enzyme catalyzer” (a spray gun that uses a chemical — "a closely guarded secret, once called soap").

* '''Hachiman''' (Peter Newman) — A [[samurai]] [[warrior]] and master swordsman from Ancient [[Japan]]. Summoned to Third Earth by Mumm-Ra, he was tricked into fighting Lion-O, but thanks to his code of [[Bushido]], he became an ally to the ThunderCats and the Warrior Maidens of the Tree-Top Kingdom. He wields a sword known as “The Thunder-Cutter”, a [[katana]]-blade that, with his skill, can cut through solid stone. Hachiman has saved the lives of various ThunderCats on multiple occasions. He is the only character in the entire series whom Lion-O believed could have defeated him in battle (see the episode "Thunder-Cutter"). Hachiman is also the only character to physically battle with the Ancient Spirits of Evil.

* '''Snowman of Hook Mountain''' (Earl Hammond) — A [[yeti]]-like chivalrous [[knight]], who rules over the Kingdom of the Snowmen on the frigid heights of Hook Mountain. He once tried to fight Lion-O for possession of a meteor that fell onto the slopes of his mountain kingdom, but they became friends after Lion-O rescued him from a Mutant attack. He can craft weapons out of ice, seemingly at will, and fights mounted on a great snow cat, Snowmeow.

* '''Turmagar''' (Earl Hammond) — Leader of the [[walrus]]-like Tuska Warriors who live near the source of the river that serves as Third Earth’s natural water supply. Very skilled as a warrior and leader, Turmagar is also a crafty pilot who flies the Gomplin —- a vehicle/creature hybrid resembling a dragon. It is Turmagar whom often helps the ThunderCats with air support before they crafted their own air-vehicles (it is worth noting that the Tuska Warriors are among the few factions in the series to employ firearms, as opposed to melee weapons and/or bows and arrows).

* '''Dr. DomeTome''' (Bob McFadden) — One of Third Earth’s great thinkers, scientists and gentlemen. He is the chief protector of the Great Oceanic Plug, a massive engineering project built to seal a crack in the ocean floor to prevent the planet’s oceans from flooding its core. He is a small man but very chivalrous, and a skilled pilot of Hercules (aka "Herky"), a giant [[frog]]-shaped robot used to guard the sea floor.

* '''Wizz-Ra''' — A powerful wizard from Ancient [[Egypt]], banished to an alternate dimension after he lost a battle to Mumm-Ra. His helmet has the ability of mind-control and is sought by Mumm-Ra after it’s discovered that the wall of the Seventh Dimension is weak enough (after 7,000 years) for him to appear in Cheetara’s bedchamber. He aids the ThunderCats after they help him to recover his helmet, and then is forced to return to his dimension prison, though not before promising Cheetara they would meet again in her dreams.

* '''Mumm-Rana''' — An ancient sorceress for good, and counterpart to Mumm-Ra. She lives in the White Pyramid, where her powers keep her from traveling too far. She at one time battled Queen Luna (grandmother to the Lunitac Luna), to stop her rampage across Third Earth. She did so by stripping Queen Luna of her magical belt, which she later lost to Luna (which was destroyed eventually). Much like Mumm-Ra, her powers limit the time she can spend outside of her pyramid home.

* '''The League of Third Earth''' — In season two, once the Mutants, Luanatacs & Mumm-ra had been removed from Third Earth, the ThunderCats left to re-settle New Thundera. They left several of their allies in charge, calling them "The League of Third Earth." This league included, Mandora the Evil Chaser, The Snowman of Hook Mountain & his cat Snow-Meow, The warrior maidens Willa & Nada, and the Rober-Berbills: Rober-Bill & Rober-Belle. The Tuska warriors were not included (no reason given) but seemed obvious choices, especially over Mandora who was not a native of Third Earth and spent most of her time in off the planet.

===Villains===



*[[Mumm-Ra the Ever-Living|Mumm-Ra]] (Earl Hammond) - The chief villain and antagonist against the ThunderCats, '''Mumm-Ra''' is the self-proclaimed "ever-living source of evil" on Third Earth, having powers of sorcery and an apparently unlimited lifespan. He is, in fact, a bound servant to the Ancient Spirits of Evil (represented by four anthropomorphic statues within the burial chamber of his pyramid), who provide him with increased power and virtual immortality to further his pursuit of spreading their dark influence throughout Third Earth.
Residing within the Black Pyramid amid the ruins of what appears to be an [[ancient Egypt]]ian civilization, Mumm-Ra exists in a decayed, weakened form that must return to a stone sarcophagus to replenish his energy. When leaving the pyramid, he can summon the power to transform himself into a more vigorous form: Mumm-Ra, the Ever-Living by reciting the famous incantation: ''“Ancient spirits of evil, transform this decayed form to Mumm-Ra, the Ever-Living!”'' While in this form, Mumm-Ra possesses superhuman strength, the ability to fly, as well as fortification of his mystical might — casting spells, throwing energy bolts, etc. — to battle his foes. He can also alter his physical form into a variety of alter-egos to deceive his enemies. 
Seemingly invincible in whatever form he chooses, Mumm-Ra appears to have a singular weakness: seeing his own hideous reflection neutralizes his ability to remain outside the Black Pyramid and forces him to withdraw there in his emaciated mummy form. However, as the second season began, the Ancient Spirits of Evil eventually overcame this shortcoming to make Mumm-Ra even more formidable. Above all, Mumm-Ra is a master of deception, and will use whatever means necessary to fight against the forces of good. 
In the second season he is given a [[dog]] companion, '''Ma-Mutt''', an undead bulldog-like canine with the ability to fly and to breathe poisonous gas.

====Mutants====

These creatures are the first villains seen in the series, originating from the planet Plun-Darr. They are the long-time enemies of the Thunderans. Later in the series, it is revealed that events stemming from their invasion of Thundera ultimately lead to the destruction of that planet.

Not content to see the Thunderians lose their homeworld, the Mutants chased after the survivors, using their spaceships to devastate the Thunderian fleet and seeming to destroy the majority of the doomed planet's escaping populace. They then boarded the flagship — which carried the ThunderCat nobles, Jaga the Wise and the young Lion-O — in attempting to capture the Eye of Thundera. They were repelled and retreated to later relocate the crashed flagship on Third Earth.

It was here that Mumm-Ra’s power grounded the Mutant ship, and they were forced to follow his demands once he sank their vessel beneath the desert sands. Though they exhibit an extraordinary incompetence (characteristic of most cartoon villains), the Mutants manage to construct their own fortress called Castle Plun-Darr (named after their homeworld) and salvage equipment from their downed spaceship to build weapons and vehicles that they use on Third Earth (e.g., the Skycutters, the Nosediver, etc.).

The Mutant group is comprised of a diverse mix of races, including:

* '''Reptilians''' — [[Bipedal]] [[lizard]]-men. Their brutish leader, '''[[Slithe]]''' (Bob McFadden), is the best example of these creatures. Domineering and impatient, Slithe often must browbeat the other Mutants into going along with his plans. He pilots the Nosediver.

* '''Simians''' — [[Ape]] men whose leader is '''[[Monkian]]''' (Peter Newman), a shifty no-good who makes a habit of eavesdropping. He often plays the role of scout for the Mutants, and is frequently the first to run from danger. He pilots one of the Skycutters.

* '''Jackalmen''' — Canine scavengers. Their leader is '''[[Jackalman]]''' (Larry Kenney), a distrustful coward who leaps at taking any advantage he can get — so long as no risk is involved. He most often sides with Slithe, if only to keep from being the scapegoat when plans fail. He also pilots a Skycutter.

Other Mutants are:

* '''Vultureman''' (Earl Hammond) — This crafty, avian opportunist is the chief inventor and mechanical know-it-all for the Mutants. His skills with both machines and science make him often indispensable, but he’s more often than not blamed when his devices or machines fail to live up to Slithe’s expectations. Much later, he decides to work for his own gains, and often strikes solo deals with Mumm-Ra. He pilots a vulture-styled Flying Machine, and later commands weapons like the Mutank and Thundrainium Cannon. Unlike the other mutants, Vultureman was not introduced in the opening episode of the series.

* '''Ratar-O''' (Bob McFadden) — A General in the Mutant armies, this portly rodent is considered the most cunning and evil of all the Mutants. He comes to Third Earth at the behest of Vultureman to aid them in defeating the ThunderCats. His flagship, the Ratstar, is a powerful war machine, and though it crashes, Ratar-O salvages parts to make a Mutank to continue the fight. He is strong, and wields the Rat’s Eye — a pair of criss-style daggers which have two mystical gems embedded in their hilts — that he can use to fire energy blasts, levitate foes and even fly through the air. Ratar-O resembles Ratilla the Terrible, the former holder of the Sword of Plundarr, but it is unknown if they share a family relation.

====Lunataks====
Hailing from the Moons of Plun-Darr, these vile beings were once feared criminals in ancient times. They dwell in Dark Side, a volcanic region on the far side of Fire-Rock Mountain. They were encased in molten rock by Mumm-Ra when they attempted to take control of Third Earth. Mumm-Ra later released them on the condition that they work for him to battle the ThunderCats. However, the Lunataks form their own 'third column' based in Dark Side, building a massive, floating fortress called Sky Tomb from which they strike against all of Third Earth. Their numbers consist of:

* '''Luna''' (Lynne Lipton) — A diminutive sorceress, now the leader and chief strategist of the Lunataks. Because of her small form, she is carried around and cared for by Amuk, her servant. Cruel and caustic, Luna at one time recovered the magical belt once worn by her grandmother, Queen Luna, and used its power to grow tall and mobile again, but reverted in size when the belt was later destroyed.

* '''Amuk''' (Earl Hammond) — Luna’s loyal servant and bodyguard, also her chief mode of transportation. A hulking, dog-like brute having limited capacity for vocalization, Amuk is strong and fast but also displays enough cunning to exact revenge against Luna for abandoning him when she recovers Queen Luna’s magical belt.

* '''Tug Mug''' (Bob McFadden) — A Lunatak from one of Plun-Darr’s moons with strong gravity, Tug Mug proves extremely powerful in the lesser gravity of Third Earth. He can use his tripod ‘legs’ to leap great distances, and his strength is so impressive that he once snapped the blade of the Sword of Omens with his bare hands (later repaired by the ThunderCat blacksmith, Bengali). Combative by nature, Tug Mug can use a "gravity carbine" in battle whose beams can make a person or object light as air or as heavy as stone.

* '''Chilla''' (Gerrianne Rapahel) — This female Lunatak from the ice moon of Plun-Darr has command over cold and heat by the power of her expelled breath, blowing to freeze the air around a target in seconds to immobilize them, or heating it to incite flames to burn them. She has little regard for life and sometimes uses her powers willfully out of spite. Out of all the Lunataks, Chilla is the most humanoid.

* '''Red-Eye''' (Earle Hyman) — A Lunatak from the dark moon of Plun-Darr, this hulking brute has enhanced vision capabilities, allowing him to see things in infra-red and even to detect the ThunderCat Tygra when invisible. A loyal follower of Luna, Red-Eye uses a spinning discus (stored in his armored chestplate) to battle his foes. He is often the engineer and pilot of Sky Tomb.

* '''Alluro''' (Doug Preis) — A [[gangrel]]-creature with a slimey personality, Alluro is a master of mind-games and psychological warfare. He’s not much of a fighter, but he uses a powerful weapon called a Psyche-Club to immobilize his foes. The crystal ball launched from his club focuses his mental powers onto a foe, allowing him to manipulate their minds with illusions or to command them to do his bidding.

====Hammerhand and the Berserkers====
This odd band of pirates first appeared pillaging the northern shores of the Unicorn Forest (in the episode ''The Terror of Hammerhand''). They have a habit of repeating certain words or phrases three times. The original Berserkers were apparently all killed when their ship was sank, but Hammerhand was later mystically resurrected by Mumm-Ra, who summoned up his spirit to animate a clone of Panthro which he had created. When the plan failed, Hammerhand's spirit broke Mumm-Ra's control, and the clone body shifted into Hammerhand's original form before departing. When he next appeared, in the Season 2 mini-series, "ThunderCats-Ho!", Hammerhand had reformed the Berserkers with new members endowed with cybernetic bodies and powers like his own. The Berserkers are:

* '''Hammerhand''' (Earl Hammond) — The leader, who has a cybernetic arm that can punch and pound with great force.

* '''Topspinner''' (Bob McFadden) — A warrior who can spin at high speeds to deflect missile objects or smash opponents. His spinning can also make him dizzy.

* '''Ram Bam''' (Peter Newman) — Rolling by the wheel embedded in his chest, this fighter can launch himself along the ground at high speeds to smash through objects like a battering ram. He also has rollers on his feet to help him move fast.

* '''Cruncher''' (Earle Hyman) — A hulking pirate whose sheer strength can crush buildings and boulders with ease.

====Other villains====

* '''Grune the Destroyer''' (Bob McFadden) — An anthropomorphized [[Saber-toothed cat|saber-toothed tiger]] in appearance, this former ThunderCat noble was once a good friend to Jaga the Wise on Thundera. His lust for power and greed turned him renegade against his fellow ThunderCats, forcing Jaga to fight him in a titanic battle that lasted for days. Grune was defeated by Jaga, then banished and sent into exile in space. Eventually his spacecraft landed on Third Earth and he began terrorizing its natives until, many years later, he was defeated (by unknown means) and sealed away inside a tomb (which was covered with a stone slab and a tree to prevent others from opening it). A tablet held the seal in place, until centuries later, a pair of Bolkens accidentally released his spirit. Once freed, the ghost of Grune seeks out the ThunderCats, attacking them to draw out Jaga, whose spirit ultimately defeats him using both Lion-O’s strength and the Eye of Thundera. However, Grune would return later when summoned by Mumm-Ra to stop Jaga’s spirit from obtaining the Star of Thundera (which was needed to help free three more Thunderians — Pumyra, Bengali and Lynx-O — from the Mutant prisons at Fire-Rock Mountain).

When the ThunderCats return to New Thundera, Grune is resurrected by Mumm-Ra. Grune is initially successful against Lion-O, breaking the Sword of Omens and chaining Lion-O and Cheetara up on the Churning Rocks. However, Snarf gathers the pieces of the sword and while attempting to take them to Bengali for repair, he is captured by Char, who repairs the sword, wanting to keep it for himself. Sensing the sword is repaired, Lion-O calls for it and uses it to free himself and Cheetara. Grune attempts to defeat Lion-O, but fails and is banished back to Third Earth.

* '''Safari Joe''' (Larry Kenney) — An [[intergalactic]] [[big-game hunter]] (with an Australian accent) who ventures to Third Earth to hunt the ThunderCats. He uses a rifle that has a variable arsenal of weapons (capture claws, fire rounds, missiles, etc.), and has a robot assistant named Mule (whose head is shaped like a train) who helps to assemble traps, using a computerized analyzer to provide information on his prey. Safari Joe manages to capture all the ThunderCats and imprison them in cages made of thundranium, a substance that weakens ThunderCats. Safari Joe fails to capture Lion-O thanks to Snarf supplying a distraction. When Safari Joe finds himself out of ammunition, he is revealed to be nothing more than a coward. Safari Joe was made to promise that he would never hunt again, and Mule was reprogrammed to ensure he kept his word.

* '''The Demolisher''' (Peter Newman) — Only appearing in a single episode, Demolisher is one of the more powerful foes to challenge the ThunderCats. Similar to Safari Joe, his motives are not power but glory. A dog-like being, the Demolisher travels from planet to planet seeking a worthy opponent to battle with his arsenal of high-tech weapons. The Demolisher travels with his stumpy, drummer companion "Dirge" who serves the role of a cheerleader/herald and is somewhat of a 'Snarf' to Demolisher's 'Lion-o.' Demolisher originally lands on Third Earth to battle Mumm-ra. Mumm-ra is defeated by the galactic warrior but convinces him that Lion-o is a far worthier conquest. Demolishers seeks out and engages Lion-o in battle but is eventually overcome. Defeated, Demolisher flees Third Earth in shame, Lion-o laments that such a strong & courageous warrior must live without a cause to fight for, stating "..I wish he had joined us in our fight to spread the code of Thundera."

* '''Captain Cracker''' (Earl Hammond) — A robotic space pirate who captains a starship named the ''Jolly Roger''. He raids the Great Penal Planet to release a criminal contingent to help him take over the space-ways. He has a robot parrot named Polly.

* '''Captain Shiner''' (Bob McFadden) — A [[monocle]]-wearing, doglike space-faring alien mercenary commanding a starship named ''The Vertus'' and its sizeable crew. He is summoned on more than one occasion to carry out Mumm-Ra's bidding (for a substantial fee).

* '''Mongor''' (Bob McFadden) — A demonic goat-like being believed to be the personification of fear on Third Earth. For three centuries, Mumm-Ra had unsuccessfully tried to locate his tomb and free him, but the Thunderkittens accidentally freed Mongor, allowing him to attack and subdue the other ThunderCats. He feeds from his opponents' fears to grow larger and more powerful. His only weakness is for his foes to not look directly at him, which takes away his power (as Lion-O, Wilykit and Wilykat discover to defeat him).

* '''Driller''' (Bob McFadden) — A metallic humanoid being who has a drill in place of legs. He also has changeable drill bits on his head, which allows him to drill through the sand, rock and dirt in the deep desert. His services are for hire; his chief price is diamonds, which he needs to keep his drill points sharp. He once captured Panthro for Mumm-Ra, and appeared again to drill a tunnel from Acid Lake to the Cat's Lair. Driller wasn't one of the most popular characters in the show, for he only starred in three episodes.

* '''The Shadowmaster''' — A wizard on Thundera who used a cloak of darkness to conjure his magical powers and attempted to take over the planet. He was defeated by both Jaga and Lion-O's father, Claudis, and was then banished to the 'Shadow Realm', but he managed to escape years later, kidnapping Claudis just before Thundera was destroyed. Through a sequence of nightmares, Lion-O eventually learns of his father's imprisonment in the Shadow Realm and is able to rescue him. The Shadowmaster is the only villain, other than Mumm-ra, known to be allied with the Ancient Spirits of Evil. Shadowmaster has arguably come closer to defeating the ThunderCats than anyone else. In his one-time assault on the ThunderCats, Shadowmaster would have succeeded had Mumm-ra not interfered for fear that Shadowmaster would replace him as the chief servant to the Ancient Spirits of Evil.

* '''Zaxx'''-A four-armed avian sorcerer who unsuccessfully fought Mumm-Ra for control of Third Earth in the distant past. Zaxx was left without form as his essence was trapped within a magical medallion; any creature later wearing the medallion acquires his fantastic power but is progressively transformed to permanently become Zaxx, who requires a host body for retribution against his ancient foe.

* '''The Mad Bubbler'''- A reptilian phantom that inhabits the Hook Mountain thundrylium mines. Bears an uncanny resemblance to the bubble dragons from [[Bubble Bobble]].

==Cast==

Despite its large cast of characters, ''ThunderCats'' featured a rather small circle of voice actors, with only six actors providing voices for the entire first season. Every actor provided multiple voices, although the incredibly distinctive baritone of Earle Hyman (Panthro) left the actor providing only very occasional guest voices in comparison with his fellow performers. In particular, as the first season's only female actor, Lynne Lipton (Cheetara and Wilykit) provided voices for every single female character that appeared in the season. Above all others, however, actor Bob McFadden would most regularly provide the voices of guest characters, with his two diametrically-opposed main roles - the timid, high-pitched Snarf and the rumbling, sibiliant Slithe - showcasing the variation that ensured he was up to the job.

Despite introducing a large number of new regular characters, the show's second season brought in only two new actors. Gerrianne Raphael provided the voice of Pumyra, and was able to provide Lynne Lipton with some relief by added new female voices. Conversely, actor Doug Preis is regularly credited on the Internet as the voice of Lynx-O, but this is incorrect - it does not take a particularly alert ear to recognise Bob McFadden providing Lynx-O's vocals. Preis, it would appear, is the voice of Lunatac Alluro, the only member of the cast who does not appear to be voiced by any of the first season cast members.

{| class="wikitable" width=70%
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
|width=10% align="center" | '''Voice actor'''
|width=25% align="center" | '''Regular characters'''
|-
| [[Earl Hammond]] || Mumm-Ra, Jaga, Vultureman, Amok
|-
| [[Earle Hyman]] || Panthro, Red-Eye
|-
| [[Larry Kenney]] || Lion-O, Jackalman
|-
| [[Lynne Lipton]] || Cheetara, WilyKit, Luna
|-
| [[Bob McFadden]] || Snarf, Slithe, Lynx-O, Tug-Mug, Snarfer,
|-
| [[Peter Newman (actor)|Peter Newman]] || Tygra, WilyKat, Ben-Gali, Monkian
|-
| [[Doug Preis]] || Alluro
|-
| [[Gerrianne Raphael]] || Pumyra, Chilla, Jaguara
|}

==Action figures and other merchandise==
[[LJN]] produced the ThunderCats [[action figures]] from 1985–1987. The ThunderCats line was based on the animated series which was actually created in 1982. Due to difficulties, it wouldn't air until 1985. Each figure had an action feature of some sort, and the line also included a unique "laser" light-up feature that interacted between the Cats Lair playset, some figures, and some accessories. Lion-O's head and Mumm-Ra's eyes would illuminate when a special key ring that came with the figure was pressed into a slot in their backs. PVC companions were packaged with some figures in 1986, including WilyKat with Tygra, WilyKit with Cheetara, Snarf with Lion-O, and Ma-Mutt with Mumm-Ra. The PVC companion figures were also produced as full size articulated figures.

LJN did produce a few variant figures including the young Tygra version and the silver rat-eye daggers for Rataro. There are also a few slight color variations of Lion-O, such as red and orange-haired versions. The third series of figures from 1987 are harder to find along with the Tongue-A-Saurus and Astral Moat Monster. Driller and Stinger are the toughest figures to track down; Stinger's wings are very fragile, making it next to impossible to find a loose, complete figure.

An unproduced final series of figures would have included The Mad Bubbler, Redeye of the Lunatacs, Cannon-Blaster, and Quick-Jaws from the Bezerkers as well as the Feliner, Thunderstrike, and Luna Tacker. The Mad Bubbler is rumored to have been produced, but this has yet to be proven. Photos of these were featured in the 1987 LJN catalog.

In 1987, [[Elite Systems]] released the game ''[[ThunderCats:The Lost Eye of Thundera]]'', for [[Commodore 64|Commodore64/128]] and [[Sinclair ZX Spectrum]] personal computer systems. Many years later, [[Cartoon Network]]'s official website featured a game that allowed visitors to play as Lion-O and rescue fellow ThunderCats while venturing into Mumm-Ra's tomb.

Other ThunderCats merchandise of the 1980s included, among other items, a [[board game]], [[TV tray]], tin [[lunchbox]], and apparel. A [[retro]] spurt occurred in the 2000s which saw a handful of new ThunderCats items like T-shirts and [[sweatband]]s make their way to shelves.

There is currently an online petition to get Warner Bros. to release an official soundtrack containing the music from the series, which was written and performed by Bernard Hoffer. The petition can be found at http://www.thundercatsfans.org/tcfans/petition/index.php

==Comic books==
{{main|ThunderCats (comics)}}

In 1985, a ''[[ThunderCats (comics)|ThunderCats]]'' series was published by [[Marvel Comics]] through its Star imprint. It ended with issue #24 in 1988. The following year, a new series was published by [[Marvel UK]]. The series consisted of 129 issues and was published for three years.

In 2002, [[DC Comics]], owned by [[Warner Bros.]] (who acquired the rights for the franchise due to its 1989 purchase of Lorimar-Telepictures), published a ''ThunderCats'' sourcebook through its Wildstorm imprint. In 2003, a wave of [[limited series|mini-series]] and [[one-shot (comics)|one-shots]] were published.

The original mini-series, ''Reclaiming Thundera'' (written by [[Ford Gilmore]] with various artists contributing), published in 2003, formed a series of loosely connected "episodes" that saw Lion-0 continue his struggle against Mumm-Ra and The Mutants, a major plot point was the slow corruption of WilyKat by Mumm-Ra, which would play a major role in later storylines.

After another fateful battle with Grune, Lion-O entered the Book of Omens to begin his training and claim his rightful place as Lord of the ThunderCats, but Mumm-Ra uses a powerful spell to keep Lion-O trapped in the book for several years in real time, not "Book" time, and seizes control of Thundera afterwards.

In the follow-up mini-series ''The Return'' (written by Gilmore, and illustrated by Benes, Pimental, and Lea), Lion-O returned to Thundera to find it enslaved to Mumm-Ra. Several of the ThunderCats are scattered, held prisoner, or enslaved to his enemies. This storyline was distinctly more mature than many episodes of the series, with much harsher language such as "Bastard" used by Mumm-Ra. Cheetara is depicted as holding a grudge against Lion-O for "abandoning" his friends for such a long time, and WilyKat's corruption in the earlier mini-series takes greater form. Realizing he has betrayed his friends, the older Cub flees when the mini-series concludes, Lion-O and the ThunderCats emerge triumphant over Mumm-Ra once again.

By the third mini-series, ''The Dogs of War'', (written by [[John Lyman]], illustrated by Vriens, Heling and Campus of [[Udon Studios]]) many years have passed and Thundera has prospered. Lion-O is now an aged and experianced commander of his countrymen. An invasion of Dogstar forces ultimately lead Lion-O to ally with Mumm-Ra himself (when Ma-Mutt even turns against him). Along the way, WilyKit finds true love and WilyKat redeems himself. The storyline concludes with Mumm-Ra offering Lion-O an elixir of youth so that they may continue their struggle against one another.

The remaining mini-series were all prequels, set during the events of the animated series. These were ''"Hammerhand's Revenge"'' (written by [[Fiona Avery]], illustrayed by [[D'Anda]], and ''Enemy's Pride'', (written by Layman and illustrated by Virens, Hellig and Campus), which was published in 2004.

Several one-shots were also published. Two crossovers with [[Battle of the Planets (comics)|Battle of the Planets]], one crossover with [[Superman]], and three "Origins" issues that established more of the backstories. These were published in 2003 and 2004.

==Movies==
In 1986, [http://www.retrojunk.com/details_movies/2325-thundercats-ho--the-movie/ ThunderCats - HO The Movie] was released on VHS in the UK and North America. It was later edited into the five episodes which ultimately led to season 2.

Warner Bros. is in the process of creating a [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] animated film based on ''ThunderCats''. It will be an original story expanding on the events of the first episode. Expected release circa 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117966320.html?categoryid=13&cs=1|title=Warner purrs for ThunderCats|publisher=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|date=5 June 2007|accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref>

==Cultural references==
* ''[[Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story]]'' has [[Larry Kenney]] and [[Lynne Lipton]] reprising their roles as Lion-O and Cheetara in a ThunderCats parody.
* ThunderCats [[action figures]] have appeared in the ''[[Robot Chicken]]'' episodes "[[Toys in the Hood]]," "[[Toy Meets Girl]]," "[[Federated Resources]]."
*In the ''[[Drawn Together]]'' episode "[[The Lemon-AIDS Walk]]," [[Captain Hero]] visits an underground facility where Panthro is seen working out.
*In the ''[[South Park]]'' episode "[[Imaginationland]]," Cheetara and Snarf are present among numerous fictional characters. Snarf (along with the Lollipop King) accompanies [[Butters]] on a journey.
*The [[Relient K]] song "I'm Lion-O" is about ThunderCats.
*In the 2007 movie ''[[Juno (film)|Juno]]'', the title character calls out "ThunderCats are go!" just after her water breaks.
*The song "Touch the Sky" by Kanye West featuring Lupe Fiasco contains the line "I'm tryin' to stop lyin like I'm Mumm-Ra"
*The band [[Mumm-ra]] from [[Bexhill-on-Sea]] take their name directly from the chief villian of Thunder Cats. They have appeared on stage with a replica model.
*In the movie [[Y tu mama tambien]], one of the main actors is reminded by his relatives about [[Thundercats]] toys while memorizing the childhood.

==DVD releases==
[[Warner Home Video]] have released the entire ''ThunderCats'' series in a number of volumes in the following order:
{| class="wikitable"
!DVD Name
!Ep #
!Region 1 release date
!Region 2 release date
!Additional Information
|-
| Season 1, Volume 1
| 33
| [[August 9]] [[2005]]
| [[January 15]] [[2007]]
|
* "Feel the Magic, Hear the Roar: ThunderCats Fans Speak Out": an interview featurette in which Wil Wheaton (of ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'') and other loyal fans give their memories and support to this animation classic
|-
| Season 1, Volume 2
| 32
| [[December 6]] [[2005]]
| [[August 13]] [[2007]]
|
* ThunderCats Ho! The Making of a Pop Culture Phenomenon: Executive Producer Arthur Rankin Jr. Shares Secrets from the Show
|-
| Season 2, Volume 1
| 34
| [[April 18]] [[2006]]
| [[April 14]] [[2008]]
|
* Featurette on the series' composer, Bernie Hoffner
* Music video of the show's theme song performed by [[The Rembrandts]]
|-
| Season 2, Volume 2
| 31
| [[November 28]] [[2006]]
| [[June 2]] [[2008]] <ref>{{cite web|url=http://hmv.com/hmvweb/displayProductDetails.do?ctx=280;-1;-1;-1&sku=801038|title=ThunderCats Season Two Part Two Release Date|publisher=[[HMV]]|date=5 May 2008|accessdate=2008-05-07}}</ref>
|
*Features ThunderCats Ultimate Adventure Challenge on Disc 12
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.thundercatslair.org/ ThunderCatsLair.org] - ''ThunderCats''' Comprehensive website. Includes toys, animation cel gallery, and forums
* [http://360style.net/stylecast/?p=42 360 Stylecast] : From Gears of War to ThunderCats the Movie Exclusive Director Interview
* [http://www2.warnerbros.com/warnervideo/classiccartoons/thundercats.html ''ThunderCats'' DVD official web site]
* [http://www2.warnerbros.com/warnervideo/classiccartoons/thundercats2/index.html ''ThunderCats'' DVD official web site for Volume 2]
* [http://www.insomniacmania.com/interview_default.php?id=15 Interview with Larry Kenney II] - Text interview by Insomnia Mania.com.
* [http://www.thundercatsfans.org/ Return to Thundera] - ''ThunderCats'' fansite with scans of scripts, comics, and other rare printed material, cast interviews, fan works, forum, screen shots, episode guide. 
* [http://tcats.shipunderground.com/ Mumm-Ra's Pyramid] - One of the original ThunderCats fansites. Episode guide, fan fiction, character bios.
* [http://thundercats-the-movie.net ThunderCats The Movie] - All the news and gossip surrounding the upcoming ThunderCats movie which is to be released in 2010.
* [http://www.purrsiathunder.net/thunderpedia/ Thunderpedia wiki]
* [http://www.thundercatsfans.org/tcfans/petition/index.php/ ThunderCats Soundtrack Petition] - An online petition created to get Warner Bros. to release a soundtrack of music from the 80's cartoon series.

[[Category:Toys of the 1980s]]
[[Category:1980s American animated television series]]
[[Category:1985 television series debuts]]
[[Category:1994 television series endings]]
[[Category:First-run syndicated television programs in the United States]]
[[Category:Superhero television programs]]
[[Category:Television programs featuring anthropomorphic characters]]
[[Category:Science fiction television series]]
[[Category:Fantasy television series]]
[[Category:Anime-influenced animation]]
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[[Category:Fictional cats]]

[[da:ThunderCats]]
[[de:ThunderCats]]
[[es:Thundercats]]
[[fr:Cosmocats]]
[[he:חתולי הרעם]]
[[it:Thundercats]]
[[pt:ThunderCats]]
[[sv:Thundercats]]
[[tr:ThunderCats]]
[[zh:霹靂貓]]

Heredia, Costa Rica

2008-06-23T21:58:41Z

163.178.17.124: Don't know how many, but sure it's NOT 100 km from SJ

{{Infobox Settlement


|official_name = Heredia
|other_name =
|native_name = Cubujuquí
|nickname = The industrial city.
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|motto =

|image_skyline = Heredia, Costa Rica.jpg
|imagesize = 250px
|image_caption = El Fortín monument at the north side of the Parque Central of Heredia.
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|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[Costa Rica]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces of Costa Rica| Province]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Heredia Province| Heredia]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[Heredia Province| Canton]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Heredia Canton| Heredia]]
|subdivision_type3 =
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|government_footnotes =
|government_type =
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = José Manuel Ulate Avendaño (PLN)
|leader_title1 = Municipal Council President
|leader_name1 = Manuel de Jesús Zumbado Araya
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|area_magnitude = 1 E9
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|website = http://www.heredia.go.cr/
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}}

'''Heredia''' is a city located in the [[Heredia province]] of [[Costa Rica]] and is the capital of that province. It is currently undergoing a rapid process of [[industrialization]] and is located 10 kilometers north of the country's capital, [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]].

The city is home to one of the largest colleges in Costa Rica, the [[National University of Costa Rica]], that accepts many international students.

== History ==
Heredia was founded in the [[1570s]] as '''Cubujuquí'''.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} It later changed its name to '''Villavieja''' before adopting its current name in [[1763]].

It is often referred to as the "Ciudad de las Flores," but not because of the city's flowers, as many private tourist companies describe it. At the turn of the 19th century, the wealthy "Flores" family dominated political and social life in the city. Their home is now the city's municipal museum, located directly north of the central church.
{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
For a brief period in the [[1830s]], Heredia served as the [[capital]] of Costa Rica. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}

== Climate ==
Warm year-round, the temperatures are tempered by the amount of cloud cover that affects the area. The rains are spread throughout the year, but the rainiest period is May-October.

 {{Infobox Weather
|metric_first= Yes
|single_line= Yes
|location = Heredia
|Jan_Hi_°C = 24.3
|Feb_Hi_°C = 25.1
|Mar_Hi_°C = 26.4
|Apr_Hi_°C = 26.7
|May_Hi_°C = 25.8
|Jun_Hi_°C = 25.1
|Jul_Hi_°C = 24.8
|Aug_Hi_°C = 24.8
|Sep_Hi_°C = 24.9
|Oct_Hi_°C = 24.7
|Nov_Hi_°C = 24.4
|Dec_Hi_°C = 24

|Jan_Lo_°C = 14.6
|Feb_Lo_°C = 14.6
|Mar_Lo_°C = 14.6
|Apr_Lo_°C = 15
|May_Lo_°C = 15.7
|Jun_Lo_°C = 15.5
|Jul_Lo_°C = 15.7
|Aug_Lo_°C = 15.4
|Sep_Lo_°C = 15
|Oct_Lo_°C = 15.1
|Nov_Lo_°C = 15.5
|Dec_Lo_°C = 15.4

|Jan_Precip_mm = 20.4
|Feb_Precip_mm = 21.7
|Mar_Precip_mm = 47.8
|Apr_Precip_mm = 110.1
|May_Precip_mm = 333.1
|Jun_Precip_mm = 327.8
|Jul_Precip_mm = 199.5
|Aug_Precip_mm = 241.6
|Sep_Precip_mm = 410.8
|Oct_Precip_mm = 424.6
|Nov_Precip_mm = 182.4
|Dec_Precip_mm = 54.5
|source = National Meteorologic Institute of Costa Rica <ref name="IMN">{{cite web
| url = http://www.imn.ac.cr/IMN/MainAdmin.aspx?__EVENTTARGET=ClimaCiudad&CIUDAD=9 | title = Instituto Metereológico Nacional | accessmonthday = November 4| accessyear = 2007
| publisher = | language = Spanish}}</ref>
|accessdate = 11.04.2007
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Cities, towns and villages in Costa Rica]]

[[bg:Ередия (Коста Рика)]]
[[de:Heredia]]
[[es:Heredia (Costa Rica)]]
[[pl:Heredia (miasto)]]
[[pt:Heredia (Costa Rica)]]
[[tr:Heredia]]

Talk:October 5

2008-06-23T14:55:37Z

163.178.17.124:

{{DayTalkMessage}} --[[User:Maveric149|mav]] 00:27, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

{{SelectedAnniversary|October_5}}
----

== Vanity entry? ==

Who is 'Paige "Pirate" Davis, skater, sexy'? No article on Wikipedia (not even a stub) and nothing on Google. Laura Kahili does show up on Google, but is arguably not significant enough for Wikipedia. [[User:Pseudomonas|Pseudomonas]] 14:08, 2 October 2005 (UTC)

== Most Common Birthday in the US ==

According to the [[Birthday#Trivia|Birthday]] article, October 5 is the most common birthday in the United States. Might this be worth mentioning in the October 5 article? If so, where? [[User:Brent Butler|Brent]] 15:41, 4 October 2006 (UTC)

== I suggest putting death date immediately after name ==
In Wikipedia 'On this day' pages, in the birthdays section, the death date is always put at the end of the entry line, but at times this can cause confusion. In cases such as "1717 Marie-Anne de Mailly-Nesle duchess de ChâteaurouxFrench mistress of King Louis XV of France (d. 1744)" it looks like Louis died in 1744, not Marie-Anne. To obviate this ambiguity, I suggest that in all entries the death year appear immediately after the person's name, eg "1717 Marie-Anne de Mailly-Nesle duchess de Châteauroux (d. 1744), French mistress of King Louis XV of France". It's simply a matter of correct grammar. [[User:Alpheus|Alpheus]] 03:55, 5 October 2006 (UTC)

:The [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Days of the year|project]] page would probably be the best place to ask about the overall formatting of these pages. -- [[User:Jim Douglas|Jim Douglas]] [[User talk:Jim Douglas|(talk)]] [[Special:Contributions/Jim Douglas|(contribs)]] 04:02, 5 October 2006 (UTC)

== Dali Lama ==

According to other sites, including the one for the History Channel, the Dali Lama recieved the Nobel Peace Prize on October 5th 1989, why hasn't anyone added this?

== Halloween? ==
Can anyone tell me why this article lists October 5th as [[Halloween]]? Is it the original date? Halloween's entry doesn't mention anything.

List of holidays by country

2008-06-05T21:08:43Z

163.178.17.124: /* Costa Rica */ That's the more politically correct name in CR for it

This is the '''list of holidays by country'''. Most [[holiday]]s are mentioned although some are not [[public holiday]]s.

{{incomplete list}}

==[[Albania]]==
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[March 7]] - [[Mother's Day]] and Teacher's Day
*[[March 22]] Sultan Nouruz Remembrance
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[October 19]] - [[Mother Teresa]] Day
*[[November 28]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
*[[December 28]] - [[Massacre of the Innocents|Innocents Day]]

==[[Argentina]]==
{{Main|Public holidays in Argentina}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[May 25]] - Anniversary of the [[May Revolution]]
*[[June 20]] - [[Flag Day]]
*[[July 9]] - Anniversary of the [[Argentine Declaration of Independence]]
*[[September 11]] - [[Teacher's Day]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
*[[December 28]] - [[Massacre of the Innocents|Innocents Day]]

==[[Australia]]==
{{Main|Australian public holidays}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[January 26]] - [[Australia Day]]
*[[Good Friday]], [[Holy Saturday]] and [[Easter Monday]] - variable dates
*Second Monday in March - [[Adelaide Cup]] Day ([[South Australia]] only) Before 2006 held in May
*[[April 25]] - [[ANZAC Day]]
*Second Monday in June - [[Queen's Birthday]] (except [[Western Australia]])
*First Tuesday in November - [[Melbourne Cup Day]] (Metropolitan [[Melbourne]] and [[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200704/s1891417.htm|title=ACT workers to get Melbourne Cup day off}}</ref> only, although observed by many businesses across the country); other regions may have a public holiday on the day of a horse race of local significance.
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
*[[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]] (except [[South Australia]])
*[[December 26]] - [[Proclamation Day]] ([[South Australia]] only)
*[[Labour Day]] (localised holiday, on a different day in each region)
*[[Show Day]] (localised holiday, on a different day in each region)

==[[Austria]]==
*[[1 January]] - [[New Yeas Day]]
*[[6 January]] - [[Epiphany (Christian)|Epiphany]]
*[[Easter Monday]]
*[[1 May]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[Ascension Day]] - * The fortieth day after Easter Sunday.
*[[Whit Sunday]] - * (Pfingsten) [[Pentecost]] Descent of the Holy Ghost upon the Apostles,fifty days after the Resurrection of Christ.
*[[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]] - * First Holy Eucharist [[Last supper]]. Thursday after Trinity Sunday.
*[[15 August]] - Assumption
*[[26 October]] - Austrian National Day
*[[1 November]] - [[All Saints' Day]]
*[[8 December]] - [[Immaculate Conception]]
*[[25 December]] - [[Christmas]]
*[[26 December]] - [[St. Stephen's Day]]
Movable Holidays (*)

==[[Bahamas, The]]==
*[[1 January]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[6 April]] - [[Good Friday]]
*[[9 April]] - [[Easter Monday]]
*[[7 May]] - [[Whit Monday]]
*[[9 May]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[10 July]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[6 August]] - [[Emancipation Day]]
*[[12 October]] - [[Discovery Day / National Heroes Day]]
*[[25 December]] - [[Christmas Day]]
*[[26 December]] - [[Boxing Day]]

==[[Barbados]]==
*[[1 January]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[21 January]]- [[Errol Barrow Day]]
*[[Good Friday]]
*[[Easter Monday]]
*[[28 April]]-[[National Heroes'Day]]
*[[1st Monday of May]]-[[Labour Day]]
*[[Whit Monday]]
*[[1st Monday in August]]-[[Kadooment Day]]
*[[1 August]]-[[Emancipation Day]]
*[[30 November]]-[[Independence Day]]
*[[25 December]]-[[Christmas Day]]
*[[26,27 December]]-[[Boxing Day]]

==[[Bangladesh]]==
{{Main|Public holidays in Bangladesh}}
*[[21 February]] -International Mother Language Day
*[[26 March]] - Independence Day
*[[14 April]] - Bengli New Year's Day
*[[1 May]] - May day
*[[7 November]] - National Solidarity Day
*[[16 December]] - Victory Day
*[[20-22 December]]-Eid-ul-Azha
*[[25 December]] - Christmas Day

==[[Belgium]]==
{{Main|Public holidays in Belgium}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[Good Friday]], [[Easter Sunday]] and [[Easter Monday]] - variable dates
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[Ascension day]] - (variable date)
*[[Whit Sunday]] or [[Pentecost]] - (variable date)
*[[Whit Monday]] or [[Pentecost Monday]] - (variable date)
*[[July 11]] - [[Flemish Community Holiday]] only held in [[Flanders]] - not a public holiday
*[[July 21]] - [[National Day|National holiday]]
*[[August 15]] - [[Assumption of Mary]]
*[[September 27]] - [[French Community Holiday]] only held in [[Wallonia]] - not a public holiday
*[[November 1]] - [[All Saints]]
*[[November 2]] - [[All Souls Day]] - not a public holiday, most companies are closed
*[[November 11]] - [[Armistice Day]]
*[[November 15]] - [[Dynasty Day]] & [[Day of the German-speaking Community of Belgium|Day of German-speaking Community]] only held in areas of the [[German-speaking Community of Belgium]].

==[[Bermuda]]==
{{Main|Holidays in Bermuda}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*variable dates ([[April 6]], [[2007]]) - [[Good Friday]]
*[[May 24]] - [[Bermuda Day]]
*[[June 11]] - [[Queen's Birthday]]
*Thursday before the first Monday in August ([[August 2]], [[2007]]) - [[Emancipation Day]] (first Day of [[Sports and recreation in Bermuda|Cup Match]])
*Friday before the first Monday in August ([[August 3]], [[2007]]) - Somer's Day (Second day of [[Sports and recreation in Bermuda|Cup Match]])
*First Monday in September ([[September 3]], [[2007]]) - [[Labor Day (United States)|Labour Day]]
*[[November 11]] - [[Remembrance Day]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
*[[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]

==[[Bhutan]]==
*(lunar) - Offerings Day
*(lunar) - [[Losay]] (Lunar New Year)
*[[May 2]] - The [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck|King]]'s Birthday
*(lunar) - Shabdrung Kuchoe (death anniversary of the [[Shabdrung]])
*(lunar) - [[Jigme Dorji Wangchuck|Third King]]'s Birthday
*[[June 2]] - Coronation Day
*(lunar) - Buddha [[Parinirvana]]
*(lunar) - [[Buddha's First Sermon]]
*(lunar) - [[Jigme Dorji Wangchuck|Third King]]'s Death
*(lunar) - [[Guru Rinpoche]]'s Birthday
*(lunar) - [[Blessed Rainy Day]]
*(lunar) - Dashaim
*(lunar) - Buddha Descension Day
*[[December 17]] - National Day
*[[December 21]] - [[Winter Solstice]]

==[[Brazil]]==
{{Main|Public holidays in Brazil}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*Variable dates - [[Carnival]]
*Variable dates - [[Good Friday]]
*Variable dates - [[Easter]]
*[[April 21]] - [[Tiradentes]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
*Variable dates - [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]]
*[[September 7]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[October 12]] - [[Our Lady Aparecida]] (Patron saint of Brazil), also celebrated as [[Children's Day]]
*[[November 2]] - [[All Souls Day|Finados]]
*[[November 15]] - [[Proclamation of the Republic]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]

'''2010 variable holidays:'''
*February 15-17 - Carnival
*[[April 2]] - Paixão de Cristo
*[[April 4]] - Easter
*[[June 3]] - Corpus Christi

'''2009 variable holidays:'''
*February 23-25 - Carnival
*[[April 10]] - Paixão de Cristo
*[[April 12]] - Easter
*[[June 11]] - Corpus Christi

'''2008 variable holidays:'''
*February 4-6 - Carnival
*[[March 21]] - Paixão de Cristo
*[[March 23]] - Easter
*[[May 22]] - [[Corpus Christi]]

==[[British Virgin Islands]]==
{{Main|Public holidays in the British Virgin Islands}
*[[1 January]] - New Year's Day
*[[5 March]] - Lavity Stoutt's birthday
*[[12 March]] - Commonwealth day
*Good Friday - Friday before Easter (calculated according to Western Christian calendar)
*Easter Monday
*Whit Monday
*[[1 July]] - Territory Day
*1st Monday in August - Festival Monday
*Tuesday after 1st Monday in August - Festival Tuesday
*Wednesday after 1st Monday in August - Festival Wednesday
*[[21 October]] - Saint Ursula's day
*[[25 December]] - Christmas Day
*[[26 December]] - Boxing Day

==[[Bulgaria]]==
{{Main|Public holidays in Bulgaria}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[March 3]] - [[Liberation of Bulgaria]]
*[[Easter Monday]] - moveable
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[May 6]] - [[Saint George|St. George's Day]] and [[Army Day]]
*[[May 24]] - [[Education and Culture Day]] and [[Day of the Slavic Heritage]]
*[[September 6]] - Day of the Union of Eastern Rumelia with the Bulgarian Principality
*[[September 22]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[December 24]] - [[Christmas Eve]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
*[[December 26]] - [[Second Day of Christmas]]

== [[Canada]] ==
{{Main|Public holidays in Canada}}
* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[February 18]] - [[Family Day Ontario]]
* [[Good Friday]]
* [[Easter Monday]] - Schools, Banks and Government
* First Monday on or before [[May 24]] - [[Victoria Day]]
* [[July 1]] - [[Canada Day]]
* First Monday in September - [[Labour Day]]
* Second Monday in October - [[Thanksgiving Day]]
* [[November 11]] - [[Remembrance Day]]
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
* [[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]

==[[Chile]]==
{{Main|Holidays in Chile}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*March/April - [[Good Friday]]
*March/April - [[Easter]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[May 21]] - [[Navy Day]]
*June - [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]]
*[[June 27]] (29) - [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul]]
*[[August 15]] - [[Assumption of Mary]]
*[[September 18]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[October 12]] (10) - [[Columbus Day]]
*[[November 1]] - [[All Saints]]
*[[December 8]] - [[Immaculate Conception]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]

==[[China]]==
'''Traditional holidays:'''
*Lunar Calendar Month 1 Day 1 - [[Chinese Lunar New Year]]
*Lunar Calendar Month 1 Day 15 - [[Lantern Festival]]
*[[April 4]]/[[April 5]] - [[Qing Ming Jie]]
*Lunar Calendar Month 5 Day 5 - [[Dragon Boat]]
*Lunar Calendar Month 7 Day 7 - [[Qi Xi]]
*Lunar Calendar Month 7 Day 15 - [[Ghost Festival]]
*Lunar Calendar Month 8 Day 15 - [[Mid-Autumn Festival]]
*Lunar Calendar Month 9 Day 9 - [[Double Ninth Chong Yang Festival]]

'''[[Holidays in the People's Republic of China]]:'''
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[January 2]] - [[New Year's Day|New Year's Day Holiday]]
*[[February 2]] - [[Chinese New Year]]
*[[May 1]]-[[May 3]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[July 1]] - [[Communist Party of China|CPC]] Founding Day
*[[August 1]] - [[Army Day]]
*[[October 1]]-[[October 3]] - [[National Day]]

See also:
*[[Chinese calendar]]
*[[Public holidays in Hong Kong]]
*[[Public holidays in Macau]]

==[[Colombia]]==
A more reliable, detailed, and up-to-date list of official non-working holidays, in Spanish, is to be found in Spanish-language Wikipedia [http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiestas_de_Colombia Fiestas de Colombia].

*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[January 8]] - [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]]
*[[March 19]] - [[Saint Joseph's Day]]
*[[Holy Thursday]], and [[Good Friday]] - variable dates
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[May 21]] - [[Ascension of Jesus | Ascension Day]]
*[[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi Day]] - variable dates (Thursday after [[Trinity Sunday]])
**22 May 2008, 11 June 2009, 3 June 2010; 23 June 2011, 7 June 2012, 30 May 2013, 19 June 2014, 4 June 2015, 26 May 2016, 15 June 2017, 31 May 2018, 20 June 2019, 11 June 2020, 3 June 2021, 16 June 2022
*[[Sacred Heart]] Day - variable dates (19 days after [[Pentecost]])
*[[July 2]] - [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul]]
*[[July 20]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[August 7]] - [[Battle of Boyaca]]'s Day
*[[August 15]] - [[Assumption Day]]
*[[October 12]] - [[Columbus Day]]
*[[November 5]] - [[All Saint's Day]]
*[[December 8]] - [[Immaculate Conception]] Day
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]

==[[Costa Rica]]==
{{Main|Holidays in Costa Rica}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[April 11]] - [[Battle of Rivas]] Day
*[[Holy Thursday]], and [[Good Friday]] - variable dates
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[July 25]] - [[Guanacaste Day]]
*[[August 2]] - [[Virgen de los Angeles]] Day
*[[August 15]] - [[Mothers Day]]
*[[September 15]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[October 12]] - [[Columbus Day|Meeting of Cultures Day]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]

==[[Croatia]] (Hrvatska)==
{{Main|Holidays in Croatia}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]] - Nova Godina
*[[January 6]] - [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]] - Bogojavljenje
*variable date - [[Easter]] Sunday and Monday - Uskrs i Uskrsni ponedjeljak
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]] - Međunarodni praznik rada
*60 days post Easter - [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]] - Tijelovo
*[[June 22]] - [[Anti-fascist struggle day]] - Dan antifašističke borbe
*[[June 25]] - [[Statehood Day %28Croatia%29]] - Dan državnosti
*[[August 5]] - [[Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day]] - Dan pobjede i domovinske zahvalnosti
*[[August 15]] - [[Assumption of Mary]] - Velika Gospa
*[[October 8]] - [[Independence Day]] - Dan nezavisnosti
*[[November 1]] - [[All Saint's Day]] - Dan svih svetih
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas]] - Božić
*[[December 26]] - [[Saint Stephen]] - Sveti Stjepan

==[[Cuba]]==
{{Main|Public holidays in Cuba}}

==[[Curaçao]]==
==[[Cyprus]]==
{{Main|Holidays in Cyprus}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[Good Friday]], [[Easter Sunday]] and [[Easter Monday]] - variable dates
*[[March 25]] - [[Independence Day|Greek Independence Day]]
*[[April 1]] - Cyprus National Day
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[August 15]] - [[Assumption of Mary]]
*[[October 1]] - Cyprus [[Independence Day]]
*[[October 1]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
*[[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]

==[[Czech Republic]]==
{{Main|Public holidays in the Czech Republic}}

==[[Dominican Republic]]==
{{Main|Holidays in Dominican Republic}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[January 6]] - [[Dia de Reyes]]
*[[January 21]] - Dia de la Altagracia
*[[January 26]] - Duarte Day
*[[February 27]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[March 21]] - [[Viernes Santo]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Labor]] Day and [[Ascension Day]]
*[[May 22]] - [[Corpus Christi]]
*[[August 16]] - [[Dia de la Restauracion]]
*[[September 24]] - [[Dia de las Mercedes]]
*[[November 6]] - [[Constitution Day]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Navidad]]

==[[Denmark]]==
{{Main|Holidays in Denmark}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[March 20]] - [[Maundy Thursday]]
*[[March 21]] - Good Friday
*[[March 24]] - Easter Monday
*[[April 18]] - [[Store Bededag|General Prayer Day]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour]] Day and [[Ascension Day]]
*[[May 12]] - [[Whit Monday]]
*[[June 5]] - [[Constitution Day]]
*[[December 24]] - [[Jul (Denmark)]] ([[Christmas Eve]])
*[[December 25]] - [[Jul (Denmark)]] ([[Christmas Day]])
*[[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]

==[[Egypt]]==
{{Main|Holidays in Egypt}}
*[[January 7]] - [[Coptic Christmas Day]]
*[[April 25]] - [[Day of Sinai Liberation]] (observed in the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]] only)
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[June 18]] - [[Evacuation Day]]
*[[July 23]] - [[Revolution Day]]
*[[August 15]] - [[Nile|Flooding of the Nile]]
*[[October 6]] - [[Armed Forces Day]]
*[[October 24]] - [[Yom Kippur War|Suez Victory Day]]
*[[December 23]] - [[Battle of Magdhaba|Victory Day]]
*[[Eid ul-Adha]] - variable date (celebrated by muslims)
*[[Eid ul-Fitr]] - variable date (celebrated by muslims)
*[[Easter Sunday]] and [[Easter Monday]] - variable date
*[[Islamic calendar|Islamic New Year]] - variable date

In addition, the following holidays are reserved for observance by Copts, though are not national holidays:
*[[September 11]] - [[Coptic New Year's Day]]

==[[European Union]]==
{{Main|Holidays in the European Union}}
The European Union does not have official holiday days. These are under the control of member states

==[[Estonia]]==
{{Main|Public holidays in Estonia}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[February 24]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[April 6]] - [[Good Friday]] - variable date
*[[April 8]] - [[Easter Day]] - variable date
*[[May 1]] - [[Spring Day]]
*[[May 27]] - [[Whitsunday]] - variable date
*[[June 23]] - [[Victory Day]]
*[[June 24]] - [[Midsummer Day]]
*[[August 20]] - [[Day of Restoration of Independence]]
*[[December 24]] - [[Christmas Eve]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]

==[[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]==
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[Easter]]
*[[May 1]] - [[May Day]]
*[[Christmas]]

==[[Fiji]]==

{{Main|Public holidays in Fiji}}

*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]

*[[April 2]] - [[Muhammad|Prophet Muhammad's Birthday]]

*[[April 6]] - [[Good Friday]]

*[[April 7]] - [[Easter Saturday]]

*[[April 9]] - [[Easter Monday]]

*[[May 4]] - [[National Youth Day]]

*[[May 28]] - [[Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna Day]]

*[[June 18]] - [[Queen's Birthday]]

*[[October 8]] - [[Fiji Day]]

*[[November 9]] - [[Diwali]]

*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]

*[[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]

==[[Finland]]==
{{Main|Holidays in Finland}}
<TABLE border=1 align=center cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0>
<CAPTION> </caption>
<tr>
<TH style=background:#efefef;>Date
<TH style=background:#efefef;>English Name
<TH style=background:#efefef;>Local Name<TH style=background:#efefef;>Remarks
<tr><td>[[January 1]]<td>[[New Year|New Year's Day]]
<td>''Uudenvuodenpäivä''<td> 
<tr><td>[[January 6]]<td>[[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]]
<td>''Loppiainen''<td> 
<tr><td>''[[Moveable feast|Moveable]] Friday''<td>[[Good Friday]]
<td>''Pitkäperjantai''<td>The Friday before Easter Sunday
<tr><td>''[[Moveable feast|Moveable]] Sunday''<td>[[Easter Sunday]]
<td>''Pääsiäispäivä''<td> 
<tr><td>''[[Moveable feast|Moveable]] Monday''<td>[[Easter|Easter Monday]]
<td>''2. Pääsiäispäivä''<td>The day after Easter Sunday
<tr><td>[[May 1]]<td>[[May Day]]
<td>''Vappu''<td>See [[Walpurgis Night]]
<tr><td>''[[Moveable feast|Moveable]] Thursday''<td>[[Ascension Day]]<td>''Helatorstai''<td>40 days after Easter
<tr><td>''[[Moveable feast|Moveable]] Sunday''<td>[[Pentecost]]
<td>''Helluntaipäivä''<td>50 days after Easter
<tr><td>Friday between [[June 19]] and [[June 25]]<td>[[Midsummer|Midsummer Eve]]
<td>''Juhannusaatto''<td>Non official - ''however a de facto full holiday''
<tr><td>Saturday between [[June 20]] and [[June 26]]<td>[[Midsummer|Midsummer Day]]
<td>''Juhannuspäivä''<td> 
<tr><td>Saturday between [[October 31]] and [[November 6]]<td>[[All Saints|All Saints' Day]]
<td>''Pyhäinpäivä''<td>Moved from [[November 1]]
<tr><td>[[December 6]]<td>[[Independence Day of Finland|Independence Day]]
<td>''Itsenäisyyspäivä''<td> 
<tr><td>[[December 24]]<td>[[Christmas Eve]]
<td>''Jouluaatto''<td>Non official - ''however a de facto full holiday''
<tr><td>[[December 25]]<td> [[Christmas Day]]
<td>''Joulupäivä''<td> 
<tr><td>[[December 26]]<td>[[Boxing Day]]<td>''2. Joulupäivä'' or ''Tapaninpäivä''<td> 
<tr><td>All Sundays<td> <td> <td>Official holidays - ''names follow the [[Liturgical year]]''
</table>

==[[France]]==
{{Main|Holidays in France}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day|Jour de l'an]]
*April - [[Easter Monday|Lundi de Pâques]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day|Fête du travail]]
*[[May 8]] - [[VE Day|Victoire 1945]]
*May - [[Ascension Day|Ascension]] - 40 days after Easter
*[[July 14]] - [[Bastille Day|"14 juillet"]]
*[[August 15]] - [[Assumption of Mary|Assomption]]
*[[November 1]] - [[All Saints|Toussaint]]
*[[November 11]] - [[Armistice Day|Armistice 1918]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day|Noël]]

==[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]==
{{Main|Holidays in Georgia}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year]]
*[[January 7]] - [[Christmas Day|Eastern Orthodox Christmas Day]]
*[[January 19]] - [[Epiphany (holiday)|Eastern Orthodox Epiphany]]
*[[March 3]] - [[Mother's Day]]
*variable date - [[Easter]]
*[[April 9]] - [[April 9 tragedy|Day of National Unity]]
*[[May 9]] - [[Victory Day|1945 Victory Day]]
*[[May 26]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[August 28]] - [[Assumption of Mary]]
*[[October 14]] - [[Svetitskhovloba]]
*[[November 23]] - [[St George's Day]]

==[[Germany]]==
{{Main|Public holidays in Germany}}

==[[Greece]]==
{{Main|Public holidays in Greece}}
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]] (Local name: Protochronia)
*[[January 6]] - [[Epiphany Day]] (Local name: Ton Foton)
*[[March 25]] - [[Independence Day|Greek Independence Day]] (Local name: Tou Evangelismou)
*[[Clean Monday]] (Local name: Kathara Deftera) - [[movable feast]]
*[[Good Friday]] (Local name: Megali Paraskevi) - [[movable feast]]
*[[Easter Monday]] (Local name: Deftera tou Pascha) - [[movable feast]]
*[[Whit Monday|Holy Spirit Day]] (Local name: Agiou Pnevmatos) - [[movable feast]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]] (Local name: Protomayia)
*[[August 15]] - [[Assumption of Mary]] (Local name: Kimisi tis Theotokou)
*[[October 28]] - [[Okhi Day|Greek National Day]] (Local name: Epetios tou Ohi)
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]] (Local name: Hristougenna)
*[[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]

==[[Gibraltar]]==
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[January 29]] - [[Constitution Day]]
*[[March 10]] - [[Commonwealth Day]]
*[[March 21]] - [[Good Friday]]
*[[March 24]] - [[Easter Monday]]
*[[May 5]] - [[May Day]]
*[[May 26]] - [[Bank Holiday|Spring Bank Holiday]]
*[[June 18]] - [[Queen's Birthday]]
*[[August 25]] -
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
*[[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]

Source: [http://www.gibraltarchamberofcommerce.com/about_gibraltar/public_holidays.php Gibraltar Chamber of Commerce]

== [[Guatemala]] ==
* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* March or April - [[Holy Thursday]], [[Good Friday]], [[Holy Saturday]]
* [[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]], [[May Day]]
* [[June 30]] - Army Day
* [[September 15]] - Independence Day
* [[October 20]] - Revolution Day
* [[November 1]] - [[All Saint's Day]]
* [[December 24]] - [[Christmas Eve]]
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
* [[December 31]] - [[New Year's Eve]]

In addition the local festivities are considered official holidays in the specific municipalities. Most holidays are patron saint's days.
*[[August 15]] - [[Assumption of Mary]] ([[Guatemala City]] only)

Source, Guatemalan Labour Code, Guatemalan Official Holidays.

== [[Haiti]] ==
List of traditionally celebrated Haitian Holidays:

* [[January 1]] - Independence Day
* [[January 2]] - Ancestry Day
* [[January 6]] - Les Rois (the kings)
* [[February 16]] - Carnival (Mardi Gras, lasts a week though only one day is an official holiday.)
* [[April 7]] - Death of [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]]
* [[May 1]]- Labour Day
* [[May 18]] - Flag Day
* [[May 22]] - Sovereignty and Thanksgiving Day*
* [[June 7]] - Corpus Christi
* Early July - Pilgrimage of St. D'Eau*
* [[July 15]] - August Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary
* [[August 15]] - Festival of Norte Dame
* [[October 17]] - October Death of Jean-Jacques Dessalines
* [[November 1]] - November All Saints
* [[November 2]] - November All Souls
* [[November 18]] - Vertieres Day
* [[December 5]] - Discovery of Haiti
* [[December 25]] - Christmas Day

Folk religion holidays are available on the [[Vodou]] page.

==[[Honduras]]==
* [[January 1]] - New Year’s Day
* [[February 3]] - Day of the [[Virgin of Suyapa]]
* March or April - Good Friday, Easter, Easter Monday
* [[April 14]] - Day of the Americas
* [[May 1]] - Labour Day
* [[September 15]] - Independence Day
* [[October 3]] - [[Francisco Morazán|Morazán]] Day
* [[October 12]] - Columbus Day
* [[October 21]] - Armed Forces Day
* [[December 25]] - Christmas Day

==[[Hungary]]==
{{main|Public holidays in Hungary}}.

* [[1 January]] - New Year's Day
* [[15 March]] - 1848 Revolution Day
* Moveable - Easter Monday
* [[1 May]] - Labour Day
* Moveable - Pentecost
* [[20 August]] - St. Istvan Day
* [[23 October]] - 1956 Memorial Day
* [[1 November]] - All Saints Day
* [[25 December]] - Christmas Day
* [[26 December]] - Boxing Day

==[[India]]==
See [[Holidays in India]].

==[[Indonesia]]==
See [[Public holidays in Indonesia]] for a complete list.

* [[Lunar New Year]] - [[Chinese New Year]]
* [[August 17]] - [[Independence Day]]

==[[Iran]]==
See [[holidays in Iran]].

==[[Ireland]]==
See [[public holidays in the Republic of Ireland]].

==[[Israel]]==

See [[Holidays and events in Israel]] for a short list.

See [[Jewish holidays]] for background information.

See [[Jewish holidays 2000-2050]] for the exact dates on the Gregorian calendar.

==[[Italy]]==
See [[Holidays in Italy]] for a complete list.
* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[January 6]] - Epiphany
* (variable) - [[Easter Monday]]
* [[April 25]] - [[Liberation Day]]
* [[May 1]] - [[International Labour Day]]
* [[June 2]] - Anniversary of the Republic
* [[August 15]] - [[Ferragosto]] or [[Assumption of Mary]]
* [[November 1]] - [[All Saints' Day]]
* [[December 8]] - [[Immaculate Conception]]
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
* [[December 26]] - [[Saint Stephen|St. Stephen's Day]]

==[[Jamaica]]==
* [[January 1]] -[[New Year's Day]]
*[[February 21]]-[[Ash Wednesday]]
*[[April 5-10]]-[[Easter]]
*[[May 23]]-[[Labour Day]]
*[[August 1]]-[[Emancipation Day]]
*[[August 6]]-[[Independence Day]]
*[[October 16]]-[[National Hero's Day]]
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
* [[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]

==[[Japan]]==

See [[Holidays of Japan]]

==[[Kenya]]==
* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[Good Friday]]
* [[Easter|Easter Sunday]]
* [[Easter Monday]]
* [[May 1]] - [[Labour day]] or [[May day]]
* [[June 1]] - [[Madaraka Day]] (Kenya attained Internal self rule)
* [[October 10]] - [[Holiday]], Was Moi Day.
* [[October 20]] - [[Jomo Kenyatta|Kenyatta]] Day
* [[December 12]] - [[Jamhuri Day]] (Commemorates Kenya's establishment as a republic - 1964)
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
* [[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]

When an official holiday falls on a Sunday, the following Monday will be an official holiday.

==[[Latvia]]==
See [[Holidays in Latvia]].

==[[Liechtenstein]]==

See [[Public holidays in Liechtenstein]]
* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[January 6]] - [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]]
* [[February 2]] - [[Candlemas]]
* [[March 19]] - [[Feast of St.Joseph]]
* [[April 9]] - [[Easter Monday]]
* [[May 1]] - [[May Day]]
* [[May 17]] - [[Ascension Day]]
* [[May 28]] - [[Whit Monday]]
* [[June 7]] - [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]]
* [[August 15]] - [[Assumption Day]]
* [[September 8]] - [[Nativity Of Our Lady]]
* [[November 1]] - [[All Saints Day]]
* [[December 8]] - [[Immaculate Conception]]
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
* [[December 26]] - [[St. Stephen's Day]]

(All dates are for 2007)

==[[Lithuania]]==

* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[February 16]] - [[Independence Day]]
* [[March 11]] - [[Independence Restoration Day]]
* [[March 24]] - [[Easter Monday]]
* [[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
* [[May 4]] - [[Mother's Day]]
* [[June 24]] - [[St. John's Day]]
* [[July 6]] - [[Mindaugas' Coronation Day - The Day of State]]
* [[August 15]] - [[Assumption Day]]
* [[November 1]] - [[All Saints Day]]
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
* [[December 26]] - [[Second Christmas Day]]

If any of these dates happens to be on weekend (including Mother's day), next Monday is declared holiday as well.

==[[Luxembourg]]==
See [[Public holidays in Luxembourg]]
* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[February 19]] - [[Carnival]]
* [[April 9]] - [[Easter Monday]]
* [[May 1]] - [[May Day]]
* [[May 17]] - [[Ascension Day]]
* [[May 28]] - [[Whit Monday]]
* [[June 23]] - [[National Day]]
* [[August 15]] - [[Assumption Day]]
* [[September 3]] - [[Luxembourg City Fete]] (only celebrated in the city of Luxembourg)
* [[November 1]] - [[All Saints Day]]
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
* [[December 26]] - [[St. Stephen's Day]]

(All dates are for 2007)

==[[Republic of Macedonia]]==
* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[January 7]] - [[Christmas]]
* [[variable]] - [[Easter - first and second day]]
* [[May 1]] - [[Labor Day]]
* [[variable]] - [[Ramazan Bayram]]
* [[May 24]] - [[Saints Cyril and Methodius|St.Kiril and Metodij]]
* [[August 2]] - [[Ilinden Uprising|Ilinden, Republic Day]]
* [[August 28]] - [[Presveta Bogorodica, Republic Day]]
* [[September 8]] - [[Independence Day]]
* [[October 11]] - [[Uprising Day]]
* [[variable]] - [[Ramadan]]
* [[October 23]] - [[Revolution Day(Macedonia)|Revolution Day]]
* [[December 8]] - [[Clement of Ohrid|St.Kliment Ohridski]]

==[[Malaysia]]==
:''See [[Holidays in Malaysia]] for the complete list and explanation of each festival.''
* [[December]] to [[January]] - Awal Muharram
* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* Late January to early February - [[Chinese New Year]]
* March to May - [[Mawlid|Prophet Muhammad's Birthday]] (Falls in the 3rd month of the Muslim calendar)
* [[May 1]] - Labour Day - [[Labour Day|Workers' Day]]
* May - [[Vesak|Wesak]] Day
* First Saturday of June - King's Birthday
* [[August 31]] - [[Hari Merdeka]] (Independence Day)
* October to early November - [[Eid ul-Fitr|Hari Raya Puasa]]
* Late October to early November - [[Diwali|Deepavali]]
* December - [[Eid al-Adha|Hari Raya Haji]] (Falls on the 10th day of 12th month of the Muslim calendar)
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas]]

==[[Malta]]==
'''[[Public holidays]]'''
*[[March 31]] - [[Freedom Day]]
*[[June 7]] - [[Sette Guigno]]
*[[September 8]] - [[Victory Day]]
*[[September 21]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[December 13]] - [[Republic Day]]

'''Other Holidays'''
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[February 10]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]]'s Shipwreck
*[[March 19]] - Feast of [[Saint Joseph]]
*Friday before [[Easter Sunday]] - [[Good Friday]]
*[[May 1]] - Feast of [[St. Joseph the Worker]]
*[[June 29]] - [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul]] ([[Mnarja]])
*[[August 15]] - Feast of the [[Assumption of Our Lady]]
*[[December 8]] - Feast of the [[Immaculate Conception]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]

'''School Holidays'''
*[[November 1]] - [[All Saints' Day]]
*[[November 2]] - [[All Souls' Day]]
*Last two days of Carnival (Monday and Tuesday)
*First Wednesday after [[Easter]] - [[Saint Gregory]] Day

==[[Mexico]]==

'''[[Public Holidays]]'''

*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*First Monday in February - [[Fiestas Patrias (Mexico)|Día de la Constitución]]
*Third Monday in March - [[Fiestas Patrias (Mexico)|Natalicio de Benito Juárez]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Fiestas Patrias (Mexico)|Día del Trabajo]]
*[[May 5]] - [[Cinco de Mayo]]
*[[September 16]] - [[Fiestas Patrias (Mexico)|Día de Independencia]] (Mexican independence day)
*[[November 2]] - [[Fiestas Patrias (Mexico)|Dia de Muertos]]
*Third Monday in November - [[Fiestas Patrias (Mexico)|Día de la Revolución]]

'''[[see|Category:Religious holidays]]'''

*[[Maundy Thursday]] - Thursday before [[Easter Sunday]]
*[[Good Friday]] - Friday before Easter Sunday
*[[December 12]] - [[Our Lady of Guadalupe]]'s day
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas]]

See [[Holidays and celebrations in Mexico]].

==[[Myanmar]]==
See [[Public holidays in Myanmar]].

Namibia
Family Day, [[December 26]]
Independence Day, [[March 21]]
Workers' Day, [[May 1]]
Casinga Day, [[May 4]]
Ascension Day, [[April 29]]
Africa Day, [[May 25]]
Heroes' Day, [[August 26]]
Human Rights Day, [[December 10]]
Christmas, [[December 25]]

==[[The Netherlands]]==
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[April]]/[[March]] - [[Good Friday]]. Friday before [[Easter]]. Predominantly observed by (semi)governmental organizations and banks.
* [[April]]/[[March]] - [[Easter]]. The Dutch celebrate two days of [[Easter]] (on Sunday and the subsequent Monday).
*[[April 30]] - [[Queens day - The Netherlands|Queen's day]]. Birthday of Queen-Mother [[Juliana_of_the_Netherlands|Juliana]] and accession to the throne of her oldest daughter and current monarch [[Beatrix_of_the_Netherlands|Beatrix]].
*[[May 4]] - [[Remembrance of the dead - The Netherlands|Remembrance of the dead]]
*[[May 5]] - [[Liberation day - The Netherlands|Liberation day]]. Celebrated every year, but as of 2000, an official holiday once every 5 years.
* 40 days after [[Easter]] - [[Ascension Day]]
* 7 weeks after [[Easter]] - [[Pentecost]]. The Dutch celebrate two days of [[Pentecost]] (on Sunday and the subsequent Monday).
* [[December 5]] - [[Sinterklaas|Saint Nicholas' Eve]]. Unofficial but widely observed.
* [[December 25]] and [[December 26]] - [[Christmas]]

See the complete list and descriptions of [[public holidays in the Netherlands]].

==[[New Zealand]]==
*[[January 1]] and [[January 2]] - [[New Year's Day]] and the day following. ([[Mondayised]])
*[[February 6]] - [[Waitangi Day]] - The day the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] was signed. (Has also been known as [[New Zealand Day]])
*[[Easter]] - [[Good Friday]], [[Easter Sunday]], [[Easter Monday]], and in some cases [[Easter Tuesday]]
*[[April 25]] - [[ANZAC Day]] (also [[Australia]])
*First Monday in June - [[Queen's Birthday]]
*Fourth Monday in October - [[Labour Day]]
*[[December 25]] and [[December 26]] - [[Christmas Day]] and [[Boxing Day]] ([[Mondayised]])
*Provincial Anniversary Day. Date varies depending on locality. (most are [[Mondayised]])

See [[Holidays in New Zealand]].

==[[North Korea]]==
See [[Public holidays in North Korea]].

==[[Norway]]==
See [[Holidays in Norway]].

==[[Pakistan]]==

Public Holidays given according to [[Gregorian Calendar]]
* [[February 5]] Kashmir Day - National Solidarity Day (1990)
* [[March 23]] - [[Pakistan]] [[Islamic]] [[Republic Day]] (1956)
* [[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
* [[August 14]] - [[Yaum e Azadi|Independence Day]] ''(1947)''
* [[September 6]] - [[Defence Day]] (1965)
* [[November 9]] - Birthday of Sir Dr. [[Muhammad Iqbal]] (Iqbal Day) (1877)
* [[December 25]] - Birthday of [[Quaid-e-Azam]] (Jinnah Day) (1876) / [[Christmas]]

Public Holidays given according to [[Islamic Calendar|Hijri Calendar]]
* [[Muharram]] 9 - [[Ashura]]
* [[Muharram]] 10 - [[Ashura]]
* [[Rabi' al-awwal]] 12 - Eid [[Milad-un-Nabi]]
* [[Shawwal]] 1 - [[Eid ul-Fitr]]
* [[Shawwal]] 2 - [[Eid ul-Fitr]]
* [[Shawwal]] 3 - [[Eid ul-Fitr]]
* [[Dhu al-Hijjah]] 10 - [[Eid ul-Adha]]
* [[Dhu al-Hijjah]] 11 - [[Eid ul-Adha]]
* [[Dhu al-Hijjah]] 12 - [[Eid ul-Adha]]

==[[Panama]]==
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[January 9]] - Martyr's Day (Dia de los Martires)
*Day Before [[Ash Wednesday]] - [[Mardi Gras]]
*[[March 21]] - [[Good Friday]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Labor Day]]
*[[November 3]] - Independence (Colombia)
*[[November 5]] - Independence (Colombia) in Colon
*[[November 10]] - Grito de Independencia
*[[November 28]] - Independence (Spain)
*[[December 8]] - [[Mother's Day]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]

==[[Peru]]==
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year]]
*[[Easter]] - [[Good Friday]], [[Easter Sunday]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[June 4]] - [[Manuel Day]]
*[[June 29]] - [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul]]
*[[July 28]], [[July 29]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[August 30]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]]
*[[October 8]] - [[Naval Battle of Angamos]]
*[[November 1]] - [[All Saints' Day]]
*[[December 8]] - [[Immaculate Conception]]
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]

==[[Philippines]]==

(Most holidays are subject to "Holiday Economics" program; the non-working holiday is moved to the nearest Monday before or after the actual day. Changes to declaration of holidays are subject to government discretion.)

'''Fixed Holidays'''
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]] (''Araw ng Bagong Taon'')
*[[February 25]] - [[People Power Revolution|People Power Day]] - Commemorates the [[People Power Revolution]] of 1986
*[[April 9]]- [[Day of Valor|Day of Valour]] / [[Bataan Day]] (''Araw ng Kagitingan'') - Commemorates the [[Bataan Death March]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Labor Day]] (''Araw ng Manggagawa'')
*[[June 12]] - [[Independence Day]] (''Araw ng Kasarinlan'') - Commemorates the [[Philippine Declaration of Independence]]
*[[August 21]] - [[Ninoy Aquino Day]] (''Araw ng Kabayanihan ni Ninoy Aquino'') - Commemorates the martyrdom of [[Benigno Aquino, Jr.]]
*[[November 1]] - [[All Saints' Day]] (''Todos los Santos / Undas / Araw ng mga Namayapa'') - Special Non-working public holiday; commemoration in conjunction with [[All Souls' Day]]
*[[November 30]] - [[Bonifacio Day]] (''Kaarawan ni Bonifacio'') - Regular public holiday; Commemorates the life of [[Andres Bonifacio]]
*[[December 24]] - [[Christmas Eve]](''Bisperas ng Pasko'')
*[[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]] (''Araw ng Pasko'')
*[[December 30]] - [[Rizal Day]] (''Araw ng Kabayanihan ni Dr. Jose Rizal'') - Commemorates the martyrdom of [[José Rizal]] in 1896
*[[December 31]] - [[New Year's Eve]] (''Bisperas ng Bagong Taon'') - Special non-working holiday

'''"Drifting" Holidays'''
''(listed according to date as of 2008)'':
*[[March 20]] (2008) - [[Maundy Thursday]] (''Huwebes Santo'')
*[[March 21]] (2008) - [[Good Friday]] (''Biyernes Santo'')
*[[March 22]] (2008) - [[Black Saturday]](''Sabado de Gloria'')
*[[March 23]] (2008) - [[Easter Sunday]] (''Linggo ng Pagkabuhay'')
*Last Monday of August - [[National Heroes' Day]] (''Araw ng mga Bayani'')
*Date varies, based on [[Islamic calendar]]- End of [[Ramadan]] (''[[Eid ul-Fitr]]'' / ''Wakas ng Ramadan'')

==[[Poland]]==
See [[Holidays in Poland]] for background information.

*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[Easter]] Sunday
*[[Easter]] Monday
*[[May 1]] - [[Labor Day]]
*[[May 3]] - [[Constitution of third May|Constitution Day]]
*[[Pentecost]] Sunday
*[[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]]
*[[August 15]] - [[Assumption of Mary]]
*[[November 1]] - [[All Saints' Day]]
*[[November 11]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[December 25]] - 1st day of [[Christmas]]
*[[December 26]] - 2nd day of Christmas

==[[Portugal]]==
See [[Holidays in Portugal]] for background information.
* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[Mardi Gras]]
* [[Good Friday]]
* [[Easter]]
* [[April 25]] - [[Carnation Revolution]]
* [[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]
* [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]]
* [[June 10]] - National Day
* [[August 15]] - [[Assumption of Mary]]
* [[October 5]] - [[Republic Day]] (Implantation of the Republic)
* [[November 1]] - [[All Saints' Day]]
* [[December 1]] - Restoration of Independence
* [[December 8]] - [[Immaculate Conception]]
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]

==[[Puerto Rico]]==
* [[January 11]] - Birth of [[Eugenio María de Hostos]]
* [[November 19]] - Discovery Day - Commemorates the discovery of the island by [[Christopher Columbus]] on his second voyage to the New World

==[[Romania]]==
*1-2 January ([[New Year]])
*[[Easter]]
*[[1 May]] ([[Labour Day]])
*[[1 December]] ([[Union Day|National Day]])
*25-26 December ([[Christmas]])

See [[Holidays in Romania]].

==[[Russia]]==
See [[Public holidays in Russia]].

==[[Serbia]]==
*January 1-2 - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[January 7]] - [[Christmas Day]]
*[[January 13]] - [[Orthodox New Year|Serbian (Orthodox) New Year]]
*[[February 15]] - [[National Day]]
*Relative date - [[Easter]]
*[[May 1]] - [[Labour Day]]

'''[[Slava]]s:'''
*[[May 6]] - [[Djurdjevdan]] (Saint George)
*[[December 19]] - [[Sveti Nikola]] (Saint Nicolas)
*[[January 20]] - [[Saint Jovan]]
*[[August 2]] - [[Saint Ilija]]
*[[June 24]] - [[Saint Vartolomej]] and [[Saint Varnava|Varnava]] (Vratelomije)
*[[July 12]] - [[Petrovdan]] (Saint Peter)
*[[November 8]] - [[Mitrovdan]] (Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki)
*[[November 21]] - [[Saint Archangel Michailo]]

==[[Singapore]]==
Public Holidays
*[[New Year's Day]] - [[New Year's Day]]. [[1 January]].
*[[Chinese New Year]] - 1st 2 days of Chinese Lunar New Year.
*[[Good Friday]] - The Crucifixion of Christ. Falls on Friday before Easter Sunday.
*[[Labour Day]] - Falls on [[1 May]]
*[[Vesak Day]] - Celebrating Buddha's birthday. Falls in the 4th month of the Chinese Lunar Calendar.
*[[Singapore National Day]] - Singapore celebrating its independence. [[9 August]].
*[[Hari Raya Puasa]] : Muslim "Celebration of Fasting" Holiday. Falls on the 10th month of the Muslim calendar.
*[[Deepavali]] - Hindu's "Festival of lights" holiday. Falls on twenty days after [[Dussehra]].
*[[Hari Raya Haji]] : Muslim "End of Pilgrimage" Holiday. Falls on the 10th day of 12th month of the Muslim calendar.
*[[Christmas Day]] - [[Christmas Day]]. Falls on [[25 December]].

Other Holidays
*[[September 1]] - [[Teacher's Day]] - Not a public holiday. (Usually a floating half-day for primary, secondary and Pre-U students)
*[[October 1]] - [[Children's Day]] - Not a public holiday. (Only applicable to primary, secondary and Pre-U students)

Note
* If a holiday falls on a Sunday, the following workday will be a public holiday. If it falls on a Saturday, there will be no holiday-in-lieu. For companies that do not operate on Saturdays, usually the following workday (i.e. Monday) will be an off day. For companies that operate on Saturday, employees usually get off-in-lieu.

==[[Slovakia]]==
See [[Public holidays in Slovakia]].

==[[Slovenia]]==
New Year 1-2 January 
Culture Day 8 February 
(variable) Easter and Easter Monday 
National Resistance Day 27 April 
International Labour Day 1-2 May 
National Day 25 June 
Assumption of the Blessed Virgin 15 August 
Reformation Day 31 October 
Remembrance Day 1 November 
Christmas Day 25 December 
Independence Day [[26 December]]

See [[Holidays in Slovenia]].

==[[Solomon Islands]]==
See [[Public holidays in the Solomon Islands]]

==[[South Africa]]==
See [[Public holidays in South Africa]].

[[2 May]] [[2008]] (only) - Additional Public Holiday Proclaimed by the President

==[[South Korea]]==
See [[Public holidays in South Korea]].

==[[Sri Lanka]]==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| [[January 15]]
| Tuesday
| Tamil Thai Pongal Day
| *†#
|-
| [[January 22]]
| Tuesday
| Duruthu Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[February 4]]
| Monday
| National Day
| *†#
|-
| [[February 20]]
| Wednesday
| Navam Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[March 6]]
| Thursday
| Maha Sivarathri Day
| *†
|-
| [[March 20]]
| Thursday
| Milad-Un-Nabi (Holy Prophet’s Birthday)
| *†
|-
| [[March 21]]
| Friday
| Medin Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[March 21]]
| Friday
| Good Friday
| *†
|-
| [[April 12]]
| Saturday
| Day prior to Sinhala and Tamil New Year Day
| *†#
|-
| [[April 13]]
| Sunday
| Sinhala and Tamil New Year Day
| *†#
|-
| [[April 18]]
| Friday
| Additional Bank Holiday
| †
|-
| [[April 19]]
| Saturday
| Bak Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[May 1]]
| Thursday
| May Day
| *†#
|-
| [[May 19]]
| Monday
| Wesak Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[May 20]]
| Tuesday
| Day following Wesak Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[June 18]]
| Wednesday
| Poson Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[July 17]]
| Thursday
| Esala Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[August 16]]
| Saturday
| Nikini Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[September 14]]
| Sunday
| Binara Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[October 1]]
| Wednesday
| Id-Ul-Fitr (Ramazan Festival Day)
| *†
|-
| [[October 14]]
| Tuesday
| Vap Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[October 27]]
| Monday
| Deepavali Festival Day
| *†
|-
| [[November 12]]
| Wednesday
| Il Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[December 9]]
| Tuesday
| Id-Ul-Allah (Hadji Festival Day)
| *†
|-
| [[December 12]]
| Friday
| Unduvap Full Moon Poya Day
| *†#
|-
| [[December 25]]
| Thursday
| Christmas Day
| *†#
|-
|}

* Public Holiday † Bank Holiday # Mercantile Holiday
Source: http://www.priu.gov.lk/Holidays2008.htm 
[Shammie Jayaransie]

==[[Spain]]==
See [[Public holidays in Spain]]

==[[Sweden]]==
See [[Holidays in Sweden]].

==[[Switzerland]]==
See [[Public holidays in Switzerland]].

==[[Taiwan]]==
'''[[Holidays in Taiwan]] ([[Republic of China]])''': (See [[Holidays in Taiwan]] for a full list).
* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day|New Year's Day Holiday]]
* [[January 3]] - [[Bank Holiday]]
* [[January 31]] - [[Chinese New Year's Eve]]
* [[February 17]]-[[February 20]] - [[Chinese New Year]]'s Holidays are designated on Lunar Calendar New Year's Eve through the first to third day of the first month, cited dates indicating only year 2007
* [[February 28]] - [[February 28 Incident|Peace Memorial Day]]
* [[April 5]] - [[Tomb Sweeping Day]]
* [[June 18]] - [[Dragon Boat Festival]], which is designated on fifth day of the fifth month of the Lunar Calendar, cited date indicating only year 2007
* [[July 1]] - [[Bank Holiday]]
* [[October 10]] - [[Double Tenth Day]]
* [[September 25]] - [[Moon Festival]], which is designated on the fifteenth day of the eighth month of the Lunar Calendar, cited date means only for 2007

== [[Tanzania]] ==

* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[January 10]] - [[Eid El Haj]]
* [[January 12]] - [[Zanzibar Revolution Day]]
* [[April 7]] - [[Heroes Day]] ([[Zanzibar]])
* [[April 10]] - [[Maulid Day]]
* [[April 14]] - [[Good Friday]]
* [[April 17]] - [[Easter Monday]]
* [[April 26]] - [[Union Day]]
* [[May 1]] - [[Worker's Day]]
* [[July 7]] - [[Dar Es Salaam]] - International Trade Fair Day
* [[August 8]] - [[Farmer's Day]]
* [[October 25]] - [[Nyerere Day]]
* [[October 23]] - [[Eid El Fitr]] Celebration
* [[October 24]] - [[Eid El Fitr]] Celebration
* [[December 9]] - [[Independence Day|Independence Republic Day]]
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
* [[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]
* [[December 30]] - [[Eid El Haj]]

== Thailand ==
references to lunar months below are to the [[Thai lunar calendar]]

* [[1 January]] New Year's Day
* [[Chinese New Year]] (full moon day of second lunar month)
* [[Magha Puja]] Day (full moon day of third lunar month)
* [[6 April]] Chakri Memorial Day
* 13-15 April Songkran Festival
* [[1 May]] National Labour Day
* [[5 May]] Coronation Day
* [[9 May]] [[Royal Ploughing Ceremony]]
* Visakha Puja Day see also [[Vesak]] (full moon day of sixth lunar month)
* [[Asalha Puja]] Day (full moon day of seventh/eighth lunar month)
* Buddhist Lent Day "[[Wan Kao Pansa]]" (day after full moon day of seventh/eighth lunar month)
* [[12 August]] H.M. The Queen‘s Birthday
* End of Buddhist Lent Day "[[Wan Awk Pansa]]" (full moon day of eleventh lunar month)
* [[23 October]] Chulalongkorn Day
* [[Loy Krathong]] (full moon day of twelfth lunar month)
* [[5 December]] H.M. The King‘s Birthday
* [[10 December]] Constitution Day
* [[31 December]] New Year's Eve

see also [[Public holidays in Thailand]]

==[[Tibet]]==
[[February 8]] - [[Paranirvana]] Day. Death of [[Gautama Buddha]]

==[[Turkey]]==
See [[Holidays in Turkey]].

==[[Trinidad and Tobago]]==
[[January 1]]- New Years Day

Variable Date-[[Good Friday]] and [[Easter Sunday]]

[[March 30]]- [[Spiritual Baptist/Shouter Liberation Day]]

Variable Date- [[Corpus Christi (feast)]]

[[May 30]]- [[Indian Arrival Day]]

[[June 19]]- [[Labour Day]]

[[August 1]]- [[Emancipation Day]]

[[August 31]]- [[Independence Day]]

[[September 24]]- [[Republic Day]]

Variable Date- [[Eid-Ul-Fitr]], end of [[Ramadan]]

Variable Date- [[Divali]], [[Hindu]] Festival of Lights

[[December 25]]-[[Christmas Day]]

[[December 26]]-[[Boxing Day]]

==[[Turkmenistan]]==
* Second Sunday in August - [[Melon Day]]

==[[Vietnam]]==
* [[Tết]]- Vietnamese New Year, for the last day of the previous year and 1st- 3rd day of the 1st lunar month.
* [[Giỗ Tổ Hùng Vương]]- [[Hùng Vương]] commemoriations, 10th day of the 3rd lunar month.
* [[2 September]], Vietnam [[National Day]].
* [[30 April]], Vietnam [[Liberation Day]].
* [[1 May]], [[International Labour Day]].
* [[20 November]], [[Vietnam Teacher's Day]].

== [[Uganda]] ==

* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[March 8]] - [[International Women's Day]]
* [[May 1]] - Labour Day
* [[June 9]] - [[Heroes' Day]]
* [[October 9]] - [[Independence Day]]
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
* [[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]

== [[Ukraine]] ==

* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[January 7]] - [[Eastern Christianity|Orthodox]] [[Christmas]]
* [[March 8]] - [[International Women's Day]]
* Orthodox [[Easter]]
* Holy Trinity Day (Troyitsya) - Orthodox [[Pentecost]]
* [[May 1]] & 2 - Labour Days
* [[May 9]] - [[Victory Day]]
* [[June 28]] - [[Constitution Day]]
* [[August 24]] - [[Independence Day]]

Religious holidays are observed according to the [[Julian calendar]] (but here the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] date of Christmas is written).

When a public holiday falls on a weekly day off (for example, [[Sunday]]), the following working day (often it is [[Monday]]) turns into an official day off too. For the most of Ukrainian employees weekly days off are [[Saturday]] and [[Sunday]].

If only one or only two working days are between a public holiday and another day off then the Ukrainian [[Government]] usually releases a recommendation to avoid this gap by moving these working days onto a certain Saturday (that is to have uninterrupted vacations, but to compensate this by work on another day which would be a day off). Usually such recommendations touch only those employees whose weekly days off are [[Saturday]] and [[Sunday]].

==[[United Kingdom]] and [[Crown dependency|Crown dependencies]]==
{{See also|Public holidays in the United Kingdom}}
* [[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
* [[January 2]] - ([[Scotland]] Only)
* [[March 17]] - [[St Patrick's Day]] Northern Ireland only
* [[Good Friday]]
* [[Easter|Easter Sunday]]
* [[Easter Monday]] - (not [[Scotland]])
* [[May Day]] (First Monday in May)
* [[May 9]] - Liberation Day ([[Jersey]], [[Guernsey]])
* Spring Bank Holiday (last Monday in May) - See [[Bank Holiday]]
* [[July 5]] - [[Tynwald Day]] ([[Isle of Man]])
* [[July 12]] - [[Battle of the Boyne]], otherwise known as "Orangeman's Day" and, more popularly, "The Twelfth". Northern Ireland only
* August [[Bank Holiday]] - England and Wales (Last Monday in August)
* August [[Bank Holiday]] - [[Scotland]] (First Monday in August)
* [[December 25]] - [[Christmas Day]]
* [[December 26]] - [[Boxing Day]]

An official list for England, Wales and Northern Ireland can be found [http://www.berr.gov.uk/employment/bank-public-holidays/index.html here] on the webpage of the UK [[Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform]]. An official list of bank holidays for Scotland can be found [http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2005/01/bankholidays here] on the webpage of the Scottish Government.

In Scotland, the holidays listed above are official bank holidays and may not be public holidays. Public holidays are set by local authorities and therefore vary from place to place, although Christmas, Boxing Day, New Year's Day and [[January 2]] and May Day are observed throughout the country. And in fact, banks in Scotland actually observe the English bank holidays, so Scottish bank holidays which differ from the English ones are of little practical importance. In Northern Ireland Easter Tuesday is treated as a public holiday in lieu of Good Friday.

==United States of America==

See [[Public holidays of the United States]] for background information.

The United States federal government designates national holidays for federal employees only. State and local governments generally observe these holidays as well as many [[Public holidays of the United States|State Holidays]].
For a basic list of holidays as seen on a 2008 calendar:

*[[January 1]] [[New Year's Day]]
*[[January 21]] [[Martin Luther King, Jr. Day]] (3rd Monday of January, traditionally [[January 15]])
*[[February 2]] [[Groundhog Day]]
*[[February 3]] [[Super Bowl Sunday]] (currently the first Sunday of February)
*[[February 5]] [[Mardi Gras]] (Christian; moveable based on Easter)
*[[February 6]] [[Ash Wednesday]] (Christian; moveable based on Easter)
*[[February 14]] [[Valentine's Day]]
*[[February 18]] [[Presidents Day]] (officially Washington's Birthday; 3rd Monday of February, traditionally [[February 22]])
*[[March 16]] [[Palm Sunday]] (Christian; Sunday before Easter)
*[[March 17]] [[St. Patrick's Day]]
*[[March 20]] [[Vernal Equinox]] (based on sun), Lailatul-Qadr (Islamic; moveable, based on lunar calendar)
*[[March 21]] [[Good Friday]] (Christian; Friday before Easter)
*[[March 23]] [[Easter Sunday]] (Christian; moveable; Sunday after first full moon during spring)
*[[March 24]] [[Easter Monday]] (Christian; Monday after Easter)
*[[April 1]] [[April Fool's Day]]
*[[April 20]] [[Passover|First day of Passover]] (Jewish; moveable based on Jewish calendar)
*[[April 21]] [[Patriot's Day]]/Marathon Monday ([[New England]] and [[Wisconsin]] only) (3rd Monday of April)
*[[April 22]] [[Earth Day]]
*[[April 25]] [[Arbor Day]]
*[[April 27]] Last Day of Passover (Jewish; moveable, based on Jewish Calendar)
*[[May 1]] May Day
*[[May 5]] [[Cinco De Mayo]] (Mexican holiday often observed in US)
*[[May 11]] [[Mother's Day]] (2nd Sunday of May), [[Pentecost Sunday]] (Christian; 49 days after Easter)
*[[May 26]] [[Memorial Day]] (last Monday of May, traditionally [[May 30]])
*[[June 14]] [[Flag Day]]
*[[June 15]] [[Father's Day]] (3rd Sunday of June)
*[[June 20]] [[Summer Solstice]] (based on sun)
*[[July 4]] [[Independence Day (United States)|Independence Day]]
*[[September 1]] [[Labor Day]] (first Monday of September)
*[[September 2]] [[Ramadan|First day of Ramadan]] (Islamic, moveable based on Lunar calendar)
*[[September 11]] [[Patriot Day]]
*[[September 19]] [[National Talk Like a Pirate Day]]
*[[September 30]] - [[October 1]] [[Rosh Hashanah]] (Jewish; moveable, based on Jewish calendar)
*[[October 2]] Eid-al-Fitr/Day after the end of Ramadan (Islamic, moveable, based on lunar calendar)
*[[October 9]] [[Yom Kippur]] (Jewish, moveable, 9 days after first day of Rosh Hashanah), [[Leif Erikson Day]]
*[[October 13]] [[Columbus Day]] (2nd Monday of October, traditionally [[October 12]])
*[[October 14]] [[Sukkot|First day of Sukkot]] (Jewish; moveable, 14 days after Rosh Hashanaah)
*[[October 20]] Last Day of Sukkot (Jewish)
*[[October 22]] Simchat Torah (Jewish; moveable, 22 days after Rosh Hashanah)
*[[October 30]] [[Mischief Night]]
*[[October 31]] [[Halloween]]
*[[November 1]] [[All Saints Day]]
*[[November 4]] [[Election Day (United States)|Election Day]] (Tuesday after the first Monday of November)
*[[November 11]] [[Veterans Day]]
*[[November 27]] [[Thanksgiving]] (4th Thursday of November)
*[[November 28]] [[Black Friday (shopping)|Black Friday]] (Friday after Thanksgiving Day)
*[[December 7]] Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day
*[[December 21]] [[Winter Solstice]] (based on sun)
*[[December 22]] [[Hannukkah|First day of Hannukkah]] (Jewish; moveable, based on Jewish calendar)
*[[December 24]] [[Christmas Eve]] (Christian)
*[[December 25]] [[Christmas Day]] (Christian)
*[[December 26]] [[Kwanzaa|First day of Kwanzaa]] (Kwanzaa is celebrated until [[January 1]], [[2009]])
*[[December 29]] Last day of Hannukkah (Jewish; moveable, based on Jewish Calendar)
*[[December 31]] [[New Year's Eve]]

The federal holidays (which are days off from work for federal employees) are New Years Day, Martin Luther King Day, Presidents Day, Memorial Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Columbus Day, Veterans Day, Thanksgiving, and Christmas Day. The official list can be found here (http://www.opm.gov/Operating_Status_Schedules/fedhol/index.asp). These holidays are not necessarily days off from work for private sector workers. Most private sector businesses close for only the "Big 6" holidays: New Years Day, Memorial Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Thanksgiving, and Christmas Day. Many also close on the Friday after Thanksgiving (aka Black Friday), which is not an official holiday, but is commonly granted to private sector workers. Some private businesses may also close for one or more other federal holidays (most commonly either Martin Luther King Day, or Presidents Day).

When a federal holiday falls on Sunday, most federal workers who work a Mon-Fri workweek will observe the holiday on Monday. When a federal holiday falls on Saturday, most federal workers who work a Mon-Fri workweek will observe the holiday on Friday. Workers who normally work on Saturday (such as mail carriers) will observe the holiday on Saturday; Friday will be a regular work day.

In state and local governments, and in the private sector, practices vary when a holiday falls on Saturday or Sunday. In general, most states and private sector workers will observe a holiday that falls on Sunday on Monday. However, that is not universal. Some states and private sector workers will observe a Saturday holiday on Friday, but that is less common than observing the Sunday holidays on Monday. Occasionally, a state or private sector worker will observe a Saturday holiday on Monday, but that is even less common than Friday. Many state workers and private sector workers (in particular, employees at a bank normally closed on Saturdays) do not get any day off when a holiday falls on Saturday, and are "cheated" out of the holiday. Occasionally, a floating holiday may be given in lieu of a Saturday holiday.

==[[Uruguay]]==
*[[January 1]] - [[New Year's Day]]
*[[March]] - [[April]] - Tourism Week (variable - official name of the Holy Week)
*[[19 April]] - Landing of the [[Thirty-Three Orientals]]
*[[1 May]] - [[Labour Day]]
*[[18 May]] - [[Battle of Las Piedras]]
*[[June 19]] - Birthday of [[José Gervasio Artigas]]
*[[July 18]] - Constitution Day
*[[August 25]] - Independence Day
*[[December 25]] - Family Day (official name for Christmas Day)

==Zimbabwe==
*[[April 18]] Independence Day
*[[May 1]] Workers' Day
*[[May 25]] Africa Day
*[[August 11]] Heroes' Day
*[[August 12]] Armed Forces Day
*[[December 22]] Unity Day
*[[December 25]] Christmas

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Holidays by country}}
[[Category:Public holidays by country| ]]
[[but

Talk:Bioprospecting

2008-05-28T21:22:42Z

163.178.17.124: /* Proposed merger */

{{WikiProject Law}}
== Proposed merger ==

Proposal: merge [[biopiracy]] and [[bioprospecting]] into [[Biopiracy and bioprospecting]].

Reasons: terms refer to the same thing, simply evaluated differently; biopiracy is the most commonly
recognized term, but bioprospecting also has weight in the field. Practical measure which may finally
end all remains of the NPOV dispute.

[[User:Caravaca|Caravaca]] 14:56, 8 April 2006 (UTC)

:I really fail to see, after reading both articles, the supposed connection you are referring to here. Biopiracy and Bioprospecting both have completely different connotations. I vote for 'no'. [[User:70.81.139.6|70.81.139.6]]

: I realize this discussion was started over a year ago but I think its worth looking at again. Firstly, the phrase 'Biopiracy' is in many contexts a slur against people who call themselves 'Bioprospectors' and so taking either stance introduces bias, as -piracy is a slur and -prospector is a euphemism. I think '''both''' article title's are NPOV.

:Moreover, [[Bioprospecting]] is a dead article which shares a huge overlap of content with this one.[[User:Yeago|Yeago]] 18:24, 11 April 2007 (UTC)

:Why are these articles merged?! They're totally different concepts, and merging them actually weakens the difference that should be created to differentiate the terms.--[[Special:Contributions/163.178.17.124|163.178.17.124]] ([[User talk:163.178.17.124|talk]]) 21:22, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

== Oxford Dictionary: Biopiracy Defined ==
noun; "bioprospecting, regarded as a form of exploitation of developing countries".
Problem Solved???

----

What about genetic resources taken from a country post-CBD with no traditional knowledge attached to the resource. E.g. Fungi isolated from Grevillea in Australia, taken to the US without access or benefit sharing with potential for the next antibiotic (against ''Bacillis anthracis'' (cause of anthrax) and plasmodium (malaria). Can that be classed as biopiracy? 11:21, 4 February 2006 (UTC)bootsie007

----

== ==
I am noting that a lot of people who are calling this article 'POV' aren't familiar with how IP works on an international level - it's not a criticism, it's a statement and I hope it is taken as such. I would request that people actually read through the external links on this article before inserting ''their own POV'' into this discussion. Ideally, I agree with how the intellectual property laws should work - but the fact is that these laws do not, at present, work the way that all those inserting POV claims are discussing. The Enola Bean is a blaring example. Brazil's creation of drugs for HIV being disputed is another example. The facts are there, and while the term may be considered strong by many, the phrase is in use in academic papers ''around the world''.

One person claims that this entry is allowing people to move their political agenda forward, and yet... nobody has dealt with the facts regarding actual cases. Folks, if you want to call this POV - fine - but address the facts, and know the topic, please. The way the system actually works is obviously - based on fact - not the way you think it should work. Which is sort of the whole point. :-)

I'm removing the POV notice now. Address the facts, and understand the actual cases, please. --[[User:TaranRampersad|TaranRampersad]] 18:03, 25 August 2005 (UTC)
----
This article is POV down to the title which, I'd imagine, is not used by anyone who is not a true believer. [[User:JosephBarillari|jdb ❋]] ([[User_talk:JosephBarillari|talk]]) 10:05, 21 May 2005 (UTC)

One person disagrees and there's a 'dispute'? Honestly, Biopiracy is a common phrase used in the [[developing nation]]s, and is one of the words by the [[United Nations]] and even [[WIPO]] with regard to unlicensed use of plants that are [[patent]]ed. This is a major issue for the developing nations. I would think that this article, if disputed, would be disputed in a more constructive manner and with more detail than a broad brush stroke saying, basically, 'I don't believe it'. I call for this article to be moved out of dispute until such time that those with disputes at least put more effort into their disputes. Further, if there are disputes they should be about objectivity.

Also, please clarify what a 'true believer' is.--[[User:TaranRampersad|TaranRampersad]] 15:05, 10 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Since no clarification was given, I have removed the dispute tag until such time that there is more than vague accusations of 'dispute'. Edit the article objectively if you are in a position to dispute, per the guidelines of the dispute link - and if you cannot, give more than a broad brush stroke, please. If there are issues, they cannot be addressed by the above. --[[User:TaranRampersad|TaranRampersad]] 03:18, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I haven't been here for months. Please see below. [[User:JosephBarillari|jdb ❋]] ([[User_talk:JosephBarillari|talk]]) 23:00, 12 December 2005 (UTC)

== Misleading paragraph & POV ==

I have removed folowing:
:''The company may even ask for the [[intellectual_property|intellectual protection]] of the modified variety in the original country in order to prevent both seeds from co-existing, and the natural variety from being sold under the traditional name. In the latter case, the source country loses its rights to produce or use the original variety for any further [[crop breeding|breeding]].''

The statement make these three claims:
*''The company may ... prevent both seeds from co-existing'' - All [[intellectual protection|IP]] provisions ([[patent]]s, [[copyright]]s, etc) protect the the ''derived'' or new thing or whatever, not the idea or work that existed before.
*''The company may ... prevent ... the natural variety from being sold under the traditional name'' - I guess it is supposed to mean "traditional name being protected by [[trademark]]". This is unlikely because trademarks are granted to distinguish bussiness or product and cannot be generic. See [[trademark#Establishing trademark rights .E2.80.94 use and registration|Trademark#Establishing trademark rights]]
*''... the country loses its rights ... for ... breeding'' - Again, this would be possible only when the original species would be patentable, which is (as I explain above) impossible.

For this I am removing this paragraph. --[[User:Name|Alvin-cs]] | [[User talk:Name|Talk]] 13:05, 28 July 2005 (UTC)

:: Alvin, this would all make sense if the world all followed the same Copyright, Patent and Trademark laws - but they do not. The point made in the paragraph you removed (which we are now discussing putting back in) is that even if something already existed naturally in another country, it can be patented in a separate country and TRIPs agreements as well as GATT can force the original country to pay to use the same thing. Thus the term biopiracy.

::*You say that trademarks are not an issue, and yet trademark law is localized to a country. A trademark search is only good for the country in which the trademark search is done - that is common knowledge. This can happen, and is valid.

::*And the original species is patentable by present laws - which is what the whole biopiracy issue is really about. IP laws don't work the way you are describing. Thus, I shall return the paragraph if I do not get a response from you within the next 72 hours on this... (It's a discussion, and while I have feelings about this, we're talking about objective material in the Wikipedia - so please note that I'm not fighting, just discussing).--[[User:TaranRampersad|TaranRampersad]] 18:03, 25 August 2005 (UTC)
::**Original species, by definition, ARE NOT patentable. Or, if they are patented mistakenly (which does occur), they are paper thin and probably unenforceable. That's the reason the existence of "biopiracy" is somewhat debatable, and why most legal scholars entirely doubt its existence. That said, there may be backwards patent law system which would support patenting the original, but that's ''probably'' NOT the system involved in 99% of [[IPR]] disputes. A fundamental principle of a legitimate patent law system is that you cannot patent that which would prevent the farmer from doing that which he's already been doing. For example, someone tried patenting growing broccoli for cancer protection and suing broccoli producers for infringement. It was held the patent invalid[http://www.sproutnet.com/Press/broccoli_sprouts.htm]. Now, once you '''introduce''' something new, eg. hybrid crops, isolated and purified genes, chemicals, etc, you have [[patent infringement]] and [[license|licensing]] issues.
::**On trademarks. It's true that trademarks are generally localized. However, the strength of a trademark is also relative to several factors including distinctiveness. Generic marks--one that identifies the product or service in the generic sense (eg. using the word "plastic bag" as a trademark for a plastic bag)--are hardly protectable, if at all, under ''ANY'' legitimate system. Furthermore, an indication of use must be that is identifiable as a mark, not merely that it is used. If a local community understands the name of the plant to be the name of the plant, and not the commericial source of the product, it's not going to be easily protectable.
::** None of this is new. These are merely fundamental principles. If you want to cite local [[IPR]] oddities of certain source countries that permit such practices, go for it. That would probably be helpful for this article. However, by and large, your interpretation of the law is, in the most general sense, wrong. [[User:Mmmbeer|Mmmbeer]] 13:39, 26 August 2005 (UTC)

==POV==

:''* unauthorised use of biological resources''
Although I am aware that development of [[biological warfare]], abusive [[animal testing]], hunting [[endangered species]] and recently human [[cloning]] are illegal and thus unauthorized, the article does not look like mean these.
Can anyone give an example of use that would require authorisation (propably from goverment body)?

:''* unauthorised use of traditional communities' knowledge on biological resources''
This sounds like unauthorised use general knowledge being wrong in some sense.
Many companies exploit e.g. the day-and-night cycle or that the best grocerry near our block is Tom's.
So, because noone authorises use of traditional knowledge, this can not be sign of an activity and so should be deleted.

:''* unequal share of benefits...''
Would be 50:50 share of income equal? Rubbed down to "not sharing of benefits ..."

These flaws in definition make term "biopiracy" vague. Can someone fix this? Without this, fixing rest does not have a sense.

I looks to me like this article in general being [[WP:POV]] duplicate of [[genetically modified organism#Controversies over genetic modification | GMO#Controversy]] and Controversy paragraphs in related articles.
If nobody determines the scope of "biopiracy", I would suggest merging with GMO or something alike.
--[[User:Name|Alvin-cs]] | [[User talk:Name|Talk]] 13:05, 28 July 2005 (UTC)

:: Unauthorised use is actually a ''business term'' in this. Like using software without authorization. I do sort of agree that this could be rolled into controversies, as you point out, but it is a term used in the United Nations and people do look for this entry because they want to find out what it is.--[[User:TaranRampersad|TaranRampersad]] 17:55, 25 August 2005 (UTC)
----

* I went ahead and "fixed" this article quite substantially. I simply commented out a number of things that were entirely inappropriate, like the software patent rant. That doesn't make this article NPOV yet. [[User:TaranRampersad|TaranRampersad]] was totally out of line to remove the banner. This article is in need of a great deal of help and focus. Save the anti-corporate, anti-globalization, anti-patent screeds for something else. I also went through the sources cited and they're in need of a great deal of trimming and balancing. We get it... they think biopiracy is the worst thing ever. However, '''do not remove''' the NPOV banner. It's nowhere near NPOV. [[User:Mmmbeer|Mmmbeer]] 22:31, 25 August 2005 (UTC)
** One more thing. I mentioned that this article "needs focus", but I want to be clear as to at least one point. Biopiracy may relate to [[genetically modified food]], but that's not really the point. It deserves a mention, but this is ''NOT'' the appropriate article for that discussion. [[User:Mmmbeer|Mmmbeer]] 22:35, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

Here's some perpective from the April 2000 issue
From the Council for Responsible Genetics

"DNA Patents Create Monopolies on Living Organisms"

The hunt for new genes to exploit for profit is regarded as a vast new frontier in science and industry. "Bioprospectors" are mining the rich genetic resources of the Third World for pharmaceutical compounds and other products, often using indigenous knowledge as their guide. As a result, indigenous communities could end up paying royalties for products based on plants and knowledge that they have been using for centuries.

Are patents necessary to provide incentive to scientists and business?
Searching the world over

As new DNA sequences on our chromosomes are being identified, entrepreneurial scientists are applying for patents in order to claim exclusive rights to research and profits from thousands of such gene sequences. The Human Genome Organization (HUGO) is an international membership organization of individual scientists dedicated to coordinating efforts in genome research. HUGO recently released a statement in favor of the right of those who have determined the biological functions or products of the genes to patent their work. Patents are necessary, they claim, to provide financial incentive for scientists to do meaningful research. Does the research of molecular biologists give them the right to own genes?
A gene bank project aims to preserve the genes of disappearing cultures.

A project associated with HUGO is the Human Genome Diversity Project. Designated by critics as the "Vampire Project," it aims to collect blood, hair and cell samples from up to 700 indigenous communities throughout the world. The stated goal is to gather genetic information from "vanishing" indigenous communities before these people disappear as a result of increasing industrialization and political repression. Many indigenous groups are outraged that researchers might patent genes without the consent of the communities of origin. All of the targeted groups agree that the goal of cultural preservation could be achieved by better methods than merely keeping their genes frozen away in a laboratory tissue museum. As Chief Leon Shenandoah of the Onondaga Council of Chiefs wrote in a letter to the National Science Foundation, "If there is a concern for our demise, then help us survive on our terms."

== More POV ==

I'm going to throw my hat into the ring and say this article is POV. To start with, just examining this bullet point:
<blockquote>patenting of biological resources with no respect to patentable criteria (novelty, non-obviousness or inventive step and usefulness or industrial applicability).</blockquote>
Is biopiracy a critique on the exploitation of markets or one of the patent law system? Patenting of isolated and purified substances has repeatedly been upheld by courts in the United States. So that's hardly "with no respect to patentable criteria."

Not to mention the scenario is entirely POV. I mean, what the heck is the point? Couldn't one construct a totally unsympathetic scenario too? Consider the alternative: local group realizes westerners have commericial interest in a plant compound used to successfully treat AIDS, and, to prevent their magic from being lost, decide to burn the plant before the compound could be isolated. Yay for biopiracy!

What is with people writing "encyclopedia" articles for their favorite political issue? [[User:Mmmbeer|Mmmbeer]] 04:11, 20 August 2005 (UTC)

::You're injecting your POV. Your experience is apparently only based on U.S. interpretation of laws. I strongly suggest you do more research; you won't need it for the bar but you will need it to help hammer out a better article on Biopiracy. Thus, inherently, you are injecting your own POV - so it is somehow appropriate that you keep adding 'NPOV' when you edit.

There is a world outside of the United States. Get used to it. --[[User:65.199.203.228|65.199.203.228]] 05:53, 26 August 2005 (UTC)
* You'd better explain how the population with the native plant couldn't export it. The patent law doesn't protect the plant. It protects the "isolated and purified" gene, chemical, etc. If the country wanted to export the, let's say fruit, they very well could. Indeed, the local populations can continue going on doing what they had done for forever without additional costs. Of course, if they wanted ''the'' product incorporating that patented material, well, then they're no different than anyone else. [[User:Mmmbeer|Mmmbeer]] 11:37, 26 August 2005 (UTC)

* Also, I'm willing to say that this article, as it is now, is ''closer'' to NPOV. [[User:Mmmbeer|Mmmbeer]]

== Countervailing opinion ==

For a view on the other side of the biopiracy debate I have been recommended Paul Heald, "The Rhetoric
of Biopiracy", 11 Cardozo J. Int'l & Comp. LJ 519 (2003). It's a somewhat controversial article but quite famous and is known for being one of the most pursuasive arguments "for" biopriacy. This is all second hand information as I don't know all that much about the topic myself, so take it for what its worth. I hope to try to look it up one of these days when I can find the time. -- [[User:PullUpYourSocks|PullUpYourSocks]] 12:20, 22 September 2005 (UTC)

: It can be downloaded here: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=285177#PaperDownload (warning: [[Firefox]] apparently doesn't work). [[User:Rasmus Faber|Rasmus]] [[User_talk:Rasmus Faber|(talk)]] 12:37, 22 September 2005 (UTC)
:: This link works better: [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID285177_code010930100.pdf?abstractid=285177&mirid=2 here]. [[User:Mmmbeer|Mmmbeer]] 18:32, 22 September 2005 (UTC)

Interesting. The primary failing of this article is the omission of the rationale for so-called "biopiracy" -- that there are plenty of useful organisms in the world, and that those who go to the effort of finding and preparing them for large-scale use ought to benefit from doing so. A fine example is [[ciclosporin|Cyclosporine]], an immunosuppressant used in organ transplantation. It was originally discovered as the product of a fungus living in Norwegian dirt. Was it "biopiracy" for the manufacturers of cyclosporine to patent their invention?

The very word "biopiracy" is a non-neutral term -- it's akin to naming our article on [[homosexuality]] "gross indecency," or our [[agriculture]] article "land rape," or our democracy article "tyranny of the majority." If you Google for it, the vast majority of the results are highly-charged sites _against_ "biopiracy." (Besides contrarians like the author above, who, exactly, is _for_ "biopiracy"? It's like renaming "motherhood" to "maternal slavery" and asking if anyone's in favor of _that_.) You'll find plenty of defenders of patent protection of chemicals discovered in exotic areas, but few of them will call themselves "pirates."

As the article, both in title and content, remains highly POV, I've restored the NPOV warning. [[User:JosephBarillari|jdb ❋]] ([[User_talk:JosephBarillari|talk]]) 23:00, 12 December 2005 (UTC)
::Do please consider the use of ''biopiracy'' in the title of the above-cited SSRN article -- "Rhetoric of Biopiracy" -- which argues ''against'' sui generis protection for indigenous knowledge; I think this shows that ''biopiracy'' is pretty well established in usage, and people will look for an article with this title. When they find it, though, they should be told in the lead paragraph that the term ''is'' controversial; the article should then present both sides fairly and accurately. See the proposed revision, below. NPOV doesn't mean that a point of view you disagree with got into the article (or even its title); it means that the presentation is one-sided. (I think it ''is'' one-sided, and I've made a suggestion (below) for fixing it (at least in the lead paragraph)[[User:Pfaff9|Bryan]] 16:29, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

Let me add something a student just wrote to me: " Wikipedia's article on biopiracy was the single article I found during my research that represented the views of multinational corporations as well as indigenous peoples," such as this: "Gaining power over (indigenous) knowledege allows more people all over the world to benefit from knowledge that would otherwise be unknown". I think there's still some work to do on this article, but the need for an article with this name, notwithstanding its bias, seems clear. [[User:Pfaff9|Bryan]] 21:09, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

**Re: JosephBarillari. While I don't like the term, and have put this article up for NPOV before, I don't think that you're right that the topic is akin to calling motherhood "maternal slavery". Well, it might be, but that's really a bad analogy anyhow. I don't think that anyone would say they were "for biopiracy". I'm not sure that there are many people that would say that they're for [[genocide]] or anything you can name that we consider genuinely reprehensible or immoral. The problem for this article, though, is that this is a term used to describe a particular behavior and it is the common term for it (unlike "maternal slavery") (''Ed. I wonder if we need a redirect from [[maternal slavery]] to [[motherhood]]''). In any event, there's no place else to send this article. It deals with a real topic and several countries have taken up the issue--see Brazil, Mexico, South Africa, etc[http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readnews&itemid=212&language=1].
**That all said, this article has a lot of work. It's better than it was before I got my hands on it--basically an anti-globalization rant. Unless there are viable locations for the article, it should stay. mmmbeer[[User_Talk:Mmmbeer|T]] / [[Special:Contributions/Mmmbeer|C]] / [[User:Mmmbeer|?]] 22:57, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

==Proposed revision of lead paragraph==
'''Biopiracy'' refers to the ''patenting''<strike>privatization and unauthorized use</strike> of <strike>biological resources</strike> ''[Indigenous knowledge|indigenous biomedical knowledge]'' by ''foreign'' entities (including corporations, universities and governments) without compensatory payment. Since no consensus exists that the patenting of indigenous knowledge actually amounts to [[piracy]], some believe this term is too biased to be used. However, it is well established in the literature. <strike> outside of a country which has pre-existing knowledge. This privatization and use is sometimes claimed to be predatory.</strike> Particular activities usually covered by the term are...

Rationale:
* Biopiracy isn't about the appropriation of resources; it's about the appropriation and privatization (by means of patents) of ''knowledge''
* It is important to mention 'without compensatory payment' -- if payment were made, presumably, we wouldn't call it 'piracy'. [[User:Pfaff9|Bryan]] 16:29, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

** I'll bite on the patenting point. I don't think that that'll work. In fact, I'm almost certain all the behaviors attempted to be captured by the "biopiracy" can described simply as patenting. In fact, it's possible that a patent on certain biological materials have no patent potential at all--especially, if we look outside US patent law. In those cases, the objection is the problem "taking" something local and then never returning. Patenting is certainly part of it, but it's not all of it.
** On compensation, I think you're right to an extent. Those "exploitive" entities do often pay ''something'' for access; it's just that when biopiracy concerns are raised it is usually because the compensation is less than what is received for the resulting commercial product. This makes sense, of course. Leading you to gold is a cheap service, but actually mining, purifying, exporting, and retailing involves considerably more "risk" and "cost". As such, it's perhaps better phrased as "without just compensation". Of course the problem with that is you're going to start to slide down the slippery slope. In my example, what portion of the profits from the gold is due the person who leads you to the gold? What if the person didn't know what they had and figured it for iron pyrite? That's a tough argument to make.
** Finally, biopiracy, as a concept, exists and is demonstrable. The problem is usually whether one believes that it is a "bad" thing, something to be genuinely concerned about, or if there is some inequity in the outcomes. So I'm not sure that your last significant change makes sense. In the spirit of full disclosure, I think it's a bunch of bunk, but that's not a first. mmmbeer[[User_Talk:Mmmbeer|T]] / [[Special:Contributions/Mmmbeer|C]] / [[User:Mmmbeer|?]] 22:45, 14 December 2005 (UTC)
:We do seem to be crossing paths today! --Thanks for these very helpful comments. What do you think of this?

'''Biopiracy'' is a [[loaded term]] that refers to the appropriation, generally by means of [[patent|patents]], of [Indigenous knowledge|indigenous biomedical knowledge] by foreign entities (including corporations, universities and governments); such appropriations are said to be a form of [[piracy]] when indigenous peoples (or their advocates) believe that adequate compensation has not been paid.

For example, in 1995 the U.S. Department of Agriculture and a pharmaceutical research firm received a patent on a technique to extract an antifungal agent from the [[Neem]] tree (''Azadirachta indica''), which grows throughout India; Indian villagers have long understood the tree's medicinal value. Although the patent had been granted on an extraction technique, the Indian press described it as a patent on the Neem tree itself; the result was widespread public outcry, which was echoed throughout the developing world.

In part due to biopiracy's perceived resemblance to [[colonialism]], in which Western governments were seen to extract natural resources from colonized countries without paying due compensation, it is often presented -- as the term ''biopiracy'' obviously suggests -- as a form of predation, which is practiced by richer nations upon the poorer. Although few would advocate biopiracy, defenders of the patent system point out that, in the absence of patents, pharmaceutical companies would have little incentive to develop modern medications from indigenous knowledge, which means that the medical benefits of this knowledge would be denied to millions of people worldwide. [[User:Pfaff9|Bryan]] 00:34, 15 December 2005 (UTC)

You are all fighting, but when I added something to the articleand sourced it, that became the only numbered source on the page. Shouldn't someone be linking up all those statements withsome proof?[[User:Gabbahead|Gabbahead]] 21:54, 9 January 2006 (UTC)

== Balance ==

The lack of balance in the item brings disrepute to Wikipedia. Other contentious issues in the globalization debate are well and fairly represented. The range of account of the meaning of Biopiracy is narrow, the inherently political nature of concept by those who coneived it is inadequately discussed, the range of sources and links is skewed. An immediate improvement would be source Graham Dutfield on www.Sci.Dev.Net "Bioprospecting: legitimate research or 'biopiracy' " where he presents a balanced picture on the evolution of the term "Biopiracy". ao

:Problem with above comment: no date or author attached. I assume the comment applies to an outdated version of the article, unless its author returns with a dated comment and states otherwise. [[User:Caravaca|Caravaca]] 08:42, 3 July 2006 (UTC)

== "Widely reported"... ==

I'm not going to quibble about the inclusion of the example in the introductory paragraph, but I have to wonder if it's appropriate to footnote that something was widely reported but have it link to a very peculiar site. One questionable source != widely reported. Also, I'm not doubting the veracity of the statement, it may have been. mmmbeer[[User_Talk:Mmmbeer|T]] / [[Special:Contributions/Mmmbeer|C]] / [[User:Mmmbeer|?]] 01:40, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

: Thanks for your comment. "Widely reported" means: I've read a lot on the topic and IMHO the failure to compensate the indigenous people in the Rosy Periwinkle case verges so strongly on "common knowledge" in the field that nobody (else) particular bothers to explicitly state it or supply sources any more. "Common knowledge" in my view is knowledge which no longer requires any footnotes at all. But I put one in all the same! How many more sources would you like? [[User:Caravaca|Caravaca]] 08:55, 3 July 2006 (UTC)

: "very peculiar site": Living Rainforest is not a peculiar site! It looks to me like a museum/information centre with real staff, a real building and a school-orientated educational mission that goes out of its way to be informed, informative, impartial and simple. In my view, it's much better than an web-only source. Could your comment have anything to do with the UK being a long way from Wisconsin?! [warning: humour] But seriously, I can add more sources. Or would you like to suggest one? [[User:Caravaca|Caravaca]] 08:55, 3 July 2006 (UTC)

== POV in the deontological considerations' section ==

There is no mention of the fact that if and when a patent is granted to a private organization, the specific thing being patented becomes just as much property of the applying party as land is property of a nation. This leads to POV in the following arguments section, where matters are only examined from the standpoint of a nation forbidding the use of a plant in Most Virtuous Medicine that Saves Little Children rather than ever mentioning the other, more infamous way where a patent granted to a corporation is used to strip indigenous peoples of the natural right to make use of, and further refine, their traditional knowledge.

Certainly this sounds alarmist. I'd de-POV the section myself if it weren't for the lack of concrete reference, rather than memories of news articles from yesteryear, with which I'm afflicted. One must consider however that patents in the US are typically laid out like an onion, with very very general claims at the top and the real meat at the bottom. Though an apologist might make the argument that only the specific claims are enforced, this viewpoint acquires a degree of failure and suck on contact with the real world. Indeed, the wider patent claims present in a patent for a specific method of data compression have been successfully used against (out of court, I'd imagine, patent litigation being ridiculously expensive for no gain for the defendant) parties that were putting out-of-patent or prior art covered techniques to use, even and particularly when these techniques had little (if anything outside the rough field of application) to do with the patent's specific claims, or even its title! It is not hard to imagine, and I would be surprised if evidence of this were difficult to find, a situation where an indigenous people are suddenly forbidden from growing, say, traditional varieties of rice due to their government's deference to the US patent regime, even though according to the apologists of "bioprospecting" the relevant patent only covered a few molecules in some obscure industrialized situation.

In closing, would someone with proper Wikipedia princess mojo mind sticking a NPOV tag at the top of that section? Again, I'd do it myself but being just an anonymous shithead I think I'll pass this time. The article was written by someone, and that someone may easily prevail over Andy N. Onymous in a dispute. [[User:88.112.2.159|88.112.2.159]] 18:32, 10 July 2006 (UTC)
: I'm not even sure what your point is. I'm not going to disagree that the section needs work, but I'm not entirely clear what you think needs to be done. I will point out one thing, though: patents are territorial. There are only some narrow circumstances in which a foreign patent may be enforced (importation of a patented product, export of components for use in a patented process abroad). Furthermore, countries don't really defer "to the US patent regime", but they may find offering US patent owners the same protection in their country appropriate. Even in that case, patents don't stop a farmer from doing what they've always done. Even in cases like Monsanto's Technology Use Policy to prevent saving of seeds and prohibitting resale of their patented seeds, that's enforced by contract.
: Finally, rants about the patent system are really rants about the patent system. I'm not sure how talking about litigation costs, prior art searches, and data compression are really that relevant to ownership rights. The point of the biopiracy article should be to describe biopiracy and the mechanisms by which it operates. Biologic resources are not really that different than anything else. The problem people have is not that indigineous peoples lose their ability to use the natural resource (often NOT the case), but rather that they lose out on the ability to exploit that resource for profit or share in the commercialization. In fact, there's some really irony in the idea of indigenous knowledge I.P. proposals which would create yet another type of I.P. and perhaps lead to yet different types of biopiracy. mmmbeer[[User_Talk:Mmmbeer|T]] / [[Special:Contributions/Mmmbeer|C]] / [[User:Mmmbeer|?]] 13:34, 11 July 2006 (UTC)
An apologist who argued that the broadest claims of a US patent were unlikely to be enforced would be displaying his or her ignorance. That one won't run. The indigenous peoples who are suddenly stopped from selling rice they've been selling for centuries is in principle impossible - though in practice only pretty unlikely, given that very silly patents get granted sometimes. The Enola Bean patent - discussed in the article, and (let us hope) on its way out, however slowly - is a case in point.[[User:Twr57|Twr57]] ([[User talk:Twr57|talk]]) 22:00, 2 March 2008 (UTC).

== Vincristine ==

I've changed some of the text about vincristine since strictly speaking it wasn't accurate. Vincristine is used in chemotherapy for several types of cancer, none of which is specifically a "children's cancer". Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia often does affect children, but also adults over the age of 50. Hodgkin lymphoma mostly affects young adults and people over 60; non-Hodgkin lymphoma incidence increases with age. It's also not correct to speak of vincristine as a "cure". Firstly, it's used only as one component of a therapy regime, not on its own, and secondly, while the long-term survival rates ''can'' be good, "cure" is far too strong a term to be used unqualifiedly. [[User:Kay Dekker|Kay Dekker]] 22:56, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

== May we have a citation for this, please? ==

''U.S. courts have upheld patents on biological substances like adrenaline'' '''and even basic elements.'''

OK, I'm not a patent lawyer, but that surprises me. There's certainly no mention of this on the [[Chemical element]] page. I'd really like to see a citation for a US court upholding a patent on an element. [[User:Kay Dekker|Kay Dekker]] 23:09, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

: I'd like to see a patent for an element, regardless of whether it was court-tested or not. I can't think of a good way to search, though, since most elements will appear in many patents even though the element itself is not claimed. Thoughts? [[User:CRGreathouse|CRGreathouse]] ([[User talk:CRGreathouse|t]] | [[Special:Contributions/CRGreathouse|c]]) 19:30, 7 January 2008 (UTC)
::Suspect.[[User:Yeago|Yeago]] ([[User talk:Yeago|talk]]) 20:53, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

::: I removed both parts. I could not find a patent, as such, on adrenaline: [http://www.google.com/patents?q=adrenaline+OR+epinephrin+OR+epinephrine+OR+suprarenin&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=1&as_miny_is=1800&as_maxm_is=1&as_maxy_is=1915&scoring=2]. Of course anyone with a decent reference/patent number can replace this if there's something I've missed. (Note that pre-1975 patents are not very searchable in the USPTO.)
::: [[User:CRGreathouse|CRGreathouse]] ([[User talk:CRGreathouse|t]] | [[Special:Contributions/CRGreathouse|c]]) 14:56, 8 January 2008 (UTC)

== Conrad Gorinsky ==

Please see and incorporate [[Conrad Gorinsky]] into this article[[User:Yeago|Yeago]] 17:20, 11 April 2007 (UTC)

== Opening ==

From the first paragraph:
:''Vincristine was initially patented and marketed by Eli Lilly.''
I think that this should be corrected, or sourced if correct. I found a patent from Eli Lilly claiming N-desmethylvinblastine and a method for making it from vincristine (#3354163) as well as a patent for a process for purifying vincristine and other substances (#3932417), but no patent on vincristine itself. I'm not sure that it would be patentable under US or EU laws, since there is evidence of prior art in earlier patent claims (see #3352868).

Would
:''A method for purifying vincristine was initially patented and marketed by Eli Lilly.''
fix the problem?

[[User:CRGreathouse|CRGreathouse]] ([[User talk:CRGreathouse|t]] | [[Special:Contributions/CRGreathouse|c]]) 19:06, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

== NPOV ==

This article is currently in serious need of vigorous NPOV editing. The problems start with the title, and go on from there.

A better title than [[Biopiracy and bioprospecting]] might be a good start: "biopiracy" is clearly a self-evident ''Bad Thing'' and as such this term is solely used by its opponents, and "bioprospecting" clearly a self-evident ''Good Thing'', and this term therefore solely used by its supporters.

Perhaps "[[Biopiracy controversy]]"? Or "[[Controversy over commercialization of traditional remedies]]"?

If no-one can come up with a more neutral title, the same article cannot deal with both, since two opposing biases are loaded right into the title. <s>We should perhaps consider unmerging the two articles.</s>

[[User:The Anome|The Anome]] ([[User talk:The Anome|talk]]) 18:44, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

:OK, I've now moved this article to [[commercialization of traditional medicines]], something which I hope both sides can agree on as a neutral name for the subject of the article, rather than using the weighted terms of "bioprospecting" or "biopiracy". -- [[User:The Anome|The Anome]] ([[User talk:The Anome|talk]]) 20:56, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

The problem with this is that the article isn't confined to the commercialisation of traditional medicines. It includes traditional seeds - see the section on the 'Enola bean'. To leave out seeds - and agriculture generally (the neem patent was not on a medicinal use of neem) - is to cut the subject down arbitrarily. "Knowledge" rather than "medicines" might do it. [[User:Twr57|Twr57]] ([[User talk:Twr57|talk]]) 07:29, 6 March 2008 (UTC)
:I had the same thought. But then you must consider the dubious usage of 'traditional'. I think the move from Bioprospecting and biopiracy was a step down when it comes to exactness. I thought the fact that both were included in the title resolved the NPOV issue (and the NPOV issue isn't really so strong, as the terms appear in a plethora of contexts, some weighted, some not). That's why I moved it to 'Bioprospecting and biopiracy' in the first place.[[User:Yeago|Yeago]] ([[User talk:Yeago|talk]]) 14:28, 6 March 2008 (UTC)

== "Ownership" section ==
I've now removed the entire essay-like "Ownership" section from the article. This was a difficult call, since it removed a substantial amount of well-written but essay-like material, including a couple of cited references for individual points. My justification for this action is that the section in total constituted [[WP:OR|original research]] and was [[WP:SYNTHESIS|synthetic]] overall, and in my opinion needed removing, both per policy, and to help the article evolve in a more structured way. I also believe that this does not affect the balance of the article, since the material removed was, although essay-like, also quite balanced, so no agenda is advanced by removing it.

For reference, the last version of the article containing it can be found here: [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commercialization_of_traditional_medicines&oldid=195538876]. If it is to be restored, it first needs a complete rewrite to meet the requirements for [[WP:ATT|attributability]] and [[WP:V|verifiability]] from [[WP:RS|reliable sources]] throughout.

Since the points it raised are significant, I'd appreciate it if they could be re-written in a new non-synthetic, non-OR, framework. -- [[User:The Anome|The Anome]] ([[User talk:The Anome|talk]]) 12:34, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

:To [[User:Yeago]], who restored the entire section, after first removing all the {{tl|fact}} tags, with the comment ''"rv. You can't stick an OR tag on cited material. I'm probably going to revert things to a day or so ago and get mediation in here to deal with this, as most of your edits are suspect."'':

:Saying that "most of [my] edits are suspect" comes close to accusing me of bad faith. I have tried to scrupulously maintain balance in this article, trying to keep the balance between the characterization of this activity as "biopiracy" and the characterization of it as "bioprospecting". If you can make the "Ownership" section into something other than original research. I'd greatly appreciate it.

:At the moment, it's an essay, and an essay with occasional cites is still an essay, as can be seen from the use throughout of passive and/or free-floating phrases like "One might argue that" and "[a] virtue-based approach might argue that", "would probably have", and "it is intuitively intolerable that". In each case, someone either actually made these respective arguments in a reliable citable source, or they didn't. If it can be cited, attribute it. If not, take it out. Providing a cite for each individual section in the "ownership" section would be a start.

:Removing {{tl|fact}} tags does not make the need for cites go away. -- [[User:The Anome|The Anome]] ([[User talk:The Anome|talk]]) 13:09, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

Puente La Amistad de Taiwán

2008-05-07T19:39:47Z

163.178.17.124:

{{Infobox_Bridge
|bridge_name= Taiwan-Costa Rica's Friendship Bridge
|image= TempisqueBridge AmistadTaiwanCR.jpg|250px
|caption=
|official_name=
|also_known_as=
|carries= 2 lanes of roadway and sidewalks
|crosses= [[Tempisque River]]
|locale=
|maint=
|id=
|design= [[Cable-stayed bridge]] and pillars
|mainspan= 170 meters
|length= 780 meters
|width= 13.3 meters
|clearance=
|below=
|traffic=
|open=
|closed=
|toll=
|map_cue=
|map_image=
|map_text=
|map_width=
|coordinates=
|lat=
|long=
}}
The '''Puente de la Amistad de Costa Rica-Taiwan''' ([[English language|English]]: "Costa Rica-Taiwan Friendship Bridge") spans the [[Tempisque River]], in [[Guanacaste]], northern [[Costa Rica]]. Although generally known as a [[cable-stayed bridge]], it is really a hybrid bridge composed of a cable-stayed span and a pillar-supported bridge. The cable-stayed section has two spans of 170 and 90 meters, supported by a 80 meter high pylon. The total length of the bridge is 780 meters with eight supporting pillars and the pylon. The bridge was completed in [[:Category:Bridges completed in 2003|2003]].

The bridge was financed and designed by [[Taiwan]], and built primarily by the Taiwanese company [[RSEA]], with participation of Costa Rican engineers and workers. It has a particular importance for the province of Guanacaste for it facilitates transit from the capital city of [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]]. Prior to the construction of the bridge, this route required the use ferries to cross the [[Tempisque River]], or long alternate land routes.

Recent Costa Rican studies have found some problems in the structure which have required increased maintenance.

Ever since current Costa Rican President [[Oscar Arias]] cut off relationships with Taiwan, the bridge is now colloquially known as ''Puente de la Apuñalada'' (Back stab Bridge).

== External links ==
* {{Structurae|id=s0009988}}

== Images ==

[[Image:Amistad de Taiwan Tempisque aerial.JPG|250px]]

[[Category:Bridges in Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Cable-stayed bridges]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 2003]]

Maes Hughes

2008-05-06T18:40:55Z

163.178.17.124: /* Film */

{{Infobox animanga character
| name = Brigadier General Mäes Hughes
| series = [[Fullmetal Alchemist]]
| image =
| caption =
| first =
| last =
| creator = [[Hiromu Arakawa]]
| voiced by = [[Keiji Fujiwara]] (JPN) [[Sonny Strait]] (ENG)
| nickname =
| alias =
| age = 36 (deceased)
| gender = Male
| born =
| nationality =
| class =
| occupation = Brigadier General
| title =
| relatives = Married to Gracia Hughes, daughter Elysia Hughes
| paux* name =
| paux* =
| divider =
| aux1 name =
| aux1 =
| aux2 name =
| aux2 =
}}

'''Maes Hughes''' (pronounced Mäes Hughes) is a fictional character of the ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'' [[anime]] and [[manga]] series. Initially he was member of the Investigations Division at Central where he became friends with Colonel [[Roy Mustang]]. At the time of his introduction in the anime, Hughes held the rank of [[Major]], and first met the Elric brothers while serving as a Communications Officer for [[General Hakuro]]. Hughes and Edward Elric worked together throughout various episodes. He was later murdered by a Homunculus.

==Plot==
Hughes is initially assigned to the Investigations Division in Central, where he is more involved with police work than he is in actual battles. He has displayed his skills with his [[push knives]], with very precise aiming and through the use of his reflexes. After receiving his promotion to Lieutenant Colonel, Hughes is placed in charge of the Investigations Division. While investigating the 5th Laboratory incident and the mysterious deaths of the prisoners involved with its experiments, Hughes finds that there is much to suspect about the [[King Bradley|Führer's]] secretary, [[Homunculi|Juliet Douglas]]. During the course of his investigation, he is lured by Douglas to a hotel where she had told him [[Minor_characters_of_Fullmetal_Alchemist#Doctor_Tim_Marcoh|Tim Marcoh]] is waiting, but on arrival Hughes is confronted by both her and Lust - one of the [[Homunculi]]. Barely surviving against the Homunculi and Douglas, he is only saved by the timely intervention of Maria Ross who shot at the Homunculi. Nevertheless it had survived. He flees the building with Maria Ross, in order to contact Roy Mustang from a public telephone booth. His reason behind calling Mustang directly is to give him information that the Homunculi have infiltrated the top Military ranks and that his life may be in danger. As Mustang is on a train to Central, Hughes is not able to contact him. Hughes then notices that the Maria Ross is missing a minuscule mole under her left eye, and Envy - another Homunculi - reveals himself. After slashing Envy's throat Hughes leaves in which Envy transforms into Hughes’s wife Gracia. Hughes hesitates, and Envy uses the opportunity to shoot him. Hughes is shot through the torso and dies. He is posthumously promoted to Brigadier General.<ref>Episode 25: ''Words of Farewell''</ref>

==Character Outline==
===Personality===
Maes Hughes's personality is sometimes seen as comical; tongue-in-cheek, and, to another extent very serious about his family and job. He is often throughout the anime seen as helping people; mainly befriending and giving advice to Edward and Alphonse Elric; Roy Mustang and even Winry Rockbell. In the episode that he is introduced in, the viewer clearly sees what an eccentric character he was. He was excited primarily about his pregnant wife at the time the series was just beginning and even resulted in inviting the Elric brothers to his house as act of kindness. He shows his sensitive side throughout the anime series towards various characters in addition, and is continually obsessed with his daughter. Moments before his death, at the phone booth he had mistakeningly dropped a picture of his wife and daughter on the ground, had symbolised that he was a devoted father and loving husband. It also finally gave the impression that he had loved his family very much. Before setting out for Juliet Douglas he is shown firing his assistant - who had initially been a librarian for Alchemical Library - moments before he set out to uncover Douglas as a fraud as a final act of kindness. He knew of the danger he was putting her up against and so ultimately fired her for her own safety. His comical behaviour was shown in the last moments he was with someone trusting.

===Family life===
Hughes was shown to have been infactuated with his wife, Gracia, and their daughter, Elysia. He comically [[comic relief|thrusts pictures]] of Elysia into his colleagues faces much to their annoyance - but it is clear that his erratic behavior is usually a cover for the serious and [[Depression (mood)|depressing]] nature of his work. In the last episode he was featured alive and with his family he is seen kissing his daughter goodbye before investigating a dangerous case involving [[Minor characters of Fullmetal Alchemist#Doctor Tim Marcoh|Dr. Tim Marcoh]].

==Relationships==
===Roy Mustang===

{{see|Roy Mustang}}

Hughes is very supportive of [[Roy Mustang]]'s plan to become [[Führer]] of the state military, stating; ''"I'll work below you and help push you to the top"''. A common gag involves Hughes calling Mustang to either gloat about his daughter or advise Mustang to get a wife, promptly causing Mustang to slam the phone down in anger. Hughes in addition to giving some news only gives out serious information after he had actually first talked obsessively about his daughter. Mustang was deeply shellshocked by Hughes' untimely death and even managed to cry at his funeral away from prying eyes. Mustang's goals after Hughes' death were all to avenge him and in his memory. Edward, Alphonse, Winry and Sheska realized this after Pinako Rockbell told them that all of Mustang's actions were for Hughes.

===Elric brothers===
{{see|Edward Elric|Alphonse Elric}}

Hughes is especially kind to [[Edward Elric]] and [[Alphonse Elric]] throughout the series. In the anime, he invites them to his home to celebrate Edward's birthday, one of the few moments of domestic bliss enjoyed by the Elric brothers outside of their earlier lives with their mother. Because the Elric brothers had helped deliver Hughes's baby it may be one of the reasons why he displays kindness towards them. Both he and his wife Gracia continue to be kind towards the brothers, as well as to their friend Winry. Hughes also seems to be Edward's most trustworthy ally in the military, as Hughes manages to convince Edward to describe to him what he saw while in Laboratory 5. Major Armstrong also seems to have similar role like this to the Elrics. When the two brothers learn of Hughes' death, Edward instinctively holds Roy Mustang responsible for the death although as time passes he drops this accusation. Alphonse is also affected, but since he was in his armor form at the time, it is hard to see him expressing emotions physically.

===Winry Rockbell===
{{see|Winry Rockbell}}

Hughes had a limited time to get to know Winry, meeting her in the hospital where Edward and Alphonse were being treated after the events in Laboratory 5. Hughes immeditately baffled Winry with his obsession with his daughter and practically dragged her out of the hospital to his house in order to celebrate his daughter's birthday. There, Winry befriended Elicia and Gracia, and after discussion her relationship with the Elrics, Hughes gave her confidence to give Edward some encouragement. She is deeply upset when she learns of Hughes' death in both the anime and manga.

==Career==
[[Image:State Military (FMA).JPG|thumb|right|300px|Members of the State Military. Maes Hughes can be seen on the kneeling on the bottom right hand side. A close colleague of Hughes; [[Roy Mustang]] can be seen at the centre.]]
Hughes is initially assigned to the Investigations Division in Central, he is more involved with police work than he is in actual battles and alchemical assignments. He has displayed his skills with his push knives, with very precise aiming and through the use of his reflexes. After receiving his promotion to Lieutenant Colonel, Hughes is placed in charge of the Investigations Division.

===Millitary===

* Major - Has this rank when introduced in the story.
* Lieutenant Colonel - Promoted to this rank shortly before Edward's state alchemy reassessment examination.<ref>episode 13</ref>
* Brigadier General - Posthumously promoted to this rank for dying in the line of duty.

==Manga==

In the original manga, Hughes fought in the [[Ishval]] war — not as an [[Alchemy (Fullmetal Alchemist)|alchemist]], but as a soldier. While not an alchemist, Hughes was an [[expert]] in [[knife fight|knife combat]] (specializing in knife throwing) and carried two or four small [[Push dagger|push knives]] in both or either of his sleeves or in the back of his [[Belt (clothing)|belt]], which he used as protection in battle.

He had known Mustang since their days at the [[military academy]], when they had both been idealistic as to what the future would hold. Their values changed with the war and they became critical of where the future of their country was heading toward. During this time, he introduced Mustang to a nameless [[sniper]] who had been protecting their people. She turned out to be a young [[State Military characters of the Fullmetal Alchemist manga#Riza Hawkeye|Riza Hawkeye]], whom Mustang recalled as the daughter of his alchemy teacher.

Years later, he married Gracia (whom he had known before the war began) and supported of Mustang's plan to become Führer, doing whatever he could by "working below him and help push him to the top." After the incident in the military's [[Lab 5|5th Laboratory]], [[Edward Elric]] shows Hughes some [[Sketch (drawing)|drawings]] of what he saw in there. Upon further research, Hughes realizes that the military is making a huge [[transmutation circle]] around the country. He is confronted by [[Homunculi of the Fullmetal Alchemist manga#Lust|Lust]], but manages to escape with only a flesh wound by throwing a knife into Lust's [[forehead]]. Hughes tries to phone Mustang with the crucial information, but is killed by [[Homunculi of the Fullmetal Alchemist manga#Envy|Envy]] before he could talk to Mustang. Hughes was 29-30 years old when he died (he is the same age as Mustang).

He is [[Promotion (rank)|promoted]] to [[Brigadier General]] posthumously and [[Military funeral|buried with full honours]] for dying in the line of duty. His death came as a shock to his friends and family, especially [[State Military characters of the Fullmetal Alchemist manga#Sheska|Sheska]] and Mustang.

'''Last Words''': ''Hey, hey, cut me some slack. I've got a wife and kid waiting for me at home ... I can't die here!''
===Millitary===
* Captain - Held this rank when he was in the Ishval war.
* Brigadier General - Posthumously promoted to this rank for dying in the line of duty. (Incorrectly translated as Major General by VIZ Media, then later as Commodore.)

==Film==
Just like many of the other characters, Maes Hughes and his wife Gracia also have alternate versions of themselves living in our world. He works as a [[policeman]] in [[Munich]], and Gracia is a [[flower shop]] owner and the landlady of the place where Edward and Heiderich were living. By the time of the movie, they are not together, but Hughes is already trying to approach her, and Ed tells him to stop stalking her and confess his feelings to her once and for all. Their relationship starts to cool when Noah starts to live with Ed, because while Gracia supports her, Hughes, a [[Nazi Party]] affiliate, tries to dissuade Ed due to Noah’s [[Roma people|Roma]] origin. By the movie's last moments Hughes finally gets the courage to speak openly with Gracia and apparently, they finally come to terms and he leaves the Nazi party.

==Trivia==
*In the OVA "Kids" on the Conqueror of Shambala DVD another police officer resembles Hughes can be seen giving directions to Edward Elric's grandchildren.
*According to his tombstone in Chapter 46 of the manga, he died at the age of 36.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Fullmetal Alchemist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hughes, Maes}}
[[Category:Fullmetal Alchemist characters]]

Púca

2008-04-30T15:21:35Z

163.178.17.124: /* Popular culture */

{{otheruses|Pooka (disambiguation)}}

The '''Phooka''' ([[Old Irish]]), (also Pooka, Puka, Phouka, Púka, Pwca in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Bucca]] in [[Cornish language|Cornish]], ''pouque'' in [[Dgèrnésiais]], also Glashtyn, Gruagach) is a creature of [[Celt]]ic [[folklore]], notably in [[Ireland]] and [[Wales]]. It is one of the myriad of [[fairy]] (faery) folk, and, like many faery folk, is both respected and feared by those who believe in it.

==Morphology and physiology==
According to legend, the phooka is an adroit [[shapeshifting|shape changer]], capable of assuming a variety of terrifying forms. It may appear as a [[horse]], [[rabbit]], [[goat]], [[goblin]], or [[dog]]. No matter what form the phooka takes, its fur is almost always dark. (its name is a [[cognate]] of the early Irish 'poc', 'a male goat', and it may lend its name to [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]], the goat-footed [[satyr]] made famous in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]''), but it most commonly takes the form of a sleek black [[horse]] with a flowing mane and glowing yellow eyes. <ref>W. B. Yeats, ''Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry'', in ''A Treasury of Irish Myth, Legend, and Folklore'', p 94, ISBN 0-517-489904-X</ref>

If a human is enticed onto a phooka's back it has been known to give them a wild ride. But unlike a [[kelpie]], which will take its rider and dive into the nearest river or lake to drown and devour him, the phooka will do the unfortunate rider no real harm. The Púca has the power of human [[Speech communication|speech]], and has been known to give advice and lead people away from danger. Though the phooka enjoys confusing and often terrifying humans, it is considered to be benevolent.

==Agricultural traditions==
Certain agricultural traditions surround the Púca. It is a creature associated with [[Samhain]], the third [[Paganism|Pagan]] ([[Celt]]ic, [[Wicca]]n) Harvest Festival, when the last of the crops is brought in. Anything remaining in the fields is considered "puka," or fairy-blasted, and hence inedible. In some locales, reapers leave a small share of the crop, the "púca's share," to placate the hungry creature. Nonetheless, November Day ([[November 1]]) is the Púca's day, and the one day of the year when it can be expected to behave civilly.

==Regional variations==
In some regions, the Púca is spoken of with considerably more respect than fear; if treated with due deference, it may actually be beneficial to those who encounter it. The Púca is a creature of the mountains and hills, and in those regions there are stories of it appearing on November Day and providing prophecies and warnings to those who consult it.

==Popular culture==
In the movie ''[[Donnie Darko]]'', Donnie is both unconsciously and then consciously directed by a pooka named Frank to specific acts which [[determinism|determine]] the course of his life.

In the classic [[Mary Coyle Chase|Mary Chase]] play ''[[Harvey (play)|Harvey]]'', the title character Harvey is a pooka, in the form of a very tall humanoid white rabbit. This play has been adapted for film several times, [[Harvey (film)|the most famous version]] starring [[James Stewart (actor)|Jimmy Stewart]]. There is a humorous scene in which Mr. Wilson, the asylum orderly, reads the definition of pooka in the encyclopedia: "Pooka. From old Celtic mythology. A fairy spirit in animal form. Always very large. The pooka appears here and there, now and then, to this one and that one at his own caprice. A benign but mischievous creature. Very fond of rum-pots, crackpots, and how are you, Mr. Wilson?" This provides the notion that Harvey is real.

In [[Emma Bull]]'s 1987 book, ''[[War for the Oaks]]'', the Phouka is a mischievous but ultimately trustworthy shapechanger who takes the form of a large black dog.

Jenny Gluckstein, of [[Peter S. Beagle]]'s ''[[Tamsin]]'', meets a Pooka when she moves from New York City to a haunted farm in [[Dorset]], England.

In ''[[Spiderwick|The Spiderwick Chronicles]]'', the phooka is a [[shapeshift]]er that resembles a black [[rabbit]]/[[monkey]]-like creature; he is smarter than his speech can demonstrate.

R.A. MacAvoy's 1987 fantasy novel ''The Grey Horse'' involves a horse puca in nineteenth-century Ireland.

In Chynna Clugston's ''Blue Monday'' comic, heroine Blue encounters her Pooka, Seamus - a giant, gaseous, kilt-bearing otter who often causes more mischief than anything else.

In the 1959 Disney film ''[[Darby O'Gill and the Little People]]'', Darby's horse turns into a pookah. The first time the horse transforms, it frightens Darby into falling down a well, where he first encounters King Brian and the land of the leprechauns. The second time, the horse causes Darby's daughter Katie to fall and be injured, which leads to Darby's final deal with King Brian and the ultimate "happily ever after" resolution.

In the 1985 book ''Crewel Lye: A Caustic Yarn'', the 8th [[Xanth]] novel by [[Piers Anthony]], a Pooka befriends the main character. He is a smart, helpful ghost horse with rattling chains and ends up being named "Pook."

In one episode of ''[[American Dragon]]'', Phooka influences Haley's dark side with a song.

In the final song of ''[[Owen Pallett| Final Fantasy's]]'' album, ''[[He Poos Clouds]]'', (''The Pooka Sings'') the Pooka is depicted as a sort of anti-muse, declaiming the composer (Owen Pallett) for writing about things which he doesn't believe and which "don't exist". At the conclusion of the song, the Pooka flies away, and Owen Pallett puts down his violin; "I leave it down, never again!".

The [[Magic the Gathering]] [[trading card game]], features two cards based on pucas: ''Cemetery Puca'' and ''Puca's Mischief''.

For specific characters named one of the various spellings of pooka (thus alluding to the creature), see [[Pooka (disambiguation)]].

==References==
<references />
*[[Katharine Mary Briggs|Katharine Briggs]], ''An Encyclopedia of Fairies, Hobgoblins, Brownies, Boogies, and Other Supernatural Creatures,'' "Pwca", p 337. ISBN 0-394-73467-X
*Holly Black's ''Ironside'' 2007

==External links==
*[http://www.shadowdrake.com/waterhorse.html Water Horses and Other Fairy Steeds]
*[http://www.pooka.i-p.com/stories.html Stories of the Phooka]

[[Category:Fomorians]]
[[Category:Irish mythology]]
[[Category:Shapeshifting]]
[[Category:Fairies]]

[[de:Púca]]
[[he:פוקה]]
[[ja:プーカ]]

Characters of 8-Bit Theater

2008-04-29T21:58:35Z

163.178.17.124: /* Ur / Jnn'efur, Fiend of Water */

{{NFimageoveruse|date=April 2008}}

The events in the webcomic ''[[8-Bit Theater]]'' center around four major characters — the '''[[Light Warriors (8-Bit Theater)|Light Warriors]]''' — and a number of minor ones.

==The Light Warriors==
{{main|Light Warriors (8-Bit Theater)}}

Black Mage, Fighter, Thief and Red Mage are the protagonists of the story, a dysfunctional group of supposedly predestinated warriors who would save the world.

==Other main characters==

===White Mage===
[[Image:MageBelt.PNG|thumb|right|White Mage (left) and Black Belt (right)]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 024: "She's a White Magic Woman."<ref name=ep024>{{cite web |date=2001-05-03 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=010503 |title=Episode 024: "She's a White Magic Woman." |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' [[White Mage|White Mage]] (''[[Final Fantasy III]]'', [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Famicom]])

'''[[White Mage]]''' was originally a candidate to be one of the Light Warriors, but was rejected by the group in favor of Red Mage. She then made it her life's mission to help the Light Warriors save the world, and thus has followed them on the journey for most of the comic's history. White Mage specializes in casting healing spells, which has compensated for the sheer incompetence of the Light Warriors on multiple occasions. There is ongoing tension with Black Mage's lustful attraction to her, usually resulting in White Mage [[Magic satchel|hitting him with her hammer]], although she is attracted to his rarely emerging sensitive side and has healed his wounds out of devotion to her position as a healer. White Mage also turns out to have created the universe by mistake after being sent to the beginning of time by Sarda the Sage where she also persuaded Sarda to grow a moustache.

She often questions her purpose in the world since, despite her good intentions, all her actions seem to result in destruction and suffering. White Mage does not realize these results are exclusively the Light Warriors' fault and constantly blames herself, even going so far as to "turn evil" for a very brief period of time. However, the most evil acts she could bring herself to commit were calling Fighter dumb<ref name=ep869>{{cite web |date=2007-07-12 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=070712 |title=Episode 869: The Best Medicine |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> and kicking Red Mage in the shin.<ref name=ep871>{{cite web |date=2007-07-17 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=070717 |title=Episode 871: Moral Complications |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>
{{-}}

===Black Belt===
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 074: Guest Appearances By...<ref name=ep074>{{cite web |date=2001-09-02 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=010902 |title=Episode 074: Guest Appearances By... |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' [[Final Fantasy character classes#Monk|Monk/Black Belt]] (''[[Final Fantasy I]]'', [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]])

'''Black Belt''' was an extremely skilled [[Monk (character class)|martial artist]] whose sense of orientation was all but non-existent. As a result, he was capable of defying the laws of physics by simply misunderstanding them, which rendered him capable of [[Baron Münchhausen|Münchhausenesque]] feats such as walking across a pit on a rope that had been untied at both ends. Black Belt was assigned to guard White Mage on her mission, but was later killed in the Light Warriors' battle with Kary, the Fiend of Fire.

Black Belt's teachers (who have [[color palette]]s identical to [[Ken Masters|Ken]] and [[Ryu (Street Fighter)|Ryu]] from the ''[[Street Fighter]]'' video game series) identify the fighting style they and Black Belt use as [[Wuxia|Wu Xia]]. Black Belt himself described the prevailing theory of his school as the credo that an opponent who is too broken to move is an opponent who is defeated.

Episode 622, "Now shut up"<ref>{{cite web |date=2005-11-10 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=051110 |title=Episode 622: Now shut up |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>, in which White Mage unsuccessfully revives a petrified clone of Black Belt, closely resembles a method to revive Black Belt that was suggested multiple times on the Nuklear Power Forums.

===Sarda the Sage===
[[Image:Sarda(8bit).jpg|thumb|left|100px|Sarda the Sage]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 300: The House Always Wins<ref name=ep300>{{cite web |date=2003-06-26 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=030626 |title=Episode 300: The House Always Wins |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' Dorga (''[[Final Fantasy III]]'', [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Famicom]]), modified

'''Sarda''' is the self-proclaimed Wizard Who Did It (in reference to the common cop out, "[[A wizard did it]]" as an explanation for inconsistency and plot errors) and sole occupant of the Circle Cave. He is an all-powerful wizard who, among other things, can reverse and stop time, as well as manipulate reality itself. He will readily do so out of sheer boredom or just to have others suffer. For example, humanity used to have 36-hour days, but Sarda reduced them to 24 just to make everyone hurry up. He never stops to think about the consequences of his actions, citing that he wouldn't be the Wizard Who Did It if he did. The Light Warriors harbor a strong dislike for Sarda, referring to him as a jackass on multiple occasions;<ref name=ep971>{{cite web |date=2008-03-27 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=080327 |title=Episode 971: Just Talkin' 'Bout Sarda |work=8-Bit Theater |quote='''Thief:''' Even if I wanted to give it to you, Sarda's going to ''jackass'' us away at any second. / '''Dragoon:''' ''What'' is a Sarda? / '''Thief:''' Seriously. ''Jackass'' covers that one.}}</ref> however, they choose not to argue with him for fear he will "unmake [them] before [they] were born".<ref name=ep972>{{cite web |date=2008-03-29 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=080329
|title=Episode 972: Department of Un-History, Item D-36 |work=8-Bit Theater |quote='''Thief:''' The thing about Sarda is that the more he talks, the more chances it gives him to unmake you before you were born, so no one would know you were alive.}}</ref>

Sarda plays a vital role in the story, driving the Light Warriors to recover the four Orbs, often using forceful means. He is not concerned with the Light Warriors' chances of survival, repeatedly sending them on suicidal missions with the same shaky vessel of transporation,<ref name=ep556>{{cite web |date=2005-05-28 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=050528 |title=Episode 556: The Gang's All Here |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref><ref name=ep687>{{cite web |date=2006-04-25 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=060425 |title=Episode 687: Graphic Detail |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref><ref name=ep984>{{cite web |date=2008-04-26 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=080426 |title=Episode 984: So Totally Safe |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> referred to in the comic as a deathtrap. He holds a grudge against White Mage for accidentally taking away his role as the creator of the universe, as well as trapping him in the developing universe for billions of years (despite the fact that this was entirely his fault in the first place). His reasons for collecting the Orbs are not yet made clear, although a malevolent intention was implied when he received the fourth and final Orb.

==Major enemies==
===The Dark Warriors===
[[Image:DarkWarriors(8Bit).jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Dark Warriors, from left to right: Drizz'l, Garland, Vilbert, and Bikke]]
The '''Dark Warriors''' are major enemies the Light Warriors have defeated separately in the past who teamed up to take revenge. With the exception of Drizz'l, they are based on antagonists from the game; Drizz'l is the son of Astos, who is based on a game character.
 

====Garland====
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 052: Meanwhile...<ref name=ep052/> '''Sprite:''' [[Final Fantasy character classes#Dark Knight|Dark Knight]] (''[[Final Fantasy III]]'', [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Famicom]], modified from Episode 053 on)

'''[[Recurring character names of Final Fantasy#Chaos and Garland|Garland]]''' is the first major enemy faced by the Light Warriors. Despite his best attempts to become an evil villain, he is a nice and caring person who enjoys cooking. He treated the Light Warriors more like guests rather than prisoners during their imprisonment in his castle and ended up having to be assisted by his prisoner, [[Characters of 8-Bit Theater#Princess Sara|Princess Sara]]. After his first failed encounter with the Light Warriors, he formed the Dark Warriors and began a propaganda campaign against the Light Warriors. After some time as the Dark Warriors' leader, he has shown a more calculating side to him while retaining his friendly personality. Garland is continually wrestling with his fear of Forest Imps (the weakest creatures in the world) and has the ability to summon huge creatures, including a giant squid, a dinosaur and a really big marmoset; his original plan was even to summon Chaos himself. Garland was, at one point, visited by a [[#Darko|dark god]] looking for an understudy to the Avatar of Evil, but the dark god quickly realized Garland was not what he was looking for and has since redirected his attention to Black Mage.<ref name=ep802>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=070130| title = Episode 802: Rude Awakening| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref>
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====Bikke the Pirate====
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 208: Look Who's Back<ref name=ep208>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=021029| title = Episode 208: Look Who's Back| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> 
'''Sprite:''' Thief (''Final Fantasy I'', NES), modified

'''Bikke''' is an incompetent and dim-witted [[pirate]] [[Captain#Nautical|captain]] and the second member of the Dark Warriors. He is known for his intense body odor and his tendency to speak in a clichéd [[West Country Dialects|pirate accent]]. Bikke managed to let his entire crew almost die from [[scurvy]], which led directly to his defeat. Although he is a pirate captain, he cannot swim and, despite having two perfectly normal, functional hands, desires to be called "The Claw".
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====Prince Drizz'l of the Dark Elves====
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 268: Out on a Web<ref name=ep268>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=030403| title = Episode 268: Out on a Web| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' [[finalfantasy:Gordon|Gordon]] (''[[Final Fantasy II]]'', Famicom), modified

'''Drizz'l''', a [[Dark Elf]] and the son of King Astos, is the third member of the Dark Warriors. His name, a parody of the name of [[Drizzt Do'Urden]], roughly translates from Elven into "The Relentless Scourge." Drizz'l is a sword master equal to Fighter and controlled a pack of giant spiders before he was defeated by the Light Warriors in Marsh Cave. His sword skills are severely impacted by the fact that Fighter took away his swords after he was defeated. Drizz'l considers himself the most intelligent of the Dark Warriors, although his inherent Elven arrogance often gets the better of him.
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====Vilbert von Vampire====
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 366: Evil Has a Name<ref name=ep366>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=031230| title = Episode 366: Evil Has a Name| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' [[finalfantasy:Scholar|Scholar]] (''Final Fantasy III'', Famicom), modified

'''Vilbert''', the son of Lich, is a vampire and the fourth member of the Dark Warriors. Prior to meeting the Light Warriors, Vilbert lived in the basement of his parents' house, where he indulged in his hobbies: writing clichéd [[goth subculture|goth]] poetry, [[live action role-playing game|live action role-playing]] and being misunderstood. Like any other vampire, he can only be killed with a wooden stake. In an attempt to kill him, the Light Warriors drove an armoire (the "Armoire of Invincibility") through most of his organs. He later recovered and joined the Dark Warriors.
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===The Cultists===
[[Image:DoomCultists(8bit).jpg|thumb|left|The Cultists, with Mrr'grt on the far right.]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 523: The Doom That Came to Ice Cave<ref name=ep523>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=050305| title = Episode 523: The Doom That Came to Ice Cave| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> 
'''Sprite:''' Custom (Cultists), Eye Fang (''Final Fantasy III'', NES; Eyestalk)

The '''Cultists''' are a [[Destructive cult|doom cult]] the Light Warriors have encountered twice so far. The true name of their cult is not mentioned, due to the fact that it "cannot be said or written without driving you mad."<ref name=ep526>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=050311| title = Episode 526: The Unnamable| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> They dwell in extremely remote areas and worship ancient beings that are reminiscent of the ones found in [[H. P. Lovecraft]] stories. The Cultists induce new members by chopping their heads off and implanting the larva of an "Old One" in the body, where it matures, giving the Cultists the appearance of a humanoid being with long tentacles in the lower half of their faces. The Cultists thus resemble [[illithid]]s or Mind Flayers, fictional monsters from the roleplaying game [[Dungeons & Dragons]] who look similar and procreate in much the same way. The Cultists take pleasure in disturbing [[paraphilia]] (especially those that carry taboos). All of the Cultists have names that are pronounced similarly to female names, such as L'zlhe (Leslie), Lv'rn (Laverne), or Suh'zahne (Suzanne). All the Cultists have orange skin with grey robes, except the leader, Mrr'grt (Margret), who has lavender skin with purple robes.

The Light Warriors first encountered the Cultists in an Arctic cave, where they were trapped in another dimension by the cult's object of reverence, a monster called "the Eyestalk" by the Light Warriors. The group escaped this dimension and slaughtered the cult members.

The second encounter took place in the sunken Sea Shrine (how they returned is not explained, Red Mage says he is "pretty sure" the Light Warriors slaughtered the Cultists), where the reformed cult worshipped Ur, the third Fiend. They were again slaughtered, this time by Black Mage only, and the Light Warriors accidentally used their ancient "end of the world formula" to summon Ur by invoking his true name, Jnn'efur (Jennifer).

===The Fiends===
[[Image:SomeFiends.PNG|thumb|right|The Fiends from left to right: Muffin, Lich, Kary, and Ur (Jnn'efur)]]
The [[Creatures of Final Fantasy#Four Fiends|'''Fiends''']] are evil elemental beings, far stronger than regular monsters. They guard the orbs the four elements are tied to. All of the Fiends have done battle with the Light Warriors separately and violently attacked a single main character, usually removing them either temporarily or permanently. After their defeats, all the Fiends entered Hell one by one and gathered there.<ref>{{cite web |date=2008-03-18 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=080318 |title=Episode 968: A Spear In The Head Is Worth Two In The Bush |work=8-Bit Theater forums}}</ref>

In the ''Final Fantasy'' video game, the Fiends served as major bosses. They consisted of Lich (Earth), Kary/Marilith (Fire), Kraken (Water) and Tiamat (Air/Wind).

====Lich, Fiend of Earth====
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 380: Introducing...<ref name=ep380>{{cite web |date= 2004-02-05 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=040205 |title=Episode 380: Introducing... |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

'''Lich''' is an undead, immortal wizard and self-proclaimed "Master Bonecraftsman" who believes all things live to die and that the dead exist to serve him. Lich confronted the Light Warriors after they defeated his son, Vilbert. He killed Black Mage by breaking his spine. Afterwards, he easily stopped multiple attempts by Fighter to kill him, as he had put his soul into the Earth Orb, rendering him immortal. Thief "stole" his soul out of the Earth Orb, the Light Warriors managed to get Lich's soul back into him and Black Mage, who emerged as the ruler of Hell, banished Lich to the underworld. However, Lich revived the minions of Hell, whom Black Mage had incapacitated by removing their spines, and ousted Black Mage from his position. Lich's departing words were "Death is but a door, time is but a window; I'll be back", a direct quote from ''[[Ghostbusters 2]]''. Following this, Lich took Black Mage's place as the king of Hell and has since greeted the other three Fiends there as they have been defeated.
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====Kary, Fiend of Fire====
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 466: Trigger Happy<ref name=ep466>{{cite web |date=2004-10-15 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=041005 |title=Episode 466: Trigger Happy |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

'''Kary''' is a Fiend who enjoys indiscriminately killing people via combustion, feeling it's the only way to prove she's evil. However, she overdoes it and ends up killing all her minions with little, if any, provocation, to the point where by the time the Light Warriors infiltrate her lair, she has no minions left to defend herself. During her battle with the Light Warriors, she killed Black Belt. After Fighter held the six-armed Kary at bay using his newly-crafted Sword-Chucks, Red Mage managed to stuff her into a [[bag of holding]] and cast Ice-9, an enormously powerful Ice spell capable of freezing an entire universe, into it. White Mage then shattered the frozen bag with her hammer, destroying the bag and all its contents, including Thief's collection of more riches than actually exist.
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====Ur / Jnn'efur, Fiend of Water====
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 753: Day of the Tentacle<ref name=ep753>{{cite web |date=2006-10-07 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=061007 |title=Episode 753: Day of the Tentacle |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

'''Ur''', the Fiend of Water, is an ancient being worshiped by the Cultists that Fighter accidentally summoned by invoking his true name, '''Jnn'ef''ur'' '''. It initially appeared as a large chaotic mass of sticky tentacles that engulfed Red Mage just before he could reveal the Fiend's weakness.<ref name=ep754>{{cite web |date=2006-10-10 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=061010 |title=Episode 754: He's Gone To A Better Place |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> While Thief stole the Orb of Water, Fighter attacked the being until it fell apart and Ur emerged as a separate tentacled, humanoid entity. Black Mage told Ur he was the one who summoned him and ordered him to first destroy Fighter and Thief, then carry on with his actual task, bringing about the Apocalypse. However, before Ur could begin, Red Mage mimicked Ur's shedding of a containing organism, thus cutting him open from the inside and killing him, making Red Mage the first Fiend victim to not actually die, despite having his skeleton removed (he claimed to have survived because he couldn't write down the damaged he received on his character sheet).

Ur represents the fiend '''Kraken''' from the video game. It is referred to exclusively as Ur in the comic, but Red Mage does note that Ur is "your basic [[Kraken]]oid". Black Mage's use of the name prompted Fighter to bounce it around against the inner walls of the Sea Shrine in further reference to the video game [[Arkanoid]]. The author, [[Brian Clevinger]], notes that the Fiend can be referred to as either Ur or Kraken.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://forum.nuklearpower.com/showthread.php?p=454839#post454839 |title=Kraken/Ur's name |publisher=Nuklear Power forums}}</ref>

====Muffin, Fiend of Air====
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 907: Animal Companion<ref name=ep907>{{cite web |date=2007-10-16 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=071016 |title=Episode 907: Animal Companion |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite''': [[List of characters in Fire Emblem: Fūin no Tsurugi#Idoun|Idoun, the Demon Dragon]] (''[[Fire Emblem: Fūin no Tsurugi]]'', [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forum.nuklearpower.com/showthread.php?t=25077|title=Idoun is Muffin|work=8-Bit Theater forums}}</ref>

'''Muffin''', the owner of both the Sky Castle and the Orb of Air, is a [[dragon]] who [[#Dragoon|Dragoon]] considered his "pet parrot", believing to have never actually seen a dragon. Muffin had established the order of Dragon Knights ten thousand years ago in order to kill the other dragons, allowing her to take their powers, treasure, and knowledge.<ref name=ep916>{{cite web |date=2007-11-6 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=071106 |title=Episode 916: Getting To Know You |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> Afterward, she slaughtered the dragoons so they would not learn of her plot. When the Light Warriors learned of this and told Dragoon his "parrot" was a dragon, Muffin revealed her true intentions by betraying Dragoon and the Light Warriors and attempting to personally kill Thief. Thief became the second 'Fiend victim' to survive, despite suffering severe head and neck damage. When the Light Warriors attacked Muffin's Sky Castle, Dragoon killed her by spearing her through the head.

Muffin is the comic's version of '''Tiamat''', the Fiend of Wind from ''Final Fantasy''. While she is never directly referred to as Tiamat, Dragoon does indicate that Muffin may not be her real name.<ref name=ep962>{{cite web |date=2008-03-01 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=080301 |title=Episode 962: Clearly, they do not |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

===King Astos of the Dark Elves===
[[Image:Astos(8bit).jpg|thumb|left|Astos, the Dark Elf]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 245: Wheels Within Wheels<ref name=ep245>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=030204| title = Episode 245: Wheels Within Wheels| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' [[Final Fantasy character classes#Thief|Thief]] (''Final Fantasy I'', NES), modified

'''Astos''', originally a boss in the first Final Fantasy game, is the father of Drizz'l. He planned to drive Elfland into a civil war by overthrowing the currently ruling Elven clan, using the alias "Chancellor [[Usurper]] of Clan [[Santa Claus|Sahn'ta]]" to get close to the king and Prince Elf (Thief). He had the king poisoned and put into a coma to this end.

In a stroke of luck, Thief and the Light Warriors overheard Astos dictating his plot to himself. The next day, the Light Warriors confronted Astos. They never got around to an epic battle, however, as Astos was killed by a bad pun from Black Mage ("Astos? Mo' like yo' ass IS toast!"). He turned out to carry both Matoya's Crystal Eye and the formula for an antidote for King Elf.
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===The Ordeals===
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 608: Teleporting never screws anyone<ref name=ep608>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=051006| title = Episode 608: Teleporting never screws anyone| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> 
'''Sprite:''' Kraken (''Final Fantasy III'', NES; Greed), Dracocotta (''Final Fantasy III'', NES; Sloth), Black Mage (''Final Fantasy'', NES; Atrocity), Spirit Naga/Grey Naga (''Final Fantasy'', NES; Pride), Lunasaur/Lunasaurus (''[[Final Fantasy IV]]'', [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]]; Zombie Dragon)

In the Castle of Ordeals, the Light Warriors were separated temporarily. During this time, each of them had to do battle with the worst flaw in their personality, each of them being one of the [[seven deadly sins]], except for Black Mage's. Fighter had to contend with the personification of '''[[Sloth (deadly sin)|Sloth]]''', while Red Mage had to deal with his '''[[Pride]]'''. Thief had to fight his '''[[Greed]]'''; however, due to interference from Fighter, Black Mage ended up fighting it, as well as his own Ordeal, which was a manifestation of all his '''[[atrocity|atrocities]]'''. All the ordeals appeared as unnatural monsters, except for Wrath, who was a [[doppelgänger]] of Black Mage, as nothing else was evil enough to represent his sins.

After each of the Ordeals were defeated, the Light Warriors were reunited to fight the final Ordeal, a giant '''Zombie Dragon''', to which Red Mage comments that "a giant Zombie Dragon has little relation to facing one's own inner struggles". It was defeated when Thief stole some of its [[vertebra]]e. As in ''[[Final Fantasy I|Final Fantasy]]'', defeating the Zombie Dragon earned the Light Warriors a Rat's Tail, which they later exchanged for a Class Change.

 

==Other characters==
===Princess Sara===
[[Image:Stegara.PNG|thumb|right|200px|From left to right: Left-Han Man Gary, Princess Sara, and King Steve]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 052: Meanwhile...<ref name=ep052>{{cite web |date=2001-07-07 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=010707 |title=Episode 052: Meanwhile... |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprites:''' [[finalfantasy:Aria|Aria]] (modified) and Princess Sarah (both ''Final Fantasy III'', Famicom)

The Princess of Corneria, daughter of King Steve and Queen Jane and the heir to the Cornerian throne, '''Princess Sara''' had already been kidnapped about six times by the time Garland got to her. Her rescue is the first mission that King Steve gives to the Light Warriors. Although she appears to be a respectable princess, Sara hides a calculating and bloodthirsty nature. For this reason, she used her time as Garland's "prisoner" to coach him into becoming a proper villain. After the Light Warriors "rescued" her, she has continued to show interest in evil, but has not taken any villainous action. At one point, she turned down an offer to take the fourth position in the then-forming Dark Warriors, declaring them hopeless. The vacant position was eventually occupied by Vilbert von Vampire.

===King Steve===
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 058: Government At Work<ref name=ep058>{{cite web |date=2001-07-20 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=010720 |title=Episode 058: Government At Work |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

'''King Steve''' is the father of Princess Sara and ruler of Corneria. He recruited the Light Warriors, requesting that they rescue his daughter, Sara, from Garland. Steve initially sent hundreds of "light warriors" on his errand, surmising that the chosen ones, being destined to save the world, would prevail and those who were not the chosen ones would die off; he was oblivious to the many deaths this would cause, and once informed was still dismissive of this fact. Steve is a capricious and entirely delusional [[despot]] with only a tenuous grip on reality who, among other things, has devastated his country in an attempt to drill for mana (a reference to FFVII's mining for materia), believed he was running for election against a length of string (ignoring the fact that Corneria is a [[monarchy]]) and made a coffee stain his right hand man ("Rodney").<ref name=ep478>{{cite web |date=2004-11-04 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=041104 |title=Episode 478: King Steve, You So Crazy |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> After Sara was "rescued", he started spending his time making excuses to wage war on Elfland. Steve lost his position as King to Rodney in a game of poker, then to the aforementioned length of string. His "left hand man", Gary, tried to get it back for him, but ultimately, King Steve regained his position by "assassinating" the string (cutting it with scissors). Following the conclusion of the Sara kidnapping arc, Steve has not been involved in the main story, but he continues to make frequent appearances in the comic, his adventures often serving as a sideline to the main story.
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===Left-Hand Man Gary===
'''First Appearance:''' King Steve Theater: New Shoes<ref name=KingSteve1>{{cite web |date=2003-12-23 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=031223 |title=King Steve Theater: New Shoes |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' [[Final Fantasy character classes#Scholar|Scholar]] (''[[Final Fantasy III]]'', [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Famicom]])

'''Gary''' is King Steve's chief advisor, although the king's imaginary friend, Rodney the Coffee Stain, holds the title of "right-hand man". Along with Princess Sara, Gary is the usual foil to King Steve's antics. Most of his duties detail taking orders from King Steve, reminding him that he is a king (which King Steve often forgets), and otherwise advising him, although King Steve usually misunderstands or ignores him outright.<ref name=ep478>{{cite web |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=041104| title=Episode 478: King Steve, You So Crazy |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref><ref name=ep816>{{cite web |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=070306 |title=Episode 816: Cornerian Hold 'Em |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

===Dr. Swordopolis===
[[Image:DrSword(8bit).jpg|thumb|right|Dr. Swordopolis]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 083: A Shout Out to All You Web-Heads Out There<ref name=ep83>{{cite web |date=2001-10-03 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=011003 |title=Episode 083: A Shout Out to All You Web-Heads Out There |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprites:''' Dymlos (''[[Tales of Destiny]]'', [[PlayStation]]), modified

'''Dr. Swordopolis''' is the very incarnation of all things sword. He appears to Fighter in visions, taking the form of a bespectacled blade and bringing cryptic and oft-ignored advice. He has numerous powers, including spiritual possession through the anus and the ability to cut through the fabric of space-time. His origins and motivations are unknown.

===Doctor Malpractice===
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 084: Maybe he's greedy for a good cause?<ref name=ep84>{{cite web |date=2001-10-05 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=011005 |title=Episode 084: Maybe he's greedy for a good cause? |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

'''Doctor [[Medical malpractice|Malpractice]]''' was the doctor consulted by King Astos to dispatch of Clan Khee'bler, starting with its king. However, upon discovering his father's "illness," Prince Elf (alias Thief) told Dr. Malpractice that he would secretly leave Elfland and travel the world, stealing treasures and sending them to the doctor to fund research on the disease. The doctor, taking the opportunity to get easy money, agreed and put the funds in his own pocket while, at the same time, receiving money from Chancellor Usurper to keep the king incapacitated. When Thief returned to Elfland, Malpractice's plan went to waste and he fled the Elven lands.

===Matoya===
[[Image:Matoya(8bit).jpg|thumb|left|100px|Matoya]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 172: The Inhabitant of the Cave<ref name=ep172>{{cite web |date=2002-07-13 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=020713 |title=Episode 172: The Inhabitant of the Cave |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

'''Matoya''' is a blind witch who sends the Light Warriors on a [[side-quest]] to regain her magic eye after feeding them poisoned nightmare-inducing cookies, promising them an antidote if they return with it. Due to her poor hearing, she also grants Fighter the [[Armoire]] of Invincibility, instead of the ''[[Armor]]'' of Invincibility Fighter was actually searching for (although Fighter did not seem to notice or care). She is almost as greedy as Thief and once almost tricked Thief into paying her the entire kingdom of Elfland in return for his father's cure. Matoya has a romantic relationship with [[#Bahamut|Bahamut]], the Dragon God-King, much to the disgust and horror of the Light Warriors.<ref name=ep635>{{cite web |date=2005-12-15 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=051215 |title=Episode 635: Secret Ingredient |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>
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===The Other Warriors===
[[Image:OtherWarriors(8Bit).jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Other Warriors, from left to right: Rogue, Ranger, Cleric, and Berserker]]
The '''Other Warriors''' are a band of adventurers based on ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'' character classes who travel the world and occasionally meet the Light Warriors on their journey. They have stolen, or attempted to steal the Orb of Air from Dragoon for unknown reasons (though the Orb itself was in the possession of Muffin).
 
'''Generic Half-Elven Dual-Class [[Ranger (Dungeons & Dragons)|Ranger]]'''

'''First Appearance:''' Episode 435: He's a Fighter, Not a Diplomat<ref name=ep435>{{cite web |date=2004-06-29 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=040629 |title=Episode 435: He's a Fighter, Not a Diplomat |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' [[Final Fantasy character classes#Bard|Bard]] (''Final Fantasy III'', Famicom), modified

'''Ranger''' is very poetic and adventurous, as well as extremely friendly and trusting, though a bit naïve. He is capable of firing multiple arrows at once with uncanny accuracy. Ranger is a dual-class character, with both classes being Ranger, and has mixed ancestry, making him [[Elf (Dungeons & Dragons)#Half-elves|half-Elven]], one-quarter Lefeinish, and one-quarter [[Half-orc|half-Orcish]] (translating to one-eighth orc; the final eighth of his heritage has not been specified, but is presumed to be another kind of human based on ''Dungeons & Dragons'' rules).<ref name=ep804>{{cite web |date=2007-02-03 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=070203 |title=Episode 804: Origin Of The Ranger |work=8-Bit Theater |quote='''Red Mage:''' A dual-class half-elven ranger who's also a quarter Lefeinish? What's the final quarter? / Ranger:''' Half-Orc.}}</ref>

'''[[Barbarian (Dungeons & Dragons)|Berserker]] Axinhed'''<ref name=ep446>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=040729| title = Episode 446: "Stand Up Next to a Mountain...| work = 8-Bit Theater|quote='''Berserker:''' I had readied them with an official seal of my family, Axinhed, so they could travel without fear of being struck down by the populace.}}</ref>

'''First Appearance:''' Episode 437: Companion<ref name=ep437>{{cite web |date=2004-07-03 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=040703 |title=Episode 437: Companion |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' [[finalfantasy:Viking|Viking]] (''Final Fantasy III'', Famicom), modified

Half of the time, '''Berserker''' is a civilized, gentle dwarf and a great conversationalist. The other half of the time he is in a blind rage, swearing and shouting incoherently while mauling whoever happens to stand nearby (usually Thief). In his civilized state, he tends to wear a [[monocle]] and often does not remember what he did in his berserk rage. The Light Warriors fear Beserker for his chaotic state, ignoring his civilized form.

'''[[Cleric (Dungeons & Dragons)|Cleric]]'''

'''First Appearance:''' Episode 446: "Stand Up Next to a Mountain..."<ref name=ep446>{{cite web |date=2004-07-29 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=040729 |title=Episode 446: "Stand Up Next to a Mountain... |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' [[Final Fantasy character classes#Summoner|Summoner]] (''Final Fantasy III'', Famicom), modified

A "miracle shopper" who makes deals with the gods. In order to keep an open market, '''Cleric''' prefers not to devote himself to one single deity and is, in fact, an [[atheism|atheist]]. His use of divine intervention is often faulty and unreliable. Cleric made a deal with a Trickster God named Raven to bring Thief back to life; in return, Raven bestowed him with a "healing [[Shiv (weapon)|shiv]]", which has shown its worth in bringing Thief back from the very brink of death.

'''[[Rogue (Dungeons & Dragons)|Rogue]]'''

'''First Appearance:''' Episode 446: "Stand Up Next to a Mountain..."<ref name=ep446>{{cite web |date=2004-07-29 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=040729 |title=Episode 446: "Stand Up Next to a Mountain... |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' Thief (''Final Fantasy III'', Famicom)

Like Thief, '''Rogue''' is constantly scamming people, including his own teammates. However, unlike Thief, who conducts his business through contracts and legal loopholes, Rogue relies on a network of shady contacts, one of whom is Thief himself.<ref name=ep808>{{cite web |date=2007-02-13 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=070213 |title=Episode 808: "Who Else?" |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

===Bahamut===
[[Image:Bahamut.JPG|thumb|100 px|left|Bahamut, God-King of Dragons, while in his 8-bit form.]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 569: What Dragon?<ref name=ep569>{{cite web |date=2005-06-28 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=050628 |title=Episode 569: What Dragon? |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

'''[[Bahamut (Final Fantasy)|Bahamut]]''' is the God-King of Dragons who was awakened by Black Mage, although Fighter was blamed for doing so. He offered to give the Light Warriors "the power of self-realization and the power that comes with it" in exchange for the tail of the dreaded Dire Rat. When the Light Warriors brought him such a tail from the Castle of Ordeals, he granted their Class Changes. It later turned out that the reason Bahamut desired a rat tail was that rat tail soup is a potent virility drug, to be concocted by his girlfriend, Matoya.<ref name=ep635/> According to [[#Muffin / Tiamat, Fiend of Air|Muffin]], Bahamut will slumber until the prophecy of the Enlightened Warrior is fulfilled in order to usher in the end of the world. Red Mage thus suspects that in attempting to save the world, they may have accidentally endangered it.<ref name=ep917>{{cite web |date=2007-11-08 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=071108 |title=Episode 917: Let Sleeping Dragons Lie |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>
{{-}}

===Raven===
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 581: Of Tricksters and Thieves<ref name=ep581>{{cite web |date=2005-07-26 |url=http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=050726 |title=Episode 581: Of Tricksters and Thieves |work=8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

'''Raven''' is a [[totem]]istic representation of trickery. When Thief was nearly killed by Berserker, Raven tricked Thief into thinking he was dead. At the brink of dying, Thief's soul was in his own personal Hell, in which everything was his and there was nothing left to steal. Thief said that he would do "anything" to get out of the personal Hell he was in; subsequently, Raven got Thief to sign a contract, which Thief failed to read closely. The nature of the contract is still unknown. Raven is friends with Bahamut.

===Darko===
[[Image:Darko(8bit).jpg|thumb|right|Darko]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 654: Ominous<ref name=ep654>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=060128| title = Episode 654: Ominous| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' [[Magus (Chrono Trigger)|Magus]] (''[[Chrono Trigger]]'', [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]])

One of the '''Dark Gods''' Black Mage worships and the one who made his class change effective. The Dark God's name, if any, has not been revealed, so Black Mage himself makes up the name "'''Darko''', the Dark God of the Dark" in an attempt to convince his friends that he had really met a dark god. Darko appears to be involved in some sort of rivalry with Doctor Swordopolis, although the exact implications of this rivalry are still unclear.<ref name=ep656>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=060202| title = Episode 656: Simply Stunning| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> His official title is "Executive Assistant to Chaos", being one of many middle management deities in the organization of evil. Darko is known to work in the 'Ministry of Earthly Affairs'.

===Megahedron===
[[Image:Megahedron.png|thumb|left|Megahedron]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 661: All Kinds of Hallucinations<ref name=ep661>{{cite web|url = http://nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=060214|title = Episode 661: All Kinds of Hallucinations|work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

'''Megahedron''' is a somewhat mysterious character. He is apparently a patron deity to Red Mage, like Dr. Swordopolis is to Fighter and the Dark God is to Black Mage, but Red Mage's flat-out refusal to believe he exists, citing him as a result of his "three-point hallucination flaw", complicates matters. He appears as a red twenty-sided [[dice|die]] wearing aviator sunglasses.

===Dragoon===
[[Image:Dragoon(8bit).jpg|thumb|right|Dragoon]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 787: Course change<ref name=ep787>{{cite web| url = http://nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=061226| title = Episode 787: Course Change| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' Dragoon (''Final Fantasy III'', Famicom), modified

[[Final Fantasy character classes#Dragoon|Dragoon]] is the last of the Dragon Knights, an elite group of spear-carrying warriors who attack by jumping high in the air and coming down on their opponents. Dragoon uses this technique as a travel method, but is unable to do these jumps when not coming down on anything at the end. His usual target is Black Mage, although he does not harbour any ill will against the Light Warriors. In fact, he is extremely polite towards them, remaining oblivious to the considerable pain his travel method causes. Dragoon has encountered the team several times, mostly in passing. Like the Light Warriors, he is looking for the Air Orb that the Other Warriors stole from him and that he means to use to rebuild the order of Dragon Knights.

Dragoon had a pet dragon named [[Characters of 8-Bit Theater#Muffin, Fiend of Air|Muffin]] (who was actually the Fiend of Air) whom, like all dragons, he believed to be a [[parrot]].

===Running gag characters===
These are characters that appear as running gags in the comic.

*'''Onion Kid''' <ref name=thread2>{{cite web| url = http://forum.nuklearpower.com/showthread.php?p=760484#post760484| title = Confirmation of the name "Rex Crockett" not being "real."| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref>
[[Image:Kid(8bit).jpg|thumb|left|Onion Kid, the traumatized child]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 041: It Just Got Weird in Survivor 8-bit Style Part 6<ref name=ep041>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=010611| title = Episode 041: It Just Got Weird in Survivor 8-bit Style Part 6| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''Sprite:''' [[finalfantasy:Onion Knight|Onion Kid]] (''Final Fantasy III'', Famicom)

A child who has been traumatized multiple times during the course of the comic. His original family, as well as three foster/adoptive families, have been killed and he has been kicked out of an orphanage, all as unintended side effects of other characters' (usually Black Mage) actions. He himself has been placed on trial for the murder of his foster relatives.
 
*'''The Real Light Warriors'''
[[Image:RealLW(8bit).jpg|thumb|right|The "Real" Light Warriors]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 087: A Day Late and a Buck Short<ref name=ep087>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=011016| title = Episode 087: A Day Late and a Buck Short| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

A party made up of a Knight, a Ninja, a Red Wizard and a White Wizard, upgraded character classes from ''Final Fantasy''. These four warriors were supposed to be the real Light Warriors of Destiny, but the Light Warriors beat them to it when the real Light Warriors decided to postpone their visit to King Steve in order to [[Level grinding|improve their levels]]. Since then, they've always been several steps behind the heroes and often suffer great pain as a result of their actions.

The sprites that are used to portray the real Light Warriors are the ones used during battles for the [[Final Fantasy character classes#Warrior|Knight]], [[Final Fantasy character classes#Ninja|Ninja]], [[Final Fantasy character classes#Red Mage|Red Wizard]], and [[Final Fantasy character classes#White Mage|White Wizard]] character classes from ''Final Fantasy'' for the NES.

*'''Messenger'''<ref name=Messenger>{{cite web| url = http://forum.nuklearpower.com/showpost.php?p=343051&postcount=156| title = Confirmation of the Messenger's name| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> '''and Elite Royal Guard Hank'''
[[Image:Hank&Mess(8bit).jpg|thumb|left|180px|Messenger & Hank]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 157: Back in Corneria...<ref name=ep157>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=020605| title = Episode 157: Back in Corneria...| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> 
'''Sprite:''' Ranger (''Final Fantasy III'', Famicom; Messenger), Dragoon (''Final Fantasy III'', Famicom; Hank)

'''Elite Royal Guard Hank''' was ordered by King Steve to kill '''Messenger''' for bearing bad news, however, the king forgot to tell Hank he'd meant the order as a joke. Hank has been hunting the messenger, who occasionally can be seen delivering messages for King Steve, ever since.

The sprite that is used to portray the messenger is the one used during battles for the [[Final Fantasy character classes#Hunter|Hunter]] character class from ''Final Fantasy III'' for the Famicom while the sprite used to portray Elite Royal Guard Hank is the battle sprite for the [[Final Fantasy character classes#Dragoon|Dragoon]] character class from ''Final Fantasy III''.
 
*'''Akbar'''
[[Image:Akbar(8bit).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Akbar]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 144: Premature Upgrade?<ref name=ep144>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=020501| title = Episode 144: Premature Upgrade?| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref> 
'''Sprite:''' Thief (''Final Fantasy I'', NES), modified

A shopkeeper and skillful scam artist. Akbar usually offers extremely badly disguised shoddy services. For example, a typical Akbar store would be named ''Akbar's Discount Amnesia Dust Outlet (not talcum powder)''. The name Akbar was taken from the [[Akbar and Jeff|character of the same name]] from the comic strip [[Life in Hell]] by [[Matt Groening]], as was the name Jeff (see below).<ref name=thread2>{{cite web| url = http://forum.nuklearpower.com/showthread.php?p=239510#post239510| title = Brian Clevinger about Akbar| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref>
 
*'''Jeff'''
[[Image:Jeff(8bit).jpg|thumb|250px|left|Jeff]]
'''First Appearance:''' Episode 315: The Lesser of Two Cons<ref name=ep315>{{cite web| url = http://www.nuklearpower.com/daily.php?date=030805| title = Episode 315: The Lesser of Two Cons| work = 8-Bit Theater}}</ref>

A merchant similar to Akbar. However, Jeff is usually honest about his services, which, while being just as shoddy as Akbar's, are, in some manner, useful. Jeff sold the Light Warriors a deathtrap, an airship that is unusually honest about its nature. He has a tendency to kick Black Mage whenever he sees him, something that earns him Thief and Red Mage's liking. Like Akbar, Jeff is named [[Akbar and Jeff|in reference]] to Matt Groening's ''[[Life in Hell]]''.
 

==References ==
{| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" width="100%"
|-
! | '''List of Reference Sources'''
|-
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{{reflist|2}}
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[[Category:Webcomic characters|8-Bit Theater, Characters of]]

Reggaeton

2008-04-29T21:13:34Z

163.178.17.124: /* History */

{{Infobox Music genre
|name=Reggaetón
|bgcolor=red
|color=white
|stylistic_origins=[[Dancehall]], [[Techno]], [[Hip hop music|Hip Hop]], [[Latin American music]], [[Reggae]], [[House music|House]], [[Rap]]
|cultural_origins=Late 1980s [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Panama]]
|instruments=Dem Bow (rhythm) - [[Sampling (music)|Sampler]] - [[Bass (instrument)|Bass]] - [[Synthesizer]] - [[Drum machine]]
|popularity=Since mid-1990s in Puerto Rico, worldwide beginning around 2004.
|derivatives=
|subgenrelist=
|subgenres=
|subgenres=[[Bachateo]] - [[Spanish dancehall]] - [[Salsaton]] - [[Bhangraton]] - [[Fussion Music]] - [[Reggaecrunk]] - [[Reggaeton Pop]] - [[Malianteo]] - [[Romantikeo]] - [[Rocketon]]
|regional_scenes=[[Puerto Rico]] - [[Dominican Republic]] - [[New York]] - [[Panama]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Japan]] - [[Los Angeles]] - [[Miami, Florida|Miami]]
|other_topics=[[Puerto Rico]] - [[Gasolina]] - [[Luny Tunes]] - [[Machete Music]] - [[Perreo]] -[[Tempo (artist)]]
}}
'''Reggaeton''' (also spelled '''Reggaetón''', and known as '''Reguetón''' and '''Reggaetón''' in Spanish) is a form of [[urban music]] which became popular with [[Latin America]]n youth during the early [[1990s]] and spread over the course of 10 years to [[North America]]n, [[Europe]]an, [[Asia]]n, and [[Australia]]n audiences. Originating in [[Puerto Rico]] but some think it originated in Panama,although many of the first artist we heard of this genre are Puerto Rican born or of Puerto Rican decent, Reggaeton blends [[Jamaica]]n music influences of [[reggae]] and [[dancehall]] with those of Latin America, such as [[bomba]], [[plena]], [[salsa]], [[merengue]], [[latin pop]] and [[bachata]] as well as that of [[Hip hop music|hip hop]], [[R&B]], and [[electronica]]. The music is also combined with [[rapping]] or singing in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].  Reggaeton has given the Hispanic youth, starting with those from [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Panama]], a musical genre that they can consider their own. The influence of this genre has spread to the wider [[Latino]] communities in the [[United States]], as well as the [[Latin American]] audience.
While it takes influences from hip hop and Jamaican dancehall, it would be wrong to define reggaeton as the Hispanic or Latino version of either of these genres; Reggaeton has its own specific beat and rhythm, whereas [[Latin rap|Latino hip hop]] is simply hip hop recorded by artists of Latino descent. The specific rhythm that characterizes reggaeton is referred to as “The Dembow Beat.”<ref name="villagevoice">{{cite news | url=http://www.villagevoice.com/music/0603,caramanica,71722,22.html | publisher=Village Voice | title=Grow Dem Bow | accessdate=2006-07-24}}</ref><ref name="phoenix">{{cite news | url=http://www.thephoenix.com/PrinterFriendly.aspx?id=1595 | publisher=The Phoenix | title=Rise of Reggaetón | date=2006-01-19 | accessdate=2006-07-24 | author=Wayne Marshall }}</ref> The name is a reference to the title of the dancehall song by [[Shabba Ranks]] that first popularized the beat in the early 1990s.
Reggaeton's origins represents a hybrid of many different musical genres and influences from various countries in the Caribbean, Latin America and the United States. The genre of reggaeton however is most closely associated with Puerto Rico, as this is where the musical style later popularized and became most famous, and where the vast majority of its current stars originate from. <ref name="AskMen">[http://uk.askmen.com/toys/special_feature_100/102_special_feature.html AskMen.com - "5 Things You Didn't Know About Reggaeton"]</ref><ref>[http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/Issues/2005-12-15/music/music.html Phoenix New Times - "Phoenix sizzles with the latest dance music from Puerto Rico"]</ref><ref>[http://www.jamaicans.com/articles/primearticles/reggaeton.shtml Jamaicans.com - "a new genre of Caribbean dance music"]</ref><ref>[http://www.mundoreggaeton.com/docs/historiareggaeton.htm Mundo Reggaeton - “Reggaeton History”]</ref>

Reggaeton lyrics tend to be more derived from hip hop than dancehall. Like hip hop, reggaeton has caused some controversy, albeit less, due to alleged exploitation of women <ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4304185.stm BBC News - "Puerto Rico shakes to a new beat"]</ref>, and to a lesser extent, explicit and violent lyrics. Further controversy surrounds [[perreo]], a dance with explicit sexual overtones which is sometimes, but not always, associated with reggaeton music.

==History==

Reggaeton's roots are from [[Puerto Rico]],
<ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4304185.stm BBC News - "Puerto Rico shakes to a new beat"]</ref>
<ref name="USA now">[http://www.usatoday.com/life/music/news/2005-08-04-reggaeton_x.htm USA Today - reggaeton article]</ref><ref name="AskMen">[http://www.askmen.com/toys/special_feature_100/102_special_feature.html Ask Men - feature on reggaeton]</ref> with the music evolving and coming to prominence in [[Puerto Rico]]. Reggaeton started as an adaptation of Jamaican [[reggae]] (and later Jamaican [[dancehall]]) to the Spanish-language culture in Puerto Rico <ref name="phoenix"/>.
The origins of Spanish reggae begin with the first [[reggae]] recordings being made in Panama during the [[1970s]]. Reportedly, the Jamaican reggae influence on Panamanian music has been strong since the early 20th century, when Jamaican laborers were used to help build the [[Panama Canal]]. <ref name="phoenix"/> Afro-Panamanians had been performing and recording Spanish-language reggae since at least the 1970s. Artists such as [[El General]], [[Chicho Man]], [[Nando Boom]], [[Renato]], and [[Black Apache]] are considered the first [[raggamuffin]] [[DJ]]s from Panama. El General has been identified as one of the fathers of Spanish Reggae, blending Jamaican reggae into a Latin-ised version. It was common practice to translate the lyrics of Jamaican reggae song into Spanish and sing them over the original melodies, a form termed “Spanish reggae” or “Reggae en español.” Meanwhile, during the [[1980s]] the Puerto Rican rapper [[Vico C]] released Spanish-language hip hop records in his native island. His production of cassettes throughout the [[1980s]], mixing reggae and hip hop, also helped spread the early reggaeton sound, and he is widely credited with this achievement <ref>[http://www.askmen.com/toys/special_feature_100/102b_special_feature.html Ask Men - Vico C and El General Reggaeton founders]</ref>. The widespread movement of “Spanish reggae” in the Latin-American communities of the Caribbean and the urban centres of the United States help increase its popularity <ref name="phoenix"/>.

During the [[1990s]] reggae production took off seriously in Puerto Rico; this also occurred separately in Panama due to the increased popularity of Jamaican [[ragga]] imports. Towards the middle of the decade, Puerto Ricans were producing their own "[[riddim]]s" with clear influences from hip hop and other styles. These are considered the first proper reggaeton tracks, initially called “under,” a short form of “Underground.” As Caribbean and African-American music gained this momentum in Puerto Rico, Reggae Rap in Spanish marked the beginning of [[Boricua]] underground rap and served as an expression for millions of young people. This created an entire invisible, yet prominent underground youth culture that sought to express themselves through Reggae Rap in Spanish. As a youth culture that exists on the fringes of society and criminal illegality, it has often been publicly criticized. The Puerto Rican police launched a raid against underground rap by confiscating cassette tapes from music stores under Penal codes of obscenity, issuing fines, and the demoralization of rappers through radio, television, and newspaper media. <ref> Santos, Mayra. 1996. "Puerto Rican Underground." Centro 8, no. 1 & 2: 219-231. </ref>

The term "underground", coming out of hip-hop discourse, associates underground artists as asserting a self-identification that rejects the commercialization of music. In San Juan "underground", however, it was not just about authenticity or ideology, but was literally about position in the market. "Underground" music was circulated via informal networks, copied from cassette to cassette, until the mid 1990's.

[[DJ Playero]] was one of the most famous producers of "Underground" at the time, releasing several underground cassettes that featured early performances of some soon-to-be-famous artists like [[Daddy Yankee]]. In fact, DJ Playero was among the first to put the Dembow Beat into the reggae songs, thus creating Reggaeton. It's been speculated that "-Ton" was put in the end of Reggae for it sounds like the rhythm of the dembow.

The basis for reggaeton was laid in Puerto Rico at this time, with the melding of Panamanian Spanish reggae, with influences from dancehall, hip-hop and various other Latin American musical genres <ref name="phoenix"/>.

{{sound sample box align left|}}
{{multi-listen start|Audio sample of:}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Dem Bow sample.ogg|title="Dem Bow (rhythm)"|description=Produced by [[Robert Dixon (musician)|Bobby "Digital" Dixon]], performed by [[Steely & Clevie]].|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
{{sample box end}}

The genre morphed through the years, at various points being termed “Melaza,” “música underground,” and “Dem Bow.” This last name originated from reggaeton's distinguishing rhythmic feature: the ''Dem Bow'' (alternately spelled “Dembow”) beat, relying heavily on the [[snare drum]], which is used in nearly all Reggaeton songs today. <ref name="villagevoice"/> <ref name="phoenix"/> This beat, or [[riddim]], was produced under the direction of Jamaican record producer [[Robert Dixon (musician)|Bobby "Digital" Dixon]] and performed by [[Steely & Clevie]]. It first became popular in the song “Dem Bow” (They Bow) performed by Jamaican dancehall artist [[Shabba Ranks]] in 1991.<ref>[http://www.cduniverse.com/productinfo.asp?pid=1070514&style=music Shabba Ranks - “Dem Bow” Sample - Disc 1, Track 7]</ref> The song and beat achieved greater popularity among Spanish-speaking Latin Americans when Panamanian artist [[El General]] released the song “Son Bow” in 1991, a Spanish language cover of “Dem Bow” using the same musical track.<ref>[http://www.cduniverse.com/productinfo.asp?pid=6031659&style=music El General - Son Bow Sample - Track 12]</ref>. It should be pointed out that neither Shabba or El General sang reggaeton as neither the genre nor its title were as yet formed. Additionally “Dem Bow” was just a single song in Shabba's catalog, with Ranks not singing another significant song using the “Dem Bow” beat. However the influence of the original Bobby Digital beat is undeniable, and modern Reggaeton often still reflects the original instrumentation, as well as the original rhythmic structure.

Reggaeton's popularity in the U.S. may also owe some credit to popular [[Latin Rap]] artists such as [[Mellow Man Ace]] (who produced "Mentirosa", the first platinum single by a Latin rapper, in 1989) or even Gerardo with his Latin hip-hop hit "[[Rico Suave]]", a top 40 in the U.S. in 1991.

===Rise to popularity===
The name ''reggaeton'' only gained prominence in the mid-1990s (from the [[1994]] to [[1995]] period), with the Dem Bow beat characterizing the genre; this is in contrast to the more reggae, dancehall and hip hop-derived tracks previously created. The name was created in Puerto Rico to signify the hybrid sound, and distinguish it from the previous ''Spanish reggae'', created from the years of mixing the different genres.<ref name="phoenix"/> Today, the music flourishes throughout Latin America.

Reggaeton soon increased in popularity with Latino youth in the United States when [[DJ Blass]] worked with artists such as [[Plan B (duo)|Plan B]] and Speedy in albums such as ''Reggaeton Sex''.

Reggaeton expanded and became known when other producers followed the steps of [[DJ Playero]], like [[DJ Nelson]] and [[DJ Eric]]. In the early 90s albums like [[DJ Playero]]'s ''Playero 37'' (in which [[Daddy Yankee]] became known) and [[The Noise: Underground]], ''The Noise 5'' and ''The Noise 6'' were very popular in Puerto Rico and the [[Dominican Republic]]. Singers like [[Don Chezina]], [[O.G. Black & Master Joe]], [[Baby Rasta & Gringo]], and [[Lito Y Polaco]] among others were very popular.

Many now popular producers, such as [[Luny Tunes]], [[Noriega (producer)|Noriega]] and [[Eliel (producer)|Eliel]], first appeared in the reggaetón scene in [[2003]]. Albums such as ''[[Mas Flow 1|Mas Flow]]'', ''[[The Last Don (album)|The Last Don]]'', and ''Las Gargolas 4'' expanded reggaeton's popularity among Latinos in the United States.

During the late 1990's and early 2000's groups like [[Fulanito]], [[Hector y Tito]], and [[Barrio Boys]] were formed that helped spread the urban sounds that influinced the rise to reggaeton.

[[2004]] was the year that reggaeton gained widespread popularity in the United States, eventually gaining attention in many “Western” countries. This was due to [[N.O.R.E.]] introducing the genre to mainstream America with the song “[[Oye Mi Canto]],”{{Fact|date=February 2007}} followed by [[Daddy Yankee]] who came out with his album “[[Barrio Fino]]” and his mega hit single “[[La Gasolina|Gasolina]].” Another important artist who contributed to reggaeton's increasing popularity, especially in Europe, is [[Don Omar]], with singles like “Pobre Diabla” and “Dale Don Dale.”<ref>[http://ocio.ya.com/musica/2005/01/254555.html El Reggaeton]</ref> Other very popular reggaetón artists include [[Alexis Y Fido]], [[Angel & Khriz]], [[Nina Sky]], [[Nicky Jam]], [[Zion y Lennox]], [[Rakim & Ken-Y]], [[Voltio]], [[Calle 13 (band)|Calle 13]], [[Héctor El Father]], [[Ivy Queen]], [[Wisin & Yandel]], [[Tito El Bambino]] and [[Tego Calderon]].

Don Omar’s May 2006 album, ''King of Kings'', became history’s highest ranking reggaeton LP in the top 10 US charts, with its debut at #5 on the Latin sales charts and the #1 spot on the [[Billboard charts|''Billboard'']] Latin Rhythm Radio Chart with the single “Angelito.”<ref name="LR">[http://www.latinrapper.com/reggaeton.html Reggaeton Music News - “Don Omar On Top of Charts with ‘King of Kings’ Debut”]</ref> King of Kings also peaked at #7 in the Billboards top 200 albums. Don Omar was also able to beat the in-store appearance sales record at Downtown Disney's Virgin music store previously set by pop star [[Britney Spears]], further demonstrating reggaeton's massive rise to popularity in the United States.

==Criticism==
This genre has been criticized mine times due to the nature of its lyrics, dancing style, and repetitive musical style. It is very common to see people demoting this style in all forms of media.

==Musical Characteristics==
===Reggaeton beat===
Reggaeton’s most notably unique feature is a driving drum-machine track which was derived from a popular Jamaican dancehall rhythm. As stated previously this beat is called “Dem Bow,” from the Bobby Dixon-produced [[Shabba Ranks]] song of the same title. The beat that can be heard throughout Reggaeton is an interplay of a steady kick drum and a syncopated snare. The kick drum emphasizes a 4/4 beat, while the snare comes on the "and" of the 2nd 16th note and right on the 4th 16th.

Many of the sounds found in a typical reggaeton beat are electronically synthesized. Simple melodies may be produced with keyboards, electric guitars, and other electronic instruments. Other forms of electronic dance music have significantly influenced reggaeton beats, such as [[techno (music)|techno]], [[house (music)|house]], and genres such as the merengue hip hop (also called [[merenhouse]]) of groups such as [[Proyecto Uno]] and [[Zona 7]].

Reggaeton beats are highly versatile. The great variety and flexibility of reggaeton beats can be illustrated by [[Luny Tunes]]' CD ''[[The Kings of the Beats]]'', which is a collection of purely instrumental beats. Reggaeton beats can be based on [[merengue music|merengue]], [[bachata]], [[bolero]], [[Salsa music|salsa]] and [[hip-hop music|hip-hop]] beats. Other subgenres of reggaeton include [[Romantikeo]], [[Bachateo]] and [[Salsaton]].

===Reggaeton and hip-hop===
{{Original research|date=September 2007}}
Reggaeton bears many resemblances to [[hip-hop music|hip-hop]]. The most notable resemblance to hip-hop is that reggaeton, in most cases, is [[rapping|rap]]ped instead of being sung. Reggaeton also has hooks throughout a song that may include a chorus of singers. Reggaeton artists also adopt pseudonyms comparable to those of hip-hop artists. Overall, reggaeton and hip-hop are both thought of as street-styled music popular among urban youth. Reggaeton also features "beef"-like rivalries similar to those found in hip-hop called "[[tiraera]]" ("throwing" in Puerto Rican Spanish slang).

Despite the similarities, reggaeton only roughly fits into the Latin hip-hop category but is not synonymous with hip-hop. True Latin hip-hop has beats that almost exactly resemble mainstream hip-hop beats. These “hardcore” Latin hip-hop artists include [[Big Pun]], [[Fat Joe]], [[Akwid]], and [[Jae-P]]. Reggaeton, though, has rap-styled lyrics but has a very different beat that is influenced not by hip-hop, but by [[reggae]], [[dancehall]], [[merengue music|merengue]] and [[techno]]. Although reggaeton has been influenced by hip-hop, it has also borrowed features from many other genres as well and is not considered to be Latin hip-hop.

Reggaeton and hip-hop are often remixed together, and reggaeton songs and live concerts may feature hip-hop artists such as [[Lil Jon]], [[50 Cent]], and [[Eminem]]. Hip-hop songs such as [[Usher (entertainer)|Usher]]'s ''Yeah'' and [[Snoop Dogg]]'s ''Drop It Like It's Hot'' have been remixed by replacing the original beat with a reggaeton beat. In other remixes, reggaeton DJs may rap out an English song in Spanish.

As Reggaeton has gained popularity, there is a new trend of Hip-Hop and Reggaeton artists collaborating on songs. [[Snoop Dogg]] was featured on [[Daddy Yankee]]'s Gangsta Zone in his album [[Barrio Fino En Directo]] ; as was [[Paul Wall]] on remix to Yankee’s earlier hit song entitled “Machete.” The remix of Daddy Yankee’s song [[Rompe]] featured [[Lloyd Banks]] and [[Young Buck]] of G-Unit. And Yankee’s first U.S. hit [[Gasolina]] was remixed, adding Miami rapper [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]], and Crunk music producer [[Lil Jon]] to the track. [[Sean Paul]] collaborated with him on the song ‘Oh Man’ on his most recent album, The Trinity. Hip hop producer [[Pharrell Williams]] produced and sang on the track ‘Mamacita’ with Daddy Yankee as well. American rapper [[Juelz Santana]] was featured on [[Don Omar]]'s song Conteo on Omar’s album King of Kings which was featured in the movie [[The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift]]. [[Luny Tunes]] produced the [[R.Kelly]] song ‘[[Burn It Up]]’ with [[Wisin Y Yandel]] on his album TP3 Reloaded as well as producing the remix to [[Paris Hilton]]’s song [[Stars are Blind]] again featuring Wisin y Yandel, which has sold over 300,000 songs on [[iTunes]]. Popular Reggaeton producer [[Héctor El Father]] produced the hit song ‘Here We Go Yo’ with [[Jay-Z]], whom he collaborated with to produce his most recent album “Los Rompe Discotekas” (The Club Bangers) which came out in early summer 2006. Reggaeton artist [[Voltio]] raps alongside with R&B group [[Jagged Edge (band)|Jagged Edge]] on the song ‘So Amazing'. The song ‘Wanna Ride’ was recited and sung by distinguished Reggaeton artists Wisin y Yandel together with veteran rap group Bone Thugs N'Harmony, and which was featured in the movie [[Take the Lead]] starring [[Antonio Banderas]]. A remix of the song 'Rakata' by Wisin y Yandel features rapper Ja-Rule. The remix to 'Hello Mama' features rapper Jim Jones. Both genres are accepting influences from each other today, and these musical blends also signify a cultural blending pot in today’s urban scene.

===Lyrics and themes===
Reggaeton lyrical structure resembles hip-hop lyrics. Like hip-hop, most reggaeton artists recite their lyrics rap-fashion rather than sing it melodically. Unlike hip-hop music, however, a significant percent of reggaeton artists are also singers, may blend rapping and singing, and may also have a "street" image, similar to [[Akon]]. Like hip-hop music, reggaeton songs have hooks that are repeated throughout the song.

Reggaeton started as a genre composed of mostly male artists, with a slowly increasing number of female artists debuting over the years. Notable female reggaetón artists include [[Ivy Queen]], [[Mey Vidal]], [[Adassa]], and [[Glory (singer)|Glory]].

Reggaeton lyrical themes are versatile. Typical themes may include dancing, love stories, partying, short anecdotes of the rapper's life, and problems in life. Popular reggaeton songs are mainly intended to be danceable, rhythmic, party-like songs for young people. Reggaeton may or may not be objectionable depending on the artists, song, and the listener's interpretation, as one reggaeton song may have many interpretations because a song's meaning may not be very clear and direct; Many of the songs are highly [[subliminal]]. For example, the song ''[[Gasolina]]'' is often considered appropriate for children and has made it into the [[Reggaeton Niños]] series.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} However, because of the various possible connotations and literal interpretations of the song, some people criticize ''Gasolina'' as having possibly inappropriate sexual content.

Usually, reggaeton CDs are not labeled “[[Parental Advisory|explicit]]” like many hip-hop CDs are. One exception is that [[Daddy Yankee]]’s ''[[Barrio Fino en Directo]]'' (''Barrio Fino Live'') was labeled explicit for objectionable content in the live concerts (and for explicit language by [[Snoop Dogg]] in the song "Gangsta Zone"), even though the regular studio version of ''[[Barrio Fino]]'' was not labeled explicit. Some reggaeton artists, such as Alexis Y Fido, are able to circumvent radio and television censorship by using sexual innuendo and lyrics with [[double meaning]]s in their music.
Some songs have also raised concerns about women's depiction on their lyrics <ref>[http://www.gobcan.es/icmujer/011obs_2005.htm - “Denuciation to Instituto Canario de la Mujer”]</ref>

Racial identity has been a common theme in reggaeton, articulated musically, lyrically, and visually.

==Reggaeton across the world==
===Latin America===
Reggaeton is very popular in Latin American countries such as [[Panama]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Cuba]],[[Venezuela]] and [[Colombia]]. Reggaeton has become staple music in many parties and events, complementing the common mix of merengue, salsa and electronic music, and has paved a huge fan base. In some countries such as [[Peru]] with MC Francia, Los TNT and Mr. Fresh, Venezuela with Doble Impakto, [[Honduras]] with DJ Sy and [[El Salvador]] with [[Pescozada]] and Heavy Clan, domestic “reggaetoneros” have arisen, expanding the Pan-Latin feel of the genre.

In some Latin American countries such as Cuba, where ideas and language are an integral part of the appreciation of music, there is an alleged critical backlash against the increasing popularity of Reggaeton. This rift supposedly exists often among members of the Cuban Hip Hop community. According to British music lecturer Geoff Baker, many critics claim that the music’s lyrics do not explore any subjects past “sex, dancing, and the singer himself, in various combinations.” Baker also believes that because Reggaeton has an allegiance to so many Caribbean and Latin American countries, it overshadows distinctly Cuban forms and variations of music, such as Cuban Hip Hop. <ref> Baker, Jeff. 2008. "The Politics of Dancing: Reggaetón and Rap in Havana, Cuba." Royal Holloway, University of London </ref>

====Puerto Rico====
Reggaeton derives from the post-Salsa music youth generation of the 80's and early 90's in Puerto Rico. Before reggaeton exploded in the mid-nineties, young street artists, heavily influenced by [[East Coast hip hop]] and turntablism, rapped over cassette tracks easily acquired within their [[Commonwealth (United States insular area)]] status. Alongside this early hip hop influenced reggae-rap, evolved the Panamanian reggae style which eventually fused into reggaeton.

This new genre was simply called “underground.” It contained very explicit lyrics about drugs, violence, poverty, homophobia, friendship, love, and sex. These common themes, which in many cases depict the troubles of an inner-city life, can still be found in reggaeton today. “Underground” music was recorded in “marquesinas” (or Puerto Rican open garages) and distributed in the streets via cassettes. These marquesinas were crucial to the development of Puerto Rico's underground scene due to the state's "fear of losing the ability to manipulate 'taste'". <ref>{{cite author=Mayra Santos | Centro vol. 8 1&2 | title = Puerto Rican Underground</ref> Marquesina's were often in "housing complexes such as Villa Kennedy and Jurutungo." <ref>{{cite author=Mayra Santos | Centro vol. 8 1&2 | title = Puerto Rican Underground</ref> Despite being recorded in the projects of Puerto Rico, the majority of the recordings made in marquesinas were of high quality, which helped in increasing their popularity to the Puerto Rican youths of not only the projects but those of the middle and upper class as well. The availability and quality of these cassettes led to the genre's popularity, crossing over socio-economic barriers in the Puerto Rico music scene. The most popular cassettes in the early 1990's were DJ Negro's The Noise I and II, and DJ Playero's #37 and #38. These recordings spread out the genre from the marginalized residential areas into other sectors of society, particularly into private schools. By the mid 90s “underground” cassettes were being sold in commercial music stores. The genre caught up with the middle class youth and inevitably found its way to the media.

By this time Puerto Rico had a few clubs dedicated to the underground scene. Club Rappers in Carolina, and club PlayMakers in Puerto Nuevo were the most notable. [[Robert Dixon (musician)|Bobby “Digital” Dixon]]'s dembow track was exploited in order to appeal in the context of the club. Underground music wasn't intended originally to be club music.

Underground rap music in Puerto Rico faced harsh criticism. In February of 1995, there was a government-sponsored campaign against underground music and its cultural influences. Puerto Rican police launched six raids at records stores in San Juan<ref>{{cite web| author=Sara Corbett | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/05/magazine/05reggaeton.html?pagewanted=print | title = The King of Reggaetón | accessdate=2008-1-30}}</ref>, in which hundreds of cassettes were confiscated from record stores and fines were imposed (in accordance with Laws 112 and 117 against obscenity.) <ref> Santos, Mayra. 1996. "Puerto Rican Underground." Centro 8, no. 1 & 2: 219-231. </ref> The Department of Education banned baggy clothing and underground rap music from the school systems. <ref>{{cite web| author=Frances Negrón-Muntaner and Raquel Z. Rivera | url=http://news.nacla.org/2007/12/17/reggaeton-nation/| title= Reggaeton Nation | accessdate=2007-12-17}}</ref> In the following months after the raids, local media demonized rappers, claiming they were “irresponsible corrupters of the public order.” <ref> Santos, Mayra. 1996. "Puerto Rican Underground." Centro 8, no. 1 & 2: 219-231. </ref>

The Puerto Rican chapter of [[Morality in Media]] asked the local authorities to intervene and ban selling underground music, which subsequently required that all local productions being sold displayed a [[Parental Advisory]] label{{Fact|date=May 2007}}. By 1998 DJ Negro released The Noise 3 with a mock up label that read Non-Explicit Lyrics. The album contained no cursing until the last song. The album was a hit and underground music further crept into the mainstream. Senator Velda González of the [[Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico|Popular Democratic Party]] and the media continued to view the movement as a social nuisance.<ref>{{cite web| author=Hilda Garcia and Gonzalo Salvador | url=http://ecolatino.com/en/stories/120104/new_120104032.shtml| title=Reggaeton: The Emergence of a New Rhythm| accessdate=2007-06-23}}</ref>

In the mid 1990's, the Puerto Rican Police and National Guard even went as far as to confiscate reggaeton tapes and CDs in an effort to get the "obscene" lyrics out of the hands of consumers.<ref> John Marino, "Police Seize Recordings, Say Content Is Obscene,” San Juan Star, February 3, 1995; Raquel Z. Rivera, “Policing Morality, Mano Dura Style: The Case of Underground Rap and Reggae in Puerto Rico in the Mid-1990s,” in Reading Reggaeton. </ref>. Schools also banned hip-hop style clothing and music in an effort to quell the influence of reggaeton in the educational environment. In 2002, Senator Velda González led public hearings in an attempt to regulate the sexual “slackness” of reggaeton’s lyrics and the perrero style of dance associated with the genre. While the effort did not seem to negatively effect the general public’s opinion about reggaeton, it did reflect the unease of the government and upper social classes with what the music represented. Due to its often sexually charged content and because of its roots in poor, urban communities, many middle and upper class Puerto Ricans found reggaeton to be threatening, “immoral, as well as artistically deficient, a threat to the social order, apolitical, [and] misogynist.” <ref>{{cite web| author=Frances Negrón-Muntaner and Raquel Z. Rivera | url=http://news.nacla.org/2007/12/17/reggaeton-nation/| title= Reggaeton Nation | accessdate=2007-12-17}}</ref>

Despite earlier controversy, reggaeton slowly began gaining acceptance as an important part of Puerto Rican culture, helped in part by politicians, including Velda González, who used reggaeton in election campaigns to appeal to younger voters, starting in Puerto Rico’s 2003 elections. <ref>{{cite web| author=Frances Negrón-Muntaner and Raquel Z. Rivera | url=http://news.nacla.org/2007/12/17/reggaeton-nation/| title= Reggaeton Nation | accessdate=2007-12-17}}</ref> Currently, Puerto Rican mainstream acceptance of reggaeton has grown increasing more visible with reggaeton's appearance in popular culture, including a 2006 [[Pepsi]] commercial featuring [[Daddy Yankee]]. <ref>{{cite web| author=Matt Caputo | url=http://www.ballerstatus.com/article/features/2006/01/2133/| title= Daddy Yankee: The Voice of His People | accessdate=2008-1-29}}</ref> Other examples of a change in sentiment within the greater population of Puerto Rico can be seen in some religiously and educationally influenced lyrics. "Reggae School" for example is a rap album produced for the sole purpose of teaching math skills to children, reminiscent of [[School House Rock]]. <ref>{{Citation| first= Jorge L. | last= Giovannetti | title= "Popular Music and Culture in Puerto Rico: Jamaican and Rap Music as Cross-Cultural Symbols" Musical Migrations: Transnationalism and Cultural Hybridity in the Americas | editor= Frances R. Aparicio and Cándida F. Jáquez | place= New York | publisher= Palgrave | year= 2003}}</ref>

Despite the impoverished condition of the Puerto Rican economy, reggaeton stars have been able to achieve success not only as global stars but as local entrepreneurs; this has been evidenced in industry labels such as DJ Nelson’s Flow Music, Daddy Yankee’s El Cartel Records, and Wisín and Yandel’s WY Records. Through production models derived from U.S. hip-hop artists and based in grassroots movements, reggaeton has been an artistic vehicle gaining worldwide popularity, a far cry from its previous reputation as an infamous underground product of urban youth. <ref>{{cite web| author=Frances Negrón-Muntaner and Raquel Z. Rivera | url=http://news.nacla.org/2007/12/17/reggaeton-nation/| title=Reggaeton Nation | accessdate=2008-1-31}}</ref>

===United States===
With the help of [[N.O.R.E]], a New York-based rapper, and his producing of [[Nina Sky's]] 2004 hit [[''Oye Mi Canto'']], which featured prominent reggaeton artists [[Tego Calderón]] and [[Daddy Yankee]], reggaeton quickly gained popularity in the US<ref>Marshall, Wayne. "The Rise of Reggaeton." [Boston Phoenix], 19 January 2006.</ref>. Soon after, [[Daddy Yankee]] caught the attention of many big names in hip hop with his song ''[[Gasolina]]'', propelling the style across the country<ref>Marshall, Wayne. "The Rise of Reggaeton." [Boston Phoenix], 19 January 2006.</ref>. Also in 2004, [[XM Radio]] launched a channel called [[Fuego (XM)]], which played exclusively Reggaeton music. The genre has also provided the foundation and basis for a modern Latin-American commercial radio phenomenon known as [[Hurban]]<ref>Marshall, Wayne. "The Rise of Reggaeton." [Boston Phoenix], 19 January 2006.</ref>, a combination of the terms Hispanic and Urban that is used to evoke the musical influences of hip-hop and Latin-American music. Reggaeton forming from hip-hop and reggae has helped Latin-Americans contribute to the urban American culture while still keeping many aspects of their Hispanic heritage. The music relates to many of the socio-economic issues happening in America including gender and race which highly connects to hip-hop in America today. <ref>Marshall, Wayne. "The Rise of Reggaeton." [Boston Phoenix], 19 January 2006.</ref>

Underground clubs, youths in the inner-city ghettos, and huge hip-hop moguls all participated in pushing the genre to the top of the charts.<ref>Marshall, Wayne. "The Rise of Reggaeton." [Boston Phoenix], 19 January 2006.</ref>

===Europe===
Reggaeton has not become as popular in [[Europe]] as in [[Latin America]]. However, It has a great appeal to Latin American immigrants, specially in Spain <ref>[http://www.reggaeton.co.uk/X/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=111&Itemid=37 Reggaeton in Spain]</ref>. A Spanish concept called ''“La Canción del Verano”'' (''The Summer Song''), under which a particular song or two define the mood for the season and are regarded unofficially as such by Spanish media, served as the basis for the appearance popularity of reggaeton songs such as Panamanian rapper [[Lorna (rapper)|Lorna]]’s ''“Papi Chulo (Te traigo el Mmm) ”'' in 2003, and [[Daddy Yankee]]'s ''[[Gasolina]]'' in 2005. Puerto Rican and Panamanian reggaeton artists have toured Spain to give concerts mainly to latin american people<ref>[http://www.mtv.com/music/artist/yankee_daddy/artist.jhtml MTV Music Review]</ref>.

Reggaeton is also known in [[Italy]]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, due to artists like [[Don Omar]] who filmed the video for his song ''Angelito'' in [[Rome, Italy|Rome]], featuring many of the city's historic landmarks.

==See also==
{{portalpar|Puerto Rico}}
*[[List of reggaeton artists]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{reggae}}
{{hiphop}}

[[Category:Reggaeton| ]]
[[Category:Music genres]]
[[Category:Puerto Rican styles of music]]
[[Category:WikiProject Reggaeton]]

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Tamale

2008-04-24T17:14:00Z

163.178.17.124: /* Tamales in Latin America */

[[Image:Tamales.jpg|right|thumb|Tamales on a plate.]]
A '''tamale''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''tamal'', from [[Nahuatl]] ''tamalli''), is a traditional [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] food consisting of steam-cooked [[maize|corn]] dough ([[masa]]) with or without a filling. Tamales can be filled with meats, [[cheese]] (post-[[Colonial era|colonial]]), and sliced [[Chili pepper|chillis]] or any preparation according to taste. The tamal is generally wrapped in a corn [[husk]] or [[plantain]] leaves before cooking, depending on
the region from which they come.

Their essence is the corn meal dough made from [[hominy]] (called [[masa]]), or a masa mix such as [[Gruma|Maseca]], usually filled with a sweet or savory filling, wrapped in plant leaves or [[maize|corn]] husks, and cooked, usually by steaming, until firm. Tamales were developed as a portable ration for use by war parties in the ancient Americas, and were as ubiquitous and varied as the [[sandwich]] is today. The diversity of native languages in the pre-Hispanic America led to a number of local words for the ''tamal'', many of which remain in use.

[[Image:Tamales mexicanos navidad2004.jpg|right|thumb|225px|A batch of tamales in the ''tamalera'']]

==Tamales in Latin America==

Tamales are a favorite quick dish in [[Mexico]], where street vendors can be seen serving them from huge, steaming, covered pots ''(tamaleras)''. In some places like [[Mexico City]], the tamal is often placed inside a wheat bread roll to form a ''torta de tamal'', which is substantial enough to keep the breakfaster going until Mexico's traditionally late lunch hour.

The most common (and traditional) filling is pork or chicken, in either red or green [[Salsa (sauce)|salsa]] or [[mole (sauce)|mole]]. Another very traditional variation is to add sugar to the corn mix and fill it with [[raisin]]s or other [[dried fruit]] and make a sweet tamal ''(tamal de dulce)''. Since the cooking of tamales is traditionally done in batches of tens if not hundreds, and the ratio of filling to dough (and the coarseness of the filling) is a matter of discretion, there are commonly a few "deaf", or filling-less, tamal ''(tamal sordo)'', which might be served with refried beans and [[coffee]]. Instead of corn husks, banana leaves are used in tropical parts of the country such as the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico, [[Oaxaca]], [[Chiapas]], [[Veracruz]], and the [[Yucatán Peninsula]]. These tamales are rather square in shape, often very large— 15 inches (40 cm) or more— and thick; a local name for these in Southern [[Tamaulipas]] is ''zacahuil''. To the south, banana-leaf tamales are also common in the neighboring Central American countries. Another less-common variation is to use [[chard]] leaves, which can be eaten along with the filling.

To make a full meal, the tamal is often accompanied by ''[[atole]],'' hot [[chocolate]], or ''[[champurrado]]''.
In [[El Salvador]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Colombia]] they are wrapped in [[plantain]] leaves, and there are several varieties, including ''tamal de gallina'', ''tamal pisque'', and ''tamal de elote'' (in Costa Rica, the name can also be used for a type of corn pastry). They are generally large, similar in size to the tamales of southeastern Mexico.

In [[Guatemala]] and [[Honduras]], in addition to the El Salvador versions, there are tamales without filling which are served as the bread or starch portion of a meal:
*Tamal de elote (made with yellow corn, sometimes with a sweet taste)
*Tamalito de chipilín (made with Chipilín, a green leaf)
*Tamal blanco (simple, made with white corn)

During Christmas holidays, tamales of [[corn]] flour are a special treat for Guatemalans. The preparation time of this type of tamal is long, due to the amount of time required to cook down and thicken the flour base.

In Panama, tamales are considered one of the main national dishes. The Panamanian tamal is fairly large. The most common fillings are chicken, raisins, onions, tomato sauce, and sometimes sweet peas. Rarely you see pork versions. Another variation is [[tamal de olla]], which is cooked in a pot and then served directly onto plates. Tamales are usually served for all special occasions, including weddings and birthday parties, and are always found on the Christmas dinner table.

[[Peru]]vian tamales tend to be spicy, larger, and are wrapped in [[banana]] leaves. Common fillings are chicken or pork, usually accompanied by boiled eggs, olives, peanuts or a piece of [[chilli pepper]] mainly in Lima, the capital city. In other cities tamales are smaller and wrapped in corn husks. They differ from the tamales made in Lima in that they use white corn instead of yellow corn as people in Lima do. Another version is called [[humita]]. It can be salted or sweet. Sweet ones have raisins, vanilla, oil, sugar. Salty ones can be filled with cheese ([[queso fresco]]) or chicken. Humitas are cooked in the oven or in the [[pachamanca]].

Tamales are also found in [[Colombia]], where there are several varieties (including most widely known ''tolimense'' as well as ''boyacense'' and ''santandereano''). Like other South American varieties, the most common are very large compared to Mexican tamales - about the size of a [[softball]] - and the dough softer and wetter, with a bright yellow color. A ''tamal tolimense'' is served for breakfast with [[hot chocolate]], and may contain large pieces of cooked [[carrot]] or other vegetables, whole corn kernels, [[rice]], [[chicken]] on the bone and/or chunks of [[pork]]. A related food is the ''envuelto'' or ''bollo'', which is cooked in a corn husk, and actually resembles a typical Mexican tamal more closely. Tamales in Santander are often called ''hayacas'', as they are in neighboring Venezuela.

[[Ecuador]] has a variety of tamales and ''humitas'', they can be filled with fresh cheese, pork, chicken or [[raisin]]s. Ecuadorian tamales are usually wrapped in corn husk or [[Canna (plant)|achira (aka Canna)]] leaves. Nacatamales are also tamales. See nacatamal.

The tamal is also a staple in [[Belize]], where it is also known (in English) by the Spanish name ''bollo''. Confusion with the nomenclature also leads to the plural form being used as a singular: thus, "a tamales" [[rare]].

Tamales are also found in the [[Dominican Republic]]. Instead of '''tamales''' they are known as '''pastillitos''', not to be confused with the Latino word '''Pastel''', which is Spanish for [[Cake|cake]].

==Tamales in the United States==
The [[English plural|plural]] is ''tamales'', and this is the form of the word most often seen in the [[United States]] among [[Latino]]s, with the singular frequently given as ''tamale'' rather than ''tamal''. Tamales have acquired mainstream popularity in the United States. However, the Mexican tamale is the most common version known and consumed in the United States by non-Hispanic Americans. The tamales can be filled with pork or with beef. Another popular filling is corn (partially mashed, like [[creamed corn]]). Tamales are popular as Christmas meals in the southwestern states of the United States, where there is a large concentration of Hispanic families. A basic modern southwestern tamal contains a spicy meat filling, usually shredded [[pork]] or [[beef]], and is often served with a [[chili con carne]] sauce.

The green corn tamal (green, meaning "fresh") is made with fresh white corn, often mixed with cheese, then lined with a long green chile slice before it is rolled and wrapped in a husk. Then the husks are steamed. Although the Arizonans (Tucson), claim to be the originators of this tamal, the base of it remains to be Mexican, and its popularity extends to southern California.

The tamal is a staple food along the [[Mississippi Delta]], locally known as "hot tamales". It grew in popularity in the early 1900s when Mexican farmworkers introduced it to black workers in the cotton fields in the deep South. Hot tamales in the Delta are more typically made with corn meal instead of [[masa]]. The Mississippi hot tamale features (possibly as sexual innuendo) in the well-known, cryptic song "[[They're Red Hot]] by early Delta blues singer [[Robert Johnson (musician)|Robert Johnson]].

Tamales have taken on a new direction in recent years as [[Nuevo Latino]] and New World chefs such as [[Rick Bayless]] bring new diversity to this ancient food.

==Tamales in the Caribbean==
{{cookbook}}

Another variation of the tamale is the pastelle found on the islands of [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. It is a Spanish derivative from the days when Trinidad was a [[colony]] of Spain and thus it shares many similarities with its Latin American counterparts. Pastelles are wrapped in banana leaves for cooking and have a rectangular shape that is roughly 6″×3″×½″ (15×8×1.2 cm) in dimensions. The shell is made of cornmeal and the filling commonly consists of well-seasoned ground beef or chicken and prunes, raisins, capers, and olives. The result is a rich contrast of sweet, savoury, and salty flavours. It is a staple favorite of the Christmas holiday seasonal foods on the islands, rarely if ever seen during the rest of the year. It is served for breakfast, as a supplement to other meals such as lunch and dinner, or on its own as a simple snack along with other, seasonal favorites such as sorrel ([[roselle]]).

In [[Cuba]], before the 1959 Revolution, street vendors sold Mexican-style tamales wrapped in cornhusks, typically made without any kind of hot [[chile]] seasoning in order to accommodate the milder Cuban taste. The fact that Cuban tamales are identical in form to those made in Mexico City suggests that they were brought over to Cuba during the period of intense cultural and musical exchange between Cuba and Mexico, between the 1920s and 1950s. A well-known Cuban song from the 1950s, "Los Tamalitos de Olga," (a [[cha-cha-cha (music)|cha-cha-cha]] sung by [[Orquesta Aragón]]) celebrated the delicious tamales sold by a street vendor in Cienfuegos. A peculiarly Cuban invention is the dish known as ''tamal en cazuela,'' basically consisting of tamal masa with the meat stuffing stirred into the masa, then cooked in a pot on the stove to form a kind of hearty cornmeal porridge.

Corn-husk wrapped tamales are also popular in southeastern [[Cuba]].

In [[Puerto Rico]] there is the "guanime." It is made with yellow corn meal, coconut milk and a pinch of sugar, wrapped in a banana leaf, and boiled. There is no stuffing. Similar to the stuffed tamal are [[pasteles]], but pasteles are not made with cornmeal masa, but with other locally obtained ingredients, such as plantain, cassava/yuca, and so on.

==See also==
*[[Mexican cuisine]]
*[[Honduran cuisine]]
*[[Pamonha]]
*[[Lotus leaf wrap]]
*[[Pasteles]]
*[[Hallaca]]
*[[Corunda]]
*[[Bánh tẻ]]
*[[Zongzi]]
*[[Bánh chưng]]
*[[Lo mai gai]]
*[[Bánh tét]]
*[[Sarma (food)|Sarma]]
*[[Tamal_de_olla]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gourmetsleuth.com/tamales.htm Mexican Tamales, history and recipes]
*[http://www.guardian.co.tt/archives/2005-10-18/PA.html Spanish Influence on Trinidad Cuisine]
*[http://www.tamaletrail.com/ Hot Tamale Trail - Tamales in the Mississippi Delta]
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5357500 Tamales, Another Treat from the Delta]
*[http://wadooa.com/doku.php/tamales_boyacenses Recipe from Boyacá Department, Colombia] {{es icon}}

[[Category:Christmas food]]
[[Category:Latin American cuisine]]
[[Category:Honduran cuisine]]
[[Category:Mexican cuisine]]
[[Category:Peruvian cuisine]]
[[Category:American cuisine]]
[[Category:Dumplings]]

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