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Sri Mahamariamman Temple, Kuala Lumpur

2020-12-23T10:07:21Z

175.141.124.220:

{{short description|Hindu temple in Kuala Lumpur}}
{{For|other temples with the same name|Sri Mariamman Temple (disambiguation){{!}}Mariamman Temple}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Sri Mahamariamman Temple
| image = Sri Mahamariamman temple-Kuala Lumpur Malaysia.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = Malaysia
| map_caption = Location in Malaysia
| coordinates = {{coord|3|8|36|N|101|41|47|E|type:landmark_region:MY|display=inline,title}}
| native_name = ஸ்ரீ மாரியம்மன் கோவில் Śrī Māriyammaṉ Kōvil 
| country = [[Malaysia]]
| state = [[Federal Territory (Malaysia)|Federal Territory]]
| district =
| location = [[Kuala Lumpur]]
| elevation_m =
| deity = [[Mariamman]]
| festivals=
| architecture = [[Dravidian architecture]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity=
| inscriptions =
| year_completed = 1873
| creator = [[K. Thamboosamy|K. Thamboosamy Pillai]]
| website =
}}

The '''Sri Mahamariamman Temple''' '''([[Tamil Language|Tamil]]:ஸ்ரீ மகாமாரியம்மன் திருக்கோவில்,கோலாலம்பூர்)''' is the oldest [[Hindu temple]] in [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]]. Founded in 1873, it is situated at the edge of [[Petaling Street|Chinatown]] in Jalan Bandar (formerly High Street). In 1968, a new structure was built, featuring the ornate 'Raja Gopuram' tower in the style of South Indian temples.

From its inception, the temple provided an important [[place of worship]] for early Indian immigrants and is now an important [[cultural heritage|cultural and national heritage]].

==History==
The Sri Mahamariamman Temple was founded by [[K. Thamboosamy|K. Thamboosamy Pillai]] in 1873 and was initially used as a private shrine by the Pillai family. The family threw the temple doors open to the public in the late 1920s and eventually handed the management of the temple over to a board of trustees.

This is the oldest functioning [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temple in Malaysia. It is also reputed to be the richest in the country. The temple was originally sited somewhere near the [[Kuala Lumpur railway station]]. It shifted to its present location along Jalan Tun H.S. Lee (next to [[Petaling Street|KL's Chinatown]]) in 1885.

The initial attap structure was demolished in 1887 and a brick building was erected in its place. That structure was demolished to make way for the current temple building which were completed in 1968. The impressive gateway to the temple, known as the ''[[gopuram]]'', was completed in 1972. The new temple was consecrated in 1973.

==Architecture==
===Gopuram===
Built in the [[Dravidian Architecture|South Indian]] style, the temple's most outstanding feature is the impressive 5-tiered ''[[gopuram]]'' (tower). It is the tallest structure in the temple. The dramatic 22.9 m (75 ft) high pyramid-shaped gate tower is decorated with depictions of Hindu gods sculpted by artisans from southern India. The chief sculptor was the late S. T. Muniappa from Tamil Nadu and is credited for creating the 228 idols on the gopuram.

===Main Prayer Hall===
[[File:Mariamman temple in KL.jpg|thumb|right| The temple's main shrine (garbagraham) to Sri Maha Mariammman.]]
This Temple resembles the form of a human body lying on its back with the head positioned towards the west and the feet towards the east. The temple's 5-tiered gopuram corresponds to the feet of the body. It is the threshold between the material and spiritual world.

At the rear is the [[Garbhagriha|garbagraham]] or [[sanctum sanctorum]], which corresponds to the head. It is a freestanding structure with its own roof and walls and has one entrance that faces east. This is the inner sanctum where the chief deity Sri Maha Mariamman is located. The priest stands in front of the garbagraham when performing the puja (prayers).

Within the temple is a main [[prayer]] hall with richly decorated [[ceiling]]s. The location of three shrines in the main temple is marked by an ornately embellished [[onion dome]] which can be seen from outside. There is also four smaller shrines located peripherally around the main temple building

[[Pillaiyar]] is in the shrine on the left and [[Lord Muruga]], his brother, is on the right. Pillaiyar is also found at the entrance as he is the remover of obstacles. The eight idols adorning the pillars inside the temple are of ashta [[Lakshmi]].

Once every 12 years, in keeping with Hindu tradition, the temple is [[Consecration|reconsecrated]].

===Silver Chariot===
A silver chariot is housed within the premises. This chariot is a prominent feature during the annual [[Thaipusam]] festival. It used during this occasion for transporting the statuettes of [[Lord Muruga]] and his consorts (Valli and Teivayanni) through the city streets to Batu Caves. It made its debut in 1893 and was built at a cost of RM350,000 using 350 kilograms of silver.

The chariot was made in [[India]] and shipped here in 12 parts to be assembled. It is 6.5 metres tall and has 240 bells and a pair of horses on it. Before the silver chariot, a wooden one was used which was made 1930 by Indian craftsmen at a cost of RM50,000.

===Bangunan Mariamman===
Recently, the Sri Maha Mariamman Temple has, after a 40-year wait, finally got its own building. The RM 13 million six-storey building, behind the temple in Jalan Tun H.S Lee was officially opened by Works Minister and [[Malaysian Indian Congress|MIC]] President [[Samy Vellu|Datuk Seri S. Samy Vellu]].

Temple chairman R. Nadarajah said the idea to construct the building was mooted by [[Samy Vellu|Datuk Seri S. Samy Vellu]] 38 years ago when he was a committee member of the temple. Known as Bangunan Mariamman, the building is beside the Klang Bus Station and opposite the [[Pasar Seni station|Pasar Seni LRT/MRT station]]. It is connected to the temple and has two floors of basement car parks, three floors for two auditoriums and a hall.

==The Deity==
Mariamman is popularly worshipped by overseas Indians, especially [[Tamil people|Tamils]] because she is looked upon as their protector during their sojourn to foreign lands. Mariamman is a manifestation of the goddess - Parvati, an incarnation embodying Mother Earth with all her terrifying force. She protects her devotees from unholy or demonic events.

==Administration==
The Sri Mahamariamman Temple is managed by the Board of Management of Sri Maha Mariamman Temple Devasthanam, which also manages the [[Batu Caves|Batu Caves Sri Subramaniam Temple]] and the Kortumalai Pillaiyar Temple. It also performs the role of Hindu Religious Consultant to the [[Government of Malaysia]] in determining the [[Hindu]] yearly calendar.

==Festivals==
The temple is particularly packed on [[Deepavali]] with devotees eager to offer their prayers on the holy day.

Also on the holy day of [[Thaipusam]], thousands of devotees throng the temple at the wee hours of the morning to start a long procession leading up to [[Batu Caves]] as a religious undertaking to Lord Muruga. They carry containers containing milk as offering to [[Lord Muruga]] either by hand or in huge decorated carriers on their shoulders called 'kavadi'.

==See also==
* [[Sri Mariamman Temple, Singapore]]

==References==
{{Commons category|Sri Mahamariamman Temple, Kuala Lumpur}}
{{Reflist}}
* [http://lamjo.tripod.com/smt.html Kuala Lumpur - Sri Mahamariamman Temple]

{{Hindu temples in Malaysia}}
{{Malaysian historical architectures and sites}}

[[Category:Mariamman temples]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Tamil diaspora in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Religious buildings and structures in Kuala Lumpur]]

Sri Mahamariamman Temple, Kuala Lumpur

2020-12-23T10:06:46Z

175.141.124.220:

{{short description|Hindu temple in Kuala Lumpur}}
{{For|other temples with the same name|Sri Mariamman Temple (disambiguation){{!}}Mariamman Temple}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Sri Mahamariamman Temple
| image = Sri Mahamariamman temple-Kuala Lumpur Malaysia.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = Malaysia
| map_caption = Location in Malaysia
| coordinates = {{coord|3|8|36|N|101|41|47|E|type:landmark_region:MY|display=inline,title}}
| native_name = ஸ்ரீ மாரியம்மன் கோவில் Śrī Māriyammaṉ Kōvil 马里安曼兴都庙
 Mǎ lǐ Àn Màn xīng dū miào
| country = [[Malaysia]]
| state = [[Federal Territory (Malaysia)|Federal Territory]]
| district =
| location = [[Kuala Lumpur]]
| elevation_m =
| deity = [[Mariamman]]
| festivals=
| architecture = [[Dravidian architecture]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity=
| inscriptions =
| year_completed = 1873
| creator = [[K. Thamboosamy|K. Thamboosamy Pillai]]
| website =
}}

The '''Sri Mahamariamman Temple''' '''([[Tamil Language|Tamil]]:ஸ்ரீ மகாமாரியம்மன் திருக்கோவில்,கோலாலம்பூர்)''' is the oldest [[Hindu temple]] in [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]]. Founded in 1873, it is situated at the edge of [[Petaling Street|Chinatown]] in Jalan Bandar (formerly High Street). In 1968, a new structure was built, featuring the ornate 'Raja Gopuram' tower in the style of South Indian temples.

From its inception, the temple provided an important [[place of worship]] for early Indian immigrants and is now an important [[cultural heritage|cultural and national heritage]].

==History==
The Sri Mahamariamman Temple was founded by [[K. Thamboosamy|K. Thamboosamy Pillai]] in 1873 and was initially used as a private shrine by the Pillai family. The family threw the temple doors open to the public in the late 1920s and eventually handed the management of the temple over to a board of trustees.

This is the oldest functioning [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temple in Malaysia. It is also reputed to be the richest in the country. The temple was originally sited somewhere near the [[Kuala Lumpur railway station]]. It shifted to its present location along Jalan Tun H.S. Lee (next to [[Petaling Street|KL's Chinatown]]) in 1885.

The initial attap structure was demolished in 1887 and a brick building was erected in its place. That structure was demolished to make way for the current temple building which were completed in 1968. The impressive gateway to the temple, known as the ''[[gopuram]]'', was completed in 1972. The new temple was consecrated in 1973.

==Architecture==
===Gopuram===
Built in the [[Dravidian Architecture|South Indian]] style, the temple's most outstanding feature is the impressive 5-tiered ''[[gopuram]]'' (tower). It is the tallest structure in the temple. The dramatic 22.9 m (75 ft) high pyramid-shaped gate tower is decorated with depictions of Hindu gods sculpted by artisans from southern India. The chief sculptor was the late S. T. Muniappa from Tamil Nadu and is credited for creating the 228 idols on the gopuram.

===Main Prayer Hall===
[[File:Mariamman temple in KL.jpg|thumb|right| The temple's main shrine (garbagraham) to Sri Maha Mariammman.]]
This Temple resembles the form of a human body lying on its back with the head positioned towards the west and the feet towards the east. The temple's 5-tiered gopuram corresponds to the feet of the body. It is the threshold between the material and spiritual world.

At the rear is the [[Garbhagriha|garbagraham]] or [[sanctum sanctorum]], which corresponds to the head. It is a freestanding structure with its own roof and walls and has one entrance that faces east. This is the inner sanctum where the chief deity Sri Maha Mariamman is located. The priest stands in front of the garbagraham when performing the puja (prayers).

Within the temple is a main [[prayer]] hall with richly decorated [[ceiling]]s. The location of three shrines in the main temple is marked by an ornately embellished [[onion dome]] which can be seen from outside. There is also four smaller shrines located peripherally around the main temple building

[[Pillaiyar]] is in the shrine on the left and [[Lord Muruga]], his brother, is on the right. Pillaiyar is also found at the entrance as he is the remover of obstacles. The eight idols adorning the pillars inside the temple are of ashta [[Lakshmi]].

Once every 12 years, in keeping with Hindu tradition, the temple is [[Consecration|reconsecrated]].

===Silver Chariot===
A silver chariot is housed within the premises. This chariot is a prominent feature during the annual [[Thaipusam]] festival. It used during this occasion for transporting the statuettes of [[Lord Muruga]] and his consorts (Valli and Teivayanni) through the city streets to Batu Caves. It made its debut in 1893 and was built at a cost of RM350,000 using 350 kilograms of silver.

The chariot was made in [[India]] and shipped here in 12 parts to be assembled. It is 6.5 metres tall and has 240 bells and a pair of horses on it. Before the silver chariot, a wooden one was used which was made 1930 by Indian craftsmen at a cost of RM50,000.

===Bangunan Mariamman===
Recently, the Sri Maha Mariamman Temple has, after a 40-year wait, finally got its own building. The RM 13 million six-storey building, behind the temple in Jalan Tun H.S Lee was officially opened by Works Minister and [[Malaysian Indian Congress|MIC]] President [[Samy Vellu|Datuk Seri S. Samy Vellu]].

Temple chairman R. Nadarajah said the idea to construct the building was mooted by [[Samy Vellu|Datuk Seri S. Samy Vellu]] 38 years ago when he was a committee member of the temple. Known as Bangunan Mariamman, the building is beside the Klang Bus Station and opposite the [[Pasar Seni station|Pasar Seni LRT/MRT station]]. It is connected to the temple and has two floors of basement car parks, three floors for two auditoriums and a hall.

==The Deity==
Mariamman is popularly worshipped by overseas Indians, especially [[Tamil people|Tamils]] because she is looked upon as their protector during their sojourn to foreign lands. Mariamman is a manifestation of the goddess - Parvati, an incarnation embodying Mother Earth with all her terrifying force. She protects her devotees from unholy or demonic events.

==Administration==
The Sri Mahamariamman Temple is managed by the Board of Management of Sri Maha Mariamman Temple Devasthanam, which also manages the [[Batu Caves|Batu Caves Sri Subramaniam Temple]] and the Kortumalai Pillaiyar Temple. It also performs the role of Hindu Religious Consultant to the [[Government of Malaysia]] in determining the [[Hindu]] yearly calendar.

==Festivals==
The temple is particularly packed on [[Deepavali]] with devotees eager to offer their prayers on the holy day.

Also on the holy day of [[Thaipusam]], thousands of devotees throng the temple at the wee hours of the morning to start a long procession leading up to [[Batu Caves]] as a religious undertaking to Lord Muruga. They carry containers containing milk as offering to [[Lord Muruga]] either by hand or in huge decorated carriers on their shoulders called 'kavadi'.

==See also==
* [[Sri Mariamman Temple, Singapore]]

==References==
{{Commons category|Sri Mahamariamman Temple, Kuala Lumpur}}
{{Reflist}}
* [http://lamjo.tripod.com/smt.html Kuala Lumpur - Sri Mahamariamman Temple]

{{Hindu temples in Malaysia}}
{{Malaysian historical architectures and sites}}

[[Category:Mariamman temples]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Tamil diaspora in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Religious buildings and structures in Kuala Lumpur]]

Valayapathi

2020-12-22T13:31:17Z

175.141.124.220: /* Content */

{{About||the film|Valayapathi (film)}}
{{Tamil literature}}
{{italic}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
'''''Vaḷaiyāpati''''' ({{lang-ta|வளையாபதி}}), also spelled '''''Valayapathi''''', is one of the [[Five Great Epics|five great]] [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Epic poetry|epic]]s, but one that is almost entirely lost.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|pp=73–74}}<ref name="Sastri1982p1088">{{cite book|author=Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri|title=A Comprehensive History of India: Part 1-2. A.D. 300-985 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9MMKAQAAIAAJ |year=1982|publisher=Orient Longmans|page=1088}}</ref> It is a story of a father who has two wives, abandons one who gives birth to their son, and the son grows up and seeks his real father.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|pp=73–74}} The dominant emotion of this epic is love, and its predominant object is the inculcation of ''Jain'' principles and doctrines.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nagarajan|first=K. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L4IdAAAAMAAJ&q=Valayapathi+jainism|title=Jain Contribution to Tamil Culture|date=1977|publisher=Dhanraj Baid Jain College|language=en}}</ref>

Palm-leaf manuscripts of the epic likely existed until the 19th-century, but presently only uncertain fragments of the epic are known from commentaries and the 14th-century anthology ''Purattirattu''. Based on these fragments, the epic appears to be the story of a merchant with an overseas trading business who married two women.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|pp=73–74}} He abandoned one, who later gives birth to his son. He has children with the other wife too. The abandoned son is bullied by overseas kids for not knowing the name of his father.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|pp=73–74}} His mother then discloses the father's name. The son travels and confronts his father, who first refuses to acknowledge him. Then, with the aid of a goddess, he brings his mother whose presence proves his claim. The father accepts the boy, and helps him start his own merchant business.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|pp=73–74}}

The surviving stanzas of the epic, and the commentaries that mention ''Valayapathi'', suggest that it was partly a text that was disputing and criticizing other Indian religions,<ref name="Pillai1994p132">{{cite book|author=M. S. Purnalingam Pillai|title=Tamil Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIeqvcai5XQC |year=1994|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0955-6|pages=132–134}}</ref> that it supported the ideologies found in early [[Jainism]], such as asceticism, horrors at meat-eating (Non-violence), and monastic aversion to women (Celibacy).{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|pp=73–75}} It is therefore "almost certain" to be a Jain epic, written by a Tamil [[Jainism|Jain]] ascetic, states Kamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature scholar.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|pp=73–75}} According to Zvelebil, it was probably composed in or about the 10th-century CE.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|pp=73–75}}

==Sources==
Of the five great epics, ''Valayapathi'' and ''[[Kundalakesi]]'' are not available in full. Only fragments quoted in other literary works and commentaries have survived. The loss of the epic happened as recent as late 19th century CE. Tamil scholar and publisher of classical literature, [[U. V. Swaminatha Iyer]] mentions in his autobiography that he once saw a palm leaf manuscript of ''Valayapathi'' in the [[Thiruvaiyaru]] library of his teacher, Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai. However, when he later searched for it for publication, it had disappeared. Another Tamil scholar V. Subramania Mudaliar has also written about seeing a palm leaf manuscript of ''Valayapathi''. The epic has been mentioned by name in the ''Parimelalagar's'' commentary (14th century CE) of ''[[Tirukkuṛaḷ]]'' and a 12th-century commentary of ''Ottakoothar''' ''Thakkayagaparani''. Currently, 72 stanzas of the epic have been recovered from various secondary sources. Fragments have been found in commentaries of ''Yapperungala Viruthi Ceyyul'' and ''Ilampuranar's'' and ''Nachinarkiniyar's'' commentaries of ''[[Tolkāppiyam]]''. ''Adiyarkkunallar's'' commentary on ''Cilappatikaram'' and an anonymous commentary of ''Yapperungalam'' contain 3 and 2 stanzas of the epic respectively. Three stanzas have been found in. Majority of the currently available verses (66 of them) are found in the 14th century anthology ''Purathirattu''.<ref name="zvelebil">Zvelebil 1992, p. 73</ref><ref name="krishnamurthy">Krishna Murthy 1987, p. 102</ref><ref name="thinnai">{{cite news|title=Kundalakesi: Some notes|url=http://www.thinnai.com/?module=displaystory&story_id=60405271&format=print|work=www.thinnai.com|date=27 May 2004|language=ta|author=vanava. Thurayan}}</ref><ref name="mukherjee">Mukherjee 1999, p. 416</ref>

==Content==
''Valayapathi's'' story cannot be discerned from the currently available fragments of the epic. However, some scholars contend that the epic's story has been retold in the 35th chapter of ''Vanikapuranam'' written by Chintamani Pulavar in 1855. Chintamani Pulavar describes the chapter as the story of "Vaira Vanikan Valayapathi" (''Valayapathi'' the Diamond merchant) of the ''Aimperumkaappiyam'' (five great epics). But the text itself does not contain the word ''Valayapathi''. Tamil scholars M. Arunachalam and [[Kamil Zvelebil]] consider this hypothesis as doubtful. The content of the recovered verses are consistent with the ideals of [[Jainism]] and have led to the conclusion that this epic is a Jain religious work. Rejection of worldly pleasures, advocation of asceticism, misanthropy and praise for chastity, horror at meat-eating, the vision of constant change and transiency all point to the epic's author being a Jain monk. The 345th verse of ''Tirukkuṛaḷ'' is quoted in the epic.<ref name="zvelebil"/><ref name="pillai 2">Pillai 1994, pp. 132-136</ref><ref name="reader">{{cite web|title=Valayapathi |url=http://www.tamilreader.com/MTExMDkxMDUyMTAwOTM5 |work=www.tamilreader.com |language=ta}}</ref>

According to Tamil scholar [[S. Vaiyapuri Pillai]], ''Valayapathi'' is one of the earliest works done in the ''Viruttham'' metre. The quality and beauty of the epic has been praised by ''Adiyarkkunallar'' who quotes from it and praises its quality of poetry in his commentary of ''Cilappatikaram''.<ref name="zvelebil"/>

==Time period==
''Valayapathi'' has been dated to the early 10th century CE by Vaiyapuri Pillai, while Arunachalam has dated it to the early 9th century.<ref name="zvelebil"/>

==Genre==
Tamil literary tradition places ''Valayapathi'' among the [[The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature|five great epics of Tamil literature]], alongside such works as ''[[Silappatikaram]]'', ''[[Manimegalai]]'', ''[[Civaka Cintamani]]'' and ''[[Kundalakesi]]''.<ref name="Muk1">Mukherjee 1999, p. 277</ref> It is called a "''Aimperumkappiyam''" (lit. Five large epics), a genre that is first mentioned in a later century Mayilainathar's commentary of ''[[Nannūl]]''. Mayilainathar does not mention the names of the five epics. The names of the epics are first mentioned in the late 18th century - early 19th century work ''Thiruthanikaiula''. Earlier works like the 17''th'' century poem ''Tamil vidu thoothu'' mention the great epics as ''Panchkavyams''.<ref name="zvelebil">Zvelebil 1992, p. 73</ref><ref name="pillai">M.S. 1994, p. 115</ref>



== See also ==
*[[Tamil literature]]
* [[Five Great Epics]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book | title=Glimpses of art, architecture, and Buddhist literature in ancient India| last=Krishna Murthy| first=K. | year=1987| pages=103| publisher=Abhinav Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tD-7sojtDdYC&pg=PA103|isbn=978-81-7017-226-0}}
*{{cite book | title=A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850 Vol.1| last=Mukherjee| first=Sujit | year=1999| pages=416| publisher=Orient blackswan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCJrUfVtZxoC&pg=RA1-PA416-IA1|isbn=978-81-250-1453-9}}
* {{cite book | title=A Primer of Tamil Literature| last=Pillai| first=M. S. Purnalingam | year=1904| publisher=Ananda Press|location=Madras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JwkrAAAAYAAJ&q=five+epics+of+tamil+literature&pg=PA66}}
* {{cite book | title=Tamil Literature| last=Pillai| first=M. S. Purnalingam | year=1994| pages=115| publisher=Asian Educational Services|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIeqvcai5XQC&pg=PA115|isbn=978-81-206-0955-6}}
* {{citation | title=Companion studies to the history of Tamil literature| last=Zvelebil| first=Kamil |author-link=Kamil Zvelebil| year=1992| pages=73| publisher=BRILL|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qAPtq49DZfoC&pg=PA73|isbn=978-90-04-09365-2}}
* {{cite book | title=A History of Indian literature Vol.10 (Tamil Literature)| last=Zvelebil| first=Kamil |author-link=Kamil Zvelebil| year=1974| publisher=Otto Harrasowitz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&q=five+epics+of+tamil+literature&pg=PA130|isbn = 3-447-01582-9}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.chennailibrary.com/iymperumkappiangal/valaiyapathi.html Recovered Stanzas from Valayapathi at www.chennailibrary.com]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Jain texts]]
[[Category:Tamil epic poems]]
[[Category:Sangam literature]]

Pratyangira

2020-12-22T08:48:29Z

175.141.124.220:

{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = File:Pratyangira 2014-02-25 09-47.JPG
| caption =
| name = Pratyangira
| other_names = Atharvana Bhadrakali
| script_name = [[Sanskrit]]
script = प्रत्यङ्गिरा
Tamil :
பிரத்தியங்கிரா
| affiliation = [[Devi]], [[Parvati]], [[Adiparashakti]]
| weapon = ''[[Trishula]]'' (Trident), ''[[Damaru]]'' (Drum), ''[[Kapala]]'', ''Pasha'' (rope/snake rope)
| mount = Simha ([[lion]])
| consort = [[Shiva]] as [[Sharabha]]
| texts = ''[[Atharvaveda]]''
}}
'''Prathyangira''' ([[Sanskrit]]: प्रत्यङ्गिरा, [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: பிரத்யங்கிரா; ''Prathyaṅgirā''), also called '''Atharvana Bhadrakali''' is a [[Devi|Hindu Goddess]] associated with [[Shakti]]. She is described as a goddess with a male [[lion]]’s face<ref>Michael Steinberg (2012). ''In the land of temples: Notes from a South Indian pilgrimage''. p. 32. "''It is a temple to Maha Pratyangira, a particularly ferocious manifestation of the goddess in which she has the head of a lion.''”</ref> and a female human body representing the union of [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]]. She holds the combined destructive power of [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]]. This combination of lion and human forms represents the balance of good and evil. In [[Shaktism]], Pratyangira is Siddhilakshmi, a form of Guhya Kali.In [[Durga]] tradition, Pratyangira is Purna [[Chandi]], the fiery destructive power of [[Brahman]]. In the Vedas, Pratyangira is Atharvana [[Bhadrakali]], the goddess of Atharva Veda and magical spells.<ref>Dr Ramamurthy, Sri Maha Pratyangira Devi: Holy Divine Mother in Ferocious Form[https://books.google.com/books?id=lUEaMQAACAAJ&dq=Pratyangira&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjFh63c36viAhW073MBHbP-Cx0Q6AEICTAA]</ref>

==Incarnation of Adi Parashakti==
As told in ''[[Markandeya Purana]]'' and ''[[Shiva Purana]]'', in the beginning of the [[Treta yuga]], the Lord [[Narasimha]], an avatar of [[Vishnu]], killed the unruly King [[Hiranyakashipu]] by tearing up his body and drinking his blood. Because of the anger in [[Hiranyakashipu]]'s body and blood Lord [[Narsimha]] drunk on rage and could not be stopped. To calm him down, Lord [[Shiva]] came down as [[Sharabha]], a bird-animal-human hybrid. Upon seeing this, Lord Narasimha created [[Gandaberunda]], a two headed bird to fight against Sarabeswara. These two beings fought a long time terrorising the world without reaching a solution. Seeing this [[Parvati|Shakti]] invoked Pratyangira. Pratyangira appeared before these fighting beings and roared. When she roared, the terrified Sarabeswara and Gandaberund stopped their fight. Pratyangira had the combined power of Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti she was more powerful than any of them.

In another version in ancient times when two [[Rishis]], Prathiyangira and Angiras, were meditating they re-discovered a Goddess through a Moola [[Mantra]] who was nameless. Later She privileged the rishis by naming Herself after them and hence She was called as Prathyangira Devi. Narasimhi is another name of Hers. 'Nara' means human and 'Simha' means lion, so She got named thus as She appears with a lion's face and a human body.

The term ''Prati'' means reverse and ''Angiras'' means attacking. Thus, devi Pratyangira is the one who reverses any black magic attacks. In temples of south India, She is also eulogized as Atharvana Bhadrakali as the She is considered the ruling Goddess of the [[Atharva Veda]], the scripture which contains spells to conjure and cure.<ref>Max Muller [https://books.google.com/books?id=_S_5oAEACAAJ&dq=pratyangira&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjZjfXCx9PdAhUDXSsKHQvABF0Q6AEIIzAF The Hymns of the Atharva-Veda: The Sacred Books of the East V42]</ref><ref>Teun Goudriaan [https://books.google.com/books?id=15-heLWM3UcC&pg=PA104&dq=pratyangira&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjZjfXCx9PdAhUDXSsKHQvABF0Q6AEIGDAD#v=onepage&q=pratyangira&f=false Maya: Divine And Human]</ref>

Pratyangira is one of the chief warrior goddess of Lalita [[Tripura Sundari]]'s army called Sakthi Sena. Adi Parasakthi at an earlier time during the war between her and Bhandasura gave two boons to Pratyangira that the protection offered by Pratyangira is invincible and no god even Adi Parasakthi herself cannot overcome it. Also when invoked for offensive purposes Pratyangira give invincibility and sure victory to her devotee. Thus Pratyangira is a very popular deity among the Kshatriyas warrior caste. She is often described as the ultimate Goddess to be worshipped for defensive and offensive power.

== Appearance ==
In some images she is shown as dark complexioned, terrible in aspect, having a lion's face with reddened eyes and riding a lion or wearing black garments, she wears a garland of human skulls; her hair stands on end, and she holds a [[trishula|trident]], a serpent in the form of a noose, a hand-drum and a skull in her four hands. She is associated with [[Sharabha]] and she has a variant form, Atharvana-Bhadra-Kali. She is considered to be a powerful repellent of the influences generated by [[witchcraft]] and is said to have the power to punish anyone doing [[Adharma]] be it Brahma, Vishnu or Siva. It is said that when Narashimhika shakes her Lion's Mane, she throws the stars into disarray.<ref>Max Muller [https://books.google.com/books?id=_S_5oAEACAAJ&dq=pratyangira&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjZjfXCx9PdAhUDXSsKHQvABF0Q6AEIIzAF The Hymns of the Atharva-Veda: The Sacred Books of the East V42]</ref><ref>Benoytosh Bhattacharyya [https://books.google.com/books?id=DC4TAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT102&dq=pratyangira&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjZjfXCx9PdAhUDXSsKHQvABF0Q6AEIJzAG#v=onepage&q=144&f=false THE INDIAN BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY]</ref>

Pratyangira has close resemblance to [[Sekhmet]] from Egyptian mythology. Both Pratyangira and Sekhmet is part man part lion, have a snake over head, has an aura resembling fire. Both of them are great warrior goddess.

==In Hindu Epics==
[[File:Yantra of the Goddess Pratyangira (recto), Symbol (verso) LACMA M.91.128.1.jpg|thumb|The Pratyangira [[yantra]].]]
Prathyangira is also mentioned in the Hindu epic ''[[Ramayana]]''. [[Indrajit]] was performing "Nikumbala [[Yajna|yaga]]" (a sacred ritual to worship Prathyangira)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiadivine.org/news/hindu-gods-and-goddesses/sri-maha-pratyangira-devi-the-goddess-to-count-r267 |title=Sri Maha Pratyangira Devi: The Goddess to Counter Black Magic |publisher=Indiadivine.org |date= |accessdate=2014-06-14}}</ref> while Rama and his soldiers were waging war in [[Lanka]]. [[Hanuman]] came down to stop this ritual because he knew that if Indrajit completed it, he would become invincible.

==Worship==
Tantra classifies deities as Shanta (calm), Ugra (wrathful), Prachanda (horrifying), Ghora (terrifying) and Teevra (ferocious). Pratyangira is considered as a {{transl|hi|teevra murti}}. Pratyangira worship is strictly prohibited for people who have namesake Bhakti. Pratyangira worship is only done by the guidance of a Guru who is proficient in Tantra.<ref>Ajit Mookerjee [https://books.google.com/books?id=O1lCAAAAIAAJ&dq=sekhmet+%2B+pratyangira&source=gbs_navlinks_s KALI] Brill Archive 1988</ref>

Worships dedicated to Pratyangira is performed at many places for the welfare of the people and for eliminating the influences of evil forces. In some temples Pratyangira Devi Homam (Havan) is performed on days of Amavasya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nanjangud.info/places/temples/pratyangiraadevi.html |title=Pratyangira Devi Homa |publisher=nanjangud.info |date= |accessdate=2016-01-17}}</ref>

==Eight kinds of Tantric acts==
Like all Tantric deities, she can be invoked for the eight kinds of acts usually performed. They are appealing, growth, increasing, attracting, subduing, dissention repealing and killing. Detailed information is found as to what kind of materials are to be used for the respective aim, and the number of recitations to be performed. It is further said that any act performed invoking this deity, especially the bad ones like killing and subduing, it is impossible to retract it even when the doer wishes.<ref>Max Muller [https://books.google.com/books?id=_S_5oAEACAAJ&dq=pratyangira&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjZjfXCx9PdAhUDXSsKHQvABF0Q6AEIIzAF The Hymns of the Atharva-Veda: The Sacred Books of the East V42]</ref><ref>Teun Goudriaan [https://books.google.com/books?id=15-heLWM3UcC&pg=PA104&dq=pratyangira&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjZjfXCx9PdAhUDXSsKHQvABF0Q6AEIGDAD#v=onepage&q=pratyangira&f=false Maya: Divine And Human]</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Hinduism}}
*[[Bhadrakali]]
*[[Narasimha]]
*[[Sekhmet]]
*[[Durga]]
*[[Kali]]
*[[Shakti]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* http://www.astrologypredict.com/special-category.php?page=Pratyangira%20Devi%20-%20Protect%20us%20from%20all%20Terrible
* http://ekatvam.org/about-ekatvam/sri-maha-pratyangira-devi.html
* [http://nanjangud.info/places/temples/pratyangiraadevi.html Pratyangira Devi In Nanjangud]
* [http://www.sholinganallurprathyangira.com/ Pratyangira Devi In Sholinganallur, Chennai]
*Maha Pratyangira Devi temple Thiruvallur
*

 {{HinduMythology}}
[[Category:Hindu goddesses]]

Hinduism in Sri Lanka

2020-12-22T08:22:30Z

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{{Refimprove|date=October 2020}}
{{Copy edit|date=October 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Sri Lankan Hinduism
| native_name = இலங்கையில் இந்து மதம்
| native_name_lang = tam
| flag =
| image = Sri Lanka Hinduism.svg
| image_caption = Distribution of Hindus in Sri Lanka
| population = '''2.5 million''' (12.6%) (2012)
| total_source = Census 2012
| regions = [[Northern Province, Sri Lanka|Northern Province]], [[Eastern Province, Sri Lanka|Eastern Province]], [[Central Province, Sri Lanka|Central Province]]
| langs = [[Languages of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan languages]]
| religions = [[Hinduism]]
| related_groups = [[Tamils|Tamil]]
}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2020}}{{Hinduism small}}
{{Hinduism by country}}

'''[[Hinduism]]''' is one of the oldest religions in [[Sri Lanka]] with the temples dating back more than 2000 years. {{As of|2011}}, Hindus make up 12.60%<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 | title=Census of Population and Housing, 2011 | publisher=Department of Census and Statistics | location=Sri Lanka | accessdate=29 August 2020 }}</ref> of the [[Sri Lanka]]n population and are almost exclusively [[Sri Lankan Tamils|Tamils]], apart from small immigrant communities from India and Pakistan including the [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]], [[Telugus]] and [[Malayalees]].

According to the 1915 [[census]], Hindus consisted of about 25% of the Sri Lankan population which included the indentured labourers brought by the British. Despite emigration {{citation needed span|date=October 2020|(over 1 million Sri Lankan Tamils have left the country since independence),}}{{when|reason=section below, "Civil conflict and exodus", gives no start date of this unreferenced "fact"|date=October 2020}} they are still a sizeable minority. [[Hinduism]] is dominant in the North and Eastern provinces, where Tamil descendants are still the predominant demographic, and is also prevalent in the central regions as well as in the capital, [[Colombo]]. According to the 2011 census, there are 2,554,606 Hindus in Sri Lanka constituting 12.6% of the country's population. During the [[Sri Lankan Civil War]], many Tamils fled to other countries. There are Hindu temples abroad which were built by the [[Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora]] to maintain their religion, tradition, and culture.

The majority of Sri Lankan Hindus follow the teaching of [[Shaiva Siddhanta]]. Some Hindus follow [[Shaktism]]. Sri Lanka is home to the five abodes of Shiva, which are known as [[Pancha Ishwarams]], the holy places built by the king [[Ravana]]. [[Murugan|Sri Murugan]] is one of the most popular Hindu deities in Sri Lanka. He is not only venerated by the Hindu [[Tamils]] but also by Buddhist [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] and aboriginal [[Vedda people|Veddas]].<ref>Walking to Kataragama, Sunil Goonasekera, International Centre for Ethnic Studies, 2007, p. 520.</ref>

A significant Hindu religious figure in Sri Lankan modern history is [[Yogaswami|Satguru Siva Yogaswami]] of [[Jaffna]]. One of the mystics of the 20th century, [[Yogaswami]] was the official [[satguru]] and counselling sage of Lanka's several million Tamil Hindu population. The [[Ramakrishna Mission]] is somewhat active in the [[Amparai]] and [[Batticaloa]] districts while the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] school of philosophy of [[Shaivism]] sect of Hinduism is prevalent in the North of Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.himalayanacademy.com/media/books/yogaswami_ei/web/ch35_56.html|title=Lion of lanka}}</ref> Yogaswami belonged to the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] and he was 161st head of the [[Nandinatha Sampradaya]]. The next person in the line of succession after Yogaswami was [[Sivaya Subramuniyaswami]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalayanacademy.com/monastery/lineage-philosophy/gurudeva|title=Shivaya subramaniam|website=himalayanacademy}}</ref>

==Theological origins==
[[File:Ravanan - King of Lanka.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Statue of [[Ravana]] at [[Koneswaram Temple]].]]

According to legend, Sri Lanka was formed when sage [[Narada]] persuaded the God of Wind and Air, [[Vayu]], to humble his close friend, [[Mount Meru]] (a huge mountain where the gods lived). Vayu then spent the next year blowing strong winds at the mountain, which was shielded by [[Garuda]], a mythical bird. When Garuda took respite for a while, Vayu caused part of the apex of the mountain to fall into the sea, forming the island of Sri Lanka.{{Citation needed|date=May 2016}}

The first major [[Hindu]] reference to [[Sri Lanka]] is found in the great [[Hindu]] epic, the [[Ramayana]]. The Ramayana tells that Sri Lanka was ruled by Yaksha king [[Kubera]]. The throne of [[Lanka]] was usurped by his half-brother [[Ravana]]. Ravana was the main villain in the Ramayana and was killed by Rama the avatar of [[Vishnu]]. The Ramayana also mentions a bridge between India and Sri Lanka, known as [[Rama's Bridge]], constructed with rocks by Rama with the help of [[Hanuman]] and others. Many believers view the sand bar islands connecting Sri Lanka to India as the remains of the bridge as seen in satellite images. Archaeological evidence is also found to support the worship of Lord [[Shiva|Siva]] in parts of Sri Lanka, from pre-historic times, prior to the arrival of [[Prince Vijaya]]. Even Ravana was a devout follower of Lord [[Shiva|Siva]].<ref>The Book of Shiva, Namita Gokhale, Penguin Books India, 2009, p. 104.</ref>

==Historic roots==

Evidence states the earliest inhabitants of the island were the [[Ancient clans of Lanka|Nagas and Yakkas]]. The [[Naga people (Lanka)|Nagas]] practised an early form of Hinduism that worshipped Lord Shiva and serpents. This form of animistic Shaivism is common in Tamil Nadu and other parts of [[India]].<ref name="Dailynews">{{cite news|url=http://www.dailynews.lk/2008/06/13/fea05.asp|title=Nainativu Nagapooshani Chariot festival|last=Meeadhu|first=Kalabooshanam|date=13 June 2008|accessdate=18 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604144757/http://www.dailynews.lk/2008/06/13/fea05.asp|archive-date=4 June 2011}}</ref> The [[Naga people (Lanka)|Nagas]] who inhabited the [[Jaffna Peninsula]] were probably the ancestors of Sri Lankan Tamils. The Nagas started to assimilate to the Tamil language and culture in the 3rd century BCE and lost their separate identity.{{sfn|Holt, The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics|Duke University Press, 2011|pp=73-74}}{{refn|group=note|According to several authors they may have been a race of the [[Dravidian people|Dravidians]].<ref name="saf">Laura Smid (2003). South Asian folklore: an encyclopedia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. Great Britain: Routledge. 429.</ref><ref>Chelvadurai Manogaran (1987). Ethnic conflict and reconciliation in Sri Lanka. United States of America: University of Hawaii Press. 21.</ref>}} The [[Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple]] in [[Nainativu]] is believed to be one of the prominent 64 [[Shakti Peetha]]ms.<ref>[https://www.templepurohit.com/featured_item/nainativu-nagapoosani-amman-temple-sri-lanka/] templepurohit.com - May 28, 2015</ref>

Hinduism was probably the dominant religion in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Buddhism in the 3rd century BC. Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of King [[Devanampiya Tissa]].<ref>Asian Religions in British Columbia, UBC Press 2011, p. 125.</ref> The Sinhalese embraced Buddhism and Tamils remain Hindus in Sri Lanka. However, it was activity from across the [[Palk Strait]] that truly set the scene for [[Hinduism]]'s survival in [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Shaivism]] (devotional worship of Lord Shiva) was the dominant branch practised by the Tamil peoples, thus most of the traditional [[Hindu temple architecture]] and [[philosophy]] of Sri Lanka drew heavily from this particular strand of [[Hinduism]]. [[Sambandar|Thirugnanasambanthar]] mentioned the names of a number of Sri Lankan Hindu temples in his works.<ref>[http://www.sundaytimes.lk/events/611-lecture-on-hindu-sculpture-and-architecture-of-sri-lanka Lecture on Hindu sculpture and architecture of Sri Lanka] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012234629/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/events/611-lecture-on-hindu-sculpture-and-architecture-of-sri-lanka |date=2012-10-12 }} Sunday Times - September 29, 2010</ref>

==European invasion==
The arrival of European colonialists brought profound consequences to both Hindu and Buddhist communities. In 1505, a Portuguese fleet, under the command of Captain–major Don [[Lourenço de Almeida]], arrived off the coast of Sri Lanka. Eventually, deals were struck between rival native rulers and the Portuguese. Formal treaties between the two groups thereby heralded the entry of the alien forces in the political arena of Sri Lanka.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Eventually, over time, the Europeans were able to take advantage of the fractured nature of Sri Lankan politics, eventually culminating in successful military wins against the rebellious natives, most notably against the Hindu Tamils in the North, whose leaders were made to swear allegiance to the king of Portugal in return for maintaining their distinct laws and customs.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

However, any so-called rulers had merely become puppets of their European overlords until in the end, further rebellion caused the [[Tamil people|Tamil]] [[Jaffna Kingdom]] to fall in the hands of the Portuguese in June 1619, when the incumbent ruler and his family were arrested and taken prisoner. According to the Portuguese administrative arrangements, the jurisdiction of [[Jaffna]] came directly under the Viceroy at [[Goa]]. In Goa, the deposed ruler was tried for high treason by the Portuguese High Court (Relaco), found him guilty of all charges levelled against him by the Europeans, and the ruler was sentenced to death. Ultimately, the last Tamil Hindu king of the Jaffna Kingdom (1215 to 1619) was hanged in the year 1621.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Conversion attempts==
While attempting to control their newly won lands in [[Asia]], the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] were also actively encouraging [[Hindu]] [[Tamil people|Tamil]]s to convert to [[Catholicism]]. Forced conversion was also prevalent. In 1618 AD, following some serious Tamil revolts, the Council of the Jesuit Society had resolved that those Tamils who converted to Christianity would be spared death. Others encouraged to embrace the Catholic creed included the wives and children of murdered Tamil leaders.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}[[File:Nallur Kandasamy front entrance.jpg|thumb|200px|Front entrance of [[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]]|left]]

Tellingly, the surviving three children of the executed Tamil King of Jaffna had been converted to Catholicism when young and were later sent to Portugal for their studies. The eldest of these children officially signed a declaration form handing over full control of Jaffna to the King of Portugal {{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}. This officially ended Tamil sovereignty, in Sri Lanka which began as an invasion in 1215, and permitted Catholic conversion activity in those formerly Tamil areas. The result of these actions explain why there are Tamil Catholics to be found today in [[Jaffna]] and surrounding parts.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Portuguese were marginally more successful in converting numerically more Tamils of the coastal regions of both Sri Lanka and India, as they were able to intercede on behalf of these fishing communities against the machinations of the Muslim merchant guilds who had monopolized pearling and other trading activities till then. By eliminating the [[Muslim]] middlemen, the Portuguese won the loyalty of these people. But further inland their attempts would yield only minimal results.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

During the British colonial period a large scale attempt to convert Tamil Hindus to [[Christianity in Sri Lanka|Christianity]] by American [[Baptist]] and [[Presbyterian]] missionaries, along with British [[Methodist]] and [[Anglican]] missionaries, was attempted via building schools and hospices. Again they were only marginally successful. Conversion attempts today through missionary activity of various [[Islamic schools and branches|Muslim branches]], [[Christian denomination]]s and the [[Baháʼí Faith]] is still ongoing. Religious groups that came to provide aid to stricken civilians during the 1983 to 2009 [[Sri Lankan Civil War]], and after the [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Sri Lanka|devastating 2004 tsunami]], have given further impetus to these efforts.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Philosophical roots==
{{Main|List of Sri Lankan Tamil village deities|Saiva Siddhanta}}
The elite and the upper classes amongst the Tamils, consisting of the higher [[Caste system in India|castes]], adhere to what is known as the [[Saiva Siddhanta]] or [[Dvaita]] school of [[Shaivism]]. Siddhanta is opposed to the mainstream [[Vedanta]] school of India. Adherents of various [[Dvaita]] schools both amongst the majority [[Vaishnavites]] and minority [[Shaivites]] can be seen across India. But among Sri Lankan Hindus, it is the [[Dvaita]] Siddhanta school of thought that commands elite loyalty. [[Dvaita]] [[Saiva Siddhanta]] school differentiates between the soul, god, and actions or Karma as opposed to the unity of the soul and God as expounded by the Vedanta school. Most elite temples follow what is known as [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamic]] rituals which are highly [[Sanskritized]] rituals along with usage of Tamil hymns by specialized singers known as Ootuvar.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}[[File:Shiva (24896709273).jpg|thumb|263x263px|[[Shiva]] statue at [[Koneswaram temple]].|left]]Most other Sri Lankan Hindus follow what is commonly known as [[folk Hinduism]] without adherence to a strict philosophical school of thought. They usually worship a [[village]], [[clan]] or [[Tribe|tribal]] [[deity]] within or outside the accepted [[pantheon (religion)|pantheon]] of Hindu deities. Some local deities are [[Kannaki]], [[Mariamman]], [[Draupadi]], [[Ayyanar]], [[Bhairava|Vairavar]] and worship of weapons such as [[Vel]] or the lance. The Vel festival is also a highly anticipated event in Sri Lanka. They might worship it in a formal temple structure, forest grove or an open plain. They might or might not use the help of [[Brahmin]] priests.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Localized rituals are employed but share common features across India, specifically South India. Some such rituals are [[Kavadi Aattam|Kavadi Attam]] or [[penance]] dancing, Tee Midi or fire walking,<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20060326185409/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2003/7-9/36-37_fire_walk.shtml</ref> trance due to possession by local gods and [[Animal sacrifice|animal sacrifices]] to appease local gods or spirits.

Religion is a compulsory subject in Sri Lankan schools and Hindu students can choose from either Hinduism or Saiva Siddhanta as a compulsory subject from Grade 1 to Grade 11. Sri Lankan Tamils mostly study Saiva Siddhanta while upcountry Tamils mostly study Hinduism.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Social reformers & religious teachers==
As a reaction as well as an effort to arrest the conversion efforts of missionaries, there arose many religious reformers that wanted to modify the existing Hindu practices to be more able to stand up to western Christian critique. A few of them are prominent, such as [[Arumuka Navalar]] and [[Vipulananda Adigal]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Among religious teachers or gurus, Kaddai Swami, Kaddai Swami's [[Shishya|s''hishya'']] [[Chellapaswami|Chellappaswami]] and Chellappaswami's ''shishya'' [[Yogaswami|Jnana guru Siva Yogaswami]]<ref>https://www.tamilnation.org/sathyam/east/yogaswamy.htm</ref> stand out, whose direct ''[[sannyasin]]'' ''sishya'', [[Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami]], founded [[Saiva Siddhanta Church]] in [[Hawaii]], US. {{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Sri Lankan Hindu temples==
{{Main|List of Hindu temples in Sri Lanka}}
As most prominent Hindu places of worship were concentrated on the coastal areas, all were destroyed by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] zealots during the post-1505 AD colonial era. Hindus in Sri Lanka believe that the island once had 5 prominent temples dedicated to Lord [[Shiva]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}[[File:MAIN_NAGAPOOSHANI_TEMPLE.jpg|thumb|right|222x222px|[[Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple]]]]The [[Pancha Ishwarams]]:

*[[Naguleswaram]] in the North
*[[Ketheeswaram]] in the North West
*[[Koneswaram]] in the East
*[[Muneswaram]] in the West and
*[[Tondeswaram]] in the South.

All were destroyed by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] during the [[Portuguese Ceylon|colonial period]]. Of these apart from the temple in the South all have been rebuilt during the British or post-independence era.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Apart from these temples there are other prominent temples such as the newly constructed Ponnabalvaneswarm temple in the capital Colombo, the ancient [[Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple|Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Kovil]] and the [[Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil]] constructed in [[Jaffna]] during the medieval period that are still important to current day Hindus.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

There are also places of worship and temples that are sacred to both Buddhists and Hindus in Sri Lanka. The prominent one is [[Katirkamam (Hindu temple)|Katirkamam]] also known as [[Kataragama]] temple dedicated to Lord [[Murukan]] or Skanda. Also [[Adam's Peak]], a mountain top that is also known as Sri Pada to the Buddhists and Sivanolipada Malai to the Hindus.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Civil conflict and exodus==
{{Historical populations
|title = Historical Growth of the Hindu Population in Sri Lanka
|type =
|footnote = *The 2001 Census did not cover all regions due to political instability. During the same period, the overall population grew at +1.02% p.a.<ref name=final2012>{{cite web|title=Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka, 2012|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/FinalReport/Population/FinalPopulation.pdf|publisher=Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402110406/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/FinalReport/Population/FinalPopulation.pdf|archive-date=2015-04-02}}</ref>
|align = right
|width =
|state =
|shading = on
|pop_name =
|percentages = pagr
|source =
|1881 | 593,600
|1891 | 615,900
|1901 | 826,800
|1911 | 938,300
|1921 | 982,100
|1931 | 1,166,900
|1946 | 1,320,400
|1953 | 1,610,500
|1963 | 1,958,400
|1971 | 2,238,666
|1981 | 2,297,806
|1991 | 2,406,852
|2001 | 2,481,495
|2012 | 2,561,299
}}In the long term, as a dwindling minority, the future could appear uncertain for the survival of a community after almost 2,500 years of varying degrees of presence in Sri Lanka. The Tamils of recent Indian origin, in the plantations, which constitute over half of the Hindu population in Sri Lanka continue to exist, unaffected by the consequences of the civil war. The prohibition of naval travel between Sri Lanka and India has isolated Sri Lankan Hindus from their Indian neighbors.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Demographics==
According to the 1981 census, there were 2,297,800 Hindus in Sri Lanka. The 2012 census reported 2,554,606 Hindus in all of Sri Lanka. This was 12.6% down from 15.48% in 1981 largely on account of immigration. 20,000 people died during the 2004 tsunami in [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam|LTTE]] held areas alone.<ref>http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/PDF/p7%20population%20and%20Housing%20Text-11-12-06.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/PDF/p5%20Population%20and%20Housing%20Schedule.pdf</ref><ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20071007215109/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Abstract_2006/Tables/chap%202/AB2-13.pdf</ref>

In 1981 close to 85% of all Tamils were Hindus.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Hindus constitute the overwhelming majority of Tamils in Sri Lanka. However, in the district of [[Mannar District|Mannar]], Christians slightly outnumber Hindus. The highest proportion of Hindus is found in Eastern Sri Lanka (close to 91% of all Tamils, with 92% in [[Ampara|Amparai]] and [[Batticaloa]] and 87% in [[Trincomalee|Trincomallee]]). In the [[Central Province, Sri Lanka|Central Province]] also the proportion of Hindus is more than 90% of the Tamil population. (91% each in [[Matale]] and [[Nuwara Eliya]] and 88% in [[Kandy]]). In [[Uva Province|Uva]] province the proportion of Hindus is 91.3% of the Tamil population. However, in 1981 93.15% of Uva Tamils were Hindu. In [[Northern Province, Sri Lanka|Northern Province]] 84% of all Tamils were Hindus (90% in [[Vavuniya]], 87% in [[Jaffna]] and [[Mullaitivu]] and 42% in [[Mannar District|Mannar]]).{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

== See also ==
* [[Hinduism in Guyana]]
* [[Hinduism in Brunei]]
* [[Hinduism in Reunion]]
* [[Village deities of Tamils of Sri Lanka]]
* [[Village deities of Tamil Nadu]]
* [[List of Hindu temples in Sri Lanka]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{coord missing|Sri Lanka}}
* [http://www.hindudept.gov.lk/ Department of Hindu Religious and Cultural Affairs]

{{Sri Lankan Tamil people}}
{{Asia in topic|Hinduism in}}
{{Religion in Sri Lanka}}

{{Portal bar|Ancient Tamil civilization|Sri Lanka}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hinduism In Sri Lanka}}
[[Category:Hinduism in Sri Lanka| ]]
[[Category:Sri Lankan Tamil culture]]

Hinduism in Sri Lanka

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{{Refimprove|date=October 2020}}
{{Copy edit|date=October 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Sri Lankan Hinduism
| native_name = இலங்கையில் இந்து மதம்
| native_name_lang = tam
| flag = Om symbol.svg
| image = Sri Lanka Hinduism.svg
| image_caption = Distribution of Hindus in Sri Lanka
| population = '''2.5 million''' (12.6%) (2012)
| total_source = Census 2012
| regions = [[Northern Province, Sri Lanka|Northern Province]], [[Eastern Province, Sri Lanka|Eastern Province]], [[Central Province, Sri Lanka|Central Province]]
| langs = [[Languages of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan languages]]
| religions = [[Hinduism]]
| related_groups = [[Tamils|Tamil]]
}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2020}}{{Hinduism small}}
{{Hinduism by country}}

'''[[Hinduism]]''' is one of the oldest religions in [[Sri Lanka]] with the temples dating back more than 2000 years. {{As of|2011}}, Hindus make up 12.60%<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 | title=Census of Population and Housing, 2011 | publisher=Department of Census and Statistics | location=Sri Lanka | accessdate=29 August 2020 }}</ref> of the [[Sri Lanka]]n population and are almost exclusively [[Sri Lankan Tamils|Tamils]], apart from small immigrant communities from India and Pakistan including the [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]], [[Telugus]] and [[Malayalees]].

According to the 1915 [[census]], Hindus consisted of about 25% of the Sri Lankan population which included the indentured labourers brought by the British. Despite emigration {{citation needed span|date=October 2020|(over 1 million Sri Lankan Tamils have left the country since independence),}}{{when|reason=section below, "Civil conflict and exodus", gives no start date of this unreferenced "fact"|date=October 2020}} they are still a sizeable minority. [[Hinduism]] is dominant in the North and Eastern provinces, where Tamil descendants are still the predominant demographic, and is also prevalent in the central regions as well as in the capital, [[Colombo]]. According to the 2011 census, there are 2,554,606 Hindus in Sri Lanka constituting 12.6% of the country's population. During the [[Sri Lankan Civil War]], many Tamils fled to other countries. There are Hindu temples abroad which were built by the [[Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora]] to maintain their religion, tradition, and culture.

The majority of Sri Lankan Hindus follow the teaching of [[Shaiva Siddhanta]]. Some Hindus follow [[Shaktism]]. Sri Lanka is home to the five abodes of Shiva, which are known as [[Pancha Ishwarams]], the holy places built by the king [[Ravana]]. [[Murugan|Sri Murugan]] is one of the most popular Hindu deities in Sri Lanka. He is not only venerated by the Hindu [[Tamils]] but also by Buddhist [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] and aboriginal [[Vedda people|Veddas]].<ref>Walking to Kataragama, Sunil Goonasekera, International Centre for Ethnic Studies, 2007, p. 520.</ref>

A significant Hindu religious figure in Sri Lankan modern history is [[Yogaswami|Satguru Siva Yogaswami]] of [[Jaffna]]. One of the mystics of the 20th century, [[Yogaswami]] was the official [[satguru]] and counselling sage of Lanka's several million Tamil Hindu population. The [[Ramakrishna Mission]] is somewhat active in the [[Amparai]] and [[Batticaloa]] districts while the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] school of philosophy of [[Shaivism]] sect of Hinduism is prevalent in the North of Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.himalayanacademy.com/media/books/yogaswami_ei/web/ch35_56.html|title=Lion of lanka}}</ref> Yogaswami belonged to the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] and he was 161st head of the [[Nandinatha Sampradaya]]. The next person in the line of succession after Yogaswami was [[Sivaya Subramuniyaswami]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalayanacademy.com/monastery/lineage-philosophy/gurudeva|title=Shivaya subramaniam|website=himalayanacademy}}</ref>

==Theological origins==
[[File:Ravanan - King of Lanka.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Statue of [[Ravana]] at [[Koneswaram Temple]].]]

According to legend, Sri Lanka was formed when sage [[Narada]] persuaded the God of Wind and Air, [[Vayu]], to humble his close friend, [[Mount Meru]] (a huge mountain where the gods lived). Vayu then spent the next year blowing strong winds at the mountain, which was shielded by [[Garuda]], a mythical bird. When Garuda took respite for a while, Vayu caused part of the apex of the mountain to fall into the sea, forming the island of Sri Lanka.{{Citation needed|date=May 2016}}

The first major [[Hindu]] reference to [[Sri Lanka]] is found in the great [[Hindu]] epic, the [[Ramayana]]. The Ramayana tells that Sri Lanka was ruled by Yaksha king [[Kubera]]. The throne of [[Lanka]] was usurped by his half-brother [[Ravana]]. Ravana was the main villain in the Ramayana and was killed by Rama the avatar of [[Vishnu]]. The Ramayana also mentions a bridge between India and Sri Lanka, known as [[Rama's Bridge]], constructed with rocks by Rama with the help of [[Hanuman]] and others. Many believers view the sand bar islands connecting Sri Lanka to India as the remains of the bridge as seen in satellite images. Archaeological evidence is also found to support the worship of Lord [[Shiva|Siva]] in parts of Sri Lanka, from pre-historic times, prior to the arrival of [[Prince Vijaya]]. Even Ravana was a devout follower of Lord [[Shiva|Siva]].<ref>The Book of Shiva, Namita Gokhale, Penguin Books India, 2009, p. 104.</ref>

==Historic roots==

Evidence states the earliest inhabitants of the island were the [[Ancient clans of Lanka|Nagas and Yakkas]]. The [[Naga people (Lanka)|Nagas]] practised an early form of Hinduism that worshipped Lord Shiva and serpents. This form of animistic Shaivism is common in Tamil Nadu and other parts of [[India]].<ref name="Dailynews">{{cite news|url=http://www.dailynews.lk/2008/06/13/fea05.asp|title=Nainativu Nagapooshani Chariot festival|last=Meeadhu|first=Kalabooshanam|date=13 June 2008|accessdate=18 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604144757/http://www.dailynews.lk/2008/06/13/fea05.asp|archive-date=4 June 2011}}</ref> The [[Naga people (Lanka)|Nagas]] who inhabited the [[Jaffna Peninsula]] were probably the ancestors of Sri Lankan Tamils. The Nagas started to assimilate to the Tamil language and culture in the 3rd century BCE and lost their separate identity.{{sfn|Holt, The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics|Duke University Press, 2011|pp=73-74}}{{refn|group=note|According to several authors they may have been a race of the [[Dravidian people|Dravidians]].<ref name="saf">Laura Smid (2003). South Asian folklore: an encyclopedia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. Great Britain: Routledge. 429.</ref><ref>Chelvadurai Manogaran (1987). Ethnic conflict and reconciliation in Sri Lanka. United States of America: University of Hawaii Press. 21.</ref>}} The [[Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple]] in [[Nainativu]] is believed to be one of the prominent 64 [[Shakti Peetha]]ms.<ref>[https://www.templepurohit.com/featured_item/nainativu-nagapoosani-amman-temple-sri-lanka/] templepurohit.com - May 28, 2015</ref>

Hinduism was probably the dominant religion in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Buddhism in the 3rd century BC. Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of King [[Devanampiya Tissa]].<ref>Asian Religions in British Columbia, UBC Press 2011, p. 125.</ref> The Sinhalese embraced Buddhism and Tamils remain Hindus in Sri Lanka. However, it was activity from across the [[Palk Strait]] that truly set the scene for [[Hinduism]]'s survival in [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Shaivism]] (devotional worship of Lord Shiva) was the dominant branch practised by the Tamil peoples, thus most of the traditional [[Hindu temple architecture]] and [[philosophy]] of Sri Lanka drew heavily from this particular strand of [[Hinduism]]. [[Sambandar|Thirugnanasambanthar]] mentioned the names of a number of Sri Lankan Hindu temples in his works.<ref>[http://www.sundaytimes.lk/events/611-lecture-on-hindu-sculpture-and-architecture-of-sri-lanka Lecture on Hindu sculpture and architecture of Sri Lanka] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012234629/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/events/611-lecture-on-hindu-sculpture-and-architecture-of-sri-lanka |date=2012-10-12 }} Sunday Times - September 29, 2010</ref>

==European invasion==
The arrival of European colonialists brought profound consequences to both Hindu and Buddhist communities. In 1505, a Portuguese fleet, under the command of Captain–major Don [[Lourenço de Almeida]], arrived off the coast of Sri Lanka. Eventually, deals were struck between rival native rulers and the Portuguese. Formal treaties between the two groups thereby heralded the entry of the alien forces in the political arena of Sri Lanka.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Eventually, over time, the Europeans were able to take advantage of the fractured nature of Sri Lankan politics, eventually culminating in successful military wins against the rebellious natives, most notably against the Hindu Tamils in the North, whose leaders were made to swear allegiance to the king of Portugal in return for maintaining their distinct laws and customs.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

However, any so-called rulers had merely become puppets of their European overlords until in the end, further rebellion caused the [[Tamil people|Tamil]] [[Jaffna Kingdom]] to fall in the hands of the Portuguese in June 1619, when the incumbent ruler and his family were arrested and taken prisoner. According to the Portuguese administrative arrangements, the jurisdiction of [[Jaffna]] came directly under the Viceroy at [[Goa]]. In Goa, the deposed ruler was tried for high treason by the Portuguese High Court (Relaco), found him guilty of all charges levelled against him by the Europeans, and the ruler was sentenced to death. Ultimately, the last Tamil Hindu king of the Jaffna Kingdom (1215 to 1619) was hanged in the year 1621.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Conversion attempts==
While attempting to control their newly won lands in [[Asia]], the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] were also actively encouraging [[Hindu]] [[Tamil people|Tamil]]s to convert to [[Catholicism]]. Forced conversion was also prevalent. In 1618 AD, following some serious Tamil revolts, the Council of the Jesuit Society had resolved that those Tamils who converted to Christianity would be spared death. Others encouraged to embrace the Catholic creed included the wives and children of murdered Tamil leaders.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}[[File:Nallur Kandasamy front entrance.jpg|thumb|200px|Front entrance of [[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]]|left]]

Tellingly, the surviving three children of the executed Tamil King of Jaffna had been converted to Catholicism when young and were later sent to Portugal for their studies. The eldest of these children officially signed a declaration form handing over full control of Jaffna to the King of Portugal {{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}. This officially ended Tamil sovereignty, in Sri Lanka which began as an invasion in 1215, and permitted Catholic conversion activity in those formerly Tamil areas. The result of these actions explain why there are Tamil Catholics to be found today in [[Jaffna]] and surrounding parts.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Portuguese were marginally more successful in converting numerically more Tamils of the coastal regions of both Sri Lanka and India, as they were able to intercede on behalf of these fishing communities against the machinations of the Muslim merchant guilds who had monopolized pearling and other trading activities till then. By eliminating the [[Muslim]] middlemen, the Portuguese won the loyalty of these people. But further inland their attempts would yield only minimal results.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

During the British colonial period a large scale attempt to convert Tamil Hindus to [[Christianity in Sri Lanka|Christianity]] by American [[Baptist]] and [[Presbyterian]] missionaries, along with British [[Methodist]] and [[Anglican]] missionaries, was attempted via building schools and hospices. Again they were only marginally successful. Conversion attempts today through missionary activity of various [[Islamic schools and branches|Muslim branches]], [[Christian denomination]]s and the [[Baháʼí Faith]] is still ongoing. Religious groups that came to provide aid to stricken civilians during the 1983 to 2009 [[Sri Lankan Civil War]], and after the [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Sri Lanka|devastating 2004 tsunami]], have given further impetus to these efforts.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Philosophical roots==
{{Main|List of Sri Lankan Tamil village deities|Saiva Siddhanta}}
The elite and the upper classes amongst the Tamils, consisting of the higher [[Caste system in India|castes]], adhere to what is known as the [[Saiva Siddhanta]] or [[Dvaita]] school of [[Shaivism]]. Siddhanta is opposed to the mainstream [[Vedanta]] school of India. Adherents of various [[Dvaita]] schools both amongst the majority [[Vaishnavites]] and minority [[Shaivites]] can be seen across India. But among Sri Lankan Hindus, it is the [[Dvaita]] Siddhanta school of thought that commands elite loyalty. [[Dvaita]] [[Saiva Siddhanta]] school differentiates between the soul, god, and actions or Karma as opposed to the unity of the soul and God as expounded by the Vedanta school. Most elite temples follow what is known as [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamic]] rituals which are highly [[Sanskritized]] rituals along with usage of Tamil hymns by specialized singers known as Ootuvar.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}[[File:Shiva (24896709273).jpg|thumb|263x263px|[[Shiva]] statue at [[Koneswaram temple]].|left]]Most other Sri Lankan Hindus follow what is commonly known as [[folk Hinduism]] without adherence to a strict philosophical school of thought. They usually worship a [[village]], [[clan]] or [[Tribe|tribal]] [[deity]] within or outside the accepted [[pantheon (religion)|pantheon]] of Hindu deities. Some local deities are [[Kannaki]], [[Mariamman]], [[Draupadi]], [[Ayyanar]], [[Bhairava|Vairavar]] and worship of weapons such as [[Vel]] or the lance. The Vel festival is also a highly anticipated event in Sri Lanka. They might worship it in a formal temple structure, forest grove or an open plain. They might or might not use the help of [[Brahmin]] priests.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Localized rituals are employed but share common features across India, specifically South India. Some such rituals are [[Kavadi Aattam|Kavadi Attam]] or [[penance]] dancing, Tee Midi or fire walking,<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20060326185409/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2003/7-9/36-37_fire_walk.shtml</ref> trance due to possession by local gods and [[Animal sacrifice|animal sacrifices]] to appease local gods or spirits.

Religion is a compulsory subject in Sri Lankan schools and Hindu students can choose from either Hinduism or Saiva Siddhanta as a compulsory subject from Grade 1 to Grade 11. Sri Lankan Tamils mostly study Saiva Siddhanta while upcountry Tamils mostly study Hinduism.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Social reformers & religious teachers==
As a reaction as well as an effort to arrest the conversion efforts of missionaries, there arose many religious reformers that wanted to modify the existing Hindu practices to be more able to stand up to western Christian critique. A few of them are prominent, such as [[Arumuka Navalar]] and [[Vipulananda Adigal]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Among religious teachers or gurus, Kaddai Swami, Kaddai Swami's [[Shishya|s''hishya'']] [[Chellapaswami|Chellappaswami]] and Chellappaswami's ''shishya'' [[Yogaswami|Jnana guru Siva Yogaswami]]<ref>https://www.tamilnation.org/sathyam/east/yogaswamy.htm</ref> stand out, whose direct ''[[sannyasin]]'' ''sishya'', [[Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami]], founded [[Saiva Siddhanta Church]] in [[Hawaii]], US. {{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Sri Lankan Hindu temples==
{{Main|List of Hindu temples in Sri Lanka}}
As most prominent Hindu places of worship were concentrated on the coastal areas, all were destroyed by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] zealots during the post-1505 AD colonial era. Hindus in Sri Lanka believe that the island once had 5 prominent temples dedicated to Lord [[Shiva]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}[[File:MAIN_NAGAPOOSHANI_TEMPLE.jpg|thumb|right|222x222px|[[Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple]]]]The [[Pancha Ishwarams]]:

*[[Naguleswaram]] in the North
*[[Ketheeswaram]] in the North West
*[[Koneswaram]] in the East
*[[Muneswaram]] in the West and
*[[Tondeswaram]] in the South.

All were destroyed by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] during the [[Portuguese Ceylon|colonial period]]. Of these apart from the temple in the South all have been rebuilt during the British or post-independence era.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Apart from these temples there are other prominent temples such as the newly constructed Ponnabalvaneswarm temple in the capital Colombo, the ancient [[Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple|Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Kovil]] and the [[Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil]] constructed in [[Jaffna]] during the medieval period that are still important to current day Hindus.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

There are also places of worship and temples that are sacred to both Buddhists and Hindus in Sri Lanka. The prominent one is [[Katirkamam (Hindu temple)|Katirkamam]] also known as [[Kataragama]] temple dedicated to Lord [[Murukan]] or Skanda. Also [[Adam's Peak]], a mountain top that is also known as Sri Pada to the Buddhists and Sivanolipada Malai to the Hindus.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Civil conflict and exodus==
{{Historical populations
|title = Historical Growth of the Hindu Population in Sri Lanka
|type =
|footnote = *The 2001 Census did not cover all regions due to political instability. During the same period, the overall population grew at +1.02% p.a.<ref name=final2012>{{cite web|title=Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka, 2012|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/FinalReport/Population/FinalPopulation.pdf|publisher=Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402110406/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/FinalReport/Population/FinalPopulation.pdf|archive-date=2015-04-02}}</ref>
|align = right
|width =
|state =
|shading = on
|pop_name =
|percentages = pagr
|source =
|1881 | 593,600
|1891 | 615,900
|1901 | 826,800
|1911 | 938,300
|1921 | 982,100
|1931 | 1,166,900
|1946 | 1,320,400
|1953 | 1,610,500
|1963 | 1,958,400
|1971 | 2,238,666
|1981 | 2,297,806
|1991 | 2,406,852
|2001 | 2,481,495
|2012 | 2,561,299
}}In the long term, as a dwindling minority, the future could appear uncertain for the survival of a community after almost 2,500 years of varying degrees of presence in Sri Lanka. The Tamils of recent Indian origin, in the plantations, which constitute over half of the Hindu population in Sri Lanka continue to exist, unaffected by the consequences of the civil war. The prohibition of naval travel between Sri Lanka and India has isolated Sri Lankan Hindus from their Indian neighbors.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

==Demographics==
According to the 1981 census, there were 2,297,800 Hindus in Sri Lanka. The 2012 census reported 2,554,606 Hindus in all of Sri Lanka. This was 12.6% down from 15.48% in 1981 largely on account of immigration. 20,000 people died during the 2004 tsunami in [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam|LTTE]] held areas alone.<ref>http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/PDF/p7%20population%20and%20Housing%20Text-11-12-06.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/PDF/p5%20Population%20and%20Housing%20Schedule.pdf</ref><ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20071007215109/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Abstract_2006/Tables/chap%202/AB2-13.pdf</ref>

In 1981 close to 85% of all Tamils were Hindus.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Hindus constitute the overwhelming majority of Tamils in Sri Lanka. However, in the district of [[Mannar District|Mannar]], Christians slightly outnumber Hindus. The highest proportion of Hindus is found in Eastern Sri Lanka (close to 91% of all Tamils, with 92% in [[Ampara|Amparai]] and [[Batticaloa]] and 87% in [[Trincomalee|Trincomallee]]). In the [[Central Province, Sri Lanka|Central Province]] also the proportion of Hindus is more than 90% of the Tamil population. (91% each in [[Matale]] and [[Nuwara Eliya]] and 88% in [[Kandy]]). In [[Uva Province|Uva]] province the proportion of Hindus is 91.3% of the Tamil population. However, in 1981 93.15% of Uva Tamils were Hindu. In [[Northern Province, Sri Lanka|Northern Province]] 84% of all Tamils were Hindus (90% in [[Vavuniya]], 87% in [[Jaffna]] and [[Mullaitivu]] and 42% in [[Mannar District|Mannar]]).{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

== See also ==
* [[Hinduism in Guyana]]
* [[Hinduism in Brunei]]
* [[Hinduism in Reunion]]
* [[Village deities of Tamils of Sri Lanka]]
* [[Village deities of Tamil Nadu]]
* [[List of Hindu temples in Sri Lanka]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{coord missing|Sri Lanka}}
* [http://www.hindudept.gov.lk/ Department of Hindu Religious and Cultural Affairs]

{{Sri Lankan Tamil people}}
{{Asia in topic|Hinduism in}}
{{Religion in Sri Lanka}}

{{Portal bar|Ancient Tamil civilization|Sri Lanka}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hinduism In Sri Lanka}}
[[Category:Hinduism in Sri Lanka| ]]
[[Category:Sri Lankan Tamil culture]]

Chitty

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{{Other uses}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Chitty Peranakan Chitty
மலேசியா செட்டியார்கள்
| pop = '''~5000'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://roots.sg/learn/stories/chetti-melaka|title=Chetti Melaka of the Straits - Rediscovering Peranakan Indian Communities|website=www.roots.sg}}</ref>
| popplace = {{Flag|Malaysia}} ([[Melaka]]){{·}}{{Flag|Singapore}}
| langs = [[Malay trade and creole languages#Malaccan Creole Malay|Chitty Malay]]{{·}}[[Malay language|Malay]]{{·}}[[English language|English]]{{·}}[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| related = [[Tamil Malaysians]]{{·}}[[Indian Singaporeans]]
| rels = [[Hinduism]]
}}

The '''Chitty''', also known as the '''Chetty''' or '''Chetti Melaka''', are a distinctive group of [[Tamils|Tamil people]] found mainly in [[Melaka]] in [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]], who are also known as the "Indian [[Peranakans]]" and have adopted Chinese and Malay cultural practices whilst also retaining their Hindu heritage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/cnainsider/meet-chetti-melaka-peranakan-indians-striving-save-culture-hindu-10849258|title=Meet the Chetti Melaka, or Peranakan Indians, striving to save their vanishing culture|website=CNA}}</ref> In the 21st century, their population stands at 2,000. The Chitty/Chetti community or [[Chettiar]] community, is from South India and are devout Hindus.

==Language==
Like the [[Peranakans]], the Chitty speak a [[Malay language|Malay]] patois, which is mixed with many Tamil loan words. Many of the Chitty are unable to communicate in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] fluently.

==History==
[[File:Chitty Museum.JPG|thumb|[[Chitty Museum]] in Melaka.]]

Historical records stated that the Tamil traders from Panai in [[Tamil Nadu]] settled down in [[Melaka]] during the sovereignty of the [[Sultanate of Malacca]]. Like the [[Peranakan]]s, they later settled down and freely intermingled with the local Malays and Chinese settlers. However, with the fall of the [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malacca Sultanate]] after 1511, the Chitty eventually lost touch with their native land.

Under the administration of the Portuguese, Dutch and British colonizers, the Chitty eventually began simplifying their culture and customs by adopting local customs. This can be evidenced in the architecture of the [[Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple]], which was built by [[Thaivanayagam Pillay]], the leader of the Chitty people, in 1781 after the Dutch colonial government gave him a plot of land.

The traditional Chitty settlement is located at Kampung Tujuh along Jalan Gajah Berang, which is also inhabited by a small number of Chinese and Malays as well. Many of the Chitty have since found jobs in [[Singapore]] and other parts of [[Malaysia]].

The ethnic identity of the Chitty is nearly lost. As many of them are assimilating into the mainstream [[India]]n, [[Han Chinese|Chinese]], and [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] ethnic communities culturally, this small but distinct group of people that has survived for centuries is now on the brink of extinction.

Exhibition of Peranakan Chitty history, antiques and culture can be seen at the [[Chitty Museum]] in Chitty Village, [[Melaka]], [[Malaysia]]. Recently in 2013, there were controversies of development at the expense of demolishing part of Kampung Chitty, a historical and cultural village.<ref name="Peranakan Chitty">{{cite web|url=http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/now-development-threatens-historical-site-in-malacca |title=Now, development threatens historical site in Malacca |publisher=The Malaysian Insider |accessdate=14 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221113723/http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/now-development-threatens-historical-site-in-malacca |archivedate=21 February 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref> A proposal to construct a condominium, a hotel and a road cutting through the village are seen as a threat affecting the residents and a temple built in 1827.<ref name="Kampung Chitty">{{cite web |url=http://my.news.yahoo.com/39-road-kg-chitty-could-destroy-homes-39-043200736.html |title=Road through Kg Chitty could destroy homes |publisher=Yahoo! News |accessdate=14 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302014551/http://my.news.yahoo.com/39-road-kg-chitty-could-destroy-homes-39-043200736.html |archive-date=2 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Religion==
[[Image:Sri Poyatha.jpg|thumb|[[Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple]] in [[Melaka]].]]
The Chitty are a tightly knit community of Saivite [[Hindus]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Shiv Shanker Tiwary & P.S. Choudhary|title=Encyclopaedia Of Southeast Asia And Its Tribes (Set Of 3 Vols.)|url=https://books.google.com/?id=YdEjAQAAIAAJ&q=Encyclopaedia+Of+Southeast+Asia+And+Its+Tribes+(Set+Of+3+Vols.)&dq=Encyclopaedia+Of+Southeast+Asia+And+Its+Tribes+(Set+Of+3+Vols.)|year=2009|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=81-261-3837-8}}</ref> worshipping in their three temples. Gods such as [[Ganesha]] and [[Shiva]] are worshipped in full gaiety. Hints of [[Taoist]] and [[Islamic]] influences are also evident in their religious rituals. As staunch believers of the Hindu faith, the
Melakan Chitty community still upholds their religious ceremonies. They observe [[Deepavali]], [[Ponggal]], the Hindu New Year, [[Navratri]] and other traditional Hindu festivals that are celebrated by Hindu groups in Malaysia. However, the Chitty do not participate in [[Thaipusam]] in at a grand level like most Hindu groups. During the month of May they have a similar festival to Thaipusam in their local temple called Mengamay. One celebration that is unique to the Chitty community is the Parchu festival. It is celebrated twice a year with Parchu Ponggal (Bhogi) observed the day before Ponggal in January and Parchu Buah-buahan during the fruit season between June and July.

==Culture==
[[File:Chitti Village.JPG|thumb|Chitty Village in Melaka.]]

Culturally, the Chitty have largely assimilated into the Malay culture with some Chinese, Dutch and Portuguese influences, although certain elements of Indian culture do remain. This is especially true in the case of marriages, where offerings of fruits and burning of incense are used. In the case of food, Malay spices, ingredients and the way of cooking have largely supplanted the Indian style.

Chinese cultural influence is also evident, especially in the case of ancestral worship. Religious objects used for conducting rituals were also used by the Chinese. The Chitty are also influenced by the Chinese to some extent in their ceramics works of art.

Simplification of Tamil architecture among the Chitty is also present. Distinct from the Tamil, who have a complex Dravidian Temple Architecture in the [[Pallava]] style, that displays beautifully carved out sculptures of the Hindu gods in many rows, the Chitty temple tend to only have one row of these, or a picture of one single god in each of the three rows, as evidenced in the [[Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple]], built by Thaivanayagam Chitty in 1781.

==Dress and lifestyle==
Most of the Chitty have adopted the Malay costume. In the case of men, a comfortable [[sarong]] and Malay shirt may be worn, although a [[songkok]] may also be worn. Women, on the other hand, wear a similar costume that are similar to the [[Peranakan]] Nonya.

Alongside their [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] and Malay neighbours, the Chitty live in [[kampung|Kampong]] houses. Pictures of [[Hindu]] gods and [[Indian name]]s can be seen just outside their houses, as their descendants tend to adopt [[Languages of India|Indian]], rather than Malay surnames.

A typical Chitty home is distinctly marked by mango leaves arranged in a row, dangling from above the front door. Chitty temples are also adorned this way.

This is the old tradition still followed in Tamil Nadu from ancient period during functions.

==Notable Chitty==
* [[Raja Mudaliar]]
* [[Nathaniel Tan]]
* [[Mavin Khoo]]
* [[Chaitanya Anand]]
* Thevanaigam Veerasimir Chitty 'David/Baba'

==See also==
* [[Peranakan]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book
| last = Dhoraisingam
| first = Samuel S.
| author-link =
| year = 2006
| title = Peranakan Indians of Singapore and Melaka: Indian Babas and Nonyas - Chitty Melaka
| publisher = Institute of Southeast Asian Studies
| location = Singapore
| isbn= 981-230-346-4
}}

==External links==
* [http://www.tamilnation.co/culture/architecture/temple.htm Tamil Dravidian Architecture]

{{NRI-PIO}}
{{Ethnic groups in Malaysia}}
{{Indians in Malaysia}}

[[Category:Ethnic groups in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Malaysian people of Indian descent|*]]
[[Category:Hindu communities]]
[[Category:Malaysian people of Tamil descent|*]]
[[Category:Singaporean people of Tamil descent|*]]
[[Category:Tamil diaspora in Asia]]
[[Category:People from Malacca]]
[[Category:Chitty people| ]]
[[Category:Hinduism in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Immigration to Malaysia]]

Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple

2020-12-19T13:18:24Z

175.141.124.220:

{{More citations needed|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple
ஸ்ரீ போயாத மூர்த்தி கோவில் (Tamil)
| image = Sri-Poyyatha-Vinayagar-Moorthi-Temple-2204.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = Malaysia
| map_caption = Location in Malaysia
| coordinates = {{coord|2.205575|102.242448|type:landmark_region:MY|display=inline,title}}
| country = [[Malaysia]]
| state = [[Malacca]]
| district =
| location = Jalan Tukang Emas
| elevation_m =
| deity = [[Ganesha]]
| festivals=
| architecture = Chitty style simplified [[Dravidian architecture]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity=
| inscriptions =
| year_completed = 1781
| creator = Thaivanayagam Chitty
| website =
}}
[[File:Sri-Poyyatha-Vinayagar-Moorthi-Temple-2205.jpg|thumb|The ''gopuram'' of the temple]]

'''Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple''' is the oldest [[Hindu temple]] in [[Malaysia]] and one of the oldest functioning [[Hindu]] temples in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]].<ref name="blogspot">[http://chetti-malacca.blogspot.com/ History of the Malacca Chetti community]</ref> Located in the state of [[Malacca]], the temple is one of the few existing [[Chitty]] temples in [[Malaysia]].{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}

The temple is situated on Jalan Tukang Emas, also known as "Harmony Street" because of its proximity to the [[Kampung Kling Mosque]] and [[Cheng Hoon Teng]] Temple.

The temple was built by [[Thavinayagar Chitty]], the leader of the Chitty people, in 1781 after the Dutch colonial government of [[Malacca]] gave him a plot of land. The temple is dedicated to [[Vinayagar]] or [[Ganesha]], the elephant deity.<ref name="virtual tourist">[http://www.virtualtourist.com/travel/Asia/Malaysia/Negeri_Melaka/Melaka-1281809/Things_To_Do-Melaka-Temples-BR-1.html#5 Virtual Tourist - Melaka Temples]</ref> In the back room is a sculpture of the deity with the head of an elephant and the body of a man with four hands. There is another altar dedicated to [[Lord Muruga]], the younger brother of [[Lord Vinayagar]].<ref name="virtual tourist" />

==History==
The Dutch colonial government in [[Malacca]] granted the Chitty community a piece of land, in the heart of [[Malacca City]] in the 1780s. The land was located at Goldsmith Street, now known as Jalan Tokong, bearing Lot No. 62 Town Area XIU and measuring {{convert|15879|sqft|m2}} for the purpose of setting up a Hindu temple.<ref name="blogspot" /> The temple was built up in the year 1781 according to the date mentioned in the Dutch grant (freehold title).<ref name="blogspot" /> The temple was under the trusteeship of the late Mr. Thaivanayagam Chitty, who was then a leader of the [[Chitty]] community.

==Architecture==
The simplification of culture and customs can be seen at the Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} Distinct from the [[South Indian]] temples, which have a complex [[Dravidian Architecture]] in the [[Pallava]] style, which displays carved out sculptures of the [[Hindu]] gods in many rows, the Chitty temple tend to only have one row, or a picture of one single god in each of the three rows, as evidenced in the Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}

==Administration==
The 'Sri Poyatha Venayagar Moorthi Temple', although the property of the “Malacca Chetti or Chetti of Malacca”, has been managed by the 'Malacca Nagarathar Nattukkottai Chettiar' for more than 20 years through an agreement (since 1962) made between them because the British colonial government prior to [[Malaysia]]n independence that refused to allow the chettiar group to put up another [[Hindu]] temple of their own in the [[Malacca Town]] area.<ref name="blogspot" /> The temple was built in the year 1781 according to the date mentioned in the Dutch grant (freehold title).<ref name="blogspot" />

==Festivals==
The Malacca [[Chitty]]s observe rituals, festivals and ceremonies, such as [[Thai Pongal]], Madhu Pongal for those who rear cows, Kani Pongal especially for maidens, [[Deepavali]], putting 'Kolams' and flowers during the month of Margali on the doorsteps, Kelemays Sarasvathi (Ahyutha poojas), [[Sivarathri]], Egadesi, Amman Thiruviza, carrying of the [[Kavadi]]s during the months of [[Thaipusam]], Masimagam, Sithrai, Panguni Utharam, Adi matham prayers and the taking out of the Rathams (Religious Chariots) in procession for some festivals.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}

There are three Rathams made of wood with lovely carvings of Indian Deities, and dating back some 200 years.<ref name="blogspot" /> The Rathams are maintained in good condition and kept in the temple grounds. One Ratham is for [[Lord Ganesha]], one for Lord Subramaniar Swamy, and one for Lord Rama Swamy. They are used during festive seasons drawn by bullocks and are lighted with decorative lamps making them look beautiful at night.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}

The 'Sri Muthu Mariamman Thiruvizha' festival during the Sitrai matham (April/May) is major celebration among the [[Chitty]] diaspora who are currently spread over [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]].<ref name="blogspot" />

==See also==
{{commons category|Sri Poyyatha Vinayagar Moorthi Temple}}
* [[Hinduism in Malaysia]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Google books|KXaX4tUEOOsC|Malaysia Brunei & Singapore|page=141}}

{{Malaysian historical architectures and sites}}
{{Hindu temples in Malaysia}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Malacca City]]
[[Category:Tamil diaspora in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Malacca]]

Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple

2020-12-19T13:14:25Z

175.141.124.220:

{{More citations needed|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Thiru Poyatha Moorthi Temple

திரு போயாத மூர்த்தி கோவில்
| image = Sri-Poyyatha-Vinayagar-Moorthi-Temple-2204.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = Malaysia
| map_caption = Location in Malaysia
| coordinates = {{coord|2.205575|102.242448|type:landmark_region:MY|display=inline,title}}
| country = [[Malaysia]]
| state = [[Malacca]]
| district =
| location = Jalan Tukang Emas
| elevation_m =
| deity = [[Ganesha]]
| festivals=
| architecture = Chitty style simplified [[Dravidian architecture]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity=
| inscriptions =
| year_completed = 1781
| creator = Thaivanayagam Chitty
| website =
}}
[[File:Sri-Poyyatha-Vinayagar-Moorthi-Temple-2205.jpg|thumb|The ''gopuram'' of the temple]]

'''Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple''' is the oldest [[Hindu temple]] in [[Malaysia]] and one of the oldest functioning [[Hindu]] temples in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]].<ref name="blogspot">[http://chetti-malacca.blogspot.com/ History of the Malacca Chetti community]</ref> Located in the state of [[Malacca]], the temple is one of the few existing [[Chitty]] temples in [[Malaysia]].{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}

The temple is situated on Jalan Tukang Emas, also known as "Harmony Street" because of its proximity to the [[Kampung Kling Mosque]] and [[Cheng Hoon Teng]] Temple.

The temple was built by [[Thavinayagar Chitty]], the leader of the Chitty people, in 1781 after the Dutch colonial government of [[Malacca]] gave him a plot of land. The temple is dedicated to [[Vinayagar]] or [[Ganesha]], the elephant deity.<ref name="virtual tourist">[http://www.virtualtourist.com/travel/Asia/Malaysia/Negeri_Melaka/Melaka-1281809/Things_To_Do-Melaka-Temples-BR-1.html#5 Virtual Tourist - Melaka Temples]</ref> In the back room is a sculpture of the deity with the head of an elephant and the body of a man with four hands. There is another altar dedicated to [[Lord Muruga]], the younger brother of [[Lord Vinayagar]].<ref name="virtual tourist" />

==History==
The Dutch colonial government in [[Malacca]] granted the Chitty community a piece of land, in the heart of [[Malacca City]] in the 1780s. The land was located at Goldsmith Street, now known as Jalan Tokong, bearing Lot No. 62 Town Area XIU and measuring {{convert|15879|sqft|m2}} for the purpose of setting up a Hindu temple.<ref name="blogspot" /> The temple was built up in the year 1781 according to the date mentioned in the Dutch grant (freehold title).<ref name="blogspot" /> The temple was under the trusteeship of the late Mr. Thaivanayagam Chitty, who was then a leader of the [[Chitty]] community.

==Architecture==
The simplification of culture and customs can be seen at the Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} Distinct from the [[South Indian]] temples, which have a complex [[Dravidian Architecture]] in the [[Pallava]] style, which displays carved out sculptures of the [[Hindu]] gods in many rows, the Chitty temple tend to only have one row, or a picture of one single god in each of the three rows, as evidenced in the Sri Poyatha Moorthi Temple.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}

==Administration==
The 'Sri Poyatha Venayagar Moorthi Temple', although the property of the “Malacca Chetti or Chetti of Malacca”, has been managed by the 'Malacca Nagarathar Nattukkottai Chettiar' for more than 20 years through an agreement (since 1962) made between them because the British colonial government prior to [[Malaysia]]n independence that refused to allow the chettiar group to put up another [[Hindu]] temple of their own in the [[Malacca Town]] area.<ref name="blogspot" /> The temple was built in the year 1781 according to the date mentioned in the Dutch grant (freehold title).<ref name="blogspot" />

==Festivals==
The Malacca [[Chitty]]s observe rituals, festivals and ceremonies, such as [[Thai Pongal]], Madhu Pongal for those who rear cows, Kani Pongal especially for maidens, [[Deepavali]], putting 'Kolams' and flowers during the month of Margali on the doorsteps, Kelemays Sarasvathi (Ahyutha poojas), [[Sivarathri]], Egadesi, Amman Thiruviza, carrying of the [[Kavadi]]s during the months of [[Thaipusam]], Masimagam, Sithrai, Panguni Utharam, Adi matham prayers and the taking out of the Rathams (Religious Chariots) in procession for some festivals.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}

There are three Rathams made of wood with lovely carvings of Indian Deities, and dating back some 200 years.<ref name="blogspot" /> The Rathams are maintained in good condition and kept in the temple grounds. One Ratham is for [[Lord Ganesha]], one for Lord Subramaniar Swamy, and one for Lord Rama Swamy. They are used during festive seasons drawn by bullocks and are lighted with decorative lamps making them look beautiful at night.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}

The 'Sri Muthu Mariamman Thiruvizha' festival during the Sitrai matham (April/May) is major celebration among the [[Chitty]] diaspora who are currently spread over [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]].<ref name="blogspot" />

==See also==
{{commons category|Sri Poyyatha Vinayagar Moorthi Temple}}
* [[Hinduism in Malaysia]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Google books|KXaX4tUEOOsC|Malaysia Brunei & Singapore|page=141}}

{{Malaysian historical architectures and sites}}
{{Hindu temples in Malaysia}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Malacca City]]
[[Category:Tamil diaspora in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Malacca]]

Tamil Mauritians

2020-12-19T10:16:30Z

175.141.124.220:

{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Tamil Mauritians
மொரிஷியஸ் தமிழர்கள்
| population = 10–15% of [[Mauritians of Indian origin|Indo-Mauritians]]
| popplace = Flacq district, plaines wiilhems district, savanne district and throughout mauritius in small numbers
| langs = [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Mauritian Creole]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]]
| rels = Predominantly [[Hinduism]] to a smaller extent [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]
| related-c = [[Tamil diaspora]], [[Malayalees]], [[Telugu people]], [[Tulu people]], [[Kannada people]], [[Tamil South Africans]], [[Tamil Malaysian]], [[Singapore Tamils]], [[Tamil diaspora#Guyana|Tamil Guyanese]], [[Tamil diaspora#Trinidad and Tobago|Tamil Trinidadian and Tobagonian]], [[South Indians in Fiji]], [[Dravidian people|Dravidians]]
}}
{{Tamils}}
'''Tamil Mauritians''' are the descendants of [[Tamil people]] who migrated from [[South India]] to the island of [[Mauritius]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sangeelee |first1=M. |title=A Brief History of the Tamils of Mauritius |url=https://tamilelibrary.org/teli/mauritius1.html |publisher=1966 International Tamil Conference - Seminar Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |accessdate=2020-08-16}}</ref>

==History==
The first batch of Tamil immigrants were craftsmen and tradesmen who arrived in small numbers after 1727 when [[Isle de France (Mauritius)]] was under the administration of [[France]] and [[French East India Company]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Mauritius: European settlement and the slave economy (1638-1835) |url=https://www.eisa.org.za/wep/mauoverview4.htm |website=African Democracy Encyclopaedia Project |publisher=EISA |accessdate=2009-09-15}}</ref><ref name=Murukancult>[http://www.murugan.org/research/sornum.htm The Murukan cult in Mauritius] by Khesaven Sornum (2001)</ref> A larger number of immigrants from [[Tamil Nadu]] arrived during [[British Mauritius|British]] rule and after abolition of slavery from 1835 to serve as labourers on the sugar cane plantations.<ref name=Tamils-in-Africa>"[http://murugan.org/research/sivasupramaniam.htm History of the Tamil Diaspora by V. Sivasupramaniam]", ''murugan.org''</ref><ref name=mauritiusgov>[http://mauritiusgovernment.com/demographics.htm Mauritius Government]</ref> From 1834 to 1924 out of the estimated 458,000 indentured labourers who came from all over India to Mauritius, around 114,500 came from the Presidency of Madras. Tamil indentured labourers made up 25% of the total indentured population. From around 1850 Tamil was taught in some schools such as [[Royal College Curepipe]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Makhan-Boodhoo |first1=Sarita |title=The Tamil Presence in Mauritius |url=http://www.mauritiustimes.com/mt/sarita-boodhoo-67/ |publisher=Mauritius Times |accessdate=2015-11-08}}</ref>

==Modern times==
Around 15 percent of [[Mauritians of Indian origin|Indo-Mauritians]] are Tamils. Tamils make up 10 percent of the island's total population of around 1.3 Million. They account for 130,000 of the Mauritian population. The community includes a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] majority (86%), about 12% of Tamils are Christians (largely [[Roman Catholic]]) and 2% are Muslims.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Raj |first1=T.V. Antony |title=Tamil on Mauritian Currency |url=https://tvaraj.com/2014/10/07/tamil-mauritian-currency/ |publisher=www.tvaraj.com |accessdate=2014-10-07}}</ref><ref name=mauritiusrepublic>[http://www.gov.mu/portal/sites/ncb/cso/report/hpcen00/Demogra/forerep.htm Republic of Mauritius]</ref> Of this number, around 7000 people reported that they spoke Tamil.<ref name=mauritiusrepublic/><ref>[http://www.gov.mu/portal/sites/ncb/cso/report/hpcen00/Demogra/groport.htm Republic - Resident population by geographical location and religious group]</ref> A large population of the Tamils in Mauritius live in Rose-Hill, Flacq and Savanne.

==Language==
Most Tamil Mauritians can read and write Tamil to some extent, but very few can speak it well. Most speak [[Mauritian Creole]], which include many Tamil words.<ref name=kreol>[http://www.choy.mu/media/ebooks/pdf/mokozkreol.pdf Mo Koz Kreol]</ref> A Tamil magazine ''Pathirikai'' and a Tamil radio station Onex FM exist in Mauritius. Most cultural aspects and rituals can be seen in full-fledged manner. Around a 100 schools teach Tamil as a mother tongue subject. It can also be learnt at university level. A Tamil conference was held here.

==Festivals==
[[Thaipusam]], the Tamil Hindu festival, is a national holiday in Mauritius at the beginning of every year and is celebrated in various temples. [[Murugan]] temples are common and various public places bear Tamil names such as Coromandel near Port Louis (derived from Cholamandalam), Alepo Street, Velore Street, Madras Street, and others.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fascinating Story of How The Coromandel Coast Got Its Name |url=https://www.thebetterindia.com/128580/iit-aquafarmers-aqua-connect/ |publisher=Better India |accessdate=2020-08-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Makhan-Boodhoo |first1=Sarita |title=The Tamil Presence in Mauritius |url=http://www.mauritiustimes.com/mt/sarita-boodhoo-67/ |publisher=Mauritius Times |accessdate=2015-11-08}}</ref>

[[Image:Mauritius currency.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Mauritius currency written in [[Tamil numerals]] and [[Tamil script]]<ref name=kreol/>]]

{{clear}}

==See also==
* [[Demographics of Mauritius]]
* [[Tamils|Tamil People]]
* [[Tamil language]]
* [[Tamil diaspora]]
* [[Tamil Malaysian]]
* [[Sri Lankan Tamils]]
* [[Indo-Mauritian]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
*[http://mauritiusgovernment.com/demographics.htm " Several other languages, including Arabic, Urdu, Tamil, Telugu, Marathi, Bhojpuri, Gujarati, Punjabi and dialects of Chinese, such as Cantonese, Hakka and Mandarin, are also spoken."]
{{NRI-PIO}}
{{Tamil Diaspora}}
{{Clear}}

[[Category:Mauritian people of Tamil descent| ]]
[[Category:Mauritian people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Asian diaspora in Mauritius]]
[[Category:Tamil diaspora in Africa|Mauritius]]
[[Category:Tamil diaspora by country|Mauritius]]

{{Mauritius-stub}}
{{Africa-ethno-group-stub}}

Tamil Hindus

2020-12-18T13:28:00Z

175.141.124.220:

{{refimprove|date=December 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Tamil Hindus
| native_name = தமிழ் இந்துக்கள்
| image =
| poptime =
| region1 =
| pop1 =
| ref1 =
| region2 =
| pop2 =
| ref2 =
| region3 =
| pop3 =
| ref3 =
| region4 =
| pop4 =
| ref4 =
| region5 =
| pop5 =
| ref5 =
| rels = [[Hinduism]]
| related = [[Tamil Brahmin]]
}}

'''Tamil Hindus''' (Tamil: தமிழ் இந்துக்கள்) are the Tamil-speaking people with Hinduism as their faith. Hinduism was the first religion to reach the ancient Tamil kingdoms.

Tamil Hinduism is a collection of native Tamil religions and the Vedic Hindu tradition. Hinduism in Tamil Nadu was at peak during the Bhakti Movement by 63 Saivite Nayanmars and 12 Vainavite Alwars.

== God ==

Murugan is often known as the Tamil God and consider to be the main God in Tamil Hinduism. There are a lot of temples dedicated to Murugan in Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/tracing-the-roots-of-the-tamil-god/article6808508.ece |title=Tracing the roots of the Tamil God|publisher=The Hindu}}</ref>

== Festivals ==

Thaipusam or Thaipoosam is the festival of the Tamil Hindus which falls on the full moon in the Tamil month of Thai. The festival is being celebrated by Tamil Hindus in various countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://murugan.org/research/duraiswamy-vaikasi-visakam.htm |title=Vaikasi Visakam and Lord Murukan LALALALA|publisher=Murugan.org}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Div col}}
* [[Tamil Jain]]
* [[Tamil Muslim]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Social groups of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus| Tamil]]

Chera dynasty

2020-12-18T02:34:13Z

175.141.124.220:

{{redirect-multi|2|Chera|Cheras}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name =
|image_map = Chera country (early historic south India).jpg
|image_map_caption = Chera country in early historic south India
|conventional_long_name = Chera
|common_name = Chera
|status =
|flag = File:Flag_of_Chera_dynasty.svg
|year_end =
|official_languages = {{plainlist|
* [[Tamil language|Tamil]] <ref>{{cite book |author=David Shulman |author-link=David Dean Shulman |title=Tamil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fG8NDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 |year=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-97465-4 |page=150 |quote=One thing, however, is certain: the Cholas were happy to use Tamil as an official state language, along with Sanskrit...}}</ref>
}}
|capital = '''Early Cheras'''
* [[Karur|Vanchi Karuvur (Karur)]]
* Muchiri (Muziris)
* Thondi (Tyndis)

'''[[Kongu Chera dynasty|Kongu Cheras]]'''
* [[Karur|Vanchi Karur (Karur)]]

'''[[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera/Perumals of Makotai (formerly Kulasekharas)]]'''
* [[Kodungallur|Kodungallur (Makotai/Vanchi)]]

'''Venadu Cheras (Kulasekharas)'''
* [[Kollam]]

|s1 =
|s2 =
|s3 =
|today = [[India]]
|religion = [[Hinduism]] (Tamil Saivism and Vainavism)
|demonym=|area_km2=|area_rank=|GDP_PPP=|GDP_PPP_year=|HDI=|HDI_year=}}
{{Chera Dynasty}}The '''Chera dynasty''' ([[ISO 15919|or]] '''Cēra''') was one of the principal lineages in the early history of the present day states of [[Kerala]] and some parts of [[Tamil Nadu]] in southern India.<ref name=":222">{{Cite journal|date=5 June 2015|title=Classical Indo-Roman Trade|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html?0=ip_login_no_cache=3b49b785309ca821ff5e0a285f43e078|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|volume=48|issue=26–27}}</ref> Together with the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas of Uraiyur]] and the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas of Madurai]], the early Cheras were known as one of the [[Three Crowned Kings|three major powers (muventar)]] of ancient [[Tamilakam]] (an ancient Tamil country that covers present Tamil Nadu, Kerala and southern parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka) in the early centuries of the Common Era.<ref name=":22">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 143-145.</ref><ref name=":7">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>

The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks. Exchange of spices, especially black pepper, with [[Middle East]]ern and [[Classical antiquity|Graeco-Roman]] merchants are attested in several sources.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46884|title=India - The Shunga kingdom|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-12-01|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":16">[https://books.google.com/books?id=eONSAAAAcAAJ&q=Muziris#v=snippet&q=Muziris&f=false Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia.] Ed. by Edward Balfour (1871), Second Edition. Volume 2. p. 584.</ref><ref name=":222"/> The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE - c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) are known to have had their original centre at [[Karur]] in interior [[Tamil Nadu]] and harbours at [[Muziris|Muchiri (Muziris)]] and [[Tyndis|Thondi (Tyndis)]] on the Indian Ocean coast ([[Kerala]]).<ref name=":11" />

The early historic pre-Pallava<ref name=":74">Gurukkal, Rajan. "DID STATE EXIST IN THE PRE-PALLAVAN TAMIL REGION". ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 63, 2002, pp. 138–150.</ref> Tamil polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics".<ref name=":222" /> [[Tamil-Brahmi|Tamil Brahmi]] cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of [[Perumkadungo|Perum Kadungo]], and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Veluthat|first=Kesavan|date=1 June 2018|title=History and historiography in constituting a region: The case of Kerala|journal=Studies in People's History|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=13–31|doi=10.1177/2348448918759852|issn=2348-4489|doi-access=free}}</ref> Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names.<ref name=":10" /> Reverse of these coins often contained the Chera bow and arrow symbol.<ref name=":10" /> The anthologies of [[Sangam literature|early Tamil texts]] are a major source of information about the early Cheras. <ref name=":7" /> [[Senguttuvan|Chenguttuvan, or the Good Chera]], is famous for the traditions surrounding [[Kannagi|Kannaki]], the principal female character of the Tamil epic poem ''[[Silapathikaram|Chilapathikaram]]''.<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46862/From-150-bce-to-300-ce?anchor=ref485312|title=India – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=Britannica.com|accessdate=29 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=PERUMALS+OF+KERALA|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy : Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124)|date=2013|isbn=9788188765072|language=en}}</ref> After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}

[[Kongu Chera dynasty|Cheras or Keralas of the Kongu country]] are known to have controlled western [[Tamil Nadu]] and central [[Kerala]] in early medieval period.<ref name=":112">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera kingdom around 8th-9th century AD to form the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal kingdom]] (c. 9th- 12th century AD).<ref name=":122">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers is somewhat unclear.<ref name=":113">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref> Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola - seems to have conquered the Chera or Kerala country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century AD. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas".{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}

The rulers of [[Venad]] (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of [[Kollam]] in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=368}} In the modern period the rulers of [[Kochi|Cochin]] and [[Thiruvananthapuram|Travancore]] (in Kerala) also claimed the title "Chera".{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=81}}

== Etymology ==
The term Chera - and its variant form "Keralaputas" - stands for the ruling lineage and the country associated with them.<ref name=":15" />

The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from ''Cheral'', a corruption of ''Charal'' meaning "declivity of a mountain" in Tamil, suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of Kerala.{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}} Another theory argues that the "Cheralam<nowiki>''</nowiki> is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land".{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}} Apart from the speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies.{{efn|1=According to Menon, this etymology of "added" or "reclaimed" land also complements the [[Parashurama]] myth about the formation of Kerala. In it, Parashurama, one of the avatars of [[Vishnu]], flung his axe across the sea from [[Gokarnam]] towards [[Kanyakumari]] (or vice versa) and the water receded up to the spot where it landed, thus creating Kerala.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=20,21}}}}{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}}

In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as ''Kedalaputo'' (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Pali edicts (3rd century BCE).<ref name=":3">Keay, John (2000) [2001]. India: A history. India: Grove Press. {{ISBN|0-8021-3797-0}}.</ref> While [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] refer to the Cheras as ''Kaelobotros'' and ''Kerobottros'' respectively, the Graeco-Roman trade map ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' refers to the Cheras as ''Keprobotras''. All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with northern India.<ref name=":0" /> {{sfn|Caldwell|1998|p=92}}

The term ''Cheralamdivu'' or ''Cheran Tivu'' and its cognates, meaning the "island of the Chera kings", is a Classical Tamil [[Names of Sri Lanka|name of Sri Lanka]] that takes root from the term "Chera".<ref>M. Ramachandran, Irāman̲ Mativāṇan̲(1991). ''The spring of the Indus civilisation''. Prasanna Pathippagam, pp. 34. "Srilanka was known as "Cerantivu' (island of the Cera kings) in those days. The seal has two lines. The line above contains three signs in Indus script and the line below contains three alphabets in the ancient Tamil script known as Tamil ...</ref>

== Cheras of ancient south India ==
Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that the three major rulers – the [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]], the Chera and the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] – based originally in the interior [[Tamil Nadu]], at [[Madurai]], [[Karur|Karur (Karuvur)-Vanchi]], and [[Uraiyur]] respectively, had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely [[Korkai]], Muchiri (Muziris), and Kaveri Poompattinam respectively.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|date=5 June 2015|title=Classical Indo-Roman Trade|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|volume=48|issue=26–27}}</ref> Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava<ref name=":74" />) consisted of the present day central Kerala and western Tamil Nadu.<ref name=":15" /> The political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources".<ref name=":222"/> There was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu).<ref name=":2">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 50-51.</ref>

The Cheras are referred to as ''Kedalaputo'' (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Pali edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII).<ref name=":3" /> The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by [[Pliny the Elder]] in the 1st century CE, in the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|''Periplus'']] of the 1st century CE, and by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century CE. {{sfn|Menon|2007|p=33}}<ref name=":5">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cera-dynasty|title=Cera dynasty {{!}} India|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref>

A number of Sanskrit works do mention the family and/or land of the Cheras/Keralas. There are also brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator [[Katyayana]] (c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher [[Patanjali]] (c. 2nd century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher [[Kautilya|Kautilya (Chanakya)]] ({{circa|3rd - 4th century BCE}}) [though Sanskrit grammarian [[Pāṇini|Panini]] (c. 6th - 5th century BCE) does not mention either the people or the land].{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=26–29}}

=== Archaeological discoveries ===
[[File:Chera Inscription from Pugalur, near Karur.jpg|left|thumb|[[Tamil Brahmi]] inscription from Pugalur, near Karur]]
[[File:Chera coin (ancient south India) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|A Chera coin with legend "Makkotai"|147x147px]]
[[File:Kuttuvankotai-cash.jpg|thumb|left|A Chera coin with legend "[[Kuttuvan Kotai]]"]]
Archaeology has found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras.<ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2013/stories/20030704000207100.htm See report in ''Frontline'', June/July 2003]</ref><ref name=":5" /> Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near [[Karur]]) dated to c. 1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of [[Perumkadungo|Perum Kadungo]], and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai.<ref name=":5" />

{{quote box
| bgcolor = #fffcea
| title = '''Irumporai Cheras from Pugalur inscription'''
| fontsize = 100%
| quote = Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam
*Ko Athan Chel (Cheral) Irumporai
* Perum Kadungon [Irumporai]
* Ilam Kadungo [Irumporai]
| source =
}}

A short Tamil-Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at [[Edakkal Caves|Edakkal]] in the Western Ghats.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/edakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription/article2872568.ece|title=Edakal cave yields one more Tamil-Brahmi inscription|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|date=9 February 2012|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-11-19|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the [[Palakkad Gap|Palghat Gap]] to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2915/stories/20120810291507000.htm|title=Digging up the past|website=www.frontline.in|access-date=2018-11-19}}</ref> Historians are yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at [[Pattanam]] (near [[Kochi|Cochin]]) suggest a strong case of identification with the location.<ref name=":11" /> Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni).<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":13" />

=== Chera coinage ===
A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the [[Amaravati River|Amaravati]] riverbed, are a major source of early Chera historiography.<ref name=":8" /> This includes a number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol38_3_2_BSasisekaran.pdf}}</ref> Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to the Cheras, have been discovered from [[Pattanam]] in central Kerala.<ref name=":10">Majumdar, S. B. "Money Matters: Indigenous and Foreign Coins in the Malabar Coast." ''Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade'', edited by K. S. Mathew, Routledge, 2016.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/2004/04/30/stories/2004043014340300.htm|title= Copper coins of Adi Chera period excavated|newspaper=The Hindu|date=30 April 2004|access-date=2018-11-17|last1=Sudhi|first1=K. S.}}</ref> Bronze dies for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur.<ref name=":10" />

Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend "[[Kuttuvan Kotai]]" above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to c. 1st century CE or a little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank.<ref name=":8" /> The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai",<ref name=":10" /> "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai"<ref name=":10" /> were also discovered from [[Karur]]. The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins.<ref name=":10" /> All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained the bow and arrow symbol.<ref name=":10" /> An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur.<ref name=":10" />

The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin.<ref name=":9" /> A silver coin with the portrait of a person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera family.<ref name=":8">Subramanian, T. S. "Roman connection in Tamil Nadu." ''The Hindu'' 28 January 2007: www.thehindu.com. Web. Accessed 17 November 2018. [https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/Roman-connection-in-Tamil-Nadu/article14712060.ece]</ref>

=== Cheras from early Tamil texts ===
A large body of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] works collectively known as the [[Sangam literature|Sangam (Academy) texts]] (c. 2nd century BCE- 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers.<ref name="Companion12">Kamil Veith Zvelebil, ''Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature'', p.12</ref><ref>K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, ''A History of South India,'' OUP (1955) p.105</ref> Among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu]]'', the ''[[Agananuru|Akananuru]]'', and the ''[[Purananuru]]''.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=26–29}} The ''Pathitrupattu'', the fourth book in the ''[[Ettuthokai]]'' anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family.<ref name=":7" /> Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet.<ref name="Companion12" /> However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far.<ref name="kanaka">{{cite book|title=The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago|last=V.|first=Kanakasabhai|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1997|isbn=978-81-206-0150-5}}</ref><ref name=":1">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 01-05.</ref>

A method known as [[Gajabahu synchronism|Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism]], is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to c. 1st - 2nd century CE.<ref name="kanaka" /> Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=37–39|ps=: The opinion that the Gajabahu Synchronism is an expression of genuine historical tradition is accepted by most scholars today}}<ref name="svp">{{cite book|title=History of Tamil Language and Literature; Beginning to 1000 AD|last=Pillai|first=Vaiyapuri|publisher=New Century Book House|year=1956|location=Madras, India|page=22|quote=We may be reasonably certain that chronological conclusion reached above is historically sound}}</ref>{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|p=38}} [[Ilango Adigal]] author of the legendary Tamil epic poem ''[[Silappatikaram|Chilapathikaram]]'' describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (v''irakkallu'') for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Silappathikaram#ref845622|title=Silappathikaram {{!}} Tamil epic poem by Adikal|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref> A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with [[Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka|Gajabahu]], king of [[Sri Lanka]] (2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}{{sfn|Menon|1967}} In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE.<ref name="britannica.com" />

[[Utiyan Cheralathan|Uthiyan Cheral Athan]] is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from the Tamil texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decad of ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu]]''). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" (''[[Purananuru]])''. His headquarters were at Kuzhumur ([[Agananuru|''Akananuru'']]).<ref name=":18">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 05-10.</ref> He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the [[Kurukshetra War]] (''[[Purananuru]]'' and [[Agananuru|''Akananuru'']]).<ref name=":18" /> He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan (''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu (II)]]).'' .<ref name=":18" />

Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler [[Karikala]]. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<ref name=":18" />

As the name ''Pathitrupattu'' indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting a decad of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered.<ref name=":1" />

{| class="wikitable" style="width: 90%;"
|+
Cheras from [[Patiṟṟuppattu|''Pathitrupattu'']]
|-
! Decad of [[Patiṟṟuppattu|''Pathitrupattu'']]
! Chera
!Relation
!Bard
! colspan="3" |Notes
|-
|II
|[[Nedum Cheralathan|Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan]]
|Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (by Veliyan's daughter Nallini)<ref name=":4">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 10-13.</ref>
|Kannanar<ref name=":7">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
| Nedum Cheral Athan was also known as "Imayavaramban". He is praised for having subdued "seven crowned kings" to achieve the title of ''adhiraja''.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}<ref name=":4" />

Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from [[Kanyakumari|Kumari]] to the [[Himalayas]] (and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}<ref name=":4" />

The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly [[Kadamba Dynasty|Kadambas]]) whom he defeated in battles.<ref name=":4" /> Nedum Cheral Athan is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean.<ref name=":2" /> Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai.<ref name=":4" /> He also punished and extracted ranson from the Yavanas.<ref name=":2" />

Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle)<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 36-38.</ref>
|-
| III
| Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan
|Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (younger brother of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan)<ref name=":19">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 15-17.</ref>
|Palai
Kauthamanar<ref name=":7" />
|Credited as the conqueror of "Konkar Nadu".<ref name=":19" /> Described as lord of Puzhi Nadu and the Cheruppu and Aiyirai Mountains.<ref name=":19" />

Headquarters was located on the mouth river Periyar.<ref name=":19" />
|-
|IV
| Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral
|Son of Imayavaramban.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 17-21.</ref>
|Kappiyattukku Kappiyanar<ref name=":72">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
|Narmudi Cheral led an expedition against Nedumidal Anji (identified with the Adigaiman/[[Athiyamān|Satyaputra]] of Tagadur). Initially the Chera was defeated by Nannan of Ezhimala in the battle of Pazhi, later defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Vakai Perum Turai.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Menon|1967}} Performed his coronation using holy water from both the western and eastern oceans (brought by a relay of elephants).<ref name=":2" /> Also known as "Vanavaramban".<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 17-21.</ref>
|-
| V
|[[Senguttuvan|Kadal Pirakottiya Chenguttuvan]]
|Son of Nedum Cheral Athan
|Paranar<ref name=":72" />
|Chenguttuvan is identified with "Kadal Pirakottiya" Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan. Chenguttuvan was a son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 21-23.</ref>

Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief).{{sfn|Menon|1967}}{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}

In the early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative [[Nalankilli|Nalam Killi]] on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which the Kadamba warriors took shelter was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 21-23.</ref>).<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46862/From-150-bce-to-300-ce?anchor=ref485312|title=India – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=Britannica.com|accessdate=29 August 2012}}</ref>

According to ''[[Silappatikaram|Chilapathikaram]],'' Chenguttuvan lead his army to north India to get the sacred stone from the Himalayas to sculpt the idol of godess Pattini.<ref name=":2" />
|-
| VI
| Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan<ref name=Aiyar27-32>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 27-32.</ref>
|Successor of Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}(son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan and brother of Narmudi Cheral)<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />
|Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar (poetess)<ref name=":72" />
|Probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola [[Karikala]] at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, Uthiyan Cheral was wounded on the back by [[Karikala]]. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<ref name=":2" />'''<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />'''

Controlled the port of Naravu.<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />
|-
|VII
|Selva Kadumko Valia Athan
|Son of Anthuvan Cheral<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref>
|Kapilar<ref name=":72" />
|Selvakadumko Valia Athan controlled Pandar and Kodumanam (Kodumanal).<ref name=":2" />
He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the [[Pandya]]s and the [[Chola]]s.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref><ref name="Smile40">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 40, 52–53.</ref>{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}} Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-41.</ref>

Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref>

He is sometimes identified as the Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur (c. 2nd century CE).{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}<ref name="Smile40" />
|-
|VIII
|[[Perum Cheral Irumporai|Tagadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai]]<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 41-43.</ref>
|
|Arichil Kizhar<ref name=":72" />
|"Tagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur Adigaman Ezhni at [[Dharmapuri|Tagadur]]. He is also called "the lord of Puzhinadu and "the lord of Kollimalai" and "the lord of [Poom]Puhar". Puhar was the Chola headquarters. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor Idayar chief called Kazhuval (Kazhuvul).{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=71}}Addressed as "Kodai Marba". Father of Illam Cheral Irumporai.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 41-43.</ref>
|-
|IX
|"Kudakko" Illam Cheral Irumporai<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 44-45.</ref>
|
|Perunkundur Kizhar<ref name=":73">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
|Illam Cheral Irumporai defeated Perum Chola, Ilam Pazhaiyan Maran and Vicchi, and destroyed "five forts". Lord of Tondi, "Kongar Nadu", "Kuttuvar Nadu", and "Puzhi Nadu".<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 44-45.</ref>
Described as the descendant of [[Nedum Cheralathan|Nedum Cheral Athan]].<ref name=":4" />
|}
The following Cheras are knowns from ''[[Purananuru]]'' collection (some of the names are re-duplications)''.''<ref name=":1" />
{{colbegin}}
* Karuvur Eriya Ol-val Ko Perum Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" /> - Ruled of Karuvur. Praised by Nariveruttalaiyar.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 34-36.</ref>
* Kadungo Valia Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Palai Padiya Perum Kadumko<ref name=":1" />
* Antuvan Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" /> - father of Selva Kadumko Valia Athan (VII decad). Contemporary to Chola Mudittalai Ko Perunar Killi (whose elephant famously wandered to Karuvur).<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 36-38.</ref>
* [[Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai|"Yanaikatchai" Mantaram Cheral Irumporai]] ruled from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai on the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle at Vilamkil. The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian (early 3rd century CE<ref name=":6">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref485313|title=India - The Shunga kingdom|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref>) captured Mantaran Cheral as a prisoner. However, he managed to escape and regain the lost territories.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=72}}<ref name=":1" />
* Ko Kodai Marban<ref name=":1" />
* Takadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" />
* [[Kuttuvan Kodai]]<ref name=":1" />
* Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Perum Cheral Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Kanaikkal Irumporai is said to have defeated a chief called Muvan and imprisoned him. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of the prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Thondi. Upon capture by the Chola ruler [[Kocengannan|Sengannan]], Kanaikkal committed suicide by starvation.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=72}}
* Kudakko Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" />
* Kottambalattu Tunchiya Makkodai<ref name=":1" /> - probably identical with Kottambalattu Tunchiya Cheraman in [[Agananuru|''Akananuru'' (168)]].<ref name=":18" />
* Vanchan<ref name=":1" />
* Kadalottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan<ref name=":1" />
* Man Venko<ref name=":1" /> - a friend of the Pandya Ugra Peruvaluti and the Chola Rajasuyam Vetta Perunar Killi.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 60-61.</ref>
{{colend}}

== Cheras in the medieval period ==
{{Main|Kongu Chera dynasty}}
[[File:Kalabhras territories.png|thumb|An approximate extent of Kalabhra supremacy in southern India. |270x270px|alt=]]
After the end of the early historical period in south India, c. 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}} Little is known for certain about the Cheras during this period.<ref name=":14">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80–81, 88–93.</ref>

Cheras of Kongu country ([[Karur]]) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central [[Kerala]].<ref name=":110">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule).<ref name=":111">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre-[[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] (early historic) south India.<ref name=":110" />

* An inscription of [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadamba]] king Vishnu Varma, dated 5th or 6th century, can be found at Edakkal cave in [[Wayanad]].<ref name=":123">Fawcett, F. 1901. Notes on the Rock Carvings in the Edakal Caves, Wynaad. ''The Indian Antiquary'' vol. XXX, pp. 409-421.</ref><ref name=":103">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref> An early historic Chera graffiti containing the phrase "Kadummi Putra Chera" was also discovered from the cave.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/edakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription/article2872568.ece|title=Edakal cave yields one more Tamil-Brahmi inscription|date=9 February 2012|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-11-19|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
*Tradition tells that the [[Kalabhra dynasty|Kalabhra]] (Kalvar<ref name=":6" />) rulers kept the Chera, [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] and [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] rulers in their confinement.<ref name=":14" />
* The earliest [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]] king to claim overlorship over Chera/Kerala is [[Kirttivarman I]] (''fl.'' 566 - 598 AD) (this claim is generally considered as a "boastfull exaggeration" by historians). A later grant (695 AD) of king [[Vinayaditya of Vatapi|Vinayaditya II Satyasraya]], with reference to the vassalage of the Kerala country, is now reckoned as a more dependable record.<ref name=":106">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref> Several Chalukya records of the 7th and 8th centuries speak of the conquest and vassalage of the Kerala country.<ref name=":106" />
* A number of [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] records also mention the vassalage of the Kerala country.<ref name=":104">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref>
*[[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta]] inscriptions mention "an alliance of Dravida kings including Kerala, Pandya, Chola and Pallava who were defeated" (''E. I.'', XVIII). The Keralas mentioned there might be the Kongu Cheras who had already submitted to the Pandyas (and not [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumals]] of Kerala).<ref name=":36">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95.</ref>

=== Pandya conquests in Chera country ===
[[File:South_India_in_12th_century_AD.jpg|thumb|338x338px|Chera Perumal Kingdom with the [[Chola dynasty|Chola Empire]] on the east.]]There are clear attestations of repeated [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] conquests of the Kerala or Chea country in the 7th and 8th centuries AD.<ref name=":105">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref>
| flag = File:Flag_of_Chera_dynasty.svg
* Pandya king Sendan/Jayantan (''fl.'' 645 – 70 AD) was known as the Vanavan, an ancient name for the Chera king.<ref name=":105" /> Arikesari Maravarman (670 – 710 AD), another Pandya ruler, probably defeated the Keralas/Cheras on several occasions.<ref name=":105" /><ref name=":28">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref> His successor Ko Chadayan Ranadhira also made gains against the Cheras.<ref name=":20">Dalziel, N.R. (2016). Pandyan Empire. In ''The Encyclopedia of Empire'' (eds N. Dalziel and J.M. MacKenzie). doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe416 </ref>

* The so-called "renewal of the capital city of Vanchi ([[Karur]]) along with Kudal ([[Madurai]]) and Kozhi ([[Uraiyur]])", described in the Madras Museum Plates of the Pandya king Rajasimha I (730 – 65 AD), may suggest a Pandya occupation of the Kongu Chera capital Karur.<ref name=":32">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95.</ref>
*It is known that when Pandya king Jatila Parantaka (765 – 815 AD) went to war against the Adigaman of Tagadur ([[Dharmapuri]]), the Keralas and the Pallavas went to the aid of the latter though "the Pandyas drove them back to the quarters from which they had emerged" (Madras Museum Plates).<ref name=":32" /><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95 and 107.</ref> Perhaps the Chera branch from present-day Kerala had crossed the [[Western Ghats|Ghat Mountains]] to offer support to the Adigaman and after defeat they were pursued up to the [[Palakkad Gap|Palghat Gap]] by the Pandya forces.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95 and 107.</ref>
*Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera/Kerala kingdom (around 8th-9th century AD) to form the Chera/Perumal kingdom.<ref name=":12">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref>
*The Pandyas are known to have made a defensive alliance with the Cheras of Kongu country (who were under their influence) in this period.<ref name=":20" /> Pandya king Parantaka Vira Narayana (c. 880 – 900 AD) is known to have married a Kerala (Kongu Chera) princess "Vanavan Maha Devi".<ref name=":42">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 95-96 and 108.</ref> The son of this alliance, Rajasimha, described as a member of Chandra-Aditya Kula (Sinnamanur copper plates), was "destroyed by the Chola king Parantaka".<ref name=":42" /> It was initially assumed by [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] and [[Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai|E. P. N. K. Pillai]] that the Vira Narayana had married a Chera Perumal princess of Kerala.<ref name=":42" />

=== Chola conquests of Chera country ===

*The Kongu country was conquered by the Cholas (either by Srikantha or [[Aditya I|Aditya I Chola]]) in the last years of the 9th century AD (this campaign probably involved battles between Aditya I and Parantaka Vira Narayana). The Pandyas were eventually defeated in the "great battle" of Sripurambiyam (c. 885).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 97.</ref>
*The Pandyas were defeated by Chola king [[Parantaka I|Parantaka]] in 910 AD (the fate of the Kongu Chera country, then ruled by Kongu Cheras, upon the fall of Madurai is not known).<ref name=":55">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 98-99 and 111.</ref> Pandya king Rajasimha II, who was defeated by Parantaka Chola, is known to have found asylum in Kerala or Chera country (c. 920 AD).<ref name=":55" /> Chola king Sundara (c. 956 – c. 973 AD) had a Chera or Kerala princess among his queens.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 100-01.</ref>
*Kongu Chera country (and the Chera Perumal kingdom) was subsequently conquered by the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]].<ref name=":29">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref>
**Amara Bhujanga Deva, one of the princes defeated by Chola king [[Rajaraja]] (Tiruvalangadu Grant), was probably a Pandya or a Kongu Chera prince.<ref name=":62">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 116-117 and 136.</ref>
**Chola king [[Rajadhiraja]] is known for defeating certain Vira Kerala, one of the so-called "thennavar muvar", and trampling him to death by his war elephant.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 121-122.</ref> This royal was probably a Kongu-Chera of Chandra-Aditya Kula or a [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] prince (son of a Pandya and a Kongu Chera princess).<ref name=":022">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 304-05 and 322-23.</ref> Vira Kerala was previously considered as a Chera Perumal king ([[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] and [[Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai|E. P. N. K. Pillai]]).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 84-85.</ref>

=== Chera Perumals of Kerala ===
{{Main|Chera/Perumals of Makotai}}
[[File:Depiction of "Cherman Perumal" Nayanar (Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Depiction of Cherman Perumal Nayanar - Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|291x291px]]

While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in [[Tamil Nadu]] emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in [[Kerala]] took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE.<ref name=":22" /> Scholars tend to identify Nayanar saint [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar|Cherman Perumal]] (literally "the Chera king") and Alvar saint [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara]] with some of the earliest Perumals.<ref name="Noburu Karashmia 2014">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref>

The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure.<ref name=":14" />

The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East.<ref name=":26">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 364-65.</ref><ref name=":02">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 331-32.</ref> The port of [[Kollam]], in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia.<ref>Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 382-83.</ref> Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in the structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a [[Nair]] military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century.<ref name=":17">Ganesh, K. N. "Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala". ''Indian Historical Review'', vol. 36, no. 1, June 2009, pp. 3–21.</ref> [[Brahmin|Nambudiri-Brahmin]] settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom.<ref name=":02" /><ref>Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 379-80.</ref>
{{cquote
| quote = "A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."
| author = Romila Thapar
| source = [https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46892]
| align = center
| width = 75%
}}
The Chea Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] and the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]].<ref name=":27">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 364-65.</ref> The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in early 11th century AD (in order to break the monpoly of trade with the Middle East).<ref name=":27" /> <ref name=":53">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref> When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent.<ref name=":17" />

==Government==
The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from the ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in a linear or in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=75}}

The extent of political formation in pre-Pallava<ref name=":74" /> south India (before c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) was a matter of considerable debate among historians.<ref name=":7" /> Although earlier scholars visualised early historic south Indian polities as full-fledged kingdoms, some of the recent studies rule out the possibility of state formation.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":222"/>{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=77}} According to historian Rajan Gurukkal, ancient south India was a combination of several "unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies of chiefdoms". These polities were structured by the dominance of "agro-pastoral means of subsistence and predatory politics".<ref name=":11" /> Kesavan Veluthat, another prominent historian of south India, uses the term "chief" and "chiefdom" for the Chera ruler and Chera polity of early historic south India respectively.<ref name=":15" />

Reaching conclusions based on the early Tamil poems and archaeological evidences is another topic of disagreement.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=67}}{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=75–76}} It is assumed that the institution of sabha in south Indian villages, for local administration, was first surfaced during the early historic period.<ref name=":6" />

==Economy==
The early Chera economy can be described as a predominantly "pastoral-cum-agrarian" based system. The emphasis on agriculture increased with time, and provided the base for larger economic change.<ref name=":6" /> The early historic south India (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) can be described as a "semi-tribal political economy". In a 2013 paper, historian Rajan Gurukkal describes ancient south India as a collection of "unevenly evolved and kinship-based redistributive economies." ''<ref name=":222"/>''

===Spice trade===
[[File:Silk route.jpg|thumb|309x309px| [[Silk Road]] (Red) and Spice Routes (Blues)|alt=]]

Exchange relations with the merchants from Graeco-Roman world, the "[[Yavanas]]", and with north India provided considerable economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom. Indian Ocean exchange was the major economic activity.<ref name=":6" /> There is some difference of opinion with regard to the nature of the "spice trade" in ancient Chera country. It is disputed whether this "trade" with the Mediterranean world was managed on equal terms by the Tamil merchants, in view of the existence of apparently unequal political institutions in south India.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Trade guilds of south India up to the tenth century|journal=Studies in People's History|volume=2|pages=21–26|language=en|doi=10.1177/2348448915574403|year = 2015|last1 = Subbarayalu|first1 = Y.|s2cid=133144002}}</ref> Some of the more recent studies point out that the "trade" was an exchange of "serious imbalance", because of its being between the [[Roman Empire]] and South India with uneven chiefdoms.<ref name=":222"/>

The geographical advantages, like the favourable Monsoon winds which carried ships directly from the Arabia to south India as well as the abundance of exotic spices in the interior Ghat mountains (and the presence of a large number of rivers connecting the Ghats with the Arabian Sea) combined to make the Cheras a major power in ancient southern India.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":222"/>

Spice exchange with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators can be traced back to before the Common Era and was substantially consolidated in the early years of the Common Era.<ref name=":222"/><ref name="Muziris1">[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/artefacts-from-the-lost-port-of-muziris/article6657446.ece "Artefacts from the lost Port of Muziris."] The Hindu. 3 December 2014.</ref><ref name="Pattanam">[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/pattanam-richest-indoroman-site-on-indian-ocean-rim/article274715.ece "Pattanam richest Indo-Roman site on Indian Ocean rim."] The Hindu. 3 May 2009.</ref> In the first century CE, the Romans conquered Egypt, which probably helped them to establish dominance in the Indian Ocean spice trade. The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by [[Pliny the Elder]] in the 1st century CE, in ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' of the 1st century CE, and by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century CE.{{sfn|Caldwell|1998|p=92}} The ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' portrays the "trade" in the territory of ''Keprobotras'' in detail. [[Muziris]] was the most important centre in the Malabar Coast, which according to the ''Periplus'', "abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks". Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were "exported" from the Chera country to the Middle East and Mediterranean kingdoms.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=105–}}

It is known that the Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange for [[black pepper]].<ref name=":222"/><ref>http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th&</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=62 | title=History of Ancient Kerala |publisher=Government of india | accessdate=6 October 2012}}{{dead link|date=July 2015}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Raoul McLaughlin, Rome and the distant East: trade routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and China Continuum International Publishing Group, 6 July 2010</ref> This is testified by the Roman coin hoards that have been found in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. [[Pliny the Elder]], in the 1st century CE, laments the drain of Roman gold into India and China for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. The spice trade across the Indian Ocean dwindled with the decline of the Roman empire in the 3rd - 4th centuries CE.<ref name=":222"/> With the exit of the Mediterranean from the spice trade, their space was picked up by the Chinese and Arab navigators.<ref name=":22" />

===Wootz steel===
The famous [[Damascus steel|damascus blades]] relied on the unique properties of the [[Wootz steel|wootz crucible steel]] from medieval south India and Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art|last=Ward|first=Gerald W. R.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19531-391-8|location=Oxford|page=380}}</ref> There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high carbon Indian steel. The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BC, at production sites of [[Kodumanal]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Golconda]] in [[Telangana]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Sri Lanka]] and exported globally; the [[Chera Dynasty]] producing what was termed ''the finest steel in the world'', i.e. Seric Iron to the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese and Arabs by 500 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Sharada |last=Srinivasan |date=15 November 1994 |title=Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India |journal=Papers from the Institute of Archaeology |volume=5 |pages=49–59 |doi=10.5334/pia.60|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Herbert Henery |last=Coghlan |year=1977 |title=Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World |pages=99–100 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Pitt Rivers Museum]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=B. |last=Sasisekharan |year=1999 |url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |title=Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=34 |number=4 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724033115/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |archivedate=24 July 2015}}</ref> The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz".<ref name="Davidson20">{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Hilda Roderick Ellis |title=The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nY0T9n4zAQAC&pg=PA20 |date=1998 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd |isbn=978-0-85115-716-0 |page=20}}</ref> Wootz steel in India had high amount of carbon in it.

The method was to heat black [[magnetite]] ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give [[wrought iron]], then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as [[Senna auriculata|Avārai]].<ref name="Davidson20"/><ref name="Burton111">{{cite book |last=Burton |first=Sir Richard Francis |authorlink=Richard Francis Burton |title=The Book of the Sword |year=1884 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |location=London |page=111 |url=https://archive.org/stream/booksword00unkngoog#page/n152/mode/2up}}</ref> The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras by the 5th century BC.<ref name="Needham282">{{cite book |title=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology |date=1 April 1971 |first=Joseph |last=Needham |authorlink=Joseph Needham |page=282 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-52107-060-7}}</ref><ref name="Manning365">{{cite book |last=Manning |first=Charlotte Speir |title=Ancient and Medieval India |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365 |isbn=978-0-543-92943-3 |page=365}}</ref> In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as [[Anuradhapura]], [[Tissamaharama]] and [[Samanalawewa]], as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A [[Tissamaharama Tamil Brahmi inscription|200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama]], in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the [[classical antiquity|classical period]].<ref>''Hobbies'' (April 1963) Vol. 68, No.5, p.45, Chicago: Lightner Publishing Company.</ref><ref name="Mahathevan">{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/An-epigraphic-perspective-on-the-antiquity-of-Tamil/article16265606.ece |title=An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil |last=Mahathevan |first=Iravatham |date=24 June 2010 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |publisher=The Hindu Group |accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref name="Ragupathy">{{cite news |url=http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=32303 |title=Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population |last=Ragupathy |first=P. |date=28 June 2010 |work=Tamilnet |accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.archaeology.lk/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Dinithi-Volume-1-Issue-4.pdf |date=February 2012 |title=Dinithi |volume=1 |issue=4 |journal=Sri Lanka Archaeology }}{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Society and culture==
=== Early Cheras ===
In general, early Tamil texts reflect the Dravidian cultural tradition. It is logical to conclude that most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian religions.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} Religious practice might have consisted predominantly of conducting sacrifices to various gods, such as to the pre-eminent god [[Murugan]].<ref name=":6" /> The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera territory, along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worship. The war goddess Kottravai was propitiated with elaborate offerings of meat and [[Palm toddy|toddy]]. It is theorised that [[Kottravai]] was assimilated into the present-day form of the goddess [[Durga]].{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} It is thought that the first wave of Brahmin migration came to the Chera territory around the 3rd century BCE with or behind the Jain and Buddhist missionaries. It was only in the 8th century CE that the Aryanisation of the old Chera country reached its organised form.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=89}} Though the vast majority of the population followed native Dravidian practices, a small percentage of the population, mainly migrants, followed [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Brahmanism]].{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} Populations of [[Jews]] and [[Saint Thomas Christians|Christians]] were also known to have lived in Kerala.<ref name="Orpa Slapak">[https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UNa1VM-AFc_kuQSLiYLIAQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=two%20millennia&f=false ''The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities''] by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. {{ISBN|965-278-179-7}}.</ref><ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5ncVJiVJ4u4uATrlIGoAg&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Muziris&f=false ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5''] by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – 2008. p. 285. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2417-2}}.</ref><ref name="Shattan">Manimekalai, by Merchant Prince Shattan, Gatha 27</ref>

Early Tamil texts do make a number of references to social stratification, as expressed by use of the word ''kudi'' ("group") to denote "caste".<ref name=":6" /> A striking feature of the social life of the early historic period (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) is the high status accorded to women.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=78}} {{sfn|Menon|2007|p=77}}

Agriculture and pastoralism were the primary occupations of the people. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the early Tamil texts. Poets and musicians were held in high regard in society. Early Tamil texts are full of references about the lavish patronage extended to court poets. There were professional poets and poetesses who composed texts praising their patrons and were generously rewarded for this.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=79–80}}

== See also ==
* [[Chola dynasty]]
* [[Pandya dynasty]]
* [[Pallava dynasty]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===

* {{cite book|last1=Menon|first1=A. Sreedhara|authorlink1=A. Sreedhara Menon|title=A survey of Kerala history|date=2007|publisher=D C Books|location=Kerala, India|isbn=978-8126415786|edition=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last1=Menon | first1=A. Sreedhara | authorlink= A. Sreedhara Menon | title=A Survey of Kerala History | date=1967 | publisher=Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7WaZe2PBy8C | language=en | oclc=555508146 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last1=Kulke | first1=Hermann | last2=Rothermund | first2=Dietmar|authorlink1=Hermann Kulke | authorlink2=Dietmar Rothermund | title=A History of India | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC&pg=PA105 | edition=Fourth | publisher=Routledge | year=2004 | isbn=9780415329200 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Thapar|first1=Romila|title=Early India : from the origins to AD 1300|date=2004|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley [u.a.]|isbn=9780520242258|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last1=Karashima | first1=Noboru | authorlink1=Noboru Karashima | title=A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations | date=2014 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=9780198099772 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdVoAEACAAJ | language=en | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Tamil Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA39|year=1975|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-04190-5 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Zvelebil|first= Kamil|title=The smile of Murugan: On Tamil literature of south India|year=1973 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers

|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VF2VMUoY_okC&q=gajabahu+synchronism&pg=PA38 |isbn= 978-90-04-03591-1 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|author=Robert Caldwell|title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&pg=PA92|year=1998|orig-year=1913|edition=3rd|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0117-8 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fischel|first1=Walter J.|title=The Exploration of the Jewish Antiquities of Cochin on the Malabar Coast|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=1967|volume=87|issue=3|pages=230–248|doi=10.2307/597717|jstor=597717|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Narayanan|first1=M.G.S.|authorlink1=M. G. S. Narayanan|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala : Brahmin oligarchy and ritual monarchy : political and social conditions of Kerala under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800-AD 1124)|date=2013|publisher=CosmoBooks|location=Thrissur|isbn=9788188765072|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ|ref=harv}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Chera Dynasty}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060718060412/http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.html ''Tamil Coins'', R. Nagasamy]

{{Chera dynasty topics}}
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}

[[Category:Chera dynasty]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:Hindu dynasties]]
[[Category:Kingdoms of Kerala]]
[[Category:Tamil monarchs]]
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of India]]
[[Category:History of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 3rd century BC]]
[[Category:Tamil history]]
[[Category:History of Kerala]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 12th century]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC establishments in India]]
[[Category:12th-century disestablishments in India]]

Chera dynasty

2020-12-18T02:25:33Z

175.141.124.220:

{{redirect-multi|2|Chera|Cheras}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name =
|image_map = Chera country (early historic south India).jpg
|image_map_caption = Chera country in early historic south India
|conventional_long_name = Chera
|common_name = Chera
|status =
|flag = File:Flag_of_Chera_dynasty.svg
|year_end =
|official_languages = {{plainlist|
* [[Tamil language|Tamil]] <ref>{{cite book |author=David Shulman |author-link=David Dean Shulman |title=Tamil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fG8NDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 |year=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-97465-4 |page=150 |quote=One thing, however, is certain: the Cholas were happy to use Tamil as an official state language, along with Sanskrit...}}</ref>
}}
|capital = '''Early Cheras'''
* [[Karur|Vanchi Karuvur (Karur)]]
* Muchiri (Muziris)
* Thondi (Tyndis)

'''[[Kongu Chera dynasty|Kongu Cheras]]'''
* [[Karur|Vanchi Karur (Karur)]]

'''[[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera/Perumals of Makotai (formerly Kulasekharas)]]'''
* [[Kodungallur|Kodungallur (Makotai/Vanchi)]]

'''Venadu Cheras (Kulasekharas)'''
* [[Kollam]]

|s1 =
|s2 =
|s3 =
|today = [[India]]
|religion = [[Hinduism]] (Tamil Saivism and Vainavism)
|demonym=|area_km2=|area_rank=|GDP_PPP=|GDP_PPP_year=|HDI=|HDI_year=}}
{{Chera Dynasty}}The '''Chera dynasty''' ([[ISO 15919|or]] '''Cēra''') was one of the principal lineages in the early history of the present day states of [[Kerala]] and some parts of [[Tamil Nadu]] in southern India.<ref name=":222">{{Cite journal|date=5 June 2015|title=Classical Indo-Roman Trade|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html?0=ip_login_no_cache=3b49b785309ca821ff5e0a285f43e078|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|volume=48|issue=26–27}}</ref> Together with the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas of Uraiyur]] and the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas of Madurai]], the early Cheras were known as one of the [[Three Crowned Kings|three major powers (muventar)]] of ancient [[Tamilakam]] (a macro region in south India<ref name=":222" />) in the early centuries of the Common Era.<ref name=":22">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 143-145.</ref><ref name=":7">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>

The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks. Exchange of spices, especially black pepper, with [[Middle East]]ern and [[Classical antiquity|Graeco-Roman]] merchants are attested in several sources.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46884|title=India - The Shunga kingdom|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-12-01|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":16">[https://books.google.com/books?id=eONSAAAAcAAJ&q=Muziris#v=snippet&q=Muziris&f=false Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia.] Ed. by Edward Balfour (1871), Second Edition. Volume 2. p. 584.</ref><ref name=":222"/> The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE - c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) are known to have had their original centre at [[Karur]] in interior [[Tamil Nadu]] and harbours at [[Muziris|Muchiri (Muziris)]] and [[Tyndis|Thondi (Tyndis)]] on the Indian Ocean coast ([[Kerala]]).<ref name=":11" />

The early historic pre-Pallava<ref name=":74">Gurukkal, Rajan. "DID STATE EXIST IN THE PRE-PALLAVAN TAMIL REGION". ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 63, 2002, pp. 138–150.</ref> Tamil polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics".<ref name=":222" /> [[Tamil-Brahmi|Tamil Brahmi]] cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of [[Perumkadungo|Perum Kadungo]], and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Veluthat|first=Kesavan|date=1 June 2018|title=History and historiography in constituting a region: The case of Kerala|journal=Studies in People's History|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=13–31|doi=10.1177/2348448918759852|issn=2348-4489|doi-access=free}}</ref> Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names.<ref name=":10" /> Reverse of these coins often contained the Chera bow and arrow symbol.<ref name=":10" /> The anthologies of [[Sangam literature|early Tamil texts]] are a major source of information about the early Cheras. <ref name=":7" /> [[Senguttuvan|Chenguttuvan, or the Good Chera]], is famous for the traditions surrounding [[Kannagi|Kannaki]], the principal female character of the Tamil epic poem ''[[Silapathikaram|Chilapathikaram]]''.<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46862/From-150-bce-to-300-ce?anchor=ref485312|title=India – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=Britannica.com|accessdate=29 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=PERUMALS+OF+KERALA|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy : Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124)|date=2013|isbn=9788188765072|language=en}}</ref> After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}

[[Kongu Chera dynasty|Cheras or Keralas of the Kongu country]] are known to have controlled western [[Tamil Nadu]] and central [[Kerala]] in early medieval period.<ref name=":112">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera kingdom around 8th-9th century AD to form the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal kingdom]] (c. 9th- 12th century AD).<ref name=":122">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers is somewhat unclear.<ref name=":113">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref> Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola - seems to have conquered the Chera or Kerala country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century AD. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas".{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}

The rulers of [[Venad]] (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of [[Kollam]] in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=368}} In the modern period the rulers of [[Kochi|Cochin]] and [[Thiruvananthapuram|Travancore]] (in Kerala) also claimed the title "Chera".{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=81}}

== Etymology ==
The term Chera - and its variant form "Keralaputas" - stands for the ruling lineage and the country associated with them.<ref name=":15" />

The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from ''Cheral'', a corruption of ''Charal'' meaning "declivity of a mountain" in Tamil, suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of Kerala.{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}} Another theory argues that the "Cheralam<nowiki>''</nowiki> is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land".{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}} Apart from the speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies.{{efn|1=According to Menon, this etymology of "added" or "reclaimed" land also complements the [[Parashurama]] myth about the formation of Kerala. In it, Parashurama, one of the avatars of [[Vishnu]], flung his axe across the sea from [[Gokarnam]] towards [[Kanyakumari]] (or vice versa) and the water receded up to the spot where it landed, thus creating Kerala.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=20,21}}}}{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}}

In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as ''Kedalaputo'' (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Pali edicts (3rd century BCE).<ref name=":3">Keay, John (2000) [2001]. India: A history. India: Grove Press. {{ISBN|0-8021-3797-0}}.</ref> While [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] refer to the Cheras as ''Kaelobotros'' and ''Kerobottros'' respectively, the Graeco-Roman trade map ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' refers to the Cheras as ''Keprobotras''. All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with northern India.<ref name=":0" /> {{sfn|Caldwell|1998|p=92}}

The term ''Cheralamdivu'' or ''Cheran Tivu'' and its cognates, meaning the "island of the Chera kings", is a Classical Tamil [[Names of Sri Lanka|name of Sri Lanka]] that takes root from the term "Chera".<ref>M. Ramachandran, Irāman̲ Mativāṇan̲(1991). ''The spring of the Indus civilisation''. Prasanna Pathippagam, pp. 34. "Srilanka was known as "Cerantivu' (island of the Cera kings) in those days. The seal has two lines. The line above contains three signs in Indus script and the line below contains three alphabets in the ancient Tamil script known as Tamil ...</ref>

== Cheras of ancient south India ==
Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that the three major rulers – the [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]], the Chera and the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] – based originally in the interior [[Tamil Nadu]], at [[Madurai]], [[Karur|Karur (Karuvur)-Vanchi]], and [[Uraiyur]] respectively, had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely [[Korkai]], Muchiri (Muziris), and Kaveri Poompattinam respectively.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|date=5 June 2015|title=Classical Indo-Roman Trade|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|volume=48|issue=26–27}}</ref> Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava<ref name=":74" />) consisted of the present day central Kerala and western Tamil Nadu.<ref name=":15" /> The political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources".<ref name=":222"/> There was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu).<ref name=":2">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 50-51.</ref>

The Cheras are referred to as ''Kedalaputo'' (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Pali edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII).<ref name=":3" /> The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by [[Pliny the Elder]] in the 1st century CE, in the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|''Periplus'']] of the 1st century CE, and by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century CE. {{sfn|Menon|2007|p=33}}<ref name=":5">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cera-dynasty|title=Cera dynasty {{!}} India|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref>

A number of Sanskrit works do mention the family and/or land of the Cheras/Keralas. There are also brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator [[Katyayana]] (c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher [[Patanjali]] (c. 2nd century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher [[Kautilya|Kautilya (Chanakya)]] ({{circa|3rd - 4th century BCE}}) [though Sanskrit grammarian [[Pāṇini|Panini]] (c. 6th - 5th century BCE) does not mention either the people or the land].{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=26–29}}

=== Archaeological discoveries ===
[[File:Chera Inscription from Pugalur, near Karur.jpg|left|thumb|[[Tamil Brahmi]] inscription from Pugalur, near Karur]]
[[File:Chera coin (ancient south India) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|A Chera coin with legend "Makkotai"|147x147px]]
[[File:Kuttuvankotai-cash.jpg|thumb|left|A Chera coin with legend "[[Kuttuvan Kotai]]"]]
Archaeology has found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras.<ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2013/stories/20030704000207100.htm See report in ''Frontline'', June/July 2003]</ref><ref name=":5" /> Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near [[Karur]]) dated to c. 1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of [[Perumkadungo|Perum Kadungo]], and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai.<ref name=":5" />

{{quote box
| bgcolor = #fffcea
| title = '''Irumporai Cheras from Pugalur inscription'''
| fontsize = 100%
| quote = Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam
*Ko Athan Chel (Cheral) Irumporai
* Perum Kadungon [Irumporai]
* Ilam Kadungo [Irumporai]
| source =
}}

A short Tamil-Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at [[Edakkal Caves|Edakkal]] in the Western Ghats.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/edakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription/article2872568.ece|title=Edakal cave yields one more Tamil-Brahmi inscription|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|date=9 February 2012|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-11-19|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the [[Palakkad Gap|Palghat Gap]] to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2915/stories/20120810291507000.htm|title=Digging up the past|website=www.frontline.in|access-date=2018-11-19}}</ref> Historians are yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at [[Pattanam]] (near [[Kochi|Cochin]]) suggest a strong case of identification with the location.<ref name=":11" /> Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni).<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":13" />

=== Chera coinage ===
A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the [[Amaravati River|Amaravati]] riverbed, are a major source of early Chera historiography.<ref name=":8" /> This includes a number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol38_3_2_BSasisekaran.pdf}}</ref> Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to the Cheras, have been discovered from [[Pattanam]] in central Kerala.<ref name=":10">Majumdar, S. B. "Money Matters: Indigenous and Foreign Coins in the Malabar Coast." ''Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade'', edited by K. S. Mathew, Routledge, 2016.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/2004/04/30/stories/2004043014340300.htm|title= Copper coins of Adi Chera period excavated|newspaper=The Hindu|date=30 April 2004|access-date=2018-11-17|last1=Sudhi|first1=K. S.}}</ref> Bronze dies for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur.<ref name=":10" />

Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend "[[Kuttuvan Kotai]]" above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to c. 1st century CE or a little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank.<ref name=":8" /> The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai",<ref name=":10" /> "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai"<ref name=":10" /> were also discovered from [[Karur]]. The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins.<ref name=":10" /> All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained the bow and arrow symbol.<ref name=":10" /> An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur.<ref name=":10" />

The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin.<ref name=":9" /> A silver coin with the portrait of a person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera family.<ref name=":8">Subramanian, T. S. "Roman connection in Tamil Nadu." ''The Hindu'' 28 January 2007: www.thehindu.com. Web. Accessed 17 November 2018. [https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/Roman-connection-in-Tamil-Nadu/article14712060.ece]</ref>

=== Cheras from early Tamil texts ===
A large body of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] works collectively known as the [[Sangam literature|Sangam (Academy) texts]] (c. 2nd century BCE- 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers.<ref name="Companion12">Kamil Veith Zvelebil, ''Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature'', p.12</ref><ref>K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, ''A History of South India,'' OUP (1955) p.105</ref> Among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu]]'', the ''[[Agananuru|Akananuru]]'', and the ''[[Purananuru]]''.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=26–29}} The ''Pathitrupattu'', the fourth book in the ''[[Ettuthokai]]'' anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family.<ref name=":7" /> Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet.<ref name="Companion12" /> However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far.<ref name="kanaka">{{cite book|title=The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago|last=V.|first=Kanakasabhai|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1997|isbn=978-81-206-0150-5}}</ref><ref name=":1">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 01-05.</ref>

A method known as [[Gajabahu synchronism|Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism]], is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to c. 1st - 2nd century CE.<ref name="kanaka" /> Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=37–39|ps=: The opinion that the Gajabahu Synchronism is an expression of genuine historical tradition is accepted by most scholars today}}<ref name="svp">{{cite book|title=History of Tamil Language and Literature; Beginning to 1000 AD|last=Pillai|first=Vaiyapuri|publisher=New Century Book House|year=1956|location=Madras, India|page=22|quote=We may be reasonably certain that chronological conclusion reached above is historically sound}}</ref>{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|p=38}} [[Ilango Adigal]] author of the legendary Tamil epic poem ''[[Silappatikaram|Chilapathikaram]]'' describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (v''irakkallu'') for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Silappathikaram#ref845622|title=Silappathikaram {{!}} Tamil epic poem by Adikal|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref> A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with [[Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka|Gajabahu]], king of [[Sri Lanka]] (2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}{{sfn|Menon|1967}} In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE.<ref name="britannica.com" />

[[Utiyan Cheralathan|Uthiyan Cheral Athan]] is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from the Tamil texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decad of ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu]]''). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" (''[[Purananuru]])''. His headquarters were at Kuzhumur ([[Agananuru|''Akananuru'']]).<ref name=":18">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 05-10.</ref> He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the [[Kurukshetra War]] (''[[Purananuru]]'' and [[Agananuru|''Akananuru'']]).<ref name=":18" /> He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan (''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu (II)]]).'' .<ref name=":18" />

Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler [[Karikala]]. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<ref name=":18" />

As the name ''Pathitrupattu'' indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting a decad of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered.<ref name=":1" />

{| class="wikitable" style="width: 90%;"
|+
Cheras from [[Patiṟṟuppattu|''Pathitrupattu'']]
|-
! Decad of [[Patiṟṟuppattu|''Pathitrupattu'']]
! Chera
!Relation
!Bard
! colspan="3" |Notes
|-
|II
|[[Nedum Cheralathan|Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan]]
|Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (by Veliyan's daughter Nallini)<ref name=":4">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 10-13.</ref>
|Kannanar<ref name=":7">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
| Nedum Cheral Athan was also known as "Imayavaramban". He is praised for having subdued "seven crowned kings" to achieve the title of ''adhiraja''.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}<ref name=":4" />

Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from [[Kanyakumari|Kumari]] to the [[Himalayas]] (and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}<ref name=":4" />

The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly [[Kadamba Dynasty|Kadambas]]) whom he defeated in battles.<ref name=":4" /> Nedum Cheral Athan is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean.<ref name=":2" /> Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai.<ref name=":4" /> He also punished and extracted ranson from the Yavanas.<ref name=":2" />

Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle)<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 36-38.</ref>
|-
| III
| Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan
|Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (younger brother of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan)<ref name=":19">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 15-17.</ref>
|Palai
Kauthamanar<ref name=":7" />
|Credited as the conqueror of "Konkar Nadu".<ref name=":19" /> Described as lord of Puzhi Nadu and the Cheruppu and Aiyirai Mountains.<ref name=":19" />

Headquarters was located on the mouth river Periyar.<ref name=":19" />
|-
|IV
| Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral
|Son of Imayavaramban.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 17-21.</ref>
|Kappiyattukku Kappiyanar<ref name=":72">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
|Narmudi Cheral led an expedition against Nedumidal Anji (identified with the Adigaiman/[[Athiyamān|Satyaputra]] of Tagadur). Initially the Chera was defeated by Nannan of Ezhimala in the battle of Pazhi, later defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Vakai Perum Turai.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Menon|1967}} Performed his coronation using holy water from both the western and eastern oceans (brought by a relay of elephants).<ref name=":2" /> Also known as "Vanavaramban".<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 17-21.</ref>
|-
| V
|[[Senguttuvan|Kadal Pirakottiya Chenguttuvan]]
|Son of Nedum Cheral Athan
|Paranar<ref name=":72" />
|Chenguttuvan is identified with "Kadal Pirakottiya" Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan. Chenguttuvan was a son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 21-23.</ref>

Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief).{{sfn|Menon|1967}}{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}

In the early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative [[Nalankilli|Nalam Killi]] on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which the Kadamba warriors took shelter was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 21-23.</ref>).<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46862/From-150-bce-to-300-ce?anchor=ref485312|title=India – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=Britannica.com|accessdate=29 August 2012}}</ref>

According to ''[[Silappatikaram|Chilapathikaram]],'' Chenguttuvan lead his army to north India to get the sacred stone from the Himalayas to sculpt the idol of godess Pattini.<ref name=":2" />
|-
| VI
| Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan<ref name=Aiyar27-32>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 27-32.</ref>
|Successor of Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}(son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan and brother of Narmudi Cheral)<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />
|Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar (poetess)<ref name=":72" />
|Probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola [[Karikala]] at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, Uthiyan Cheral was wounded on the back by [[Karikala]]. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<ref name=":2" />'''<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />'''

Controlled the port of Naravu.<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />
|-
|VII
|Selva Kadumko Valia Athan
|Son of Anthuvan Cheral<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref>
|Kapilar<ref name=":72" />
|Selvakadumko Valia Athan controlled Pandar and Kodumanam (Kodumanal).<ref name=":2" />
He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the [[Pandya]]s and the [[Chola]]s.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref><ref name="Smile40">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 40, 52–53.</ref>{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}} Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-41.</ref>

Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref>

He is sometimes identified as the Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur (c. 2nd century CE).{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}<ref name="Smile40" />
|-
|VIII
|[[Perum Cheral Irumporai|Tagadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai]]<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 41-43.</ref>
|
|Arichil Kizhar<ref name=":72" />
|"Tagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur Adigaman Ezhni at [[Dharmapuri|Tagadur]]. He is also called "the lord of Puzhinadu and "the lord of Kollimalai" and "the lord of [Poom]Puhar". Puhar was the Chola headquarters. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor Idayar chief called Kazhuval (Kazhuvul).{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=71}}Addressed as "Kodai Marba". Father of Illam Cheral Irumporai.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 41-43.</ref>
|-
|IX
|"Kudakko" Illam Cheral Irumporai<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 44-45.</ref>
|
|Perunkundur Kizhar<ref name=":73">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
|Illam Cheral Irumporai defeated Perum Chola, Ilam Pazhaiyan Maran and Vicchi, and destroyed "five forts". Lord of Tondi, "Kongar Nadu", "Kuttuvar Nadu", and "Puzhi Nadu".<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 44-45.</ref>
Described as the descendant of [[Nedum Cheralathan|Nedum Cheral Athan]].<ref name=":4" />
|}
The following Cheras are knowns from ''[[Purananuru]]'' collection (some of the names are re-duplications)''.''<ref name=":1" />
{{colbegin}}
* Karuvur Eriya Ol-val Ko Perum Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" /> - Ruled of Karuvur. Praised by Nariveruttalaiyar.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 34-36.</ref>
* Kadungo Valia Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Palai Padiya Perum Kadumko<ref name=":1" />
* Antuvan Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" /> - father of Selva Kadumko Valia Athan (VII decad). Contemporary to Chola Mudittalai Ko Perunar Killi (whose elephant famously wandered to Karuvur).<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 36-38.</ref>
* [[Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai|"Yanaikatchai" Mantaram Cheral Irumporai]] ruled from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai on the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle at Vilamkil. The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian (early 3rd century CE<ref name=":6">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref485313|title=India - The Shunga kingdom|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref>) captured Mantaran Cheral as a prisoner. However, he managed to escape and regain the lost territories.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=72}}<ref name=":1" />
* Ko Kodai Marban<ref name=":1" />
* Takadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" />
* [[Kuttuvan Kodai]]<ref name=":1" />
* Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Perum Cheral Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Kanaikkal Irumporai is said to have defeated a chief called Muvan and imprisoned him. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of the prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Thondi. Upon capture by the Chola ruler [[Kocengannan|Sengannan]], Kanaikkal committed suicide by starvation.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=72}}
* Kudakko Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" />
* Kottambalattu Tunchiya Makkodai<ref name=":1" /> - probably identical with Kottambalattu Tunchiya Cheraman in [[Agananuru|''Akananuru'' (168)]].<ref name=":18" />
* Vanchan<ref name=":1" />
* Kadalottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan<ref name=":1" />
* Man Venko<ref name=":1" /> - a friend of the Pandya Ugra Peruvaluti and the Chola Rajasuyam Vetta Perunar Killi.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 60-61.</ref>
{{colend}}

== Cheras in the medieval period ==
{{Main|Kongu Chera dynasty}}
[[File:Kalabhras territories.png|thumb|An approximate extent of Kalabhra supremacy in southern India. |270x270px|alt=]]
After the end of the early historical period in south India, c. 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}} Little is known for certain about the Cheras during this period.<ref name=":14">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80–81, 88–93.</ref>

Cheras of Kongu country ([[Karur]]) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central [[Kerala]].<ref name=":110">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule).<ref name=":111">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre-[[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] (early historic) south India.<ref name=":110" />

* An inscription of [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadamba]] king Vishnu Varma, dated 5th or 6th century, can be found at Edakkal cave in [[Wayanad]].<ref name=":123">Fawcett, F. 1901. Notes on the Rock Carvings in the Edakal Caves, Wynaad. ''The Indian Antiquary'' vol. XXX, pp. 409-421.</ref><ref name=":103">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref> An early historic Chera graffiti containing the phrase "Kadummi Putra Chera" was also discovered from the cave.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/edakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription/article2872568.ece|title=Edakal cave yields one more Tamil-Brahmi inscription|date=9 February 2012|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-11-19|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
*Tradition tells that the [[Kalabhra dynasty|Kalabhra]] (Kalvar<ref name=":6" />) rulers kept the Chera, [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] and [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] rulers in their confinement.<ref name=":14" />
* The earliest [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]] king to claim overlorship over Chera/Kerala is [[Kirttivarman I]] (''fl.'' 566 - 598 AD) (this claim is generally considered as a "boastfull exaggeration" by historians). A later grant (695 AD) of king [[Vinayaditya of Vatapi|Vinayaditya II Satyasraya]], with reference to the vassalage of the Kerala country, is now reckoned as a more dependable record.<ref name=":106">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref> Several Chalukya records of the 7th and 8th centuries speak of the conquest and vassalage of the Kerala country.<ref name=":106" />
* A number of [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] records also mention the vassalage of the Kerala country.<ref name=":104">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref>
*[[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta]] inscriptions mention "an alliance of Dravida kings including Kerala, Pandya, Chola and Pallava who were defeated" (''E. I.'', XVIII). The Keralas mentioned there might be the Kongu Cheras who had already submitted to the Pandyas (and not [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumals]] of Kerala).<ref name=":36">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95.</ref>

=== Pandya conquests in Chera country ===
[[File:South_India_in_12th_century_AD.jpg|thumb|338x338px|Chera Perumal Kingdom with the [[Chola dynasty|Chola Empire]] on the east.]]There are clear attestations of repeated [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] conquests of the Kerala or Chea country in the 7th and 8th centuries AD.<ref name=":105">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref>
| flag = File:Flag_of_Chera_dynasty.svg
* Pandya king Sendan/Jayantan (''fl.'' 645 – 70 AD) was known as the Vanavan, an ancient name for the Chera king.<ref name=":105" /> Arikesari Maravarman (670 – 710 AD), another Pandya ruler, probably defeated the Keralas/Cheras on several occasions.<ref name=":105" /><ref name=":28">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref> His successor Ko Chadayan Ranadhira also made gains against the Cheras.<ref name=":20">Dalziel, N.R. (2016). Pandyan Empire. In ''The Encyclopedia of Empire'' (eds N. Dalziel and J.M. MacKenzie). doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe416 </ref>

* The so-called "renewal of the capital city of Vanchi ([[Karur]]) along with Kudal ([[Madurai]]) and Kozhi ([[Uraiyur]])", described in the Madras Museum Plates of the Pandya king Rajasimha I (730 – 65 AD), may suggest a Pandya occupation of the Kongu Chera capital Karur.<ref name=":32">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95.</ref>
*It is known that when Pandya king Jatila Parantaka (765 – 815 AD) went to war against the Adigaman of Tagadur ([[Dharmapuri]]), the Keralas and the Pallavas went to the aid of the latter though "the Pandyas drove them back to the quarters from which they had emerged" (Madras Museum Plates).<ref name=":32" /><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95 and 107.</ref> Perhaps the Chera branch from present-day Kerala had crossed the [[Western Ghats|Ghat Mountains]] to offer support to the Adigaman and after defeat they were pursued up to the [[Palakkad Gap|Palghat Gap]] by the Pandya forces.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95 and 107.</ref>
*Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera/Kerala kingdom (around 8th-9th century AD) to form the Chera/Perumal kingdom.<ref name=":12">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref>
*The Pandyas are known to have made a defensive alliance with the Cheras of Kongu country (who were under their influence) in this period.<ref name=":20" /> Pandya king Parantaka Vira Narayana (c. 880 – 900 AD) is known to have married a Kerala (Kongu Chera) princess "Vanavan Maha Devi".<ref name=":42">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 95-96 and 108.</ref> The son of this alliance, Rajasimha, described as a member of Chandra-Aditya Kula (Sinnamanur copper plates), was "destroyed by the Chola king Parantaka".<ref name=":42" /> It was initially assumed by [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] and [[Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai|E. P. N. K. Pillai]] that the Vira Narayana had married a Chera Perumal princess of Kerala.<ref name=":42" />

=== Chola conquests of Chera country ===

*The Kongu country was conquered by the Cholas (either by Srikantha or [[Aditya I|Aditya I Chola]]) in the last years of the 9th century AD (this campaign probably involved battles between Aditya I and Parantaka Vira Narayana). The Pandyas were eventually defeated in the "great battle" of Sripurambiyam (c. 885).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 97.</ref>
*The Pandyas were defeated by Chola king [[Parantaka I|Parantaka]] in 910 AD (the fate of the Kongu Chera country, then ruled by Kongu Cheras, upon the fall of Madurai is not known).<ref name=":55">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 98-99 and 111.</ref> Pandya king Rajasimha II, who was defeated by Parantaka Chola, is known to have found asylum in Kerala or Chera country (c. 920 AD).<ref name=":55" /> Chola king Sundara (c. 956 – c. 973 AD) had a Chera or Kerala princess among his queens.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 100-01.</ref>
*Kongu Chera country (and the Chera Perumal kingdom) was subsequently conquered by the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]].<ref name=":29">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref>
**Amara Bhujanga Deva, one of the princes defeated by Chola king [[Rajaraja]] (Tiruvalangadu Grant), was probably a Pandya or a Kongu Chera prince.<ref name=":62">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 116-117 and 136.</ref>
**Chola king [[Rajadhiraja]] is known for defeating certain Vira Kerala, one of the so-called "thennavar muvar", and trampling him to death by his war elephant.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 121-122.</ref> This royal was probably a Kongu-Chera of Chandra-Aditya Kula or a [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] prince (son of a Pandya and a Kongu Chera princess).<ref name=":022">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 304-05 and 322-23.</ref> Vira Kerala was previously considered as a Chera Perumal king ([[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] and [[Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai|E. P. N. K. Pillai]]).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 84-85.</ref>

=== Chera Perumals of Kerala ===
{{Main|Chera/Perumals of Makotai}}
[[File:Depiction of "Cherman Perumal" Nayanar (Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Depiction of Cherman Perumal Nayanar - Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|291x291px]]

While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in [[Tamil Nadu]] emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in [[Kerala]] took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE.<ref name=":22" /> Scholars tend to identify Nayanar saint [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar|Cherman Perumal]] (literally "the Chera king") and Alvar saint [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara]] with some of the earliest Perumals.<ref name="Noburu Karashmia 2014">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref>

The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure.<ref name=":14" />

The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East.<ref name=":26">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 364-65.</ref><ref name=":02">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 331-32.</ref> The port of [[Kollam]], in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia.<ref>Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 382-83.</ref> Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in the structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a [[Nair]] military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century.<ref name=":17">Ganesh, K. N. "Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala". ''Indian Historical Review'', vol. 36, no. 1, June 2009, pp. 3–21.</ref> [[Brahmin|Nambudiri-Brahmin]] settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom.<ref name=":02" /><ref>Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 379-80.</ref>
{{cquote
| quote = "A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."
| author = Romila Thapar
| source = [https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46892]
| align = center
| width = 75%
}}
The Chea Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] and the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]].<ref name=":27">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 364-65.</ref> The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in early 11th century AD (in order to break the monpoly of trade with the Middle East).<ref name=":27" /> <ref name=":53">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref> When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent.<ref name=":17" />

==Government==
The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from the ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in a linear or in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=75}}

The extent of political formation in pre-Pallava<ref name=":74" /> south India (before c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) was a matter of considerable debate among historians.<ref name=":7" /> Although earlier scholars visualised early historic south Indian polities as full-fledged kingdoms, some of the recent studies rule out the possibility of state formation.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":222"/>{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=77}} According to historian Rajan Gurukkal, ancient south India was a combination of several "unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies of chiefdoms". These polities were structured by the dominance of "agro-pastoral means of subsistence and predatory politics".<ref name=":11" /> Kesavan Veluthat, another prominent historian of south India, uses the term "chief" and "chiefdom" for the Chera ruler and Chera polity of early historic south India respectively.<ref name=":15" />

Reaching conclusions based on the early Tamil poems and archaeological evidences is another topic of disagreement.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=67}}{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=75–76}} It is assumed that the institution of sabha in south Indian villages, for local administration, was first surfaced during the early historic period.<ref name=":6" />

==Economy==
The early Chera economy can be described as a predominantly "pastoral-cum-agrarian" based system. The emphasis on agriculture increased with time, and provided the base for larger economic change.<ref name=":6" /> The early historic south India (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) can be described as a "semi-tribal political economy". In a 2013 paper, historian Rajan Gurukkal describes ancient south India as a collection of "unevenly evolved and kinship-based redistributive economies." ''<ref name=":222"/>''

===Spice trade===
[[File:Silk route.jpg|thumb|309x309px| [[Silk Road]] (Red) and Spice Routes (Blues)|alt=]]

Exchange relations with the merchants from Graeco-Roman world, the "[[Yavanas]]", and with north India provided considerable economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom. Indian Ocean exchange was the major economic activity.<ref name=":6" /> There is some difference of opinion with regard to the nature of the "spice trade" in ancient Chera country. It is disputed whether this "trade" with the Mediterranean world was managed on equal terms by the Tamil merchants, in view of the existence of apparently unequal political institutions in south India.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Trade guilds of south India up to the tenth century|journal=Studies in People's History|volume=2|pages=21–26|language=en|doi=10.1177/2348448915574403|year = 2015|last1 = Subbarayalu|first1 = Y.|s2cid=133144002}}</ref> Some of the more recent studies point out that the "trade" was an exchange of "serious imbalance", because of its being between the [[Roman Empire]] and South India with uneven chiefdoms.<ref name=":222"/>

The geographical advantages, like the favourable Monsoon winds which carried ships directly from the Arabia to south India as well as the abundance of exotic spices in the interior Ghat mountains (and the presence of a large number of rivers connecting the Ghats with the Arabian Sea) combined to make the Cheras a major power in ancient southern India.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":222"/>

Spice exchange with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators can be traced back to before the Common Era and was substantially consolidated in the early years of the Common Era.<ref name=":222"/><ref name="Muziris1">[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/artefacts-from-the-lost-port-of-muziris/article6657446.ece "Artefacts from the lost Port of Muziris."] The Hindu. 3 December 2014.</ref><ref name="Pattanam">[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/pattanam-richest-indoroman-site-on-indian-ocean-rim/article274715.ece "Pattanam richest Indo-Roman site on Indian Ocean rim."] The Hindu. 3 May 2009.</ref> In the first century CE, the Romans conquered Egypt, which probably helped them to establish dominance in the Indian Ocean spice trade. The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by [[Pliny the Elder]] in the 1st century CE, in ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' of the 1st century CE, and by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century CE.{{sfn|Caldwell|1998|p=92}} The ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' portrays the "trade" in the territory of ''Keprobotras'' in detail. [[Muziris]] was the most important centre in the Malabar Coast, which according to the ''Periplus'', "abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks". Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were "exported" from the Chera country to the Middle East and Mediterranean kingdoms.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=105–}}

It is known that the Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange for [[black pepper]].<ref name=":222"/><ref>http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th&</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=62 | title=History of Ancient Kerala |publisher=Government of india | accessdate=6 October 2012}}{{dead link|date=July 2015}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Raoul McLaughlin, Rome and the distant East: trade routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and China Continuum International Publishing Group, 6 July 2010</ref> This is testified by the Roman coin hoards that have been found in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. [[Pliny the Elder]], in the 1st century CE, laments the drain of Roman gold into India and China for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. The spice trade across the Indian Ocean dwindled with the decline of the Roman empire in the 3rd - 4th centuries CE.<ref name=":222"/> With the exit of the Mediterranean from the spice trade, their space was picked up by the Chinese and Arab navigators.<ref name=":22" />

===Wootz steel===
The famous [[Damascus steel|damascus blades]] relied on the unique properties of the [[Wootz steel|wootz crucible steel]] from medieval south India and Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art|last=Ward|first=Gerald W. R.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19531-391-8|location=Oxford|page=380}}</ref> There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high carbon Indian steel. The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BC, at production sites of [[Kodumanal]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Golconda]] in [[Telangana]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Sri Lanka]] and exported globally; the [[Chera Dynasty]] producing what was termed ''the finest steel in the world'', i.e. Seric Iron to the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese and Arabs by 500 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Sharada |last=Srinivasan |date=15 November 1994 |title=Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India |journal=Papers from the Institute of Archaeology |volume=5 |pages=49–59 |doi=10.5334/pia.60|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Herbert Henery |last=Coghlan |year=1977 |title=Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World |pages=99–100 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Pitt Rivers Museum]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=B. |last=Sasisekharan |year=1999 |url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |title=Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=34 |number=4 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724033115/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |archivedate=24 July 2015}}</ref> The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz".<ref name="Davidson20">{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Hilda Roderick Ellis |title=The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nY0T9n4zAQAC&pg=PA20 |date=1998 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd |isbn=978-0-85115-716-0 |page=20}}</ref> Wootz steel in India had high amount of carbon in it.

The method was to heat black [[magnetite]] ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give [[wrought iron]], then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as [[Senna auriculata|Avārai]].<ref name="Davidson20"/><ref name="Burton111">{{cite book |last=Burton |first=Sir Richard Francis |authorlink=Richard Francis Burton |title=The Book of the Sword |year=1884 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |location=London |page=111 |url=https://archive.org/stream/booksword00unkngoog#page/n152/mode/2up}}</ref> The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras by the 5th century BC.<ref name="Needham282">{{cite book |title=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology |date=1 April 1971 |first=Joseph |last=Needham |authorlink=Joseph Needham |page=282 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-52107-060-7}}</ref><ref name="Manning365">{{cite book |last=Manning |first=Charlotte Speir |title=Ancient and Medieval India |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365 |isbn=978-0-543-92943-3 |page=365}}</ref> In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as [[Anuradhapura]], [[Tissamaharama]] and [[Samanalawewa]], as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A [[Tissamaharama Tamil Brahmi inscription|200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama]], in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the [[classical antiquity|classical period]].<ref>''Hobbies'' (April 1963) Vol. 68, No.5, p.45, Chicago: Lightner Publishing Company.</ref><ref name="Mahathevan">{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/An-epigraphic-perspective-on-the-antiquity-of-Tamil/article16265606.ece |title=An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil |last=Mahathevan |first=Iravatham |date=24 June 2010 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |publisher=The Hindu Group |accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref name="Ragupathy">{{cite news |url=http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=32303 |title=Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population |last=Ragupathy |first=P. |date=28 June 2010 |work=Tamilnet |accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.archaeology.lk/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Dinithi-Volume-1-Issue-4.pdf |date=February 2012 |title=Dinithi |volume=1 |issue=4 |journal=Sri Lanka Archaeology }}{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Society and culture==
=== Early Cheras ===
In general, early Tamil texts reflect the Dravidian cultural tradition. It is logical to conclude that most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian religions.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} Religious practice might have consisted predominantly of conducting sacrifices to various gods, such as to the pre-eminent god [[Murugan]].<ref name=":6" /> The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera territory, along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worship. The war goddess Kottravai was propitiated with elaborate offerings of meat and [[Palm toddy|toddy]]. It is theorised that [[Kottravai]] was assimilated into the present-day form of the goddess [[Durga]].{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} It is thought that the first wave of Brahmin migration came to the Chera territory around the 3rd century BCE with or behind the Jain and Buddhist missionaries. It was only in the 8th century CE that the Aryanisation of the old Chera country reached its organised form.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=89}} Though the vast majority of the population followed native Dravidian practices, a small percentage of the population, mainly migrants, followed [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Brahmanism]].{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} Populations of [[Jews]] and [[Saint Thomas Christians|Christians]] were also known to have lived in Kerala.<ref name="Orpa Slapak">[https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UNa1VM-AFc_kuQSLiYLIAQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=two%20millennia&f=false ''The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities''] by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. {{ISBN|965-278-179-7}}.</ref><ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5ncVJiVJ4u4uATrlIGoAg&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Muziris&f=false ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5''] by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – 2008. p. 285. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2417-2}}.</ref><ref name="Shattan">Manimekalai, by Merchant Prince Shattan, Gatha 27</ref>

Early Tamil texts do make a number of references to social stratification, as expressed by use of the word ''kudi'' ("group") to denote "caste".<ref name=":6" /> A striking feature of the social life of the early historic period (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) is the high status accorded to women.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=78}} {{sfn|Menon|2007|p=77}}

Agriculture and pastoralism were the primary occupations of the people. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the early Tamil texts. Poets and musicians were held in high regard in society. Early Tamil texts are full of references about the lavish patronage extended to court poets. There were professional poets and poetesses who composed texts praising their patrons and were generously rewarded for this.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=79–80}}

== See also ==
* [[Chola dynasty]]
* [[Pandya dynasty]]
* [[Pallava dynasty]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===

* {{cite book|last1=Menon|first1=A. Sreedhara|authorlink1=A. Sreedhara Menon|title=A survey of Kerala history|date=2007|publisher=D C Books|location=Kerala, India|isbn=978-8126415786|edition=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last1=Menon | first1=A. Sreedhara | authorlink= A. Sreedhara Menon | title=A Survey of Kerala History | date=1967 | publisher=Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7WaZe2PBy8C | language=en | oclc=555508146 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last1=Kulke | first1=Hermann | last2=Rothermund | first2=Dietmar|authorlink1=Hermann Kulke | authorlink2=Dietmar Rothermund | title=A History of India | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC&pg=PA105 | edition=Fourth | publisher=Routledge | year=2004 | isbn=9780415329200 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Thapar|first1=Romila|title=Early India : from the origins to AD 1300|date=2004|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley [u.a.]|isbn=9780520242258|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last1=Karashima | first1=Noboru | authorlink1=Noboru Karashima | title=A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations | date=2014 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=9780198099772 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdVoAEACAAJ | language=en | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Tamil Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA39|year=1975|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-04190-5 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Zvelebil|first= Kamil|title=The smile of Murugan: On Tamil literature of south India|year=1973 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers

|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VF2VMUoY_okC&q=gajabahu+synchronism&pg=PA38 |isbn= 978-90-04-03591-1 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|author=Robert Caldwell|title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&pg=PA92|year=1998|orig-year=1913|edition=3rd|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0117-8 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fischel|first1=Walter J.|title=The Exploration of the Jewish Antiquities of Cochin on the Malabar Coast|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=1967|volume=87|issue=3|pages=230–248|doi=10.2307/597717|jstor=597717|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Narayanan|first1=M.G.S.|authorlink1=M. G. S. Narayanan|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala : Brahmin oligarchy and ritual monarchy : political and social conditions of Kerala under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800-AD 1124)|date=2013|publisher=CosmoBooks|location=Thrissur|isbn=9788188765072|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ|ref=harv}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Chera Dynasty}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060718060412/http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.html ''Tamil Coins'', R. Nagasamy]

{{Chera dynasty topics}}
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}

[[Category:Chera dynasty]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:Hindu dynasties]]
[[Category:Kingdoms of Kerala]]
[[Category:Tamil monarchs]]
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of India]]
[[Category:History of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 3rd century BC]]
[[Category:Tamil history]]
[[Category:History of Kerala]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 12th century]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC establishments in India]]
[[Category:12th-century disestablishments in India]]

Chera dynasty

2020-12-18T02:24:40Z

175.141.124.220:

{{redirect-multi|2|Chera|Cheras}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name =
|image_map = Chera country (early historic south India).jpg
|image_map_caption = Chera country in early historic south India
|conventional_long_name = Chera
|common_name = Chera
|status =
|flag = File:Flag_of_Chera_dynasty.svg
|year_end =
|official_languages = {{plainlist|
* [[Tamil language|Tamil]] <ref>{{cite book |author=David Shulman |author-link=David Dean Shulman |title=Tamil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fG8NDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 |year=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-97465-4 |page=150 |quote=One thing, however, is certain: the Cholas were happy to use Tamil as an official state language, along with Sanskrit...}}</ref>
}}
|capital = '''Early Cheras'''
* [[Karur|Vanchi Karuvur (Karur)]]
* Muchiri (Muziris)
* Thondi (Tyndis)

'''[[Kongu Chera dynasty|Kongu Cheras]]'''
* [[Karur|Vanchi Karur (Karur)]]

'''[[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera/Perumals of Makotai (formerly Kulasekharas)]]'''
* [[Kodungallur|Kodungallur (Makotai/Vanchi)]]

'''Venadu Cheras (Kulasekharas)'''
* [[Kollam]]

|s1 =
|s2 =
|s3 =
|today = [[India]]
|religion = [[Hinduism]]
|demonym=|area_km2=|area_rank=|GDP_PPP=|GDP_PPP_year=|HDI=|HDI_year=}}
{{Chera Dynasty}}The '''Chera dynasty''' ([[ISO 15919|or]] '''Cēra''') was one of the principal lineages in the early history of the present day states of [[Kerala]] and some parts of [[Tamil Nadu]] in southern India.<ref name=":222">{{Cite journal|date=5 June 2015|title=Classical Indo-Roman Trade|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html?0=ip_login_no_cache=3b49b785309ca821ff5e0a285f43e078|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|volume=48|issue=26–27}}</ref> Together with the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas of Uraiyur]] and the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas of Madurai]], the early Cheras were known as one of the [[Three Crowned Kings|three major powers (muventar)]] of ancient [[Tamilakam]] (a macro region in south India<ref name=":222" />) in the early centuries of the Common Era.<ref name=":22">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 143-145.</ref><ref name=":7">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>

The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks. Exchange of spices, especially black pepper, with [[Middle East]]ern and [[Classical antiquity|Graeco-Roman]] merchants are attested in several sources.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46884|title=India - The Shunga kingdom|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-12-01|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":16">[https://books.google.com/books?id=eONSAAAAcAAJ&q=Muziris#v=snippet&q=Muziris&f=false Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia.] Ed. by Edward Balfour (1871), Second Edition. Volume 2. p. 584.</ref><ref name=":222"/> The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE - c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) are known to have had their original centre at [[Karur]] in interior [[Tamil Nadu]] and harbours at [[Muziris|Muchiri (Muziris)]] and [[Tyndis|Thondi (Tyndis)]] on the Indian Ocean coast ([[Kerala]]).<ref name=":11" />

The early historic pre-Pallava<ref name=":74">Gurukkal, Rajan. "DID STATE EXIST IN THE PRE-PALLAVAN TAMIL REGION". ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 63, 2002, pp. 138–150.</ref> Tamil polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics".<ref name=":222" /> [[Tamil-Brahmi|Tamil Brahmi]] cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of [[Perumkadungo|Perum Kadungo]], and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Veluthat|first=Kesavan|date=1 June 2018|title=History and historiography in constituting a region: The case of Kerala|journal=Studies in People's History|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=13–31|doi=10.1177/2348448918759852|issn=2348-4489|doi-access=free}}</ref> Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names.<ref name=":10" /> Reverse of these coins often contained the Chera bow and arrow symbol.<ref name=":10" /> The anthologies of [[Sangam literature|early Tamil texts]] are a major source of information about the early Cheras. <ref name=":7" /> [[Senguttuvan|Chenguttuvan, or the Good Chera]], is famous for the traditions surrounding [[Kannagi|Kannaki]], the principal female character of the Tamil epic poem ''[[Silapathikaram|Chilapathikaram]]''.<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46862/From-150-bce-to-300-ce?anchor=ref485312|title=India – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=Britannica.com|accessdate=29 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=PERUMALS+OF+KERALA|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy : Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124)|date=2013|isbn=9788188765072|language=en}}</ref> After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}

[[Kongu Chera dynasty|Cheras or Keralas of the Kongu country]] are known to have controlled western [[Tamil Nadu]] and central [[Kerala]] in early medieval period.<ref name=":112">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera kingdom around 8th-9th century AD to form the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal kingdom]] (c. 9th- 12th century AD).<ref name=":122">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers is somewhat unclear.<ref name=":113">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref> Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola - seems to have conquered the Chera or Kerala country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century AD. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas".{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}

The rulers of [[Venad]] (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of [[Kollam]] in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=368}} In the modern period the rulers of [[Kochi|Cochin]] and [[Thiruvananthapuram|Travancore]] (in Kerala) also claimed the title "Chera".{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=81}}

== Etymology ==
The term Chera - and its variant form "Keralaputas" - stands for the ruling lineage and the country associated with them.<ref name=":15" />

The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from ''Cheral'', a corruption of ''Charal'' meaning "declivity of a mountain" in Tamil, suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of Kerala.{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}} Another theory argues that the "Cheralam<nowiki>''</nowiki> is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land".{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}} Apart from the speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies.{{efn|1=According to Menon, this etymology of "added" or "reclaimed" land also complements the [[Parashurama]] myth about the formation of Kerala. In it, Parashurama, one of the avatars of [[Vishnu]], flung his axe across the sea from [[Gokarnam]] towards [[Kanyakumari]] (or vice versa) and the water receded up to the spot where it landed, thus creating Kerala.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=20,21}}}}{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}}

In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as ''Kedalaputo'' (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Pali edicts (3rd century BCE).<ref name=":3">Keay, John (2000) [2001]. India: A history. India: Grove Press. {{ISBN|0-8021-3797-0}}.</ref> While [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] refer to the Cheras as ''Kaelobotros'' and ''Kerobottros'' respectively, the Graeco-Roman trade map ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' refers to the Cheras as ''Keprobotras''. All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with northern India.<ref name=":0" /> {{sfn|Caldwell|1998|p=92}}

The term ''Cheralamdivu'' or ''Cheran Tivu'' and its cognates, meaning the "island of the Chera kings", is a Classical Tamil [[Names of Sri Lanka|name of Sri Lanka]] that takes root from the term "Chera".<ref>M. Ramachandran, Irāman̲ Mativāṇan̲(1991). ''The spring of the Indus civilisation''. Prasanna Pathippagam, pp. 34. "Srilanka was known as "Cerantivu' (island of the Cera kings) in those days. The seal has two lines. The line above contains three signs in Indus script and the line below contains three alphabets in the ancient Tamil script known as Tamil ...</ref>

== Cheras of ancient south India ==
Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that the three major rulers – the [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]], the Chera and the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] – based originally in the interior [[Tamil Nadu]], at [[Madurai]], [[Karur|Karur (Karuvur)-Vanchi]], and [[Uraiyur]] respectively, had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely [[Korkai]], Muchiri (Muziris), and Kaveri Poompattinam respectively.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|date=5 June 2015|title=Classical Indo-Roman Trade|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|volume=48|issue=26–27}}</ref> Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava<ref name=":74" />) consisted of the present day central Kerala and western Tamil Nadu.<ref name=":15" /> The political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources".<ref name=":222"/> There was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu).<ref name=":2">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 50-51.</ref>

The Cheras are referred to as ''Kedalaputo'' (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Pali edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII).<ref name=":3" /> The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by [[Pliny the Elder]] in the 1st century CE, in the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|''Periplus'']] of the 1st century CE, and by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century CE. {{sfn|Menon|2007|p=33}}<ref name=":5">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cera-dynasty|title=Cera dynasty {{!}} India|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref>

A number of Sanskrit works do mention the family and/or land of the Cheras/Keralas. There are also brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator [[Katyayana]] (c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher [[Patanjali]] (c. 2nd century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher [[Kautilya|Kautilya (Chanakya)]] ({{circa|3rd - 4th century BCE}}) [though Sanskrit grammarian [[Pāṇini|Panini]] (c. 6th - 5th century BCE) does not mention either the people or the land].{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=26–29}}

=== Archaeological discoveries ===
[[File:Chera Inscription from Pugalur, near Karur.jpg|left|thumb|[[Tamil Brahmi]] inscription from Pugalur, near Karur]]
[[File:Chera coin (ancient south India) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|A Chera coin with legend "Makkotai"|147x147px]]
[[File:Kuttuvankotai-cash.jpg|thumb|left|A Chera coin with legend "[[Kuttuvan Kotai]]"]]
Archaeology has found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras.<ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2013/stories/20030704000207100.htm See report in ''Frontline'', June/July 2003]</ref><ref name=":5" /> Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near [[Karur]]) dated to c. 1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of [[Perumkadungo|Perum Kadungo]], and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai.<ref name=":5" />

{{quote box
| bgcolor = #fffcea
| title = '''Irumporai Cheras from Pugalur inscription'''
| fontsize = 100%
| quote = Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam
*Ko Athan Chel (Cheral) Irumporai
* Perum Kadungon [Irumporai]
* Ilam Kadungo [Irumporai]
| source =
}}

A short Tamil-Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at [[Edakkal Caves|Edakkal]] in the Western Ghats.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/edakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription/article2872568.ece|title=Edakal cave yields one more Tamil-Brahmi inscription|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|date=9 February 2012|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-11-19|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the [[Palakkad Gap|Palghat Gap]] to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2915/stories/20120810291507000.htm|title=Digging up the past|website=www.frontline.in|access-date=2018-11-19}}</ref> Historians are yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at [[Pattanam]] (near [[Kochi|Cochin]]) suggest a strong case of identification with the location.<ref name=":11" /> Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni).<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":13" />

=== Chera coinage ===
A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the [[Amaravati River|Amaravati]] riverbed, are a major source of early Chera historiography.<ref name=":8" /> This includes a number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol38_3_2_BSasisekaran.pdf}}</ref> Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to the Cheras, have been discovered from [[Pattanam]] in central Kerala.<ref name=":10">Majumdar, S. B. "Money Matters: Indigenous and Foreign Coins in the Malabar Coast." ''Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade'', edited by K. S. Mathew, Routledge, 2016.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/2004/04/30/stories/2004043014340300.htm|title= Copper coins of Adi Chera period excavated|newspaper=The Hindu|date=30 April 2004|access-date=2018-11-17|last1=Sudhi|first1=K. S.}}</ref> Bronze dies for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur.<ref name=":10" />

Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend "[[Kuttuvan Kotai]]" above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to c. 1st century CE or a little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank.<ref name=":8" /> The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai",<ref name=":10" /> "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai"<ref name=":10" /> were also discovered from [[Karur]]. The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins.<ref name=":10" /> All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained the bow and arrow symbol.<ref name=":10" /> An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur.<ref name=":10" />

The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin.<ref name=":9" /> A silver coin with the portrait of a person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera family.<ref name=":8">Subramanian, T. S. "Roman connection in Tamil Nadu." ''The Hindu'' 28 January 2007: www.thehindu.com. Web. Accessed 17 November 2018. [https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/Roman-connection-in-Tamil-Nadu/article14712060.ece]</ref>

=== Cheras from early Tamil texts ===
A large body of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] works collectively known as the [[Sangam literature|Sangam (Academy) texts]] (c. 2nd century BCE- 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers.<ref name="Companion12">Kamil Veith Zvelebil, ''Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature'', p.12</ref><ref>K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, ''A History of South India,'' OUP (1955) p.105</ref> Among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu]]'', the ''[[Agananuru|Akananuru]]'', and the ''[[Purananuru]]''.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=26–29}} The ''Pathitrupattu'', the fourth book in the ''[[Ettuthokai]]'' anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family.<ref name=":7" /> Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet.<ref name="Companion12" /> However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far.<ref name="kanaka">{{cite book|title=The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago|last=V.|first=Kanakasabhai|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1997|isbn=978-81-206-0150-5}}</ref><ref name=":1">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 01-05.</ref>

A method known as [[Gajabahu synchronism|Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism]], is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to c. 1st - 2nd century CE.<ref name="kanaka" /> Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=37–39|ps=: The opinion that the Gajabahu Synchronism is an expression of genuine historical tradition is accepted by most scholars today}}<ref name="svp">{{cite book|title=History of Tamil Language and Literature; Beginning to 1000 AD|last=Pillai|first=Vaiyapuri|publisher=New Century Book House|year=1956|location=Madras, India|page=22|quote=We may be reasonably certain that chronological conclusion reached above is historically sound}}</ref>{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|p=38}} [[Ilango Adigal]] author of the legendary Tamil epic poem ''[[Silappatikaram|Chilapathikaram]]'' describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (v''irakkallu'') for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Silappathikaram#ref845622|title=Silappathikaram {{!}} Tamil epic poem by Adikal|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref> A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with [[Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka|Gajabahu]], king of [[Sri Lanka]] (2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}{{sfn|Menon|1967}} In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE.<ref name="britannica.com" />

[[Utiyan Cheralathan|Uthiyan Cheral Athan]] is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from the Tamil texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decad of ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu]]''). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" (''[[Purananuru]])''. His headquarters were at Kuzhumur ([[Agananuru|''Akananuru'']]).<ref name=":18">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 05-10.</ref> He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the [[Kurukshetra War]] (''[[Purananuru]]'' and [[Agananuru|''Akananuru'']]).<ref name=":18" /> He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan (''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu (II)]]).'' .<ref name=":18" />

Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler [[Karikala]]. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<ref name=":18" />

As the name ''Pathitrupattu'' indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting a decad of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered.<ref name=":1" />

{| class="wikitable" style="width: 90%;"
|+
Cheras from [[Patiṟṟuppattu|''Pathitrupattu'']]
|-
! Decad of [[Patiṟṟuppattu|''Pathitrupattu'']]
! Chera
!Relation
!Bard
! colspan="3" |Notes
|-
|II
|[[Nedum Cheralathan|Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan]]
|Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (by Veliyan's daughter Nallini)<ref name=":4">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 10-13.</ref>
|Kannanar<ref name=":7">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
| Nedum Cheral Athan was also known as "Imayavaramban". He is praised for having subdued "seven crowned kings" to achieve the title of ''adhiraja''.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}<ref name=":4" />

Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from [[Kanyakumari|Kumari]] to the [[Himalayas]] (and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}<ref name=":4" />

The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly [[Kadamba Dynasty|Kadambas]]) whom he defeated in battles.<ref name=":4" /> Nedum Cheral Athan is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean.<ref name=":2" /> Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai.<ref name=":4" /> He also punished and extracted ranson from the Yavanas.<ref name=":2" />

Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle)<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 36-38.</ref>
|-
| III
| Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan
|Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (younger brother of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan)<ref name=":19">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 15-17.</ref>
|Palai
Kauthamanar<ref name=":7" />
|Credited as the conqueror of "Konkar Nadu".<ref name=":19" /> Described as lord of Puzhi Nadu and the Cheruppu and Aiyirai Mountains.<ref name=":19" />

Headquarters was located on the mouth river Periyar.<ref name=":19" />
|-
|IV
| Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral
|Son of Imayavaramban.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 17-21.</ref>
|Kappiyattukku Kappiyanar<ref name=":72">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
|Narmudi Cheral led an expedition against Nedumidal Anji (identified with the Adigaiman/[[Athiyamān|Satyaputra]] of Tagadur). Initially the Chera was defeated by Nannan of Ezhimala in the battle of Pazhi, later defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Vakai Perum Turai.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Menon|1967}} Performed his coronation using holy water from both the western and eastern oceans (brought by a relay of elephants).<ref name=":2" /> Also known as "Vanavaramban".<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 17-21.</ref>
|-
| V
|[[Senguttuvan|Kadal Pirakottiya Chenguttuvan]]
|Son of Nedum Cheral Athan
|Paranar<ref name=":72" />
|Chenguttuvan is identified with "Kadal Pirakottiya" Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan. Chenguttuvan was a son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 21-23.</ref>

Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief).{{sfn|Menon|1967}}{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}

In the early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative [[Nalankilli|Nalam Killi]] on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which the Kadamba warriors took shelter was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 21-23.</ref>).<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46862/From-150-bce-to-300-ce?anchor=ref485312|title=India – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=Britannica.com|accessdate=29 August 2012}}</ref>

According to ''[[Silappatikaram|Chilapathikaram]],'' Chenguttuvan lead his army to north India to get the sacred stone from the Himalayas to sculpt the idol of godess Pattini.<ref name=":2" />
|-
| VI
| Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan<ref name=Aiyar27-32>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 27-32.</ref>
|Successor of Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}(son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan and brother of Narmudi Cheral)<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />
|Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar (poetess)<ref name=":72" />
|Probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola [[Karikala]] at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, Uthiyan Cheral was wounded on the back by [[Karikala]]. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<ref name=":2" />'''<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />'''

Controlled the port of Naravu.<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />
|-
|VII
|Selva Kadumko Valia Athan
|Son of Anthuvan Cheral<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref>
|Kapilar<ref name=":72" />
|Selvakadumko Valia Athan controlled Pandar and Kodumanam (Kodumanal).<ref name=":2" />
He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the [[Pandya]]s and the [[Chola]]s.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref><ref name="Smile40">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 40, 52–53.</ref>{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}} Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-41.</ref>

Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref>

He is sometimes identified as the Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur (c. 2nd century CE).{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}<ref name="Smile40" />
|-
|VIII
|[[Perum Cheral Irumporai|Tagadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai]]<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 41-43.</ref>
|
|Arichil Kizhar<ref name=":72" />
|"Tagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur Adigaman Ezhni at [[Dharmapuri|Tagadur]]. He is also called "the lord of Puzhinadu and "the lord of Kollimalai" and "the lord of [Poom]Puhar". Puhar was the Chola headquarters. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor Idayar chief called Kazhuval (Kazhuvul).{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=71}}Addressed as "Kodai Marba". Father of Illam Cheral Irumporai.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 41-43.</ref>
|-
|IX
|"Kudakko" Illam Cheral Irumporai<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 44-45.</ref>
|
|Perunkundur Kizhar<ref name=":73">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
|Illam Cheral Irumporai defeated Perum Chola, Ilam Pazhaiyan Maran and Vicchi, and destroyed "five forts". Lord of Tondi, "Kongar Nadu", "Kuttuvar Nadu", and "Puzhi Nadu".<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 44-45.</ref>
Described as the descendant of [[Nedum Cheralathan|Nedum Cheral Athan]].<ref name=":4" />
|}
The following Cheras are knowns from ''[[Purananuru]]'' collection (some of the names are re-duplications)''.''<ref name=":1" />
{{colbegin}}
* Karuvur Eriya Ol-val Ko Perum Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" /> - Ruled of Karuvur. Praised by Nariveruttalaiyar.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 34-36.</ref>
* Kadungo Valia Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Palai Padiya Perum Kadumko<ref name=":1" />
* Antuvan Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" /> - father of Selva Kadumko Valia Athan (VII decad). Contemporary to Chola Mudittalai Ko Perunar Killi (whose elephant famously wandered to Karuvur).<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 36-38.</ref>
* [[Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai|"Yanaikatchai" Mantaram Cheral Irumporai]] ruled from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai on the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle at Vilamkil. The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian (early 3rd century CE<ref name=":6">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref485313|title=India - The Shunga kingdom|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref>) captured Mantaran Cheral as a prisoner. However, he managed to escape and regain the lost territories.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=72}}<ref name=":1" />
* Ko Kodai Marban<ref name=":1" />
* Takadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" />
* [[Kuttuvan Kodai]]<ref name=":1" />
* Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Perum Cheral Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Kanaikkal Irumporai is said to have defeated a chief called Muvan and imprisoned him. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of the prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Thondi. Upon capture by the Chola ruler [[Kocengannan|Sengannan]], Kanaikkal committed suicide by starvation.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=72}}
* Kudakko Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" />
* Kottambalattu Tunchiya Makkodai<ref name=":1" /> - probably identical with Kottambalattu Tunchiya Cheraman in [[Agananuru|''Akananuru'' (168)]].<ref name=":18" />
* Vanchan<ref name=":1" />
* Kadalottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan<ref name=":1" />
* Man Venko<ref name=":1" /> - a friend of the Pandya Ugra Peruvaluti and the Chola Rajasuyam Vetta Perunar Killi.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 60-61.</ref>
{{colend}}

== Cheras in the medieval period ==
{{Main|Kongu Chera dynasty}}
[[File:Kalabhras territories.png|thumb|An approximate extent of Kalabhra supremacy in southern India. |270x270px|alt=]]
After the end of the early historical period in south India, c. 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}} Little is known for certain about the Cheras during this period.<ref name=":14">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80–81, 88–93.</ref>

Cheras of Kongu country ([[Karur]]) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central [[Kerala]].<ref name=":110">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule).<ref name=":111">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre-[[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] (early historic) south India.<ref name=":110" />

* An inscription of [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadamba]] king Vishnu Varma, dated 5th or 6th century, can be found at Edakkal cave in [[Wayanad]].<ref name=":123">Fawcett, F. 1901. Notes on the Rock Carvings in the Edakal Caves, Wynaad. ''The Indian Antiquary'' vol. XXX, pp. 409-421.</ref><ref name=":103">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref> An early historic Chera graffiti containing the phrase "Kadummi Putra Chera" was also discovered from the cave.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/edakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription/article2872568.ece|title=Edakal cave yields one more Tamil-Brahmi inscription|date=9 February 2012|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-11-19|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
*Tradition tells that the [[Kalabhra dynasty|Kalabhra]] (Kalvar<ref name=":6" />) rulers kept the Chera, [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] and [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] rulers in their confinement.<ref name=":14" />
* The earliest [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]] king to claim overlorship over Chera/Kerala is [[Kirttivarman I]] (''fl.'' 566 - 598 AD) (this claim is generally considered as a "boastfull exaggeration" by historians). A later grant (695 AD) of king [[Vinayaditya of Vatapi|Vinayaditya II Satyasraya]], with reference to the vassalage of the Kerala country, is now reckoned as a more dependable record.<ref name=":106">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref> Several Chalukya records of the 7th and 8th centuries speak of the conquest and vassalage of the Kerala country.<ref name=":106" />
* A number of [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] records also mention the vassalage of the Kerala country.<ref name=":104">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref>
*[[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta]] inscriptions mention "an alliance of Dravida kings including Kerala, Pandya, Chola and Pallava who were defeated" (''E. I.'', XVIII). The Keralas mentioned there might be the Kongu Cheras who had already submitted to the Pandyas (and not [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumals]] of Kerala).<ref name=":36">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95.</ref>

=== Pandya conquests in Chera country ===
[[File:South_India_in_12th_century_AD.jpg|thumb|338x338px|Chera Perumal Kingdom with the [[Chola dynasty|Chola Empire]] on the east.]]There are clear attestations of repeated [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] conquests of the Kerala or Chea country in the 7th and 8th centuries AD.<ref name=":105">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref>
| flag = File:Flag_of_Chera_dynasty.svg
* Pandya king Sendan/Jayantan (''fl.'' 645 – 70 AD) was known as the Vanavan, an ancient name for the Chera king.<ref name=":105" /> Arikesari Maravarman (670 – 710 AD), another Pandya ruler, probably defeated the Keralas/Cheras on several occasions.<ref name=":105" /><ref name=":28">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref> His successor Ko Chadayan Ranadhira also made gains against the Cheras.<ref name=":20">Dalziel, N.R. (2016). Pandyan Empire. In ''The Encyclopedia of Empire'' (eds N. Dalziel and J.M. MacKenzie). doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe416 </ref>

* The so-called "renewal of the capital city of Vanchi ([[Karur]]) along with Kudal ([[Madurai]]) and Kozhi ([[Uraiyur]])", described in the Madras Museum Plates of the Pandya king Rajasimha I (730 – 65 AD), may suggest a Pandya occupation of the Kongu Chera capital Karur.<ref name=":32">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95.</ref>
*It is known that when Pandya king Jatila Parantaka (765 – 815 AD) went to war against the Adigaman of Tagadur ([[Dharmapuri]]), the Keralas and the Pallavas went to the aid of the latter though "the Pandyas drove them back to the quarters from which they had emerged" (Madras Museum Plates).<ref name=":32" /><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95 and 107.</ref> Perhaps the Chera branch from present-day Kerala had crossed the [[Western Ghats|Ghat Mountains]] to offer support to the Adigaman and after defeat they were pursued up to the [[Palakkad Gap|Palghat Gap]] by the Pandya forces.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95 and 107.</ref>
*Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera/Kerala kingdom (around 8th-9th century AD) to form the Chera/Perumal kingdom.<ref name=":12">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref>
*The Pandyas are known to have made a defensive alliance with the Cheras of Kongu country (who were under their influence) in this period.<ref name=":20" /> Pandya king Parantaka Vira Narayana (c. 880 – 900 AD) is known to have married a Kerala (Kongu Chera) princess "Vanavan Maha Devi".<ref name=":42">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 95-96 and 108.</ref> The son of this alliance, Rajasimha, described as a member of Chandra-Aditya Kula (Sinnamanur copper plates), was "destroyed by the Chola king Parantaka".<ref name=":42" /> It was initially assumed by [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] and [[Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai|E. P. N. K. Pillai]] that the Vira Narayana had married a Chera Perumal princess of Kerala.<ref name=":42" />

=== Chola conquests of Chera country ===

*The Kongu country was conquered by the Cholas (either by Srikantha or [[Aditya I|Aditya I Chola]]) in the last years of the 9th century AD (this campaign probably involved battles between Aditya I and Parantaka Vira Narayana). The Pandyas were eventually defeated in the "great battle" of Sripurambiyam (c. 885).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 97.</ref>
*The Pandyas were defeated by Chola king [[Parantaka I|Parantaka]] in 910 AD (the fate of the Kongu Chera country, then ruled by Kongu Cheras, upon the fall of Madurai is not known).<ref name=":55">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 98-99 and 111.</ref> Pandya king Rajasimha II, who was defeated by Parantaka Chola, is known to have found asylum in Kerala or Chera country (c. 920 AD).<ref name=":55" /> Chola king Sundara (c. 956 – c. 973 AD) had a Chera or Kerala princess among his queens.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 100-01.</ref>
*Kongu Chera country (and the Chera Perumal kingdom) was subsequently conquered by the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]].<ref name=":29">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref>
**Amara Bhujanga Deva, one of the princes defeated by Chola king [[Rajaraja]] (Tiruvalangadu Grant), was probably a Pandya or a Kongu Chera prince.<ref name=":62">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 116-117 and 136.</ref>
**Chola king [[Rajadhiraja]] is known for defeating certain Vira Kerala, one of the so-called "thennavar muvar", and trampling him to death by his war elephant.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 121-122.</ref> This royal was probably a Kongu-Chera of Chandra-Aditya Kula or a [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] prince (son of a Pandya and a Kongu Chera princess).<ref name=":022">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 304-05 and 322-23.</ref> Vira Kerala was previously considered as a Chera Perumal king ([[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] and [[Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai|E. P. N. K. Pillai]]).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 84-85.</ref>

=== Chera Perumals of Kerala ===
{{Main|Chera/Perumals of Makotai}}
[[File:Depiction of "Cherman Perumal" Nayanar (Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Depiction of Cherman Perumal Nayanar - Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|291x291px]]

While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in [[Tamil Nadu]] emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in [[Kerala]] took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE.<ref name=":22" /> Scholars tend to identify Nayanar saint [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar|Cherman Perumal]] (literally "the Chera king") and Alvar saint [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara]] with some of the earliest Perumals.<ref name="Noburu Karashmia 2014">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref>

The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure.<ref name=":14" />

The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East.<ref name=":26">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 364-65.</ref><ref name=":02">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 331-32.</ref> The port of [[Kollam]], in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia.<ref>Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 382-83.</ref> Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in the structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a [[Nair]] military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century.<ref name=":17">Ganesh, K. N. "Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala". ''Indian Historical Review'', vol. 36, no. 1, June 2009, pp. 3–21.</ref> [[Brahmin|Nambudiri-Brahmin]] settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom.<ref name=":02" /><ref>Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 379-80.</ref>
{{cquote
| quote = "A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."
| author = Romila Thapar
| source = [https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46892]
| align = center
| width = 75%
}}
The Chea Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] and the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]].<ref name=":27">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 364-65.</ref> The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in early 11th century AD (in order to break the monpoly of trade with the Middle East).<ref name=":27" /> <ref name=":53">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref> When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent.<ref name=":17" />

==Government==
The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from the ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in a linear or in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=75}}

The extent of political formation in pre-Pallava<ref name=":74" /> south India (before c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) was a matter of considerable debate among historians.<ref name=":7" /> Although earlier scholars visualised early historic south Indian polities as full-fledged kingdoms, some of the recent studies rule out the possibility of state formation.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":222"/>{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=77}} According to historian Rajan Gurukkal, ancient south India was a combination of several "unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies of chiefdoms". These polities were structured by the dominance of "agro-pastoral means of subsistence and predatory politics".<ref name=":11" /> Kesavan Veluthat, another prominent historian of south India, uses the term "chief" and "chiefdom" for the Chera ruler and Chera polity of early historic south India respectively.<ref name=":15" />

Reaching conclusions based on the early Tamil poems and archaeological evidences is another topic of disagreement.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=67}}{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=75–76}} It is assumed that the institution of sabha in south Indian villages, for local administration, was first surfaced during the early historic period.<ref name=":6" />

==Economy==
The early Chera economy can be described as a predominantly "pastoral-cum-agrarian" based system. The emphasis on agriculture increased with time, and provided the base for larger economic change.<ref name=":6" /> The early historic south India (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) can be described as a "semi-tribal political economy". In a 2013 paper, historian Rajan Gurukkal describes ancient south India as a collection of "unevenly evolved and kinship-based redistributive economies." ''<ref name=":222"/>''

===Spice trade===
[[File:Silk route.jpg|thumb|309x309px| [[Silk Road]] (Red) and Spice Routes (Blues)|alt=]]

Exchange relations with the merchants from Graeco-Roman world, the "[[Yavanas]]", and with north India provided considerable economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom. Indian Ocean exchange was the major economic activity.<ref name=":6" /> There is some difference of opinion with regard to the nature of the "spice trade" in ancient Chera country. It is disputed whether this "trade" with the Mediterranean world was managed on equal terms by the Tamil merchants, in view of the existence of apparently unequal political institutions in south India.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Trade guilds of south India up to the tenth century|journal=Studies in People's History|volume=2|pages=21–26|language=en|doi=10.1177/2348448915574403|year = 2015|last1 = Subbarayalu|first1 = Y.|s2cid=133144002}}</ref> Some of the more recent studies point out that the "trade" was an exchange of "serious imbalance", because of its being between the [[Roman Empire]] and South India with uneven chiefdoms.<ref name=":222"/>

The geographical advantages, like the favourable Monsoon winds which carried ships directly from the Arabia to south India as well as the abundance of exotic spices in the interior Ghat mountains (and the presence of a large number of rivers connecting the Ghats with the Arabian Sea) combined to make the Cheras a major power in ancient southern India.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":222"/>

Spice exchange with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators can be traced back to before the Common Era and was substantially consolidated in the early years of the Common Era.<ref name=":222"/><ref name="Muziris1">[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/artefacts-from-the-lost-port-of-muziris/article6657446.ece "Artefacts from the lost Port of Muziris."] The Hindu. 3 December 2014.</ref><ref name="Pattanam">[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/pattanam-richest-indoroman-site-on-indian-ocean-rim/article274715.ece "Pattanam richest Indo-Roman site on Indian Ocean rim."] The Hindu. 3 May 2009.</ref> In the first century CE, the Romans conquered Egypt, which probably helped them to establish dominance in the Indian Ocean spice trade. The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by [[Pliny the Elder]] in the 1st century CE, in ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' of the 1st century CE, and by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century CE.{{sfn|Caldwell|1998|p=92}} The ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' portrays the "trade" in the territory of ''Keprobotras'' in detail. [[Muziris]] was the most important centre in the Malabar Coast, which according to the ''Periplus'', "abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks". Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were "exported" from the Chera country to the Middle East and Mediterranean kingdoms.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=105–}}

It is known that the Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange for [[black pepper]].<ref name=":222"/><ref>http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th&</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=62 | title=History of Ancient Kerala |publisher=Government of india | accessdate=6 October 2012}}{{dead link|date=July 2015}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Raoul McLaughlin, Rome and the distant East: trade routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and China Continuum International Publishing Group, 6 July 2010</ref> This is testified by the Roman coin hoards that have been found in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. [[Pliny the Elder]], in the 1st century CE, laments the drain of Roman gold into India and China for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. The spice trade across the Indian Ocean dwindled with the decline of the Roman empire in the 3rd - 4th centuries CE.<ref name=":222"/> With the exit of the Mediterranean from the spice trade, their space was picked up by the Chinese and Arab navigators.<ref name=":22" />

===Wootz steel===
The famous [[Damascus steel|damascus blades]] relied on the unique properties of the [[Wootz steel|wootz crucible steel]] from medieval south India and Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art|last=Ward|first=Gerald W. R.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19531-391-8|location=Oxford|page=380}}</ref> There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high carbon Indian steel. The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BC, at production sites of [[Kodumanal]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Golconda]] in [[Telangana]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Sri Lanka]] and exported globally; the [[Chera Dynasty]] producing what was termed ''the finest steel in the world'', i.e. Seric Iron to the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese and Arabs by 500 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Sharada |last=Srinivasan |date=15 November 1994 |title=Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India |journal=Papers from the Institute of Archaeology |volume=5 |pages=49–59 |doi=10.5334/pia.60|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Herbert Henery |last=Coghlan |year=1977 |title=Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World |pages=99–100 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Pitt Rivers Museum]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=B. |last=Sasisekharan |year=1999 |url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |title=Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=34 |number=4 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724033115/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |archivedate=24 July 2015}}</ref> The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz".<ref name="Davidson20">{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Hilda Roderick Ellis |title=The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nY0T9n4zAQAC&pg=PA20 |date=1998 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd |isbn=978-0-85115-716-0 |page=20}}</ref> Wootz steel in India had high amount of carbon in it.

The method was to heat black [[magnetite]] ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give [[wrought iron]], then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as [[Senna auriculata|Avārai]].<ref name="Davidson20"/><ref name="Burton111">{{cite book |last=Burton |first=Sir Richard Francis |authorlink=Richard Francis Burton |title=The Book of the Sword |year=1884 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |location=London |page=111 |url=https://archive.org/stream/booksword00unkngoog#page/n152/mode/2up}}</ref> The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras by the 5th century BC.<ref name="Needham282">{{cite book |title=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology |date=1 April 1971 |first=Joseph |last=Needham |authorlink=Joseph Needham |page=282 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-52107-060-7}}</ref><ref name="Manning365">{{cite book |last=Manning |first=Charlotte Speir |title=Ancient and Medieval India |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365 |isbn=978-0-543-92943-3 |page=365}}</ref> In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as [[Anuradhapura]], [[Tissamaharama]] and [[Samanalawewa]], as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A [[Tissamaharama Tamil Brahmi inscription|200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama]], in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the [[classical antiquity|classical period]].<ref>''Hobbies'' (April 1963) Vol. 68, No.5, p.45, Chicago: Lightner Publishing Company.</ref><ref name="Mahathevan">{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/An-epigraphic-perspective-on-the-antiquity-of-Tamil/article16265606.ece |title=An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil |last=Mahathevan |first=Iravatham |date=24 June 2010 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |publisher=The Hindu Group |accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref name="Ragupathy">{{cite news |url=http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=32303 |title=Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population |last=Ragupathy |first=P. |date=28 June 2010 |work=Tamilnet |accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.archaeology.lk/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Dinithi-Volume-1-Issue-4.pdf |date=February 2012 |title=Dinithi |volume=1 |issue=4 |journal=Sri Lanka Archaeology }}{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Society and culture==
=== Early Cheras ===
In general, early Tamil texts reflect the Dravidian cultural tradition. It is logical to conclude that most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian religions.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} Religious practice might have consisted predominantly of conducting sacrifices to various gods, such as to the pre-eminent god [[Murugan]].<ref name=":6" /> The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera territory, along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worship. The war goddess Kottravai was propitiated with elaborate offerings of meat and [[Palm toddy|toddy]]. It is theorised that [[Kottravai]] was assimilated into the present-day form of the goddess [[Durga]].{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} It is thought that the first wave of Brahmin migration came to the Chera territory around the 3rd century BCE with or behind the Jain and Buddhist missionaries. It was only in the 8th century CE that the Aryanisation of the old Chera country reached its organised form.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=89}} Though the vast majority of the population followed native Dravidian practices, a small percentage of the population, mainly migrants, followed [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Brahmanism]].{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} Populations of [[Jews]] and [[Saint Thomas Christians|Christians]] were also known to have lived in Kerala.<ref name="Orpa Slapak">[https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UNa1VM-AFc_kuQSLiYLIAQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=two%20millennia&f=false ''The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities''] by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. {{ISBN|965-278-179-7}}.</ref><ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5ncVJiVJ4u4uATrlIGoAg&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Muziris&f=false ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5''] by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – 2008. p. 285. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2417-2}}.</ref><ref name="Shattan">Manimekalai, by Merchant Prince Shattan, Gatha 27</ref>

Early Tamil texts do make a number of references to social stratification, as expressed by use of the word ''kudi'' ("group") to denote "caste".<ref name=":6" /> A striking feature of the social life of the early historic period (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) is the high status accorded to women.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=78}} {{sfn|Menon|2007|p=77}}

Agriculture and pastoralism were the primary occupations of the people. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the early Tamil texts. Poets and musicians were held in high regard in society. Early Tamil texts are full of references about the lavish patronage extended to court poets. There were professional poets and poetesses who composed texts praising their patrons and were generously rewarded for this.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=79–80}}

== See also ==
* [[Chola dynasty]]
* [[Pandya dynasty]]
* [[Pallava dynasty]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===

* {{cite book|last1=Menon|first1=A. Sreedhara|authorlink1=A. Sreedhara Menon|title=A survey of Kerala history|date=2007|publisher=D C Books|location=Kerala, India|isbn=978-8126415786|edition=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last1=Menon | first1=A. Sreedhara | authorlink= A. Sreedhara Menon | title=A Survey of Kerala History | date=1967 | publisher=Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7WaZe2PBy8C | language=en | oclc=555508146 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last1=Kulke | first1=Hermann | last2=Rothermund | first2=Dietmar|authorlink1=Hermann Kulke | authorlink2=Dietmar Rothermund | title=A History of India | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC&pg=PA105 | edition=Fourth | publisher=Routledge | year=2004 | isbn=9780415329200 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Thapar|first1=Romila|title=Early India : from the origins to AD 1300|date=2004|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley [u.a.]|isbn=9780520242258|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last1=Karashima | first1=Noboru | authorlink1=Noboru Karashima | title=A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations | date=2014 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=9780198099772 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdVoAEACAAJ | language=en | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Tamil Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA39|year=1975|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-04190-5 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Zvelebil|first= Kamil|title=The smile of Murugan: On Tamil literature of south India|year=1973 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers

|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VF2VMUoY_okC&q=gajabahu+synchronism&pg=PA38 |isbn= 978-90-04-03591-1 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|author=Robert Caldwell|title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&pg=PA92|year=1998|orig-year=1913|edition=3rd|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0117-8 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fischel|first1=Walter J.|title=The Exploration of the Jewish Antiquities of Cochin on the Malabar Coast|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=1967|volume=87|issue=3|pages=230–248|doi=10.2307/597717|jstor=597717|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Narayanan|first1=M.G.S.|authorlink1=M. G. S. Narayanan|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala : Brahmin oligarchy and ritual monarchy : political and social conditions of Kerala under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800-AD 1124)|date=2013|publisher=CosmoBooks|location=Thrissur|isbn=9788188765072|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ|ref=harv}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Chera Dynasty}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060718060412/http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.html ''Tamil Coins'', R. Nagasamy]

{{Chera dynasty topics}}
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}

[[Category:Chera dynasty]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:Hindu dynasties]]
[[Category:Kingdoms of Kerala]]
[[Category:Tamil monarchs]]
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of India]]
[[Category:History of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 3rd century BC]]
[[Category:Tamil history]]
[[Category:History of Kerala]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 12th century]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC establishments in India]]
[[Category:12th-century disestablishments in India]]

Chera dynasty

2020-12-18T02:24:23Z

175.141.124.220:

{{redirect-multi|2|Chera|Cheras}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name =
|image_map = Chera country (early historic south India).jpg
|image_map_caption = Chera country in early historic south India
|conventional_long_name = Chera
|common_name = Chera
|status =
|flag = File:Flag_of_Chera_dynasty.svg
|year_end =
|official_languages = {{plainlist|
* [[Tamil language|Tamil]], <ref>{{cite book |author=David Shulman |author-link=David Dean Shulman |title=Tamil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fG8NDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 |year=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-97465-4 |page=150 |quote=One thing, however, is certain: the Cholas were happy to use Tamil as an official state language, along with Sanskrit...}}</ref>
}}
|capital = '''Early Cheras'''
* [[Karur|Vanchi Karuvur (Karur)]]
* Muchiri (Muziris)
* Thondi (Tyndis)

'''[[Kongu Chera dynasty|Kongu Cheras]]'''
* [[Karur|Vanchi Karur (Karur)]]

'''[[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera/Perumals of Makotai (formerly Kulasekharas)]]'''
* [[Kodungallur|Kodungallur (Makotai/Vanchi)]]

'''Venadu Cheras (Kulasekharas)'''
* [[Kollam]]

|s1 =
|s2 =
|s3 =
|today = [[India]]
|religion = [[Hinduism]]
|demonym=|area_km2=|area_rank=|GDP_PPP=|GDP_PPP_year=|HDI=|HDI_year=}}
{{Chera Dynasty}}The '''Chera dynasty''' ([[ISO 15919|or]] '''Cēra''') was one of the principal lineages in the early history of the present day states of [[Kerala]] and some parts of [[Tamil Nadu]] in southern India.<ref name=":222">{{Cite journal|date=5 June 2015|title=Classical Indo-Roman Trade|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html?0=ip_login_no_cache=3b49b785309ca821ff5e0a285f43e078|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|volume=48|issue=26–27}}</ref> Together with the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas of Uraiyur]] and the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas of Madurai]], the early Cheras were known as one of the [[Three Crowned Kings|three major powers (muventar)]] of ancient [[Tamilakam]] (a macro region in south India<ref name=":222" />) in the early centuries of the Common Era.<ref name=":22">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 143-145.</ref><ref name=":7">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>

The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks. Exchange of spices, especially black pepper, with [[Middle East]]ern and [[Classical antiquity|Graeco-Roman]] merchants are attested in several sources.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46884|title=India - The Shunga kingdom|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-12-01|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":16">[https://books.google.com/books?id=eONSAAAAcAAJ&q=Muziris#v=snippet&q=Muziris&f=false Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia.] Ed. by Edward Balfour (1871), Second Edition. Volume 2. p. 584.</ref><ref name=":222"/> The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE - c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) are known to have had their original centre at [[Karur]] in interior [[Tamil Nadu]] and harbours at [[Muziris|Muchiri (Muziris)]] and [[Tyndis|Thondi (Tyndis)]] on the Indian Ocean coast ([[Kerala]]).<ref name=":11" />

The early historic pre-Pallava<ref name=":74">Gurukkal, Rajan. "DID STATE EXIST IN THE PRE-PALLAVAN TAMIL REGION". ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 63, 2002, pp. 138–150.</ref> Tamil polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics".<ref name=":222" /> [[Tamil-Brahmi|Tamil Brahmi]] cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of [[Perumkadungo|Perum Kadungo]], and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Veluthat|first=Kesavan|date=1 June 2018|title=History and historiography in constituting a region: The case of Kerala|journal=Studies in People's History|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=13–31|doi=10.1177/2348448918759852|issn=2348-4489|doi-access=free}}</ref> Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names.<ref name=":10" /> Reverse of these coins often contained the Chera bow and arrow symbol.<ref name=":10" /> The anthologies of [[Sangam literature|early Tamil texts]] are a major source of information about the early Cheras. <ref name=":7" /> [[Senguttuvan|Chenguttuvan, or the Good Chera]], is famous for the traditions surrounding [[Kannagi|Kannaki]], the principal female character of the Tamil epic poem ''[[Silapathikaram|Chilapathikaram]]''.<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46862/From-150-bce-to-300-ce?anchor=ref485312|title=India – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=Britannica.com|accessdate=29 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=PERUMALS+OF+KERALA|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy : Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124)|date=2013|isbn=9788188765072|language=en}}</ref> After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}

[[Kongu Chera dynasty|Cheras or Keralas of the Kongu country]] are known to have controlled western [[Tamil Nadu]] and central [[Kerala]] in early medieval period.<ref name=":112">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera kingdom around 8th-9th century AD to form the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal kingdom]] (c. 9th- 12th century AD).<ref name=":122">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers is somewhat unclear.<ref name=":113">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref> Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola - seems to have conquered the Chera or Kerala country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century AD. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas".{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}

The rulers of [[Venad]] (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of [[Kollam]] in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=368}} In the modern period the rulers of [[Kochi|Cochin]] and [[Thiruvananthapuram|Travancore]] (in Kerala) also claimed the title "Chera".{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=81}}

== Etymology ==
The term Chera - and its variant form "Keralaputas" - stands for the ruling lineage and the country associated with them.<ref name=":15" />

The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from ''Cheral'', a corruption of ''Charal'' meaning "declivity of a mountain" in Tamil, suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of Kerala.{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}} Another theory argues that the "Cheralam<nowiki>''</nowiki> is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land".{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}} Apart from the speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies.{{efn|1=According to Menon, this etymology of "added" or "reclaimed" land also complements the [[Parashurama]] myth about the formation of Kerala. In it, Parashurama, one of the avatars of [[Vishnu]], flung his axe across the sea from [[Gokarnam]] towards [[Kanyakumari]] (or vice versa) and the water receded up to the spot where it landed, thus creating Kerala.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=20,21}}}}{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}}

In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as ''Kedalaputo'' (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Pali edicts (3rd century BCE).<ref name=":3">Keay, John (2000) [2001]. India: A history. India: Grove Press. {{ISBN|0-8021-3797-0}}.</ref> While [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] refer to the Cheras as ''Kaelobotros'' and ''Kerobottros'' respectively, the Graeco-Roman trade map ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' refers to the Cheras as ''Keprobotras''. All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with northern India.<ref name=":0" /> {{sfn|Caldwell|1998|p=92}}

The term ''Cheralamdivu'' or ''Cheran Tivu'' and its cognates, meaning the "island of the Chera kings", is a Classical Tamil [[Names of Sri Lanka|name of Sri Lanka]] that takes root from the term "Chera".<ref>M. Ramachandran, Irāman̲ Mativāṇan̲(1991). ''The spring of the Indus civilisation''. Prasanna Pathippagam, pp. 34. "Srilanka was known as "Cerantivu' (island of the Cera kings) in those days. The seal has two lines. The line above contains three signs in Indus script and the line below contains three alphabets in the ancient Tamil script known as Tamil ...</ref>

== Cheras of ancient south India ==
Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that the three major rulers – the [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]], the Chera and the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] – based originally in the interior [[Tamil Nadu]], at [[Madurai]], [[Karur|Karur (Karuvur)-Vanchi]], and [[Uraiyur]] respectively, had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely [[Korkai]], Muchiri (Muziris), and Kaveri Poompattinam respectively.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|date=5 June 2015|title=Classical Indo-Roman Trade|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|volume=48|issue=26–27}}</ref> Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava<ref name=":74" />) consisted of the present day central Kerala and western Tamil Nadu.<ref name=":15" /> The political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources".<ref name=":222"/> There was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu).<ref name=":2">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 50-51.</ref>

The Cheras are referred to as ''Kedalaputo'' (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Pali edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII).<ref name=":3" /> The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by [[Pliny the Elder]] in the 1st century CE, in the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|''Periplus'']] of the 1st century CE, and by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century CE. {{sfn|Menon|2007|p=33}}<ref name=":5">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cera-dynasty|title=Cera dynasty {{!}} India|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref>

A number of Sanskrit works do mention the family and/or land of the Cheras/Keralas. There are also brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator [[Katyayana]] (c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher [[Patanjali]] (c. 2nd century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher [[Kautilya|Kautilya (Chanakya)]] ({{circa|3rd - 4th century BCE}}) [though Sanskrit grammarian [[Pāṇini|Panini]] (c. 6th - 5th century BCE) does not mention either the people or the land].{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=26–29}}

=== Archaeological discoveries ===
[[File:Chera Inscription from Pugalur, near Karur.jpg|left|thumb|[[Tamil Brahmi]] inscription from Pugalur, near Karur]]
[[File:Chera coin (ancient south India) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|A Chera coin with legend "Makkotai"|147x147px]]
[[File:Kuttuvankotai-cash.jpg|thumb|left|A Chera coin with legend "[[Kuttuvan Kotai]]"]]
Archaeology has found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras.<ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2013/stories/20030704000207100.htm See report in ''Frontline'', June/July 2003]</ref><ref name=":5" /> Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near [[Karur]]) dated to c. 1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of [[Perumkadungo|Perum Kadungo]], and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai.<ref name=":5" />

{{quote box
| bgcolor = #fffcea
| title = '''Irumporai Cheras from Pugalur inscription'''
| fontsize = 100%
| quote = Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam
*Ko Athan Chel (Cheral) Irumporai
* Perum Kadungon [Irumporai]
* Ilam Kadungo [Irumporai]
| source =
}}

A short Tamil-Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at [[Edakkal Caves|Edakkal]] in the Western Ghats.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/edakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription/article2872568.ece|title=Edakal cave yields one more Tamil-Brahmi inscription|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|date=9 February 2012|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-11-19|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the [[Palakkad Gap|Palghat Gap]] to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2915/stories/20120810291507000.htm|title=Digging up the past|website=www.frontline.in|access-date=2018-11-19}}</ref> Historians are yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at [[Pattanam]] (near [[Kochi|Cochin]]) suggest a strong case of identification with the location.<ref name=":11" /> Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni).<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":13" />

=== Chera coinage ===
A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the [[Amaravati River|Amaravati]] riverbed, are a major source of early Chera historiography.<ref name=":8" /> This includes a number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol38_3_2_BSasisekaran.pdf}}</ref> Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to the Cheras, have been discovered from [[Pattanam]] in central Kerala.<ref name=":10">Majumdar, S. B. "Money Matters: Indigenous and Foreign Coins in the Malabar Coast." ''Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade'', edited by K. S. Mathew, Routledge, 2016.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/2004/04/30/stories/2004043014340300.htm|title= Copper coins of Adi Chera period excavated|newspaper=The Hindu|date=30 April 2004|access-date=2018-11-17|last1=Sudhi|first1=K. S.}}</ref> Bronze dies for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur.<ref name=":10" />

Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend "[[Kuttuvan Kotai]]" above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to c. 1st century CE or a little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank.<ref name=":8" /> The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai",<ref name=":10" /> "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai"<ref name=":10" /> were also discovered from [[Karur]]. The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins.<ref name=":10" /> All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained the bow and arrow symbol.<ref name=":10" /> An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur.<ref name=":10" />

The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin.<ref name=":9" /> A silver coin with the portrait of a person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera family.<ref name=":8">Subramanian, T. S. "Roman connection in Tamil Nadu." ''The Hindu'' 28 January 2007: www.thehindu.com. Web. Accessed 17 November 2018. [https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/Roman-connection-in-Tamil-Nadu/article14712060.ece]</ref>

=== Cheras from early Tamil texts ===
A large body of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] works collectively known as the [[Sangam literature|Sangam (Academy) texts]] (c. 2nd century BCE- 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers.<ref name="Companion12">Kamil Veith Zvelebil, ''Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature'', p.12</ref><ref>K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, ''A History of South India,'' OUP (1955) p.105</ref> Among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu]]'', the ''[[Agananuru|Akananuru]]'', and the ''[[Purananuru]]''.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=26–29}} The ''Pathitrupattu'', the fourth book in the ''[[Ettuthokai]]'' anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family.<ref name=":7" /> Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet.<ref name="Companion12" /> However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far.<ref name="kanaka">{{cite book|title=The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago|last=V.|first=Kanakasabhai|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1997|isbn=978-81-206-0150-5}}</ref><ref name=":1">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 01-05.</ref>

A method known as [[Gajabahu synchronism|Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism]], is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to c. 1st - 2nd century CE.<ref name="kanaka" /> Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=37–39|ps=: The opinion that the Gajabahu Synchronism is an expression of genuine historical tradition is accepted by most scholars today}}<ref name="svp">{{cite book|title=History of Tamil Language and Literature; Beginning to 1000 AD|last=Pillai|first=Vaiyapuri|publisher=New Century Book House|year=1956|location=Madras, India|page=22|quote=We may be reasonably certain that chronological conclusion reached above is historically sound}}</ref>{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|p=38}} [[Ilango Adigal]] author of the legendary Tamil epic poem ''[[Silappatikaram|Chilapathikaram]]'' describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (v''irakkallu'') for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Silappathikaram#ref845622|title=Silappathikaram {{!}} Tamil epic poem by Adikal|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref> A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with [[Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka|Gajabahu]], king of [[Sri Lanka]] (2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}{{sfn|Menon|1967}} In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE.<ref name="britannica.com" />

[[Utiyan Cheralathan|Uthiyan Cheral Athan]] is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from the Tamil texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decad of ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu]]''). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" (''[[Purananuru]])''. His headquarters were at Kuzhumur ([[Agananuru|''Akananuru'']]).<ref name=":18">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 05-10.</ref> He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the [[Kurukshetra War]] (''[[Purananuru]]'' and [[Agananuru|''Akananuru'']]).<ref name=":18" /> He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan (''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu (II)]]).'' .<ref name=":18" />

Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler [[Karikala]]. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<ref name=":18" />

As the name ''Pathitrupattu'' indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting a decad of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered.<ref name=":1" />

{| class="wikitable" style="width: 90%;"
|+
Cheras from [[Patiṟṟuppattu|''Pathitrupattu'']]
|-
! Decad of [[Patiṟṟuppattu|''Pathitrupattu'']]
! Chera
!Relation
!Bard
! colspan="3" |Notes
|-
|II
|[[Nedum Cheralathan|Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan]]
|Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (by Veliyan's daughter Nallini)<ref name=":4">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 10-13.</ref>
|Kannanar<ref name=":7">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
| Nedum Cheral Athan was also known as "Imayavaramban". He is praised for having subdued "seven crowned kings" to achieve the title of ''adhiraja''.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}<ref name=":4" />

Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from [[Kanyakumari|Kumari]] to the [[Himalayas]] (and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}<ref name=":4" />

The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly [[Kadamba Dynasty|Kadambas]]) whom he defeated in battles.<ref name=":4" /> Nedum Cheral Athan is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean.<ref name=":2" /> Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai.<ref name=":4" /> He also punished and extracted ranson from the Yavanas.<ref name=":2" />

Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle)<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 36-38.</ref>
|-
| III
| Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan
|Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (younger brother of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan)<ref name=":19">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 15-17.</ref>
|Palai
Kauthamanar<ref name=":7" />
|Credited as the conqueror of "Konkar Nadu".<ref name=":19" /> Described as lord of Puzhi Nadu and the Cheruppu and Aiyirai Mountains.<ref name=":19" />

Headquarters was located on the mouth river Periyar.<ref name=":19" />
|-
|IV
| Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral
|Son of Imayavaramban.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 17-21.</ref>
|Kappiyattukku Kappiyanar<ref name=":72">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
|Narmudi Cheral led an expedition against Nedumidal Anji (identified with the Adigaiman/[[Athiyamān|Satyaputra]] of Tagadur). Initially the Chera was defeated by Nannan of Ezhimala in the battle of Pazhi, later defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Vakai Perum Turai.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Menon|1967}} Performed his coronation using holy water from both the western and eastern oceans (brought by a relay of elephants).<ref name=":2" /> Also known as "Vanavaramban".<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 17-21.</ref>
|-
| V
|[[Senguttuvan|Kadal Pirakottiya Chenguttuvan]]
|Son of Nedum Cheral Athan
|Paranar<ref name=":72" />
|Chenguttuvan is identified with "Kadal Pirakottiya" Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan. Chenguttuvan was a son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 21-23.</ref>

Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief).{{sfn|Menon|1967}}{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}

In the early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative [[Nalankilli|Nalam Killi]] on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which the Kadamba warriors took shelter was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 21-23.</ref>).<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46862/From-150-bce-to-300-ce?anchor=ref485312|title=India – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=Britannica.com|accessdate=29 August 2012}}</ref>

According to ''[[Silappatikaram|Chilapathikaram]],'' Chenguttuvan lead his army to north India to get the sacred stone from the Himalayas to sculpt the idol of godess Pattini.<ref name=":2" />
|-
| VI
| Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan<ref name=Aiyar27-32>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 27-32.</ref>
|Successor of Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}(son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan and brother of Narmudi Cheral)<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />
|Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar (poetess)<ref name=":72" />
|Probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola [[Karikala]] at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, Uthiyan Cheral was wounded on the back by [[Karikala]]. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<ref name=":2" />'''<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />'''

Controlled the port of Naravu.<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />
|-
|VII
|Selva Kadumko Valia Athan
|Son of Anthuvan Cheral<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref>
|Kapilar<ref name=":72" />
|Selvakadumko Valia Athan controlled Pandar and Kodumanam (Kodumanal).<ref name=":2" />
He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the [[Pandya]]s and the [[Chola]]s.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref><ref name="Smile40">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 40, 52–53.</ref>{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}} Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-41.</ref>

Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref>

He is sometimes identified as the Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur (c. 2nd century CE).{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}<ref name="Smile40" />
|-
|VIII
|[[Perum Cheral Irumporai|Tagadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai]]<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 41-43.</ref>
|
|Arichil Kizhar<ref name=":72" />
|"Tagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur Adigaman Ezhni at [[Dharmapuri|Tagadur]]. He is also called "the lord of Puzhinadu and "the lord of Kollimalai" and "the lord of [Poom]Puhar". Puhar was the Chola headquarters. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor Idayar chief called Kazhuval (Kazhuvul).{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=71}}Addressed as "Kodai Marba". Father of Illam Cheral Irumporai.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 41-43.</ref>
|-
|IX
|"Kudakko" Illam Cheral Irumporai<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 44-45.</ref>
|
|Perunkundur Kizhar<ref name=":73">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
|Illam Cheral Irumporai defeated Perum Chola, Ilam Pazhaiyan Maran and Vicchi, and destroyed "five forts". Lord of Tondi, "Kongar Nadu", "Kuttuvar Nadu", and "Puzhi Nadu".<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 44-45.</ref>
Described as the descendant of [[Nedum Cheralathan|Nedum Cheral Athan]].<ref name=":4" />
|}
The following Cheras are knowns from ''[[Purananuru]]'' collection (some of the names are re-duplications)''.''<ref name=":1" />
{{colbegin}}
* Karuvur Eriya Ol-val Ko Perum Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" /> - Ruled of Karuvur. Praised by Nariveruttalaiyar.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 34-36.</ref>
* Kadungo Valia Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Palai Padiya Perum Kadumko<ref name=":1" />
* Antuvan Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" /> - father of Selva Kadumko Valia Athan (VII decad). Contemporary to Chola Mudittalai Ko Perunar Killi (whose elephant famously wandered to Karuvur).<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 36-38.</ref>
* [[Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai|"Yanaikatchai" Mantaram Cheral Irumporai]] ruled from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai on the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle at Vilamkil. The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian (early 3rd century CE<ref name=":6">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref485313|title=India - The Shunga kingdom|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref>) captured Mantaran Cheral as a prisoner. However, he managed to escape and regain the lost territories.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=72}}<ref name=":1" />
* Ko Kodai Marban<ref name=":1" />
* Takadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" />
* [[Kuttuvan Kodai]]<ref name=":1" />
* Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Perum Cheral Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Kanaikkal Irumporai is said to have defeated a chief called Muvan and imprisoned him. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of the prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Thondi. Upon capture by the Chola ruler [[Kocengannan|Sengannan]], Kanaikkal committed suicide by starvation.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=72}}
* Kudakko Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" />
* Kottambalattu Tunchiya Makkodai<ref name=":1" /> - probably identical with Kottambalattu Tunchiya Cheraman in [[Agananuru|''Akananuru'' (168)]].<ref name=":18" />
* Vanchan<ref name=":1" />
* Kadalottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan<ref name=":1" />
* Man Venko<ref name=":1" /> - a friend of the Pandya Ugra Peruvaluti and the Chola Rajasuyam Vetta Perunar Killi.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 60-61.</ref>
{{colend}}

== Cheras in the medieval period ==
{{Main|Kongu Chera dynasty}}
[[File:Kalabhras territories.png|thumb|An approximate extent of Kalabhra supremacy in southern India. |270x270px|alt=]]
After the end of the early historical period in south India, c. 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}} Little is known for certain about the Cheras during this period.<ref name=":14">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80–81, 88–93.</ref>

Cheras of Kongu country ([[Karur]]) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central [[Kerala]].<ref name=":110">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule).<ref name=":111">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre-[[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] (early historic) south India.<ref name=":110" />

* An inscription of [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadamba]] king Vishnu Varma, dated 5th or 6th century, can be found at Edakkal cave in [[Wayanad]].<ref name=":123">Fawcett, F. 1901. Notes on the Rock Carvings in the Edakal Caves, Wynaad. ''The Indian Antiquary'' vol. XXX, pp. 409-421.</ref><ref name=":103">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref> An early historic Chera graffiti containing the phrase "Kadummi Putra Chera" was also discovered from the cave.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/edakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription/article2872568.ece|title=Edakal cave yields one more Tamil-Brahmi inscription|date=9 February 2012|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-11-19|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
*Tradition tells that the [[Kalabhra dynasty|Kalabhra]] (Kalvar<ref name=":6" />) rulers kept the Chera, [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] and [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] rulers in their confinement.<ref name=":14" />
* The earliest [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]] king to claim overlorship over Chera/Kerala is [[Kirttivarman I]] (''fl.'' 566 - 598 AD) (this claim is generally considered as a "boastfull exaggeration" by historians). A later grant (695 AD) of king [[Vinayaditya of Vatapi|Vinayaditya II Satyasraya]], with reference to the vassalage of the Kerala country, is now reckoned as a more dependable record.<ref name=":106">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref> Several Chalukya records of the 7th and 8th centuries speak of the conquest and vassalage of the Kerala country.<ref name=":106" />
* A number of [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] records also mention the vassalage of the Kerala country.<ref name=":104">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref>
*[[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta]] inscriptions mention "an alliance of Dravida kings including Kerala, Pandya, Chola and Pallava who were defeated" (''E. I.'', XVIII). The Keralas mentioned there might be the Kongu Cheras who had already submitted to the Pandyas (and not [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumals]] of Kerala).<ref name=":36">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95.</ref>

=== Pandya conquests in Chera country ===
[[File:South_India_in_12th_century_AD.jpg|thumb|338x338px|Chera Perumal Kingdom with the [[Chola dynasty|Chola Empire]] on the east.]]There are clear attestations of repeated [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] conquests of the Kerala or Chea country in the 7th and 8th centuries AD.<ref name=":105">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref>
| flag = File:Flag_of_Chera_dynasty.svg
* Pandya king Sendan/Jayantan (''fl.'' 645 – 70 AD) was known as the Vanavan, an ancient name for the Chera king.<ref name=":105" /> Arikesari Maravarman (670 – 710 AD), another Pandya ruler, probably defeated the Keralas/Cheras on several occasions.<ref name=":105" /><ref name=":28">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref> His successor Ko Chadayan Ranadhira also made gains against the Cheras.<ref name=":20">Dalziel, N.R. (2016). Pandyan Empire. In ''The Encyclopedia of Empire'' (eds N. Dalziel and J.M. MacKenzie). doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe416 </ref>

* The so-called "renewal of the capital city of Vanchi ([[Karur]]) along with Kudal ([[Madurai]]) and Kozhi ([[Uraiyur]])", described in the Madras Museum Plates of the Pandya king Rajasimha I (730 – 65 AD), may suggest a Pandya occupation of the Kongu Chera capital Karur.<ref name=":32">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95.</ref>
*It is known that when Pandya king Jatila Parantaka (765 – 815 AD) went to war against the Adigaman of Tagadur ([[Dharmapuri]]), the Keralas and the Pallavas went to the aid of the latter though "the Pandyas drove them back to the quarters from which they had emerged" (Madras Museum Plates).<ref name=":32" /><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95 and 107.</ref> Perhaps the Chera branch from present-day Kerala had crossed the [[Western Ghats|Ghat Mountains]] to offer support to the Adigaman and after defeat they were pursued up to the [[Palakkad Gap|Palghat Gap]] by the Pandya forces.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95 and 107.</ref>
*Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera/Kerala kingdom (around 8th-9th century AD) to form the Chera/Perumal kingdom.<ref name=":12">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref>
*The Pandyas are known to have made a defensive alliance with the Cheras of Kongu country (who were under their influence) in this period.<ref name=":20" /> Pandya king Parantaka Vira Narayana (c. 880 – 900 AD) is known to have married a Kerala (Kongu Chera) princess "Vanavan Maha Devi".<ref name=":42">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 95-96 and 108.</ref> The son of this alliance, Rajasimha, described as a member of Chandra-Aditya Kula (Sinnamanur copper plates), was "destroyed by the Chola king Parantaka".<ref name=":42" /> It was initially assumed by [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] and [[Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai|E. P. N. K. Pillai]] that the Vira Narayana had married a Chera Perumal princess of Kerala.<ref name=":42" />

=== Chola conquests of Chera country ===

*The Kongu country was conquered by the Cholas (either by Srikantha or [[Aditya I|Aditya I Chola]]) in the last years of the 9th century AD (this campaign probably involved battles between Aditya I and Parantaka Vira Narayana). The Pandyas were eventually defeated in the "great battle" of Sripurambiyam (c. 885).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 97.</ref>
*The Pandyas were defeated by Chola king [[Parantaka I|Parantaka]] in 910 AD (the fate of the Kongu Chera country, then ruled by Kongu Cheras, upon the fall of Madurai is not known).<ref name=":55">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 98-99 and 111.</ref> Pandya king Rajasimha II, who was defeated by Parantaka Chola, is known to have found asylum in Kerala or Chera country (c. 920 AD).<ref name=":55" /> Chola king Sundara (c. 956 – c. 973 AD) had a Chera or Kerala princess among his queens.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 100-01.</ref>
*Kongu Chera country (and the Chera Perumal kingdom) was subsequently conquered by the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]].<ref name=":29">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref>
**Amara Bhujanga Deva, one of the princes defeated by Chola king [[Rajaraja]] (Tiruvalangadu Grant), was probably a Pandya or a Kongu Chera prince.<ref name=":62">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 116-117 and 136.</ref>
**Chola king [[Rajadhiraja]] is known for defeating certain Vira Kerala, one of the so-called "thennavar muvar", and trampling him to death by his war elephant.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 121-122.</ref> This royal was probably a Kongu-Chera of Chandra-Aditya Kula or a [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] prince (son of a Pandya and a Kongu Chera princess).<ref name=":022">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 304-05 and 322-23.</ref> Vira Kerala was previously considered as a Chera Perumal king ([[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] and [[Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai|E. P. N. K. Pillai]]).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 84-85.</ref>

=== Chera Perumals of Kerala ===
{{Main|Chera/Perumals of Makotai}}
[[File:Depiction of "Cherman Perumal" Nayanar (Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Depiction of Cherman Perumal Nayanar - Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|291x291px]]

While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in [[Tamil Nadu]] emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in [[Kerala]] took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE.<ref name=":22" /> Scholars tend to identify Nayanar saint [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar|Cherman Perumal]] (literally "the Chera king") and Alvar saint [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara]] with some of the earliest Perumals.<ref name="Noburu Karashmia 2014">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref>

The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure.<ref name=":14" />

The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East.<ref name=":26">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 364-65.</ref><ref name=":02">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 331-32.</ref> The port of [[Kollam]], in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia.<ref>Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 382-83.</ref> Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in the structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a [[Nair]] military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century.<ref name=":17">Ganesh, K. N. "Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala". ''Indian Historical Review'', vol. 36, no. 1, June 2009, pp. 3–21.</ref> [[Brahmin|Nambudiri-Brahmin]] settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom.<ref name=":02" /><ref>Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 379-80.</ref>
{{cquote
| quote = "A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."
| author = Romila Thapar
| source = [https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46892]
| align = center
| width = 75%
}}
The Chea Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] and the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]].<ref name=":27">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 364-65.</ref> The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in early 11th century AD (in order to break the monpoly of trade with the Middle East).<ref name=":27" /> <ref name=":53">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref> When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent.<ref name=":17" />

==Government==
The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from the ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in a linear or in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=75}}

The extent of political formation in pre-Pallava<ref name=":74" /> south India (before c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) was a matter of considerable debate among historians.<ref name=":7" /> Although earlier scholars visualised early historic south Indian polities as full-fledged kingdoms, some of the recent studies rule out the possibility of state formation.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":222"/>{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=77}} According to historian Rajan Gurukkal, ancient south India was a combination of several "unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies of chiefdoms". These polities were structured by the dominance of "agro-pastoral means of subsistence and predatory politics".<ref name=":11" /> Kesavan Veluthat, another prominent historian of south India, uses the term "chief" and "chiefdom" for the Chera ruler and Chera polity of early historic south India respectively.<ref name=":15" />

Reaching conclusions based on the early Tamil poems and archaeological evidences is another topic of disagreement.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=67}}{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=75–76}} It is assumed that the institution of sabha in south Indian villages, for local administration, was first surfaced during the early historic period.<ref name=":6" />

==Economy==
The early Chera economy can be described as a predominantly "pastoral-cum-agrarian" based system. The emphasis on agriculture increased with time, and provided the base for larger economic change.<ref name=":6" /> The early historic south India (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) can be described as a "semi-tribal political economy". In a 2013 paper, historian Rajan Gurukkal describes ancient south India as a collection of "unevenly evolved and kinship-based redistributive economies." ''<ref name=":222"/>''

===Spice trade===
[[File:Silk route.jpg|thumb|309x309px| [[Silk Road]] (Red) and Spice Routes (Blues)|alt=]]

Exchange relations with the merchants from Graeco-Roman world, the "[[Yavanas]]", and with north India provided considerable economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom. Indian Ocean exchange was the major economic activity.<ref name=":6" /> There is some difference of opinion with regard to the nature of the "spice trade" in ancient Chera country. It is disputed whether this "trade" with the Mediterranean world was managed on equal terms by the Tamil merchants, in view of the existence of apparently unequal political institutions in south India.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Trade guilds of south India up to the tenth century|journal=Studies in People's History|volume=2|pages=21–26|language=en|doi=10.1177/2348448915574403|year = 2015|last1 = Subbarayalu|first1 = Y.|s2cid=133144002}}</ref> Some of the more recent studies point out that the "trade" was an exchange of "serious imbalance", because of its being between the [[Roman Empire]] and South India with uneven chiefdoms.<ref name=":222"/>

The geographical advantages, like the favourable Monsoon winds which carried ships directly from the Arabia to south India as well as the abundance of exotic spices in the interior Ghat mountains (and the presence of a large number of rivers connecting the Ghats with the Arabian Sea) combined to make the Cheras a major power in ancient southern India.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":222"/>

Spice exchange with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators can be traced back to before the Common Era and was substantially consolidated in the early years of the Common Era.<ref name=":222"/><ref name="Muziris1">[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/artefacts-from-the-lost-port-of-muziris/article6657446.ece "Artefacts from the lost Port of Muziris."] The Hindu. 3 December 2014.</ref><ref name="Pattanam">[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/pattanam-richest-indoroman-site-on-indian-ocean-rim/article274715.ece "Pattanam richest Indo-Roman site on Indian Ocean rim."] The Hindu. 3 May 2009.</ref> In the first century CE, the Romans conquered Egypt, which probably helped them to establish dominance in the Indian Ocean spice trade. The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by [[Pliny the Elder]] in the 1st century CE, in ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' of the 1st century CE, and by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century CE.{{sfn|Caldwell|1998|p=92}} The ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' portrays the "trade" in the territory of ''Keprobotras'' in detail. [[Muziris]] was the most important centre in the Malabar Coast, which according to the ''Periplus'', "abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks". Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were "exported" from the Chera country to the Middle East and Mediterranean kingdoms.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=105–}}

It is known that the Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange for [[black pepper]].<ref name=":222"/><ref>http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th&</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=62 | title=History of Ancient Kerala |publisher=Government of india | accessdate=6 October 2012}}{{dead link|date=July 2015}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Raoul McLaughlin, Rome and the distant East: trade routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and China Continuum International Publishing Group, 6 July 2010</ref> This is testified by the Roman coin hoards that have been found in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. [[Pliny the Elder]], in the 1st century CE, laments the drain of Roman gold into India and China for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. The spice trade across the Indian Ocean dwindled with the decline of the Roman empire in the 3rd - 4th centuries CE.<ref name=":222"/> With the exit of the Mediterranean from the spice trade, their space was picked up by the Chinese and Arab navigators.<ref name=":22" />

===Wootz steel===
The famous [[Damascus steel|damascus blades]] relied on the unique properties of the [[Wootz steel|wootz crucible steel]] from medieval south India and Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art|last=Ward|first=Gerald W. R.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19531-391-8|location=Oxford|page=380}}</ref> There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high carbon Indian steel. The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BC, at production sites of [[Kodumanal]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Golconda]] in [[Telangana]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Sri Lanka]] and exported globally; the [[Chera Dynasty]] producing what was termed ''the finest steel in the world'', i.e. Seric Iron to the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese and Arabs by 500 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Sharada |last=Srinivasan |date=15 November 1994 |title=Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India |journal=Papers from the Institute of Archaeology |volume=5 |pages=49–59 |doi=10.5334/pia.60|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Herbert Henery |last=Coghlan |year=1977 |title=Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World |pages=99–100 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Pitt Rivers Museum]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=B. |last=Sasisekharan |year=1999 |url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |title=Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=34 |number=4 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724033115/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |archivedate=24 July 2015}}</ref> The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz".<ref name="Davidson20">{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Hilda Roderick Ellis |title=The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nY0T9n4zAQAC&pg=PA20 |date=1998 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd |isbn=978-0-85115-716-0 |page=20}}</ref> Wootz steel in India had high amount of carbon in it.

The method was to heat black [[magnetite]] ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give [[wrought iron]], then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as [[Senna auriculata|Avārai]].<ref name="Davidson20"/><ref name="Burton111">{{cite book |last=Burton |first=Sir Richard Francis |authorlink=Richard Francis Burton |title=The Book of the Sword |year=1884 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |location=London |page=111 |url=https://archive.org/stream/booksword00unkngoog#page/n152/mode/2up}}</ref> The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras by the 5th century BC.<ref name="Needham282">{{cite book |title=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology |date=1 April 1971 |first=Joseph |last=Needham |authorlink=Joseph Needham |page=282 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-52107-060-7}}</ref><ref name="Manning365">{{cite book |last=Manning |first=Charlotte Speir |title=Ancient and Medieval India |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365 |isbn=978-0-543-92943-3 |page=365}}</ref> In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as [[Anuradhapura]], [[Tissamaharama]] and [[Samanalawewa]], as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A [[Tissamaharama Tamil Brahmi inscription|200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama]], in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the [[classical antiquity|classical period]].<ref>''Hobbies'' (April 1963) Vol. 68, No.5, p.45, Chicago: Lightner Publishing Company.</ref><ref name="Mahathevan">{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/An-epigraphic-perspective-on-the-antiquity-of-Tamil/article16265606.ece |title=An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil |last=Mahathevan |first=Iravatham |date=24 June 2010 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |publisher=The Hindu Group |accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref name="Ragupathy">{{cite news |url=http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=32303 |title=Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population |last=Ragupathy |first=P. |date=28 June 2010 |work=Tamilnet |accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.archaeology.lk/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Dinithi-Volume-1-Issue-4.pdf |date=February 2012 |title=Dinithi |volume=1 |issue=4 |journal=Sri Lanka Archaeology }}{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Society and culture==
=== Early Cheras ===
In general, early Tamil texts reflect the Dravidian cultural tradition. It is logical to conclude that most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian religions.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} Religious practice might have consisted predominantly of conducting sacrifices to various gods, such as to the pre-eminent god [[Murugan]].<ref name=":6" /> The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera territory, along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worship. The war goddess Kottravai was propitiated with elaborate offerings of meat and [[Palm toddy|toddy]]. It is theorised that [[Kottravai]] was assimilated into the present-day form of the goddess [[Durga]].{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} It is thought that the first wave of Brahmin migration came to the Chera territory around the 3rd century BCE with or behind the Jain and Buddhist missionaries. It was only in the 8th century CE that the Aryanisation of the old Chera country reached its organised form.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=89}} Though the vast majority of the population followed native Dravidian practices, a small percentage of the population, mainly migrants, followed [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Brahmanism]].{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} Populations of [[Jews]] and [[Saint Thomas Christians|Christians]] were also known to have lived in Kerala.<ref name="Orpa Slapak">[https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UNa1VM-AFc_kuQSLiYLIAQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=two%20millennia&f=false ''The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities''] by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. {{ISBN|965-278-179-7}}.</ref><ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5ncVJiVJ4u4uATrlIGoAg&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Muziris&f=false ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5''] by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – 2008. p. 285. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2417-2}}.</ref><ref name="Shattan">Manimekalai, by Merchant Prince Shattan, Gatha 27</ref>

Early Tamil texts do make a number of references to social stratification, as expressed by use of the word ''kudi'' ("group") to denote "caste".<ref name=":6" /> A striking feature of the social life of the early historic period (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) is the high status accorded to women.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=78}} {{sfn|Menon|2007|p=77}}

Agriculture and pastoralism were the primary occupations of the people. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the early Tamil texts. Poets and musicians were held in high regard in society. Early Tamil texts are full of references about the lavish patronage extended to court poets. There were professional poets and poetesses who composed texts praising their patrons and were generously rewarded for this.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=79–80}}

== See also ==
* [[Chola dynasty]]
* [[Pandya dynasty]]
* [[Pallava dynasty]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===

* {{cite book|last1=Menon|first1=A. Sreedhara|authorlink1=A. Sreedhara Menon|title=A survey of Kerala history|date=2007|publisher=D C Books|location=Kerala, India|isbn=978-8126415786|edition=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last1=Menon | first1=A. Sreedhara | authorlink= A. Sreedhara Menon | title=A Survey of Kerala History | date=1967 | publisher=Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7WaZe2PBy8C | language=en | oclc=555508146 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last1=Kulke | first1=Hermann | last2=Rothermund | first2=Dietmar|authorlink1=Hermann Kulke | authorlink2=Dietmar Rothermund | title=A History of India | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC&pg=PA105 | edition=Fourth | publisher=Routledge | year=2004 | isbn=9780415329200 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Thapar|first1=Romila|title=Early India : from the origins to AD 1300|date=2004|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley [u.a.]|isbn=9780520242258|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last1=Karashima | first1=Noboru | authorlink1=Noboru Karashima | title=A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations | date=2014 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=9780198099772 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdVoAEACAAJ | language=en | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Tamil Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA39|year=1975|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-04190-5 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Zvelebil|first= Kamil|title=The smile of Murugan: On Tamil literature of south India|year=1973 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers

|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VF2VMUoY_okC&q=gajabahu+synchronism&pg=PA38 |isbn= 978-90-04-03591-1 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|author=Robert Caldwell|title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&pg=PA92|year=1998|orig-year=1913|edition=3rd|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0117-8 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fischel|first1=Walter J.|title=The Exploration of the Jewish Antiquities of Cochin on the Malabar Coast|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=1967|volume=87|issue=3|pages=230–248|doi=10.2307/597717|jstor=597717|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Narayanan|first1=M.G.S.|authorlink1=M. G. S. Narayanan|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala : Brahmin oligarchy and ritual monarchy : political and social conditions of Kerala under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800-AD 1124)|date=2013|publisher=CosmoBooks|location=Thrissur|isbn=9788188765072|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ|ref=harv}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Chera Dynasty}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060718060412/http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.html ''Tamil Coins'', R. Nagasamy]

{{Chera dynasty topics}}
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}

[[Category:Chera dynasty]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:Hindu dynasties]]
[[Category:Kingdoms of Kerala]]
[[Category:Tamil monarchs]]
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of India]]
[[Category:History of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 3rd century BC]]
[[Category:Tamil history]]
[[Category:History of Kerala]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 12th century]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC establishments in India]]
[[Category:12th-century disestablishments in India]]

Chera dynasty

2020-12-18T02:23:48Z

175.141.124.220:

{{redirect-multi|2|Chera|Cheras}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name =
|image_map = Chera country (early historic south India).jpg
|image_map_caption = Chera country in early historic south India
|conventional_long_name = Chera
|common_name = Chera
|status =
|flag = File:Flag_of_Chera_dynasty.svg
|year_end =
|official_languages = {{plainlist|
* [[Tamil language|Tamil]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fG8NDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 |year=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-97465-4 |page=150 |quote=One thing, however, is certain: the Cholas were happy to use Tamil as an official state language, along with Sanskrit...}}</ref>
}}
|capital = '''Early Cheras'''
* [[Karur|Vanchi Karuvur (Karur)]]
* Muchiri (Muziris)
* Thondi (Tyndis)

'''[[Kongu Chera dynasty|Kongu Cheras]]'''
* [[Karur|Vanchi Karur (Karur)]]

'''[[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera/Perumals of Makotai (formerly Kulasekharas)]]'''
* [[Kodungallur|Kodungallur (Makotai/Vanchi)]]

'''Venadu Cheras (Kulasekharas)'''
* [[Kollam]]

|s1 =
|s2 =
|s3 =
|today = [[India]]
|religion = [[Hinduism]]
|demonym=|area_km2=|area_rank=|GDP_PPP=|GDP_PPP_year=|HDI=|HDI_year=}}
{{Chera Dynasty}}The '''Chera dynasty''' ([[ISO 15919|or]] '''Cēra''') was one of the principal lineages in the early history of the present day states of [[Kerala]] and some parts of [[Tamil Nadu]] in southern India.<ref name=":222">{{Cite journal|date=5 June 2015|title=Classical Indo-Roman Trade|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html?0=ip_login_no_cache=3b49b785309ca821ff5e0a285f43e078|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|volume=48|issue=26–27}}</ref> Together with the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas of Uraiyur]] and the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas of Madurai]], the early Cheras were known as one of the [[Three Crowned Kings|three major powers (muventar)]] of ancient [[Tamilakam]] (a macro region in south India<ref name=":222" />) in the early centuries of the Common Era.<ref name=":22">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 143-145.</ref><ref name=":7">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>

The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks. Exchange of spices, especially black pepper, with [[Middle East]]ern and [[Classical antiquity|Graeco-Roman]] merchants are attested in several sources.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46884|title=India - The Shunga kingdom|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-12-01|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":16">[https://books.google.com/books?id=eONSAAAAcAAJ&q=Muziris#v=snippet&q=Muziris&f=false Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia.] Ed. by Edward Balfour (1871), Second Edition. Volume 2. p. 584.</ref><ref name=":222"/> The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE - c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) are known to have had their original centre at [[Karur]] in interior [[Tamil Nadu]] and harbours at [[Muziris|Muchiri (Muziris)]] and [[Tyndis|Thondi (Tyndis)]] on the Indian Ocean coast ([[Kerala]]).<ref name=":11" />

The early historic pre-Pallava<ref name=":74">Gurukkal, Rajan. "DID STATE EXIST IN THE PRE-PALLAVAN TAMIL REGION". ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', vol. 63, 2002, pp. 138–150.</ref> Tamil polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics".<ref name=":222" /> [[Tamil-Brahmi|Tamil Brahmi]] cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of [[Perumkadungo|Perum Kadungo]], and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Veluthat|first=Kesavan|date=1 June 2018|title=History and historiography in constituting a region: The case of Kerala|journal=Studies in People's History|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=13–31|doi=10.1177/2348448918759852|issn=2348-4489|doi-access=free}}</ref> Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names.<ref name=":10" /> Reverse of these coins often contained the Chera bow and arrow symbol.<ref name=":10" /> The anthologies of [[Sangam literature|early Tamil texts]] are a major source of information about the early Cheras. <ref name=":7" /> [[Senguttuvan|Chenguttuvan, or the Good Chera]], is famous for the traditions surrounding [[Kannagi|Kannaki]], the principal female character of the Tamil epic poem ''[[Silapathikaram|Chilapathikaram]]''.<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46862/From-150-bce-to-300-ce?anchor=ref485312|title=India – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=Britannica.com|accessdate=29 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=PERUMALS+OF+KERALA|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy : Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 - AD 1124)|date=2013|isbn=9788188765072|language=en}}</ref> After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}

[[Kongu Chera dynasty|Cheras or Keralas of the Kongu country]] are known to have controlled western [[Tamil Nadu]] and central [[Kerala]] in early medieval period.<ref name=":112">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera kingdom around 8th-9th century AD to form the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal kingdom]] (c. 9th- 12th century AD).<ref name=":122">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers is somewhat unclear.<ref name=":113">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref> Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola - seems to have conquered the Chera or Kerala country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century AD. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas".{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}

The rulers of [[Venad]] (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of [[Kollam]] in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=368}} In the modern period the rulers of [[Kochi|Cochin]] and [[Thiruvananthapuram|Travancore]] (in Kerala) also claimed the title "Chera".{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=81}}

== Etymology ==
The term Chera - and its variant form "Keralaputas" - stands for the ruling lineage and the country associated with them.<ref name=":15" />

The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from ''Cheral'', a corruption of ''Charal'' meaning "declivity of a mountain" in Tamil, suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of Kerala.{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}} Another theory argues that the "Cheralam<nowiki>''</nowiki> is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land".{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}} Apart from the speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies.{{efn|1=According to Menon, this etymology of "added" or "reclaimed" land also complements the [[Parashurama]] myth about the formation of Kerala. In it, Parashurama, one of the avatars of [[Vishnu]], flung his axe across the sea from [[Gokarnam]] towards [[Kanyakumari]] (or vice versa) and the water receded up to the spot where it landed, thus creating Kerala.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=20,21}}}}{{efn|1=Citing Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, p. 7{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21}}}}

In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as ''Kedalaputo'' (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Pali edicts (3rd century BCE).<ref name=":3">Keay, John (2000) [2001]. India: A history. India: Grove Press. {{ISBN|0-8021-3797-0}}.</ref> While [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] refer to the Cheras as ''Kaelobotros'' and ''Kerobottros'' respectively, the Graeco-Roman trade map ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' refers to the Cheras as ''Keprobotras''. All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with northern India.<ref name=":0" /> {{sfn|Caldwell|1998|p=92}}

The term ''Cheralamdivu'' or ''Cheran Tivu'' and its cognates, meaning the "island of the Chera kings", is a Classical Tamil [[Names of Sri Lanka|name of Sri Lanka]] that takes root from the term "Chera".<ref>M. Ramachandran, Irāman̲ Mativāṇan̲(1991). ''The spring of the Indus civilisation''. Prasanna Pathippagam, pp. 34. "Srilanka was known as "Cerantivu' (island of the Cera kings) in those days. The seal has two lines. The line above contains three signs in Indus script and the line below contains three alphabets in the ancient Tamil script known as Tamil ...</ref>

== Cheras of ancient south India ==
Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that the three major rulers – the [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]], the Chera and the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] – based originally in the interior [[Tamil Nadu]], at [[Madurai]], [[Karur|Karur (Karuvur)-Vanchi]], and [[Uraiyur]] respectively, had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely [[Korkai]], Muchiri (Muziris), and Kaveri Poompattinam respectively.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|date=5 June 2015|title=Classical Indo-Roman Trade|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/26-27/special-articles/classical-indo-roman-trade.html|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|volume=48|issue=26–27}}</ref> Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava<ref name=":74" />) consisted of the present day central Kerala and western Tamil Nadu.<ref name=":15" /> The political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources".<ref name=":222"/> There was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu).<ref name=":2">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 50-51.</ref>

The Cheras are referred to as ''Kedalaputo'' (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Pali edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII).<ref name=":3" /> The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by [[Pliny the Elder]] in the 1st century CE, in the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|''Periplus'']] of the 1st century CE, and by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century CE. {{sfn|Menon|2007|p=33}}<ref name=":5">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cera-dynasty|title=Cera dynasty {{!}} India|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref>

A number of Sanskrit works do mention the family and/or land of the Cheras/Keralas. There are also brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator [[Katyayana]] (c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher [[Patanjali]] (c. 2nd century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher [[Kautilya|Kautilya (Chanakya)]] ({{circa|3rd - 4th century BCE}}) [though Sanskrit grammarian [[Pāṇini|Panini]] (c. 6th - 5th century BCE) does not mention either the people or the land].{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=26–29}}

=== Archaeological discoveries ===
[[File:Chera Inscription from Pugalur, near Karur.jpg|left|thumb|[[Tamil Brahmi]] inscription from Pugalur, near Karur]]
[[File:Chera coin (ancient south India) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|A Chera coin with legend "Makkotai"|147x147px]]
[[File:Kuttuvankotai-cash.jpg|thumb|left|A Chera coin with legend "[[Kuttuvan Kotai]]"]]
Archaeology has found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras.<ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2013/stories/20030704000207100.htm See report in ''Frontline'', June/July 2003]</ref><ref name=":5" /> Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near [[Karur]]) dated to c. 1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of [[Perumkadungo|Perum Kadungo]], and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai.<ref name=":5" />

{{quote box
| bgcolor = #fffcea
| title = '''Irumporai Cheras from Pugalur inscription'''
| fontsize = 100%
| quote = Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam
*Ko Athan Chel (Cheral) Irumporai
* Perum Kadungon [Irumporai]
* Ilam Kadungo [Irumporai]
| source =
}}

A short Tamil-Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at [[Edakkal Caves|Edakkal]] in the Western Ghats.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/edakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription/article2872568.ece|title=Edakal cave yields one more Tamil-Brahmi inscription|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|date=9 February 2012|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-11-19|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the [[Palakkad Gap|Palghat Gap]] to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2915/stories/20120810291507000.htm|title=Digging up the past|website=www.frontline.in|access-date=2018-11-19}}</ref> Historians are yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at [[Pattanam]] (near [[Kochi|Cochin]]) suggest a strong case of identification with the location.<ref name=":11" /> Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni).<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":13" />

=== Chera coinage ===
A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the [[Amaravati River|Amaravati]] riverbed, are a major source of early Chera historiography.<ref name=":8" /> This includes a number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol38_3_2_BSasisekaran.pdf}}</ref> Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to the Cheras, have been discovered from [[Pattanam]] in central Kerala.<ref name=":10">Majumdar, S. B. "Money Matters: Indigenous and Foreign Coins in the Malabar Coast." ''Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade'', edited by K. S. Mathew, Routledge, 2016.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/2004/04/30/stories/2004043014340300.htm|title= Copper coins of Adi Chera period excavated|newspaper=The Hindu|date=30 April 2004|access-date=2018-11-17|last1=Sudhi|first1=K. S.}}</ref> Bronze dies for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur.<ref name=":10" />

Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend "[[Kuttuvan Kotai]]" above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to c. 1st century CE or a little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank.<ref name=":8" /> The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai",<ref name=":10" /> "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai"<ref name=":10" /> were also discovered from [[Karur]]. The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins.<ref name=":10" /> All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained the bow and arrow symbol.<ref name=":10" /> An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur.<ref name=":10" />

The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin.<ref name=":9" /> A silver coin with the portrait of a person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera family.<ref name=":8">Subramanian, T. S. "Roman connection in Tamil Nadu." ''The Hindu'' 28 January 2007: www.thehindu.com. Web. Accessed 17 November 2018. [https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/Roman-connection-in-Tamil-Nadu/article14712060.ece]</ref>

=== Cheras from early Tamil texts ===
A large body of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] works collectively known as the [[Sangam literature|Sangam (Academy) texts]] (c. 2nd century BCE- 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers.<ref name="Companion12">Kamil Veith Zvelebil, ''Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature'', p.12</ref><ref>K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, ''A History of South India,'' OUP (1955) p.105</ref> Among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu]]'', the ''[[Agananuru|Akananuru]]'', and the ''[[Purananuru]]''.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=26–29}} The ''Pathitrupattu'', the fourth book in the ''[[Ettuthokai]]'' anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family.<ref name=":7" /> Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet.<ref name="Companion12" /> However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far.<ref name="kanaka">{{cite book|title=The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago|last=V.|first=Kanakasabhai|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1997|isbn=978-81-206-0150-5}}</ref><ref name=":1">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 01-05.</ref>

A method known as [[Gajabahu synchronism|Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism]], is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to c. 1st - 2nd century CE.<ref name="kanaka" /> Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=37–39|ps=: The opinion that the Gajabahu Synchronism is an expression of genuine historical tradition is accepted by most scholars today}}<ref name="svp">{{cite book|title=History of Tamil Language and Literature; Beginning to 1000 AD|last=Pillai|first=Vaiyapuri|publisher=New Century Book House|year=1956|location=Madras, India|page=22|quote=We may be reasonably certain that chronological conclusion reached above is historically sound}}</ref>{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|p=38}} [[Ilango Adigal]] author of the legendary Tamil epic poem ''[[Silappatikaram|Chilapathikaram]]'' describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (v''irakkallu'') for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Silappathikaram#ref845622|title=Silappathikaram {{!}} Tamil epic poem by Adikal|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref> A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with [[Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka|Gajabahu]], king of [[Sri Lanka]] (2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}{{sfn|Menon|1967}} In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE.<ref name="britannica.com" />

[[Utiyan Cheralathan|Uthiyan Cheral Athan]] is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from the Tamil texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decad of ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu]]''). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" (''[[Purananuru]])''. His headquarters were at Kuzhumur ([[Agananuru|''Akananuru'']]).<ref name=":18">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 05-10.</ref> He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the [[Kurukshetra War]] (''[[Purananuru]]'' and [[Agananuru|''Akananuru'']]).<ref name=":18" /> He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan (''[[Patiṟṟuppattu|Pathitrupattu (II)]]).'' .<ref name=":18" />

Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler [[Karikala]]. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<ref name=":18" />

As the name ''Pathitrupattu'' indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting a decad of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered.<ref name=":1" />

{| class="wikitable" style="width: 90%;"
|+
Cheras from [[Patiṟṟuppattu|''Pathitrupattu'']]
|-
! Decad of [[Patiṟṟuppattu|''Pathitrupattu'']]
! Chera
!Relation
!Bard
! colspan="3" |Notes
|-
|II
|[[Nedum Cheralathan|Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan]]
|Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (by Veliyan's daughter Nallini)<ref name=":4">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 10-13.</ref>
|Kannanar<ref name=":7">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
| Nedum Cheral Athan was also known as "Imayavaramban". He is praised for having subdued "seven crowned kings" to achieve the title of ''adhiraja''.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}<ref name=":4" />

Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from [[Kanyakumari|Kumari]] to the [[Himalayas]] (and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}<ref name=":4" />

The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly [[Kadamba Dynasty|Kadambas]]) whom he defeated in battles.<ref name=":4" /> Nedum Cheral Athan is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean.<ref name=":2" /> Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai.<ref name=":4" /> He also punished and extracted ranson from the Yavanas.<ref name=":2" />

Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle)<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 36-38.</ref>
|-
| III
| Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan
|Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (younger brother of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan)<ref name=":19">K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 15-17.</ref>
|Palai
Kauthamanar<ref name=":7" />
|Credited as the conqueror of "Konkar Nadu".<ref name=":19" /> Described as lord of Puzhi Nadu and the Cheruppu and Aiyirai Mountains.<ref name=":19" />

Headquarters was located on the mouth river Periyar.<ref name=":19" />
|-
|IV
| Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral
|Son of Imayavaramban.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 17-21.</ref>
|Kappiyattukku Kappiyanar<ref name=":72">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
|Narmudi Cheral led an expedition against Nedumidal Anji (identified with the Adigaiman/[[Athiyamān|Satyaputra]] of Tagadur). Initially the Chera was defeated by Nannan of Ezhimala in the battle of Pazhi, later defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Vakai Perum Turai.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Menon|1967}} Performed his coronation using holy water from both the western and eastern oceans (brought by a relay of elephants).<ref name=":2" /> Also known as "Vanavaramban".<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 17-21.</ref>
|-
| V
|[[Senguttuvan|Kadal Pirakottiya Chenguttuvan]]
|Son of Nedum Cheral Athan
|Paranar<ref name=":72" />
|Chenguttuvan is identified with "Kadal Pirakottiya" Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan. Chenguttuvan was a son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 21-23.</ref>

Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief).{{sfn|Menon|1967}}{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=67–68}}

In the early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative [[Nalankilli|Nalam Killi]] on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which the Kadamba warriors took shelter was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 21-23.</ref>).<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46862/From-150-bce-to-300-ce?anchor=ref485312|title=India – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=Britannica.com|accessdate=29 August 2012}}</ref>

According to ''[[Silappatikaram|Chilapathikaram]],'' Chenguttuvan lead his army to north India to get the sacred stone from the Himalayas to sculpt the idol of godess Pattini.<ref name=":2" />
|-
| VI
| Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan<ref name=Aiyar27-32>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 27-32.</ref>
|Successor of Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}(son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan and brother of Narmudi Cheral)<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />
|Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar (poetess)<ref name=":72" />
|Probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola [[Karikala]] at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, Uthiyan Cheral was wounded on the back by [[Karikala]]. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation.<ref name=":2" />'''<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />'''

Controlled the port of Naravu.<ref name=Aiyar27-32 />
|-
|VII
|Selva Kadumko Valia Athan
|Son of Anthuvan Cheral<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref>
|Kapilar<ref name=":72" />
|Selvakadumko Valia Athan controlled Pandar and Kodumanam (Kodumanal).<ref name=":2" />
He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the [[Pandya]]s and the [[Chola]]s.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref><ref name="Smile40">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 40, 52–53.</ref>{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}} Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-41.</ref>

Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 38-40.</ref>

He is sometimes identified as the Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur (c. 2nd century CE).{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=70}}<ref name="Smile40" />
|-
|VIII
|[[Perum Cheral Irumporai|Tagadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai]]<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 41-43.</ref>
|
|Arichil Kizhar<ref name=":72" />
|"Tagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur Adigaman Ezhni at [[Dharmapuri|Tagadur]]. He is also called "the lord of Puzhinadu and "the lord of Kollimalai" and "the lord of [Poom]Puhar". Puhar was the Chola headquarters. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor Idayar chief called Kazhuval (Kazhuvul).{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=71}}Addressed as "Kodai Marba". Father of Illam Cheral Irumporai.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 41-43.</ref>
|-
|IX
|"Kudakko" Illam Cheral Irumporai<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 44-45.</ref>
|
|Perunkundur Kizhar<ref name=":73">Zvelebil, Kamil. <nowiki>''</nowiki>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India<nowiki>''</nowiki>. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973. 52–53.</ref>
|Illam Cheral Irumporai defeated Perum Chola, Ilam Pazhaiyan Maran and Vicchi, and destroyed "five forts". Lord of Tondi, "Kongar Nadu", "Kuttuvar Nadu", and "Puzhi Nadu".<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 44-45.</ref>
Described as the descendant of [[Nedum Cheralathan|Nedum Cheral Athan]].<ref name=":4" />
|}
The following Cheras are knowns from ''[[Purananuru]]'' collection (some of the names are re-duplications)''.''<ref name=":1" />
{{colbegin}}
* Karuvur Eriya Ol-val Ko Perum Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" /> - Ruled of Karuvur. Praised by Nariveruttalaiyar.<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 34-36.</ref>
* Kadungo Valia Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Palai Padiya Perum Kadumko<ref name=":1" />
* Antuvan Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" /> - father of Selva Kadumko Valia Athan (VII decad). Contemporary to Chola Mudittalai Ko Perunar Killi (whose elephant famously wandered to Karuvur).<ref>K. G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 36-38.</ref>
* [[Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai|"Yanaikatchai" Mantaram Cheral Irumporai]] ruled from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai on the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle at Vilamkil. The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian (early 3rd century CE<ref name=":6">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref485313|title=India - The Shunga kingdom|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-11-16|language=en}}</ref>) captured Mantaran Cheral as a prisoner. However, he managed to escape and regain the lost territories.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=72}}<ref name=":1" />
* Ko Kodai Marban<ref name=":1" />
* Takadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" />
* [[Kuttuvan Kodai]]<ref name=":1" />
* Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Perum Cheral Athan<ref name=":1" />
* Kanaikkal Irumporai is said to have defeated a chief called Muvan and imprisoned him. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of the prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Thondi. Upon capture by the Chola ruler [[Kocengannan|Sengannan]], Kanaikkal committed suicide by starvation.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=72}}
* Kudakko Cheral Irumporai<ref name=":1" />
* Kottambalattu Tunchiya Makkodai<ref name=":1" /> - probably identical with Kottambalattu Tunchiya Cheraman in [[Agananuru|''Akananuru'' (168)]].<ref name=":18" />
* Vanchan<ref name=":1" />
* Kadalottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan<ref name=":1" />
* Man Venko<ref name=":1" /> - a friend of the Pandya Ugra Peruvaluti and the Chola Rajasuyam Vetta Perunar Killi.<ref>K.G. Sesha Aiyar, ''Chera Kings of the Sangam Period'', London, 1937. 60-61.</ref>
{{colend}}

== Cheras in the medieval period ==
{{Main|Kongu Chera dynasty}}
[[File:Kalabhras territories.png|thumb|An approximate extent of Kalabhra supremacy in southern India. |270x270px|alt=]]
After the end of the early historical period in south India, c. 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=118}} Little is known for certain about the Cheras during this period.<ref name=":14">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80–81, 88–93.</ref>

Cheras of Kongu country ([[Karur]]) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central [[Kerala]].<ref name=":110">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule).<ref name=":111">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref> The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre-[[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] (early historic) south India.<ref name=":110" />

* An inscription of [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadamba]] king Vishnu Varma, dated 5th or 6th century, can be found at Edakkal cave in [[Wayanad]].<ref name=":123">Fawcett, F. 1901. Notes on the Rock Carvings in the Edakal Caves, Wynaad. ''The Indian Antiquary'' vol. XXX, pp. 409-421.</ref><ref name=":103">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref> An early historic Chera graffiti containing the phrase "Kadummi Putra Chera" was also discovered from the cave.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/edakal-cave-yields-one-more-tamilbrahmi-inscription/article2872568.ece|title=Edakal cave yields one more Tamil-Brahmi inscription|date=9 February 2012|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-11-19|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
*Tradition tells that the [[Kalabhra dynasty|Kalabhra]] (Kalvar<ref name=":6" />) rulers kept the Chera, [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] and [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] rulers in their confinement.<ref name=":14" />
* The earliest [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]] king to claim overlorship over Chera/Kerala is [[Kirttivarman I]] (''fl.'' 566 - 598 AD) (this claim is generally considered as a "boastfull exaggeration" by historians). A later grant (695 AD) of king [[Vinayaditya of Vatapi|Vinayaditya II Satyasraya]], with reference to the vassalage of the Kerala country, is now reckoned as a more dependable record.<ref name=":106">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref> Several Chalukya records of the 7th and 8th centuries speak of the conquest and vassalage of the Kerala country.<ref name=":106" />
* A number of [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] records also mention the vassalage of the Kerala country.<ref name=":104">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref>
*[[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta]] inscriptions mention "an alliance of Dravida kings including Kerala, Pandya, Chola and Pallava who were defeated" (''E. I.'', XVIII). The Keralas mentioned there might be the Kongu Cheras who had already submitted to the Pandyas (and not [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumals]] of Kerala).<ref name=":36">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95.</ref>

=== Pandya conquests in Chera country ===
[[File:South_India_in_12th_century_AD.jpg|thumb|338x338px|Chera Perumal Kingdom with the [[Chola dynasty|Chola Empire]] on the east.]]There are clear attestations of repeated [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] conquests of the Kerala or Chea country in the 7th and 8th centuries AD.<ref name=":105">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 90-91 and 103-04.</ref>
| flag = File:Flag_of_Chera_dynasty.svg
* Pandya king Sendan/Jayantan (''fl.'' 645 – 70 AD) was known as the Vanavan, an ancient name for the Chera king.<ref name=":105" /> Arikesari Maravarman (670 – 710 AD), another Pandya ruler, probably defeated the Keralas/Cheras on several occasions.<ref name=":105" /><ref name=":28">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref> His successor Ko Chadayan Ranadhira also made gains against the Cheras.<ref name=":20">Dalziel, N.R. (2016). Pandyan Empire. In ''The Encyclopedia of Empire'' (eds N. Dalziel and J.M. MacKenzie). doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe416 </ref>

* The so-called "renewal of the capital city of Vanchi ([[Karur]]) along with Kudal ([[Madurai]]) and Kozhi ([[Uraiyur]])", described in the Madras Museum Plates of the Pandya king Rajasimha I (730 – 65 AD), may suggest a Pandya occupation of the Kongu Chera capital Karur.<ref name=":32">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95.</ref>
*It is known that when Pandya king Jatila Parantaka (765 – 815 AD) went to war against the Adigaman of Tagadur ([[Dharmapuri]]), the Keralas and the Pallavas went to the aid of the latter though "the Pandyas drove them back to the quarters from which they had emerged" (Madras Museum Plates).<ref name=":32" /><ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95 and 107.</ref> Perhaps the Chera branch from present-day Kerala had crossed the [[Western Ghats|Ghat Mountains]] to offer support to the Adigaman and after defeat they were pursued up to the [[Palakkad Gap|Palghat Gap]] by the Pandya forces.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 93-95 and 107.</ref>
*Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera/Kerala kingdom (around 8th-9th century AD) to form the Chera/Perumal kingdom.<ref name=":12">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 89-90 and 92-93.</ref>
*The Pandyas are known to have made a defensive alliance with the Cheras of Kongu country (who were under their influence) in this period.<ref name=":20" /> Pandya king Parantaka Vira Narayana (c. 880 – 900 AD) is known to have married a Kerala (Kongu Chera) princess "Vanavan Maha Devi".<ref name=":42">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 95-96 and 108.</ref> The son of this alliance, Rajasimha, described as a member of Chandra-Aditya Kula (Sinnamanur copper plates), was "destroyed by the Chola king Parantaka".<ref name=":42" /> It was initially assumed by [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] and [[Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai|E. P. N. K. Pillai]] that the Vira Narayana had married a Chera Perumal princess of Kerala.<ref name=":42" />

=== Chola conquests of Chera country ===

*The Kongu country was conquered by the Cholas (either by Srikantha or [[Aditya I|Aditya I Chola]]) in the last years of the 9th century AD (this campaign probably involved battles between Aditya I and Parantaka Vira Narayana). The Pandyas were eventually defeated in the "great battle" of Sripurambiyam (c. 885).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 97.</ref>
*The Pandyas were defeated by Chola king [[Parantaka I|Parantaka]] in 910 AD (the fate of the Kongu Chera country, then ruled by Kongu Cheras, upon the fall of Madurai is not known).<ref name=":55">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 98-99 and 111.</ref> Pandya king Rajasimha II, who was defeated by Parantaka Chola, is known to have found asylum in Kerala or Chera country (c. 920 AD).<ref name=":55" /> Chola king Sundara (c. 956 – c. 973 AD) had a Chera or Kerala princess among his queens.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 100-01.</ref>
*Kongu Chera country (and the Chera Perumal kingdom) was subsequently conquered by the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]].<ref name=":29">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 80-81.</ref>
**Amara Bhujanga Deva, one of the princes defeated by Chola king [[Rajaraja]] (Tiruvalangadu Grant), was probably a Pandya or a Kongu Chera prince.<ref name=":62">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 116-117 and 136.</ref>
**Chola king [[Rajadhiraja]] is known for defeating certain Vira Kerala, one of the so-called "thennavar muvar", and trampling him to death by his war elephant.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 121-122.</ref> This royal was probably a Kongu-Chera of Chandra-Aditya Kula or a [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] prince (son of a Pandya and a Kongu Chera princess).<ref name=":022">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 304-05 and 322-23.</ref> Vira Kerala was previously considered as a Chera Perumal king ([[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|K. A. N. Sastri]] and [[Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai|E. P. N. K. Pillai]]).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 84-85.</ref>

=== Chera Perumals of Kerala ===
{{Main|Chera/Perumals of Makotai}}
[[File:Depiction of "Cherman Perumal" Nayanar (Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Depiction of Cherman Perumal Nayanar - Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|291x291px]]

While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in [[Tamil Nadu]] emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in [[Kerala]] took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE.<ref name=":22" /> Scholars tend to identify Nayanar saint [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar|Cherman Perumal]] (literally "the Chera king") and Alvar saint [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara]] with some of the earliest Perumals.<ref name="Noburu Karashmia 2014">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref>

The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure.<ref name=":14" />

The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East.<ref name=":26">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 364-65.</ref><ref name=":02">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 331-32.</ref> The port of [[Kollam]], in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia.<ref>Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 382-83.</ref> Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in the structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a [[Nair]] military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century.<ref name=":17">Ganesh, K. N. "Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala". ''Indian Historical Review'', vol. 36, no. 1, June 2009, pp. 3–21.</ref> [[Brahmin|Nambudiri-Brahmin]] settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom.<ref name=":02" /><ref>Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 379-80.</ref>
{{cquote
| quote = "A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."
| author = Romila Thapar
| source = [https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46892]
| align = center
| width = 75%
}}
The Chea Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] and the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]].<ref name=":27">Thapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 364-65.</ref> The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in early 11th century AD (in order to break the monpoly of trade with the Middle East).<ref name=":27" /> <ref name=":53">Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 143-44.</ref> When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent.<ref name=":17" />

==Government==
The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from the ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in a linear or in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=75}}

The extent of political formation in pre-Pallava<ref name=":74" /> south India (before c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) was a matter of considerable debate among historians.<ref name=":7" /> Although earlier scholars visualised early historic south Indian polities as full-fledged kingdoms, some of the recent studies rule out the possibility of state formation.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":222"/>{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=77}} According to historian Rajan Gurukkal, ancient south India was a combination of several "unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies of chiefdoms". These polities were structured by the dominance of "agro-pastoral means of subsistence and predatory politics".<ref name=":11" /> Kesavan Veluthat, another prominent historian of south India, uses the term "chief" and "chiefdom" for the Chera ruler and Chera polity of early historic south India respectively.<ref name=":15" />

Reaching conclusions based on the early Tamil poems and archaeological evidences is another topic of disagreement.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=67}}{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=75–76}} It is assumed that the institution of sabha in south Indian villages, for local administration, was first surfaced during the early historic period.<ref name=":6" />

==Economy==
The early Chera economy can be described as a predominantly "pastoral-cum-agrarian" based system. The emphasis on agriculture increased with time, and provided the base for larger economic change.<ref name=":6" /> The early historic south India (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) can be described as a "semi-tribal political economy". In a 2013 paper, historian Rajan Gurukkal describes ancient south India as a collection of "unevenly evolved and kinship-based redistributive economies." ''<ref name=":222"/>''

===Spice trade===
[[File:Silk route.jpg|thumb|309x309px| [[Silk Road]] (Red) and Spice Routes (Blues)|alt=]]

Exchange relations with the merchants from Graeco-Roman world, the "[[Yavanas]]", and with north India provided considerable economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom. Indian Ocean exchange was the major economic activity.<ref name=":6" /> There is some difference of opinion with regard to the nature of the "spice trade" in ancient Chera country. It is disputed whether this "trade" with the Mediterranean world was managed on equal terms by the Tamil merchants, in view of the existence of apparently unequal political institutions in south India.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Trade guilds of south India up to the tenth century|journal=Studies in People's History|volume=2|pages=21–26|language=en|doi=10.1177/2348448915574403|year = 2015|last1 = Subbarayalu|first1 = Y.|s2cid=133144002}}</ref> Some of the more recent studies point out that the "trade" was an exchange of "serious imbalance", because of its being between the [[Roman Empire]] and South India with uneven chiefdoms.<ref name=":222"/>

The geographical advantages, like the favourable Monsoon winds which carried ships directly from the Arabia to south India as well as the abundance of exotic spices in the interior Ghat mountains (and the presence of a large number of rivers connecting the Ghats with the Arabian Sea) combined to make the Cheras a major power in ancient southern India.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":222"/>

Spice exchange with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators can be traced back to before the Common Era and was substantially consolidated in the early years of the Common Era.<ref name=":222"/><ref name="Muziris1">[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/artefacts-from-the-lost-port-of-muziris/article6657446.ece "Artefacts from the lost Port of Muziris."] The Hindu. 3 December 2014.</ref><ref name="Pattanam">[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/pattanam-richest-indoroman-site-on-indian-ocean-rim/article274715.ece "Pattanam richest Indo-Roman site on Indian Ocean rim."] The Hindu. 3 May 2009.</ref> In the first century CE, the Romans conquered Egypt, which probably helped them to establish dominance in the Indian Ocean spice trade. The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by [[Pliny the Elder]] in the 1st century CE, in ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' of the 1st century CE, and by [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century CE.{{sfn|Caldwell|1998|p=92}} The ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' portrays the "trade" in the territory of ''Keprobotras'' in detail. [[Muziris]] was the most important centre in the Malabar Coast, which according to the ''Periplus'', "abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks". Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were "exported" from the Chera country to the Middle East and Mediterranean kingdoms.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=105–}}

It is known that the Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange for [[black pepper]].<ref name=":222"/><ref>http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th&</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=62 | title=History of Ancient Kerala |publisher=Government of india | accessdate=6 October 2012}}{{dead link|date=July 2015}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Raoul McLaughlin, Rome and the distant East: trade routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and China Continuum International Publishing Group, 6 July 2010</ref> This is testified by the Roman coin hoards that have been found in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. [[Pliny the Elder]], in the 1st century CE, laments the drain of Roman gold into India and China for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. The spice trade across the Indian Ocean dwindled with the decline of the Roman empire in the 3rd - 4th centuries CE.<ref name=":222"/> With the exit of the Mediterranean from the spice trade, their space was picked up by the Chinese and Arab navigators.<ref name=":22" />

===Wootz steel===
The famous [[Damascus steel|damascus blades]] relied on the unique properties of the [[Wootz steel|wootz crucible steel]] from medieval south India and Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art|last=Ward|first=Gerald W. R.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19531-391-8|location=Oxford|page=380}}</ref> There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high carbon Indian steel. The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BC, at production sites of [[Kodumanal]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Golconda]] in [[Telangana]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Sri Lanka]] and exported globally; the [[Chera Dynasty]] producing what was termed ''the finest steel in the world'', i.e. Seric Iron to the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese and Arabs by 500 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Sharada |last=Srinivasan |date=15 November 1994 |title=Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India |journal=Papers from the Institute of Archaeology |volume=5 |pages=49–59 |doi=10.5334/pia.60|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Herbert Henery |last=Coghlan |year=1977 |title=Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World |pages=99–100 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Pitt Rivers Museum]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=B. |last=Sasisekharan |year=1999 |url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |title=Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=34 |number=4 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724033115/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |archivedate=24 July 2015}}</ref> The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz".<ref name="Davidson20">{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Hilda Roderick Ellis |title=The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nY0T9n4zAQAC&pg=PA20 |date=1998 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd |isbn=978-0-85115-716-0 |page=20}}</ref> Wootz steel in India had high amount of carbon in it.

The method was to heat black [[magnetite]] ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give [[wrought iron]], then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as [[Senna auriculata|Avārai]].<ref name="Davidson20"/><ref name="Burton111">{{cite book |last=Burton |first=Sir Richard Francis |authorlink=Richard Francis Burton |title=The Book of the Sword |year=1884 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |location=London |page=111 |url=https://archive.org/stream/booksword00unkngoog#page/n152/mode/2up}}</ref> The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras by the 5th century BC.<ref name="Needham282">{{cite book |title=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology |date=1 April 1971 |first=Joseph |last=Needham |authorlink=Joseph Needham |page=282 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-52107-060-7}}</ref><ref name="Manning365">{{cite book |last=Manning |first=Charlotte Speir |title=Ancient and Medieval India |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmESJR3a0RYC&pg=PA365 |isbn=978-0-543-92943-3 |page=365}}</ref> In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as [[Anuradhapura]], [[Tissamaharama]] and [[Samanalawewa]], as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A [[Tissamaharama Tamil Brahmi inscription|200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama]], in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the [[classical antiquity|classical period]].<ref>''Hobbies'' (April 1963) Vol. 68, No.5, p.45, Chicago: Lightner Publishing Company.</ref><ref name="Mahathevan">{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/An-epigraphic-perspective-on-the-antiquity-of-Tamil/article16265606.ece |title=An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil |last=Mahathevan |first=Iravatham |date=24 June 2010 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |publisher=The Hindu Group |accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref name="Ragupathy">{{cite news |url=http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=32303 |title=Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population |last=Ragupathy |first=P. |date=28 June 2010 |work=Tamilnet |accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.archaeology.lk/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Dinithi-Volume-1-Issue-4.pdf |date=February 2012 |title=Dinithi |volume=1 |issue=4 |journal=Sri Lanka Archaeology }}{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Society and culture==
=== Early Cheras ===
In general, early Tamil texts reflect the Dravidian cultural tradition. It is logical to conclude that most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian religions.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} Religious practice might have consisted predominantly of conducting sacrifices to various gods, such as to the pre-eminent god [[Murugan]].<ref name=":6" /> The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera territory, along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worship. The war goddess Kottravai was propitiated with elaborate offerings of meat and [[Palm toddy|toddy]]. It is theorised that [[Kottravai]] was assimilated into the present-day form of the goddess [[Durga]].{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} It is thought that the first wave of Brahmin migration came to the Chera territory around the 3rd century BCE with or behind the Jain and Buddhist missionaries. It was only in the 8th century CE that the Aryanisation of the old Chera country reached its organised form.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=89}} Though the vast majority of the population followed native Dravidian practices, a small percentage of the population, mainly migrants, followed [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Brahmanism]].{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=83}} Populations of [[Jews]] and [[Saint Thomas Christians|Christians]] were also known to have lived in Kerala.<ref name="Orpa Slapak">[https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UNa1VM-AFc_kuQSLiYLIAQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=two%20millennia&f=false ''The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities''] by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. {{ISBN|965-278-179-7}}.</ref><ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ISBN9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5ncVJiVJ4u4uATrlIGoAg&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Muziris&f=false ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5''] by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – 2008. p. 285. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2417-2}}.</ref><ref name="Shattan">Manimekalai, by Merchant Prince Shattan, Gatha 27</ref>

Early Tamil texts do make a number of references to social stratification, as expressed by use of the word ''kudi'' ("group") to denote "caste".<ref name=":6" /> A striking feature of the social life of the early historic period (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE<ref name=":222"/>) is the high status accorded to women.{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=78}} {{sfn|Menon|2007|p=77}}

Agriculture and pastoralism were the primary occupations of the people. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the early Tamil texts. Poets and musicians were held in high regard in society. Early Tamil texts are full of references about the lavish patronage extended to court poets. There were professional poets and poetesses who composed texts praising their patrons and were generously rewarded for this.{{sfn|Menon|2007|pp=79–80}}

== See also ==
* [[Chola dynasty]]
* [[Pandya dynasty]]
* [[Pallava dynasty]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===

* {{cite book|last1=Menon|first1=A. Sreedhara|authorlink1=A. Sreedhara Menon|title=A survey of Kerala history|date=2007|publisher=D C Books|location=Kerala, India|isbn=978-8126415786|edition=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | last1=Menon | first1=A. Sreedhara | authorlink= A. Sreedhara Menon | title=A Survey of Kerala History | date=1967 | publisher=Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7WaZe2PBy8C | language=en | oclc=555508146 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last1=Kulke | first1=Hermann | last2=Rothermund | first2=Dietmar|authorlink1=Hermann Kulke | authorlink2=Dietmar Rothermund | title=A History of India | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC&pg=PA105 | edition=Fourth | publisher=Routledge | year=2004 | isbn=9780415329200 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Thapar|first1=Romila|title=Early India : from the origins to AD 1300|date=2004|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley [u.a.]|isbn=9780520242258|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last1=Karashima | first1=Noboru | authorlink1=Noboru Karashima | title=A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations | date=2014 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=9780198099772 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdVoAEACAAJ | language=en | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Tamil Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA39|year=1975|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-04190-5 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Zvelebil|first= Kamil|title=The smile of Murugan: On Tamil literature of south India|year=1973 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers

|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VF2VMUoY_okC&q=gajabahu+synchronism&pg=PA38 |isbn= 978-90-04-03591-1 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|author=Robert Caldwell|title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&pg=PA92|year=1998|orig-year=1913|edition=3rd|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0117-8 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fischel|first1=Walter J.|title=The Exploration of the Jewish Antiquities of Cochin on the Malabar Coast|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=1967|volume=87|issue=3|pages=230–248|doi=10.2307/597717|jstor=597717|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Narayanan|first1=M.G.S.|authorlink1=M. G. S. Narayanan|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala : Brahmin oligarchy and ritual monarchy : political and social conditions of Kerala under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800-AD 1124)|date=2013|publisher=CosmoBooks|location=Thrissur|isbn=9788188765072|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ|ref=harv}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Chera Dynasty}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060718060412/http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.html ''Tamil Coins'', R. Nagasamy]

{{Chera dynasty topics}}
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}

[[Category:Chera dynasty]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:Hindu dynasties]]
[[Category:Kingdoms of Kerala]]
[[Category:Tamil monarchs]]
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of India]]
[[Category:History of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 3rd century BC]]
[[Category:Tamil history]]
[[Category:History of Kerala]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 12th century]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC establishments in India]]
[[Category:12th-century disestablishments in India]]

Tiruppavai

2020-12-18T02:20:37Z

175.141.124.220: /* Verses and Explanation */

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Lord Krishna with his head on the lap of the Alvar saint, Andal.JPG|250px|[[Andal]], the saint poet who composed Thiruppavai|thumb|right]]
The '''''Thiruppavai''''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]: '''திருப்பாவை''') is a Tamil devotional poem attributed to the female poet-saint [[Andal]] (also known as Nachiyar or Kodhai.<ref name="Nair2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-AMWIzs7uzsC|title=Sages Through Ages - Volume IV: India's Heritage|author=K. K. Nair|date=1 September 2007|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4670-6410-1}}</ref> It consists of thirty stanzas (''paasurams'') in praise of [[Thirumal]] (a manifestation of [[Vishnu|Lord Vishnu]]). It is a part of [[Divya Prabandham]], a collection of the works of the twelve [[Alvars]], that is considered an important part of the devotional genre of [[Tamil literature]]. In Thiruppavai, Andal gives a universal call to all people to recite the name and glories of Lord Thirumal (Vishnu).<ref>http://ebooks.tirumala.org/Home/Download/?ID=1929</ref>

==Pavai Genre==
Thiruppavai belongs to the Pavai genre of songs, a unique Tamil tradition sung in the context of the Pavai vow (Nonmbu or ritual) observed throughout the month of ''Margazhi''. Tamil Vishnu devotees sing these stanzas every day of the year in the temple as well as in their homes. This practice assumes special significance during ''[[Tamil calendar|Margazhi]]'': each day of this month gets its name from one of the thirty verses. There are references to this vow in the late-sangam era Tamil musical anthology ''Paripadal''.<ref name="paavai">{{cite news| title=''Paavai genre of songs''| work=ntyp.org| url=http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=2001-12-28| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>

[[Andal]]'s thirty songs contain the cardinal principles of Vainava aram (Vaishnavite principles) during the month of ''[[Tamil calendar|Marghazhi]]''. Vainavas (Vaishnavas in Tamil) sing these songs to bring peace, prosperity and Divine Grace. Andal assumes the guise of a cowherd girl in these 30 verses. Andal appears intent upon performing a particular religious vow to marry the Lord, thereby obtain His everlasting company, and inviting all her girl-friends to join her. Towards the end we learn that she did not actually perform a religious rite; but is simply praying to be granted the service of the Lord for eternity. She yearns for everlasting happiness and service of the Lord.
<ref name="Importance of Tiruppavai">{{cite news|
title=''Importance of Tiruppavai''
| work=namperumal.tripod.com|
url=http://namperumal.tripod.com/TPMain.htm|
accessdate= 2007-07-13}}</ref>

==Summary of Tiruppavai's Message==
According to [[Vedas|Vedic scriptures]], the period just before the ensuing dawn is called Bramhamuhurtham. It is an auspicious time, for it gives good thoughts and intentions. Practices like meditation and penances done during this hour, give favorable results.

According to the Vedic calendar, one Earth-year equals one celestial day. So the last six months on the earth (every year) equal one celestial night. Hence, the predawn period, the Bramhamuhurtha, for the heavenly beings falls in the month of [[Dhanu (month)|Dhanurmasam]]. She undertook a [[Vrata|''vratham'']] (religious vow) called ''Dhanurmasa vratham'' during this month. Through her verses, Andal tells us that by practicing this vratham, one can attain not only materialistic happiness but also eternal bliss. Andal taught us this Dhanurmasa vratham because she wanted us to spend these auspicious days in contemplation of God. This vratham was performed for [[Krishna]]. Krishna is the bestower of happiness. Man is always in the quest for happiness, in order to attain which, he engages himself in various kinds of jobs. But pursuit of materialistic happiness will eventually lead to sorrow. So, [[Andal]] performed this vratham desiring the eternal blissful God. She desired and attained Him.

It is not easy for man to know who God is and the means to reach him. Air is not visible to our naked eye. We know the presence of air, because if we stop breathing, we die. Similarly, according to the poem, we must realize that there is a divine energy which is the cause and controller of our activities, our present form and name. He can be easily attained in His form as an idol or archa murthi. He exists as an ''archa murthi'' with the same auspicious qualities as He is in His highest divine abode ''Paramapadam''. Let us worship Him and ask Him whatever we want. He will suitably grant us everything. Kodhai Devi instilled such a faith through her pasurams (poems).

According to the poem, God is only one and He appears in various forms for our sake. He accepts our offerings and blessings even when He is worshipped in an idol-form in our house. It is for this reason Kodha Devi performed the vratham near the deity Vatapathrasai. She desired for Lord Sri Ranganatha, she worshipped Lord Sundarabahu, she asked us to reach Sri Venkatachalapathi. This she did to create the faith that God exists in all forms. By whatever name one calls, He is there for us, dwelling on the seven hills as Srinivasa or Lord Balaji in Tirumala, the God of the Kali Yuga, the primeval cause of the creation, the husband of Lakshmi Devi who is Srimannarayana. In order to remind us of this, [[Andal]] prayed, so we might be able to do service in the temple of [[Venkateshwara]].

According to the poem the symbolic undertone behind Andal's entreaty to her friends to wake up and seek Krishna subsumes the essence of the three basic mantras in the Vaishnava tradition — the Tirumantram, Dvayam and Charama Sloka that signify the truth of the paramatma or the Supreme being who dwells in everything. There is a hidden meaning in the 27th pasuram, for example, where [[Andal]] explains the importance of an acharya whose guidance is mandatory for a disciple to get these trio of mantras. If the meaning is taken literally, it appears that Kodhai Devi is asking for some of the ornaments for the vratham, but in there explains the importance of these three mantras in a symbolic way. Every pasuram has this detailed undertone which must actually be realized.

Tiruppavai is said to be 'Vedam Anaithukkum Vithagum', meaning it is the seed of the Vedas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/faith/vedas-and-thiruppavai/article28628194.ece|title=Vedas and Thiruppavai|date=2019-07-21|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-07-23|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> As the entire tree and the trees coming from it are hidden in the subtle seed, so is the entire essence of the Vedas is hidden in Thiruppavai which can be revealed only under the guidance of an ''acharya'' or a guru who is well versed in Vedic scriptures.

This entire hidden essence is mentioned in the Andal's verses in the form of poetry.

==Overview==
The first five stanzas provide an introduction to the main theme, its principle and purpose. According to Andal one should give up luxuries during this season. Sincere prayers to the God would bring abundant rain and thus prosperity. Offering Lord Krishna fresh flowers would expiate sins committed earlier and those that may be committed in future.

In the next ten stanzas she describes the importance of community participation. She invites her friends to gather flowers. She essays the ambience at her village, the chirping of birds, colorful blossoms, the musical sound of butter-churning, herds of cattle with tinkling bells, the sounding of the conch from the temple.

She visits each household and awakens all her friends to join her for a bath in a nearby pond. She also praises the incarnations of the Lord. The next five stanzas describe her visit to the temple accompanied by her friends. She desires to render ''Suprabhata'' gently to wake up the Lord. The group appeases the temple guards, enters the temple and recites prayers extolling the parents of Lord Krishna and begging them to wake up Krishna and Balarama. Then they approach Neela Devi, the consort of the Lord, to have a ''darshan''.

The last nine stanzas are on the glories of the Lord. On receiving his blessings Andal lists her demands; milk for the ''vrata'', white conch, lamps, flowers, and rich costume and jewellery, plenty of ghee and butter. The concluding stanza is an ''envoie'' identifying her as the daughter of Vishnucittar who made this garland of 30 pasurams and says those who recite with devotion will have Lord's blessings.<ref name="Thiruppavai - OVerview">{{cite news|url=http://kerala4u.in/67/aandal_thiruppavai|title=''Thiruppavai - OVerview''|accessdate=2007-07-13|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Verses and Explanation==

The Thiruppavai also includes three ''thaniyans'' (literally, 'singletons' or standalone verses) composed by later authors to introduce older texts. The first ''thaniyan'', ''<nowiki/>'Nila tungastana ... '<nowiki/>'' in Sanskrit was composed by [[Parasara Bhattar]], and the next two ''thaniyans'', ''<nowiki/>'Anna vayal pudhuvai ... ''' and ''"Choodi kodutha..."'' (translated below) were composed by Thiru Uyyakondar.

'''Thaniyan'''<ref>http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/ramachander/Thiruppavai.doc</ref>

This song is a prelude to Thiruppavai and is one of the 3 ''thaniyans''.

Andal from the swan filled Puduvai, 
Sang she, in her sweet voice, 
Several enchanting sweet odes, 
For being sung during, 
The worship and adulation of Pavai. 
They are but a garland to him, 
From her who wore them first, 
Before presenting them to Him.

Each ''pasuram'' (ode to Gods) of Thiruppavai is generally named by the first few words of the poem. These are given first and a translation into verse given then:-

{| class="blockquote"
! Song Name-Raga-Thala
! Verse
! Explanation
|-
|'''1. [[Thiruppavai 1 (Margazhi Thingal)|Margazhi Thingal]] [[Nata (raga)|Nattai]] - [[Adi tala|Adi]]'''
|மார்கழித் திங்கள் மதிநிறைந்த நன்னாளால்; நீராடப் போதுவீர்! போதுமினோ, நேரிழையீர்! 
சீர்மல்கும் ஆய்ப்பாடிச் செல்வச் சிறுமீர்காள்! 
கூர்வேல் கொடுந்தொழிலன் நந்தகோபன் குமரன், 
ஏரார்ந்த கண்ணி யசோதை இளஞ்சிங்கம், 
கார்மேனிச் செங்கண் கதிர்மதியம் போல்முகத்தான் 
நாராயணனே, நமக்கே பறைதருவான், 
பாரோர் புகழப் படிந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|In this month of Marghazhi, 
On this day filled with the light of moon, 
Come for bathing, 
Oh ladies who are richly dressed, 
And Oh ladies in rich homes of cowherds, 
For he with the sharp spear, 
He who kills his enemies without mercy, 
He who is the son of Nanda gopa, 
He who is the darling son of Yasodha, 
Who wore scented flower garlands, 
He who is a lion cub, 
He who is pretty in black colour, 
He who has small red eyes, 
He who has a face like the well-lit moon, 
And He, who is our Lord Narayana, 
Is going to give us protection, 
So that we bathe and that is our Pavai (Vratham or practice), 
In a way that the whole world sings about. 
|-
|'''2. Vaiyathu Vazhvirgal [[Gowla]] - Adi'''
|வையத்து வாழ்வீர்காள்! நாமும் நம்பாவைக்குச் 
செய்யுங் கிரிசைகள் கேளீரோ! பாற்கடலுள் 
பையத் துயின்ற பரமன் அடிபாடி, 
நெய்யுண்ணோம்; பாலுண்ணோம்; நாட்காலை நீராடி 
மையிட் டெழுதோம்; மலரிட்டு நாம் முடியோம்; 
செய்யா தனசெய்யோம்; தீக்குறளைச் சென்றோதோம்; 
ஐயமும் பிச்சையும் ஆந்தனையும் கைகாட்டி 
உய்யுமா றெண்ணி உகந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
| Oh, people of this world, 
Be pleased to hear of those penances, 
That we daily do for the worship of Pavai, 
We will sing of those holy feet, 
Of Him who sleeps in the ocean of milk, 
We will not take the very tasty ghee, 
We will avoid the health giving milk, 
We will daily bathe before the dawn, 
We will not wear any collyrium to the eye, 
We will not tie flowers in our hair, 
We will not do Any act that is banned, 
We will not talk ill of any to any one else, 
We will give alms and do charity, 
As much as we can, 
And do all those acts to make others free of sorrow, 
This is our Vratham (Pavai). 
|-
|'''3. Ongi Ulagalandha [[Arabhi]] - Adi'''
|ஓங்கி உலகளந்த உத்தமன் பேர்பாடி 
நாங்கள் நம் பாவைக்குச் சாற்றிநீர் ஆடினால், 
தீங்கின்றி நாடெல்லாம் திங்கள்மும் மாரிபெய்து 
ஓங்கு பெருஞ்செந்நெ லூடு கயல் உகளப் 
பூங்குவளைப் போதில் பொறிவண்டு கண்படுப்ப, 
தேங்காதே புக்கிருந்து சீர்த்த முலைபற்றி 
வாங்கக் குடம் நிறைக்கும் வள்ளல் பெரும்பசுக்கள் 
நீங்காத செல்வம் நிறைந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|If we sing the praise of Him, 
Who grew big and measured the world, 
And worship our Goddess Pavai, 
Then would there be at least three rains a month, 
And the red paddy plants would grow big, 
And in their fields would the fish swim and play, 
And the spotted bees after sipping honey, 
To their hearts content, 
Would sleep in the flower themselves 
After having their fill, 
And the cows with big udder 
Would fill milk pots to the brim, 
And healthy cows and never diminishing wealth, 
Would fill the country, 
And all this I assure by our vratham / practice. 
|-
|'''4. Azhi Mazhai Kanna [[Varali]] - Adi'''
|ஆழி மழைக்கண்ணா! ஒன்று நீ கைகரவேல் 
ஆழியுள் புக்கு முகந்துகொ டார்த்தேறி, 
ஊழி முதல்வன் உருவம்போல் மெய்கறுத்து 
பாழியம் தோளுடைப் பற்பநா பன்கையில் 
ஆழிபோல் மின்னி, வலம்புரிபோல் நின்றதிர்ந்து, 
தாழாதே சார்ங்கம் உதைத்த சரமழைபோல் 
வாழ உலகினில் பெய்திடாய், நாங்களும் 
மார்கழி நீராட மகிழ்ந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Please obey our wishes, 
Oh rain God who comes from the sea, 
Enter the sea, please, and bring water to your fill, 
And with zest and sound take it up, 
And like the God of the deluge become black, 
And shine like the holy wheel in the hands, 
Of The God Padmanabha who has powerful biceps, 
And make booming pleasing sounds, 
Like the right spiraled conch, 
And rain with out stop like the arrow storm, 
From Saranga the bow of Vishnu and descend on us, 
To make this world happy, 
And to help us take bath in month of Margahzhi,

|-
|'''5. Mayanai Mannu Sri - Adi'''
|மாயனை மன்னு வடமதுரை மைந்தனை, 
தூய பெருநீர் யமுனைத் துறைவனை, 
ஆயர் குலத்தினில் தோன்றும் அணிவிளக்கை, 
தாயைக் குடல்விளக்கம் செய்த தாமோதரனை, 
தூயோம்ஆய் வந்துநாம் தூமலர் தூவித்தொழுது 
வாயினால் பாடி மனத்தினால் சிந்திக்கப் 
போய பிழையும் புகுதருவான் நின்றனவும் 
தீயினில் தூசுஆகும் செப்பேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|To Him the enchanter of all, 
To Him the son of Mathura in the north, 
To Him who played and frolicked, 
In the shores of holy Yamuna, 
To Him who is the ornamental lamp, 
Of the family of cow herds, 
And to the Damodhara who made, 
His mothers womb holy, 
We came after a holy bath, 
And offered pure flowers at his feet, 
And sang with our mouth, 
And brought the thoughts of him in our mind, 
And we were sure, 
That all our mistakes of the past, 
And all that we will do in future, 
Will vanish as ashes in fire,
 
|-
|'''6. Pullum Chilambina [[Shankarabharanam]] - Misrachapu'''
|புள்ளும் சிலம்பினகாண்; புள்ளரையன் கோயிலில் 
வெள்ளை விளிசங்கின் பேரரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? 
பிள்ளாய்! எழுந்திராய், பேய்முலை நஞ்சுண்டு, 
கள்ளச் சகடம் கலக்கழியக் காலோச்சி, 
வெள்ளத்தரவில் துயிலமர்ந்த வித்தினை, 
உள்ளத்துக் கொண்டு முனிவர்களும் யோகிகளும் 
மெள்ள எழுந்து அரியென்ற பேரரவம் 
உள்ளம்புகுந்து குளிர்ந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Did you not hear alternate twittering birds making loud noises, 
Did you not hear the loud sound of white conch, 
From the temple of the king of Garuda, 
Oh, girls please wake up, 
Let us hear the holy sounds of "Hari, Hari". 
From the savants and sages, 
Calling him who drank the poisonous milk from the ghost, 
Him who kicked and killed the ogre of the cart, 
And him who sleeps on the great serpent Adi Sesha 
So that it goes through our mind, 
And make our mind cool 
|-
|'''7. Keesu Keesu [[Bhairavi (Carnatic)|Bhairavi]] - Misrachapu'''
|கீசுகீ சென்றெங்கும் ஆனைச்சாத் தன்கலந்து 
பேசின பேச்சரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? பேய்ப்பெண்ணே! 
காசும் பிறப்பும் கலகலப்பக் கைபேர்த்து 
வாச நறுங்குழல் ஆய்ச்சியர் மத்தினால் 
ஓசை படுத்தத் தயிரரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? 
நாயகப் பெண்பிள்ளாய்! நாராயணன் மூர்த்தி 
கேசவனைப் பாடவும்நீ கேட்டே கிடத்தியோ? 
தேசமுடையாய்! திறவேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Did you not hear, Oh slow witted girl, 
The twittering sound of black birds of the morn, 
Which sounds like a talk between them, 
Did you not hear the tingling sound, 
When the big and small coin like pendants, 
Rub against each other, 
Did you not hear the sound of vigorous pull, 
Of the curd churner being pulled, 
By the flower bedecked cow herdesses, 
Did you not hear the sound of twirling curd, 
When churned using the mixer, 
Oh, leader among girls,
How can you sleep, 
When they sing the names sweetly. 
Of Narayana and Kesava, 
Oh, She who is sparkling, 
Be pleased to open the door, 
 
|-
|'''8. Keezh Vanam [[Dhanyasi]] - Adi'''
|கீழ்வானம் வெள்ளென்று, எருமை சிறுவீடு 
மேய்வான் பரந்தனகாண்; மிக்குள்ள பிள்ளைகளும் 
போவான் போகின்றாரைப் போகாமல் காத்துன்னைக் 
கூவுவான் வந்து நின்றோம், கோதுகலமுடைய 
பாவாய்! எழுந்திராய்; பாடிப் பறைகொண்டு 
மாவாய் பிளந்தானை, மல்லரை மாட்டிய 
தேவாதி தேவனைச் சென்றுநாம் சேவித்தால் 
ஆவாவென் றாராய்ந் தருளேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|The eastern sky has become white, 
The buffaloes are free to walk and graze, 
The remaining lasses, have stopped from going, 
All those who wanted to go, 
And have come to call you, 
Oh girl filled with happiness,
Please wake up. 
Let us all sing and get gifts, 
From Him who has killed the horse like ogre, 
By pulling apart his mouth, 
From Him who killed the wrestlers,
Sent to kill him, 
From the Narayana, who is first among the Gods, 
And prostrate before him..
Please hear what we tell. 
And decide for yourself,
 
|-
|'''9. Thoomani Madaththu Hameer Kalyani - Adi'''
|தூமணி மாடத்துச் சுற்றும் விளக்கெரிய, 
தூபங் கமழத் துயிலணைமேல் கண்வளரும் 
மாமான் மகளே! மணிக்கதவம் தாழ்திறவாய்; 
மாமீர்! அவளை எழுப்பீரோ? உம்மகள்தான் 
ஊமையோ? அன்றிச் செவிடோ அனந்தலோ? 
ஏமப் பெருந்துயில் மந்திரப் பட்டாளோ? 
மாமாயன், மாதவன், வைகுந்தன் என்றென்று 
நாமம் பலவும் நவின்றேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
| Oh my uncle's daughter, who sleeps, 
In the soft cotton bed, 
In the pearl filled Villa, 
Well lit from all sides, 
And full of the smoke of incense, 
Please open the ornamental door. 
Oh aunt, why don't you wake her up, 
Is your daughter dumb or deaf,
Or down right lazy, 
Or she is in trance of deep pleasurable sleep, 
Let us all call him the great enchanter, 
Madhavan and he who lives in Vaikunta, 
By several of His names, 
And get benefited,
 
|-
|'''10. Notru Swargam [[Hanumatodi|Todi]] - Misrachapu'''
|நோற்றுச் சுவர்க்கம் புகுகின்ற அம்மனாய்! 
மாற்றமும் தாராரோ வாசல் திறவாதார்? 
நாற்றத் துழாய்முடி நாரா யணன்நம்மால் 
போற்றப் பறைதரும் புண்ணியனால் பண்டொருநாள் 
கூற்றத்தின் வாய்வீழ்ந்த கும்ப கரணனும் 
தோற்றம் உனக்கே பெருந்துயில்தான் தந்தானோ? 
ஆற்ற அனந்தல் உடையாய்! அருங்கலமே! 
தேற்றமாய் வந்து திறவேலா ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Oh lady fine, who has entered the heaven, 
Due to penance done in last birth, 
Won't you reply, please 
Won't you open the door, please 
If we pray the God Narayana, 
Having with him the scented garland, 
Made of holy basil, 
He would give us gifts, many, 
He is the same who is holy in times ancient, 
Sent Kumbhakarna to his death, 
After beating him in the field of war. 
Did that ogre give you his sleep, 
Before he went off from here, 
Oh lass who is very lazy, 
Oh lass, who is like pretty jewels, 
Wake up from your sleep, well, 
And open the door.
 
|-
|'''11. Katru Karavai Huseni - Misrachapu'''
|கற்றுக் கறவைக் கணங்கள் பல கறந்து 
செற்றார் திறலழியச் சென்று செருச் செய்யும் 
குற்றம் ஒன்றில்லாத கோவலர்த்தம் பொற்கொடியே 
புற்று அரவு அல்குல் புனமயிலே போதராய் 
சுற்றத்து தோழிமார் எல்லாரும் வந்து நின் 
முற்றம் புகுந்து முகில் வண்ணன் பேர் பாட 
சிற்றாதே பேசாதே செல்வ பெண்டாட்டி நீ 
எற்றுக்கு உறங்கும் பொருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh daughter of the cattle baron, 
Who milks herds of cows, 
And wages war on enemies 
And makes his enemies loose their strength, 
Oh Golden tendril,
Oh lass who has the mount of venus, 
Like the hood of the snake,
Wake up and come, 
When your flock of friends, 
Have come to your courtyard,
And sing of Krishna, 
Who has the colour of the cloud,
Oh rich, rich lady, 
How can you neither move nor talk,
And lie in deep trance, 
 
|-
|'''12. Kanaithilam Katrerumai [[Kedaragowla]] - Adi'''
|கனைத்து இளம் கற்றெருமை கன்றுக்கு இரங்கி 
நினைத்து முலை வழியே நின்று பால் சோர 
நனைத்து இல்லம் சேறாக்கும் நற் செல்வன் தங்காய் 
பனித் தலை வீழ நின் வாசற் கடை பற்றிச் 
சினத்தினால் தென் இலங்கைக் கோமானைச் செற்ற 
மனத்துக்கு இனியானைப் பாடவும் நீ வாய் திறவாய் 
இனித்தான் எழுந்திராய் ஈதென்ன பேர் உறக்கம் 
அனைத்து இல்லத்தாரும் அறிந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Hey, sister of the rich one, who owned, 
The mooing she buffalo with a calf, 
Which took pity on the calf, 
And gave out plenty, 
Of milk to it through its udder, 
And made his courtyard slushy with milk, 
We are assembled in thine yard, 
In the dripping fog,
And sing about Him, 
Who killed in anger the king of Southern Lanka, 
And who is very dear one, 
But open your mouth, you don't.. 
At least wake up now, 
Why this very deep slumber, 
For people of all houses around, 
Have already become alert 
 
|-
|'''13. Pullin Vaai Keendanai [[Atana]] - Misrachapu'''
|புள்ளின் வாய் கீண்டானைப் பொல்லா அரக்கனைக் 
கிள்ளிக் களைந்தானைக் கீர்த்தி மை பாடிப் போய்ப் 
பிள்ளைகள் எல்லாரும் பாவைக் களம்புக்கார் 
வெள்ளி எழுந்து வியாழம் உறங்கிற்று 
புள்ளும் சிலம்பின காண் போதரிக் கண்ணினாய் 
குள்ளக் குளிரக் குடைந்து நீராடாதே 
பள்ளிக் கிடத்தியோ. பாவாய். நீ நன் நாளால் 
கள்ளம் தவிர்ந்து கலந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|The lasses have reached, 
The place of prayer for Pavai, 
Singing the fame of our Lord. 
Who killed the ogre who came like a stork. 
And who cut off the heads of the bad ogre,
One by one. 
The venushas risen in the morning, 
The Jupiter has vanished from the sky, 
The birds are making lot of sound, 
Of beautiful one with wide eyes red as a flower. 
Without taking bath by dipping 
again and again in ice cold water, 
Would you prefer to sleep. 
Oh lass, On this holy day, 
Do not stay aside,
And come to bathe with us. 
 
|-
|'''14. Ungal Puzhakkadai [[Anandabhairavi]] - Adi'''
|உங்கள் புழக்கடைத் தோட்டத்து வாவியுள் 
செங்கழுனீர் வாய் நெகிழ்ந்து ஆம்பல் வாய் கூம்பின காண் 
செங்கற் பொடிக் கூரை வெண்பல் தவத்தவர் 
தங்கள் திருக்கோயில் சங்கிடுவான் போதன்றார் 
எங்களை முன்னம் எழுப்புவான் வாய்பேசும் 
நங்காய் எழுந்திராய் நாணாதாய் நாவுடையாய் 
சங்கோடு சக்கரம் ஏந்தும் தடக்கையன் 
பங்கயக் கண்ணானைப் பாடேலோர் எம்பாவாய். 
|In the pond in the backyard of your house. 
The lily in the ponds have opened, 
The night flowers have closed, 
The white toothed sages, 
Who wear clothes as red as, 
The powder of brick,
Are going to their temples. 
To sound the conch. 
You who promised to wake us up,
Please wake up, 
Are you not ashamed,
You chatter box, 
Let us all sing about the lotus eyed one, 
Who has a holy conch and disc in his hands, 
 
|-
|'''15. Elle Ilam kiliye Begada - Misrachapu'''
|எல்லே. இளம் கிளியே இன்னம் உறங்குதியோ 
சில் என்று அழையேன் மின் நங்கையீர் போதருகின்றேன் 
வல்லை உன் கட்டுரைகள் பண்டே உன் வாய் அறிதும் 
வல்லீர்கள் நீங்களே நானே தான் ஆயிடுக 
ஒல்லை நீ போதாய் உனக்கென்ன வேறுடையை 
எல்லாரும் போந்தாரோ போந்தார் போந்து எண்ணிக்கொள் 
வல் ஆனை கொன்றானை மாற்றாரை மாற்றழிக்க 
வல்லானை மாயனைப் பாடேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|
"Hey, little bird, Are you still sleeping?" 
"Don’t disturb my sleep, Lasses, I will just come". 
"You are good in your speech, We know what you mean." 
"You be good, but leave me alone" 
"Come quickly, why is it different for you?" 
"Have every one gone?"
"Gone, think they have gone" 
"Please wake up and sing, 
Of he who killed the big elephant, 
Of him who can remove enmity from enemies, 
And of him who is the holy enchanter, 
 
|-
|'''16. Nayaganaai Ninra Mohanam- Adi'''
|நாயகனாய் நின்ற நந்தகோபன் உடைய 
கோயில் காப்பானே. கொடி தோன்றும் தோரண 
வாயில் காப்பானே. மணிக் கதவம் தாள் திறவாய் 
ஆயர் சிறுமியரோமுக்கு அறை பறை 
மாயன் மணி வண்ணன் நென்னலே வாய் நேர்ந்தான் 
தூயோமாய் வந்தோம் துயில் எழப் பாடுவான் 
வாயால் முன்னம் முன்னம் மாற்றாதே அம்மா. நீ 
நேய நிலைக் கதவம் நீக்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Hey, He who guards the palace of Nanda Gopa, 
Hey, who guards the ornamental door with flags, 
Please be kind to open the door with bells, 
For yesterday the enchanter Kannan, 
Has promised to give beating drums, 
To us the girls from the houses of cow herds. 
We have come after purification, 
To wake Him up with song, 
So do not talk of this and that, Hey dear man, 
And open the door with closed latches, 
 
|-
|'''17. Ambarame Thanneere [[Kalyani (raga)|Kalyani]] - Khandachapu'''
|அம்பரமே தண்ணீரே சோறே அறம் செய்யும் 
எம்பெருமான் நந்தகோபாலா எழுந்திராய் 
கொம்பனார்க்கு எல்லாம் கொழுந்தே குல விளக்கே 
எம்பெருமாட்டி யசோதாய் அறிவுறாய் 
அம்பரம் ஊட அறுத்து ஓங்கி உளகு அளந்த 
உம்பர் கோமானே உறங்காது எழுந்திராய் 
செம் பொற் கழலடிச் செல்வா பலதேவா 
உம்பியும் நீயுன் உறங்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|Hey Nandagopa, who does good deeds and charity, 
Who gives water, cloth and food to others, 
Please wake up. 
Our lady Yasodha, who is the light of the homes of cow herds, 
She who is dear to all the ladies,
Please wake up 
Hey, Krishna who is the king of Gods, 
Who went up tearing the sky. 
Please wake up, and do not sleep. 
Hey Baladeva, who wears pure golden anklets, 
Please wake up along with your brother, 
 
|-
|'''18. Undhu Madha Kalitran [[Saveri]] - Misrachapu'''
|உந்து மத களிற்றன் ஓடாத தோள் வலியன் 
நந்தகோபாலன் மருமகளே நப்பின்னாய் 
கந்தம் கமழும் குழலி கடை திறவாய் 
வந்து எங்கும் கோழி அழைத்தன காண் மாதவிப் 
பந்தல் மேல் பல் கால் குயிலினங்கள் கூவின காண் 
பந்து ஆர் விரலி உன் மைத்துனன் பேர் பாடச் 
செந்தாமரைக் கையால் சீரார் வளை ஒலிப்ப 
வந்து திறவாய் மகிழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|Hey, Who is the fair daughter-in-law, 
Of Nanda gopa, who has several elephants, 
And who is a great hero who never ran away from his enemies, 
Hey Lady Nappinnai, who has hair surrounded by holy scent, 
Please be kind to open the door. 
The cocks are everywhere waking us up, 
The koels flock on the jasmine Pandals, 
And coo so that we all wake up, 
Hey Lady who happily plays ball, 
To help us sing your Lords fame, 
With your hands with tingling bangles, 
Please open the door with happiness, 
 
|-
|'''19. Kuthu Vilakeriya [[Sahana (raga)|Sahana]] - Misrachapu'''
|குத்து விளக்கெரிய கோட்டுக் கால் கட்டில் மேல் 
மெத்தென்ற பஞ்ச சயனத்தின் மேல் ஏறிக் 
கொத்தலர் பூங்குழல் நப்பினை கொங்கை மேல் 
வைத்துக் கிடந்த மலர் மார்பா வாய் திறவாய் 
மைத் தடம் கண்ணினாய் நீ உன் மணாளனை 
எத்தனை போதும் துயிலெழ ஒட்டாய் காண் 
எத்தனையேலும் பிரிவு ஆற்றகில்லாயால் 
தத்துவம் அன்று தகவேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|In the light of the oil lamp, 
On the ornamental four legged ivory cot, 
On the soft bed filled with cotton, 
Reclining on the busts of Nappinnai, 
You sleep, Oh he who has a flower like heart, 
Please open your mouth. 
She who has, wide black eyes with collyrium. 
We know that you will never allow him to wake up, 
For you can never bear to be away from Him, 
This is not that good, 
And cannot be accepted by us. 
 
|-
|'''20. Muppathu Muvar Senchurutti - Misrachapu'''
|முப்பத்து மூவர் அமரர்க்கு முன் சென்று 
கப்பம் தவிர்க்கும் கலியே துயில் எழாய் 
செப்பம் உடையாய் திறல் உடையாய் செற்றார்க்கு 
வெப்பம் கொடுக்கும் விமலா துயில் எழாய் 
செப்பென்ன மென் முலைச் செவ்வாய்ச் சிறு மருங்குல் 
நப்பின்னை நங்காய் திருவே துயில் எழாய் 
உக்கமும் தட்டொளியும் தந்து உன் மணாளனை 
இப்போதே எம்மை நீராட்டேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Please wake up Oh, Lord, 
Who removed sorrow and fear, 
From the thirty three sections of Devas, 
Even before they approached you, 
Oh Lord, Who is glittering like gold, 
Oh Lord, who has inimitable valour,
Please wake up, 
Oh Lady Nappinnai,
Who has desirable busts like golden pots. 
Who has little red mouth, 
And who has thin narrow hips, 
Please wake up, Oh Goddess of wealth. 
Please give mirror and fan, 
Just now to your consort, 
And allow us to take bath, 
 
|-
|'''21. Etra Kalangal Nadanamakriya - Misrachapu'''
|ஏற்ற கலங்கள் எதிர் பொங்கி மீதளிப்ப 
மாற்றாதே பால் சொரியும் வள்ளல் பெரும் பசுக்கள் 
ஆற்றப் படைத்தான் மகனே அறிவுறாய் 
ஊற்றம் உடையாய் பெரியாய் உலகினில் 
தோற்றமாய் நின்ற சுடரே துயில் எழாய் 
மாற்றார் உனக்கு வலி தொலைந்து உன் வாசற் கண் 
ஆற்றாது வந்து உன் அடி பணியுமா போலே 
போற்றியாம் வந்தோம் புகழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh son of him,
Who owned several cows, 
Which gave so much milk, 
That always the milking vessel got overflowed,
Please wake up. 
Oh Lord, who is full of mercy, 
Oh Lord, who is better than the best, 
Oh lord, who is the light that began the world, 
Please wake up. 
Like your flock of defeated enemies, 
Falling at your feet in surrender, 
We came praising you,
So that we get fame, 
 
|-
|'''22. Angan Maa Gnalathu Yamuna Kalyani - Misrachapu'''
|அம் கண் மா ஞாலத்து அரசர் அபிமான 
பங்கமாய் வந்து நின் பள்ளிக் கட்டிற் கீழே 
சங்கம் இருப்பார் போல் வந்து தலைப்பெய்தோம் 
கிங்கிணி வாய்ச் செய்த தாமரைப் பூப் போலே 
செங்கண் சிறுச் சிறிதே எம்மேல் விழியாவோ 
திங்களும் ஆதித்தனும் எழுந்தாற் போல் 
அம் கண் இரண்டும் கொண்டு எங்கள் மேல் நோக்குதியேல் 
எங்கள் மேல் சாபம் இழிந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Like all the famous kings 
Of the wide World, that is pretty, 
Have crowded near your cot, 
After surrendering their ego, 
We also have come near. 
Will not the sight, 
Of your red eyes which is like the lotus 
Fall little by little on us? 
If you see us using those eyes, 
Which are like sun and the moon, 
All the curse on us will vanish, 
 
|-
|'''23. Maari Malai Muzhainjil [[Manirangu]] - Adi'''
|மாரி மலை முழைஞ்சில் மன்னிக் கிடந்து உறங்கும் 
சீரிய சிங்கம் அறிவுற்றுத் தீ விழித்து 
வேரி மயிர் பொங்க எப்பாடும் பேர்ந்து உதறி 
மூரி நிமிர்ந்து முழங்கிப் புறப்பட்டுப் 
போதருமா போலே நீ பூவைப்பூ வண்ணா உன் 
கோயில் நின்று இங்ஙனே போந்தருளிக் கோப்புடைய 
சீரிய சிங்காசனத்து இருந்து யாம் வந்த 
காரியம் ஆராய்ந்து அருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Like the majestic lion wakes up with ire, 
From the mountain cave in the rainy season, 
Looks with fiery sight, 
And with deep angry sweat from all the hairs, 
Turns up its head with awe, 
And comes out making much din, 
Hey Lord, who is the colour of the blue lotus, 
Come from your temple to here, 
And sit on the majestic royal throne, 
And hear with compassion, 
For why we have come here, 
 
|-
|'''24. Anru Ivvulagam Sindhu Bhairavi - Adi'''
|அன்று இவ் உலகம் அளந்தாய் அடி போற்றி 
சென்றங்குத் தென் இலங்கை செற்றாய் திறல் போற்றி 
பொன்றச் சகடம் உதைத்தாய் புகழ் போற்றி 
கன்று குணில் ஆவெறிந்தாய் கழல் போற்றி 
குன்று குடையாய் எடுத்தாய் குணம் போற்றி 
வென்று பகை கெடுக்கும் நின் கையில் வேல் போற்றி 
என்றென்றும் உன் சேவகமே ஏத்திப் பறை கொள்வான் 
இன்று யாம் வந்தோம் இரங்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|We worship your feet which measured the world then, 
We worship your fame of winning over the king of Southern Lanka, 
We worship thine valour in breaking 
the ogre who came like a cart, 
We worship thy strength which threw the calf on the tree, 
We worship thine goodness in making 
the mountain as an umbrella, 
And we worship the great spear in your hand, 
which led to your victory, 
We have come hear to sing always for ever your praises, 
And get as gift the drums to sing, 
 
|-
|'''25. Oruthi Maganaai Pirandhu Behaag - Adi'''
|ஒருத்தி மகனாய்ப் பிறந்து ஓர் இரவில் 
ஒருத்தி மகனாய் ஒளித்து வளரத் 
தரிக்கிலான் ஆகித் தான் தீங்கு நினைந்த 
கருத்தைப் பிழைப்பித்துக் கஞ்சன் வயிற்றில் 
நெருப்பென்ன நின்ற நெடுமாலே., உன்னை 
அருத்தித்து வந்தோம் பறை தருதியாகில் 
திருத்தக்க செல்வமும் சேவகமும் யாம் பாடி 
வருத்தமும் தீர்ந்து மகிழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Being born to woman, 
And in the same night in hiding. 
You became the son of another, 
But this he could not tolerate, 
And wanted to cause more harm to you, 
And you great one, became, 
The fire in the stomach of that Kamsa, 
We have come here with desire for a drum, 
And if you give the drum to us, 
We would sing about thine great fame and wealth, 
And would end our sorrows and become happy, 
 
|-
|'''26. Maale! Manivanna Kunthala Varali - Adi!'''
|மாலே. மணிவண்ணா. மார்கழி நீராடுவான் 
மேலையார் செய்வனகள் வேண்டுவன கேட்டியேல் 
ஞாலத்தை எல்லாம் நடுங்க முரல்வன 
பால் அன்ன வண்ணத்து உன் பாஞ்ச சன்னியமே 
போல்வன சங்கங்கள் போய்ப் பாடுடையனவே 
சாலப் பெரும் பறையே பல்லாண்டு இசைப்பாரே 
கோல விளக்கே கொடியே விதானமே 
ஆலின் இலையாய் அருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh Lord Vishnu, 
Oh lord who is like the blue sapphire, 
If you ask us what we need, 
In your great grace and great deeds, 
For our holy bath of Marghazhi, 
We will ask for very many conches 
Like the milk white conch of yours called Pancha Janya, 
Very many big drums whose sound can be heard everywhere, 
Several musicians of fame to sing “Pallandu ” 
Several beautiful pretty lamps, 
Several flags and cloths to make tents, 
Oh, He who sleeps on a banyan leaf at time of deluge, 
Please give us them all, 
 
|-
|'''27. Koodaarai Vellum Poorvi Kalyani - Misrachapu'''
|கூடாரை வெல்லும் சீர் கோவிந்தா உந்தன்னைப் 
பாடிப் பறை கொண்டு யாம் பெறும் சம்மானம் 
நாடு புகழும் பரிசினால் நன்றாகச் 
சூடகமே தோள் வளையே தோடே செவிப் பூவே 
பாடகமே என்றனைய பலகலனும் யாம் அணிவோம் 
ஆடை உடுப்போம் அதன் பின்னே பாற் சோறு 
மூட நெய் பெய்து முழங்கை வழி வாரக் 
கூடி இருந்து குளிர்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Hey Lord Govinda, 
who is known for victory over enemies, 
After singing you we will get drums and many gifts, 
And after being praised by all the people, 
Wear we will the golden flower on our hair, 
Wear we will golden bracelets, 
Wear we will golden ear studs, 
Wear we would then the golden flowers on the ear, 
Wear we will ornaments on the legs, 
Wear we will pretty new dresses, 
Eat we will rice mixed with milk, 
Covering the rice fully with ghee, 
And with the ghee dripping from our forehands, 
We will be together and be happy, 
 
|-
|'''28. Karavaigal Pin Chendru [[Kambhoji]] - Adi'''
|கறவைகள் பின் சென்று கானம் சேர்ந்து உண்போம் 
அறிவு ஒன்றும் இல்லாத ஆய்க் குலத்து உந்தன்னைப் 
பிறவி பெறுந்தனைப் புண்ணியம் யாம் உடையோம் 
குறை ஒன்றும் இல்லாத கோவிந்தா உந்தன்னோடு 
உறவேல் நமக்கு இங்கு ஒழிக்க ஒழியாது 
அறியாத பிள்ளைகளோம் அன்பினால் உந்தன்னை 
சிறு பேர் அழைத்தனமும் சீறி அருளாதே 
இறைவா நீ தாராய் பறையேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Belonging to the ignorant family of cow herds, 
Drive we would the cattle to the forest, 
And there we would all eat together, 
But We are blessed that you are one of us.. 
Oh Govinda who does not have any short comings. 
None can ever break the ties that we have with you, Oh Lord, 
We are but ignorant girls, who do not know the world, 
And in ignorance and love we have called you by name. 
So please be not be angry on us, 
And please give us drums, Oh Lord, 
 
|-
|'''29. Chitram Chiru Kale [[Madhyamavati]] - Misrachapu'''
|சிற்றம் சிறு காலே வந்து உன்னை சேவித்து உன் 
பொற்றாமரை அடியே போற்றும் பொருள் கேளாய் 
பெற்றம் மேய்த்து உண்ணும் குலத்தில் பிறந்து நீ 
குற்று ஏவல் எங்களைக் கொள்ளாமல் போகாது 
இற்றைப் பறை கொள்வான் அன்று காண் கோவிந்தா 
எற்றைக்கும் ஏழ் ஏழ் பிறவிக்கும் உன் தன்னோடு 
உற்றோமே ஆவோம் உனக்கே நாம் ஆட்செய்வோம் 
மற்றை நம் காமங்கள் மாற்றேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Please hear why, 
In this very early dawn, 
We have come to worship, 
Your golden holy feet. 
You were born in our family of cow herds, 
And we are but there to obey your every wish, 
And not come to get only the drums from you, Oh Govinda. 
For ever and for several umpteen births, 
We would be only related to you, 
And we would be thine slaves, 
And so please remove all our other desires, 
 
|-
|'''30. Vanga Kadal Kadaintha Surutti - Misrachapu'''
|வங்கக் கடல் கடைந்த மாதவனை கேசவனை 
திங்கள் திருமுகத்து சேய் இழையார் சென்று இறைஞ்சி 
அங்கப் பறை கொண்ட ஆற்றை அணி புதுவைப் 
பைங்கமலத் தண் தெரியல் பட்டர் பிரான் கோதை- 
சொன்ன சங்கத் தமிழ் மாலை முப்பதும் தப்பாமே 
இங்கு இப்பரிசுரைப்பார் ஈரிரண்டு மால் வரை தோள் 
செங்கண் திருமுகத்துச் செல்வத் திருமாலால் 
எங்கும் திருவருள் பெற்று இன்புறுவர் எம்பாவாய்.

|He who sings with out error, 
The thirty odes in sweet Tamil, 
Of the story of how the rich ladies, 
With faces like moon, 
Who worshipped and requested, 
The Madhava who is also Lord Kesava, 
Who churned the ocean of milk, 
For getting a drum to worship Goddess Pavai, 
As sung by Kodhai who is the dear daughter, 
Of Vishnu Chitta the bhattar, 
From the beautiful city of Puduvai, 
Will be happy and get the grace, 
Of our Lord Vishnu with merciful pretty eyes. 
And four mountain like shoulders, for ever. 
|}

==Recital in Thailand==

In Thailand, an annual [[Giant Swing]] ceremony known as ''Triyampavai-Tripavai'' was held in major cities until 1935, when it was abolished for safety reasons.<ref>{{cite book |author=M. E. Manickavasagom Pillai |title=Dravidian Influence in Thai Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=soFCAAAAYAAJ |year=1986 |publisher=Tamil University |page=69 }}</ref> The name of the ceremony was derived from the names of two Tamil Hindu chants: ''[[Thiruvempavai]]'' (a Shaivite hymn by [[Manikkavacakar]]) and ''Thiruppavai''. It is known that Tamil verses from ''Thiruvempavai'' — ''poet pratu sivalai'' ("opening the portals of Shiva's home") — were recited at this ceremony, as well as the coronation ceremony of the [[Monarchy of Thailand|Thai king]].<ref name="Upendra_1986">{{cite book |author=Upendra Thakur |title=Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m42TldA_OvAC&pg=PA27 |year=1986 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-207-9 |pages=27–28 }}</ref> According to T.P. Meenakshisundaram, the name of the festival indicates that Thiruppavai might have been recited as well.<ref>{{cite book |title=Consider Our Vow: Translation of Tiruppāvai and Tiruvempāvai Into English |author=Norman Cutler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2fMOAAAAMAAJ |year=1979 |publisher=Muttu Patippakam |page=13 }}</ref>

==Trivia==
*''Thiruppavai'' is also recited in [[Thailand]]. The last two stanzas (of the 30 verses) are recited in Tamil along with Thiruvampavi during coronation of the [[Rama (King of Thailand)]].<ref name="coronation">{{cite news| title=''Coronation of Thai king''| work=ntyp.org| url=http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=2001-12-28| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>
*Thiruppaavai is sung in lieu of [[Suprabhatam]] during the month of Maarkazi at [[Tirumala]]<ref name="Thiruvengadam-Thiruppavai">{{cite news|
title=''Thiruvengadam-Thiruppavai''
| work=ramanuja.org|
url=http://www.ramanuja.org/sv/bhakti/archives/dec99/0118.html|
accessdate= 2007-07-13}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vl0mXJJm8k&list=PLrDHFXR22SMH--lhSD2USzV6pQY3gYO7h Thirupavai meaning in English]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm Short essay on Thiruppavai]
*[http://namperumal.tripod.com/TPMain.htm Commentary on Thiruppavai]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/ramanuja/thiruppavai Audio commentary on Thiruppavai]
*[http://stotrasamhita.net/wiki/Tiruppavai Tiruppavai] - viewable in multiple Indian scripts
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/sadagopan/ahobilavalli/thiruppavai.pdf PDF of Thiruppavai]
*[http://www.tiruppavai.net/about.html Explanation of Thiruppavai by Prof. Dr. Chenni Padmanabhan M.D.],
*[http://www.isai.fm/music/tamil/thiruppavai-thiruppavai-pasurams-1-30-thiruppavai-songs-lyrics/ Thiruppavai Tamil and English lyrics]

[[Category:Tamil-language literature]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]
[[Category:Hindu texts]]

Tiruppavai

2020-12-18T02:16:01Z

175.141.124.220: /* Pavai Genre */

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Lord Krishna with his head on the lap of the Alvar saint, Andal.JPG|250px|[[Andal]], the saint poet who composed Thiruppavai|thumb|right]]
The '''''Thiruppavai''''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]: '''திருப்பாவை''') is a Tamil devotional poem attributed to the female poet-saint [[Andal]] (also known as Nachiyar or Kodhai.<ref name="Nair2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-AMWIzs7uzsC|title=Sages Through Ages - Volume IV: India's Heritage|author=K. K. Nair|date=1 September 2007|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4670-6410-1}}</ref> It consists of thirty stanzas (''paasurams'') in praise of [[Thirumal]] (a manifestation of [[Vishnu|Lord Vishnu]]). It is a part of [[Divya Prabandham]], a collection of the works of the twelve [[Alvars]], that is considered an important part of the devotional genre of [[Tamil literature]]. In Thiruppavai, Andal gives a universal call to all people to recite the name and glories of Lord Thirumal (Vishnu).<ref>http://ebooks.tirumala.org/Home/Download/?ID=1929</ref>

==Pavai Genre==
Thiruppavai belongs to the Pavai genre of songs, a unique Tamil tradition sung in the context of the Pavai vow (Nonmbu or ritual) observed throughout the month of ''Margazhi''. Tamil Vishnu devotees sing these stanzas every day of the year in the temple as well as in their homes. This practice assumes special significance during ''[[Tamil calendar|Margazhi]]'': each day of this month gets its name from one of the thirty verses. There are references to this vow in the late-sangam era Tamil musical anthology ''Paripadal''.<ref name="paavai">{{cite news| title=''Paavai genre of songs''| work=ntyp.org| url=http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=2001-12-28| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>

[[Andal]]'s thirty songs contain the cardinal principles of Vainava aram (Vaishnavite principles) during the month of ''[[Tamil calendar|Marghazhi]]''. Vainavas (Vaishnavas in Tamil) sing these songs to bring peace, prosperity and Divine Grace. Andal assumes the guise of a cowherd girl in these 30 verses. Andal appears intent upon performing a particular religious vow to marry the Lord, thereby obtain His everlasting company, and inviting all her girl-friends to join her. Towards the end we learn that she did not actually perform a religious rite; but is simply praying to be granted the service of the Lord for eternity. She yearns for everlasting happiness and service of the Lord.
<ref name="Importance of Tiruppavai">{{cite news|
title=''Importance of Tiruppavai''
| work=namperumal.tripod.com|
url=http://namperumal.tripod.com/TPMain.htm|
accessdate= 2007-07-13}}</ref>

==Summary of Tiruppavai's Message==
According to [[Vedas|Vedic scriptures]], the period just before the ensuing dawn is called Bramhamuhurtham. It is an auspicious time, for it gives good thoughts and intentions. Practices like meditation and penances done during this hour, give favorable results.

According to the Vedic calendar, one Earth-year equals one celestial day. So the last six months on the earth (every year) equal one celestial night. Hence, the predawn period, the Bramhamuhurtha, for the heavenly beings falls in the month of [[Dhanu (month)|Dhanurmasam]]. She undertook a [[Vrata|''vratham'']] (religious vow) called ''Dhanurmasa vratham'' during this month. Through her verses, Andal tells us that by practicing this vratham, one can attain not only materialistic happiness but also eternal bliss. Andal taught us this Dhanurmasa vratham because she wanted us to spend these auspicious days in contemplation of God. This vratham was performed for [[Krishna]]. Krishna is the bestower of happiness. Man is always in the quest for happiness, in order to attain which, he engages himself in various kinds of jobs. But pursuit of materialistic happiness will eventually lead to sorrow. So, [[Andal]] performed this vratham desiring the eternal blissful God. She desired and attained Him.

It is not easy for man to know who God is and the means to reach him. Air is not visible to our naked eye. We know the presence of air, because if we stop breathing, we die. Similarly, according to the poem, we must realize that there is a divine energy which is the cause and controller of our activities, our present form and name. He can be easily attained in His form as an idol or archa murthi. He exists as an ''archa murthi'' with the same auspicious qualities as He is in His highest divine abode ''Paramapadam''. Let us worship Him and ask Him whatever we want. He will suitably grant us everything. Kodhai Devi instilled such a faith through her pasurams (poems).

According to the poem, God is only one and He appears in various forms for our sake. He accepts our offerings and blessings even when He is worshipped in an idol-form in our house. It is for this reason Kodha Devi performed the vratham near the deity Vatapathrasai. She desired for Lord Sri Ranganatha, she worshipped Lord Sundarabahu, she asked us to reach Sri Venkatachalapathi. This she did to create the faith that God exists in all forms. By whatever name one calls, He is there for us, dwelling on the seven hills as Srinivasa or Lord Balaji in Tirumala, the God of the Kali Yuga, the primeval cause of the creation, the husband of Lakshmi Devi who is Srimannarayana. In order to remind us of this, [[Andal]] prayed, so we might be able to do service in the temple of [[Venkateshwara]].

According to the poem the symbolic undertone behind Andal's entreaty to her friends to wake up and seek Krishna subsumes the essence of the three basic mantras in the Vaishnava tradition — the Tirumantram, Dvayam and Charama Sloka that signify the truth of the paramatma or the Supreme being who dwells in everything. There is a hidden meaning in the 27th pasuram, for example, where [[Andal]] explains the importance of an acharya whose guidance is mandatory for a disciple to get these trio of mantras. If the meaning is taken literally, it appears that Kodhai Devi is asking for some of the ornaments for the vratham, but in there explains the importance of these three mantras in a symbolic way. Every pasuram has this detailed undertone which must actually be realized.

Tiruppavai is said to be 'Vedam Anaithukkum Vithagum', meaning it is the seed of the Vedas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/faith/vedas-and-thiruppavai/article28628194.ece|title=Vedas and Thiruppavai|date=2019-07-21|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-07-23|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> As the entire tree and the trees coming from it are hidden in the subtle seed, so is the entire essence of the Vedas is hidden in Thiruppavai which can be revealed only under the guidance of an ''acharya'' or a guru who is well versed in Vedic scriptures.

This entire hidden essence is mentioned in the Andal's verses in the form of poetry.

==Overview==
The first five stanzas provide an introduction to the main theme, its principle and purpose. According to Andal one should give up luxuries during this season. Sincere prayers to the God would bring abundant rain and thus prosperity. Offering Lord Krishna fresh flowers would expiate sins committed earlier and those that may be committed in future.

In the next ten stanzas she describes the importance of community participation. She invites her friends to gather flowers. She essays the ambience at her village, the chirping of birds, colorful blossoms, the musical sound of butter-churning, herds of cattle with tinkling bells, the sounding of the conch from the temple.

She visits each household and awakens all her friends to join her for a bath in a nearby pond. She also praises the incarnations of the Lord. The next five stanzas describe her visit to the temple accompanied by her friends. She desires to render ''Suprabhata'' gently to wake up the Lord. The group appeases the temple guards, enters the temple and recites prayers extolling the parents of Lord Krishna and begging them to wake up Krishna and Balarama. Then they approach Neela Devi, the consort of the Lord, to have a ''darshan''.

The last nine stanzas are on the glories of the Lord. On receiving his blessings Andal lists her demands; milk for the ''vrata'', white conch, lamps, flowers, and rich costume and jewellery, plenty of ghee and butter. The concluding stanza is an ''envoie'' identifying her as the daughter of Vishnucittar who made this garland of 30 pasurams and says those who recite with devotion will have Lord's blessings.<ref name="Thiruppavai - OVerview">{{cite news|url=http://kerala4u.in/67/aandal_thiruppavai|title=''Thiruppavai - OVerview''|accessdate=2007-07-13|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Verses and Explanation==

The Thiruppavai also includes three ''thaniyans'' (literally, 'singletons' or standalone verses) composed by later authors to introduce older texts. The first ''thaniyan'', ''<nowiki/>'Nila tungastana ... '<nowiki/>'' in Sanskrit was composed by [[Parasara Bhattar]], and the next two ''thaniyans'', ''<nowiki/>'Anna vayal pudhuvai ... ''' and ''"Choodi kodutha..."'' (translated below) were composed by Sri Uyyakondar.

'''Thaniyan'''<ref>http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/ramachander/Thiruppavai.doc</ref>

This song is a prelude to Thiruppavai and is one of the 3 ''thaniyans''.

Andal from the swan filled Puduvai, 
Sang she, in her sweet voice, 
Several enchanting sweet odes, 
For being sung during, 
The worship and adulation of Pavai. 
They are but a garland to him, 
From her who wore them first, 
Before presenting them to Him.

Each ''pasuram'' (ode to Gods) of Thiruppavai is generally named by the first few words of the poem. These are given first and a translation into verse given then:-

{| class="blockquote"
! Song Name-Raga-Thala
! Verse
! Explanation
|-
|'''1. [[Thiruppavai 1 (Margazhi Thingal)|Margazhi Thingal]] [[Nata (raga)|Nattai]] - [[Adi tala|Adi]]'''
|மார்கழித் திங்கள் மதிநிறைந்த நன்னாளால்; நீராடப் போதுவீர்! போதுமினோ, நேரிழையீர்! 
சீர்மல்கும் ஆய்ப்பாடிச் செல்வச் சிறுமீர்காள்! 
கூர்வேல் கொடுந்தொழிலன் நந்தகோபன் குமரன், 
ஏரார்ந்த கண்ணி யசோதை இளஞ்சிங்கம், 
கார்மேனிச் செங்கண் கதிர்மதியம் போல்முகத்தான் 
நாராயணனே, நமக்கே பறைதருவான், 
பாரோர் புகழப் படிந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|In this month of Marghazhi, 
On this day filled with the light of moon, 
Come for bathing, 
Oh ladies who are richly dressed, 
And Oh ladies in rich homes of cowherds, 
For he with the sharp spear, 
He who kills his enemies without mercy, 
He who is the son of Nanda gopa, 
He who is the darling son of Yasodha, 
Who wore scented flower garlands, 
He who is a lion cub, 
He who is pretty in black colour, 
He who has small red eyes, 
He who has a face like the well-lit moon, 
And He, who is our Lord Narayana, 
Is going to give us protection, 
So that we bathe and that is our Pavai (Vratham or practice), 
In a way that the whole world sings about. 
|-
|'''2. Vaiyathu Vazhvirgal [[Gowla]] - Adi'''
|வையத்து வாழ்வீர்காள்! நாமும் நம்பாவைக்குச் 
செய்யுங் கிரிசைகள் கேளீரோ! பாற்கடலுள் 
பையத் துயின்ற பரமன் அடிபாடி, 
நெய்யுண்ணோம்; பாலுண்ணோம்; நாட்காலை நீராடி 
மையிட் டெழுதோம்; மலரிட்டு நாம் முடியோம்; 
செய்யா தனசெய்யோம்; தீக்குறளைச் சென்றோதோம்; 
ஐயமும் பிச்சையும் ஆந்தனையும் கைகாட்டி 
உய்யுமா றெண்ணி உகந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
| Oh, people of this world, 
Be pleased to hear of those penances, 
That we daily do for the worship of Pavai, 
We will sing of those holy feet, 
Of Him who sleeps in the ocean of milk, 
We will not take the very tasty ghee, 
We will avoid the health giving milk, 
We will daily bathe before the dawn, 
We will not wear any collyrium to the eye, 
We will not tie flowers in our hair, 
We will not do Any act that is banned, 
We will not talk ill of any to any one else, 
We will give alms and do charity, 
As much as we can, 
And do all those acts to make others free of sorrow, 
This is our Vratham (Pavai). 
|-
|'''3. Ongi Ulagalandha [[Arabhi]] - Adi'''
|ஓங்கி உலகளந்த உத்தமன் பேர்பாடி 
நாங்கள் நம் பாவைக்குச் சாற்றிநீர் ஆடினால், 
தீங்கின்றி நாடெல்லாம் திங்கள்மும் மாரிபெய்து 
ஓங்கு பெருஞ்செந்நெ லூடு கயல் உகளப் 
பூங்குவளைப் போதில் பொறிவண்டு கண்படுப்ப, 
தேங்காதே புக்கிருந்து சீர்த்த முலைபற்றி 
வாங்கக் குடம் நிறைக்கும் வள்ளல் பெரும்பசுக்கள் 
நீங்காத செல்வம் நிறைந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|If we sing the praise of Him, 
Who grew big and measured the world, 
And worship our Goddess Pavai, 
Then would there be at least three rains a month, 
And the red paddy plants would grow big, 
And in their fields would the fish swim and play, 
And the spotted bees after sipping honey, 
To their hearts content, 
Would sleep in the flower themselves 
After having their fill, 
And the cows with big udder 
Would fill milk pots to the brim, 
And healthy cows and never diminishing wealth, 
Would fill the country, 
And all this I assure by our vratham / practice. 
|-
|'''4. Azhi Mazhai Kanna [[Varali]] - Adi'''
|ஆழி மழைக்கண்ணா! ஒன்று நீ கைகரவேல் 
ஆழியுள் புக்கு முகந்துகொ டார்த்தேறி, 
ஊழி முதல்வன் உருவம்போல் மெய்கறுத்து 
பாழியம் தோளுடைப் பற்பநா பன்கையில் 
ஆழிபோல் மின்னி, வலம்புரிபோல் நின்றதிர்ந்து, 
தாழாதே சார்ங்கம் உதைத்த சரமழைபோல் 
வாழ உலகினில் பெய்திடாய், நாங்களும் 
மார்கழி நீராட மகிழ்ந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Please obey our wishes, 
Oh rain God who comes from the sea, 
Enter the sea, please, and bring water to your fill, 
And with zest and sound take it up, 
And like the God of the deluge become black, 
And shine like the holy wheel in the hands, 
Of The God Padmanabha who has powerful biceps, 
And make booming pleasing sounds, 
Like the right spiraled conch, 
And rain with out stop like the arrow storm, 
From Saranga the bow of Vishnu and descend on us, 
To make this world happy, 
And to help us take bath in month of Margahzhi,

|-
|'''5. Mayanai Mannu Sri - Adi'''
|மாயனை மன்னு வடமதுரை மைந்தனை, 
தூய பெருநீர் யமுனைத் துறைவனை, 
ஆயர் குலத்தினில் தோன்றும் அணிவிளக்கை, 
தாயைக் குடல்விளக்கம் செய்த தாமோதரனை, 
தூயோம்ஆய் வந்துநாம் தூமலர் தூவித்தொழுது 
வாயினால் பாடி மனத்தினால் சிந்திக்கப் 
போய பிழையும் புகுதருவான் நின்றனவும் 
தீயினில் தூசுஆகும் செப்பேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|To Him the enchanter of all, 
To Him the son of Mathura in the north, 
To Him who played and frolicked, 
In the shores of holy Yamuna, 
To Him who is the ornamental lamp, 
Of the family of cow herds, 
And to the Damodhara who made, 
His mothers womb holy, 
We came after a holy bath, 
And offered pure flowers at his feet, 
And sang with our mouth, 
And brought the thoughts of him in our mind, 
And we were sure, 
That all our mistakes of the past, 
And all that we will do in future, 
Will vanish as ashes in fire,
 
|-
|'''6. Pullum Chilambina [[Shankarabharanam]] - Misrachapu'''
|புள்ளும் சிலம்பினகாண்; புள்ளரையன் கோயிலில் 
வெள்ளை விளிசங்கின் பேரரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? 
பிள்ளாய்! எழுந்திராய், பேய்முலை நஞ்சுண்டு, 
கள்ளச் சகடம் கலக்கழியக் காலோச்சி, 
வெள்ளத்தரவில் துயிலமர்ந்த வித்தினை, 
உள்ளத்துக் கொண்டு முனிவர்களும் யோகிகளும் 
மெள்ள எழுந்து அரியென்ற பேரரவம் 
உள்ளம்புகுந்து குளிர்ந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Did you not hear alternate twittering birds making loud noises, 
Did you not hear the loud sound of white conch, 
From the temple of the king of Garuda, 
Oh, girls please wake up, 
Let us hear the holy sounds of "Hari, Hari". 
From the savants and sages, 
Calling him who drank the poisonous milk from the ghost, 
Him who kicked and killed the ogre of the cart, 
And him who sleeps on the great serpent Adi Sesha 
So that it goes through our mind, 
And make our mind cool 
|-
|'''7. Keesu Keesu [[Bhairavi (Carnatic)|Bhairavi]] - Misrachapu'''
|கீசுகீ சென்றெங்கும் ஆனைச்சாத் தன்கலந்து 
பேசின பேச்சரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? பேய்ப்பெண்ணே! 
காசும் பிறப்பும் கலகலப்பக் கைபேர்த்து 
வாச நறுங்குழல் ஆய்ச்சியர் மத்தினால் 
ஓசை படுத்தத் தயிரரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? 
நாயகப் பெண்பிள்ளாய்! நாராயணன் மூர்த்தி 
கேசவனைப் பாடவும்நீ கேட்டே கிடத்தியோ? 
தேசமுடையாய்! திறவேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Did you not hear, Oh slow witted girl, 
The twittering sound of black birds of the morn, 
Which sounds like a talk between them, 
Did you not hear the tingling sound, 
When the big and small coin like pendants, 
Rub against each other, 
Did you not hear the sound of vigorous pull, 
Of the curd churner being pulled, 
By the flower bedecked cow herdesses, 
Did you not hear the sound of twirling curd, 
When churned using the mixer, 
Oh, leader among girls,
How can you sleep, 
When they sing the names sweetly. 
Of Narayana and Kesava, 
Oh, She who is sparkling, 
Be pleased to open the door, 
 
|-
|'''8. Keezh Vanam [[Dhanyasi]] - Adi'''
|கீழ்வானம் வெள்ளென்று, எருமை சிறுவீடு 
மேய்வான் பரந்தனகாண்; மிக்குள்ள பிள்ளைகளும் 
போவான் போகின்றாரைப் போகாமல் காத்துன்னைக் 
கூவுவான் வந்து நின்றோம், கோதுகலமுடைய 
பாவாய்! எழுந்திராய்; பாடிப் பறைகொண்டு 
மாவாய் பிளந்தானை, மல்லரை மாட்டிய 
தேவாதி தேவனைச் சென்றுநாம் சேவித்தால் 
ஆவாவென் றாராய்ந் தருளேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|The eastern sky has become white, 
The buffaloes are free to walk and graze, 
The remaining lasses, have stopped from going, 
All those who wanted to go, 
And have come to call you, 
Oh girl filled with happiness,
Please wake up. 
Let us all sing and get gifts, 
From Him who has killed the horse like ogre, 
By pulling apart his mouth, 
From Him who killed the wrestlers,
Sent to kill him, 
From the Narayana, who is first among the Gods, 
And prostrate before him..
Please hear what we tell. 
And decide for yourself,
 
|-
|'''9. Thoomani Madaththu Hameer Kalyani - Adi'''
|தூமணி மாடத்துச் சுற்றும் விளக்கெரிய, 
தூபங் கமழத் துயிலணைமேல் கண்வளரும் 
மாமான் மகளே! மணிக்கதவம் தாழ்திறவாய்; 
மாமீர்! அவளை எழுப்பீரோ? உம்மகள்தான் 
ஊமையோ? அன்றிச் செவிடோ அனந்தலோ? 
ஏமப் பெருந்துயில் மந்திரப் பட்டாளோ? 
மாமாயன், மாதவன், வைகுந்தன் என்றென்று 
நாமம் பலவும் நவின்றேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
| Oh my uncle's daughter, who sleeps, 
In the soft cotton bed, 
In the pearl filled Villa, 
Well lit from all sides, 
And full of the smoke of incense, 
Please open the ornamental door. 
Oh aunt, why don't you wake her up, 
Is your daughter dumb or deaf,
Or down right lazy, 
Or she is in trance of deep pleasurable sleep, 
Let us all call him the great enchanter, 
Madhavan and he who lives in Vaikunta, 
By several of His names, 
And get benefited,
 
|-
|'''10. Notru Swargam [[Hanumatodi|Todi]] - Misrachapu'''
|நோற்றுச் சுவர்க்கம் புகுகின்ற அம்மனாய்! 
மாற்றமும் தாராரோ வாசல் திறவாதார்? 
நாற்றத் துழாய்முடி நாரா யணன்நம்மால் 
போற்றப் பறைதரும் புண்ணியனால் பண்டொருநாள் 
கூற்றத்தின் வாய்வீழ்ந்த கும்ப கரணனும் 
தோற்றம் உனக்கே பெருந்துயில்தான் தந்தானோ? 
ஆற்ற அனந்தல் உடையாய்! அருங்கலமே! 
தேற்றமாய் வந்து திறவேலா ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Oh lady fine, who has entered the heaven, 
Due to penance done in last birth, 
Won't you reply, please 
Won't you open the door, please 
If we pray the God Narayana, 
Having with him the scented garland, 
Made of holy basil, 
He would give us gifts, many, 
He is the same who is holy in times ancient, 
Sent Kumbhakarna to his death, 
After beating him in the field of war. 
Did that ogre give you his sleep, 
Before he went off from here, 
Oh lass who is very lazy, 
Oh lass, who is like pretty jewels, 
Wake up from your sleep, well, 
And open the door.
 
|-
|'''11. Katru Karavai Huseni - Misrachapu'''
|கற்றுக் கறவைக் கணங்கள் பல கறந்து 
செற்றார் திறலழியச் சென்று செருச் செய்யும் 
குற்றம் ஒன்றில்லாத கோவலர்த்தம் பொற்கொடியே 
புற்று அரவு அல்குல் புனமயிலே போதராய் 
சுற்றத்து தோழிமார் எல்லாரும் வந்து நின் 
முற்றம் புகுந்து முகில் வண்ணன் பேர் பாட 
சிற்றாதே பேசாதே செல்வ பெண்டாட்டி நீ 
எற்றுக்கு உறங்கும் பொருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh daughter of the cattle baron, 
Who milks herds of cows, 
And wages war on enemies 
And makes his enemies loose their strength, 
Oh Golden tendril,
Oh lass who has the mount of venus, 
Like the hood of the snake,
Wake up and come, 
When your flock of friends, 
Have come to your courtyard,
And sing of Krishna, 
Who has the colour of the cloud,
Oh rich, rich lady, 
How can you neither move nor talk,
And lie in deep trance, 
 
|-
|'''12. Kanaithilam Katrerumai [[Kedaragowla]] - Adi'''
|கனைத்து இளம் கற்றெருமை கன்றுக்கு இரங்கி 
நினைத்து முலை வழியே நின்று பால் சோர 
நனைத்து இல்லம் சேறாக்கும் நற் செல்வன் தங்காய் 
பனித் தலை வீழ நின் வாசற் கடை பற்றிச் 
சினத்தினால் தென் இலங்கைக் கோமானைச் செற்ற 
மனத்துக்கு இனியானைப் பாடவும் நீ வாய் திறவாய் 
இனித்தான் எழுந்திராய் ஈதென்ன பேர் உறக்கம் 
அனைத்து இல்லத்தாரும் அறிந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Hey, sister of the rich one, who owned, 
The mooing she buffalo with a calf, 
Which took pity on the calf, 
And gave out plenty, 
Of milk to it through its udder, 
And made his courtyard slushy with milk, 
We are assembled in thine yard, 
In the dripping fog,
And sing about Him, 
Who killed in anger the king of Southern Lanka, 
And who is very dear one, 
But open your mouth, you don't.. 
At least wake up now, 
Why this very deep slumber, 
For people of all houses around, 
Have already become alert 
 
|-
|'''13. Pullin Vaai Keendanai [[Atana]] - Misrachapu'''
|புள்ளின் வாய் கீண்டானைப் பொல்லா அரக்கனைக் 
கிள்ளிக் களைந்தானைக் கீர்த்தி மை பாடிப் போய்ப் 
பிள்ளைகள் எல்லாரும் பாவைக் களம்புக்கார் 
வெள்ளி எழுந்து வியாழம் உறங்கிற்று 
புள்ளும் சிலம்பின காண் போதரிக் கண்ணினாய் 
குள்ளக் குளிரக் குடைந்து நீராடாதே 
பள்ளிக் கிடத்தியோ. பாவாய். நீ நன் நாளால் 
கள்ளம் தவிர்ந்து கலந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|The lasses have reached, 
The place of prayer for Pavai, 
Singing the fame of our Lord. 
Who killed the ogre who came like a stork. 
And who cut off the heads of the bad ogre,
One by one. 
The venushas risen in the morning, 
The Jupiter has vanished from the sky, 
The birds are making lot of sound, 
Of beautiful one with wide eyes red as a flower. 
Without taking bath by dipping 
again and again in ice cold water, 
Would you prefer to sleep. 
Oh lass, On this holy day, 
Do not stay aside,
And come to bathe with us. 
 
|-
|'''14. Ungal Puzhakkadai [[Anandabhairavi]] - Adi'''
|உங்கள் புழக்கடைத் தோட்டத்து வாவியுள் 
செங்கழுனீர் வாய் நெகிழ்ந்து ஆம்பல் வாய் கூம்பின காண் 
செங்கற் பொடிக் கூரை வெண்பல் தவத்தவர் 
தங்கள் திருக்கோயில் சங்கிடுவான் போதன்றார் 
எங்களை முன்னம் எழுப்புவான் வாய்பேசும் 
நங்காய் எழுந்திராய் நாணாதாய் நாவுடையாய் 
சங்கோடு சக்கரம் ஏந்தும் தடக்கையன் 
பங்கயக் கண்ணானைப் பாடேலோர் எம்பாவாய். 
|In the pond in the backyard of your house. 
The lily in the ponds have opened, 
The night flowers have closed, 
The white toothed sages, 
Who wear clothes as red as, 
The powder of brick,
Are going to their temples. 
To sound the conch. 
You who promised to wake us up,
Please wake up, 
Are you not ashamed,
You chatter box, 
Let us all sing about the lotus eyed one, 
Who has a holy conch and disc in his hands, 
 
|-
|'''15. Elle Ilam kiliye Begada - Misrachapu'''
|எல்லே. இளம் கிளியே இன்னம் உறங்குதியோ 
சில் என்று அழையேன் மின் நங்கையீர் போதருகின்றேன் 
வல்லை உன் கட்டுரைகள் பண்டே உன் வாய் அறிதும் 
வல்லீர்கள் நீங்களே நானே தான் ஆயிடுக 
ஒல்லை நீ போதாய் உனக்கென்ன வேறுடையை 
எல்லாரும் போந்தாரோ போந்தார் போந்து எண்ணிக்கொள் 
வல் ஆனை கொன்றானை மாற்றாரை மாற்றழிக்க 
வல்லானை மாயனைப் பாடேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|
"Hey, little bird, Are you still sleeping?" 
"Don’t disturb my sleep, Lasses, I will just come". 
"You are good in your speech, We know what you mean." 
"You be good, but leave me alone" 
"Come quickly, why is it different for you?" 
"Have every one gone?"
"Gone, think they have gone" 
"Please wake up and sing, 
Of he who killed the big elephant, 
Of him who can remove enmity from enemies, 
And of him who is the holy enchanter, 
 
|-
|'''16. Nayaganaai Ninra Mohanam- Adi'''
|நாயகனாய் நின்ற நந்தகோபன் உடைய 
கோயில் காப்பானே. கொடி தோன்றும் தோரண 
வாயில் காப்பானே. மணிக் கதவம் தாள் திறவாய் 
ஆயர் சிறுமியரோமுக்கு அறை பறை 
மாயன் மணி வண்ணன் நென்னலே வாய் நேர்ந்தான் 
தூயோமாய் வந்தோம் துயில் எழப் பாடுவான் 
வாயால் முன்னம் முன்னம் மாற்றாதே அம்மா. நீ 
நேய நிலைக் கதவம் நீக்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Hey, He who guards the palace of Nanda Gopa, 
Hey, who guards the ornamental door with flags, 
Please be kind to open the door with bells, 
For yesterday the enchanter Kannan, 
Has promised to give beating drums, 
To us the girls from the houses of cow herds. 
We have come after purification, 
To wake Him up with song, 
So do not talk of this and that, Hey dear man, 
And open the door with closed latches, 
 
|-
|'''17. Ambarame Thanneere [[Kalyani (raga)|Kalyani]] - Khandachapu'''
|அம்பரமே தண்ணீரே சோறே அறம் செய்யும் 
எம்பெருமான் நந்தகோபாலா எழுந்திராய் 
கொம்பனார்க்கு எல்லாம் கொழுந்தே குல விளக்கே 
எம்பெருமாட்டி யசோதாய் அறிவுறாய் 
அம்பரம் ஊட அறுத்து ஓங்கி உளகு அளந்த 
உம்பர் கோமானே உறங்காது எழுந்திராய் 
செம் பொற் கழலடிச் செல்வா பலதேவா 
உம்பியும் நீயுன் உறங்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|Hey Nandagopa, who does good deeds and charity, 
Who gives water, cloth and food to others, 
Please wake up. 
Our lady Yasodha, who is the light of the homes of cow herds, 
She who is dear to all the ladies,
Please wake up 
Hey, Krishna who is the king of Gods, 
Who went up tearing the sky. 
Please wake up, and do not sleep. 
Hey Baladeva, who wears pure golden anklets, 
Please wake up along with your brother, 
 
|-
|'''18. Undhu Madha Kalitran [[Saveri]] - Misrachapu'''
|உந்து மத களிற்றன் ஓடாத தோள் வலியன் 
நந்தகோபாலன் மருமகளே நப்பின்னாய் 
கந்தம் கமழும் குழலி கடை திறவாய் 
வந்து எங்கும் கோழி அழைத்தன காண் மாதவிப் 
பந்தல் மேல் பல் கால் குயிலினங்கள் கூவின காண் 
பந்து ஆர் விரலி உன் மைத்துனன் பேர் பாடச் 
செந்தாமரைக் கையால் சீரார் வளை ஒலிப்ப 
வந்து திறவாய் மகிழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|Hey, Who is the fair daughter-in-law, 
Of Nanda gopa, who has several elephants, 
And who is a great hero who never ran away from his enemies, 
Hey Lady Nappinnai, who has hair surrounded by holy scent, 
Please be kind to open the door. 
The cocks are everywhere waking us up, 
The koels flock on the jasmine Pandals, 
And coo so that we all wake up, 
Hey Lady who happily plays ball, 
To help us sing your Lords fame, 
With your hands with tingling bangles, 
Please open the door with happiness, 
 
|-
|'''19. Kuthu Vilakeriya [[Sahana (raga)|Sahana]] - Misrachapu'''
|குத்து விளக்கெரிய கோட்டுக் கால் கட்டில் மேல் 
மெத்தென்ற பஞ்ச சயனத்தின் மேல் ஏறிக் 
கொத்தலர் பூங்குழல் நப்பினை கொங்கை மேல் 
வைத்துக் கிடந்த மலர் மார்பா வாய் திறவாய் 
மைத் தடம் கண்ணினாய் நீ உன் மணாளனை 
எத்தனை போதும் துயிலெழ ஒட்டாய் காண் 
எத்தனையேலும் பிரிவு ஆற்றகில்லாயால் 
தத்துவம் அன்று தகவேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|In the light of the oil lamp, 
On the ornamental four legged ivory cot, 
On the soft bed filled with cotton, 
Reclining on the busts of Nappinnai, 
You sleep, Oh he who has a flower like heart, 
Please open your mouth. 
She who has, wide black eyes with collyrium. 
We know that you will never allow him to wake up, 
For you can never bear to be away from Him, 
This is not that good, 
And cannot be accepted by us. 
 
|-
|'''20. Muppathu Muvar Senchurutti - Misrachapu'''
|முப்பத்து மூவர் அமரர்க்கு முன் சென்று 
கப்பம் தவிர்க்கும் கலியே துயில் எழாய் 
செப்பம் உடையாய் திறல் உடையாய் செற்றார்க்கு 
வெப்பம் கொடுக்கும் விமலா துயில் எழாய் 
செப்பென்ன மென் முலைச் செவ்வாய்ச் சிறு மருங்குல் 
நப்பின்னை நங்காய் திருவே துயில் எழாய் 
உக்கமும் தட்டொளியும் தந்து உன் மணாளனை 
இப்போதே எம்மை நீராட்டேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Please wake up Oh, Lord, 
Who removed sorrow and fear, 
From the thirty three sections of Devas, 
Even before they approached you, 
Oh Lord, Who is glittering like gold, 
Oh Lord, who has inimitable valour,
Please wake up, 
Oh Lady Nappinnai,
Who has desirable busts like golden pots. 
Who has little red mouth, 
And who has thin narrow hips, 
Please wake up, Oh Goddess of wealth. 
Please give mirror and fan, 
Just now to your consort, 
And allow us to take bath, 
 
|-
|'''21. Etra Kalangal Nadanamakriya - Misrachapu'''
|ஏற்ற கலங்கள் எதிர் பொங்கி மீதளிப்ப 
மாற்றாதே பால் சொரியும் வள்ளல் பெரும் பசுக்கள் 
ஆற்றப் படைத்தான் மகனே அறிவுறாய் 
ஊற்றம் உடையாய் பெரியாய் உலகினில் 
தோற்றமாய் நின்ற சுடரே துயில் எழாய் 
மாற்றார் உனக்கு வலி தொலைந்து உன் வாசற் கண் 
ஆற்றாது வந்து உன் அடி பணியுமா போலே 
போற்றியாம் வந்தோம் புகழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh son of him,
Who owned several cows, 
Which gave so much milk, 
That always the milking vessel got overflowed,
Please wake up. 
Oh Lord, who is full of mercy, 
Oh Lord, who is better than the best, 
Oh lord, who is the light that began the world, 
Please wake up. 
Like your flock of defeated enemies, 
Falling at your feet in surrender, 
We came praising you,
So that we get fame, 
 
|-
|'''22. Angan Maa Gnalathu Yamuna Kalyani - Misrachapu'''
|அம் கண் மா ஞாலத்து அரசர் அபிமான 
பங்கமாய் வந்து நின் பள்ளிக் கட்டிற் கீழே 
சங்கம் இருப்பார் போல் வந்து தலைப்பெய்தோம் 
கிங்கிணி வாய்ச் செய்த தாமரைப் பூப் போலே 
செங்கண் சிறுச் சிறிதே எம்மேல் விழியாவோ 
திங்களும் ஆதித்தனும் எழுந்தாற் போல் 
அம் கண் இரண்டும் கொண்டு எங்கள் மேல் நோக்குதியேல் 
எங்கள் மேல் சாபம் இழிந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Like all the famous kings 
Of the wide World, that is pretty, 
Have crowded near your cot, 
After surrendering their ego, 
We also have come near. 
Will not the sight, 
Of your red eyes which is like the lotus 
Fall little by little on us? 
If you see us using those eyes, 
Which are like sun and the moon, 
All the curse on us will vanish, 
 
|-
|'''23. Maari Malai Muzhainjil [[Manirangu]] - Adi'''
|மாரி மலை முழைஞ்சில் மன்னிக் கிடந்து உறங்கும் 
சீரிய சிங்கம் அறிவுற்றுத் தீ விழித்து 
வேரி மயிர் பொங்க எப்பாடும் பேர்ந்து உதறி 
மூரி நிமிர்ந்து முழங்கிப் புறப்பட்டுப் 
போதருமா போலே நீ பூவைப்பூ வண்ணா உன் 
கோயில் நின்று இங்ஙனே போந்தருளிக் கோப்புடைய 
சீரிய சிங்காசனத்து இருந்து யாம் வந்த 
காரியம் ஆராய்ந்து அருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Like the majestic lion wakes up with ire, 
From the mountain cave in the rainy season, 
Looks with fiery sight, 
And with deep angry sweat from all the hairs, 
Turns up its head with awe, 
And comes out making much din, 
Hey Lord, who is the colour of the blue lotus, 
Come from your temple to here, 
And sit on the majestic royal throne, 
And hear with compassion, 
For why we have come here, 
 
|-
|'''24. Anru Ivvulagam Sindhu Bhairavi - Adi'''
|அன்று இவ் உலகம் அளந்தாய் அடி போற்றி 
சென்றங்குத் தென் இலங்கை செற்றாய் திறல் போற்றி 
பொன்றச் சகடம் உதைத்தாய் புகழ் போற்றி 
கன்று குணில் ஆவெறிந்தாய் கழல் போற்றி 
குன்று குடையாய் எடுத்தாய் குணம் போற்றி 
வென்று பகை கெடுக்கும் நின் கையில் வேல் போற்றி 
என்றென்றும் உன் சேவகமே ஏத்திப் பறை கொள்வான் 
இன்று யாம் வந்தோம் இரங்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|We worship your feet which measured the world then, 
We worship your fame of winning over the king of Southern Lanka, 
We worship thine valour in breaking 
the ogre who came like a cart, 
We worship thy strength which threw the calf on the tree, 
We worship thine goodness in making 
the mountain as an umbrella, 
And we worship the great spear in your hand, 
which led to your victory, 
We have come hear to sing always for ever your praises, 
And get as gift the drums to sing, 
 
|-
|'''25. Oruthi Maganaai Pirandhu Behaag - Adi'''
|ஒருத்தி மகனாய்ப் பிறந்து ஓர் இரவில் 
ஒருத்தி மகனாய் ஒளித்து வளரத் 
தரிக்கிலான் ஆகித் தான் தீங்கு நினைந்த 
கருத்தைப் பிழைப்பித்துக் கஞ்சன் வயிற்றில் 
நெருப்பென்ன நின்ற நெடுமாலே., உன்னை 
அருத்தித்து வந்தோம் பறை தருதியாகில் 
திருத்தக்க செல்வமும் சேவகமும் யாம் பாடி 
வருத்தமும் தீர்ந்து மகிழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Being born to woman, 
And in the same night in hiding. 
You became the son of another, 
But this he could not tolerate, 
And wanted to cause more harm to you, 
And you great one, became, 
The fire in the stomach of that Kamsa, 
We have come here with desire for a drum, 
And if you give the drum to us, 
We would sing about thine great fame and wealth, 
And would end our sorrows and become happy, 
 
|-
|'''26. Maale! Manivanna Kunthala Varali - Adi!'''
|மாலே. மணிவண்ணா. மார்கழி நீராடுவான் 
மேலையார் செய்வனகள் வேண்டுவன கேட்டியேல் 
ஞாலத்தை எல்லாம் நடுங்க முரல்வன 
பால் அன்ன வண்ணத்து உன் பாஞ்ச சன்னியமே 
போல்வன சங்கங்கள் போய்ப் பாடுடையனவே 
சாலப் பெரும் பறையே பல்லாண்டு இசைப்பாரே 
கோல விளக்கே கொடியே விதானமே 
ஆலின் இலையாய் அருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh Lord Vishnu, 
Oh lord who is like the blue sapphire, 
If you ask us what we need, 
In your great grace and great deeds, 
For our holy bath of Marghazhi, 
We will ask for very many conches 
Like the milk white conch of yours called Pancha Janya, 
Very many big drums whose sound can be heard everywhere, 
Several musicians of fame to sing “Pallandu ” 
Several beautiful pretty lamps, 
Several flags and cloths to make tents, 
Oh, He who sleeps on a banyan leaf at time of deluge, 
Please give us them all, 
 
|-
|'''27. Koodaarai Vellum Poorvi Kalyani - Misrachapu'''
|கூடாரை வெல்லும் சீர் கோவிந்தா உந்தன்னைப் 
பாடிப் பறை கொண்டு யாம் பெறும் சம்மானம் 
நாடு புகழும் பரிசினால் நன்றாகச் 
சூடகமே தோள் வளையே தோடே செவிப் பூவே 
பாடகமே என்றனைய பலகலனும் யாம் அணிவோம் 
ஆடை உடுப்போம் அதன் பின்னே பாற் சோறு 
மூட நெய் பெய்து முழங்கை வழி வாரக் 
கூடி இருந்து குளிர்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Hey Lord Govinda, 
who is known for victory over enemies, 
After singing you we will get drums and many gifts, 
And after being praised by all the people, 
Wear we will the golden flower on our hair, 
Wear we will golden bracelets, 
Wear we will golden ear studs, 
Wear we would then the golden flowers on the ear, 
Wear we will ornaments on the legs, 
Wear we will pretty new dresses, 
Eat we will rice mixed with milk, 
Covering the rice fully with ghee, 
And with the ghee dripping from our forehands, 
We will be together and be happy, 
 
|-
|'''28. Karavaigal Pin Chendru [[Kambhoji]] - Adi'''
|கறவைகள் பின் சென்று கானம் சேர்ந்து உண்போம் 
அறிவு ஒன்றும் இல்லாத ஆய்க் குலத்து உந்தன்னைப் 
பிறவி பெறுந்தனைப் புண்ணியம் யாம் உடையோம் 
குறை ஒன்றும் இல்லாத கோவிந்தா உந்தன்னோடு 
உறவேல் நமக்கு இங்கு ஒழிக்க ஒழியாது 
அறியாத பிள்ளைகளோம் அன்பினால் உந்தன்னை 
சிறு பேர் அழைத்தனமும் சீறி அருளாதே 
இறைவா நீ தாராய் பறையேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Belonging to the ignorant family of cow herds, 
Drive we would the cattle to the forest, 
And there we would all eat together, 
But We are blessed that you are one of us.. 
Oh Govinda who does not have any short comings. 
None can ever break the ties that we have with you, Oh Lord, 
We are but ignorant girls, who do not know the world, 
And in ignorance and love we have called you by name. 
So please be not be angry on us, 
And please give us drums, Oh Lord, 
 
|-
|'''29. Chitram Chiru Kale [[Madhyamavati]] - Misrachapu'''
|சிற்றம் சிறு காலே வந்து உன்னை சேவித்து உன் 
பொற்றாமரை அடியே போற்றும் பொருள் கேளாய் 
பெற்றம் மேய்த்து உண்ணும் குலத்தில் பிறந்து நீ 
குற்று ஏவல் எங்களைக் கொள்ளாமல் போகாது 
இற்றைப் பறை கொள்வான் அன்று காண் கோவிந்தா 
எற்றைக்கும் ஏழ் ஏழ் பிறவிக்கும் உன் தன்னோடு 
உற்றோமே ஆவோம் உனக்கே நாம் ஆட்செய்வோம் 
மற்றை நம் காமங்கள் மாற்றேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Please hear why, 
In this very early dawn, 
We have come to worship, 
Your golden holy feet. 
You were born in our family of cow herds, 
And we are but there to obey your every wish, 
And not come to get only the drums from you, Oh Govinda. 
For ever and for several umpteen births, 
We would be only related to you, 
And we would be thine slaves, 
And so please remove all our other desires, 
 
|-
|'''30. Vanga Kadal Kadaintha Surutti - Misrachapu'''
|வங்கக் கடல் கடைந்த மாதவனை கேசவனை 
திங்கள் திருமுகத்து சேய் இழையார் சென்று இறைஞ்சி 
அங்கப் பறை கொண்ட ஆற்றை அணி புதுவைப் 
பைங்கமலத் தண் தெரியல் பட்டர் பிரான் கோதை- 
சொன்ன சங்கத் தமிழ் மாலை முப்பதும் தப்பாமே 
இங்கு இப்பரிசுரைப்பார் ஈரிரண்டு மால் வரை தோள் 
செங்கண் திருமுகத்துச் செல்வத் திருமாலால் 
எங்கும் திருவருள் பெற்று இன்புறுவர் எம்பாவாய்.

|He who sings with out error, 
The thirty odes in sweet Tamil, 
Of the story of how the rich ladies, 
With faces like moon, 
Who worshipped and requested, 
The Madhava who is also Lord Kesava, 
Who churned the ocean of milk, 
For getting a drum to worship Goddess Pavai, 
As sung by Kodhai who is the dear daughter, 
Of Vishnu Chitta the bhattar, 
From the beautiful city of Puduvai, 
Will be happy and get the grace, 
Of our Lord Vishnu with merciful pretty eyes. 
And four mountain like shoulders, for ever. 
|}

==Recital in Thailand==

In Thailand, an annual [[Giant Swing]] ceremony known as ''Triyampavai-Tripavai'' was held in major cities until 1935, when it was abolished for safety reasons.<ref>{{cite book |author=M. E. Manickavasagom Pillai |title=Dravidian Influence in Thai Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=soFCAAAAYAAJ |year=1986 |publisher=Tamil University |page=69 }}</ref> The name of the ceremony was derived from the names of two Tamil Hindu chants: ''[[Thiruvempavai]]'' (a Shaivite hymn by [[Manikkavacakar]]) and ''Thiruppavai''. It is known that Tamil verses from ''Thiruvempavai'' — ''poet pratu sivalai'' ("opening the portals of Shiva's home") — were recited at this ceremony, as well as the coronation ceremony of the [[Monarchy of Thailand|Thai king]].<ref name="Upendra_1986">{{cite book |author=Upendra Thakur |title=Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m42TldA_OvAC&pg=PA27 |year=1986 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-207-9 |pages=27–28 }}</ref> According to T.P. Meenakshisundaram, the name of the festival indicates that Thiruppavai might have been recited as well.<ref>{{cite book |title=Consider Our Vow: Translation of Tiruppāvai and Tiruvempāvai Into English |author=Norman Cutler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2fMOAAAAMAAJ |year=1979 |publisher=Muttu Patippakam |page=13 }}</ref>

==Trivia==
*''Thiruppavai'' is also recited in [[Thailand]]. The last two stanzas (of the 30 verses) are recited in Tamil along with Thiruvampavi during coronation of the [[Rama (King of Thailand)]].<ref name="coronation">{{cite news| title=''Coronation of Thai king''| work=ntyp.org| url=http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=2001-12-28| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>
*Thiruppaavai is sung in lieu of [[Suprabhatam]] during the month of Maarkazi at [[Tirumala]]<ref name="Thiruvengadam-Thiruppavai">{{cite news|
title=''Thiruvengadam-Thiruppavai''
| work=ramanuja.org|
url=http://www.ramanuja.org/sv/bhakti/archives/dec99/0118.html|
accessdate= 2007-07-13}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vl0mXJJm8k&list=PLrDHFXR22SMH--lhSD2USzV6pQY3gYO7h Thirupavai meaning in English]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm Short essay on Thiruppavai]
*[http://namperumal.tripod.com/TPMain.htm Commentary on Thiruppavai]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/ramanuja/thiruppavai Audio commentary on Thiruppavai]
*[http://stotrasamhita.net/wiki/Tiruppavai Tiruppavai] - viewable in multiple Indian scripts
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/sadagopan/ahobilavalli/thiruppavai.pdf PDF of Thiruppavai]
*[http://www.tiruppavai.net/about.html Explanation of Thiruppavai by Prof. Dr. Chenni Padmanabhan M.D.],
*[http://www.isai.fm/music/tamil/thiruppavai-thiruppavai-pasurams-1-30-thiruppavai-songs-lyrics/ Thiruppavai Tamil and English lyrics]

[[Category:Tamil-language literature]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]
[[Category:Hindu texts]]

Tiruppavai

2020-12-18T02:10:21Z

175.141.124.220: /* Pavai Genre */

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Lord Krishna with his head on the lap of the Alvar saint, Andal.JPG|250px|[[Andal]], the saint poet who composed Thiruppavai|thumb|right]]
The '''''Thiruppavai''''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]: '''திருப்பாவை''') is a Tamil devotional poem attributed to the female poet-saint [[Andal]] (also known as Nachiyar or Kodhai.<ref name="Nair2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-AMWIzs7uzsC|title=Sages Through Ages - Volume IV: India's Heritage|author=K. K. Nair|date=1 September 2007|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4670-6410-1}}</ref> It consists of thirty stanzas (''paasurams'') in praise of [[Thirumal]] (a manifestation of [[Vishnu|Lord Vishnu]]). It is a part of [[Divya Prabandham]], a collection of the works of the twelve [[Alvars]], that is considered an important part of the devotional genre of [[Tamil literature]]. In Thiruppavai, Andal gives a universal call to all people to recite the name and glories of Lord Thirumal (Vishnu).<ref>http://ebooks.tirumala.org/Home/Download/?ID=1929</ref>

==Pavai Genre==
Thiruppavai belongs to the Pavai genre of songs, a unique Tamil tradition sung in the context of the Pavai vow (Nonmbu or ritual) observed throughout the month of ''Margazhi''. Sri [[Vaishnava]]s sing these stanzas every day of the year in the temple as well as in their homes. This practice assumes special significance during ''[[Tamil calendar|Margazhi]]'': each day of this month gets its name from one of the thirty verses. There are references to this vow in the late-sangam era Tamil musical anthology ''Paripadal''.<ref name="paavai">{{cite news| title=''Paavai genre of songs''| work=ntyp.org| url=http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=2001-12-28| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>

[[Andal]]'s thirty songs contain the cardinal principles of [[Vaishnava]] dharma during the month of ''[[Tamil calendar|Marghazhi]]''. Vaishnavas sing these songs to bring peace, prosperity and Divine Grace. Andal assumes the guise of a cowherd girl in these 30 verses. Andal appears intent upon performing a particular religious vow to marry the Lord, thereby obtain His everlasting company, and inviting all her girl-friends to join her. Towards the end we learn that she did not actually perform a religious rite; but is simply praying to be granted the service of the Lord for eternity. She yearns for everlasting happiness and service of the Lord.
<ref name="Importance of Tiruppavai">{{cite news|
title=''Importance of Tiruppavai''
| work=namperumal.tripod.com|
url=http://namperumal.tripod.com/TPMain.htm|
accessdate= 2007-07-13}}</ref>

==Summary of Tiruppavai's Message==
According to [[Vedas|Vedic scriptures]], the period just before the ensuing dawn is called Bramhamuhurtham. It is an auspicious time, for it gives good thoughts and intentions. Practices like meditation and penances done during this hour, give favorable results.

According to the Vedic calendar, one Earth-year equals one celestial day. So the last six months on the earth (every year) equal one celestial night. Hence, the predawn period, the Bramhamuhurtha, for the heavenly beings falls in the month of [[Dhanu (month)|Dhanurmasam]]. She undertook a [[Vrata|''vratham'']] (religious vow) called ''Dhanurmasa vratham'' during this month. Through her verses, Andal tells us that by practicing this vratham, one can attain not only materialistic happiness but also eternal bliss. Andal taught us this Dhanurmasa vratham because she wanted us to spend these auspicious days in contemplation of God. This vratham was performed for [[Krishna]]. Krishna is the bestower of happiness. Man is always in the quest for happiness, in order to attain which, he engages himself in various kinds of jobs. But pursuit of materialistic happiness will eventually lead to sorrow. So, [[Andal]] performed this vratham desiring the eternal blissful God. She desired and attained Him.

It is not easy for man to know who God is and the means to reach him. Air is not visible to our naked eye. We know the presence of air, because if we stop breathing, we die. Similarly, according to the poem, we must realize that there is a divine energy which is the cause and controller of our activities, our present form and name. He can be easily attained in His form as an idol or archa murthi. He exists as an ''archa murthi'' with the same auspicious qualities as He is in His highest divine abode ''Paramapadam''. Let us worship Him and ask Him whatever we want. He will suitably grant us everything. Kodhai Devi instilled such a faith through her pasurams (poems).

According to the poem, God is only one and He appears in various forms for our sake. He accepts our offerings and blessings even when He is worshipped in an idol-form in our house. It is for this reason Kodha Devi performed the vratham near the deity Vatapathrasai. She desired for Lord Sri Ranganatha, she worshipped Lord Sundarabahu, she asked us to reach Sri Venkatachalapathi. This she did to create the faith that God exists in all forms. By whatever name one calls, He is there for us, dwelling on the seven hills as Srinivasa or Lord Balaji in Tirumala, the God of the Kali Yuga, the primeval cause of the creation, the husband of Lakshmi Devi who is Srimannarayana. In order to remind us of this, [[Andal]] prayed, so we might be able to do service in the temple of [[Venkateshwara]].

According to the poem the symbolic undertone behind Andal's entreaty to her friends to wake up and seek Krishna subsumes the essence of the three basic mantras in the Vaishnava tradition — the Tirumantram, Dvayam and Charama Sloka that signify the truth of the paramatma or the Supreme being who dwells in everything. There is a hidden meaning in the 27th pasuram, for example, where [[Andal]] explains the importance of an acharya whose guidance is mandatory for a disciple to get these trio of mantras. If the meaning is taken literally, it appears that Kodhai Devi is asking for some of the ornaments for the vratham, but in there explains the importance of these three mantras in a symbolic way. Every pasuram has this detailed undertone which must actually be realized.

Tiruppavai is said to be 'Vedam Anaithukkum Vithagum', meaning it is the seed of the Vedas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/faith/vedas-and-thiruppavai/article28628194.ece|title=Vedas and Thiruppavai|date=2019-07-21|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-07-23|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> As the entire tree and the trees coming from it are hidden in the subtle seed, so is the entire essence of the Vedas is hidden in Thiruppavai which can be revealed only under the guidance of an ''acharya'' or a guru who is well versed in Vedic scriptures.

This entire hidden essence is mentioned in the Andal's verses in the form of poetry.

==Overview==
The first five stanzas provide an introduction to the main theme, its principle and purpose. According to Andal one should give up luxuries during this season. Sincere prayers to the God would bring abundant rain and thus prosperity. Offering Lord Krishna fresh flowers would expiate sins committed earlier and those that may be committed in future.

In the next ten stanzas she describes the importance of community participation. She invites her friends to gather flowers. She essays the ambience at her village, the chirping of birds, colorful blossoms, the musical sound of butter-churning, herds of cattle with tinkling bells, the sounding of the conch from the temple.

She visits each household and awakens all her friends to join her for a bath in a nearby pond. She also praises the incarnations of the Lord. The next five stanzas describe her visit to the temple accompanied by her friends. She desires to render ''Suprabhata'' gently to wake up the Lord. The group appeases the temple guards, enters the temple and recites prayers extolling the parents of Lord Krishna and begging them to wake up Krishna and Balarama. Then they approach Neela Devi, the consort of the Lord, to have a ''darshan''.

The last nine stanzas are on the glories of the Lord. On receiving his blessings Andal lists her demands; milk for the ''vrata'', white conch, lamps, flowers, and rich costume and jewellery, plenty of ghee and butter. The concluding stanza is an ''envoie'' identifying her as the daughter of Vishnucittar who made this garland of 30 pasurams and says those who recite with devotion will have Lord's blessings.<ref name="Thiruppavai - OVerview">{{cite news|url=http://kerala4u.in/67/aandal_thiruppavai|title=''Thiruppavai - OVerview''|accessdate=2007-07-13|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Verses and Explanation==

The Thiruppavai also includes three ''thaniyans'' (literally, 'singletons' or standalone verses) composed by later authors to introduce older texts. The first ''thaniyan'', ''<nowiki/>'Nila tungastana ... '<nowiki/>'' in Sanskrit was composed by [[Parasara Bhattar]], and the next two ''thaniyans'', ''<nowiki/>'Anna vayal pudhuvai ... ''' and ''"Choodi kodutha..."'' (translated below) were composed by Sri Uyyakondar.

'''Thaniyan'''<ref>http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/ramachander/Thiruppavai.doc</ref>

This song is a prelude to Thiruppavai and is one of the 3 ''thaniyans''.

Andal from the swan filled Puduvai, 
Sang she, in her sweet voice, 
Several enchanting sweet odes, 
For being sung during, 
The worship and adulation of Pavai. 
They are but a garland to him, 
From her who wore them first, 
Before presenting them to Him.

Each ''pasuram'' (ode to Gods) of Thiruppavai is generally named by the first few words of the poem. These are given first and a translation into verse given then:-

{| class="blockquote"
! Song Name-Raga-Thala
! Verse
! Explanation
|-
|'''1. [[Thiruppavai 1 (Margazhi Thingal)|Margazhi Thingal]] [[Nata (raga)|Nattai]] - [[Adi tala|Adi]]'''
|மார்கழித் திங்கள் மதிநிறைந்த நன்னாளால்; நீராடப் போதுவீர்! போதுமினோ, நேரிழையீர்! 
சீர்மல்கும் ஆய்ப்பாடிச் செல்வச் சிறுமீர்காள்! 
கூர்வேல் கொடுந்தொழிலன் நந்தகோபன் குமரன், 
ஏரார்ந்த கண்ணி யசோதை இளஞ்சிங்கம், 
கார்மேனிச் செங்கண் கதிர்மதியம் போல்முகத்தான் 
நாராயணனே, நமக்கே பறைதருவான், 
பாரோர் புகழப் படிந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|In this month of Marghazhi, 
On this day filled with the light of moon, 
Come for bathing, 
Oh ladies who are richly dressed, 
And Oh ladies in rich homes of cowherds, 
For he with the sharp spear, 
He who kills his enemies without mercy, 
He who is the son of Nanda gopa, 
He who is the darling son of Yasodha, 
Who wore scented flower garlands, 
He who is a lion cub, 
He who is pretty in black colour, 
He who has small red eyes, 
He who has a face like the well-lit moon, 
And He, who is our Lord Narayana, 
Is going to give us protection, 
So that we bathe and that is our Pavai (Vratham or practice), 
In a way that the whole world sings about. 
|-
|'''2. Vaiyathu Vazhvirgal [[Gowla]] - Adi'''
|வையத்து வாழ்வீர்காள்! நாமும் நம்பாவைக்குச் 
செய்யுங் கிரிசைகள் கேளீரோ! பாற்கடலுள் 
பையத் துயின்ற பரமன் அடிபாடி, 
நெய்யுண்ணோம்; பாலுண்ணோம்; நாட்காலை நீராடி 
மையிட் டெழுதோம்; மலரிட்டு நாம் முடியோம்; 
செய்யா தனசெய்யோம்; தீக்குறளைச் சென்றோதோம்; 
ஐயமும் பிச்சையும் ஆந்தனையும் கைகாட்டி 
உய்யுமா றெண்ணி உகந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
| Oh, people of this world, 
Be pleased to hear of those penances, 
That we daily do for the worship of Pavai, 
We will sing of those holy feet, 
Of Him who sleeps in the ocean of milk, 
We will not take the very tasty ghee, 
We will avoid the health giving milk, 
We will daily bathe before the dawn, 
We will not wear any collyrium to the eye, 
We will not tie flowers in our hair, 
We will not do Any act that is banned, 
We will not talk ill of any to any one else, 
We will give alms and do charity, 
As much as we can, 
And do all those acts to make others free of sorrow, 
This is our Vratham (Pavai). 
|-
|'''3. Ongi Ulagalandha [[Arabhi]] - Adi'''
|ஓங்கி உலகளந்த உத்தமன் பேர்பாடி 
நாங்கள் நம் பாவைக்குச் சாற்றிநீர் ஆடினால், 
தீங்கின்றி நாடெல்லாம் திங்கள்மும் மாரிபெய்து 
ஓங்கு பெருஞ்செந்நெ லூடு கயல் உகளப் 
பூங்குவளைப் போதில் பொறிவண்டு கண்படுப்ப, 
தேங்காதே புக்கிருந்து சீர்த்த முலைபற்றி 
வாங்கக் குடம் நிறைக்கும் வள்ளல் பெரும்பசுக்கள் 
நீங்காத செல்வம் நிறைந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|If we sing the praise of Him, 
Who grew big and measured the world, 
And worship our Goddess Pavai, 
Then would there be at least three rains a month, 
And the red paddy plants would grow big, 
And in their fields would the fish swim and play, 
And the spotted bees after sipping honey, 
To their hearts content, 
Would sleep in the flower themselves 
After having their fill, 
And the cows with big udder 
Would fill milk pots to the brim, 
And healthy cows and never diminishing wealth, 
Would fill the country, 
And all this I assure by our vratham / practice. 
|-
|'''4. Azhi Mazhai Kanna [[Varali]] - Adi'''
|ஆழி மழைக்கண்ணா! ஒன்று நீ கைகரவேல் 
ஆழியுள் புக்கு முகந்துகொ டார்த்தேறி, 
ஊழி முதல்வன் உருவம்போல் மெய்கறுத்து 
பாழியம் தோளுடைப் பற்பநா பன்கையில் 
ஆழிபோல் மின்னி, வலம்புரிபோல் நின்றதிர்ந்து, 
தாழாதே சார்ங்கம் உதைத்த சரமழைபோல் 
வாழ உலகினில் பெய்திடாய், நாங்களும் 
மார்கழி நீராட மகிழ்ந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Please obey our wishes, 
Oh rain God who comes from the sea, 
Enter the sea, please, and bring water to your fill, 
And with zest and sound take it up, 
And like the God of the deluge become black, 
And shine like the holy wheel in the hands, 
Of The God Padmanabha who has powerful biceps, 
And make booming pleasing sounds, 
Like the right spiraled conch, 
And rain with out stop like the arrow storm, 
From Saranga the bow of Vishnu and descend on us, 
To make this world happy, 
And to help us take bath in month of Margahzhi,

|-
|'''5. Mayanai Mannu Sri - Adi'''
|மாயனை மன்னு வடமதுரை மைந்தனை, 
தூய பெருநீர் யமுனைத் துறைவனை, 
ஆயர் குலத்தினில் தோன்றும் அணிவிளக்கை, 
தாயைக் குடல்விளக்கம் செய்த தாமோதரனை, 
தூயோம்ஆய் வந்துநாம் தூமலர் தூவித்தொழுது 
வாயினால் பாடி மனத்தினால் சிந்திக்கப் 
போய பிழையும் புகுதருவான் நின்றனவும் 
தீயினில் தூசுஆகும் செப்பேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|To Him the enchanter of all, 
To Him the son of Mathura in the north, 
To Him who played and frolicked, 
In the shores of holy Yamuna, 
To Him who is the ornamental lamp, 
Of the family of cow herds, 
And to the Damodhara who made, 
His mothers womb holy, 
We came after a holy bath, 
And offered pure flowers at his feet, 
And sang with our mouth, 
And brought the thoughts of him in our mind, 
And we were sure, 
That all our mistakes of the past, 
And all that we will do in future, 
Will vanish as ashes in fire,
 
|-
|'''6. Pullum Chilambina [[Shankarabharanam]] - Misrachapu'''
|புள்ளும் சிலம்பினகாண்; புள்ளரையன் கோயிலில் 
வெள்ளை விளிசங்கின் பேரரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? 
பிள்ளாய்! எழுந்திராய், பேய்முலை நஞ்சுண்டு, 
கள்ளச் சகடம் கலக்கழியக் காலோச்சி, 
வெள்ளத்தரவில் துயிலமர்ந்த வித்தினை, 
உள்ளத்துக் கொண்டு முனிவர்களும் யோகிகளும் 
மெள்ள எழுந்து அரியென்ற பேரரவம் 
உள்ளம்புகுந்து குளிர்ந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Did you not hear alternate twittering birds making loud noises, 
Did you not hear the loud sound of white conch, 
From the temple of the king of Garuda, 
Oh, girls please wake up, 
Let us hear the holy sounds of "Hari, Hari". 
From the savants and sages, 
Calling him who drank the poisonous milk from the ghost, 
Him who kicked and killed the ogre of the cart, 
And him who sleeps on the great serpent Adi Sesha 
So that it goes through our mind, 
And make our mind cool 
|-
|'''7. Keesu Keesu [[Bhairavi (Carnatic)|Bhairavi]] - Misrachapu'''
|கீசுகீ சென்றெங்கும் ஆனைச்சாத் தன்கலந்து 
பேசின பேச்சரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? பேய்ப்பெண்ணே! 
காசும் பிறப்பும் கலகலப்பக் கைபேர்த்து 
வாச நறுங்குழல் ஆய்ச்சியர் மத்தினால் 
ஓசை படுத்தத் தயிரரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? 
நாயகப் பெண்பிள்ளாய்! நாராயணன் மூர்த்தி 
கேசவனைப் பாடவும்நீ கேட்டே கிடத்தியோ? 
தேசமுடையாய்! திறவேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Did you not hear, Oh slow witted girl, 
The twittering sound of black birds of the morn, 
Which sounds like a talk between them, 
Did you not hear the tingling sound, 
When the big and small coin like pendants, 
Rub against each other, 
Did you not hear the sound of vigorous pull, 
Of the curd churner being pulled, 
By the flower bedecked cow herdesses, 
Did you not hear the sound of twirling curd, 
When churned using the mixer, 
Oh, leader among girls,
How can you sleep, 
When they sing the names sweetly. 
Of Narayana and Kesava, 
Oh, She who is sparkling, 
Be pleased to open the door, 
 
|-
|'''8. Keezh Vanam [[Dhanyasi]] - Adi'''
|கீழ்வானம் வெள்ளென்று, எருமை சிறுவீடு 
மேய்வான் பரந்தனகாண்; மிக்குள்ள பிள்ளைகளும் 
போவான் போகின்றாரைப் போகாமல் காத்துன்னைக் 
கூவுவான் வந்து நின்றோம், கோதுகலமுடைய 
பாவாய்! எழுந்திராய்; பாடிப் பறைகொண்டு 
மாவாய் பிளந்தானை, மல்லரை மாட்டிய 
தேவாதி தேவனைச் சென்றுநாம் சேவித்தால் 
ஆவாவென் றாராய்ந் தருளேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|The eastern sky has become white, 
The buffaloes are free to walk and graze, 
The remaining lasses, have stopped from going, 
All those who wanted to go, 
And have come to call you, 
Oh girl filled with happiness,
Please wake up. 
Let us all sing and get gifts, 
From Him who has killed the horse like ogre, 
By pulling apart his mouth, 
From Him who killed the wrestlers,
Sent to kill him, 
From the Narayana, who is first among the Gods, 
And prostrate before him..
Please hear what we tell. 
And decide for yourself,
 
|-
|'''9. Thoomani Madaththu Hameer Kalyani - Adi'''
|தூமணி மாடத்துச் சுற்றும் விளக்கெரிய, 
தூபங் கமழத் துயிலணைமேல் கண்வளரும் 
மாமான் மகளே! மணிக்கதவம் தாழ்திறவாய்; 
மாமீர்! அவளை எழுப்பீரோ? உம்மகள்தான் 
ஊமையோ? அன்றிச் செவிடோ அனந்தலோ? 
ஏமப் பெருந்துயில் மந்திரப் பட்டாளோ? 
மாமாயன், மாதவன், வைகுந்தன் என்றென்று 
நாமம் பலவும் நவின்றேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
| Oh my uncle's daughter, who sleeps, 
In the soft cotton bed, 
In the pearl filled Villa, 
Well lit from all sides, 
And full of the smoke of incense, 
Please open the ornamental door. 
Oh aunt, why don't you wake her up, 
Is your daughter dumb or deaf,
Or down right lazy, 
Or she is in trance of deep pleasurable sleep, 
Let us all call him the great enchanter, 
Madhavan and he who lives in Vaikunta, 
By several of His names, 
And get benefited,
 
|-
|'''10. Notru Swargam [[Hanumatodi|Todi]] - Misrachapu'''
|நோற்றுச் சுவர்க்கம் புகுகின்ற அம்மனாய்! 
மாற்றமும் தாராரோ வாசல் திறவாதார்? 
நாற்றத் துழாய்முடி நாரா யணன்நம்மால் 
போற்றப் பறைதரும் புண்ணியனால் பண்டொருநாள் 
கூற்றத்தின் வாய்வீழ்ந்த கும்ப கரணனும் 
தோற்றம் உனக்கே பெருந்துயில்தான் தந்தானோ? 
ஆற்ற அனந்தல் உடையாய்! அருங்கலமே! 
தேற்றமாய் வந்து திறவேலா ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Oh lady fine, who has entered the heaven, 
Due to penance done in last birth, 
Won't you reply, please 
Won't you open the door, please 
If we pray the God Narayana, 
Having with him the scented garland, 
Made of holy basil, 
He would give us gifts, many, 
He is the same who is holy in times ancient, 
Sent Kumbhakarna to his death, 
After beating him in the field of war. 
Did that ogre give you his sleep, 
Before he went off from here, 
Oh lass who is very lazy, 
Oh lass, who is like pretty jewels, 
Wake up from your sleep, well, 
And open the door.
 
|-
|'''11. Katru Karavai Huseni - Misrachapu'''
|கற்றுக் கறவைக் கணங்கள் பல கறந்து 
செற்றார் திறலழியச் சென்று செருச் செய்யும் 
குற்றம் ஒன்றில்லாத கோவலர்த்தம் பொற்கொடியே 
புற்று அரவு அல்குல் புனமயிலே போதராய் 
சுற்றத்து தோழிமார் எல்லாரும் வந்து நின் 
முற்றம் புகுந்து முகில் வண்ணன் பேர் பாட 
சிற்றாதே பேசாதே செல்வ பெண்டாட்டி நீ 
எற்றுக்கு உறங்கும் பொருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh daughter of the cattle baron, 
Who milks herds of cows, 
And wages war on enemies 
And makes his enemies loose their strength, 
Oh Golden tendril,
Oh lass who has the mount of venus, 
Like the hood of the snake,
Wake up and come, 
When your flock of friends, 
Have come to your courtyard,
And sing of Krishna, 
Who has the colour of the cloud,
Oh rich, rich lady, 
How can you neither move nor talk,
And lie in deep trance, 
 
|-
|'''12. Kanaithilam Katrerumai [[Kedaragowla]] - Adi'''
|கனைத்து இளம் கற்றெருமை கன்றுக்கு இரங்கி 
நினைத்து முலை வழியே நின்று பால் சோர 
நனைத்து இல்லம் சேறாக்கும் நற் செல்வன் தங்காய் 
பனித் தலை வீழ நின் வாசற் கடை பற்றிச் 
சினத்தினால் தென் இலங்கைக் கோமானைச் செற்ற 
மனத்துக்கு இனியானைப் பாடவும் நீ வாய் திறவாய் 
இனித்தான் எழுந்திராய் ஈதென்ன பேர் உறக்கம் 
அனைத்து இல்லத்தாரும் அறிந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Hey, sister of the rich one, who owned, 
The mooing she buffalo with a calf, 
Which took pity on the calf, 
And gave out plenty, 
Of milk to it through its udder, 
And made his courtyard slushy with milk, 
We are assembled in thine yard, 
In the dripping fog,
And sing about Him, 
Who killed in anger the king of Southern Lanka, 
And who is very dear one, 
But open your mouth, you don't.. 
At least wake up now, 
Why this very deep slumber, 
For people of all houses around, 
Have already become alert 
 
|-
|'''13. Pullin Vaai Keendanai [[Atana]] - Misrachapu'''
|புள்ளின் வாய் கீண்டானைப் பொல்லா அரக்கனைக் 
கிள்ளிக் களைந்தானைக் கீர்த்தி மை பாடிப் போய்ப் 
பிள்ளைகள் எல்லாரும் பாவைக் களம்புக்கார் 
வெள்ளி எழுந்து வியாழம் உறங்கிற்று 
புள்ளும் சிலம்பின காண் போதரிக் கண்ணினாய் 
குள்ளக் குளிரக் குடைந்து நீராடாதே 
பள்ளிக் கிடத்தியோ. பாவாய். நீ நன் நாளால் 
கள்ளம் தவிர்ந்து கலந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|The lasses have reached, 
The place of prayer for Pavai, 
Singing the fame of our Lord. 
Who killed the ogre who came like a stork. 
And who cut off the heads of the bad ogre,
One by one. 
The venushas risen in the morning, 
The Jupiter has vanished from the sky, 
The birds are making lot of sound, 
Of beautiful one with wide eyes red as a flower. 
Without taking bath by dipping 
again and again in ice cold water, 
Would you prefer to sleep. 
Oh lass, On this holy day, 
Do not stay aside,
And come to bathe with us. 
 
|-
|'''14. Ungal Puzhakkadai [[Anandabhairavi]] - Adi'''
|உங்கள் புழக்கடைத் தோட்டத்து வாவியுள் 
செங்கழுனீர் வாய் நெகிழ்ந்து ஆம்பல் வாய் கூம்பின காண் 
செங்கற் பொடிக் கூரை வெண்பல் தவத்தவர் 
தங்கள் திருக்கோயில் சங்கிடுவான் போதன்றார் 
எங்களை முன்னம் எழுப்புவான் வாய்பேசும் 
நங்காய் எழுந்திராய் நாணாதாய் நாவுடையாய் 
சங்கோடு சக்கரம் ஏந்தும் தடக்கையன் 
பங்கயக் கண்ணானைப் பாடேலோர் எம்பாவாய். 
|In the pond in the backyard of your house. 
The lily in the ponds have opened, 
The night flowers have closed, 
The white toothed sages, 
Who wear clothes as red as, 
The powder of brick,
Are going to their temples. 
To sound the conch. 
You who promised to wake us up,
Please wake up, 
Are you not ashamed,
You chatter box, 
Let us all sing about the lotus eyed one, 
Who has a holy conch and disc in his hands, 
 
|-
|'''15. Elle Ilam kiliye Begada - Misrachapu'''
|எல்லே. இளம் கிளியே இன்னம் உறங்குதியோ 
சில் என்று அழையேன் மின் நங்கையீர் போதருகின்றேன் 
வல்லை உன் கட்டுரைகள் பண்டே உன் வாய் அறிதும் 
வல்லீர்கள் நீங்களே நானே தான் ஆயிடுக 
ஒல்லை நீ போதாய் உனக்கென்ன வேறுடையை 
எல்லாரும் போந்தாரோ போந்தார் போந்து எண்ணிக்கொள் 
வல் ஆனை கொன்றானை மாற்றாரை மாற்றழிக்க 
வல்லானை மாயனைப் பாடேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|
"Hey, little bird, Are you still sleeping?" 
"Don’t disturb my sleep, Lasses, I will just come". 
"You are good in your speech, We know what you mean." 
"You be good, but leave me alone" 
"Come quickly, why is it different for you?" 
"Have every one gone?"
"Gone, think they have gone" 
"Please wake up and sing, 
Of he who killed the big elephant, 
Of him who can remove enmity from enemies, 
And of him who is the holy enchanter, 
 
|-
|'''16. Nayaganaai Ninra Mohanam- Adi'''
|நாயகனாய் நின்ற நந்தகோபன் உடைய 
கோயில் காப்பானே. கொடி தோன்றும் தோரண 
வாயில் காப்பானே. மணிக் கதவம் தாள் திறவாய் 
ஆயர் சிறுமியரோமுக்கு அறை பறை 
மாயன் மணி வண்ணன் நென்னலே வாய் நேர்ந்தான் 
தூயோமாய் வந்தோம் துயில் எழப் பாடுவான் 
வாயால் முன்னம் முன்னம் மாற்றாதே அம்மா. நீ 
நேய நிலைக் கதவம் நீக்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Hey, He who guards the palace of Nanda Gopa, 
Hey, who guards the ornamental door with flags, 
Please be kind to open the door with bells, 
For yesterday the enchanter Kannan, 
Has promised to give beating drums, 
To us the girls from the houses of cow herds. 
We have come after purification, 
To wake Him up with song, 
So do not talk of this and that, Hey dear man, 
And open the door with closed latches, 
 
|-
|'''17. Ambarame Thanneere [[Kalyani (raga)|Kalyani]] - Khandachapu'''
|அம்பரமே தண்ணீரே சோறே அறம் செய்யும் 
எம்பெருமான் நந்தகோபாலா எழுந்திராய் 
கொம்பனார்க்கு எல்லாம் கொழுந்தே குல விளக்கே 
எம்பெருமாட்டி யசோதாய் அறிவுறாய் 
அம்பரம் ஊட அறுத்து ஓங்கி உளகு அளந்த 
உம்பர் கோமானே உறங்காது எழுந்திராய் 
செம் பொற் கழலடிச் செல்வா பலதேவா 
உம்பியும் நீயுன் உறங்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|Hey Nandagopa, who does good deeds and charity, 
Who gives water, cloth and food to others, 
Please wake up. 
Our lady Yasodha, who is the light of the homes of cow herds, 
She who is dear to all the ladies,
Please wake up 
Hey, Krishna who is the king of Gods, 
Who went up tearing the sky. 
Please wake up, and do not sleep. 
Hey Baladeva, who wears pure golden anklets, 
Please wake up along with your brother, 
 
|-
|'''18. Undhu Madha Kalitran [[Saveri]] - Misrachapu'''
|உந்து மத களிற்றன் ஓடாத தோள் வலியன் 
நந்தகோபாலன் மருமகளே நப்பின்னாய் 
கந்தம் கமழும் குழலி கடை திறவாய் 
வந்து எங்கும் கோழி அழைத்தன காண் மாதவிப் 
பந்தல் மேல் பல் கால் குயிலினங்கள் கூவின காண் 
பந்து ஆர் விரலி உன் மைத்துனன் பேர் பாடச் 
செந்தாமரைக் கையால் சீரார் வளை ஒலிப்ப 
வந்து திறவாய் மகிழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|Hey, Who is the fair daughter-in-law, 
Of Nanda gopa, who has several elephants, 
And who is a great hero who never ran away from his enemies, 
Hey Lady Nappinnai, who has hair surrounded by holy scent, 
Please be kind to open the door. 
The cocks are everywhere waking us up, 
The koels flock on the jasmine Pandals, 
And coo so that we all wake up, 
Hey Lady who happily plays ball, 
To help us sing your Lords fame, 
With your hands with tingling bangles, 
Please open the door with happiness, 
 
|-
|'''19. Kuthu Vilakeriya [[Sahana (raga)|Sahana]] - Misrachapu'''
|குத்து விளக்கெரிய கோட்டுக் கால் கட்டில் மேல் 
மெத்தென்ற பஞ்ச சயனத்தின் மேல் ஏறிக் 
கொத்தலர் பூங்குழல் நப்பினை கொங்கை மேல் 
வைத்துக் கிடந்த மலர் மார்பா வாய் திறவாய் 
மைத் தடம் கண்ணினாய் நீ உன் மணாளனை 
எத்தனை போதும் துயிலெழ ஒட்டாய் காண் 
எத்தனையேலும் பிரிவு ஆற்றகில்லாயால் 
தத்துவம் அன்று தகவேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|In the light of the oil lamp, 
On the ornamental four legged ivory cot, 
On the soft bed filled with cotton, 
Reclining on the busts of Nappinnai, 
You sleep, Oh he who has a flower like heart, 
Please open your mouth. 
She who has, wide black eyes with collyrium. 
We know that you will never allow him to wake up, 
For you can never bear to be away from Him, 
This is not that good, 
And cannot be accepted by us. 
 
|-
|'''20. Muppathu Muvar Senchurutti - Misrachapu'''
|முப்பத்து மூவர் அமரர்க்கு முன் சென்று 
கப்பம் தவிர்க்கும் கலியே துயில் எழாய் 
செப்பம் உடையாய் திறல் உடையாய் செற்றார்க்கு 
வெப்பம் கொடுக்கும் விமலா துயில் எழாய் 
செப்பென்ன மென் முலைச் செவ்வாய்ச் சிறு மருங்குல் 
நப்பின்னை நங்காய் திருவே துயில் எழாய் 
உக்கமும் தட்டொளியும் தந்து உன் மணாளனை 
இப்போதே எம்மை நீராட்டேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Please wake up Oh, Lord, 
Who removed sorrow and fear, 
From the thirty three sections of Devas, 
Even before they approached you, 
Oh Lord, Who is glittering like gold, 
Oh Lord, who has inimitable valour,
Please wake up, 
Oh Lady Nappinnai,
Who has desirable busts like golden pots. 
Who has little red mouth, 
And who has thin narrow hips, 
Please wake up, Oh Goddess of wealth. 
Please give mirror and fan, 
Just now to your consort, 
And allow us to take bath, 
 
|-
|'''21. Etra Kalangal Nadanamakriya - Misrachapu'''
|ஏற்ற கலங்கள் எதிர் பொங்கி மீதளிப்ப 
மாற்றாதே பால் சொரியும் வள்ளல் பெரும் பசுக்கள் 
ஆற்றப் படைத்தான் மகனே அறிவுறாய் 
ஊற்றம் உடையாய் பெரியாய் உலகினில் 
தோற்றமாய் நின்ற சுடரே துயில் எழாய் 
மாற்றார் உனக்கு வலி தொலைந்து உன் வாசற் கண் 
ஆற்றாது வந்து உன் அடி பணியுமா போலே 
போற்றியாம் வந்தோம் புகழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh son of him,
Who owned several cows, 
Which gave so much milk, 
That always the milking vessel got overflowed,
Please wake up. 
Oh Lord, who is full of mercy, 
Oh Lord, who is better than the best, 
Oh lord, who is the light that began the world, 
Please wake up. 
Like your flock of defeated enemies, 
Falling at your feet in surrender, 
We came praising you,
So that we get fame, 
 
|-
|'''22. Angan Maa Gnalathu Yamuna Kalyani - Misrachapu'''
|அம் கண் மா ஞாலத்து அரசர் அபிமான 
பங்கமாய் வந்து நின் பள்ளிக் கட்டிற் கீழே 
சங்கம் இருப்பார் போல் வந்து தலைப்பெய்தோம் 
கிங்கிணி வாய்ச் செய்த தாமரைப் பூப் போலே 
செங்கண் சிறுச் சிறிதே எம்மேல் விழியாவோ 
திங்களும் ஆதித்தனும் எழுந்தாற் போல் 
அம் கண் இரண்டும் கொண்டு எங்கள் மேல் நோக்குதியேல் 
எங்கள் மேல் சாபம் இழிந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Like all the famous kings 
Of the wide World, that is pretty, 
Have crowded near your cot, 
After surrendering their ego, 
We also have come near. 
Will not the sight, 
Of your red eyes which is like the lotus 
Fall little by little on us? 
If you see us using those eyes, 
Which are like sun and the moon, 
All the curse on us will vanish, 
 
|-
|'''23. Maari Malai Muzhainjil [[Manirangu]] - Adi'''
|மாரி மலை முழைஞ்சில் மன்னிக் கிடந்து உறங்கும் 
சீரிய சிங்கம் அறிவுற்றுத் தீ விழித்து 
வேரி மயிர் பொங்க எப்பாடும் பேர்ந்து உதறி 
மூரி நிமிர்ந்து முழங்கிப் புறப்பட்டுப் 
போதருமா போலே நீ பூவைப்பூ வண்ணா உன் 
கோயில் நின்று இங்ஙனே போந்தருளிக் கோப்புடைய 
சீரிய சிங்காசனத்து இருந்து யாம் வந்த 
காரியம் ஆராய்ந்து அருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Like the majestic lion wakes up with ire, 
From the mountain cave in the rainy season, 
Looks with fiery sight, 
And with deep angry sweat from all the hairs, 
Turns up its head with awe, 
And comes out making much din, 
Hey Lord, who is the colour of the blue lotus, 
Come from your temple to here, 
And sit on the majestic royal throne, 
And hear with compassion, 
For why we have come here, 
 
|-
|'''24. Anru Ivvulagam Sindhu Bhairavi - Adi'''
|அன்று இவ் உலகம் அளந்தாய் அடி போற்றி 
சென்றங்குத் தென் இலங்கை செற்றாய் திறல் போற்றி 
பொன்றச் சகடம் உதைத்தாய் புகழ் போற்றி 
கன்று குணில் ஆவெறிந்தாய் கழல் போற்றி 
குன்று குடையாய் எடுத்தாய் குணம் போற்றி 
வென்று பகை கெடுக்கும் நின் கையில் வேல் போற்றி 
என்றென்றும் உன் சேவகமே ஏத்திப் பறை கொள்வான் 
இன்று யாம் வந்தோம் இரங்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|We worship your feet which measured the world then, 
We worship your fame of winning over the king of Southern Lanka, 
We worship thine valour in breaking 
the ogre who came like a cart, 
We worship thy strength which threw the calf on the tree, 
We worship thine goodness in making 
the mountain as an umbrella, 
And we worship the great spear in your hand, 
which led to your victory, 
We have come hear to sing always for ever your praises, 
And get as gift the drums to sing, 
 
|-
|'''25. Oruthi Maganaai Pirandhu Behaag - Adi'''
|ஒருத்தி மகனாய்ப் பிறந்து ஓர் இரவில் 
ஒருத்தி மகனாய் ஒளித்து வளரத் 
தரிக்கிலான் ஆகித் தான் தீங்கு நினைந்த 
கருத்தைப் பிழைப்பித்துக் கஞ்சன் வயிற்றில் 
நெருப்பென்ன நின்ற நெடுமாலே., உன்னை 
அருத்தித்து வந்தோம் பறை தருதியாகில் 
திருத்தக்க செல்வமும் சேவகமும் யாம் பாடி 
வருத்தமும் தீர்ந்து மகிழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Being born to woman, 
And in the same night in hiding. 
You became the son of another, 
But this he could not tolerate, 
And wanted to cause more harm to you, 
And you great one, became, 
The fire in the stomach of that Kamsa, 
We have come here with desire for a drum, 
And if you give the drum to us, 
We would sing about thine great fame and wealth, 
And would end our sorrows and become happy, 
 
|-
|'''26. Maale! Manivanna Kunthala Varali - Adi!'''
|மாலே. மணிவண்ணா. மார்கழி நீராடுவான் 
மேலையார் செய்வனகள் வேண்டுவன கேட்டியேல் 
ஞாலத்தை எல்லாம் நடுங்க முரல்வன 
பால் அன்ன வண்ணத்து உன் பாஞ்ச சன்னியமே 
போல்வன சங்கங்கள் போய்ப் பாடுடையனவே 
சாலப் பெரும் பறையே பல்லாண்டு இசைப்பாரே 
கோல விளக்கே கொடியே விதானமே 
ஆலின் இலையாய் அருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh Lord Vishnu, 
Oh lord who is like the blue sapphire, 
If you ask us what we need, 
In your great grace and great deeds, 
For our holy bath of Marghazhi, 
We will ask for very many conches 
Like the milk white conch of yours called Pancha Janya, 
Very many big drums whose sound can be heard everywhere, 
Several musicians of fame to sing “Pallandu ” 
Several beautiful pretty lamps, 
Several flags and cloths to make tents, 
Oh, He who sleeps on a banyan leaf at time of deluge, 
Please give us them all, 
 
|-
|'''27. Koodaarai Vellum Poorvi Kalyani - Misrachapu'''
|கூடாரை வெல்லும் சீர் கோவிந்தா உந்தன்னைப் 
பாடிப் பறை கொண்டு யாம் பெறும் சம்மானம் 
நாடு புகழும் பரிசினால் நன்றாகச் 
சூடகமே தோள் வளையே தோடே செவிப் பூவே 
பாடகமே என்றனைய பலகலனும் யாம் அணிவோம் 
ஆடை உடுப்போம் அதன் பின்னே பாற் சோறு 
மூட நெய் பெய்து முழங்கை வழி வாரக் 
கூடி இருந்து குளிர்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Hey Lord Govinda, 
who is known for victory over enemies, 
After singing you we will get drums and many gifts, 
And after being praised by all the people, 
Wear we will the golden flower on our hair, 
Wear we will golden bracelets, 
Wear we will golden ear studs, 
Wear we would then the golden flowers on the ear, 
Wear we will ornaments on the legs, 
Wear we will pretty new dresses, 
Eat we will rice mixed with milk, 
Covering the rice fully with ghee, 
And with the ghee dripping from our forehands, 
We will be together and be happy, 
 
|-
|'''28. Karavaigal Pin Chendru [[Kambhoji]] - Adi'''
|கறவைகள் பின் சென்று கானம் சேர்ந்து உண்போம் 
அறிவு ஒன்றும் இல்லாத ஆய்க் குலத்து உந்தன்னைப் 
பிறவி பெறுந்தனைப் புண்ணியம் யாம் உடையோம் 
குறை ஒன்றும் இல்லாத கோவிந்தா உந்தன்னோடு 
உறவேல் நமக்கு இங்கு ஒழிக்க ஒழியாது 
அறியாத பிள்ளைகளோம் அன்பினால் உந்தன்னை 
சிறு பேர் அழைத்தனமும் சீறி அருளாதே 
இறைவா நீ தாராய் பறையேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Belonging to the ignorant family of cow herds, 
Drive we would the cattle to the forest, 
And there we would all eat together, 
But We are blessed that you are one of us.. 
Oh Govinda who does not have any short comings. 
None can ever break the ties that we have with you, Oh Lord, 
We are but ignorant girls, who do not know the world, 
And in ignorance and love we have called you by name. 
So please be not be angry on us, 
And please give us drums, Oh Lord, 
 
|-
|'''29. Chitram Chiru Kale [[Madhyamavati]] - Misrachapu'''
|சிற்றம் சிறு காலே வந்து உன்னை சேவித்து உன் 
பொற்றாமரை அடியே போற்றும் பொருள் கேளாய் 
பெற்றம் மேய்த்து உண்ணும் குலத்தில் பிறந்து நீ 
குற்று ஏவல் எங்களைக் கொள்ளாமல் போகாது 
இற்றைப் பறை கொள்வான் அன்று காண் கோவிந்தா 
எற்றைக்கும் ஏழ் ஏழ் பிறவிக்கும் உன் தன்னோடு 
உற்றோமே ஆவோம் உனக்கே நாம் ஆட்செய்வோம் 
மற்றை நம் காமங்கள் மாற்றேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Please hear why, 
In this very early dawn, 
We have come to worship, 
Your golden holy feet. 
You were born in our family of cow herds, 
And we are but there to obey your every wish, 
And not come to get only the drums from you, Oh Govinda. 
For ever and for several umpteen births, 
We would be only related to you, 
And we would be thine slaves, 
And so please remove all our other desires, 
 
|-
|'''30. Vanga Kadal Kadaintha Surutti - Misrachapu'''
|வங்கக் கடல் கடைந்த மாதவனை கேசவனை 
திங்கள் திருமுகத்து சேய் இழையார் சென்று இறைஞ்சி 
அங்கப் பறை கொண்ட ஆற்றை அணி புதுவைப் 
பைங்கமலத் தண் தெரியல் பட்டர் பிரான் கோதை- 
சொன்ன சங்கத் தமிழ் மாலை முப்பதும் தப்பாமே 
இங்கு இப்பரிசுரைப்பார் ஈரிரண்டு மால் வரை தோள் 
செங்கண் திருமுகத்துச் செல்வத் திருமாலால் 
எங்கும் திருவருள் பெற்று இன்புறுவர் எம்பாவாய்.

|He who sings with out error, 
The thirty odes in sweet Tamil, 
Of the story of how the rich ladies, 
With faces like moon, 
Who worshipped and requested, 
The Madhava who is also Lord Kesava, 
Who churned the ocean of milk, 
For getting a drum to worship Goddess Pavai, 
As sung by Kodhai who is the dear daughter, 
Of Vishnu Chitta the bhattar, 
From the beautiful city of Puduvai, 
Will be happy and get the grace, 
Of our Lord Vishnu with merciful pretty eyes. 
And four mountain like shoulders, for ever. 
|}

==Recital in Thailand==

In Thailand, an annual [[Giant Swing]] ceremony known as ''Triyampavai-Tripavai'' was held in major cities until 1935, when it was abolished for safety reasons.<ref>{{cite book |author=M. E. Manickavasagom Pillai |title=Dravidian Influence in Thai Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=soFCAAAAYAAJ |year=1986 |publisher=Tamil University |page=69 }}</ref> The name of the ceremony was derived from the names of two Tamil Hindu chants: ''[[Thiruvempavai]]'' (a Shaivite hymn by [[Manikkavacakar]]) and ''Thiruppavai''. It is known that Tamil verses from ''Thiruvempavai'' — ''poet pratu sivalai'' ("opening the portals of Shiva's home") — were recited at this ceremony, as well as the coronation ceremony of the [[Monarchy of Thailand|Thai king]].<ref name="Upendra_1986">{{cite book |author=Upendra Thakur |title=Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m42TldA_OvAC&pg=PA27 |year=1986 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-207-9 |pages=27–28 }}</ref> According to T.P. Meenakshisundaram, the name of the festival indicates that Thiruppavai might have been recited as well.<ref>{{cite book |title=Consider Our Vow: Translation of Tiruppāvai and Tiruvempāvai Into English |author=Norman Cutler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2fMOAAAAMAAJ |year=1979 |publisher=Muttu Patippakam |page=13 }}</ref>

==Trivia==
*''Thiruppavai'' is also recited in [[Thailand]]. The last two stanzas (of the 30 verses) are recited in Tamil along with Thiruvampavi during coronation of the [[Rama (King of Thailand)]].<ref name="coronation">{{cite news| title=''Coronation of Thai king''| work=ntyp.org| url=http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=2001-12-28| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>
*Thiruppaavai is sung in lieu of [[Suprabhatam]] during the month of Maarkazi at [[Tirumala]]<ref name="Thiruvengadam-Thiruppavai">{{cite news|
title=''Thiruvengadam-Thiruppavai''
| work=ramanuja.org|
url=http://www.ramanuja.org/sv/bhakti/archives/dec99/0118.html|
accessdate= 2007-07-13}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vl0mXJJm8k&list=PLrDHFXR22SMH--lhSD2USzV6pQY3gYO7h Thirupavai meaning in English]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm Short essay on Thiruppavai]
*[http://namperumal.tripod.com/TPMain.htm Commentary on Thiruppavai]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/ramanuja/thiruppavai Audio commentary on Thiruppavai]
*[http://stotrasamhita.net/wiki/Tiruppavai Tiruppavai] - viewable in multiple Indian scripts
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/sadagopan/ahobilavalli/thiruppavai.pdf PDF of Thiruppavai]
*[http://www.tiruppavai.net/about.html Explanation of Thiruppavai by Prof. Dr. Chenni Padmanabhan M.D.],
*[http://www.isai.fm/music/tamil/thiruppavai-thiruppavai-pasurams-1-30-thiruppavai-songs-lyrics/ Thiruppavai Tamil and English lyrics]

[[Category:Tamil-language literature]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]
[[Category:Hindu texts]]

Tiruppavai

2020-12-18T02:08:08Z

175.141.124.220:

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Lord Krishna with his head on the lap of the Alvar saint, Andal.JPG|250px|[[Andal]], the saint poet who composed Thiruppavai|thumb|right]]
The '''''Thiruppavai''''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]: '''திருப்பாவை''') is a Tamil devotional poem attributed to the female poet-saint [[Andal]] (also known as Nachiyar or Kodhai.<ref name="Nair2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-AMWIzs7uzsC|title=Sages Through Ages - Volume IV: India's Heritage|author=K. K. Nair|date=1 September 2007|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4670-6410-1}}</ref> It consists of thirty stanzas (''paasurams'') in praise of [[Thirumal]] (a manifestation of [[Vishnu|Lord Vishnu]]). It is a part of [[Divya Prabandham]], a collection of the works of the twelve [[Alvars]], that is considered an important part of the devotional genre of [[Tamil literature]]. In Thiruppavai, Andal gives a universal call to all people to recite the name and glories of Lord Thirumal (Vishnu).<ref>http://ebooks.tirumala.org/Home/Download/?ID=1929</ref>

==Pavai Genre==
Thiruppavai belongs to the Pavai genre of songs, a unique Tamil tradition sung in the context of the Pavai vow (Vratham or ritual) observed throughout the month of ''Margazhi''. Sri [[Vaishnava]]s sing these stanzas every day of the year in the temple as well as in their homes. This practice assumes special significance during ''[[Tamil calendar|Margazhi]]'': each day of this month gets its name from one of the thirty verses. There are references to this vow in the late-sangam era Tamil musical anthology ''Paripadal''.<ref name="paavai">{{cite news| title=''Paavai genre of songs''| work=ntyp.org| url=http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=2001-12-28| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>

[[Andal]]'s thirty songs contain the cardinal principles of [[Vaishnava]] dharma during the month of ''[[Tamil calendar|Marghazhi]]''. Vaishnavas sing these songs to bring peace, prosperity and Divine Grace. Andal assumes the guise of a cowherd girl in these 30 verses. Andal appears intent upon performing a particular religious vow to marry the Lord, thereby obtain His everlasting company, and inviting all her girl-friends to join her. Towards the end we learn that she did not actually perform a religious rite; but is simply praying to be granted the service of the Lord for eternity. She yearns for everlasting happiness and service of the Lord.
<ref name="Importance of Tiruppavai">{{cite news|
title=''Importance of Tiruppavai''
| work=namperumal.tripod.com|
url=http://namperumal.tripod.com/TPMain.htm|
accessdate= 2007-07-13}}</ref>

==Summary of Tiruppavai's Message==
According to [[Vedas|Vedic scriptures]], the period just before the ensuing dawn is called Bramhamuhurtham. It is an auspicious time, for it gives good thoughts and intentions. Practices like meditation and penances done during this hour, give favorable results.

According to the Vedic calendar, one Earth-year equals one celestial day. So the last six months on the earth (every year) equal one celestial night. Hence, the predawn period, the Bramhamuhurtha, for the heavenly beings falls in the month of [[Dhanu (month)|Dhanurmasam]]. She undertook a [[Vrata|''vratham'']] (religious vow) called ''Dhanurmasa vratham'' during this month. Through her verses, Andal tells us that by practicing this vratham, one can attain not only materialistic happiness but also eternal bliss. Andal taught us this Dhanurmasa vratham because she wanted us to spend these auspicious days in contemplation of God. This vratham was performed for [[Krishna]]. Krishna is the bestower of happiness. Man is always in the quest for happiness, in order to attain which, he engages himself in various kinds of jobs. But pursuit of materialistic happiness will eventually lead to sorrow. So, [[Andal]] performed this vratham desiring the eternal blissful God. She desired and attained Him.

It is not easy for man to know who God is and the means to reach him. Air is not visible to our naked eye. We know the presence of air, because if we stop breathing, we die. Similarly, according to the poem, we must realize that there is a divine energy which is the cause and controller of our activities, our present form and name. He can be easily attained in His form as an idol or archa murthi. He exists as an ''archa murthi'' with the same auspicious qualities as He is in His highest divine abode ''Paramapadam''. Let us worship Him and ask Him whatever we want. He will suitably grant us everything. Kodhai Devi instilled such a faith through her pasurams (poems).

According to the poem, God is only one and He appears in various forms for our sake. He accepts our offerings and blessings even when He is worshipped in an idol-form in our house. It is for this reason Kodha Devi performed the vratham near the deity Vatapathrasai. She desired for Lord Sri Ranganatha, she worshipped Lord Sundarabahu, she asked us to reach Sri Venkatachalapathi. This she did to create the faith that God exists in all forms. By whatever name one calls, He is there for us, dwelling on the seven hills as Srinivasa or Lord Balaji in Tirumala, the God of the Kali Yuga, the primeval cause of the creation, the husband of Lakshmi Devi who is Srimannarayana. In order to remind us of this, [[Andal]] prayed, so we might be able to do service in the temple of [[Venkateshwara]].

According to the poem the symbolic undertone behind Andal's entreaty to her friends to wake up and seek Krishna subsumes the essence of the three basic mantras in the Vaishnava tradition — the Tirumantram, Dvayam and Charama Sloka that signify the truth of the paramatma or the Supreme being who dwells in everything. There is a hidden meaning in the 27th pasuram, for example, where [[Andal]] explains the importance of an acharya whose guidance is mandatory for a disciple to get these trio of mantras. If the meaning is taken literally, it appears that Kodhai Devi is asking for some of the ornaments for the vratham, but in there explains the importance of these three mantras in a symbolic way. Every pasuram has this detailed undertone which must actually be realized.

Tiruppavai is said to be 'Vedam Anaithukkum Vithagum', meaning it is the seed of the Vedas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/faith/vedas-and-thiruppavai/article28628194.ece|title=Vedas and Thiruppavai|date=2019-07-21|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-07-23|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> As the entire tree and the trees coming from it are hidden in the subtle seed, so is the entire essence of the Vedas is hidden in Thiruppavai which can be revealed only under the guidance of an ''acharya'' or a guru who is well versed in Vedic scriptures.

This entire hidden essence is mentioned in the Andal's verses in the form of poetry.

==Overview==
The first five stanzas provide an introduction to the main theme, its principle and purpose. According to Andal one should give up luxuries during this season. Sincere prayers to the God would bring abundant rain and thus prosperity. Offering Lord Krishna fresh flowers would expiate sins committed earlier and those that may be committed in future.

In the next ten stanzas she describes the importance of community participation. She invites her friends to gather flowers. She essays the ambience at her village, the chirping of birds, colorful blossoms, the musical sound of butter-churning, herds of cattle with tinkling bells, the sounding of the conch from the temple.

She visits each household and awakens all her friends to join her for a bath in a nearby pond. She also praises the incarnations of the Lord. The next five stanzas describe her visit to the temple accompanied by her friends. She desires to render ''Suprabhata'' gently to wake up the Lord. The group appeases the temple guards, enters the temple and recites prayers extolling the parents of Lord Krishna and begging them to wake up Krishna and Balarama. Then they approach Neela Devi, the consort of the Lord, to have a ''darshan''.

The last nine stanzas are on the glories of the Lord. On receiving his blessings Andal lists her demands; milk for the ''vrata'', white conch, lamps, flowers, and rich costume and jewellery, plenty of ghee and butter. The concluding stanza is an ''envoie'' identifying her as the daughter of Vishnucittar who made this garland of 30 pasurams and says those who recite with devotion will have Lord's blessings.<ref name="Thiruppavai - OVerview">{{cite news|url=http://kerala4u.in/67/aandal_thiruppavai|title=''Thiruppavai - OVerview''|accessdate=2007-07-13|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Verses and Explanation==

The Thiruppavai also includes three ''thaniyans'' (literally, 'singletons' or standalone verses) composed by later authors to introduce older texts. The first ''thaniyan'', ''<nowiki/>'Nila tungastana ... '<nowiki/>'' in Sanskrit was composed by [[Parasara Bhattar]], and the next two ''thaniyans'', ''<nowiki/>'Anna vayal pudhuvai ... ''' and ''"Choodi kodutha..."'' (translated below) were composed by Sri Uyyakondar.

'''Thaniyan'''<ref>http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/ramachander/Thiruppavai.doc</ref>

This song is a prelude to Thiruppavai and is one of the 3 ''thaniyans''.

Andal from the swan filled Puduvai, 
Sang she, in her sweet voice, 
Several enchanting sweet odes, 
For being sung during, 
The worship and adulation of Pavai. 
They are but a garland to him, 
From her who wore them first, 
Before presenting them to Him.

Each ''pasuram'' (ode to Gods) of Thiruppavai is generally named by the first few words of the poem. These are given first and a translation into verse given then:-

{| class="blockquote"
! Song Name-Raga-Thala
! Verse
! Explanation
|-
|'''1. [[Thiruppavai 1 (Margazhi Thingal)|Margazhi Thingal]] [[Nata (raga)|Nattai]] - [[Adi tala|Adi]]'''
|மார்கழித் திங்கள் மதிநிறைந்த நன்னாளால்; நீராடப் போதுவீர்! போதுமினோ, நேரிழையீர்! 
சீர்மல்கும் ஆய்ப்பாடிச் செல்வச் சிறுமீர்காள்! 
கூர்வேல் கொடுந்தொழிலன் நந்தகோபன் குமரன், 
ஏரார்ந்த கண்ணி யசோதை இளஞ்சிங்கம், 
கார்மேனிச் செங்கண் கதிர்மதியம் போல்முகத்தான் 
நாராயணனே, நமக்கே பறைதருவான், 
பாரோர் புகழப் படிந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|In this month of Marghazhi, 
On this day filled with the light of moon, 
Come for bathing, 
Oh ladies who are richly dressed, 
And Oh ladies in rich homes of cowherds, 
For he with the sharp spear, 
He who kills his enemies without mercy, 
He who is the son of Nanda gopa, 
He who is the darling son of Yasodha, 
Who wore scented flower garlands, 
He who is a lion cub, 
He who is pretty in black colour, 
He who has small red eyes, 
He who has a face like the well-lit moon, 
And He, who is our Lord Narayana, 
Is going to give us protection, 
So that we bathe and that is our Pavai (Vratham or practice), 
In a way that the whole world sings about. 
|-
|'''2. Vaiyathu Vazhvirgal [[Gowla]] - Adi'''
|வையத்து வாழ்வீர்காள்! நாமும் நம்பாவைக்குச் 
செய்யுங் கிரிசைகள் கேளீரோ! பாற்கடலுள் 
பையத் துயின்ற பரமன் அடிபாடி, 
நெய்யுண்ணோம்; பாலுண்ணோம்; நாட்காலை நீராடி 
மையிட் டெழுதோம்; மலரிட்டு நாம் முடியோம்; 
செய்யா தனசெய்யோம்; தீக்குறளைச் சென்றோதோம்; 
ஐயமும் பிச்சையும் ஆந்தனையும் கைகாட்டி 
உய்யுமா றெண்ணி உகந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
| Oh, people of this world, 
Be pleased to hear of those penances, 
That we daily do for the worship of Pavai, 
We will sing of those holy feet, 
Of Him who sleeps in the ocean of milk, 
We will not take the very tasty ghee, 
We will avoid the health giving milk, 
We will daily bathe before the dawn, 
We will not wear any collyrium to the eye, 
We will not tie flowers in our hair, 
We will not do Any act that is banned, 
We will not talk ill of any to any one else, 
We will give alms and do charity, 
As much as we can, 
And do all those acts to make others free of sorrow, 
This is our Vratham (Pavai). 
|-
|'''3. Ongi Ulagalandha [[Arabhi]] - Adi'''
|ஓங்கி உலகளந்த உத்தமன் பேர்பாடி 
நாங்கள் நம் பாவைக்குச் சாற்றிநீர் ஆடினால், 
தீங்கின்றி நாடெல்லாம் திங்கள்மும் மாரிபெய்து 
ஓங்கு பெருஞ்செந்நெ லூடு கயல் உகளப் 
பூங்குவளைப் போதில் பொறிவண்டு கண்படுப்ப, 
தேங்காதே புக்கிருந்து சீர்த்த முலைபற்றி 
வாங்கக் குடம் நிறைக்கும் வள்ளல் பெரும்பசுக்கள் 
நீங்காத செல்வம் நிறைந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|If we sing the praise of Him, 
Who grew big and measured the world, 
And worship our Goddess Pavai, 
Then would there be at least three rains a month, 
And the red paddy plants would grow big, 
And in their fields would the fish swim and play, 
And the spotted bees after sipping honey, 
To their hearts content, 
Would sleep in the flower themselves 
After having their fill, 
And the cows with big udder 
Would fill milk pots to the brim, 
And healthy cows and never diminishing wealth, 
Would fill the country, 
And all this I assure by our vratham / practice. 
|-
|'''4. Azhi Mazhai Kanna [[Varali]] - Adi'''
|ஆழி மழைக்கண்ணா! ஒன்று நீ கைகரவேல் 
ஆழியுள் புக்கு முகந்துகொ டார்த்தேறி, 
ஊழி முதல்வன் உருவம்போல் மெய்கறுத்து 
பாழியம் தோளுடைப் பற்பநா பன்கையில் 
ஆழிபோல் மின்னி, வலம்புரிபோல் நின்றதிர்ந்து, 
தாழாதே சார்ங்கம் உதைத்த சரமழைபோல் 
வாழ உலகினில் பெய்திடாய், நாங்களும் 
மார்கழி நீராட மகிழ்ந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Please obey our wishes, 
Oh rain God who comes from the sea, 
Enter the sea, please, and bring water to your fill, 
And with zest and sound take it up, 
And like the God of the deluge become black, 
And shine like the holy wheel in the hands, 
Of The God Padmanabha who has powerful biceps, 
And make booming pleasing sounds, 
Like the right spiraled conch, 
And rain with out stop like the arrow storm, 
From Saranga the bow of Vishnu and descend on us, 
To make this world happy, 
And to help us take bath in month of Margahzhi,

|-
|'''5. Mayanai Mannu Sri - Adi'''
|மாயனை மன்னு வடமதுரை மைந்தனை, 
தூய பெருநீர் யமுனைத் துறைவனை, 
ஆயர் குலத்தினில் தோன்றும் அணிவிளக்கை, 
தாயைக் குடல்விளக்கம் செய்த தாமோதரனை, 
தூயோம்ஆய் வந்துநாம் தூமலர் தூவித்தொழுது 
வாயினால் பாடி மனத்தினால் சிந்திக்கப் 
போய பிழையும் புகுதருவான் நின்றனவும் 
தீயினில் தூசுஆகும் செப்பேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|To Him the enchanter of all, 
To Him the son of Mathura in the north, 
To Him who played and frolicked, 
In the shores of holy Yamuna, 
To Him who is the ornamental lamp, 
Of the family of cow herds, 
And to the Damodhara who made, 
His mothers womb holy, 
We came after a holy bath, 
And offered pure flowers at his feet, 
And sang with our mouth, 
And brought the thoughts of him in our mind, 
And we were sure, 
That all our mistakes of the past, 
And all that we will do in future, 
Will vanish as ashes in fire,
 
|-
|'''6. Pullum Chilambina [[Shankarabharanam]] - Misrachapu'''
|புள்ளும் சிலம்பினகாண்; புள்ளரையன் கோயிலில் 
வெள்ளை விளிசங்கின் பேரரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? 
பிள்ளாய்! எழுந்திராய், பேய்முலை நஞ்சுண்டு, 
கள்ளச் சகடம் கலக்கழியக் காலோச்சி, 
வெள்ளத்தரவில் துயிலமர்ந்த வித்தினை, 
உள்ளத்துக் கொண்டு முனிவர்களும் யோகிகளும் 
மெள்ள எழுந்து அரியென்ற பேரரவம் 
உள்ளம்புகுந்து குளிர்ந்தேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Did you not hear alternate twittering birds making loud noises, 
Did you not hear the loud sound of white conch, 
From the temple of the king of Garuda, 
Oh, girls please wake up, 
Let us hear the holy sounds of "Hari, Hari". 
From the savants and sages, 
Calling him who drank the poisonous milk from the ghost, 
Him who kicked and killed the ogre of the cart, 
And him who sleeps on the great serpent Adi Sesha 
So that it goes through our mind, 
And make our mind cool 
|-
|'''7. Keesu Keesu [[Bhairavi (Carnatic)|Bhairavi]] - Misrachapu'''
|கீசுகீ சென்றெங்கும் ஆனைச்சாத் தன்கலந்து 
பேசின பேச்சரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? பேய்ப்பெண்ணே! 
காசும் பிறப்பும் கலகலப்பக் கைபேர்த்து 
வாச நறுங்குழல் ஆய்ச்சியர் மத்தினால் 
ஓசை படுத்தத் தயிரரவம் கேட்டிலையோ? 
நாயகப் பெண்பிள்ளாய்! நாராயணன் மூர்த்தி 
கேசவனைப் பாடவும்நீ கேட்டே கிடத்தியோ? 
தேசமுடையாய்! திறவேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Did you not hear, Oh slow witted girl, 
The twittering sound of black birds of the morn, 
Which sounds like a talk between them, 
Did you not hear the tingling sound, 
When the big and small coin like pendants, 
Rub against each other, 
Did you not hear the sound of vigorous pull, 
Of the curd churner being pulled, 
By the flower bedecked cow herdesses, 
Did you not hear the sound of twirling curd, 
When churned using the mixer, 
Oh, leader among girls,
How can you sleep, 
When they sing the names sweetly. 
Of Narayana and Kesava, 
Oh, She who is sparkling, 
Be pleased to open the door, 
 
|-
|'''8. Keezh Vanam [[Dhanyasi]] - Adi'''
|கீழ்வானம் வெள்ளென்று, எருமை சிறுவீடு 
மேய்வான் பரந்தனகாண்; மிக்குள்ள பிள்ளைகளும் 
போவான் போகின்றாரைப் போகாமல் காத்துன்னைக் 
கூவுவான் வந்து நின்றோம், கோதுகலமுடைய 
பாவாய்! எழுந்திராய்; பாடிப் பறைகொண்டு 
மாவாய் பிளந்தானை, மல்லரை மாட்டிய 
தேவாதி தேவனைச் சென்றுநாம் சேவித்தால் 
ஆவாவென் றாராய்ந் தருளேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
|The eastern sky has become white, 
The buffaloes are free to walk and graze, 
The remaining lasses, have stopped from going, 
All those who wanted to go, 
And have come to call you, 
Oh girl filled with happiness,
Please wake up. 
Let us all sing and get gifts, 
From Him who has killed the horse like ogre, 
By pulling apart his mouth, 
From Him who killed the wrestlers,
Sent to kill him, 
From the Narayana, who is first among the Gods, 
And prostrate before him..
Please hear what we tell. 
And decide for yourself,
 
|-
|'''9. Thoomani Madaththu Hameer Kalyani - Adi'''
|தூமணி மாடத்துச் சுற்றும் விளக்கெரிய, 
தூபங் கமழத் துயிலணைமேல் கண்வளரும் 
மாமான் மகளே! மணிக்கதவம் தாழ்திறவாய்; 
மாமீர்! அவளை எழுப்பீரோ? உம்மகள்தான் 
ஊமையோ? அன்றிச் செவிடோ அனந்தலோ? 
ஏமப் பெருந்துயில் மந்திரப் பட்டாளோ? 
மாமாயன், மாதவன், வைகுந்தன் என்றென்று 
நாமம் பலவும் நவின்றேலோ ரெம்பாவாய். 
| Oh my uncle's daughter, who sleeps, 
In the soft cotton bed, 
In the pearl filled Villa, 
Well lit from all sides, 
And full of the smoke of incense, 
Please open the ornamental door. 
Oh aunt, why don't you wake her up, 
Is your daughter dumb or deaf,
Or down right lazy, 
Or she is in trance of deep pleasurable sleep, 
Let us all call him the great enchanter, 
Madhavan and he who lives in Vaikunta, 
By several of His names, 
And get benefited,
 
|-
|'''10. Notru Swargam [[Hanumatodi|Todi]] - Misrachapu'''
|நோற்றுச் சுவர்க்கம் புகுகின்ற அம்மனாய்! 
மாற்றமும் தாராரோ வாசல் திறவாதார்? 
நாற்றத் துழாய்முடி நாரா யணன்நம்மால் 
போற்றப் பறைதரும் புண்ணியனால் பண்டொருநாள் 
கூற்றத்தின் வாய்வீழ்ந்த கும்ப கரணனும் 
தோற்றம் உனக்கே பெருந்துயில்தான் தந்தானோ? 
ஆற்ற அனந்தல் உடையாய்! அருங்கலமே! 
தேற்றமாய் வந்து திறவேலா ரெம்பாவாய். 
|Oh lady fine, who has entered the heaven, 
Due to penance done in last birth, 
Won't you reply, please 
Won't you open the door, please 
If we pray the God Narayana, 
Having with him the scented garland, 
Made of holy basil, 
He would give us gifts, many, 
He is the same who is holy in times ancient, 
Sent Kumbhakarna to his death, 
After beating him in the field of war. 
Did that ogre give you his sleep, 
Before he went off from here, 
Oh lass who is very lazy, 
Oh lass, who is like pretty jewels, 
Wake up from your sleep, well, 
And open the door.
 
|-
|'''11. Katru Karavai Huseni - Misrachapu'''
|கற்றுக் கறவைக் கணங்கள் பல கறந்து 
செற்றார் திறலழியச் சென்று செருச் செய்யும் 
குற்றம் ஒன்றில்லாத கோவலர்த்தம் பொற்கொடியே 
புற்று அரவு அல்குல் புனமயிலே போதராய் 
சுற்றத்து தோழிமார் எல்லாரும் வந்து நின் 
முற்றம் புகுந்து முகில் வண்ணன் பேர் பாட 
சிற்றாதே பேசாதே செல்வ பெண்டாட்டி நீ 
எற்றுக்கு உறங்கும் பொருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh daughter of the cattle baron, 
Who milks herds of cows, 
And wages war on enemies 
And makes his enemies loose their strength, 
Oh Golden tendril,
Oh lass who has the mount of venus, 
Like the hood of the snake,
Wake up and come, 
When your flock of friends, 
Have come to your courtyard,
And sing of Krishna, 
Who has the colour of the cloud,
Oh rich, rich lady, 
How can you neither move nor talk,
And lie in deep trance, 
 
|-
|'''12. Kanaithilam Katrerumai [[Kedaragowla]] - Adi'''
|கனைத்து இளம் கற்றெருமை கன்றுக்கு இரங்கி 
நினைத்து முலை வழியே நின்று பால் சோர 
நனைத்து இல்லம் சேறாக்கும் நற் செல்வன் தங்காய் 
பனித் தலை வீழ நின் வாசற் கடை பற்றிச் 
சினத்தினால் தென் இலங்கைக் கோமானைச் செற்ற 
மனத்துக்கு இனியானைப் பாடவும் நீ வாய் திறவாய் 
இனித்தான் எழுந்திராய் ஈதென்ன பேர் உறக்கம் 
அனைத்து இல்லத்தாரும் அறிந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Hey, sister of the rich one, who owned, 
The mooing she buffalo with a calf, 
Which took pity on the calf, 
And gave out plenty, 
Of milk to it through its udder, 
And made his courtyard slushy with milk, 
We are assembled in thine yard, 
In the dripping fog,
And sing about Him, 
Who killed in anger the king of Southern Lanka, 
And who is very dear one, 
But open your mouth, you don't.. 
At least wake up now, 
Why this very deep slumber, 
For people of all houses around, 
Have already become alert 
 
|-
|'''13. Pullin Vaai Keendanai [[Atana]] - Misrachapu'''
|புள்ளின் வாய் கீண்டானைப் பொல்லா அரக்கனைக் 
கிள்ளிக் களைந்தானைக் கீர்த்தி மை பாடிப் போய்ப் 
பிள்ளைகள் எல்லாரும் பாவைக் களம்புக்கார் 
வெள்ளி எழுந்து வியாழம் உறங்கிற்று 
புள்ளும் சிலம்பின காண் போதரிக் கண்ணினாய் 
குள்ளக் குளிரக் குடைந்து நீராடாதே 
பள்ளிக் கிடத்தியோ. பாவாய். நீ நன் நாளால் 
கள்ளம் தவிர்ந்து கலந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|The lasses have reached, 
The place of prayer for Pavai, 
Singing the fame of our Lord. 
Who killed the ogre who came like a stork. 
And who cut off the heads of the bad ogre,
One by one. 
The venushas risen in the morning, 
The Jupiter has vanished from the sky, 
The birds are making lot of sound, 
Of beautiful one with wide eyes red as a flower. 
Without taking bath by dipping 
again and again in ice cold water, 
Would you prefer to sleep. 
Oh lass, On this holy day, 
Do not stay aside,
And come to bathe with us. 
 
|-
|'''14. Ungal Puzhakkadai [[Anandabhairavi]] - Adi'''
|உங்கள் புழக்கடைத் தோட்டத்து வாவியுள் 
செங்கழுனீர் வாய் நெகிழ்ந்து ஆம்பல் வாய் கூம்பின காண் 
செங்கற் பொடிக் கூரை வெண்பல் தவத்தவர் 
தங்கள் திருக்கோயில் சங்கிடுவான் போதன்றார் 
எங்களை முன்னம் எழுப்புவான் வாய்பேசும் 
நங்காய் எழுந்திராய் நாணாதாய் நாவுடையாய் 
சங்கோடு சக்கரம் ஏந்தும் தடக்கையன் 
பங்கயக் கண்ணானைப் பாடேலோர் எம்பாவாய். 
|In the pond in the backyard of your house. 
The lily in the ponds have opened, 
The night flowers have closed, 
The white toothed sages, 
Who wear clothes as red as, 
The powder of brick,
Are going to their temples. 
To sound the conch. 
You who promised to wake us up,
Please wake up, 
Are you not ashamed,
You chatter box, 
Let us all sing about the lotus eyed one, 
Who has a holy conch and disc in his hands, 
 
|-
|'''15. Elle Ilam kiliye Begada - Misrachapu'''
|எல்லே. இளம் கிளியே இன்னம் உறங்குதியோ 
சில் என்று அழையேன் மின் நங்கையீர் போதருகின்றேன் 
வல்லை உன் கட்டுரைகள் பண்டே உன் வாய் அறிதும் 
வல்லீர்கள் நீங்களே நானே தான் ஆயிடுக 
ஒல்லை நீ போதாய் உனக்கென்ன வேறுடையை 
எல்லாரும் போந்தாரோ போந்தார் போந்து எண்ணிக்கொள் 
வல் ஆனை கொன்றானை மாற்றாரை மாற்றழிக்க 
வல்லானை மாயனைப் பாடேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|
"Hey, little bird, Are you still sleeping?" 
"Don’t disturb my sleep, Lasses, I will just come". 
"You are good in your speech, We know what you mean." 
"You be good, but leave me alone" 
"Come quickly, why is it different for you?" 
"Have every one gone?"
"Gone, think they have gone" 
"Please wake up and sing, 
Of he who killed the big elephant, 
Of him who can remove enmity from enemies, 
And of him who is the holy enchanter, 
 
|-
|'''16. Nayaganaai Ninra Mohanam- Adi'''
|நாயகனாய் நின்ற நந்தகோபன் உடைய 
கோயில் காப்பானே. கொடி தோன்றும் தோரண 
வாயில் காப்பானே. மணிக் கதவம் தாள் திறவாய் 
ஆயர் சிறுமியரோமுக்கு அறை பறை 
மாயன் மணி வண்ணன் நென்னலே வாய் நேர்ந்தான் 
தூயோமாய் வந்தோம் துயில் எழப் பாடுவான் 
வாயால் முன்னம் முன்னம் மாற்றாதே அம்மா. நீ 
நேய நிலைக் கதவம் நீக்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Hey, He who guards the palace of Nanda Gopa, 
Hey, who guards the ornamental door with flags, 
Please be kind to open the door with bells, 
For yesterday the enchanter Kannan, 
Has promised to give beating drums, 
To us the girls from the houses of cow herds. 
We have come after purification, 
To wake Him up with song, 
So do not talk of this and that, Hey dear man, 
And open the door with closed latches, 
 
|-
|'''17. Ambarame Thanneere [[Kalyani (raga)|Kalyani]] - Khandachapu'''
|அம்பரமே தண்ணீரே சோறே அறம் செய்யும் 
எம்பெருமான் நந்தகோபாலா எழுந்திராய் 
கொம்பனார்க்கு எல்லாம் கொழுந்தே குல விளக்கே 
எம்பெருமாட்டி யசோதாய் அறிவுறாய் 
அம்பரம் ஊட அறுத்து ஓங்கி உளகு அளந்த 
உம்பர் கோமானே உறங்காது எழுந்திராய் 
செம் பொற் கழலடிச் செல்வா பலதேவா 
உம்பியும் நீயுன் உறங்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|Hey Nandagopa, who does good deeds and charity, 
Who gives water, cloth and food to others, 
Please wake up. 
Our lady Yasodha, who is the light of the homes of cow herds, 
She who is dear to all the ladies,
Please wake up 
Hey, Krishna who is the king of Gods, 
Who went up tearing the sky. 
Please wake up, and do not sleep. 
Hey Baladeva, who wears pure golden anklets, 
Please wake up along with your brother, 
 
|-
|'''18. Undhu Madha Kalitran [[Saveri]] - Misrachapu'''
|உந்து மத களிற்றன் ஓடாத தோள் வலியன் 
நந்தகோபாலன் மருமகளே நப்பின்னாய் 
கந்தம் கமழும் குழலி கடை திறவாய் 
வந்து எங்கும் கோழி அழைத்தன காண் மாதவிப் 
பந்தல் மேல் பல் கால் குயிலினங்கள் கூவின காண் 
பந்து ஆர் விரலி உன் மைத்துனன் பேர் பாடச் 
செந்தாமரைக் கையால் சீரார் வளை ஒலிப்ப 
வந்து திறவாய் மகிழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய்.

|Hey, Who is the fair daughter-in-law, 
Of Nanda gopa, who has several elephants, 
And who is a great hero who never ran away from his enemies, 
Hey Lady Nappinnai, who has hair surrounded by holy scent, 
Please be kind to open the door. 
The cocks are everywhere waking us up, 
The koels flock on the jasmine Pandals, 
And coo so that we all wake up, 
Hey Lady who happily plays ball, 
To help us sing your Lords fame, 
With your hands with tingling bangles, 
Please open the door with happiness, 
 
|-
|'''19. Kuthu Vilakeriya [[Sahana (raga)|Sahana]] - Misrachapu'''
|குத்து விளக்கெரிய கோட்டுக் கால் கட்டில் மேல் 
மெத்தென்ற பஞ்ச சயனத்தின் மேல் ஏறிக் 
கொத்தலர் பூங்குழல் நப்பினை கொங்கை மேல் 
வைத்துக் கிடந்த மலர் மார்பா வாய் திறவாய் 
மைத் தடம் கண்ணினாய் நீ உன் மணாளனை 
எத்தனை போதும் துயிலெழ ஒட்டாய் காண் 
எத்தனையேலும் பிரிவு ஆற்றகில்லாயால் 
தத்துவம் அன்று தகவேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|In the light of the oil lamp, 
On the ornamental four legged ivory cot, 
On the soft bed filled with cotton, 
Reclining on the busts of Nappinnai, 
You sleep, Oh he who has a flower like heart, 
Please open your mouth. 
She who has, wide black eyes with collyrium. 
We know that you will never allow him to wake up, 
For you can never bear to be away from Him, 
This is not that good, 
And cannot be accepted by us. 
 
|-
|'''20. Muppathu Muvar Senchurutti - Misrachapu'''
|முப்பத்து மூவர் அமரர்க்கு முன் சென்று 
கப்பம் தவிர்க்கும் கலியே துயில் எழாய் 
செப்பம் உடையாய் திறல் உடையாய் செற்றார்க்கு 
வெப்பம் கொடுக்கும் விமலா துயில் எழாய் 
செப்பென்ன மென் முலைச் செவ்வாய்ச் சிறு மருங்குல் 
நப்பின்னை நங்காய் திருவே துயில் எழாய் 
உக்கமும் தட்டொளியும் தந்து உன் மணாளனை 
இப்போதே எம்மை நீராட்டேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Please wake up Oh, Lord, 
Who removed sorrow and fear, 
From the thirty three sections of Devas, 
Even before they approached you, 
Oh Lord, Who is glittering like gold, 
Oh Lord, who has inimitable valour,
Please wake up, 
Oh Lady Nappinnai,
Who has desirable busts like golden pots. 
Who has little red mouth, 
And who has thin narrow hips, 
Please wake up, Oh Goddess of wealth. 
Please give mirror and fan, 
Just now to your consort, 
And allow us to take bath, 
 
|-
|'''21. Etra Kalangal Nadanamakriya - Misrachapu'''
|ஏற்ற கலங்கள் எதிர் பொங்கி மீதளிப்ப 
மாற்றாதே பால் சொரியும் வள்ளல் பெரும் பசுக்கள் 
ஆற்றப் படைத்தான் மகனே அறிவுறாய் 
ஊற்றம் உடையாய் பெரியாய் உலகினில் 
தோற்றமாய் நின்ற சுடரே துயில் எழாய் 
மாற்றார் உனக்கு வலி தொலைந்து உன் வாசற் கண் 
ஆற்றாது வந்து உன் அடி பணியுமா போலே 
போற்றியாம் வந்தோம் புகழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh son of him,
Who owned several cows, 
Which gave so much milk, 
That always the milking vessel got overflowed,
Please wake up. 
Oh Lord, who is full of mercy, 
Oh Lord, who is better than the best, 
Oh lord, who is the light that began the world, 
Please wake up. 
Like your flock of defeated enemies, 
Falling at your feet in surrender, 
We came praising you,
So that we get fame, 
 
|-
|'''22. Angan Maa Gnalathu Yamuna Kalyani - Misrachapu'''
|அம் கண் மா ஞாலத்து அரசர் அபிமான 
பங்கமாய் வந்து நின் பள்ளிக் கட்டிற் கீழே 
சங்கம் இருப்பார் போல் வந்து தலைப்பெய்தோம் 
கிங்கிணி வாய்ச் செய்த தாமரைப் பூப் போலே 
செங்கண் சிறுச் சிறிதே எம்மேல் விழியாவோ 
திங்களும் ஆதித்தனும் எழுந்தாற் போல் 
அம் கண் இரண்டும் கொண்டு எங்கள் மேல் நோக்குதியேல் 
எங்கள் மேல் சாபம் இழிந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Like all the famous kings 
Of the wide World, that is pretty, 
Have crowded near your cot, 
After surrendering their ego, 
We also have come near. 
Will not the sight, 
Of your red eyes which is like the lotus 
Fall little by little on us? 
If you see us using those eyes, 
Which are like sun and the moon, 
All the curse on us will vanish, 
 
|-
|'''23. Maari Malai Muzhainjil [[Manirangu]] - Adi'''
|மாரி மலை முழைஞ்சில் மன்னிக் கிடந்து உறங்கும் 
சீரிய சிங்கம் அறிவுற்றுத் தீ விழித்து 
வேரி மயிர் பொங்க எப்பாடும் பேர்ந்து உதறி 
மூரி நிமிர்ந்து முழங்கிப் புறப்பட்டுப் 
போதருமா போலே நீ பூவைப்பூ வண்ணா உன் 
கோயில் நின்று இங்ஙனே போந்தருளிக் கோப்புடைய 
சீரிய சிங்காசனத்து இருந்து யாம் வந்த 
காரியம் ஆராய்ந்து அருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Like the majestic lion wakes up with ire, 
From the mountain cave in the rainy season, 
Looks with fiery sight, 
And with deep angry sweat from all the hairs, 
Turns up its head with awe, 
And comes out making much din, 
Hey Lord, who is the colour of the blue lotus, 
Come from your temple to here, 
And sit on the majestic royal throne, 
And hear with compassion, 
For why we have come here, 
 
|-
|'''24. Anru Ivvulagam Sindhu Bhairavi - Adi'''
|அன்று இவ் உலகம் அளந்தாய் அடி போற்றி 
சென்றங்குத் தென் இலங்கை செற்றாய் திறல் போற்றி 
பொன்றச் சகடம் உதைத்தாய் புகழ் போற்றி 
கன்று குணில் ஆவெறிந்தாய் கழல் போற்றி 
குன்று குடையாய் எடுத்தாய் குணம் போற்றி 
வென்று பகை கெடுக்கும் நின் கையில் வேல் போற்றி 
என்றென்றும் உன் சேவகமே ஏத்திப் பறை கொள்வான் 
இன்று யாம் வந்தோம் இரங்கேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|We worship your feet which measured the world then, 
We worship your fame of winning over the king of Southern Lanka, 
We worship thine valour in breaking 
the ogre who came like a cart, 
We worship thy strength which threw the calf on the tree, 
We worship thine goodness in making 
the mountain as an umbrella, 
And we worship the great spear in your hand, 
which led to your victory, 
We have come hear to sing always for ever your praises, 
And get as gift the drums to sing, 
 
|-
|'''25. Oruthi Maganaai Pirandhu Behaag - Adi'''
|ஒருத்தி மகனாய்ப் பிறந்து ஓர் இரவில் 
ஒருத்தி மகனாய் ஒளித்து வளரத் 
தரிக்கிலான் ஆகித் தான் தீங்கு நினைந்த 
கருத்தைப் பிழைப்பித்துக் கஞ்சன் வயிற்றில் 
நெருப்பென்ன நின்ற நெடுமாலே., உன்னை 
அருத்தித்து வந்தோம் பறை தருதியாகில் 
திருத்தக்க செல்வமும் சேவகமும் யாம் பாடி 
வருத்தமும் தீர்ந்து மகிழ்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Being born to woman, 
And in the same night in hiding. 
You became the son of another, 
But this he could not tolerate, 
And wanted to cause more harm to you, 
And you great one, became, 
The fire in the stomach of that Kamsa, 
We have come here with desire for a drum, 
And if you give the drum to us, 
We would sing about thine great fame and wealth, 
And would end our sorrows and become happy, 
 
|-
|'''26. Maale! Manivanna Kunthala Varali - Adi!'''
|மாலே. மணிவண்ணா. மார்கழி நீராடுவான் 
மேலையார் செய்வனகள் வேண்டுவன கேட்டியேல் 
ஞாலத்தை எல்லாம் நடுங்க முரல்வன 
பால் அன்ன வண்ணத்து உன் பாஞ்ச சன்னியமே 
போல்வன சங்கங்கள் போய்ப் பாடுடையனவே 
சாலப் பெரும் பறையே பல்லாண்டு இசைப்பாரே 
கோல விளக்கே கொடியே விதானமே 
ஆலின் இலையாய் அருளேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Oh Lord Vishnu, 
Oh lord who is like the blue sapphire, 
If you ask us what we need, 
In your great grace and great deeds, 
For our holy bath of Marghazhi, 
We will ask for very many conches 
Like the milk white conch of yours called Pancha Janya, 
Very many big drums whose sound can be heard everywhere, 
Several musicians of fame to sing “Pallandu ” 
Several beautiful pretty lamps, 
Several flags and cloths to make tents, 
Oh, He who sleeps on a banyan leaf at time of deluge, 
Please give us them all, 
 
|-
|'''27. Koodaarai Vellum Poorvi Kalyani - Misrachapu'''
|கூடாரை வெல்லும் சீர் கோவிந்தா உந்தன்னைப் 
பாடிப் பறை கொண்டு யாம் பெறும் சம்மானம் 
நாடு புகழும் பரிசினால் நன்றாகச் 
சூடகமே தோள் வளையே தோடே செவிப் பூவே 
பாடகமே என்றனைய பலகலனும் யாம் அணிவோம் 
ஆடை உடுப்போம் அதன் பின்னே பாற் சோறு 
மூட நெய் பெய்து முழங்கை வழி வாரக் 
கூடி இருந்து குளிர்ந்தேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Hey Lord Govinda, 
who is known for victory over enemies, 
After singing you we will get drums and many gifts, 
And after being praised by all the people, 
Wear we will the golden flower on our hair, 
Wear we will golden bracelets, 
Wear we will golden ear studs, 
Wear we would then the golden flowers on the ear, 
Wear we will ornaments on the legs, 
Wear we will pretty new dresses, 
Eat we will rice mixed with milk, 
Covering the rice fully with ghee, 
And with the ghee dripping from our forehands, 
We will be together and be happy, 
 
|-
|'''28. Karavaigal Pin Chendru [[Kambhoji]] - Adi'''
|கறவைகள் பின் சென்று கானம் சேர்ந்து உண்போம் 
அறிவு ஒன்றும் இல்லாத ஆய்க் குலத்து உந்தன்னைப் 
பிறவி பெறுந்தனைப் புண்ணியம் யாம் உடையோம் 
குறை ஒன்றும் இல்லாத கோவிந்தா உந்தன்னோடு 
உறவேல் நமக்கு இங்கு ஒழிக்க ஒழியாது 
அறியாத பிள்ளைகளோம் அன்பினால் உந்தன்னை 
சிறு பேர் அழைத்தனமும் சீறி அருளாதே 
இறைவா நீ தாராய் பறையேலோர் எம்பாவாய் 
|Belonging to the ignorant family of cow herds, 
Drive we would the cattle to the forest, 
And there we would all eat together, 
But We are blessed that you are one of us.. 
Oh Govinda who does not have any short comings. 
None can ever break the ties that we have with you, Oh Lord, 
We are but ignorant girls, who do not know the world, 
And in ignorance and love we have called you by name. 
So please be not be angry on us, 
And please give us drums, Oh Lord, 
 
|-
|'''29. Chitram Chiru Kale [[Madhyamavati]] - Misrachapu'''
|சிற்றம் சிறு காலே வந்து உன்னை சேவித்து உன் 
பொற்றாமரை அடியே போற்றும் பொருள் கேளாய் 
பெற்றம் மேய்த்து உண்ணும் குலத்தில் பிறந்து நீ 
குற்று ஏவல் எங்களைக் கொள்ளாமல் போகாது 
இற்றைப் பறை கொள்வான் அன்று காண் கோவிந்தா 
எற்றைக்கும் ஏழ் ஏழ் பிறவிக்கும் உன் தன்னோடு 
உற்றோமே ஆவோம் உனக்கே நாம் ஆட்செய்வோம் 
மற்றை நம் காமங்கள் மாற்றேலோர் எம்பாவாய்

|Please hear why, 
In this very early dawn, 
We have come to worship, 
Your golden holy feet. 
You were born in our family of cow herds, 
And we are but there to obey your every wish, 
And not come to get only the drums from you, Oh Govinda. 
For ever and for several umpteen births, 
We would be only related to you, 
And we would be thine slaves, 
And so please remove all our other desires, 
 
|-
|'''30. Vanga Kadal Kadaintha Surutti - Misrachapu'''
|வங்கக் கடல் கடைந்த மாதவனை கேசவனை 
திங்கள் திருமுகத்து சேய் இழையார் சென்று இறைஞ்சி 
அங்கப் பறை கொண்ட ஆற்றை அணி புதுவைப் 
பைங்கமலத் தண் தெரியல் பட்டர் பிரான் கோதை- 
சொன்ன சங்கத் தமிழ் மாலை முப்பதும் தப்பாமே 
இங்கு இப்பரிசுரைப்பார் ஈரிரண்டு மால் வரை தோள் 
செங்கண் திருமுகத்துச் செல்வத் திருமாலால் 
எங்கும் திருவருள் பெற்று இன்புறுவர் எம்பாவாய்.

|He who sings with out error, 
The thirty odes in sweet Tamil, 
Of the story of how the rich ladies, 
With faces like moon, 
Who worshipped and requested, 
The Madhava who is also Lord Kesava, 
Who churned the ocean of milk, 
For getting a drum to worship Goddess Pavai, 
As sung by Kodhai who is the dear daughter, 
Of Vishnu Chitta the bhattar, 
From the beautiful city of Puduvai, 
Will be happy and get the grace, 
Of our Lord Vishnu with merciful pretty eyes. 
And four mountain like shoulders, for ever. 
|}

==Recital in Thailand==

In Thailand, an annual [[Giant Swing]] ceremony known as ''Triyampavai-Tripavai'' was held in major cities until 1935, when it was abolished for safety reasons.<ref>{{cite book |author=M. E. Manickavasagom Pillai |title=Dravidian Influence in Thai Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=soFCAAAAYAAJ |year=1986 |publisher=Tamil University |page=69 }}</ref> The name of the ceremony was derived from the names of two Tamil Hindu chants: ''[[Thiruvempavai]]'' (a Shaivite hymn by [[Manikkavacakar]]) and ''Thiruppavai''. It is known that Tamil verses from ''Thiruvempavai'' — ''poet pratu sivalai'' ("opening the portals of Shiva's home") — were recited at this ceremony, as well as the coronation ceremony of the [[Monarchy of Thailand|Thai king]].<ref name="Upendra_1986">{{cite book |author=Upendra Thakur |title=Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m42TldA_OvAC&pg=PA27 |year=1986 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-207-9 |pages=27–28 }}</ref> According to T.P. Meenakshisundaram, the name of the festival indicates that Thiruppavai might have been recited as well.<ref>{{cite book |title=Consider Our Vow: Translation of Tiruppāvai and Tiruvempāvai Into English |author=Norman Cutler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2fMOAAAAMAAJ |year=1979 |publisher=Muttu Patippakam |page=13 }}</ref>

==Trivia==
*''Thiruppavai'' is also recited in [[Thailand]]. The last two stanzas (of the 30 verses) are recited in Tamil along with Thiruvampavi during coronation of the [[Rama (King of Thailand)]].<ref name="coronation">{{cite news| title=''Coronation of Thai king''| work=ntyp.org| url=http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=2001-12-28| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>
*Thiruppaavai is sung in lieu of [[Suprabhatam]] during the month of Maarkazi at [[Tirumala]]<ref name="Thiruvengadam-Thiruppavai">{{cite news|
title=''Thiruvengadam-Thiruppavai''
| work=ramanuja.org|
url=http://www.ramanuja.org/sv/bhakti/archives/dec99/0118.html|
accessdate= 2007-07-13}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vl0mXJJm8k&list=PLrDHFXR22SMH--lhSD2USzV6pQY3gYO7h Thirupavai meaning in English]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20011228234503/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thiruppavai.htm Short essay on Thiruppavai]
*[http://namperumal.tripod.com/TPMain.htm Commentary on Thiruppavai]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/ramanuja/thiruppavai Audio commentary on Thiruppavai]
*[http://stotrasamhita.net/wiki/Tiruppavai Tiruppavai] - viewable in multiple Indian scripts
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/sadagopan/ahobilavalli/thiruppavai.pdf PDF of Thiruppavai]
*[http://www.tiruppavai.net/about.html Explanation of Thiruppavai by Prof. Dr. Chenni Padmanabhan M.D.],
*[http://www.isai.fm/music/tamil/thiruppavai-thiruppavai-pasurams-1-30-thiruppavai-songs-lyrics/ Thiruppavai Tamil and English lyrics]

[[Category:Tamil-language literature]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]
[[Category:Hindu texts]]

Meenakshi Temple

2020-12-16T15:58:51Z

175.141.124.220: I have changed all the native Tamil names that were replaced by Sanskrit language.

{{short description|Historic Hindu temple in Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Meenakshi Temple Tiru-aalavai Meenakshi Sundareshwarar Temple Meenakshi Amman Temple
| image = Temple de Mînâkshî01.jpg
| alt = Meenakshi temple gopura and water pool
| coordinates = {{coord|9|55|10.23|N|78|07|09.63|E|type:landmark_region:IN_source:dewiki|display=inline,title}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://earth.google.com/Search|title=9°55'10.23"N 78°07'09.63"E|access-date=2020-10-22}}</ref>
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| district = [[Madurai]]
| location =
| elevation_m = 144
| deity = {{Plainlist|
* [[Meenakshi]] ([[Parvati]])
* [[Shiva|Sundareswarar/Chokkanathar]] ([[Shiva]])
}}
| tradition = Shaivism
| temple_tank = Potramarai Kulam
| festivals = Chithirai Thiruvizha, Navaratri, Cradle festival, Aavanimolam
| architecture = [[Tamil architecture]]<ref>{{cite web |title=This Temple Is Covered in Thousands of Colorful Statues |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destinations/asia/india/meenakshi-amman-hindu-temple/ |publisher=[[National Geographic]] |access-date=26 February 2019 |date=2 August 2017}}</ref>
| inscriptions = over 40
| website = {{Official website|https://www.maduraimeenakshi.org/|name=.maduraimeenakshi.org}}
|governing_body=[[Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department]]|map_type=Tamil Nadu#India|map_alt=Location of Meenakshi Temple}}
'''Meenatchi Temple''' (also referred to as '''Meenatchi Amman Temple''' or '''Meenatchi Sokkanathar Temple''' also spelled as '''Meenaakshi Temple''')<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Madurai Madurai], Encyclopedia Britannica</ref> is a historic Hindu temple located on the southern bank of the [[Vaigai River]]<ref name="Ramaswamy2017p9">{{cite book|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ |year=2017|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-5381-0686-0|pages=9–10, 103, 210, 363–364}}</ref> in the temple city{{sfn|Knott| 2000| section =10}} of [[Madurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. It is dedicated to Thirukamakottam udaya aaludaiya [https://www.bbc.com/tamil/india-54367113 nachiyar] (திருக்காமக்கோட்டம் உடைய ஆளுடைய நாச்சியார்) [[Meenakshi|Meenatchi,]] a form of [[Parvati]], and her consort, ''Sokkanathar,'' a form of [[Shiva]].<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/33832897/Minaksi_or_Sundaresvara_Who_is_the_first_principle Rajarajan], R.K.K. 2005. Minaksi or Sundaresvara: Who is the first principle? ''South Indian History Congress Annual Proceedings'' XXV, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, pp. 551-553.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CGukBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA169 |title=Rediscovering the Hindu Temple: The Sacred Architecture and Urbanism of India|last1=Bharne|first1=Vinayak|last2=Krusche|first2=Krupali|date=2014-09-18|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=9781443867344|language=en}}</ref> The temple is at the center of the ancient temple city of Madurai mentioned in the Tamil Sangam literature, with the goddess temple mentioned in 6th century CE texts.{{sfn|National Geographic| 2008| p= 155}} This temple is one of the [[Paadal Petra Sthalam]]. The Paadal Petra thalam are 275 temples of lord Shiva that are revered in the verses of Tamil Saiva [[Nayanars]] of 6th-9th century CE.

==Overview==
Madurai Meenakshi Sundareswarar temple was built by King Kulasekara Pandya (1190-1216 CE). He built the main Portions of the three-storeyed [[Gopuram|gopura]] at the entrance of Sundareswarar Shrine and the central portion of the Goddess Meenakshi Shrine are some of the earliest surviving parts of the temple. The traditional texts call him a poet-saint king, additionally credit him with a poem called Ambikai Malai, as well as shrines (koil) each for Natarajar and Surya near the main temple, Ayyanar in the east, Vinayagar in the south, Kariamalperumal in the west and Kali in the north. He also built a Mahamandapam. Kulasekara Pandya was also a poet and he composed a poem on Meenakshi named Ambikai Malai.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-23}}
Maravarman Sundara Pandyan I built a gopura in 1231, then called Avanivendaraman, later rebuilt, expanded and named as Sundara Pandya Thirukkopuram.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-23}} Chitra gopuram (W), also known as Muttalakkum Vayil, was built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II (1238-1251). This gopuram is named after the frescoes and reliefs that depict secular and religious themes of Hindu culture. Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II also added a pillared corridor to the Sundareswara shrine and the Sundara Pandyan Mandapam .{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-23}} It was rebuilt after the 14th-century damage, its granite structure was renovated by Kumara Krishnappar after 1595 .{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=36-37}} Though the temple has historic roots, most of the present campus structure was rebuilt after the 14th century CE, further repaired, renovated and expanded in the 17th century by [[Tirumala Nayaka]].{{sfn|King| 2005| pp= 72-74}}{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=39-40}} In the early 14th century, the armies of [[Delhi Sultanate]] led by Muslim Commander [[Malik Kafur]] plundered the temple, looted it of its valuables and destroyed the Madurai temple town along with many other temple towns of South India.<ref name=britmadurai>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Madurai Madurai], Encyclopedia Britannica, Quote: "The [Meenakshi] temple, Tirumala Nayak palace, Teppakulam tank (an earthen embankment reservoir), and a 1000-pillared hall were rebuilt in the Vijayanagar period (16th–17th century) after the total destruction of the city in 1310."</ref><ref>[[#Michell|Michell 1995]], pp. 9-10</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Tara Boland-Crewe|author2=David Lea|title=The Territories and States of India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lXCOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT401|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-35624-8|page=401}}, Quote: "By the beginning of the 14th century south India was exposed to the depredations of Muslim raiders from the north, and even Madurai was destroyed in 1310, by Malik Kafur, briefly becoming the seat of a sultanate thereafter."</ref> The contemporary temple is the result of rebuilding efforts started by the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] rulers who rebuilt the core and reopened the temple.<ref name=britmadurai/><ref name=fuller94>{{cite book|author = Christopher Fuller | year= 2003|chapter= Madurai|editor= George Michell|title= Temple Towns of Tamil Nadu|publisher= Marg| isbn=978-81-85026-213| pages= 94–113}}</ref> In the 16th century, the temple complex was further expanded and fortified by the Nayak ruler [[Vishwanatha Nayak]]ar and later others. The restored complex now houses 14 ''[[gopurams]]'' (gateway towers), ranging from 45–50m in height, with the southern gopura tallest at {{convert|51.9|m|ft|0}}. The complex has numerous sculpted pillared halls such as Ayirakkal (1000-pillared hall), Kilikoondu-mandapam, Golu-mandapam and Pudu-mandapam. Its shrines are dedicated to Hindu deities and Shaivism scholars, with the ''[[Vimana (architectural feature)|vimanas]]'' above the ''[[garbhagriha]]s'' (sanctums) of Meenakshi and Sundaresvara gilded with gold.<ref name=fuller94/><ref>{{cite book|author=Brian A. Hatcher|title=Hinduism in the Modern World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IdeoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |year=2015|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-04631-6|pages=20–21}}</ref>{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=34-47}}

The temple is a major pilgrimage destination within the Shaivism tradition, dedicated to Meenakshi Devi and Shiva. However, the temple includes [[Vishnu]] in many narratives, sculptures and rituals as he is considered to be Meenakshi's brother.<ref>{{cite book|author=V. K. Subramanian|title=Art Shrines of Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcMhnC9sYS8C&pg=PA96 |year=2003|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-431-8|pages=95–96}}</ref> This has made this temple and Madurai as the "southern Mathura", one included in Vaishnava texts.<ref>{{cite book|author=Edwin Francis Bryant|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0z02cZe8PU8C&pg=PA546 |year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803400-1|pages=546 with note 45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=T. Padmaja|title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C&pg=PA98 |year=2002 |publisher= Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-398-4|pages=97–99}}</ref> The Meenakshi temple also includes Lakshmi, flute playing Krishna, Rukmini, Brahma, Saraswati, other Vedic and Puranic deities, as well as artwork showing narratives from major Hindu texts. The large temple complex is the most prominent landmark in Madurai and attracts tens of thousands visitors a day.{{sfn|Gopal|1990|p=181}} The temple attracts over a million pilgrims and visitors during the annual 10-day Meenakshi Tirukalyanam festival, celebrated with much festivities and a ''ratha'' (chariot) procession during the Tamil month of Chittirai (overlaps with April–May in Georgian calendar, Chaitra in North India).<ref name="Eck2013p277">{{cite book|author=Diana L. Eck|author-link=Diana L. Eck|title=India: A Sacred Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PyC4o7i9tnEC&pg=PA277|year=2013|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-385-53192-4|pages=277–279}}</ref> The Temple has been adjudged best ‘Swachh Iconic Place’ in India as on October 1, 2017 under [[Swachh Bharat Abhiyan]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/madurais-meenakshi-temple-named-best-swachh-iconic-place-in-india/article19780817.ece|title=Madurai's Meenakshi Temple named best 'Swachh Iconic Place' in India}}</ref>

==Location==
[[File:Madurai Map OSM002.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|The temple and the city of Madurai (only major roads sketched).]]
The Meenakshi temple is located in the heart of historic Madurai city, about a kilometer south of the Vaigai River. It is about {{convert|460|km}} southwest from [[Chennai]], the state capital.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rina Kamath|title=Chennai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bw2vDg2fTrMC |year=2000|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-1378-5|pages=140–141}}</ref> The temple complex is well connected with road network (four lane National Highway 38), near a major railway junction and an airport ([[IATA]]: IXM) with daily services. The city roads radiate from the temple complex and major ring roads form a concentric pattern for the city, a structure that follows the ''Silpa Sastra'' guidelines for a city design.{{sfn|King| 2005| pp= 72-74}}<ref name="Geographic2008p155">{{cite book|author=Keith Bellows|title=Sacred Places of a Lifetime: 500 of the World's Most Peaceful and Powerful Destinations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNqDFSxR8-MC&pg=PA155 |year=2008|publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=978-1-4262-0336-7|pages=155–156}}</ref> Madurai is one of the many temple towns in the state which is named after the groves, clusters or forests dominated by a particular variety of a tree or shrub and the same variety of tree or shrub sheltering the presiding deity. The region is believed to have been covered with Kadamba forest and hence called Kadambavanam.{{sfn|Reddy| 2013| p= 10}}

[[File:Main Gate of Meenakshi temple, Madurai.jpg|thumb|Main Gate of Meenakshi temple, Madurai]]

==Etymology and History==
[[Meenakshi]] ({{Lang-sa|मीनाक्षी|lit=Mīnākṣī}}, {{Lang-ta|மீனாட்சி|lit=Mīṉāṭci}}) is a term meaning "fish-eyed",<ref name="William P. Harman 1992 24">{{cite book |author=William P. Harman |title=The Sacred Marriage of a Hindu Goddess |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_siW9T3ev4C&pg=PA24 |year=1992 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0810-2 |page=24 }}</ref> derived from the words ''mina'' ("fish") and ''akshi'' ("eyes").<ref>{{cite book |editor=Manly Palmer Hall |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fZoUAAAAIAAJ |title=Horizon, Volume 9, Issue 3 |year=1949 |publisher=Philosophical Research Society |page=33 }}</ref> She was earlier known by the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] name ''Thadadakai'' ("fish-eyed one")'','' which was called later as Meenakshi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|date=2018-10-18|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107111622|pages=74|language=en}}</ref> According to another theory, the name of the goddess literally means "rule of the fish", derived from the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] words ''meen'' (fish) and ''aatchi'' (rule).<ref>{{cite book |title=Journal of Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pjRuAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=Department of History, University of Kerala |page=96 }}</ref><ref>Excerpt for the etymology of Meenatchi from "''A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Tamil Language, Vol. VII, PART - II''", page 68: மீனாட்சி, Mīṉāṭci, பெ. (n. ) மதுரையை உறைவிடமாகக் கொண்ட தெய்வம்; Umā, the tutelary Goddess of Madurai. [மீன் + ஆட்சி. மீனைக் கொடியில் சின்னமாகக் கொண்டவள்.] Translation: [ Meen + Aatchi. Her who put the fish as symbol for the flag.] (மீன் - Mīṉ which means "fish", ஆட்சி- āṭci which means "rule")</ref> She is also known by the Tamil name "Angayarkanni" or "Ankayarkannammai" (literally, "the mother with the beautiful fish eyes").<ref name="William P. Harman 1992 24"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Proceedings of the First International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, April, 1966 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.jZY9lup2kZl6TuXGlZQdjZM9kuxy.TVA_BOK_0009170 |year=1968 |publisher=International Association of Tamil Research |page=543 }}</ref>
[[File:Mariage of Shiva and Parvati (Meenakshi) witnessed by Vishnu, Meenakshi Temple, Madurai (2) (36857653813).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|Vishnu (left) gives away his sister and bride Meenakshi's hand into the waiting hand of groom Shiva. The temple commemorates this legend every year with a festive procession.|alt=Vishnu gives away his sister, the bride Parvati during her wedding to Shiva]]
The goddess Meenakshi is the principal deity of the temple, unlike most Shiva temples in [[South India]] where [[Shiva]] is the principal deity.{{sfn|Knott| 2000| section =10}} According to a legend found in the Tamil text ''Tiruvilaiyatarpuranam'', king Malayadwaja Pandya and his wife Kanchanamalai performed a [[Yajna]] seeking a son for succession. Instead a daughter is born out of the fire who is already 3 year old and has three breasts. Shiva intervenes and says that the parents should treat her like a son, and when she meets her husband, she will lose the third breast. They follow the advice. The girl grows up, the king crowns her as the successor and when she meets Shiva, his words come true, she takes her true form of Meenakshi.{{sfn|Harman| 1992| p= 44-47}}{{sfn|Brockman| 2011| pp= 326–327}} According to Harman, this may reflect the matrilineal traditions in South India and the regional belief that "penultimate [spiritual] powers rest with the women", gods listen to their spouse, and that the fate of kingdoms rest with the women.{{sfn|Harman| 1992| p= 44-47}} According to Susan Bayly, the reverence for Meenakshi is a part of the Hindu goddess tradition that integrates with the [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] Hindu society where the "woman is the lynchpin of the system" of social relationships.<ref name="Bayly1989p29">{{cite book|author=Susan Bayly|title=Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700-1900 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fxqtx8SflEsC |year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-89103-5|pages=29–30}}</ref>

The marriage of Meenakshi and Shiva was the biggest event, with all gods, goddesses and living beings gathered. [[Vishnu]] is believed to be the brother of Meenakshi. Vishnu gives her away to Shiva at the wedding.

==History==
[[File:Madurai Meenakshi Temple painting.JPG|left|thumb|250px|Temple wall painting depicting its founding legend]]
The town of [[Madurai]] is ancient and one mentioned in [[Sangam period|Sangam era]] texts.<ref name="Ramaswamy2017p9"/> These are dated to be from the 1st to 4th century CE.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/art/shangam-literature Sangam Literature], Encyclopedia Britannica</ref> Some early Tamil texts call Madurai as ''Koodal'', and these portray it as a capital and a temple town where every street radiated from the temple. Goddess Meenakshi is described as the divine ruler, who along with Shiva were the primary deities that the southern Tamil kingdoms such as the [[Pandya dynasty]] revered.<ref name="Ramaswamy2017p9"/> The early texts imply that a temple existed in Madurai by the mid 6th century.<ref name="Geographic2008p155"/> In medieval literature and inscriptions, it is sometimes referred to as Kadambavanam (lit. "forest of Kadamba") or ''Velliambalam'' (lit. "silver hall" where Shiva danced). It was described to be the sangam of scholars, or a place where scholars meet. It is mentioned in the Tamil text ''Tiruvilayadalpuranam'' and the Sanskrit text ''Halasya Mahatmya''.<ref name=ayyar477>{{cite book|author=P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar|title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC|year=1982|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0151-2|pages=477–479}}</ref> It is one of the shrines of the 275 [[Paadal Petra Sthalams]].

Early Tamil texts mention the temple and its primary deity by various epithets and names. [[Campantar|Thirugnanasambandar]], the famous Hindu saint of [[Saivism|Saiva philosophy]] for example, mentioned this temple in the 7th century, and described the deity as Aalavai Iraivan.{{sfn|Cotterell| 2011| p= 190}} The origin of the temple is mentioned in these early Tamil texts, some in the regional Puranam genre of literature. All of these place the temple in ancient times and include a warrior goddess, but the details vary significantly and are inconsistent with each other. Some link to it deities they call Alavai Iraivan and Alavai Annal, or alternatively Angayar Kanni Ammai. Some link its legend to other deities such as Indra who proclaims the primacy of the goddess, while some describe Hindu gods appearing before ancient kings or saints urging wealthy merchants to build this temple in the honor of a goddess. One legend describes a childless king and queen performing yajna for a son, they get a daughter who inherits the kingdom, conquers the earth, meets Shiva ultimately, marries him, continues to rule from Madurai, and the temple memorializes those times. Instead of such inconsistent ahistorical mythologies, scholars have attempted to determine the history of the temple from inscriptions found in and outside Madurai, as well as comparing the records relating to South Indian dynasties. These largely post-date the 12th century.<ref name=fuller94/>{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-32}}

===Invasions and destruction===
In the north, the Indian subcontinent had been conquered by the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. Muslim armies had begun raiding central India for plunder by the late 13th century. Between 1310–1311, the Ala ud Din Khilji's Muslim general Malik Kafur and his [[Delhi Sultanate]] forces went deeper into the Indian peninsula for loot and to establish annual tribute paying Muslim governors.<ref>[[#Michell|Michell 1995]], pp. 9-10, Quote: "The era under consideration opens with an unprecedented calamity for Southern India: the invasion of the region at the turn of the fourteenth century by Malik Kafur, general of Alauddin, Sultan of Delhi. Malik Kafur's forces brought to an abrupt end all of the indigenous ruling houses of Southern India, not one of which was able to withstand the assault or outlive the conquest. Virtually every city of importance in the Kannada, Telugu and Tamil zones succumbed to the raids of Malik Kafur; forts were destroyed, palaces dismantled and temple sanctuaries wrecked in the search for treasure. In order to consolidate the rapidly won gains of this pillage, Malik Kafur established himself in 1323 at Madurai (Madura) in the southernmost part of the Tamil zone, former capital of the Pandyas who were dislodged by the Delhi forces. Madurai thereupon became the capital of the Ma'bar (Malabar) province of the Delhi empire."</ref><ref name="Melton2014p884"/><ref name="Bayly1989p109">{{cite book|author=Susan Bayly|title=Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700-1900 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fxqtx8SflEsC |year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-89103-5|pages=109–110}}</ref> The records left by the court historians of the Delhi Sultanate state that Malik Kafur raided Madurai, Chidambaram, Srirangam and other Tamil towns, destroyed the temples, and they were the sources of gold and jewels booty he brought back to Delhi.<ref name="Ernst2004p109">{{cite book|author=Carl W. Ernst| title=Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9bNAAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-566869-8|page=109}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sarojini Chaturvedi|title=A short history of South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qXcwAQAAIAAJ| year=2006|publisher= Saṁskṛiti|isbn=978-81-87374-37-4|page=209}}</ref><ref name="Eraly2015chid">{{cite book|author=Abraham Eraly|title=The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT155| year=2015|publisher= Penguin Books|isbn=978-93-5118-658-8|pages=155–156}}</ref>

The Islamic invasion in the 14th century, states George Michell – a professor and art historian of Indian architecture, brought an abrupt end to the patronage of Tamil Hindu temple towns.<ref name=michellttownchid/> The Tamil Hindus revived these towns but in some places such as Madurai, it took a long while.<ref name="Melton2014p884">{{cite book|author=J. Gordon Melton|title=Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History [4 Volumes]: 5,000 Years of Religious History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bI9_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA884 |year= 2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-026-3|page=884}}</ref> After the conquest and destruction, the Delhi Sultan appointed a Muslim governor in Madurai, who seceded within the few years from the Delhi Sultanate and began the [[Madurai Sultanate]]. This Sultanate sought tribute from the temple towns, instead of supporting them. The Muslim Madurai Sultanate was relatively short-lived, with Hindu Vijayanagar Empire removing it in the late 14th century.<ref name=michellttownchid>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=Temple Towns of Tamil Nadu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D3XXAAAAMAAJ|year=1993|publisher=Marg Publications|isbn=978-81-85026-21-3|pages=4–8, 95–96}}</ref> According to one poetic legend called ''Madhura Vijayam'' attributed to Ganga Devi, the wife of [[Kumara Kampana]], she gave him a sword, urged him to liberate Madurai, right the vast wrongs, and reopen the Meenakshi temple out of its ruins. The Vijayanagara rulers succeeded, removed the ruins and reopened the temple for active worship.<ref name="Jackson2016p65">{{cite book|author=William J. Jackson|title=Vijayanagara Voices: Exploring South Indian History and Hindu Literature|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QymrCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 |year= 2016|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-00193-5|pages=62–66}}</ref> They restored, repaired and expanded the temple through the 16th century, along with many other regional temples.<ref>[[#Michell|Michell 1995]], pp. 14, 78-81, 158</ref>

===Rebuilding===
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| caption1 = Meenakshi in the sanctum (1801 sketch).
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The temple was rebuilt by the Hindu [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Nayaka dynasty]] ruler [[Vishwanatha Nayak]] in the 16th and 17th century. According to Susan Lewandowski, the Nayaka rulers followed the Hindu texts on architecture called the ''[[Shilpa Shastras]]'' in redesigning the temple city plan and the Meenakshi temple. The city was laid out, states Lewandowski, in the shape of concentric squares and ring-roads around them, with radiating streets culminating in the Meenakshi-Sundaresvara temple.{{sfn|King| 2005| pp= 72-73}} These streets use traditional Tamil Hindu month names, such as Adhi, Chitrai, Avani-moola, Masi and others. In each of these months, the Hindus started their tradition of taking the temple bronzes festively through the street of the same name.{{sfn|King| 2005| pp= 72-73}} The temple and the city was once again east facing to greet the rising [[Surya]] (sun god).{{sfn|King| 2005| pp= 72-73}}{{refn|group=note|Some of the shrines and the gopuram are not exactly aligned east-west and north-south axis, however.{{sfn|King| 2005| pp= 72-75}}}} The temple city grew again around the new temple, with human settlements structured along their castes, according to Lewandowski, with the royalty, Kshatriyas and Vaishya merchants lived on the southeast side of the temple, the Brahmins in a special quarter close to the temple, while others in other areas and fringes of the city.{{sfn|King| 2005| pp= 72-75}} The king started a procession tradition linked to the temple to link his authority with the divine and maintain the social system.{{sfn|King| 2005| pp= 72-75}} In contrast, according to Bayly, the procession reflects the traditional matrilineal social values, the brother-sister-groom kinship values that better explain its popularity. The warrior goddess worship tradition is ancient in the Tamil Hindu tradition, states Bayly, and it dramatically expanded after the 14th-century wars.<ref name="Bayly1989p29"/>

The work completed by Vishwanatha Nayaka in 1560 was substantially expanded to the current structure during the reign of [[Tirumala Nayaka]] (1623–55). Tirumala Nayaka, a Hindu king, took considerable interest in erecting many complexes inside the temple. His major contributions are the ''Vasantha Mandapam'' for celebrating ''Vasanthotsavam'' (spring festival) and ''Kilikoondu Mandapam'' (corridor of parrots). The corridors of the temple tank and ''Meenatchi Nayakar Mandapam'' were built by [[Rani Mangammal]]. The initiative for some changes to the structure was under the supervision of [[Ariyanatha Mudaliar]], the prime minister of the [[Nayak Dynasty|Nayaka Dynasty]].{{sfn|V. |1995| p= 115}}

During the colonial era, the population around the Meenakshi temple attracted a hub of Christian missionary activity headed by competing missions from Portugal and other parts of Europe.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Aristocratic Analogies and Demotic Descriptions in the Seventeenth-Century Madurai Mission | journal=Representations | issue=41 | year=1993 | doi=10.2307/2928680 | pages=123–148| jstor=2928680 | last1=Županov | first1=Ines G. | volume=41 }}</ref> The British rulers first gave endowments to the temple and the British troops participated in temple festivities to gain socio-political acceptance. Lord Clive, for example, donated jewels looted by the East India Company from Sringapatam, but in 1820 they withdrew from their roles as temple patrons and participating in temple festivities.{{sfn|King| 2005| pp= 72-75}}<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lewandowski | first=Susan J. | title=Changing Form and Function in the Ceremonial and the Colonial Port City in India: An Historical Analysis of Madurai and Madras | journal=Modern Asian Studies | volume=11 | issue=2 | year=1977 | issn=0026-749X | doi=10.1017/s0026749x00015080 | pages=183–212}}</ref> The missionaries ridiculed the temple artwork and criticized the temple practices while introducing themselves as "Roman Brahmins" and "Northern Sanniasis" [sic]. The missionary efforts were largely unsuccessful with people continuing to patronize the temple after baptizing. The missionaries wrote back that the Tamils were "baptizing, but not converting", for they baptize if "someone wants a wife who is Christian" or medical aid when they have a disease, material aid if they are poor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sabina Pavone|editor=Robert Maryks and Jonathan Wright|title=Jesuit Survival and Restoration: A Global History, 1773-1900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qnajBQAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-28387-9|pages=338–352 wth footnotes 25}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Susan Bayly|title=Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700-1900 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fxqtx8SflEsC |year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-89103-5|pages=391–394}}</ref>

After the end of the Nayakas, start of the Madras presidency and withdrawal of the colonial British from support, the temple condition degraded. In 1959, Tamil Hindus began collecting donations and initiated restoration work in consultation with engineers, Hindu monasteries, historians and other scholars. The completed restoration was celebrated with a ''Kumbhabhishekam'' in 1995.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=48-53}} The temple is sometimes spelled as Minaksi and the city as Madura in 17th to early 20th-century texts.<ref name=ayyar477/>

The temple has its traditional version of history that it calls ''Shiva-lilas'' (sports of Shiva), and sixty four of these episodes are painted as murals around the temple walls. These depict the many destructions of Madurai and the temple, then its rise from the ashes and ruins of the destruction every time.<ref>{{cite book|author=Milton Singer|title=Semiotics of Cities, Selves, and Cultures: Explorations in Semiotic Anthropology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9G6h1EfTTwC&pg=PA94 |year=1991|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-085775-7|pages=94–95}}</ref>

=== Temple entry agitations of Nadars ===
In November 1895, the [[Nadar (caste)|Nadars]] of [[kamuthi]] petitioned to the Meenakshi Sundaraswara temple, which was under Ramnad M. Baskara Sethupathi's trusteeship of the Raj, for permission to hold a ritual feast. Their petition was accepted, but it should be performed without the entry of Nadars into the temple. An anti-Nadar coalition was created by Vellasami Thevar, the inherited ruler of a vast land under the Raja of Ramnad and the grandfather of the late [[Muthuramalinga Thevar]]. He prohibited the Nadars from asserting their freedom. He ordered the allegiance of the society of Maravar and insisted a distinction between all classes.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thenmozhi|first=Kuru|title=Nadar Chamuga Varalaru (T)|year=1969|location=Madurai|pages=2}}</ref><ref name="Hardgrave1969">{{Cite book|last=Hardgrave|first=Robert L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TB2xrOEm3dQC|title=The Nadars of Tamilnad: The Political Culture of a Community in Change|date=2006|publisher=Ajay Kumar Jain for Manohar Publishers & Distributours|isbn=978-81-7304-701-5|pages=99–155|language=en}}</ref><ref name="thehindute">{{Cite news|last=Karthikeyan|first=D.|date=2013-07-09|title=Reliving the historic temple entry|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/reliving-the-historic-temple-entry/article4897572.ece|access-date=2020-10-23|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

A group of 15 Nadars belonging to the family of Erulappa Nadar entered the temple in Kamudi in May 1897, performing puja to the chief deity themselves. The Maravars and the Ramnad Zamindar M. Baskara Sethupathi objected it and lodged a complaint against fifteen members of the family of Erulappa Nadar arguing that they had polluted the temple and requested the payment of Rs. 2500 for purification rituals. The court decided on 20 July 1899 that neither the accused nor any member of their community had the right to enter any part of the temple. For the required [[ritual purification]] ceremonies at the temple, the defendants were ordered to pay the amount of five hundred rupees.<ref name="Hardgrave1969" /><ref name="thehindute" />

The Nadars appealed to the High Court of Judicature in Madras, unhappy with the judgment of the subordinate judge of Madurai, with funds of Rs. 42,000 raised from members of the community. The judgment went against the Nadars, then they took their appeal to the London Privy Council. The Privy Council approved the decision of the Subordinate Judge of Madurai, citing the High Court's decision of 1908. The District Magistrate of Madurai suggested that the stay of the public force be extended to another term on the ground that the Privy Council 's decision on the Kamudi Temple Entry case could again cause trouble.<ref name="Hardgrave1969" /><ref name="thehindute" />

==Description==
[[File:An aerial view of Madurai city from atop of Meenakshi Amman temple.jpg|thumb|800px|center|An aerial view of the compound from the top of the southern [[gopuram]], looking north.|alt=aerial image of a temple campus]]
[[File:Plan of Meenakshi Amman Temple Madurai India.jpg|thumb|Plan of the temple per 1911 sketch (does not reflect changes).]]
The temple complex is the center of the old city of [[Madurai]]. It consists of monuments inside a number of concentric enclosures, each layer fortified with high masonry walls. The outer walls have four towering gateways, allowing devotees and pilgrims to enter the complex from all four directions. After the city's destruction in the 14th century, the Tamil tradition states that the king Vishwantha Nayaka rebuilt the temple and the Madurai city around it in accordance with the principles laid down in the ''[[Shilpa Shastras]]'' (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|śilpa śāstra}}''. The city plan is based on concentric squares with streets radiating out from the temple.{{sfn|King| 2005| pp= 72-74}} Early Tamil texts mention that the temple was the center of the city and the streets happened to be radiating out like a lotus and its petals. The temple ''[[prakaram]]s'' (outer precincts of a temple) and streets accommodate an elaborate festival calendar in which processions circumambulate the temple complex. The vehicles used in the processions are progressively more massive the further they travel from the centre.{{sfn|Selby|Peterson| 2008| p= 149}}

The temple complex is spread over about {{convert|14|acres}}.<ref name="Geographic2008p155"/><ref name="Hatcher2015p20">{{cite book|author=Brian A. Hatcher|title=Hinduism in the Modern World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19aoCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-04630-9|pages=20–22}}</ref> The courtyard is close to a square with each side of about 800 feet, but more accurately a rectangle with one side about 50 feet longer. The complex has numerous shrines and mandapas, of which the most important and largest are the two parallel shrines in the innermost courtyard, one for Meenakshi (B on the plan) and other for Sundareshvara (A). Additionally, the complex has a golden lotus sacred pool (L) for pilgrims to bathe in, a thousand-pillar hall [[choultry]] with extensive sculpture (Q), the kalyana mandapa or wedding hall, many small shrines for Hindu deities and for scholars from the ''sangam'' (academy) history, buildings which are religious schools and administrative offices, elephant sheds, equipment sheds such as those for holding the chariots used for periodic processions and some gardens.<ref name="Hatcher2015p20"/> The temple is embedded inside a commercial hub and traditional markets.<ref name="Geographic2008p155"/><ref name="Hatcher2015p20"/>

According to Holly Reynolds, a closer examination of the temple plan, as well as the old city, suggests that it is mandala, a cosmic diagram laid out based on principles of symmetry and loci.<ref>{{cite book|author=Holly Baker Reynolds|editor=Bardwell L. Smith and Holly Baker Reynolds|title=The City As a Sacred Center: Essays on Six Asian Contexts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OsAfAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42|year= 1987|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-08471-1|pages=5–6, 12, 24–25, 34–37}}</ref>

The temple complex has had a living history, has been in use for almost all of its history except for about 60 years when it was closed and in ruins after its destruction in the 14th century. The temple has continued to evolve in the modern era. For example, before the colonial era, the temple complex was itself inside another layer of old city’s fortified walls. The British demolished this layer of fortification in the early 19th century. The surviving plan of the temple complex places it within the old city, one defined by a set of concentric squares around the temple.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=16-17, 24-26}}

===Walls===
The ancient temple complex was open. The courtyard walls were added over time in response to invasion and the plunder of the temple complex. According to the text ''Thirupanimalai'', the Vijayanagara commander Kumara Kampana after completing his conquest of Madurai, rebuilt the pre-existing structure and built defensive walls around the temple in the 14th century. Lakana Nayakar added the defensive walls around the first prakara (courtyard), as well as expanded and renovated the Mahamandapa and Meenakshi shrine about the middle of the 15th century.<ref name=fuller94/>{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-32}}

After the destruction of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire in the late 16th century by a coalition of Islamic Deccan sultanates north of Karnataka, the Madurai region declared its sovereignty. Visvanatha Nayak then poured resources to heavily fortify the temple complex, set a new plan for the temple complex. The Nayaka ruler also gilded the vimana of the primary shrines with gold. Chettiappa Nayakkar rebuilt the Dvarapala mandapam in front of the Sannadhi gopuram, as well as the north colonnade of the Golden Lotus Tank, the second protective wall around the Meenakshi Devi's shrine.<ref name=fuller94/>{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-32}}

[[File:Meenakshi Amman West Tower.jpg|thumb|left|Meenakshi temple has 14 colorful gopura. These are gateways to various shrines and mandapas.]]

[[File:MEENAKSHI TEMPLE-VIEW FROM WEST SIDE TOWER.jpg|thumb|View of the temple from the west-side tower]]
[[File:MEENAKSHI TEMPLE- WEST TOWER.jpg|thumb|West tower of the temple]]

===Gopurams===
The shrines of Meenakshi temple are embedded inside three walled enclosures and each of these have four gateways, the outer tower growing larger and reaching higher to the corresponding inner one. The temple has 14 [[gopuram]]s, the tallest of which is southern tower, rises to over {{convert|170|ft|m|abbr=on}} and was rebuilt in the late 16th century. The oldest ''gopuram'' is the eastern one (I on plan), built by [[Maravarman Sundara Pandyan]] during 1216-1238{{sfn|V.K.| 2003| pp= 96–98}} Each ''gopuram'' is a multi-storeyed structure, covered with sculpture painted in bright hues. The outer ''gopurams'' are high pyramidal tower serving as a landmark sign for arriving pilgrims, while the inner ''gopuram'' are smaller and serve as the entrance gateways to various shrines.{{sfn|Brockman| 2011| pp= 326–327}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajarajan|first=R.K.K. |year=1997|title=Pañcapretāsanāsīnī-Sadāśivī| url= https://www.academia.edu/29586279| journal=South Asian Studies|volume=8|pages=25–29|via=https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02666030.1997.9628522|doi=10.1080/02666030.1997.9628522 }}</ref>

The temple complex has 4 nine-storey gopurams (outer, raja), 1 seven-storey gopuram (Chittirai), 5 five-storey gopurams, 2 three-storey, and 2 one-storey gold-gilded sanctum towers.<ref name=tnhrceinfo/> Of these five are gateways to the Sundareshvara shrine, three to the Meenakshi shrine. The towers are covered with stucco images, some of whom are deity figures and others are figures from Hindu mythology, saints or scholars. Each group or sets of panels in each storey present an episode from regional or pan-Hindu legend. The four tallest gopurams on the outer walls alone depict nearly 4,000 mythological stories.<ref name=tnhrceinfo>[http://www.maduraimeenakshi.tnhrce.in/towers.aspx Arulmigu Meenakshi Sundareshwarar Thirukkoil – Temple Towers], Madurai Meenakshi Temple, Government of Tamil Nadu</ref>{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-32}}

Some of the major gopurams of the Meenakshi temple complex are:<ref name=fuller94/>{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-32}}
*Portions of the three-storeyed gopura at the entrance of Sundareswarar Shrine and the central portion of the Goddess Meenakshi Shrine are some of the earliest surviving parts of the temple. These were constructed by king Kulasekara Pandya (1190-1216 CE). The traditional texts call him a poet-saint king, additionally credit him with a poem called Ambikai Malai, as well as shrines (koil) each for Natarajar and Surya near the main temple, Ayyanar in the east, Vinayagar in the south, Kariamalperumal in the west and Kali in the north. He also built a Mahamandapam. Kulasekara Pandya was also a poet and he composed a poem on Meenakshi named ''Ambikai Malai''.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-23}}
*Maravarman Sundara Pandyan I built a gopura in 1231, then called Avanivendaraman, later rebuilt, expanded and named as Sundara Pandya Thirukkopuram.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-23}}
*Chitra gopuram (W), also known as Muttalakkum Vayil, was built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II (1238-1251). This gopuram is named after the frescoes and reliefs that depict secular and religious themes of Hindu culture. Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II also added a pillared corridor to the Sundareswara shrine, and the Sundara Pandyan Mandapam.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-23}} It was rebuilt after the 14th-century damage, its granite structure was renovated by Kumara Krishnappar after 1595.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=36-37}}
*Vembaturara Ananda Nambi built the early version of the three-tiered gopuram in 1227. Like other gopurams, it too was destroyed in the 14th century and later rebuilt. This gopuram is found between Meenakshi shrine and the Kilikuttu (parrot) mandapam. Some inscriptions refer to it as Vembathurar gopuram.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-23}}
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*The gopuram east to the Sundareshwara shrine is 5 storeyed. It was completed about 1372 by Vasuvappan after the Vijayanagara rulers reopened the temple complex after remaining in ruins and dormant for about five decades. The gopuram west to the Sundareshwara shrine is also 5 storeyed, and was completed around 1374 by Mallapan.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=24-32}}
*According to the inscriptions found on the foundation of the gateways, Visvappa Nayakkar built the Nayaka gopuram in the second prakara around 1530, while Palahai gopuram was built about the same time by Mallappan. Both the gopuram have similar style and architecture, likely built by a collaborating group of same artists.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=24-32}}
*Kadaka Gopuram in Meenakshi’s shrine was built by Tumpichi Nayakkar around the mid 16th century, but different texts give different dates. It is five-storeyed, was walled up and closed through 1963 for unclear reasons. This gopura was reopened after the renovations completed in 1963.
*The gopuram near the Ganesha shrine (Mukkuruni Vinayakar), also called the Nadukkattu gopuram or Idaikattu gopuram, was built by the Siramalai Sevvanthimurti Chetti family. It is called Nadukkattu because it is between the shrines of Meenakshi and Sundareswarar. They also rebuilt and renovated the Idabhakkuri gopuram, a five-storey tower on the northern segment of the Adi street.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=24-32}}
*The nine-storey southern gopura, the highest tower, was also built by Siramalai Sevvanthimurti Chetti family, a wealthy Hindu who lived near Thiruchirapalli. It was completed in the second half of the 16th century. The gopuram is notable for its extensive artwork with over 1,500 mythological characters in panels that narrate legends from the Hindu texts, particularly the [[Puranas]].{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=24-32}}
*Mottai gopuram (lit. "bald" gateway) was started by Krishnappa Nayakkar, also called the North Raya gopuram (this is not on the plan, below the bottom edge). It was completed by Amaravati Purur Vayinagaram Chettiyar family in 1878 CE. The Mottai gopuram for nearly three centuries did not have the roof structure, is simpler and has fewer stucco images than the other major entrances, giving it a relatively bald appearance and the local name. Before its completion in the 19th century, the gopuram made of stone and brick had even fewer stucco images.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=32-33}}

===Shrines===
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The Meenakshi temple has two separate shrines for the goddess Meenakshi (Parvati, Devi, Amman) and god Sundaresvara (Shiva, Deva, Cuvami), just like most Shaiva temples.<ref name=fuller321>C. J. Fuller (1980), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062576 South Indian Temple: Mīnākṣī and Sundareśvara at Madurai], History of Religions, Vol. 19, No. 4 (May, 1980), University of Chicago Press, pages 321-348</ref> Both open to the east. The Devi shrine is on the south side (B), while the Deva shrine is more centrally placed, to the north (A), thus placing the goddess as the ''pradhana murti'' or the "more important" right side within the complex, states Fuller.<ref name=fuller321/>

The goddess shrine has the green stone image of Meenakshi, standing in bent-leg posture. Her raised hand holds a lotus, on which sits a green parrot. Her left hand hangs by her side. This image is set in a square ''garbha griya'' (central sanctum). A copy of this image has been made from metal and is kept in the temple complex. The metal version is used for a festive procession.<ref name=fuller321/> A distinct feature of Meenakshi in terms of iconography is the presence of parrot in her right hand. The parrot is generally associated with the Vaishnava [[azhwar]] saint [[Andal]].{{sfn|Pal|1988|p=291}} The Sundareswarar shrine has a stone linga in its square plan sanctum, and this anicon is shaded under a stone cobra hood. In the northeast corner is another stone image of his consort. None of these travel during a festive procession. Rather, Sundareswarar is represented in the form of anthropomorphic Somaskanda image.<ref name=fuller321/> There is another metal symbolic image of Shiva called the Cokkar, which is merely a pair of embossed feet on a metal stool. This symbol is kept near Sundareswarar sanctum all day, then carried in a ''palaki'' daily to Meenakshi's chamber every evening so that the two can symbolically spend the night together. In the morning, the temple volunteers wake the divine couple and the symbolic Cokkar image is carried back to the Sundareswarar sanctum.<ref name=fuller321/>

The shrine for Sundareswarar{{refn|group=note|His alternate names in texts and Madurai Meenakshi temple-related inscriptions include Chockalingam, Chockanathar, Meenakshi Sundarar, Somasundarar, Kalyana Sundarar, Shanbaga Sundarar, Attavai Shevagan, Adiyarku Nallan, Adhiraveesi, Vilayaduvan, Abhideka Chockar, Azhagiya Chockar, Kadambavana Chockar, Puzhugu Neidhu Chockar, Kadambavaneswarar, Karpoora Chockar, Madureswarar, Irayanar, Peralavayar.<ref name=tnhrceinfo/>{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-38}}}} is the largest within the complex and its entrance is aligned with the eastern gopuram. The shrine for Meenakshi is smaller, though theologically more important. Both the Meenakshi and Sundareswarar shrines have gold plated ''Vimanam'' (tower over sanctum). The golden top can be seen from a great distance in the west through the apertures of two successive towers. The tall sculpture of [[Ganesh]] carved of single stone located outside the Sundareswarar shrine in the path from Meenashi shrine is called the ''Mukuruny Vinayakar''. A large measure of rice measuring 3 ''kurini'' (a measure) is shaped into a big ball of sacrifice{{sfn|Compiled| 2008| p= 174}} and hence the Ganesh is called ''Mukkurni Vinayagar'' (three ''kurinis'').{{sfn|V.K.| 2003| pp= 96–98}}

Kumara Kampana, states the ''Thirupanimalai'' text, donated jewels and made grants to cover the expenses for daily operations of the two shrines in the 14th century.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-32}} The Tamil Hindus who had hidden the temple idols in Nanjil Nadu, brought them back and reconsecrated them ending the nearly five decades era when the temple had been closed under the Madurai Sultanate rule. The temple inscriptions suggest that the Vijayanagara rulers participated worship ceremonies in the temple and donated gold, through the 16th century. Lakana Nayakar built the ''Paliarai'' (bed chamber) in the mid 15th century for the icon goddess and god to symbolically spend their night together. The Nataraja shrine was also added in the 15th century by Arulalan Sevahadevan Vanathirayan, who also renovated the Thiruvalavaudaiyar shrine.<ref name=fuller94/>{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-32}}

The temple has other shrines, such as for Murugan in the northwest corner of the second courtyard. It was built by Krishnappa Nayakar II.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=36-37}} A tall, monolithic Ganesha sculpture with a large rice ball, locally called the Mukuruny Vinayakar, is carved on the way between the Meenakshi shrine and the Sundareshwarar shrine, reflecting the legend that gave him the elephant head.<ref name=tnhrceinfo/>{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-32}}

===Temple tank and surrounding portico===
The Nayakas, who were the local governors for the Vijayanagara rulers, expanded the temple complex. In 1516, Saluvanarasana Nayaka added the sacred pool for pilgrims to take a dip, naming it Ezhukadal (seven seas, Saptasaharam).<ref name=fuller94/>{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=19-32}} Chettiappa Nayakkar rebuilt the north colonnade of the Golden Lotus Tank, as well as Dvarapala mandapam in front of the Sannadhi gopuram.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=24-31}}

[[File:Golden Lotus in Meenakshi Amman Temple.jpg|thumb|Golden Lotus in the temple pool.]]
The sacred temple tank is called ''Porthamarai Kulam'' ("Pond with the golden lotus"). It is also referred to as Adhi Theertham, Sivaganga and Uthama Theertham. The pool is {{convert|165|ft|m|abbr=on}} by {{convert|120|ft|m|abbr=on}} in size.{{sfn|Temple theertham|2012}} The pool walls were painted with frescoes. Only a fraction of 17th- and 18th-century paintings of Nayak period survives and one such portion is found in the small portico on the western side of the tank. It depicts the marriage of Sundareswarar and Meenkashi attended by Vijayaranga Chokkanatha and Rani Mangammal. The painting is executed on a vivid red background, with delicate black linework and large areas of white, green and ochre. The celestial couple is seated inside an architectural frame with a flowering tree in the background.{{sfn|Michell| 1995| p= 241}}

The small six-pillared swing mandapam (Unjal) was built by Cheventhi Murthi Chetti during this period, and this remains in use currently for a Friday ritual and it also houses the model of the entire temple complex created in 1985.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=24-31}}

===Halls===
The temple complex has many mandapas (pillared-halls) built by kings and wealthy patrons over the centuries. They are [[choultry]], or a place for the pilgrims to rest. Some of these mandapas include:<ref name=fuller94/>{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=22-39}}

====Main mandapams====
*Chinnappa Nayakkar constructed the 100-pillared Mandapa Nayaka Mandapam in the northeastern part of second courtyard in 1526. This mandapa houses the famed Nataraja statue with his "right" leg up in dance mudra, instead of the left leg typically found in Nataraja bronzes.{{sfn|V.K.| 2003| pp= 96–98}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mīnākṣī-Sundareśvara: Tirivuḷaiyāṭaṟ Purāṇam in Letters, Design and Art|last=Rajarajan|first=R.K.K.|publisher=Sharada Publishing House|year=2013|isbn=978-81-926983-2-8|location=New Delhi}}</ref>
[[File:1801 sketch of Krishna sculpture at Meenakshi temple Madurai Tamil Nadu, cropped image.jpg|thumb|This is a Shaivism tradition temple that includes deities and narrative friezes of Vaishnavism and Shaktism. Above: Krishna sculpture at the Meenakshi temple (sketched in 1801).]]
*The small six-pillared swing mandapam (Unjal, oonjal) was built by Cheventhi Murthi Chetti during this period, and this remains in use currently for a Friday ritual. The images of Meenakshi and Sundareswarar are placed on the swing every Friday evening and swung. The shrine has a 3-storied ''gopuram'' flanked by two ''[[Dvarapala]]'' (guardians) and supported by golden, rectangular columns that bear lotus markings. Along the perimeter of the chamber, granite panels of the divine couple are present. The hall is situated in the western bank of the temple tank. This mandapam also houses the model of the entire temple complex created in 1985.
*Kambathadi mandapam (H) was built by Krishna Virappa Nayakkar (1572- 1595). This choultry hall is known for intricately carved sculptures and eight Shiva forms: Ardanarishwara (half Parvati, half Shiva), Rudra (angry Shiva), Bhikshadanamurti (Shiva as a monk), Dakshinamurti (Shiva as yoga teacher, guru), Lingobhava (Shiva emerging out of a linga), Ekapathamurti, Rishaba, Somaskanda (Shiva, Parvati and Skanda), Chandrasekara, Nataraja (dancing Shiva) and Somasundara.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=32-33}}
*''Ashta Shakthi Mandapam'' ("Hall of eight goddesses", O on plan) was built by two queens.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=41-43}} It is the hall near the East gopuram, between the main entrance for visitors and the smaller gopuram leading to the Meenakshi shrine tower.{{sfn|Nicholson| 1997| pp= 279–280}} The passage was named for eight forms of goddess [[Shakti]] carved on its pillars: Koumari, Roudri, Vaishnavi, Maha-lakshmi, Yagnarupini, Shyamala, Maheswari and Manonmani.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=41-43}} These reflect the feminine and power aspects of all major traditions of Hinduism. Other sculptures and paintings depict the ''Tiruvilayadal'' (holy games of Shiva). The sculptures of heroes of [[Mahabharata]], the ''[[Pandava|Pancha pandavas]]'' can be seen in the ''Pancha Pandava Mandapam'' (Hall of Pandavas). The hall also has four sculptures of Shiva scholars, as well as a statue of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] added in 1923 while the Indians were midst their independence struggle from the colonial British rule.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=41-43}}
[[File:Pillared halls or mandapams in Meenakshi temple, choultry pilgrim resting place.jpg|thumb|right|One of the pillared halls in Meenakshi temple.]]
*''Kilikoondu Mandapam'', also called ''Sangili mandapam'' (E), is near the Meenakshi shrine. The word Kilikondu means "parrot cage", and in past the parrots kept here were trained to say "Meenakshi". This pillared hall was completed in 1623 by Muthu Veerappa Nayakar. The cages were later removed.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=38-39}} In contemporary times, girls perform the ''kolattam'' dance, a type of stick dance that involves acrobatics and forming chains with long ropes hanging from the ceiling, which is why it is called ''sangili''. These dances celebrate Hindu festival days.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=38-39}} The ''Kilikoondu Mandapam'' is notable for its sculpture of characters from the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', a Hindu epic. It also has a yali sculpture on a pillar, inside whose mouth is carved a stone ball that freely rotates.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=38-39}}
*The ''Kambatadi Mandapam'' ("Hall of temple tree") with its seated Nandi (sacred bull) has various manifestations of Shiva carved and also contains the famous "Marriage of Meenakshi" sculpture.{{sfn|V.K.| 2003| pp= 96–98}} Other sculptures here include those Shiva and [[Kali]] in a dance competition, a golden flagstaff, [[Durga]] as [[Siddhidatri|Siddar]].{{sfn|V.K.| 2003| pp= 96–98}}
*The ''Vira vasantha raya mandapam'' (R) is to the south of the 1000-pillar mandapam, and was completed in 1611 by Muthu Veerappa Nayakar I.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=36-37}} It contains a Nandi facing the main Sundaresvara sanctum. To the south of this hall is the ''kalyana mandapam'', or wedding hall. It is here that the marriage of Shiva and Parvati is celebrated every year during the ''Chithirai'' festival which falls sometime in or abouts April.
*Pudumandapam, also called Vasantha mandapam (bottom of plan) was completed by Thirumalai Nayak in the 17th century. It is in front of the eastern tower, outside the current walled complex. It leads to the unfinished Eastern gopuram. It has 124 pillars, each with intricately carved sculptures of Meenakshi's wedding to Shiva, Kali, Nataraja, Surya, Chandra as well as common life scenes such as elephants eating sugarcane stalks are found in this mandapam.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=39-41}} Its popularity led to shopkeepers occupying the pillared hall, some of which hide or make a complete view of the sculpture difficult.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=39-41}}
*''Golu mandapam'' was built by Thittiyappa Chetti, a common man, in 1565 during the rule of Krishnappa Nayakkar. This mandapam is used during the Navaratri festival every year when goddess Meenakshi is decorated like a golu doll, in nine different forms on each of the nine days of the autumn festival.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=34-35}}
{{Multiple image
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|image2=Carved pillar, Thousand-Pillared Hall, Meenakshi Temple, Madurai (3) (37469458076).jpg
|caption2=Every pillar is carved with religious or secular sculpture
|alt2=A sculpture in the pilgrim pillared hall
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*The Thousand-Pillared Hall (Q) contains 985 (instead of 1000) carved pillars, with two shrines occupying the space of the remaining 15.{{sfn|Brockman| 2011| pp= 326–327}} The hall was built by [[Ariyanatha Mudaliar]] in 1569 and blends engineering skill and artistic vision.{{sfn|V.K.| 2003| pp= 96–98}} Ariyanatha Mudaliar was prime minister and general of [[Viswanatha Nayak]]<nowiki/>a, the first Nayaka of Madurai (1559–1600). At the entrance of the hall is the statue of Ariyanatha Mudaliar seated on a horse-back, flanking one side of the entrance to the temple. Each pillar in the hall is a carved sculpture. The more prominent among the carved figures are those of Rati (wife of Kama), [[Karthikeya]], [[Ganesha]], Shiva as a wandering mendicant. The ''Meenakshi Nayakkar Mandapam'' ("Hall of 1000 pillars") has two rows of pillars carved with images of ''[[yali (Hindu mythology)|yali]]'' (mythological beast with body of lion and head of an elephant). It is situated to the north of Sundareswarar flag staff hall.{{sfn|V.K.| 2003| pp= 96–98}} There is a Temple Art Museum in the hall where icons, photographs, drawings, and other exhibits of the temple are displayed.{{sfn|V.K.| 2003| pp= 96–98}} Just outside this hall, towards the west, are the Musical Pillars. Each pillar, when struck, produces a different musical note.{{sfn|V.K.| 2003| pp= 96–98}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Imperial Frontiers: Building Sacred Space in Sixteenth-Century South India|jstor= 20619601| last=Branfoot| first=Crispin |journal=The Art Bulletin|volume=90|issue=2|pages= 171–194|year= 2008|doi= 10.1080/00043079.2008.10786389|s2cid= 154135978}}</ref>

====Other mandapams====
*Lakana Nayakar expanded and renovated the Mahamandapa in late 15th century CE.
*The Urchava Nayanar Mandapa and the small six-pillared mandapa in front of the Mahamandapa was rebuilt by Sundaratolydaiya Mavali Vanathirayar in the 15th century.
*Chettiappa Nayakkar rebuilt the Dvarapala mandapam in front of the Sannadhi gopuram, as well as the north colonnade of the Golden Lotus Tank in the late 16th century.
*Vanniyadi Natarajar Mandapam and Annakkuli Mandapam were built by a woman named Chellappen Mannikkam in the late 16th century.
*Murthiyamman mandapam and Nandi mandapam were built by Krishnappa Nayakar (1564-1572). The Nandi mandapam was renovated again in 1877.
*The ''Mudali Pillai Mandapam'' or ''Iruttu Mandapam'' (dark hall) is a wide and long hall built by Muthu Pillai during 1613. On the pillars of the halls, there are fine sculptures of Shiva narrating the legend of [[Bhikshatana|Bikshadanar]].{{sfn|Ki| 1963| p= 93}}
[[File:India - Madurai - 021-2 - Rajasthani pilgrims (1825820390).jpg|thumb|right|The temple is major South Indian pilgrimage center, as well as elsewhere. Above: Pilgrims from [[Rajasthan]] at the temple.]]
*The ''Mangayarkarasi mandapam'' is a newly built hall situated opposite to the wedding halls and bears the name of queen Mangayarkarasi who contributed to Saivism and Tamil language.{{sfn|Awakened India| 2007| p= 49}} To the south of ''Mangayarkarasi mandapam'' lies the ''Servaikarar Mandapam'', a hall built by [[Marudu brothers]] in 1795.{{sfn|Iyer|T. R. | 1987| p= 43}} The ''Nagara mandapam'' (Hall of beating drums) lies opposite to Sundareswarar shrine was built by Achaya Rayar, the minister of Rani Mangammal in 1635.{{sfn|Ki| 1963| p= 76}} The ''Kolu Mandapam'' is a hall for displaying dolls during the [[Navratri|Navarathri]] festival celebrated during September–October.{{sfn|Awakened India|2007| p= 47}} This hall is situated in the second corridor of the Meenakshi shrine at the western side.

The mandapas also feature community gathering halls. The Kanaka Sabha and Ratna Sabha are in the first prahara, Rajata Sabha in Velliambalam, Deva Sabha in the 100-pillared mandapam and Chitra Sabha in the 1000-pillared mandapam.{{sfn|D. Uma|2015|pp=33-34}}

==Deities inside the Temple==
* Sundareshwarar (Main God)
* Meenakshi Amman (Main Goddess)
* Mukkuruni Vinayagar
* Irattai Vinayagar
* [[Dakshinamurthy]]
* [[Mahalakshmi]]
* [[Saraswathi]]
* [[Nayanars|63 Nayanmars]]
* [[Saptarishi]] mothers
* Kasi Vishwanathar
* Lingothpavar
* Sahasralingas
* [[Murugan|Subramaniyar]] with [[Deivayanai]] and [[Valli]]
* Chandrasekhar
* Chandikeshwarar
* Kalyana Sundareshwarar with Meenakshi Amman
* [[Siddhar]]
* [[Durga|Durgai Amman]]
* [[Bhairavar]]
* [[Appar]]
* [[Sambandhar]]
* [[Sundarar]]
* [[Manickavasagar]]
* Suryanarayanan with Usha and Prathyusha
* [[List of Sangam poets|Sangam poets]]
* Vivhooshi Vinayagar
* [[Navagrahas]]

Along with these, there are statues of King Thirumalai Naicker with his wives within the temple complex.

==Significance==
The Meenakshi Temple is a theologically and culturally significant temple for Hindus. Professor [[Chris Fuller (academic)|Christopher Fuller]] signifies that through the wedding of [[Meenakshi]] and Sundaresvara the "supremely important rite of passage" for women, the cultural concept of "sumangali" or "auspicious married woman" who lives with her husband but is also independent, organizer of the social connections and who is central to Tamilian life. The marriage of the goddess and god is a symbolic paradigm for human marriage.<ref name=cfuller205>Christopher Fuller (1995), The 'Holy Family' of Shiva in a south Indian temple, Social Anthropology, Volume 3, Issue 3, Cambridge University Press, pages 205-217</ref> This event is commemorated with an annual festive procession that falls sometime around April. The temple is also significant because it implies an affinal, protective relationship between [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]] traditions of Hinduism, by making Shiva the husband of Meenakshi, and Vishnu her brother, a significant relationship in Dravidian kinship system.<ref name=cfuller205/><ref name="Shulman2014">{{cite book|author=David Dean Shulman|title=Tamil Temple Myths: Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d97_AwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-5692-3|pages=138–149}}</ref> Meenakshi herself is a central part of the [[Shaktism]] tradition of Hinduism, and represented as the dominant figure of the pair in this temple. The temple thus symbolically celebrates all three of its major traditions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jackie Menzies|title=Goddess: divine energy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzLqAAAAMAAJ |year=2006|publisher=Art Gallery of New South Wales|page=15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Alf Hiltebeitel|author2=Kathleen M. Erndl|title=Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C|year=2000|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3619-7|pages=220–227}}</ref>

According to the ''Tiruvilaiyatal Puranam'', of the list of 68 pilgrimage places in Shaivism, four are most important: Kashi (Varanasi), Chidambaram, Tirukkalatti and Madurai. The sacrality of Madurai is from this temple.<ref name="SmithReynolds1987p34">{{cite book|author=Holly Baker Reynolds|editor=Bardwell L. Smith and Holly Baker Reynolds|title=The City As a Sacred Center: Essays on Six Asian Contexts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OsAfAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42|year= 1987|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-08471-1|pages=34–37, context: 12–44}}</ref> The shrine of Sundareswarar is considered as one of the [[Pancha Sabhai]] (five courts),{{sfn|Kumar| 2001| p= 184}} where the Tamil Hindu tradition believes Shiva performed [[Tandava|cosmic dance]].{{sfn|Smith| 1996| pp= 10–48}} The Tamil word ''velli'' means silver and ''ambalam'' means stage or altar.{{sfn|Soundara Rajan| 2001| p= 51}} This massive Nataraja sculpture is enclosed in a huge silver altar and hence called "Velli Ambalam" (silver abode).<ref>{{cite journal|author=R.K.K. Rajarajan |title=Dancing Halls Five |journal=Religions of South Asia |volume=8 |issue=2 |url= https://www.academia.edu/9571297 |archive-url= https://archive.is/20161129125139/https://www.academia.edu/9571297/Pa%C3%B1can%E1%B9%9Btyasabh%C4%81s_Dancing_Halls_Five |archive-date=29 November 2016 |access-date=November 29, 2016 |doi=10.1558/rosa.v8i2.197 |url-status=dead |year=2014 }}</ref>

The temple is a popular site for Hindu weddings, though it is not the exclusive site. The short main ceremony is completed in the temple, followed by receptions and other rituals elsewhere.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sara Dickey|title=Living Class in Urban India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VNR2DAAAQBAJ |year= 2016|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-8394-5|page=157}}</ref>

The Meenakshi temple is not only a religious center, but is also an economic center. The goods and services for temple-related pilgrims and visitors is a significant part of the Madurai economy.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sara Dickey|title=Living Class in Urban India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VNR2DAAAQBAJ |year= 2016|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-8394-5|page=9}}</ref>

==Worship==
The Meenakshi Amman temple is an active house of Hindu worship. Priests perform the [[puja (Hinduism)|puja]] ceremonies on a daily basis and during festivals.{{sfn|Fuller|2004|pp=63-74}} Volunteers and temple staff also participate in daily rituals, such as symbolically moving an icon of Sundaresvara in a palanquin to Meenakshi's chamber every night so that they can be together, then waking the two and returning Sundaresvara to his shrine every morning.<ref name=fuller94/> There are periodic ''ratha'' (chariot) processions where one of the metal copy icon of the goddess is taken out of the temple in an elaborate car shrine decorated with colorful clothes and flowers, with volunteers pulling the car through the streets of Madurai and circumambulating the temple complex on one of the concentric roads in the old city. This symbolizes her mythical conquests and her presence in the secular life of the people.<ref name=fuller94/>

{{multiple image
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| caption1 = Madurai temple ''ratha yatra'' festival (spring).
| image2 = Parvati and Shiva as Navaratri Golu Dolls Tamil Nadu.jpg
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| caption2 = Golu dolls festival (autumn).
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The temple has a six time pooja calendar everyday, each comprising four rituals namely ''abhisheka'' (sacred bath), ''alangaram'' (decoration), ''neivethanam'' (food offerings{{refn|group=note|These offerings are always vegetarian, and animal sacrifices are never performed, states Christopher Fuller.{{sfn|Fuller| 2004|p=97}}}}) and ''deepa aradanai'' (lamp ceremony) for both Meenakshi and Sundareswarar.{{sfn|Fuller| 2004| p= 67}} The rituals and festivals are accompanied with music with ''[[nadhaswaram]]'' (pipe instrument) and ''[[tavil]]'' (percussion instrument), recitation of the [[Vedas]].{{sfn|Fuller|2004|pp=63-74}}

The Hindus generally circumambulate the shrines clockwise first before entering the shrine for a ''[[darshana]]''. Meenakshi is typically visited before Sundareswarar by the pilgrims, she considered the primary deity of the complex. Like most Shakti temples in Tamil Nadu, the Fridays during the Tamil months of ''Aadi'' (July–August) and ''Thai'' (January–February) are celebrated in the temple by thousands of devotees. "Avani Moola Utsavam" is a 10-day festival mainly devoted to Sundareswarar describes his various ''Thiruvilayadal'' meaning Shiva's sacred games.

===Festivals===
The Meenakshi temple hosts a festival in each month of the Tamil calendar. Some festivals attract significant participation, with the Meenakshi wedding-related festival attracting over a million people over 12 days. It is called the "[[Chithirai Thiruvizha#Meenakshi Tirukalyanam|Meenakshi Thirukalyanam]]". The festival is celebrated in the Chithirai month, which typically falls about April. It marks the divine marriage of Meenakshi, and is the most attended festival.{{sfn|Bansal| 2008| p= 123}} The [[Hindu wedding|wedding]] of the divine couple is regarded as a classic instance of south Indian marriage with matrilineal emphasis, an arrangement referred as "Madurai marriage". This contrasts with the "Chidambaram marriage", with patrilineal emphasis, reflected by Shiva's dominance, ritual and mythology at the [[Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram|Shiva temple of Chidhambaram]].{{sfn|Harman| 1992| p= 65}} The festival includes a procession, where Meenakshi and Sundareshwara travel in a chariot pulled by volunteer devotees, and Vishnu gives away his sister in marriage to Shiva. Meenakshi, the bride, is the royal monarch.{{sfn|Harman |1992| p= 66}} During the one-month period, there are a number of events including the "Ther Thiruvizhah" (chariot festival) and "Theppa Thiruvizhah" (float festival).

[[File:View of Golden lotus well (pottramarai kulam) on Festival of Lights - Navarathri 01.JPG|thumb|Meenakshi temple decorated for the Navarathri festival.]]
Other festivals include the Vasantham festival is celebrated in Vaikasi month. The Unjal Festival in Aani, the Mulai-Kottu festival in Aadi, the Aavani Moolam Aavani, the Kolattam festivals of Ayppasi and Karthikai months, the Arudhra Dharsan festival of Margali month, the Thai month utsavam that co-celebrated with the Mariyamman temple in Madurai, the Masi utsavam and Vasamtham utsavam in Panguni.<ref name=tnhrceinfo/>{{sfn|Fuller|2004|pp=63-74}}

In the Tamil month of Purattasi, the temple celebrates the [[Navaratri|Navarathri]] festival, also known as Dasara or Dussehra elsewhere. During this autumn festival, the temple complex is lit up at night with garlands of lights and with colourful displays during the day. The mandapam halls display mythological scenes from Hindu texts using [[golu]] dolls. These displays are particularly popular with children, and families visit the displays in large numbers.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/madurai/Navarathri-celebrations-Meenakshi-temple-golu-display-steals-the-show/articleshow/54706589.cms Navarathri celebrations: Meenakshi temple golu display steals the show], The Times of India (Oct 6, 2016)</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/crowds-throng-madurai-meenakshi-temple-for-golu/article5206661.ece Crowds throng Madurai Meenakshi temple for ‘golu’], The Hindu (OCTOBER 06, 2013)</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/gods-and-gopurams-in-full-glow/article6465343.ece Gods and gopurams in full glow], The Hindu (OCTOBER 01, 2014)</ref>

==Literary mention==
[[File:Figures with Pigeons - Ivory Sculpture - Sri Meenakshi-Sundareshwarar Temple - Madurai - India.JPG|200px|thumb|Image of [[Sundarar]], [[Appar]] and [[Sambandar|Thirugnanasambandar]] in the temple tower|alt=image of three saints in temple tower]]
Over the centuries, the temple has been a centre of education of culture, literature, art, music and dance.{{sfn|National Geographic| 2008| p= 155}}

The temple is famed location where Tamil tradition believes [[Sambandar]] helped establish Tamil Shiva bhakti.{{sfn|Karen Pechilis Prentiss|1999|pp=78-79}}

[[Kumaragurupara Desikar|Kumaraguruparar]], a 17th-century Tamil poet, composed ''Meenakshi Pillaitamil'' in praise of presiding deity of this temple.{{sfn|Datta| 2005| p= 1626}} King Tirumalai Nayak's patronage of the poet Kumaraguruparar has an important place in the history of ''pillaitamil'' (a genre of Tamil literature). Kumaraguruparar visited a lot of temples and when he visited this temple, he composed ''Meenakshi pillaitamil'' dedicated to the goddess Meenakshi.{{sfn|Kinsley |1998| p= 227}}

[[Shyama Shastri]], one of the [[Trinity of Carnatic music]], had composed a set of nine [[Telugu Language|Telugu]] songs in praise of Meenakshi of Madurai, which are referred to as ''Navaratnamalika''(Garland of nine gems).<ref name='syama'>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC&q=syama+sastri+meenakshi&pg=PA228|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent|last=Bruno|first= Nettl|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0824049462|language=en|year=1998}}</ref> According to legend, when Sastri sang these songs infront of presiding deity, the goddess had responded visibly.<ref name='syama' />

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}

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*{{Citation |last=Kumar |first=Sehdev |title= A thousand petalled lotus: Jain temples of Rajasthan : architecture & iconography|year=2001|location=New Delhi |publisher=Indra Gandhi National Centre of Arts|isbn=978-81-7017-348-9}}.
*{{Citation |last=Michell |first=George |title=Architecture and art of southern India: Vijayanagara and, Volume 1, Issue 6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6bphUvvPf4C&q=tiruvidaimarudur&pg=PA97|year=1995 |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-44110-0}}.
*{{Citation |last=National Geographic|title=Sacred Places of a Lifetime: 500 of the World's Most Peaceful and Powerful Destinations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNqDFSxR8-MC&q=Sacred+Places+of+a+Lifetime:+500+of+the+World's+Most+Peaceful+and+Powerful+Destinations|year=2008|location=United States|publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=978-1-4262-0336-7}}.
*{{Citation |last=Nicholson|first=Louise |title= National Geographic Traveler: India, 3rd Edition|year=1997|location=USA |publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=978-1-4262-0595-8}}.
*{{Citation |last=Pal|first=Pratapaditya |title=Indian Sculpture, Volume 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-fvKVDxcJoUC&q=Madurai+meenakshi&pg=PA291 |year=1988|location=Los Angeles |publisher=Museum Associates, Los Angeles County Museum of Art|isbn=978-0-87587-129-5}}.
*{{Citation |author=Karen Pechilis Prentiss |title=The embodiment of bhakti |year=1999|location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-512813-0}}.
*{{Citation |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |title=Historical dictionary of the Tamils |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC&q=historical+dictionary+of+tamils|year=2007|location=United States|publisher=Scarecrow Press, INC.|isbn=978-0-470-82958-5}}.
* {{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/4382207|title=* Mīnākṣī-Sundareśvara - 'Tiruviḷaiyāṭaṟ Purāṇam' in Letters, Design and Art|last=Rajarajan|first=R.K.K.|year=2013|publisher=New Delhi: Sharada Publishing House}}
* {{cite book|title=Alayam - The Hindu temple - An epitome of Hindu Culture|page=31|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math|year=2013|location=Mylapore, Chennai|last=Reddy|first=G.Venkatramana|isbn=978-81-7823-542-4}}
*{{Citation |title=Tamil geographies: cultural constructions of space and place in South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B0_lLAechPcC&q=Tamil+geographies:+cultural+constructions+of+space+and+place+in+South+India|year=2008 |last1=Selby |last2= Peterson|first1=Martha Ann |first2=Indira Viswanathan|location=New York |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-7245-3}}.
*{{Citation|last=Smith|first=David|title=The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India By David|year=1996|location=United Kingdom|publisher=Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-48234-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/danceofsivarelig0000smit}}.
*{{Citation |last=Soundara Rajan |first=Kodayanallur Vanamamalai |title=Concise classified dictionary of Hinduism By Kodayanallur Vanamamalai Soundara Rajan|year=2001|location=New Delhi |publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-857-8}}
*{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC |year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2}}
*{{cite book|author=Ajay J. Sinha|title=Imagining Architects: Creativity in the Religious Monuments of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WvqLzaSUGi8C |year=2000|publisher=University of Delaware Press|isbn=978-0-87413-684-5}}
*{{cite book|title=South Indian Temples|author=Burton Stein|isbn=978-0706904499|publisher =Vikas|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Hq5BngAACAAJ| year=1978}}
*{{cite book|author=Burton Stein|title=The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpxeaYQbGDMC|year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-26693-2}}
*{{cite book|author1=Burton Stein|author2=David Arnold|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1}}
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*{{Citation|title= Festivals of Meenakshi Sundareswarar temple, Madurai a historical and cultural perspective| author= D. Uma| publisher= Madurai Kamraj University| year=2015| hdl= 10603/135484}}
* {{Citation|last=V.|first=Vriddhagirisan|title=Nayaks of Tanjore|year=1995|location=New Delhi|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0996-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/nayaksoftanjore0000vrid}}.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Madurai Meenakshi Temple}}
* [http://www.dinamalar.com/360_view_detail.asp?id=272 "Madurai Meenakshi Temple 360 View"] on Dinamalar.com
* [https://www.travelpraise.com/meenakshi-temple-history/ "A Brief History Of Meenakshi Temple"]
{{Shaivism}}
{{Shiva temples}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Madurai]]
[[Category:Parvati temples]]
[[Category:Padal Petra Stalam]]
[[Category:Pancha Sabhai]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Madurai]]
[[Category:Religious buildings and structures in Madurai]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Madurai]]
[[Category:Pandyan architecture]]
[[Category:Dravidian architecture]]

Tamil Mauritians

2020-12-15T09:49:34Z

175.141.124.220:

Indo-Fijians

2020-12-15T09:34:52Z

175.141.124.220:

{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Refimprove|date= February 2020}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Indian Fijians भारतीय फ़ीजी
பிஜி இந்தியர்கள்
| flag = {{flagicon|India}} {{flagicon|Fiji}}
| image =
| population = '''460,000''' 40% of the population of Fiji (2001)
| region1 = {{flagu|Fiji}}
| pop1 = 313,798 (2007 census)
| ref1 = <ref>[http://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/Tourism/tourmigstats_index.htm Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics] {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110709220811/http://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/Tourism/tourmigstats_index.htm |date= 9 July 2011 }}</ref>
| region2 = {{flagu| Australia}}
| pop2 = 61,748 (2016 census)
| ref2 = <ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/8B46E5DBE0FC9549CA2582570013F721/$File/31010_sep%202017.pdf|title= Australian demographic statistics}}</ref>
| region3 = {{flagu |New Zealand}}
| pop3 = 38,310 (2013 census)
| ref3 = <ref>[http://archive.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/birthplace.aspx Birthplace and people born overseas] {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071201152043/http://www.stats.govt.nz/census/2006-census-data/quickstats-about-culture-identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity.htm?page=para009Master |date= 1 December 2007 }}</ref>
| region4 = {{flagu| United States}}
| pop4 = 30,890 (2000 figure)
| ref4 = <ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/stp-159/stp159-fiji.pdf|title= People born in Fiji}}</ref>
| region5 = {{flagu| Canada}}
| pop5 = 24,665 (2016 census)
| ref5 = <ref>{{cite web|url= http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dv-vd/imm/index-eng.cfm|title= 2016 Canadian census}}</ref>
| region6 = {{flagu| United Kingdom}}
| pop6 = 5,000
| ref6 =
| languages = [[Fiji Hindi]] • [[English language|English]] • [[Fijian language|Fijian Bau]] and other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]]
| religions = Majority: [[Hindus |Hindu]] (76.7%) Minority: [[Muslims |Muslim]] (15.9%), [[Sikhs |Sikh]] (0.9%), Christian (6.1%), other (0.4%)<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.spc.int/PRISM/country/fj/stats/social/religion_stats.htm|title= Pacific Regional Statistics - Secretariat of the Pacific Community|website= www.spc.int}}</ref>
}}

'''Indo-Fijians''' or '''Indian Fijians''' ([[Fijian Hindi]]: भारतीय फ़ीजी), are [[Fiji]] citizens of fully or partially Indian descent, including descendants who trace their heritage from various regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="auto">Girmit by Suresh Prasad</ref> Although Indo-Fijians constituted a majority of Fiji's population from 1956 through the late 1980s, discrimination and the resulting [[brain drain]] resulted in them numbering 313,798 (37.6%) (2007 census) out of a total of 827,900 people living in [[:Fiji]] {{as of | 2007 | lc = on}}.<ref>{{cite news | title= Fiji population up 50,000 in 10 yrs|url= http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/10/31/news5.html |publisher= [[Fijilive]] |date= 31 October 2007 |access-date= 4 November 2007 }}</ref>

Although they hailed from various regions in India, the vast majority of Indo-Fijians trace their origins to the area of modern-day [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bihar]]. The major home districts of Fiji's North Indian labourers were [[Basti district |Basti]], [[Gonda district |Gonda]], [[Faizabad district| Faizabad]], [[Sultanpur district| Sultanpur]] and [[Azamgarh district| Azamgarh]], in the present-day [[Awadh]] region of Uttar Pradesh and the present-day [[Bhojpur district, India | Bhojpur]] region of Bihar.<ref>https://qz.com/india/290497/the-forgotten-story-of-indias-colonial-slave-workers-who-began-leaving-home-180-years-ago/</ref> Others (in a smaller quantity) originated in the [[Tamils |Tamil]] and [[Telugu people| Telugu]] regions of the [[Madras Presidency]], and free immigrants came from [[Gujarat]] and [[Sindh]]. Fiji's British colonial rulers brought Indian people to the [[Colony of Fiji]] as [[indentured servant]]s between 1879 and 1916 to work on Fiji's [[sugar-cane]] [[plantation]]s.

[[Mahendra Chaudhry]] became Fiji's first Indo-Fijian Prime Minister on 19 May 1999.
{{TOClimit|limit=2}}

== Early ancestors of Indo-Fijians ==

=== First Indian in Fiji ===
{{main|Lascars in Fiji}}
Indians had been employed for a long time on the European ships trading in India and the [[East Indies]]. Many of the early voyages to the Pacific either started or terminated in India, and many of these ships were wrecked in the uncharted waters of the [[Pacific Ocean|South Pacific]]. The first recorded presence of an Indian in Fiji was by [[Peter Dillon]], a [[sandalwood]] trader in Fiji, of a [[lascar]] (Indian seaman) who survived a ship wreck and lived amongst the natives of Fiji in 1813.<ref>{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=J.W. |title=Peter Dillon of Vanikoro: Chevalier of the South Seas |year=1975 |publisher= Oxford University Press|location= Melbourne|isbn= 0-19-550457-7|pages = 31}}</ref>

=== First attempt to procure Indian labourers ===
Before Fiji was colonized by Great Britain, some planters had tried to obtain Indian labour and had approached the British Consul in [[Levuka]], Fiji but were met with a negative response. In 1870 a direct request by a planter to the [[British Raj|Government of India]] was also turned down and in 1872, an official request by the [[Seru Epenisa Cakobau|Cakobau]] Government was informed that British rule in Fiji was a pre-condition for Indian emigration to Fiji.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gillion |first=K. L. |title=Fiji's Indian Migrants: A history to the end of indenture in 1920 |year=1962 |publisher= Oxford University Press|location= Melbourne|isbn= 0-19-550452-6|pages = 3}}</ref>
The early ancestors of Fiji Indians came from different regions and backgrounds from India and other neighbouring countries. However, most came from rural villages in northern and
southern India.

In January 1879, thirty-one Indians, who had originally been indentured labourers in [[Réunion]], were brought from [[New Caledonia]] to Fiji under contract to work on a plantation in [[Taveuni]]. These labourers demonstrated knowledge of the terms of the indenture agreement and were aware of their rights and refused to do the heavy work assigned to them. Their contract was terminated by mutual agreement between the labourers and their employers. In 1881, thirty-eight more Indians arrived from New Caledonia and again most of them left but some stayed taking Indian wives or island women.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gillion |first=K. L. |title=Fiji's Indian Migrants: A history to the end of indenture in 1920 |year=1962 |publisher= Oxford University Press|location= Melbourne|isbn= 0-19-550452-6|pages = 68–69}}</ref>

=== Arrival under the indentured system ===
{{main|Indian indenture system}}
The colonial authorities promoted the [[sugar cane]] industry, recognising the need to establish a stable economic base for the colony, but were unwilling to exploit indigenous labour and threaten the [[Culture of Fiji|Fijian way of life]]. {{Cn|date=February 2020}} The use of imported labour from the Solomon Islands and what is now Vanuatu generated protests in the United Kingdom, and the [[Governor of Fiji|Governor]] [[Arthur Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Baron Stanmore|Sir Arthur Hamilton-Gordon]] decided to implement the indentured labour scheme, which had existed in the [[British Empire]] since 1837. A recruiting office was set up especially around Calcutta and the South, West and North later, especially a lot in rural village areas in different farming regions, land and areas. {{Cn|date=February 2020}}

The ''[[Leonidas (ship)|Leonidas]]'', a labour transport vessel, disembarked at Levuka from Calcutta on 14 May 1879. The 463 [[indentured worker]]s who disembarked were the first of over 61,000 to arrive from South and East Asia in the following 37 years. The majority were from the districts of eastern and southern provinces, followed by labourers from northern and western regions, then later south eastern countries, they originated from different regions, villages, backgrounds and castes that later mingled or intermarried hence the "Fijian Indian" identity was created. The indentured workers originated mostly from rural village backgrounds.
.<ref name="auto"/>

== Life during the indenture period ==
The contracts of the indentured labourers, which they called ''girmit'' (agreements), required them to work in Fiji for a period of five years. Living conditions on the sugar cane plantations, on which most of the ''[[girmityas]]'' (indentured labourers) worked, had poor standards which resembled that of slavery. Hovels known as "coolie lines" dotted the landscape.<ref name="auto"/>

== End of indenture ==
Public outrage in the United Kingdom at such abuses was a factor in the decision to halt the scheme in 1916.
With the intervention of [[Banarsidas Chaturvedi]] and Reverend [[C.F. Andrews]] all existing indenture was cancelled on 1 January 1920.

== Emergence of the Fiji Indian identity ==
{{unreferenced section|date=April 2013}}
After a further five years of work as an indentured labourer or as a ''khula'' (free labourer), they were given the choice of returning to India at their own expense, or remain in Fiji. The great majority opted to stay because they could not afford to return under the low pay (even in many instances they were denied paid wages) of the British government or were refused to be sent back. After the expiry of their ''girmits'', many leased small plots of land from Fijians and developed their own sugarcane fields or cattle farmlets. Others went into business in the towns that were beginning to spring up.

The indenture system had two positive effects on subsequent generations. Firstly the need for people of different castes to live work and eat together led to an end of the caste system. Furthermore, shortage of females resulted in many marrying outside their caste. Another positive was the development of a new [[koiné language]], known as [[Fiji Hindi]] that was formed from different languages and dialects of India. The speakers of these languages originated from different regions in India that supplied a lot of labourers. Music too, was important, with a distinct Fiji Hindi culture that some commentators have described as a forerunner to both bangla and jazz. For the most part, these people came from in certain rural or village areas. The language was further heavily enriched by the inclusion of many [[Fijian language|Fijian]] and English words. The language is now the mother tongue of majority Fiji Indians and is the [[lingua franca]] of not only all the Fiji Indians but also of all Fijian communities where ethnic Indians are in a majority.

== Free immigrants ==
From the early 1900s, Indians started arriving in Fiji as free agents. Many of these paid their own way and had previously served in Fiji or other British colonies or had been born in Fiji. Amongst the early free migrants, there were religious teachers, missionaries and at least one lawyer. The government and other employers brought clerks, policemen, artisans, gardeners, experienced agricultural workers, a doctor and a school teacher. Punjabi farmers and Gujarati craftsmen also paid their own way to Fiji and in later years formed an influential minority amongst the Fiji Indians.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gillion |first=K. L. |title=Fiji's Indian Migrants: A history to the end of indenture in 1920 |year=1962 |publisher= Oxford University Press|location= Melbourne|isbn= 0-19-550452-6|pages = 130–131}}</ref>

== Indian Platoon during the Second World War ==
{{Unreferencedsect|date=February 2020}}
In 1916, Manilal Doctor, the de facto leader of the Fiji Indians persuaded the colonial government of Fiji to form an Indian platoon for the war effort during the First World War. He sent the names of 32 volunteers to the government but his requests were ignored. As a result, a number of Fiji Indians volunteered for the New Zealand Army while one served in Europe during the First World War.

In 1934, Governor Fletcher, enacted a policy which warranted an [[Indian Platoon]] within the Fiji Defence Force consisting entirely of [[Enlisted rank|enlisted-ranked]] Indians. Governor Fletcher encouraged Indians to regard Fiji as their permanent home. One could say this was Governor Fletcher's insurance policy against an anticipated anti-European revolt at the hands of the Native population, which subsequently took place in 1959.

While the Fiji Indian troops had the Europeans as their commanding and non-commissioned officers, the Native Fijians had [[Colonial Fiji|Ratu Edward Cakobau]], a Native Fijian, as their commanding officer. Prior to World War II, soldiers served voluntarily and were paid "capitation grants" according to efficiency ratings without regard to race. In 1939, during the mobilisation of the Fiji Defence Force, the British Royal Military changed its payment system to four shillings per day for enlisted men of European descent while enlisted men of non-European descent were paid only two shillings per day. Indian platoon readily disputed this disparity in pay. The British, fearing this dissidence would eventually be shared by the Native Fijians, decided to disband the Indian platoon in 1940 citing lack of available equipment, such as military armour, as their reason.

== Name debate ==
Indians are defined by the [[1997 Constitution of Fiji|constitution of Fiji]] as anybody who can trace, through either the male or the female line, their ancestry back to anywhere on the [[Indian subcontinent]] and all government documents use this name. However, a number of names have been proposed to distinguish Fiji-born [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|citizens of Indian origin]] both from the [[Fijians|indigenous inhabitants of Fiji]] and from India-born immigrants. Among the more popular proposals are '''Fiji Indian''' and '''Indo-Fijian'''. These labels have proved culturally and politically controversial, and finding a label of identification for the Indian community in Fiji has fuelled a debate that has continued for many decades. Other proposed names have been '''Fiji Indian''' and '''Fiji Born Indian'''.

=== Fiji Indians versus indigenous Fijians ===
In the late 1960s the leader of the [[National Federation Party]], [[A. D. Patel]], who used the slogan, "One Country, One People, One Destiny" suggested that all Fiji's citizens should be called Fijians and to distinguish the original inhabitants from the rest, the name ''[[Taukei]]'' should be used for native Fijians. There was widespread opposition to this from the native Fijians who feared that any such move would deprive them of the special [[Privilege (legal ethics)|privilege]]s they had enjoyed since cession in 1874. The ''[[Fiji Times]]'' started using '''[[Fiji Islander]]''' to describe all Fiji's citizens but this name did not catch on.

The United States [[Department of State]] gives the nationality of Fiji citizens as ''"Fiji Islander"'' and states that "the term "Fijian" has exclusively ethnic connotations and should not be used to describe any thing or person not of indigenous Fijian descent."<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1834.htm United States Department of State] US Department of State</ref>

As the labels carry emotional and (according to some) politically loaded connotations, they are listed below in alphabetical order.

=== Fiji Indian ===
For a long time '''Fiji Indian''' was used to distinguish between Fiji citizens of Indian origin and Indians from India. The term was used by writers like [[K.L. Gillion]] and by the academic and politician, [[Ahmed Ali (politician)|Ahmed Ali]]. The late [[President of Fiji]], [[Ratu]] Sir [[Kamisese Mara]], also used this term in his speeches and writings. The term was also used by the [[Methodist Church of Fiji and Rotuma]], Fiji's largest Christian denomination, which had a Fiji-Indian division.

=== Indo-Fijian ===
This term has been used by such writers as [[Adrian Mayer]] and [[Brij Lal (historian)|Brij Lal]]. Ratu [[Joni Madraiwiwi]], Fiji's [[Vice-President of Fiji|Vice-President]] from 2004 to 2006, also used it in his speeches.

In 2006, [[Jone Navakamocea]], Minister of State for National Planning in the [[Laisenia Qarase|Qarase]] government, called for the use of the term "Indo-Fijian" to be officially banned. He declared that the term was "unacceptable", and that Indo-Fijians should be referred to only as "Indians". The ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' reported Navakamocea had "alleged that the Indo-Fijian term was coined by Indian academics in Fiji to 'Fijianise' their Indian ethnicity", which, in Navakamocea's view, undermined the paramountcy of indigenous rights.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080915174748/http://hindustandainik.in/news/5967_1761335,001600060017.htm "Ban the term Indo-Fijian: Minister"], ''Hindustan Times'', 5 August 2006</ref> Navakamocea lost office in the [[2006 Fijian coup d'état|2006 military coup]] when the army accused the Qarase government of anti-Fijian Indian racism and overthrew it.

== Political participation: early 20th century ==
The colonial rulers attempted to assuage Indian discontent by providing for one of their number to be nominated to the [[Legislative Council of Fiji|Legislative Council]] from 1916 onwards. [[Badri Maharaj]], a strong supporter of the British Empire but with little support among his own people, was appointed by the Governor in 1916. His appointment did little to redress the grievances of the Indian community. {{Cn|date=February 2020}} Buttressed by the [[Indian Imperial Association]] founded by [[Manilal Doctor|Manilal Maganlal]], a lawyer who had arrived in Fiji in 1912, the Indians continued to campaign for better work and living conditions, and for an extension of the [[Local government in Fiji|municipal]] franchise; literacy tests disqualified most Indians from participation. A strike by Indian municipal workers and Public Works Department employees, which began on 15 January 1920, ended in a riot which was forcibly quelled on 12 February; Manilal, widely blamed for the unrest, was deported. {{Cn|date=February 2020}} Another strike, from January to July in 1921, led by ''[[Sadhu]]'' (priest) [[Vashist Muni]], demanded higher rates of pay for workers of the [[Colonial Sugar Refining Company (Fiji)|Colonial Sugar Refining Company]] (CSR), the unconditional return of Manilal, and the release of imprisoned 1920 strikers. The authorities responded by deporting Muni from Fiji. {{Cn|date=February 2020}}

Demands increased for direct representation in the legislature. In [[1929 Fijian general election|1929]], Indian immigrants and their descendants were authorised to elect three members to the Legislative Council on a [[Communal constituencies|communal roll]]. [[Vishnu Deo]], [[James Ramchandar Rao]] and [[Parmanand Singh]] were duly elected. Agitation continued for a [[Open constituencies|common roll]], which the colonial administrators rejected, citing the fears of European settlers and Fijian chiefs that a common electoral roll would lead to political domination by Indians, whose numbers were rapidly increasing. The fear of Indo-Fijian domination also led to the abolition of the elected membership of Suva Municipal Council in 1934, with the council becoming a wholly appointed body.<ref>[https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-311574745/view?partId=nla.obj-311590261#page/n15/mode/1up/ Why Suva Council was abolished] ''[[Pacific Islands Monthly]]'' January 1935, pp14–15</ref>

== Religious and social divisions: 1920–1945 ==
{{Unreferencedsect|date=February 2020}}
[[File:Srisivasubramaniya temple nadi fiji.jpg|thumb|The [[Sri Siva Subramaniya temple]], a South-Indian type temple in the Indo-Fijian town of [[Nadi]].]]
Two major [[Hinduism|Hindu]] movements attracted widespread support in the 1920s, and relationships between Hindus and Muslims also became increasingly strained.

The [[Arya Samaj in Fiji]] advocated purging Hinduism of what it saw as its superstitious elements and expensive rituals, opposed child marriage, and advocated the remarriage of widows, which orthodox Hinduism didn't promote at that time. The Arya Samaj also encouraged education for girls, which wasn't the norm at the time. The Arya Samaj began by establishing schools and by using a newspaper of one of its supporters, the [[Fiji Samachar]] founded in 1923, to expound their views.

The traditional [[Sanatana Dharma|Sanatan Dharma]], was more orthodox than the Hindu-reformist Arya Samaj. It affirmed traditional Hindu rituals and prayers. However, Fijian Indians who practice Sanatana Dharma also do not have child marriages, as it is unheard of until the youths reach maturity age or level.

== Developments since 1945 ==
[[File:Saris on sale in Lautoka, Fiji.jpg|thumb|[[Sari]]s on sale in [[Lautoka]], [[Viti Levu]].]]
A post-war effort by European members of the Legislative Council to repatriate ethnic Indians to India, starting with sixteen-year-old males and fourteen-year-old females, was not successful, but reflected the tensions between Fiji's ethnic communities.

Differences between ethnic Fijians and Indians complicated preparations for Fiji independence, which the United Kingdom granted in 1970, and have continued to define [[Politics of Fiji|Fiji politics]] since. {{Cn|date=February 2020}} Prior to independence, Indians sought a common electoral roll, based on the principle of "one man, one vote." Ethnic Fijian leaders opposed this, believing that it would favour urban voters who were mostly Indian; they sought a communal franchise instead, with different ethnic groups voting on separate electoral rolls. At a specially convened conference in London in April 1970, a compromise was worked out, under which parliamentary seats would be allocated by ethnicity, with ethnic Fijians and Indians represented equally. {{Cn|date=February 2020}} In the [[House of Representatives of Fiji|House of Representatives]], each ethnic group was allocated 22 seats, with 12 representing ''Communal constituencies'' (elected by voters registered as members of their particular ethnic group) and a further 10 representing ''[[National constituencies]]'' (distributed by ethnicity but elected by [[universal suffrage]]. A further 8 seats were reserved for [[General electors|ethnic minorities]], 3 from "communal" and 5 from "national" constituencies.

In 1987, shortly after a coalition government was formed that represented both communities, two military coups were staged by low-ranking Fijian officers that aimed at sidelining the Indian community in politics.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=jet6JOYjZ4wC&oi=fnd&pg=PA113&dq=Indians+Fiji&ots=bX3yJinEUw&sig=5kIUFAbkma1GCLGy3ofIXYqInMk#v=onepage&q=Indians%20Fiji&f=false Victor Lal, "The Fiji Indians: Marooned at Home," in ''South Asians Overseas: Migration and Ethnicity'' Cambridge University Press, 2010]</ref>

Ethnic Indians outnumbered indigenous Fijians from 1956 through the late 1980s. This was due to the death of 1/3 of the indigenous population, mainly male and children, that died from smallpox contracted when King Cakobau and other chief leaders returned from a trip from Australia during which they caught smallpox. The percentage of Indigenous female population increased as a result, and the native male population was scarce at one stage,<ref>Biotechnology for beginners By Reinhard Renneberg, Arnold L. Demain</ref> {{better source|date=February 2020}} but by 2000 their share of the population had declined to 43.7%, because of a higher ethnic-Fijian birthrate and particularly because of the greater tendency of Fijian Indians to emigrate. Emigration accelerated following the coups of 1987 (which removed an Indian-supported government from power and, for a time, ushered in a constitution that discriminated against them in numerous ways) and [[2000 Fijian coup d'état|of 2000]] (which removed an Indian [[Prime Minister of Fiji|Prime Minister]] from office).

Political differences between the two communities, rather than ideological differences, have characterised Fijian politics since independence, with the two communities generally voting for different political parties. {{Cn|date=February 2020}} The National Federation Party founded by A.D. Patel, was the party favoured overwhelmingly by the Indian community throughout most of the nation's history, but its support collapsed in the [[1999 Fiji general election|parliamentary election]] of 1999, when it lost all of its seats in the House of Representatives; its support fell further still in the [[2001 Fijian general election|2001 election]], when it received only 22% of the Indian vote, and in the [[2006 Fijian general election|2006 election]], when it dropped to an all-time low of 14%. The party formerly favoured by Indians was the [[Fiji Labour Party]], led by [[Mahendra Chaudhry]], which received about 75% of the Indian vote in 2001, and won all 19 seats reserved for Indians. Founded as a multi-racial party in the 1980s, it was supported mostly by Indians, but has seen no representation in parliament since the coup of 2006.

== Impact of the Church and religious/ethnic politics ==
The Church plays a major role in Fiji politics.<ref>[http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=52499 Let us pray, churches say] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930165601/http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=52499 |date=30 September 2007 }}, Fiji Times Online, 29 November 2006</ref> Often some leaders appeal to Fijians addressing them as "Christians", even though Hindus are 33% of the
population in Fiji, compared with 52% Christians.<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1834.htm Background Note: Fiji], Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, September 2006, U.S. Department of State</ref> The [[2000 Fijian coup d'état]] that removed the elected PM Mahendra Chaudhry, was supported by the Methodist church.<ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?id=18901&op=read Fiji military dismisses GCC and Methodist support for reconciliation bill], Radio New Zealand International, 25 August 2005</ref>

Some Methodist Church authorities have continued to advocate the establishment of a Christian state. In a letter of support from the then head of the Methodist Church, Reverend Tomasi Kanilagi, to George Speight, the leader of 19 May 2000, armed takeover of Parliament, Reverend Kanilagi publicly expressed his intention to use the Methodist Church as a forum under which to unite all ethnic Fiji political parties.<ref>[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/23828.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2003], Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State</ref> The Methodist church also supported forgiveness to those who plotted the coup in form of so-called "[[Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill]]".

In 2005, Methodist church general secretary Reverend [[Ame Tugaue]] argued that practice of Hinduism and other religions should not be guaranteed in law:

:"Sodom and Gomorrah were only destroyed after the Lord removed the faithful from there and not because of a few would we allow God's wrath to befall the whole of Fiji. It was clearly stated in the 10 Commandments that God gave to Moses that Christians were not allowed to worship any other gods and not to worship idols. One thing other religions should be thankful for is that they are tolerated in Fiji as it's naturally a peaceful place but their right of worship should never be made into law."<ref>[http://www.christianaggression.org/item_display.php?type=NEWS&id=1112408217 christianaggression.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926230135/http://www.christianaggression.org/item_display.php?type=NEWS&id=1112408217 |date=26 September 2007 }}, extract from Fiji Times, 27 March 2005</ref>

Following the [[2006 Fijian coup d'état|military coup]] in Fiji, which deposed the government of [[Laisenia Qarase]] (which Indians claimed as unsympathetic to Indian interests), Reverend [[Tuikilakila Waqairatu]] of the Fiji Council of Churches and Assembly of Christian Churches has stated that the coup is "un-Christian" and is "manifestation of darkness and evil". He claimed that "52% of Fijians are Christian and the country's Christian values are being undermined."<ref>[http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/latest/200612061204/fiji_military_monitoring_the_media Fiji military monitoring the media] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118042641/http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/latest/200612061204/fiji_military_monitoring_the_media |date=18 January 2012 }}, Radio New Zealand, 6 December 2006</ref>

== Demographic factors ==
Indo Fijians are concentrated in the so-called Sugar Belt and in cities and towns on the northern and western coasts of [[Viti Levu]] and [[Vanua Levu]]; their numbers are much scarcer in the south and inland areas. The majority of Fijian Indians came from northern and southeastern part of India and converse in what is known as the [[Fiji Hindi]] language that has been coined from the eastern Hindi dialects mixed with some native Fijian and small numbers of English words,<ref>Moag, Rodney F. (1977). Fiji Hindi: A basic course and reference grammar. Canberra: Australian National University. {{ISBN|0-7081-1574-8}}.</ref> with some minorities speaking [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], and many who speak [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as their mother tongue with less fluency.<ref>Languages of fiji.pdf, Sangam conventional Magazine, 2003</ref> Almost all Indians are also fluent in English.

According to the 1996 census (the latest available), 76.7% of Indians are [[Hindu]]s and a further 15.9% are [[Muslim]]s. Christians comprise 6.1% of the Indian population, while about 0.9% are members of the [[Sikh]] faith. The remaining 0.4% are mostly nonreligious.

Hindus in Fiji belong mostly to the [[Sanātana Dharma]] sect (74.3% of all Hindus); a minority (3.7%) follow [[Arya Samaj in Fiji|Arya Samaj]]. Smaller groups, including The [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]], and numerous unspecified Hindu sects, comprise 22% of the Hindu population. Muslims are mostly [[Sunni]] (59.7%) or unspecified (36.7%); there is an [[Ahmadiya]] minority (3.6%). Indian Christians are a diverse body, with [[Methodism|Methodists]] forming the largest group (26.2%), followed by the [[Assemblies of God]] (22.3%), [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]] (17%), and [[Anglican Communion|Anglicans]] (5.8%). The remaining 28.7% belong to a medley of denominations. There is an [[Indian Division of the Methodist Church in Fiji]]. About 5000 Indians are Methodist.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.methodist.org.uk/downloads/wc_fiji03.pdf|title=Methodist Church In Britain}}</ref> They are part of the Methodist Church in Fiji and support the position of the Methodist Church in Fiji,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=53198|title=The Fiji Times » Page not found}}</ref> rather than the rights of Indians.

== Diaspora ==
The Fiji Indian diaspora developed with people of Indian origin leaving [[Fiji]], mainly following the racially inspired coups of 1987 and 2000, to settle primarily in Australia, [[New Zealand]], United States and Canada. Smaller numbers have settled in other Pacific islands, the United Kingdom and other European countries.<ref>[http://www.worldpress.org/images/freelancersPDF/58_2.pdf Microsoft Word – 05-05-ana1.rtf]</ref>

Indians from all over India were initially brought to Fiji as [[indentured]] laborers to work on [[sugar cane]] plantations. Between 1879 and 1916, a total of 60,000 Indians arrived in Fiji. Approximately 25,000 of these returned to India. From 1900 onwards, some Indians arrived as free immigrants, who were mostly from the provinces of [[Gujarat]], [[Sindh]] and [[Punjab region|Punjab]].

Fiji Indians have been emigrating to United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom since the early 1960s. These were mainly economic migrants and their number gradually increased in the 1970s and 1980s to reach approximately 4000 per year.

Following the military coup of 1987, many Indians saw little future in staying in Fiji and tried to find any means to leave the country. Professional, middle class and business found it easier to emigrate. It has been estimated that more than 100,000 Fiji Indians have emigrated since 1987. This represents a third of the existing Indian population in Fiji.<ref>{{Cite web|title=00 Upfront.pmd|url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/islands/pdf/islands-whole.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303074632/http://epress.anu.edu.au/islands/pdf/islands-whole.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2007|access-date=29 March 2007}}</ref>

Fijian Indians have been indentured slaves for thirty-seven years and faced a lot of human rights violations during the military coups. They were victimized a lot by the military adding to the reasons they moved abroad to Canada, Australian, and the United States. Another reason a lot of skilled Fijia Indians were migrating to other countries was for a better future. This caused Fiji to lose a lot of their skilled workers. Moreover, many Fijian Indians strived for a better education causing a bigger gap between them and the indigenous Fijians. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Reihan |first1=Salam |title=What Fiji Can Teach America About Immigration. |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/03/americans-can-learn-fiji-immigration/584539/ |website=The Atlantic |publisher=Atlantic Media Company}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|last1=Nand |first1=Ambrita |title=Looking Backward, Moving Forward: The Experiences of Indo-Fijian Immigrant Women in California. |url=http://lpclibrary.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.lpclibrary.idm.oclc.org/docview/1767451129?accountid=45481.}}</ref>

Former Prime Minister Chaudhry has expressed alarm at the high rate of emigration of educated Fiji-Indians. "If the trend continues, Fiji will be left with a large pool of poorly educated, unskilled work force with disastrous consequences on our social and economic infrastructure and levels of investment," he said on 19 June 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/03/indo-fijians-and-fijis-coup-culture/|title=Indo-Fijians and Fiji's Coup Culture|first=Grant Wyeth, The|last=Diplomat}}</ref> He blamed the coups of 1987 for "brain drain" which has, he said, adversely affected the sugar industry, the standard of the education and health services, and the efficiency of the civil service.

== Health issues ==

Similarly to the indigenous Fijian population, Fijian Indians face major obstacles when it comes to health. They are often cited in research articles as a group that has a higher than normal prevalence rate of Type 2 diabetes.<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3867/is_200703/ai_n19432253 Ethnicity, Type 2 Diabetes and Migrant Asian Indians], Indian Journal of Medical Research, 6 March 2007</ref>

== List of notable Indo-Fijians ==

* [[James Madhavan]], one of Fiji's longest serving parliamentarians
* [[Sidiq Koya|Siddiq Moidin Koya]], First leader of opposition in Fiji after Independence, Statesman and Prominent Lawyer.
* [[Joy Ali]], Boxer
* [[Junior Farzan Ali]], Boxer
* [[Rajesh Chandra]], first Vice-Chancellor of University of Fiji and present Vice-Chancellor and President of the University of the South Pacific
* [[Rekha Sharma]], Canadian actress
* [[Mahendra Chaudhry]], fourth Prime Minister of Fiji
* [[Imrana Jalal]], human rights advisor to the United Nations Development Program and as a member of the International Commission of Jurists
* [[Hafiz Khan]], Senator of Fiji, Member of Parliament, President of the Fiji Muslim League.
* [[Rocky Khan]], New Zealand Rugby sevens player
* [[Roy Krishna]], Professional soccer player
* [[Ben Volavola]], Fijian Rugby player
* [[Prerna Lal]], US-based attorney and civil rights advocate
* [[Julian Moti]], former Attorney General of the Solomon Islands.
* [[Satya Nandan]], chairman of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission
* [[Jack Ram]], Tongan Rugby player, of Indo-Fijian descent
* [[Rajen Prasad]], former member of parliament in New Zealand
* [[Jai Ram Reddy]], former leader of opposition in Fiji and member of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
* [[Anand Satyanand]], Governor General of New Zealand 2006–2011
* [[Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum]], Fiji's Attorney-General since 8 January 2007.
* [[Rekha Sharma]], Canadian actor
* [[Vivekanand Sharma]], former minister for Youth and Sports, former president of Sanatam Dharam, orator, former director of Radio Fiji.
* [[Ajit Swaran Singh]], district court judge in New Zealand
* [[Bobby Singh]], retired professional American and Canadian football guard
* [[Lisa Singh]], Australian Senator
* [[Nalini Singh (author)|Nalini Singh]], paranormal romance author
* [[Vijay Singh]], former world number one golfer
* [[Tanita Tikaram]], singer-songwriter based in United Kingdom, has Indo-Fijian father, great-niece of [[Moti Tikaram|Sir Moti Tikaram]]
* [[Ramon Tikaram]], actor, brother of Tanita Tikaram

==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=40em}}
* [[Indian indenture system]]
* [[Arya Samaj in Fiji]]
* [[Fiji Hindi]]
* [[Fijian Indian diaspora]]
* [[South Indians in Fiji]]
* [[Gujaratis in Fiji]]
* [[Hinduism in Fiji]]
* [[Hindustani language]]
* [[Islam in Fiji]]
* [[Sikhism in Fiji]]
{{colend}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* Sen, Sunanda. "Indentured Labour from India in the Age of Empire." ''Social Scientist'' 44.1/2 (2016): 35-74. [http://www.academia.edu/download/61349480/Indentured_Labour_in_the_Age_of_Empire_220191126-77315-tjre0f.pdf online]
* Tinker, H. ''A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas 1820-1920'', Oxford University Press, London, 1974
* Lal, B.V. ''Girmitiyas: The Origins of the Fiji Indians'', Fiji Institute of Applied Studies, Lautoka, Fiji, 2004
* Khal Torabully (with Marina Carter), ''Coolitude'' : An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora, Anthem Press (2002) {{ISBN|1-84331-003-1}}
* Gaiutra Bahadur, ''Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture''. The University of Chicago (2014) {{ISBN|978-0-226-21138-1}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070202072617/http://archives.pireport.org/archive/2006/April/04-27-ft2.htm The Continuing Exodus of Fiji Indians]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061120184040/http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/mar/chronology.asp?groupId=95001 Chronology for East Indians in Fiji]
* [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7DE1F3EF93AA15754C0A96E948260 Why inject Peace Corps teachers into the ethnic arguments roiling Fiji?] New York Times, 29 July 1988
* [http://www.frommers.com/destinations/fiji/0208020416.html Article from Frommers]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fj.html The CIA World Fact Book – Fiji]
* [http://www.fijigirmit.org/history.htm Girmit History (on Fiji Girmit.org)]
* [http://www.tamilnation.co/diaspora/fiji.htm Tamils in Fiji]
* [http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=110 "Fiji Islands: From Immigration to Emigration"], [[Brij Lal (historian)|Brij Lal]], April

{{Fiji topics}}
{{NRI-PIO}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indians In Fiji}}
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Fiji|.]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Fiji]]
[[Category:Immigration to Fiji]]
[[Category:Fijian Tamils]]
[[Category:Tamil diaspora]]

Indian Canadians

2020-12-15T09:24:56Z

175.141.124.220:

{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Indian Canadians ''{{lang|fr|Canadiens d'origine indienne}}'' ([[Canadian French|French]])
| native_name = भारतीय कनाडाई
கனேடிய இந்தியர்கள்
| image = [[File:Indian ancestry in Canada.png|350px]]
| caption = Indian ancestry in Canada (2016)
| flag =
| population = '''1,374,710'''<ref name="statcan2016"/> '''4.0%''' of the Canadian population (2016)<ref name="statcan2016">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2018/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D|title=Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables|publisher=statcan.gc.ca|date=2016-06-10|accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref>
| popplace =  [[Greater Toronto Area|Toronto]] • [[Greater Vancouver|Vancouver]] • [[Calgary metropolitan region|Calgary]] • [[Edmonton metropolitan region|Edmonton]] • [[Montreal metropolitan area|Montreal]] • [[Abbotsford-Mission|Abbotsford]] • [[Winnipeg Metro Region|Winnipeg]] • [[Ottawa metropolitan area|Ottawa]] • [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]
| langs = {{hlist|'''[[Canadian English]]''' • '''[[Canadian French]]''' {{smaller|[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] • [[Hindi]] • [[Urdu]] • [[Tamil language|Tamil]] • [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] Other [[Languages of India]]}}}}
| rels = '''Predominantly''': [[Sikhism]] • [[Hinduism]] '''Minorities''': {{smaller| [[Islam]] • [[Christianity]] • [[Buddhism]] • [[Zoroastrianism]] • [[Jainism]] • [[Judaism]] • [[Irreligion]]}}
| related = {{hlist|[[Asian Canadians]] • [[South Asian Canadians]] • [[Indian Americans]] • [[British Indians]] • [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Overseas Indians]]}}
}}

'''Indian Canadians''' are [[Canadians]] with ancestry from [[India]]. The term '''Indo-Canadian''' or '''East Indian''', is sometimes used to avoid confusion with the [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous Peoples of Canada]]. [[Statistics Canada]] specifically uses the term '''Asian Indian''' to refer to Indian Canadians. Categorically, Indian Canadians comprise a subgroup of [[South Asian Canadians]] which is a further subgroup of [[Asian Canadians]]. According to [[Statistics Canada]], Indian Canadians are one of the fastest growing communities in Canada, making up the second largest non-European group after [[Chinese Canadians]].<ref name="East Indians in Canada">{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm|author=Statistics Canada|title=The East Indian Community in Canada|accessdate=21 November 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TL17vvRj?url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm|archive-date=October 15, 2014 |author-link=Statistics Canada}}</ref>

Canada contains the world's [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|eighth largest Indian diaspora]]. The largest group of Indian Canadians are of [[Punjabis|Punjabi]] origin, accounting for around 50 percent of the Indo-Canadian population.<ref>{{cite web|title=Census Profile, 2016 Census, Canada|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Language&TABID=1|website=Government of Canada, Statistics Canada|accessdate=28 December 2018|date=2017-02-08}}</ref> The highest concentrations of Indian Canadians are found in the provinces of [[Ontario]] and [[British Columbia]], followed by growing communities in [[Alberta]] and [[Quebec]] as well, with the majority of them being foreign-born.<ref name="East Indians in Canada"/>

==History==
[[File:Streetcars passing at the 400 Block of Granville Street, Vancouver, in 1908.jpg|thumb|300px|Punjabi Sikhs in Vancouver, 1908]]
[[File:Sikh men on rail platform next to Canadian Pacific rail car, probably in British Columbia, circa 1905-1914 (AL+CA 6612).jpg|thumb|250px|Indians at CPR station in Vancouver, circa 1914]]
[[File:Komagata Maru incident VPL 127 (11326123445).jpg|thumb|250px|Komagata Maru Incident, 1914]]
[[File:GurdwaraSukhSagar1931.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Queensborough, New Westminster]] Sikh temple, 1931.]]
The Indo-Canadian community started around the late 19th century. The pioneers were men, mostly Punjabi [[Sikh]]s with some [[Punjabi Hindus]] and [[Punjabi Muslims]]; many were [[veteran]]s of the [[British Army]]. In 1897 a contingent of Sikh [[soldier]]s participated in the parade to celebrate [[Queen Victoria]]'s [[Diamond Jubilee]] in [[London]], England. On their subsequent journey home, they visited the western coast of [[Canada]], primarily [[British Columbia]] which at the time was very sparsely populated and the Canadian government wanted to settle in order to prevent a takeover of the territory by the [[United States]].

Upon retiring from the army, some of these men found their pensions to be inadequate. Some of them also found their land and estates back home in India were utilized by money lenders. They decided to try their fortunes in the countries they had visited. They joined an [[Indian diaspora]], which included people from [[Burma]] through [[Malaysia]], the [[East Indies]], the Philippines and [[China]]. They were able to get work in the [[police]] force and some were employed as night-watchmen by [[United Kingdom|British]] firms. Others started small businesses of their own. These were modest beginnings but they had bigger ideas.

Punjabi Sikhs, who had seen Canada, recommended the [[New World]] to their fellow countrymen who were in a position to venture out and seek new fortunes. They were guaranteed jobs by agents of big Canadian companies like the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] and the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. Overcoming their initial reluctance to go to these countries due to the treatment of Asians by the white population, many young men chose to go, having been assured that they would not meet the same fate. Since India was under British Crown Rule, they were [[British subject]]s and Canada was a part of the [[British Empire]]. Queen Victoria had proclaimed in 1858 that throughout the empire the people of India that they would enjoy "equal privileges with white people without discrimination of colour, creed or race."<ref name="Singh">{{cite journal|last=Singh|first=Khushwant|title=The Ghadr Rebellion|journal=Illustrated Weekly of India|date=Feb 26 – Mar 12, 1961|pages=Feb 26 – Mar 12|url=http://www.sikhpioneers.org/rebellion.html|accessdate=2 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324035007/http://www.sikhpioneers.org/rebellion.html|archive-date=March 24, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Initial settlement===
However, upon arrival to [[British Columbia]], the first Indian immigrants faced widespread racism by the local white Canadians. Most of the white Canadians feared workers who would work for less pay, and that an influx of more immigrants would threaten their jobs. As a result, there were a series of race riots that targeted the Indian immigrants, who were beat up by mobs of angry white Canadians, though often met with retaliation.<ref name="multiple" >"[https://web.archive.org/web/20060702205329/http://www.explorasian.org/history_sikhcdn.html SOME SIGNIFICANT MOMENTS IN SIKH-CANADIAN HISTORY]" ([https://www.webcitation.org/6TydbzK6t?url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060702205329/http://www.explorasian.org/history_sikhcdn.html Archive]). ExplorAsian. Retrieved on November 10, 2014.</ref> These mobs not only targeted Indians, but also other Asian groups such as the Chinese immigrants working on the railroad at the time, and [[Black Canadians]]. From the social pressure most decided to return to India, while a few stayed behind. To support the white Canadian population on the west coast of Canada, who did not want Indians to immigrate to Canada, the Canadian government prevented Indian men from bringing their wives and children until 1919, which was another considerable factor in their decision to leave Canada.<ref name="multiple" />

The restrictions by the Canadian government increased on Indians, as policies were put in place in 1907 to prevent Indians who had the right to vote from voting in future general elections.<ref name="multiple" /> Furthermore, government quotas were established to cap the number of Indians allowed to immigrate to Canada in the early 20th century. This was part of a policy adopted by Canada to ensure that the country retained its primarily European demographic, and was similar to [[United States|American]] and [[Australian]] immigration policies at the time. These quotas only allowed fewer than 100 people from India a year until 1957, when it was marginally increased (to 300 people a year). In comparison to the quotas established for Indians, Christian people from Europe immigrated freely without quotas in large numbers during that time to Canada, numbering in the tens of thousands yearly.<ref name="multiple" />

In 1906 and 1907 there was a spike in migration from the Indian sub-continent into British Columbia. Most of the migrants were Punjabi Sikhs, though there were large numbers of Punjabi Hindus and Muslims. An estimated 4,700 arrived, at around the same time as a rise in Chinese and Japanese immigration. The federal government curtailed the migration, and over the next seven years fewer than 125 South Asians were permitted to land in British Columbia. Those who had arrived were often single men and many returned to South Asia. Others sought opportunities south of the border in the USA. It is estimated that the number of South Asians in British Columbia fell to less than 2000 by 1914.<ref>Pg. 79. White Canada Forever. By W. Peter Ward. 2002. McGill, Quebec, Canada. {{ISBN|978-07735-2322-7}}</ref>

In 1914, the ''[[Komagata Maru incident|Komagata Maru]]'', a steam liner carrying 376 passengers from [[Punjab region|Punjab]], India (all were [[United Kingdom|British]] subjects) arrived in [[Vancouver]]. Most of the passengers were not allowed to land in Canada and were returned to India. When the ''Kamagata Maru'' returned to Calcutta (now Kolkata). Viewing this as evidence that Indians were not treated as equals under the [[British Empire]], they staged a peaceful protest upon returning to India. British forces saw this as a threat to their authority, and opened fire on the protestors, killing many. This was one of the most notorious incidents in the history of exclusion laws in Canada designed to keep out immigrants of Asian origin.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

===Recent settlement===
Policies changed rapidly during the second half of the 20th century.

The Canadian government re-enfranchised the Indo-Canadian community with the right to vote in 1947.<ref name="multiple" />

When British-occupied India was partitioned into India and Pakistan (East and West) upon independence in 1947, thousands of people were moved across the new borders. Research in Canada suggests that many of the early [[Goans]] to emigrate to Canada were those who were born and lived in [[Karachi]], [[Mumbai]] (formerly Bombay) and [[Kolkata]] (formerly Calcutta). At the time [[Goa]] was under Portuguese rule and faced an uncertain future.
Another group of people that arrived in Canada at this time were the [[Anglo-Indians]], people of mixed European and Indian ancestry.

In 1967 all immigration quotas based on specific ethnic groups were scrapped in Canada.<ref name="multiple" /> The social view in Canada towards people of other ethnic backgrounds was more open, and Canada was facing declining immigration from European countries, since these European countries had booming postwar economies, and thus more people decided to remain in their home countries. Canada introduced an immigration policy that was based on a point system, with each applicant being assessed on their trade skills and the need for these skills in Canada. This allowed many more Indians to immigrate in large numbers and a trickle of Goans (who were English-speaking and Catholic) started to arrive after the [[African Great Lakes]] countries imposed [[Africanization]] policies.<ref>Pg. 107. The Americanization of Goans. By Ladis DaSilva. 1976. Toronto. Ontario. Canada.</ref> In the 1970s, thousands of immigrants came yearly and mainly settled in Vancouver and Toronto.

Significant urbanization of the Indo-Canadian community began during the 1980s and early 1990s, when tens of thousands of immigrants moved from India into Canada each year. Prior to the large urban concentrations which exist in the present-day, statistically significant populations existed across rural British Columbia; a legacy of previous waves of immigration earlier in the 20th century. Forming nearly 20% of the population, [[Fort St. James]] had the highest proportion of Indo-Canadians of any municipality in Canada during the 1990s. <ref>https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census96/data/profiles/Rp-eng.cfm?TABID=2&LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=35782&PRID=0&PTYPE=3&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=1996&THEME=34&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=</ref>

According to [[Statistics Canada]], since the late 1990s, roughly 25,000–30,000 Indians arrive each year (which is now the most populous cultural group immigrating to Canada each year). The settlement pattern in the last two decades is still mainly focused around Vancouver and Toronto, but other cities such as Calgary, Edmonton, and Montreal have also become desirable due to growing economic prospects in these cities.

India became the highest source country of immigration to Canada in 2017. The number of arrivals as permanent residents increased from 30,915 in 2012 to 85,585 in 2019, representing 25 percent of the total immigration to Canada. Additionally, India is also the top source country for international students in Canada, rising from 48,765 in 2015 to 219,855 in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cicnews.com/2020/02/642000-international-students-canada-now-ranks-3rd-globally-in-foreign-student-attraction-0213763.html#gs.5ft5fi|title=642,000 international students: Canada now ranks 3rd globally in foreign student attraction}}</ref> The majority are from Punjab, with large numbers also from Delhi, Gujarat, and Southern India.

==Indians from other countries==
In addition to tracing their origin directly to the [[Indian subcontinent]], many Indian Canadians who arrive in Canada come from other parts of the world, as part of the global [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian diaspora]].

{|class="infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center><big>'''Number of Indians immigrating from different regions of the world'''</big> ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090309194615/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=68635&GID=517770&METH=1&APATH=3&PTYPE=55496&THEME=44&AID=0&FREE=0&FOCUS=0&VID=0&GC=0&GK=0&SC=1&SR=1&RL=0&CPP=99&RPP=9999&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&d1=12&d2=0&d3=0 source])</center>
|- style="text-align:center; background:#d9e9e9;"
|| '''Region'''
|| '''Total Responses'''
|-
| Immigrant population
| 474,530
|-
| [[United States]]
| 2,410
|-
| Central and [[South America]]
| 40,475
|-
| [[Caribbean]] and [[Bermuda]]
| 24,295
|-
| [[Europe]]
| 12,390
|-
| **[[United Kingdom]]
| 11,200
|-
| **Other European
| 1,190
|-
| [[Africa]]
| 45,530
|-
| [[Asia]]
| 332,150
|-
| **West [[Central Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]
| 6,965
|-
| **[[Eastern Asia]]
| 720
|-
| **[[Southeast Asia]]
| 4,260
|-
| **[[South Asia]]
| 320,200
|-
| [[Oceania]] and other
| 17,280
|-
| Non-permanent residents
| 9,950
|}

===Indians from Africa===
{{See also|Indian diaspora in Southeast Africa}}
Due to political turmoil and prejudice, many Indians residing in the African Great Lakes nations, such as [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Angola]] left the region for Canada and other Western countries. A majority of Indo-Canadians from Southeast Africa are [[Ismailis|Ismaili Muslims]] or [[Hindus|Gujarati Hindus]], with significant numbers from [[South Africa]] as well.

[[Deepak Obhrai]] was the first Indo-African Canadian to become a member of parliament in Canada as well as the first Hindu to be appointed to the [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada]], he was originally from [[Tanzania]]. He received the Pride of India award from the Indo-American Friends Group of Washington DC and Indo-American Business Chamber in a dinner ceremony held on Capitol Hill for his effort in strengthening ties between Canada and India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voiceonline.com/deepak-obhrai-awarded-pride-of-india-award-for-fostering-indo-canadian-relations/|title=Deepak Obhrai awarded Pride of India Award for fostering Indo-Canadian relations|first=posted by: Rattan|last=Mall|website=Indo-Canadian Voice}}</ref>

[[M.G. Vassanji]], an award-winning novelist who writes on the plight of Indians in the region, is a [[naturalization|naturalized]] Canadian of Indian descent who migrated from the Great Lakes.

The writer Ladis Da Silva (1920–1994) was a Zanzibar-born Canadian of Goan descent who wrote ''The Americanization of Goans''.<ref>The Americanization of Goans. By Ladis Da Silva. 1976. Toronto, Ontario, Canada.</ref>{{page needed|date=November 2014}} He emigrated in 1968 from Kenya and was a prolific writer and social reformer, working with First Nations, Inuit and Senior Citizens in the Greater Toronto Area.<ref>Pp.265-267. Profiles of Eminent Goans: Past and Present. By J. Clement Vaz Ph.D. 1997 New Delhi, India. {{ISBN|81-7022-619-8}}</ref>

Indians have also moved to Canada from Southern African nations such as [[Zambia]], [[Malawi]] and [[Indian South Africans|South Africa]] for similar reasons. Examples of successful Indo-Canadians from this migratory stream are [[Suhana Meharchand]] and Nirmala Naidoo, television newscasters of Indian descent from South Africa, who currently work for the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC). [[Indira Naidoo-Harris]] is another Canadian broadcaster who is of Indian descent from South Africa.

Two of the most high-profile Indo-Africans are CNN's [[Zain Verjee]] and [[Ali Velshi]]. Verjee was educated in Canada while Velshi's father [[Murad Velshi]] who immigrated from South Africa was the first MPP of Indian descent to sit in the Ontario legislature.

The most notable story of Indo-African immigration to Canada is set in the 1970s, when in 1972 50,000 [[India]]n [[Ugandan]]s were forced out of [[Uganda]] by the dictator [[Idi Amin]], and were not permitted to return to India by the Indian government. Although on the brink of facing torture and imprisonment on a massive scale, the [[Aga Khan IV]], leader of the [[Nizari Ismaili]] Community, specially negotiated his followers' safe departure from Uganda in exchange for all their belongings. He also negotiated their guaranteed asylum in Canada with Prime Minister and close friend [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]].

A notable descendant of Ugandan Indian settlement in Canada is [[Irshad Manji]], an acclaimed advocate for [[secularism]] and [[reform]] in [[Islam]]. The community of Goans is also mainly from the African Great Lakes.

===Indians from the Caribbean===
{{See also|Indo-Caribbeans}}

[[Indo-Caribbeans|Indo-Caribbean]] people or Caribbean Indians are Caribbean people with roots in India.

The Indo-Caribbean community has developed a unique cultural blend of both Indian, Western and "Creolised Caribbean" culture due to a long period of isolation from India, amongst other reasons. Some Indo-Caribbean Canadians associate themselves with the Indo-Canadian community. However, most associate with the [[Indo-Caribbeans|Indo-Caribbean]] community or the Wider Caribbean community or with both. Most mainly live within the [[Greater Toronto Area]] or Southern Ontario.

===Indians from the UK and the US===
{{See also|British Indians|Indian Americans}}

Some Indians have immigrated from the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]] due to both economic and family reasons. Indians move for economic prospects to Canada's economy and job market and have been performing well against many European and some American states. Lastly, individuals have decided to settle in Canada in order to reunite their families who may have settled in both the United States and the UK and not in Canada.

===Indians from the Middle East===
{{See also|Indians in the United Arab Emirates}}

Many Indians have been moving from countries in the Middle East to North America.

Most Indian immigrants from the Middle East are Indian businessmen and professionals that worked in the Middle Eastern countries like the [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Oman]], [[Kuwait]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]. A key priority for these immigrants is educational opportunities for their children post-schooling. Many of these students have stayed back after graduation and started their families there.

Canadian cricketer [[Nikhil Dutta]] was born in Kuwait to Indian Bengali parents but grew up in Canada. He represents [[Canada national cricket team]] in [[One Day International|ODIs]] and [[T20I]]s.

===Indians from Oceania===
{{See also|Indians in Fiji}}

Indians have long been settled in certain parts of [[Oceania]], mainly on some islands in [[Fiji]], where they comprise approximately 40% of Fiji's population. Since Fiji's independence, increased hostility between the Melanesian Fijian population and the [[Indians in Fiji|Indo-Fijian]] population has led to several significant confrontations politically. Notably, since the two coups d'état of 1987 many Indo-Fijians are moving from Fiji to US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand due to political instability and ethnic conflict. A majority of the Indo-Fijian immigrants have settled in [[British Columbia]] and [[Alberta]], with a significant population in the [[Greater Toronto Area]] as well, most of whom are Hindus, with a significant portion of Muslims. Other religions that are practised are Christianity and Sikhism. The Indo-Fijian population in Canada is not as diverse religiously as the general Indo-Canadian community. Indo-Fijians have established cultural centres and organisations in Vancouver, [[Surrey]], [[Burnaby]], [[Edmonton]], [[Calgary]] and [[Toronto]]. The biggest Indo-Fijian cultural centre in Canada is the [[Fiji Sanatan Society of Alberta]] in Edmonton, built in 1984 by some of the first Indo-Fijian immigrants in Edmonton, it is officially a Hindu temple, but also hosts many community events.

==Demographics==

===Population settlement===
The Indian Canadian population according to the Census 2016 in the 10 Canadian Provinces and 3 territories:<ref name="statcan2011">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D|title=Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables |publisher=statcan.gc.ca |date=2016-06-10 |accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
![[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
![[India]]n
!%
|-
|{{flag|Ontario}}
|774,495
|5.8%
|-
|{{flag|British Columbia}}
|309,315
|6.7%
|-
|{{flag|Alberta}}
|174,505
|4.3%
|-
|{{flag|Québec}}
|51,650
|0.6%
|-
|{{flag|Manitoba}}
|34,470
|2.7%
|-
|{{flag|Saskatchewan}}
|18,695
|1.7%
|-
|{{flag|Nova Scotia}}
|6,255
|0.6%
|-
|{{flag|New Brunswick}}
|2,145
|0.2%
|-
|{{flag|Newfoundland and Labrador}}
|1,820
|0.3%
|-
|{{flag|Yukon}}
|320
|0.9%
|-
|{{flag|Prince Edward Island}}
|615
|0.4%
|-
|{{flag|Northwest Territories}}
|360
|0.8%
|-
|{{flag|Nunavut}}
|65
|0.1%
|-
|{{flagicon|Canada}} '''Canada'''
|1,374,710
|4.0'''%'''
|}

Cities with large Indian Canadian populations:<ref name="statcan2011"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
![[Canadian cities|City]]
![[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
![[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian]]
!Percentage
|-
|[[Toronto]]
|[[Ontario, Canada|Ontario]]
|643,370
|10.4%
|-
|[[Greater Vancouver|Vancouver]]
|[[British Columbia]]
|243,135
|10.0%
|-
|[[Montréal]]
|[[Quebec]]
|48,485
|1.2%
|-
|[[Calgary]]
|[[Alberta]]
|90,625
|6.5%
|-
|[[Edmonton]]
|Alberta
|72,245
|5.5%
|-
|[[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]]
|British Columbia
|33,340
|18.9%
|-
|[[Winnipeg]]
|[[Manitoba]]
|30,800
|4.0%
|-
|[[Ottawa]]
|Ontario
|28,945
|2.2%
|-
|[[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]
|Ontario
|23,390
|3.1%
|-
|[[Kitchener, Ontario|Kitchener]]
|Ontario
|19,295
|3.7%
|-
|}
As of 2016, the Indo-Canadian population numbers 1.37 million.

====Toronto====
{{main|Indo-Canadians in Toronto}}
Toronto has the largest Indian Canadian population in Canada. Almost 51% of the entire Indian Canadian community resides in the [[Greater Toronto Area]]. Most Indian Canadians in the Toronto area live in [[Brampton]], [[Markham, Ontario|Markham]], [[Scarborough, Toronto|Scarborough]], [[Etobicoke]], and [[Mississauga]]. Indian Canadians, particularly, [[Punjabi Sikhs]] and [[Punjabi Hindus]], have a particularly strong presence in Brampton, where they represent about a third of the population (Most live in the northeastern and eastern portion of the city). The area is middle and upper middle class, home ownership is very high. The Indian Canadians in this region are mostly of Punjabi, Telugu, Tamil, Gujarati, Marathi, Malayali and Goan origin. When compared to the Indian Canadian community of Greater Vancouver, the Greater Toronto Area is home to a much more diverse community of Indians – both linguistically and religiously. Canadian carrier [[Air Canada]] operates flights from [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] back to India.

Indian Canadians in the Greater Toronto Area have an average household income of $86,425, which is higher than the Canadian average of $79,102 but lower than the Toronto Census Metropolitan Area's average of $95,326. Indian Canadian students are also well-represented in Toronto-area universities; despite Indo-Canadians making up 10% of the Toronto area's population, students of Indian origin make up over 35% of [[Ryerson University]], 30% of [[York University]], and 20% of the [[University of Toronto]]'s student bodies, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CMA&Code1=535&Data=Count&SearchText=toronto&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=Income+of+households&B1=All&Custom=&TABID=1|title=2011 National Household Survey Profile - Census metropolitan area/Census agglomeration|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|last=Canada|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>

Canada's largest Hindu Mandir, the [[BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Toronto]], as well as Canada's largest Sikh gurdwara, the [[Ontario Khalsa Darbar]], are both located in the Greater Toronto Area. Both have been built by Canada's Indian community.

====Greater Vancouver====
{{main|Indo-Canadians in Greater Vancouver }}
Vancouver is home to the second largest Indian Canadian population in Canada, with just over 20% of the entire Indian Canadian community residing in the Lower Mainland.<ref name="fraser-valley2016">[https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CD&Code1=5909&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=fraser%20valley&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 Census Profile, 2016 Census: Fraser Valley, Regional district]. Statistics Canada. Retrieved 27 July 2018.</ref><ref name="vancouver-2016">[http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CD&Code1=5915&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=Greater%20Vancouver&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Visible%20minority&TABID=1 Census Profile, 2016 Census: Greater Vancouver, Regional district]. Statistics Canada. Retrieved 2 April 2018.</ref> The highest density concentrations of Indian Canadians are found in [[Vancouver]], [[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]], [[Burnaby, British Columbia|Burnaby]], [[Richmond, British Columbia|Richmond]], [[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]] and [[Delta, British Columbia|Delta]]. Recently, more Indians have been moving to other areas outside of [[Greater Vancouver]]. The city of [[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]] has nearly 170,000 South Asians,<ref name=2016censusethnicty>{{cite web | url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=5915004&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=Vancouver&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All | title=Surrey, City [Census subdivision], British Columbia and Greater Vancouver, Regional district [Census division], British Columbia | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=January 18, 2019}}</ref> comprising 32% of the city's population.<ref name=JohnstonCanSurvive>Johnston, Jesse. "[http://www.news1130.com/2013/02/04/can-vancouvers-little-india-district-survive/ Can Vancouver's Little India district survive?]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TRWLQpWF?url=http://www.news1130.com/2013/02/04/can-vancouvers-little-india-district-survive/ |date=2014-10-19 }}). [[CKWX]] (News 1130). February 4, 2013. Retrieved on October 19, 2014.</ref> The [[Punjabi Market, Vancouver|Punjabi Market]] neighbourhood of South Vancouver also has a particularly high concentration of Indian residents, shops and restaurants.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tourismvancouver.com/activities/attractions/punjabi-market-guide/|title=Punjabi Market Guide|accessdate=January 18, 2019}}</ref>

A large majority of Indian Canadians within Vancouver are of [[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] [[Sikh]] origin.<ref>"[http://moia.gov.in/pdf/Canada.pdf Country Brief – Canada]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TTx1sUqs?url=http://moia.gov.in/pdf/Canada.pdf |date=2014-10-21 }}). [[Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs]]. p. 3/7. Retrieved on October 21, 2014. "The vast majority of Vancouver Indians are of Sikh Punjabi origin."</ref> However, there are also populations with other ethnic backgrounds including [[Indo-Fijians]], [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]], [[Sindhi people|Sindhi]], [[Tamil people|Tamil]], [[Bengali people|Bengali]], and [[Goan]]s.<ref name=StatsCanada>"[http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/indo-canadian/annexes.asp Annexes]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TUPtb0bd?url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/indo-canadian/annexes.asp |date=2014-10-21 }}). ''Report of Meetings with Representatives of the Indian Canadian Community''. [[Government of Canada]]. Retrieved on October 21, 2014.</ref>

===Religion===

{| class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center><big>'''Indian Canadian religious profile (2001)'''</big> ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090309194615/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=68635&GID=517770&METH=1&APATH=3&PTYPE=55496&THEME=44&AID=0&FREE=0&FOCUS=0&VID=0&GC=0&GK=0&SC=1&SR=1&RL=0&CPP=99&RPP=9999&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&d1=12&d2=0&d3=0 Source])</center>
|- style="text-align:center; background:#d9e9e9;"
|| '''Religion'''
|| '''Total responses'''
|| '''Single responses'''
|| '''Multiple Responses'''
|-
| '''Total'''
| 713,330
| 581,665
| 131,665
|-
| [[Sikhism]]
| 239,225
| 217,805
| 21,425
|-
| [[Hinduism]]
| 192,680
| 174,455
| 18,225
|-
| [[Islam]]
| 124,650
| 101,015
| 23,635
|-
| [[Christianity]]
| 117,430
| 65,485
| 51,945
|-
| [[Eastern religions]]
| 5,875
| 4,785
| 1,090
|-
| [[Buddhism]]
| 11,435
| 870
| 560
|-
| [[Jainism]]
| 1,291
| 803
| 600
|-
| [[Judaism]]
| 655
| 160
| 500
|-
| Other religions
| 655
| 540
| 120
|-
| No religious affiliation
| 30,725
| 16,555
| 14,175
|}

Indian Canadians are from very diverse religious backgrounds compared to many other ethnic groups, which is due in part to India's multi-religious population.<ref>{{cite web|title=India Census Religion 2011|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/religion.php|website=Census 2011|accessdate=6 June 2017}}</ref> Amongst the Indian Canadian population however, the religious views are more evenly divided. In 2001, Sikhs represented 35%, Hindus 28%, Muslims 17% and Christians 16%(7% Protestant/Evangelical, 9% Catholic).<ref name="EastIndiancommunityinCanada">"[http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm#6 The East Indian community in Canada]." [[Statistics Canada]]. Retrieved on November 10, 2014.</ref> Relatively few people of Indian origin have no religious affiliation. In 2001, just 4% said they had no religious affiliation, compared with 17% of the Canadian population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007006-eng.htm#6|title=The South Asian Community in Canada|website=www.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>

====Hindu Places of Worship====
There are approximately 500,000 Hindus in Canada<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=105399&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=95&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=|title=2011 National Household Survey: Data tables – Religion (108), Immigrant Status and Period of Immigration (11), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|last=Canada|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> which has resulted in over 180 Hindu temples across Canada with almost 100 in the [[Greater Toronto Area]] alone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.garamchai.com/canada/temples.htm|title=Canada Hindu Temple, mandirs and places of worship in North America from GaramChai.com's Canada Section|website=www.garamchai.com}}</ref>
Early in history when Hindus first arrived, the temples were more liberal and catered to all Hindus from different communities. In the past few decades, with the number of Hindu Canadians increasing, Hindu temples have now been established to cater to the needs of specific communities who speak different languages. There are temples for Punjabis, Gujaratis, Tamils, Bengalis, Sindhis, Trinidadians, Guyanese etc.

[[File:Hindu Heritage Centre Front.JPG|thumb|The [[Hindu Heritage Centre]] is located in [[Mississauga]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]].|alt=|299x299px]][[File:BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Toronto.jpg|thumb|The [[BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Toronto]] is located in [[Etobicoke]], [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]] and it was built by Canada's Gujarati Hindu community.|alt=|center|309x309px]]
Within [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]], the largest Hindu temple in Canada is located on Claireville Drive, which is called the [[BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Toronto]]. The entire Mandir is {{convert|32000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} and hosts numerous events on the Hindu religious calendar.

The [[Hindu Heritage Centre]] is another very large temple and perhaps the second biggest temple at {{convert|25000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} serving the Hindu community of Brampton and Mississauga. The temple is a very liberal [[Sanatani]] [[Dharmic]] Hindu temple which caters to the need of all different types of Hindus. Its devotees come from North and South India, as well as Pakistan, Nepal, and the West Indies. The centre is also focused on preserving Hindu culture by teaching a variety of different classes.

====Sikh Places of Worship====
There are over 175 [[Gurdwara|Gurdwaras]] in Canada. The oldest was built in 1908 in the [[Kitsilano]] neighbourhood of [[Vancouver]] and served early settlers who worked at nearby sawmills along [[False Creek]] at the time.<ref>https://www.vancouverheritagefoundation.org/place-that-matters/first-sikh-temple/</ref> The temple eventually closed in 1970 as the Sikh population relocated to the [[Sunset, Vancouver|Sunset]] neighbourhood of [[Vancouver South|South Vancouver]].
[[File:Gur Sikh Temple 01.jpg|thumb|Gur Sikh Temple (Abbotsford)|alt=|left|300x300px]]
[[File:Sikh Temple at 2nd Avenue, Vancouver.jpg|thumb|right|Vancouver Sikh Temple, c.1911]]
[[File:Sikh Temple Manning Drive Edmonton Alberta Canada 01A.jpg|center|thumb|300x300px|Gurudwara Nanaksar Sahib, Edmonton, Alberta]]

The oldest gurdwara still in service is the [[Gur Sikh Temple|Gurudwara Gur Sikh Temple]], located in Abbotsford, BC. Built in 1911, the gurdwara was designated as a National Historic Site in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HistoricPlaces.ca - HistoricPlaces.ca|url=https://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=9358|access-date=2020-09-26|website=www.historicplaces.ca}}</ref>

The [[Ontario Khalsa Darbar]], in Mississauga, is the largest Gurudwara in Canada. The other notable Gurudwaras include Gurudwara Guru Nanak Darbar Montreal, Gurudwara Dashmesh Darbar Brampton and the [https://sikhsocietyofmanitoba.com/about-us Sikh Society of Manitoba.]

The largest Sikh populations in Canada are located in [[British Columbia]] and [[Ontario]], concentrated in [[Greater Vancouver]] ([[Surrey]]) and [[Greater Toronto]] ([[Brampton]]).

====Indian Muslim Places of Worship====
There are also many Islamic societies and mosques throughout Canada, which have been established and supported by Non-Indian and Indian Muslims alike.

Many Indian Muslims along with Muslims of other nationalities worship at one of the largest mosques in Canada, the [[List of mosques#Canada|ISNA Centre]], located in Mississauga. The facility contains a mosque, high school, community centre, banquet hall and funeral service available for all Muslim Canadians.

The Ismailis have the first Ismaili Jamatkhana and Centre set up in [[Burnaby]], British Columbia. This high-profile building is the second in the world, with other locations in [[London]], [[Lisbon]], and [[Dubai]]. A second such building is being built in Toronto.

====Indian Christian Places of Worship====
Indian Christians tend to attend churches based on their state of origin and their particular traditions including the [[Church of North India]], [[Church of South India]], [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church]], [[Malankara Orthodox Church]], [[Catholic Church in India|Roman Catholic Church]], [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]], [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]] and [[Indian Pentecostal Church]].

The majority of people of Goan origin in Canada are Roman Catholics who share the same parish churches as other Catholic Canadians, however, they often celebrate the feast of [[St Francis Xavier]], who is the Patron Saint of the Indies, and whose body lies in Goa.<ref>Lira, Sergio, Rogerio Amoeda, and Cristina Pinheiro (editors). ''Sharing Cultures 2011''. Edited by Sergio Lira, Rogerio Amoeda and Cristina Pinheiro. [[Green Lines Institute for Sustainable Development]] (''Green Lines Instituto para o Desenvolvimento Sustentavel'') ([[Barcelos, Portugal|Barcelos]], Portugal), 2011. {{ISBN|978-989-95671-4-6}}. Pp531-540. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IOguMwEACAAJ&dq=Sharing+Cultures+2011&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dthgVJ_BMNWsyASlq4KgBA&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA See profile at] [[Google Books]].</ref>

==Culture==
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2014}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| header =
| width = 200
|image1= Bhangradancing.jpg
|caption1= A young Indo-Canadian woman performing [[Bhangra (dance)|Bhangra]] dancing.
|image2= Gujarat Folk Dance 06.JPG
|caption2= An Indo-Canadian girl performing a Gujarati folk dance in [[Downtown Calgary]].
}}
Indo-Canadian culture is closely linked to each specific Indian group's religious, regional, linguistic and ethnic backgrounds. For instance, Northern Indian cultural practices and languages differ from those of Southern Indians, and the Hindu community's cultural practices differ from those of the [[Jainism in Canada|Jain]], Sikh, Muslim, Christian and Jewish communities due to differences in ethnicity, regional affiliation, religion and/or language. Such cultural aspects have been preserved fairly well due to Canada's open policy of [[multiculturalism]], as opposed to a policy of [[melting pot|assimilation]] practised by the [[United States]].

The cultures and languages of various Indian communities have been able to thrive in part due to the freedom of these communities to establish structures and institutions for religious worship, social interaction, and cultural practices. In particular, Punjabi culture and language have been reinforced in Canada through radio and television.

Alternatively, Indo-Canadian culture has developed its own identity compared to other non-resident Indians and from people in India. It is not uncommon to find youth uninterested with traditional Indian cultural elements and events, instead of identifying with mainstream North American cultural mores. However such individuals exist in a minority and there are many youth that maintain a balance between western and eastern cultural values, and occasionally fusing the two to produce a new product, such as the new generation of [[Bhangra (music)|Bhangra]] incorporating hip-hop based rhythm. For instance, Sikh youth often mix in traditional Bhangra, which uses Punjabi instruments with hip hop beats as well as including rap with Black music entertainers. Notable entertainers include [[Raghav]] and [[Jazzy B]].

===Language===

{|class="infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center><big>'''Indian languages spoken at home in Canada'''</big> ([http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55763&APATH=3&GID=431515&METH=1&PTYPE=55430&THEME=41&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=0&GK=0&VID=0&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0 source])</center>
|- style="text-align:center; background:#d9e9e9;"
|| '''Language '''
|| '''Total: Language spoken at home'''
|| '''Only speaks'''
|| '''Mostly speaks'''
|| '''Equally speaks'''
|| '''Regularly speaks'''
|-
| [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]*
| 280,540
| 132,380
| 71,660
| 29,220
| 47,280
|-
| [[Hindi]]
| 165,890
| 114,175
| 116,075
| 19,090
| 26,550
|-
| [[Urdu]]*
| 89,365
| 30,760
| 27,840
| 12,200
| 18,565
|-
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]*
| 97,345
| 45,865
| 29,745
| 9,455
| 12,280
|-
| [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| 60,105
| 18,310
| 16,830
| 7,175
| 17,790
|-
| [[Malayalam]]
| 6,570
| 1,155
| 1,810
| 505
| 3,100
|-
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]*
| 29,705
| 12,840
| 9,615
| 2,780
| 4,470
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center>* ''Note that these languages are also spoken in Canada by immigrants from other South Asian countries such as: [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Sri Lanka]]''</center>
|}
Indian Canadians speak a variety of languages, reflecting the cultural and ethnic diversity of the Indian subcontinent. The most widely spoken South Asian language in Canada is [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], which is spoken by the people from [[Punjab (India)|Punjab State]] and [[Chandigarh]] in India and by the people from [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab Province]] or [[Islamabad Capital Territory]] in Pakistan. In Canada, [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] is a language mainly spoken by [[South Asian Canadians]] with ties to the state of Punjab in [[Northern India]].

The next most widely spoken language by South Asians is [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. These individuals hail from the state of [[Tamil Nadu]] in [[Southern India]], however, speakers in Canada of the Tamil language come from both [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]].

[[Hindi]], as India's most spoken language, is now the language primarily used by new Indian immigrants, especially ones with ties to [[Northern India]] and [[Central India]]. As an official language used by the Government of India and by almost half of India's population, Hindi plays a key role as a [[lingua franca]] between Indian Canadians who don't necessarily feel comfortable to speak in English.

[[Urdu]] is primarily spoken by [[Muslim]] South Asians from [[Northern India]] and [[Pakistan]]. However, individuals of Indian descent from Africa and the Caribbean may also speak it as well.

[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] is spoken by people from the Indian state of [[Gujarat]]. Gujarati Hindus and [[Ismaili]] Muslims from the African Great Lakes who subsequently migrated to Canada speak Gujarati. Zoroastrians from the western part of India who form a small percentage of the population in Canada, also speak Gujarati.

[[Bengali language|Bengali]] is spoken by individuals from the state of [[West Bengal]], as well as by the people of [[Bangladesh]], and thus it is not exclusively spoken by Indians in Canada, but also by [[Bangladeshis]].

There are also a large number of [[Malayalam]] language-speakers, who hail from the state of [[Kerala]] in [[Southern India]].

There is also a community of Goans from the African Great Lakes. However, only a few members of this community speak their original language [[Konkani]].

[[Marathi language|Marathi]] is spoken by 12,578 people in Canada who have their roots from the Indian state of [[Maharashtra]].

[[Telugu language|Telugu]] is spoken by 15,655 people in Canada who primarily hail from the [[India]]n states of [[Telangana]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]].

===Marriage===
[[File:Indoreception.jpg|thumb|right|A group of Punjabi Indo-Canadians attending a Punjabi wedding reception]]
Marriage is an important cultural element amongst many Indo-Canadians, due to their Indian heritage and religious background.<ref name="another" >{{cite web|url=http://dating.lovetoknow.com/Indian_Dating|title=Indian Dating Traditions}}</ref> [[Arranged marriage]], which is still widely practised in India, is no longer widely practised among Canadian-born or naturalized Indians. However, marriages are sometimes still arranged by parents within their specific caste or Indian ethnic community. Since it may be difficult to find someone of the same Indian ethnic background with the desired characteristics, some Indo-Canadians now opt to use [[matrimonial]] services, including online services, in order to find a marriage partner. Marriage practices amongst Indo-Canadians are not as liberal as those of their Indian counterparts, with caste sometimes considered, but dowries almost non-existent.<ref name="another" />{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

In 2012 Mandeep Kaur, the author of the PhD thesis ''Canadian-Punjabi Philanthropy and its Impact on Punjab: A Sociological Study'', wrote that compared to other ethnic groups, Indo-Canadians engage in more arranged marriages within ethnic communities and castes and engage in less dating; this is because these Indo-Canadian communities wish to preserve their cultural practices.<ref name=Kaurp85>Kaur, Mandeep. "[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8022/10/10_chapter%203.pdf THE MAKING OF CANADIAN PUNJABI DIASPORA]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Tyy7ZDd1?url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8022/10/10_chapter%203.pdf |date=2014-11-10 }}) (Chapter 3). In: Kaur, Mandeep. ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/8022 Canadian-Punjabi Philanthropy and its Impact on Punjab: A Sociological Study]'' ([http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8022/1/01_title.pdf PhD thesis]). [[Punjabi University]]. Award date: 22 August 2012. p. 85 (PDF 25/32).</ref>

===Media===
There are numerous radio programs that represent Indo-Canadian culture. One notable program is Geetmala Radio, hosted by Darshan and Arvinder Sahota (also longtime television hosts of Indo-Canadian program, Eye on Asia).

A number of Canadian television networks broadcast programming that features Indo-Canadian culture. One prominent multicultural/multireligious channel, [[Vision TV]], presents a nonstop marathon of Indo-Canadian shows on Saturdays. These television shows often highlight Indo-Canadian events in Canada, and also show events from India involving Indians who reside there. In addition, other networks such as Omni Television, CityTV, and local community access channels also present local Indo-Canadian content, and Indian content from India.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

In recent years,{{when|date=November 2014}} there has been an establishment of Indian television networks from India on Canadian television. Shan Chandrasehkhar, an established Indo-Canadian who pioneered one of the first Indo-Canadian television shows in Canada, made a deal with the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC) to allow Indian television networks based in India to send a direct feed to Canada. In doing so, he branded these channels under his own company known as the [[Asian Television Network]]. Since 1997, Indo-Canadians can subscribe to channels from India via purchasing TV channel packages from their local satellite/cable companies. Indo-Canadians view such networks as [[Zee TV]], [[B4U (network)|B4U]], [[Sony Entertainment Television Asia|Sony Entertainment Television]], and [[Aaj Tak]] to name a few. Goan communities are connected by a number of city-based websites that inform the community of local activities such as dances, religious services, and village feasts, that serve to connect the community to its rural origins in Goa.<ref>German, Myna and Padmini Banerjee. ''Migration, Technology, and Transculturation: A Global Perspective''. [[Lindenwood University Press]] ([[St. Charles, Missouri]]), 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-9846307-4-5}}. Pp. 165-183. [https://books.google.com/books?id=p7YyuAAACAAJ&dq=Migration,+Technology,+and+Transculturation:+A+Global+Perspective&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wtZgVJW8CIS0yASKzIF4&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA See profile at] [[Google Books]].</ref>

Radio stations in the [[Greater Toronto Area]] with Indo Canadian content include [[CJSA-FM]] broadcasting on 101.3FM. Another station is [[CINA (AM)|CINA]] broadcasting on AM 1650.

Major newspapers include ''[[Canindia News]]'' in Toronto & Montreal, ''[[The Asian Star]]'' and ''[[The Punjabi Star]]'' in Vancouver.

As of 2012, there are many Punjabi newspapers, most of which are published in Vancouver and Toronto. As of that year, 50 of them are weekly, two are daily, and others are monthly.<ref name=Kaurp85/>

By 2012, partly due to coverage of [[Air India Flight 182]], coverage of Punjabi issues in ''[[The Globe and Mail]]'', the ''[[Vancouver Sun]]'', and other mainstream Canadian newspapers had increased.<ref name=Kaurp85/>

===Film and Television===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*''[[7 to 11, Indian]]'' (2003) (English)
*''[[8 X 10 Tasveer]]'' (2009) (Hindi)
*''[[Arasangam]]'' (2008) (Tamil)
*''[[Asa Nu Maan Watna Da]]'' (2004) (Punjabi)
*''[[Cooking with Stella]]'' (2009) (English)
*''[[Dus]]'' (2005) (Hindi)
*''[[Getting Married]]'' (English)
*''[[Humko Deewana Kar Gaye]]'' (2006) (Hindi)
*''[[Jatt and Juliet]]'' (2012) (Punjabi)
*''[[Jee Aayan Nu]]'' (2003) (Punjabi)
*''[[Jugni, Back to Roots (film)|Jugni Back to Roots]]'' (2013) (Punjabi/English)
*''[[Kismat Konnection]]'' (2008) (Hindi)
*''Masala'' (1992) (English)
*''[[Neal 'n' Nikki]]'' (2005) (Hindi)
*''[[Panchathantiram]]'' (2006) (Tamil)
*''[[Partition (2007 film)|Partition]]'' (2007) (English/Punjabi)
*''[[Shakti: The Power]]'' (2002) (Hindi)
*''[[Speedy Singhs]]'' (2011) (English)
*''[[Sweet Amerika]]'' (2008) (English)
*''[[Taal (film)|Taal]]'' (1999) (Hindi)
*''[[Thank You (2011 film)|Thank You]]'' (2011) (Hindi)
*''[[Tum Bin|Tum Bin...Love Will Find a Way]]'' (2001) (Hindi)
*''[[Two Countries]]'' (2016) (Malayalam)
}}

==Terminology==
Elizabeth Kamala Nayar, author of ''[[The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver: Three Generations Amid Tradition, Modernity, and Multiculturalism]]'', defined "Indo-Canadians" as [[Canadians|persons born in Canada]] of [[Indian subcontinent]] origins.<ref name=NayarSikhDiaspp236>Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth. ''The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver: Three Generations Amid Tradition, Modernity, and Multiculturalism''. [[University of Toronto Press]], 2004. {{ISBN|0802086314}}, 9780802086310. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NShXfaNbRyEC&pg=PA236 236]. See: "9 The term 'Indo-Canadians' came into use in the 1980s as a result of the Canadian government's policy and ideology of multiculturalism. It refers to Canadian-born people whose origins are on the Indian subcontinent." and "9 The term 'Indo-Canadians' came into use[...]"</ref> Kavita A. Sharma, author of ''The Ongoing Journey: Indian Migration to Canada'', wrote that she used "Indo-Canadians" to only refer to those of origins from India who have Canadian citizenship. Otherwise she uses "Indo-Canadian" in an interchangeable manner with "South Asians" and "East Indians".<ref>Sharma, Kavita A. ''The Ongoing Journey: Indian Migration to Canada''. [[Creative Books]], 1997. {{ISBN|8186318399}}, 9788186318393. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=xr2ZAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&dq=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mPtZVPSaItXcaqzrgfAC&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA 16]. "Notes 1 Indians are variously designated as East Indians, South Asians and Indo- Canadians. The terms are used interchangeably throughout this book except that 'Indo-Canadian' has been used for only those Indians who have acquired Canadian citizenship." - [https://www.google.com/search?q=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&btnG=Search+Books&tbm=bks&tbo=1&gws_rd=ssl Search view], [https://www.google.com/search?q=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&btnG=Search+Books&tbm=bks&tbo=1&gws_rd=ssl#newwindow=1&tbm=bks&q=%22Canadians.+The+terms+are%22 Search view #2]</ref> Priya S. Mani, the author of "Methodological Dilemmas Experienced in Researching Indo-Canadian Young Adults’ Decision-Making Process to Study the Sciences," defined "Indo-Canadian" as being children of persons who immigrated from South Asia to Canada.<ref>Mani, Priya S. ([[University of Manitoba]]). "[https://www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/5_2/PDF/mani.pdf Methodological Dilemmas Experienced in Researching Indo-Canadian Young Adults’ Decision-Making Process to Study the Sciences]." ''[[International Journal of Qualitative Methods]]'' 5 (2) June 2006. PDF p. 2/14. "The term South Asian refers to the Statistics Canada classification, which includes young adults who identify as Sikh, Hindu, or Muslim religious background (Statistics Canada, 2001). In this article, the term Indo-Canadian refers to children of South Asian immigrants."</ref>

As of 2004, "Indo-Canadian" is a term used in mainstream circles of people in Canada. The term originated as a part of the Canadian government's multicultural policies and ideologies in the 1980s.<ref name=NayarSikhDiaspp236/> [[Statistics Canada]] does not use "Indo-Canadian" as an official category for people.<ref name=Sumartojop8>Sumartojo, Widyarini. ''[http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf "My kind of Brown": Indo-Canadian youth identity and belonging in Greater Vancouver]'' (PhD thesis) ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TRTIgoR4?url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf |date=2014-10-19 }}). [[Simon Fraser University]], 2012. p. 8 (PDF document 18/182). [http://summit.sfu.ca/item/12245 See profile at] Simon Fraser University.</ref> Nayar, in ''The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver'', wrote that "many Canadian-born South Asians dislike the term because it differentiates them from other Canadians."<ref name=NayarSikhDiaspp236/>

In Canada "South Asian" refers to persons with ancestry throughout [[South Asia]], while "East Indian" means someone with origins specifically from India.<ref>Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth. ''The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver: Three Generations Amid Tradition, Modernity, and Multiculturalism''. [[University of Toronto Press]], 2004. {{ISBN|0802086314}}, 9780802086310, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NShXfaNbRyEC&pg=PA235 235]. "3 'East Indians' refers to people whose roots are specifically in India. Although there is no country called East India, the British gave and used the term 'East India.' The British and Canadians commonly used the term 'East Indian' during the early period of Indian migration to Canada." and "4 'South Asians' is a very broad category as it refers to people originally in the geographical area of South Asia, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. 'South Asians' also refers to Indians who have migrated to other parts of the world such as Fiji, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and East Africa."</ref> Both terms are used by Statistics Canada.<ref name=Sumartojop7>Sumartojo, Widyarini. ''[http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf "My kind of Brown": Indo-Canadian youth identity and belonging in Greater Vancouver]'' (PhD thesis) ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TRTIgoR4?url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf |date=2014-10-19 }}). [[Simon Fraser University]], 2012. p. 7 (PDF document 17/182). [http://summit.sfu.ca/item/12245 See profile at] Simon Fraser University.</ref> As of 2001 about half of foreign-born persons claiming an "East Indian" ancestry originated from India, while others originated from Bangladesh, East Africa, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.<ref>"[http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm The East Indian community in Canada 2007]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TL17vvRj?url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm |date=2014-10-15 }}). [[Statistics Canada]]. Retrieved on November 10, 2014. "That year, roughly half of all foreign-born Canadians of East Indian origin were from India, while smaller numbers were from Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, as well as East Africa"</ref>

Widyarini Sumartojo, the author of the PhD thesis ''"My kind of Brown": Indo-Canadian youth identity and belonging in Greater Vancouver'', which explores [[brown identity]], wrote that "While "South Asian" thus refers to a broader group of people, it is often used somewhat interchangeably with "East Indian" and "Indo-Canadian.""<ref name=Sumartojop7/> Despite the diversity in ethnic groups and places of origin among South Asians, previously the term "South Asian" had been used to be synonymous with "Indian."<ref name=Hendersonp65>Henderson, Martha L. ''Geographical Identities of Ethnic America: Race, Space, and Place''. [[University of Nevada Press]], 2002. {{ISBN|0874174872}}, 9780874174878. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=i9o8OkgLpTcC&pg=PA65 65].</ref> ''[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]'' stated that the same population has been "referred to as South Asians, Indo-Canadians or East Indians".<ref name=CanEncySouthAsian>"[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/south-asians/ South Asians]" ({{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110091602/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/south-asians/ |date=November 10, 2014 }}). ''[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]''. Retrieved on November 10, 2014.</ref> Martha L. Henderson, author of ''Geographical Identities of Ethnic America: Race, Space, and Place'', argued that "The term "South Asian" is meaningful as a defining boundary only in interactions between South Asians and mainstream Canadians."<ref name=Hendersonp65/> ''The Canadian Encyclopedia'' wrote that "People referred to as "South Asian" view the term in the way that those from European countries might view the label "European.""<ref name=CanEncySouthAsian/> Henderson added that because of the conflation of "South Asian" and "Indian," "It is very difficult to isolate the history of Asian Indians in Canada from that of other South Asians".<ref name=Hendersonp65/>

In 1962{{who|date=October 2014}} "Pakistani" and "Ceylonese" (Sri Lankan) were made into separate ethnic categories, while prior to that year people with those origins were counted as being "East Indian".<ref>Ames, Michael M. & Joy Inglis. 1974. "[http://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/bcstudies/article/download/789/832 Conflict and Change in British Columbia Sikh Family Life]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TUTZqEGx?url=http://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/bcstudies/article/download/789/832 |date=2014-10-21 }}). In ''[[British Columbia Studies]]'', Vol. 20. Winter 1973-1974. CITED: p. 19.</ref>

==Notable people==
{{main list|List of Indo-Canadians}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Canada|India}}
* [[Indian diaspora]]
* [[Indianisation]]
* [[Greater India]]
* [[South Asian Canadians]]
* [[Indo-Canadians in Toronto]]
* [[Indo-Canadians in Greater Vancouver]]
* [[Indo-Canadians in British Columbia]]

==References==

{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|40em}}
* Adhopia, Ajit. 1988. ''India to Canada: A Perspective of Indo-Canadians''. National Association of Indo-Canadians ([[Mississauga, Ontario]]).
* Badyal, Pindy P. 2003. ''[http://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/14888/ubc_2003-791955.pdf?sequence=1 Lived Experience of Wife Abuse for Indo-Canadian Sikh Women]'' (Ph.D. thesis) ([https://www.webcitation.org/6TzVQtRyZ?url=http://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/14888/ubc_2003-791955.pdf Archive]), [[The University of British Columbia]] (UBC). [http://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/14888 See Profile at] UBC.
* Dhruvarajan, Vanaja. 2003. "Second Generation Indo-Canadians: Change, Resistance and Adaptation". In ''Fractured Identity: The Indian Diaspora Canada'', Sushma J. Varma & Radhika Seshan (eds.). Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ghuman | first1 = P. A. S. | year = 1980 | title = Canadian or Indo-Canadian: A Study of South Asian Adolescents | journal = [[International Journal of Adolescence and Youth]] | volume = 4 | pages = 3–4 }}
* Klassen, Robert Mark. 2002. ''Motivation Beliefs of Indo-Canadian and Anglo-Canadian Early Adolescents: A Cross-cultural Investigation of Self- and Collective Efficacy'' (Ph.D. thesis), [[Simon Fraser University]].
* Mani, Priya Subra. 2003. ''Indo-Canadian Young Women's Career Decision-making Process to Enter the Applied Social Sciences: A Case Study Approach'' (Ph.D. thesis), [[University of Victoria]].
* Moulton, Edward C. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2756725 South Asian Studies in Canada, and the Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute]." ''[[Pacific Affairs]]'', [[University of British Columbia]]. Vol. 51, No. 2 (Summer, 1978), pp. 245–264
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/Products/standard/themes/DataProducts.cfm?S=1&T=44&ALEVEL=2&FREE=0 Statistics Canada Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Information. Detailed Tables of the ones included in the Demographics section of this article.] "Look under East Indian or South Asian in the Tables"
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150321131354/http://www.owlib.com/dir/dir.show?cat_id=2111 Hindu Temples in Canada]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120504020748/http://multiculturalcanada.ca/ Multicultural Canada website] includes oral histories and Indo-Canadian newspapers
*[http://komagatamarujourney.ca "Komagata Maru: Continuing the Journey"] Simon Fraser University Library website with digitized material pertaining to Indian immigration and settlement in Canada
*[http://www.asiancenturyinstitute.com/migration/470-the-indo-canadian-paradox/ Indo-Canadian Paradox]

{{People of Canada}}
{{Canadians of Asian descent}}
{{NRI-PIO}}
{{Portalbar|Canada|India}}

[[Category:Asian Canadian]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Indian descent| ]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Canada|Canadian]]
[[Category:Indo-Canadian culture]]
[[Category:South Asian Canadian]]

Indian Canadians

2020-12-15T09:24:35Z

175.141.124.220:

{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Indian Canadians ''{{lang|fr|Canadiens d'origine indienne}}'' ([[Canadian French|French]])
| native_name = भारतीय कनाडाई
கனேடிய தமிழர்கள்
| image = [[File:Indian ancestry in Canada.png|350px]]
| caption = Indian ancestry in Canada (2016)
| flag =
| population = '''1,374,710'''<ref name="statcan2016"/> '''4.0%''' of the Canadian population (2016)<ref name="statcan2016">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2018/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D|title=Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables|publisher=statcan.gc.ca|date=2016-06-10|accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref>
| popplace =  [[Greater Toronto Area|Toronto]] • [[Greater Vancouver|Vancouver]] • [[Calgary metropolitan region|Calgary]] • [[Edmonton metropolitan region|Edmonton]] • [[Montreal metropolitan area|Montreal]] • [[Abbotsford-Mission|Abbotsford]] • [[Winnipeg Metro Region|Winnipeg]] • [[Ottawa metropolitan area|Ottawa]] • [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]
| langs = {{hlist|'''[[Canadian English]]''' • '''[[Canadian French]]''' {{smaller|[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] • [[Hindi]] • [[Urdu]] • [[Tamil language|Tamil]] • [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] Other [[Languages of India]]}}}}
| rels = '''Predominantly''': [[Sikhism]] • [[Hinduism]] '''Minorities''': {{smaller| [[Islam]] • [[Christianity]] • [[Buddhism]] • [[Zoroastrianism]] • [[Jainism]] • [[Judaism]] • [[Irreligion]]}}
| related = {{hlist|[[Asian Canadians]] • [[South Asian Canadians]] • [[Indian Americans]] • [[British Indians]] • [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Overseas Indians]]}}
}}

'''Indian Canadians''' are [[Canadians]] with ancestry from [[India]]. The term '''Indo-Canadian''' or '''East Indian''', is sometimes used to avoid confusion with the [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous Peoples of Canada]]. [[Statistics Canada]] specifically uses the term '''Asian Indian''' to refer to Indian Canadians. Categorically, Indian Canadians comprise a subgroup of [[South Asian Canadians]] which is a further subgroup of [[Asian Canadians]]. According to [[Statistics Canada]], Indian Canadians are one of the fastest growing communities in Canada, making up the second largest non-European group after [[Chinese Canadians]].<ref name="East Indians in Canada">{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm|author=Statistics Canada|title=The East Indian Community in Canada|accessdate=21 November 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TL17vvRj?url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm|archive-date=October 15, 2014 |author-link=Statistics Canada}}</ref>

Canada contains the world's [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|eighth largest Indian diaspora]]. The largest group of Indian Canadians are of [[Punjabis|Punjabi]] origin, accounting for around 50 percent of the Indo-Canadian population.<ref>{{cite web|title=Census Profile, 2016 Census, Canada|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Language&TABID=1|website=Government of Canada, Statistics Canada|accessdate=28 December 2018|date=2017-02-08}}</ref> The highest concentrations of Indian Canadians are found in the provinces of [[Ontario]] and [[British Columbia]], followed by growing communities in [[Alberta]] and [[Quebec]] as well, with the majority of them being foreign-born.<ref name="East Indians in Canada"/>

==History==
[[File:Streetcars passing at the 400 Block of Granville Street, Vancouver, in 1908.jpg|thumb|300px|Punjabi Sikhs in Vancouver, 1908]]
[[File:Sikh men on rail platform next to Canadian Pacific rail car, probably in British Columbia, circa 1905-1914 (AL+CA 6612).jpg|thumb|250px|Indians at CPR station in Vancouver, circa 1914]]
[[File:Komagata Maru incident VPL 127 (11326123445).jpg|thumb|250px|Komagata Maru Incident, 1914]]
[[File:GurdwaraSukhSagar1931.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Queensborough, New Westminster]] Sikh temple, 1931.]]
The Indo-Canadian community started around the late 19th century. The pioneers were men, mostly Punjabi [[Sikh]]s with some [[Punjabi Hindus]] and [[Punjabi Muslims]]; many were [[veteran]]s of the [[British Army]]. In 1897 a contingent of Sikh [[soldier]]s participated in the parade to celebrate [[Queen Victoria]]'s [[Diamond Jubilee]] in [[London]], England. On their subsequent journey home, they visited the western coast of [[Canada]], primarily [[British Columbia]] which at the time was very sparsely populated and the Canadian government wanted to settle in order to prevent a takeover of the territory by the [[United States]].

Upon retiring from the army, some of these men found their pensions to be inadequate. Some of them also found their land and estates back home in India were utilized by money lenders. They decided to try their fortunes in the countries they had visited. They joined an [[Indian diaspora]], which included people from [[Burma]] through [[Malaysia]], the [[East Indies]], the Philippines and [[China]]. They were able to get work in the [[police]] force and some were employed as night-watchmen by [[United Kingdom|British]] firms. Others started small businesses of their own. These were modest beginnings but they had bigger ideas.

Punjabi Sikhs, who had seen Canada, recommended the [[New World]] to their fellow countrymen who were in a position to venture out and seek new fortunes. They were guaranteed jobs by agents of big Canadian companies like the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] and the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. Overcoming their initial reluctance to go to these countries due to the treatment of Asians by the white population, many young men chose to go, having been assured that they would not meet the same fate. Since India was under British Crown Rule, they were [[British subject]]s and Canada was a part of the [[British Empire]]. Queen Victoria had proclaimed in 1858 that throughout the empire the people of India that they would enjoy "equal privileges with white people without discrimination of colour, creed or race."<ref name="Singh">{{cite journal|last=Singh|first=Khushwant|title=The Ghadr Rebellion|journal=Illustrated Weekly of India|date=Feb 26 – Mar 12, 1961|pages=Feb 26 – Mar 12|url=http://www.sikhpioneers.org/rebellion.html|accessdate=2 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324035007/http://www.sikhpioneers.org/rebellion.html|archive-date=March 24, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Initial settlement===
However, upon arrival to [[British Columbia]], the first Indian immigrants faced widespread racism by the local white Canadians. Most of the white Canadians feared workers who would work for less pay, and that an influx of more immigrants would threaten their jobs. As a result, there were a series of race riots that targeted the Indian immigrants, who were beat up by mobs of angry white Canadians, though often met with retaliation.<ref name="multiple" >"[https://web.archive.org/web/20060702205329/http://www.explorasian.org/history_sikhcdn.html SOME SIGNIFICANT MOMENTS IN SIKH-CANADIAN HISTORY]" ([https://www.webcitation.org/6TydbzK6t?url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060702205329/http://www.explorasian.org/history_sikhcdn.html Archive]). ExplorAsian. Retrieved on November 10, 2014.</ref> These mobs not only targeted Indians, but also other Asian groups such as the Chinese immigrants working on the railroad at the time, and [[Black Canadians]]. From the social pressure most decided to return to India, while a few stayed behind. To support the white Canadian population on the west coast of Canada, who did not want Indians to immigrate to Canada, the Canadian government prevented Indian men from bringing their wives and children until 1919, which was another considerable factor in their decision to leave Canada.<ref name="multiple" />

The restrictions by the Canadian government increased on Indians, as policies were put in place in 1907 to prevent Indians who had the right to vote from voting in future general elections.<ref name="multiple" /> Furthermore, government quotas were established to cap the number of Indians allowed to immigrate to Canada in the early 20th century. This was part of a policy adopted by Canada to ensure that the country retained its primarily European demographic, and was similar to [[United States|American]] and [[Australian]] immigration policies at the time. These quotas only allowed fewer than 100 people from India a year until 1957, when it was marginally increased (to 300 people a year). In comparison to the quotas established for Indians, Christian people from Europe immigrated freely without quotas in large numbers during that time to Canada, numbering in the tens of thousands yearly.<ref name="multiple" />

In 1906 and 1907 there was a spike in migration from the Indian sub-continent into British Columbia. Most of the migrants were Punjabi Sikhs, though there were large numbers of Punjabi Hindus and Muslims. An estimated 4,700 arrived, at around the same time as a rise in Chinese and Japanese immigration. The federal government curtailed the migration, and over the next seven years fewer than 125 South Asians were permitted to land in British Columbia. Those who had arrived were often single men and many returned to South Asia. Others sought opportunities south of the border in the USA. It is estimated that the number of South Asians in British Columbia fell to less than 2000 by 1914.<ref>Pg. 79. White Canada Forever. By W. Peter Ward. 2002. McGill, Quebec, Canada. {{ISBN|978-07735-2322-7}}</ref>

In 1914, the ''[[Komagata Maru incident|Komagata Maru]]'', a steam liner carrying 376 passengers from [[Punjab region|Punjab]], India (all were [[United Kingdom|British]] subjects) arrived in [[Vancouver]]. Most of the passengers were not allowed to land in Canada and were returned to India. When the ''Kamagata Maru'' returned to Calcutta (now Kolkata). Viewing this as evidence that Indians were not treated as equals under the [[British Empire]], they staged a peaceful protest upon returning to India. British forces saw this as a threat to their authority, and opened fire on the protestors, killing many. This was one of the most notorious incidents in the history of exclusion laws in Canada designed to keep out immigrants of Asian origin.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

===Recent settlement===
Policies changed rapidly during the second half of the 20th century.

The Canadian government re-enfranchised the Indo-Canadian community with the right to vote in 1947.<ref name="multiple" />

When British-occupied India was partitioned into India and Pakistan (East and West) upon independence in 1947, thousands of people were moved across the new borders. Research in Canada suggests that many of the early [[Goans]] to emigrate to Canada were those who were born and lived in [[Karachi]], [[Mumbai]] (formerly Bombay) and [[Kolkata]] (formerly Calcutta). At the time [[Goa]] was under Portuguese rule and faced an uncertain future.
Another group of people that arrived in Canada at this time were the [[Anglo-Indians]], people of mixed European and Indian ancestry.

In 1967 all immigration quotas based on specific ethnic groups were scrapped in Canada.<ref name="multiple" /> The social view in Canada towards people of other ethnic backgrounds was more open, and Canada was facing declining immigration from European countries, since these European countries had booming postwar economies, and thus more people decided to remain in their home countries. Canada introduced an immigration policy that was based on a point system, with each applicant being assessed on their trade skills and the need for these skills in Canada. This allowed many more Indians to immigrate in large numbers and a trickle of Goans (who were English-speaking and Catholic) started to arrive after the [[African Great Lakes]] countries imposed [[Africanization]] policies.<ref>Pg. 107. The Americanization of Goans. By Ladis DaSilva. 1976. Toronto. Ontario. Canada.</ref> In the 1970s, thousands of immigrants came yearly and mainly settled in Vancouver and Toronto.

Significant urbanization of the Indo-Canadian community began during the 1980s and early 1990s, when tens of thousands of immigrants moved from India into Canada each year. Prior to the large urban concentrations which exist in the present-day, statistically significant populations existed across rural British Columbia; a legacy of previous waves of immigration earlier in the 20th century. Forming nearly 20% of the population, [[Fort St. James]] had the highest proportion of Indo-Canadians of any municipality in Canada during the 1990s. <ref>https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census96/data/profiles/Rp-eng.cfm?TABID=2&LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=35782&PRID=0&PTYPE=3&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=1996&THEME=34&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=</ref>

According to [[Statistics Canada]], since the late 1990s, roughly 25,000–30,000 Indians arrive each year (which is now the most populous cultural group immigrating to Canada each year). The settlement pattern in the last two decades is still mainly focused around Vancouver and Toronto, but other cities such as Calgary, Edmonton, and Montreal have also become desirable due to growing economic prospects in these cities.

India became the highest source country of immigration to Canada in 2017. The number of arrivals as permanent residents increased from 30,915 in 2012 to 85,585 in 2019, representing 25 percent of the total immigration to Canada. Additionally, India is also the top source country for international students in Canada, rising from 48,765 in 2015 to 219,855 in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cicnews.com/2020/02/642000-international-students-canada-now-ranks-3rd-globally-in-foreign-student-attraction-0213763.html#gs.5ft5fi|title=642,000 international students: Canada now ranks 3rd globally in foreign student attraction}}</ref> The majority are from Punjab, with large numbers also from Delhi, Gujarat, and Southern India.

==Indians from other countries==
In addition to tracing their origin directly to the [[Indian subcontinent]], many Indian Canadians who arrive in Canada come from other parts of the world, as part of the global [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian diaspora]].

{|class="infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center><big>'''Number of Indians immigrating from different regions of the world'''</big> ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090309194615/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=68635&GID=517770&METH=1&APATH=3&PTYPE=55496&THEME=44&AID=0&FREE=0&FOCUS=0&VID=0&GC=0&GK=0&SC=1&SR=1&RL=0&CPP=99&RPP=9999&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&d1=12&d2=0&d3=0 source])</center>
|- style="text-align:center; background:#d9e9e9;"
|| '''Region'''
|| '''Total Responses'''
|-
| Immigrant population
| 474,530
|-
| [[United States]]
| 2,410
|-
| Central and [[South America]]
| 40,475
|-
| [[Caribbean]] and [[Bermuda]]
| 24,295
|-
| [[Europe]]
| 12,390
|-
| **[[United Kingdom]]
| 11,200
|-
| **Other European
| 1,190
|-
| [[Africa]]
| 45,530
|-
| [[Asia]]
| 332,150
|-
| **West [[Central Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]
| 6,965
|-
| **[[Eastern Asia]]
| 720
|-
| **[[Southeast Asia]]
| 4,260
|-
| **[[South Asia]]
| 320,200
|-
| [[Oceania]] and other
| 17,280
|-
| Non-permanent residents
| 9,950
|}

===Indians from Africa===
{{See also|Indian diaspora in Southeast Africa}}
Due to political turmoil and prejudice, many Indians residing in the African Great Lakes nations, such as [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Angola]] left the region for Canada and other Western countries. A majority of Indo-Canadians from Southeast Africa are [[Ismailis|Ismaili Muslims]] or [[Hindus|Gujarati Hindus]], with significant numbers from [[South Africa]] as well.

[[Deepak Obhrai]] was the first Indo-African Canadian to become a member of parliament in Canada as well as the first Hindu to be appointed to the [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada]], he was originally from [[Tanzania]]. He received the Pride of India award from the Indo-American Friends Group of Washington DC and Indo-American Business Chamber in a dinner ceremony held on Capitol Hill for his effort in strengthening ties between Canada and India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voiceonline.com/deepak-obhrai-awarded-pride-of-india-award-for-fostering-indo-canadian-relations/|title=Deepak Obhrai awarded Pride of India Award for fostering Indo-Canadian relations|first=posted by: Rattan|last=Mall|website=Indo-Canadian Voice}}</ref>

[[M.G. Vassanji]], an award-winning novelist who writes on the plight of Indians in the region, is a [[naturalization|naturalized]] Canadian of Indian descent who migrated from the Great Lakes.

The writer Ladis Da Silva (1920–1994) was a Zanzibar-born Canadian of Goan descent who wrote ''The Americanization of Goans''.<ref>The Americanization of Goans. By Ladis Da Silva. 1976. Toronto, Ontario, Canada.</ref>{{page needed|date=November 2014}} He emigrated in 1968 from Kenya and was a prolific writer and social reformer, working with First Nations, Inuit and Senior Citizens in the Greater Toronto Area.<ref>Pp.265-267. Profiles of Eminent Goans: Past and Present. By J. Clement Vaz Ph.D. 1997 New Delhi, India. {{ISBN|81-7022-619-8}}</ref>

Indians have also moved to Canada from Southern African nations such as [[Zambia]], [[Malawi]] and [[Indian South Africans|South Africa]] for similar reasons. Examples of successful Indo-Canadians from this migratory stream are [[Suhana Meharchand]] and Nirmala Naidoo, television newscasters of Indian descent from South Africa, who currently work for the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC). [[Indira Naidoo-Harris]] is another Canadian broadcaster who is of Indian descent from South Africa.

Two of the most high-profile Indo-Africans are CNN's [[Zain Verjee]] and [[Ali Velshi]]. Verjee was educated in Canada while Velshi's father [[Murad Velshi]] who immigrated from South Africa was the first MPP of Indian descent to sit in the Ontario legislature.

The most notable story of Indo-African immigration to Canada is set in the 1970s, when in 1972 50,000 [[India]]n [[Ugandan]]s were forced out of [[Uganda]] by the dictator [[Idi Amin]], and were not permitted to return to India by the Indian government. Although on the brink of facing torture and imprisonment on a massive scale, the [[Aga Khan IV]], leader of the [[Nizari Ismaili]] Community, specially negotiated his followers' safe departure from Uganda in exchange for all their belongings. He also negotiated their guaranteed asylum in Canada with Prime Minister and close friend [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]].

A notable descendant of Ugandan Indian settlement in Canada is [[Irshad Manji]], an acclaimed advocate for [[secularism]] and [[reform]] in [[Islam]]. The community of Goans is also mainly from the African Great Lakes.

===Indians from the Caribbean===
{{See also|Indo-Caribbeans}}

[[Indo-Caribbeans|Indo-Caribbean]] people or Caribbean Indians are Caribbean people with roots in India.

The Indo-Caribbean community has developed a unique cultural blend of both Indian, Western and "Creolised Caribbean" culture due to a long period of isolation from India, amongst other reasons. Some Indo-Caribbean Canadians associate themselves with the Indo-Canadian community. However, most associate with the [[Indo-Caribbeans|Indo-Caribbean]] community or the Wider Caribbean community or with both. Most mainly live within the [[Greater Toronto Area]] or Southern Ontario.

===Indians from the UK and the US===
{{See also|British Indians|Indian Americans}}

Some Indians have immigrated from the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]] due to both economic and family reasons. Indians move for economic prospects to Canada's economy and job market and have been performing well against many European and some American states. Lastly, individuals have decided to settle in Canada in order to reunite their families who may have settled in both the United States and the UK and not in Canada.

===Indians from the Middle East===
{{See also|Indians in the United Arab Emirates}}

Many Indians have been moving from countries in the Middle East to North America.

Most Indian immigrants from the Middle East are Indian businessmen and professionals that worked in the Middle Eastern countries like the [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Oman]], [[Kuwait]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]. A key priority for these immigrants is educational opportunities for their children post-schooling. Many of these students have stayed back after graduation and started their families there.

Canadian cricketer [[Nikhil Dutta]] was born in Kuwait to Indian Bengali parents but grew up in Canada. He represents [[Canada national cricket team]] in [[One Day International|ODIs]] and [[T20I]]s.

===Indians from Oceania===
{{See also|Indians in Fiji}}

Indians have long been settled in certain parts of [[Oceania]], mainly on some islands in [[Fiji]], where they comprise approximately 40% of Fiji's population. Since Fiji's independence, increased hostility between the Melanesian Fijian population and the [[Indians in Fiji|Indo-Fijian]] population has led to several significant confrontations politically. Notably, since the two coups d'état of 1987 many Indo-Fijians are moving from Fiji to US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand due to political instability and ethnic conflict. A majority of the Indo-Fijian immigrants have settled in [[British Columbia]] and [[Alberta]], with a significant population in the [[Greater Toronto Area]] as well, most of whom are Hindus, with a significant portion of Muslims. Other religions that are practised are Christianity and Sikhism. The Indo-Fijian population in Canada is not as diverse religiously as the general Indo-Canadian community. Indo-Fijians have established cultural centres and organisations in Vancouver, [[Surrey]], [[Burnaby]], [[Edmonton]], [[Calgary]] and [[Toronto]]. The biggest Indo-Fijian cultural centre in Canada is the [[Fiji Sanatan Society of Alberta]] in Edmonton, built in 1984 by some of the first Indo-Fijian immigrants in Edmonton, it is officially a Hindu temple, but also hosts many community events.

==Demographics==

===Population settlement===
The Indian Canadian population according to the Census 2016 in the 10 Canadian Provinces and 3 territories:<ref name="statcan2011">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D|title=Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables |publisher=statcan.gc.ca |date=2016-06-10 |accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
![[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
![[India]]n
!%
|-
|{{flag|Ontario}}
|774,495
|5.8%
|-
|{{flag|British Columbia}}
|309,315
|6.7%
|-
|{{flag|Alberta}}
|174,505
|4.3%
|-
|{{flag|Québec}}
|51,650
|0.6%
|-
|{{flag|Manitoba}}
|34,470
|2.7%
|-
|{{flag|Saskatchewan}}
|18,695
|1.7%
|-
|{{flag|Nova Scotia}}
|6,255
|0.6%
|-
|{{flag|New Brunswick}}
|2,145
|0.2%
|-
|{{flag|Newfoundland and Labrador}}
|1,820
|0.3%
|-
|{{flag|Yukon}}
|320
|0.9%
|-
|{{flag|Prince Edward Island}}
|615
|0.4%
|-
|{{flag|Northwest Territories}}
|360
|0.8%
|-
|{{flag|Nunavut}}
|65
|0.1%
|-
|{{flagicon|Canada}} '''Canada'''
|1,374,710
|4.0'''%'''
|}

Cities with large Indian Canadian populations:<ref name="statcan2011"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
![[Canadian cities|City]]
![[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
![[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian]]
!Percentage
|-
|[[Toronto]]
|[[Ontario, Canada|Ontario]]
|643,370
|10.4%
|-
|[[Greater Vancouver|Vancouver]]
|[[British Columbia]]
|243,135
|10.0%
|-
|[[Montréal]]
|[[Quebec]]
|48,485
|1.2%
|-
|[[Calgary]]
|[[Alberta]]
|90,625
|6.5%
|-
|[[Edmonton]]
|Alberta
|72,245
|5.5%
|-
|[[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]]
|British Columbia
|33,340
|18.9%
|-
|[[Winnipeg]]
|[[Manitoba]]
|30,800
|4.0%
|-
|[[Ottawa]]
|Ontario
|28,945
|2.2%
|-
|[[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]
|Ontario
|23,390
|3.1%
|-
|[[Kitchener, Ontario|Kitchener]]
|Ontario
|19,295
|3.7%
|-
|}
As of 2016, the Indo-Canadian population numbers 1.37 million.

====Toronto====
{{main|Indo-Canadians in Toronto}}
Toronto has the largest Indian Canadian population in Canada. Almost 51% of the entire Indian Canadian community resides in the [[Greater Toronto Area]]. Most Indian Canadians in the Toronto area live in [[Brampton]], [[Markham, Ontario|Markham]], [[Scarborough, Toronto|Scarborough]], [[Etobicoke]], and [[Mississauga]]. Indian Canadians, particularly, [[Punjabi Sikhs]] and [[Punjabi Hindus]], have a particularly strong presence in Brampton, where they represent about a third of the population (Most live in the northeastern and eastern portion of the city). The area is middle and upper middle class, home ownership is very high. The Indian Canadians in this region are mostly of Punjabi, Telugu, Tamil, Gujarati, Marathi, Malayali and Goan origin. When compared to the Indian Canadian community of Greater Vancouver, the Greater Toronto Area is home to a much more diverse community of Indians – both linguistically and religiously. Canadian carrier [[Air Canada]] operates flights from [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] back to India.

Indian Canadians in the Greater Toronto Area have an average household income of $86,425, which is higher than the Canadian average of $79,102 but lower than the Toronto Census Metropolitan Area's average of $95,326. Indian Canadian students are also well-represented in Toronto-area universities; despite Indo-Canadians making up 10% of the Toronto area's population, students of Indian origin make up over 35% of [[Ryerson University]], 30% of [[York University]], and 20% of the [[University of Toronto]]'s student bodies, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CMA&Code1=535&Data=Count&SearchText=toronto&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=Income+of+households&B1=All&Custom=&TABID=1|title=2011 National Household Survey Profile - Census metropolitan area/Census agglomeration|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|last=Canada|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>

Canada's largest Hindu Mandir, the [[BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Toronto]], as well as Canada's largest Sikh gurdwara, the [[Ontario Khalsa Darbar]], are both located in the Greater Toronto Area. Both have been built by Canada's Indian community.

====Greater Vancouver====
{{main|Indo-Canadians in Greater Vancouver }}
Vancouver is home to the second largest Indian Canadian population in Canada, with just over 20% of the entire Indian Canadian community residing in the Lower Mainland.<ref name="fraser-valley2016">[https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CD&Code1=5909&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=fraser%20valley&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 Census Profile, 2016 Census: Fraser Valley, Regional district]. Statistics Canada. Retrieved 27 July 2018.</ref><ref name="vancouver-2016">[http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CD&Code1=5915&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=Greater%20Vancouver&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Visible%20minority&TABID=1 Census Profile, 2016 Census: Greater Vancouver, Regional district]. Statistics Canada. Retrieved 2 April 2018.</ref> The highest density concentrations of Indian Canadians are found in [[Vancouver]], [[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]], [[Burnaby, British Columbia|Burnaby]], [[Richmond, British Columbia|Richmond]], [[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]] and [[Delta, British Columbia|Delta]]. Recently, more Indians have been moving to other areas outside of [[Greater Vancouver]]. The city of [[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]] has nearly 170,000 South Asians,<ref name=2016censusethnicty>{{cite web | url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=5915004&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=Vancouver&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All | title=Surrey, City [Census subdivision], British Columbia and Greater Vancouver, Regional district [Census division], British Columbia | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=January 18, 2019}}</ref> comprising 32% of the city's population.<ref name=JohnstonCanSurvive>Johnston, Jesse. "[http://www.news1130.com/2013/02/04/can-vancouvers-little-india-district-survive/ Can Vancouver's Little India district survive?]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TRWLQpWF?url=http://www.news1130.com/2013/02/04/can-vancouvers-little-india-district-survive/ |date=2014-10-19 }}). [[CKWX]] (News 1130). February 4, 2013. Retrieved on October 19, 2014.</ref> The [[Punjabi Market, Vancouver|Punjabi Market]] neighbourhood of South Vancouver also has a particularly high concentration of Indian residents, shops and restaurants.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tourismvancouver.com/activities/attractions/punjabi-market-guide/|title=Punjabi Market Guide|accessdate=January 18, 2019}}</ref>

A large majority of Indian Canadians within Vancouver are of [[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] [[Sikh]] origin.<ref>"[http://moia.gov.in/pdf/Canada.pdf Country Brief – Canada]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TTx1sUqs?url=http://moia.gov.in/pdf/Canada.pdf |date=2014-10-21 }}). [[Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs]]. p. 3/7. Retrieved on October 21, 2014. "The vast majority of Vancouver Indians are of Sikh Punjabi origin."</ref> However, there are also populations with other ethnic backgrounds including [[Indo-Fijians]], [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]], [[Sindhi people|Sindhi]], [[Tamil people|Tamil]], [[Bengali people|Bengali]], and [[Goan]]s.<ref name=StatsCanada>"[http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/indo-canadian/annexes.asp Annexes]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TUPtb0bd?url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/indo-canadian/annexes.asp |date=2014-10-21 }}). ''Report of Meetings with Representatives of the Indian Canadian Community''. [[Government of Canada]]. Retrieved on October 21, 2014.</ref>

===Religion===

{| class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center><big>'''Indian Canadian religious profile (2001)'''</big> ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090309194615/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=68635&GID=517770&METH=1&APATH=3&PTYPE=55496&THEME=44&AID=0&FREE=0&FOCUS=0&VID=0&GC=0&GK=0&SC=1&SR=1&RL=0&CPP=99&RPP=9999&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&d1=12&d2=0&d3=0 Source])</center>
|- style="text-align:center; background:#d9e9e9;"
|| '''Religion'''
|| '''Total responses'''
|| '''Single responses'''
|| '''Multiple Responses'''
|-
| '''Total'''
| 713,330
| 581,665
| 131,665
|-
| [[Sikhism]]
| 239,225
| 217,805
| 21,425
|-
| [[Hinduism]]
| 192,680
| 174,455
| 18,225
|-
| [[Islam]]
| 124,650
| 101,015
| 23,635
|-
| [[Christianity]]
| 117,430
| 65,485
| 51,945
|-
| [[Eastern religions]]
| 5,875
| 4,785
| 1,090
|-
| [[Buddhism]]
| 11,435
| 870
| 560
|-
| [[Jainism]]
| 1,291
| 803
| 600
|-
| [[Judaism]]
| 655
| 160
| 500
|-
| Other religions
| 655
| 540
| 120
|-
| No religious affiliation
| 30,725
| 16,555
| 14,175
|}

Indian Canadians are from very diverse religious backgrounds compared to many other ethnic groups, which is due in part to India's multi-religious population.<ref>{{cite web|title=India Census Religion 2011|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/religion.php|website=Census 2011|accessdate=6 June 2017}}</ref> Amongst the Indian Canadian population however, the religious views are more evenly divided. In 2001, Sikhs represented 35%, Hindus 28%, Muslims 17% and Christians 16%(7% Protestant/Evangelical, 9% Catholic).<ref name="EastIndiancommunityinCanada">"[http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm#6 The East Indian community in Canada]." [[Statistics Canada]]. Retrieved on November 10, 2014.</ref> Relatively few people of Indian origin have no religious affiliation. In 2001, just 4% said they had no religious affiliation, compared with 17% of the Canadian population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007006-eng.htm#6|title=The South Asian Community in Canada|website=www.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>

====Hindu Places of Worship====
There are approximately 500,000 Hindus in Canada<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=105399&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=95&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=|title=2011 National Household Survey: Data tables – Religion (108), Immigrant Status and Period of Immigration (11), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|last=Canada|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> which has resulted in over 180 Hindu temples across Canada with almost 100 in the [[Greater Toronto Area]] alone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.garamchai.com/canada/temples.htm|title=Canada Hindu Temple, mandirs and places of worship in North America from GaramChai.com's Canada Section|website=www.garamchai.com}}</ref>
Early in history when Hindus first arrived, the temples were more liberal and catered to all Hindus from different communities. In the past few decades, with the number of Hindu Canadians increasing, Hindu temples have now been established to cater to the needs of specific communities who speak different languages. There are temples for Punjabis, Gujaratis, Tamils, Bengalis, Sindhis, Trinidadians, Guyanese etc.

[[File:Hindu Heritage Centre Front.JPG|thumb|The [[Hindu Heritage Centre]] is located in [[Mississauga]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]].|alt=|299x299px]][[File:BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Toronto.jpg|thumb|The [[BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Toronto]] is located in [[Etobicoke]], [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]] and it was built by Canada's Gujarati Hindu community.|alt=|center|309x309px]]
Within [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]], the largest Hindu temple in Canada is located on Claireville Drive, which is called the [[BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Toronto]]. The entire Mandir is {{convert|32000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} and hosts numerous events on the Hindu religious calendar.

The [[Hindu Heritage Centre]] is another very large temple and perhaps the second biggest temple at {{convert|25000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} serving the Hindu community of Brampton and Mississauga. The temple is a very liberal [[Sanatani]] [[Dharmic]] Hindu temple which caters to the need of all different types of Hindus. Its devotees come from North and South India, as well as Pakistan, Nepal, and the West Indies. The centre is also focused on preserving Hindu culture by teaching a variety of different classes.

====Sikh Places of Worship====
There are over 175 [[Gurdwara|Gurdwaras]] in Canada. The oldest was built in 1908 in the [[Kitsilano]] neighbourhood of [[Vancouver]] and served early settlers who worked at nearby sawmills along [[False Creek]] at the time.<ref>https://www.vancouverheritagefoundation.org/place-that-matters/first-sikh-temple/</ref> The temple eventually closed in 1970 as the Sikh population relocated to the [[Sunset, Vancouver|Sunset]] neighbourhood of [[Vancouver South|South Vancouver]].
[[File:Gur Sikh Temple 01.jpg|thumb|Gur Sikh Temple (Abbotsford)|alt=|left|300x300px]]
[[File:Sikh Temple at 2nd Avenue, Vancouver.jpg|thumb|right|Vancouver Sikh Temple, c.1911]]
[[File:Sikh Temple Manning Drive Edmonton Alberta Canada 01A.jpg|center|thumb|300x300px|Gurudwara Nanaksar Sahib, Edmonton, Alberta]]

The oldest gurdwara still in service is the [[Gur Sikh Temple|Gurudwara Gur Sikh Temple]], located in Abbotsford, BC. Built in 1911, the gurdwara was designated as a National Historic Site in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HistoricPlaces.ca - HistoricPlaces.ca|url=https://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=9358|access-date=2020-09-26|website=www.historicplaces.ca}}</ref>

The [[Ontario Khalsa Darbar]], in Mississauga, is the largest Gurudwara in Canada. The other notable Gurudwaras include Gurudwara Guru Nanak Darbar Montreal, Gurudwara Dashmesh Darbar Brampton and the [https://sikhsocietyofmanitoba.com/about-us Sikh Society of Manitoba.]

The largest Sikh populations in Canada are located in [[British Columbia]] and [[Ontario]], concentrated in [[Greater Vancouver]] ([[Surrey]]) and [[Greater Toronto]] ([[Brampton]]).

====Indian Muslim Places of Worship====
There are also many Islamic societies and mosques throughout Canada, which have been established and supported by Non-Indian and Indian Muslims alike.

Many Indian Muslims along with Muslims of other nationalities worship at one of the largest mosques in Canada, the [[List of mosques#Canada|ISNA Centre]], located in Mississauga. The facility contains a mosque, high school, community centre, banquet hall and funeral service available for all Muslim Canadians.

The Ismailis have the first Ismaili Jamatkhana and Centre set up in [[Burnaby]], British Columbia. This high-profile building is the second in the world, with other locations in [[London]], [[Lisbon]], and [[Dubai]]. A second such building is being built in Toronto.

====Indian Christian Places of Worship====
Indian Christians tend to attend churches based on their state of origin and their particular traditions including the [[Church of North India]], [[Church of South India]], [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church]], [[Malankara Orthodox Church]], [[Catholic Church in India|Roman Catholic Church]], [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]], [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]] and [[Indian Pentecostal Church]].

The majority of people of Goan origin in Canada are Roman Catholics who share the same parish churches as other Catholic Canadians, however, they often celebrate the feast of [[St Francis Xavier]], who is the Patron Saint of the Indies, and whose body lies in Goa.<ref>Lira, Sergio, Rogerio Amoeda, and Cristina Pinheiro (editors). ''Sharing Cultures 2011''. Edited by Sergio Lira, Rogerio Amoeda and Cristina Pinheiro. [[Green Lines Institute for Sustainable Development]] (''Green Lines Instituto para o Desenvolvimento Sustentavel'') ([[Barcelos, Portugal|Barcelos]], Portugal), 2011. {{ISBN|978-989-95671-4-6}}. Pp531-540. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IOguMwEACAAJ&dq=Sharing+Cultures+2011&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dthgVJ_BMNWsyASlq4KgBA&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA See profile at] [[Google Books]].</ref>

==Culture==
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2014}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| header =
| width = 200
|image1= Bhangradancing.jpg
|caption1= A young Indo-Canadian woman performing [[Bhangra (dance)|Bhangra]] dancing.
|image2= Gujarat Folk Dance 06.JPG
|caption2= An Indo-Canadian girl performing a Gujarati folk dance in [[Downtown Calgary]].
}}
Indo-Canadian culture is closely linked to each specific Indian group's religious, regional, linguistic and ethnic backgrounds. For instance, Northern Indian cultural practices and languages differ from those of Southern Indians, and the Hindu community's cultural practices differ from those of the [[Jainism in Canada|Jain]], Sikh, Muslim, Christian and Jewish communities due to differences in ethnicity, regional affiliation, religion and/or language. Such cultural aspects have been preserved fairly well due to Canada's open policy of [[multiculturalism]], as opposed to a policy of [[melting pot|assimilation]] practised by the [[United States]].

The cultures and languages of various Indian communities have been able to thrive in part due to the freedom of these communities to establish structures and institutions for religious worship, social interaction, and cultural practices. In particular, Punjabi culture and language have been reinforced in Canada through radio and television.

Alternatively, Indo-Canadian culture has developed its own identity compared to other non-resident Indians and from people in India. It is not uncommon to find youth uninterested with traditional Indian cultural elements and events, instead of identifying with mainstream North American cultural mores. However such individuals exist in a minority and there are many youth that maintain a balance between western and eastern cultural values, and occasionally fusing the two to produce a new product, such as the new generation of [[Bhangra (music)|Bhangra]] incorporating hip-hop based rhythm. For instance, Sikh youth often mix in traditional Bhangra, which uses Punjabi instruments with hip hop beats as well as including rap with Black music entertainers. Notable entertainers include [[Raghav]] and [[Jazzy B]].

===Language===

{|class="infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center><big>'''Indian languages spoken at home in Canada'''</big> ([http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55763&APATH=3&GID=431515&METH=1&PTYPE=55430&THEME=41&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=0&GK=0&VID=0&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0 source])</center>
|- style="text-align:center; background:#d9e9e9;"
|| '''Language '''
|| '''Total: Language spoken at home'''
|| '''Only speaks'''
|| '''Mostly speaks'''
|| '''Equally speaks'''
|| '''Regularly speaks'''
|-
| [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]*
| 280,540
| 132,380
| 71,660
| 29,220
| 47,280
|-
| [[Hindi]]
| 165,890
| 114,175
| 116,075
| 19,090
| 26,550
|-
| [[Urdu]]*
| 89,365
| 30,760
| 27,840
| 12,200
| 18,565
|-
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]*
| 97,345
| 45,865
| 29,745
| 9,455
| 12,280
|-
| [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| 60,105
| 18,310
| 16,830
| 7,175
| 17,790
|-
| [[Malayalam]]
| 6,570
| 1,155
| 1,810
| 505
| 3,100
|-
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]*
| 29,705
| 12,840
| 9,615
| 2,780
| 4,470
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center>* ''Note that these languages are also spoken in Canada by immigrants from other South Asian countries such as: [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Sri Lanka]]''</center>
|}
Indian Canadians speak a variety of languages, reflecting the cultural and ethnic diversity of the Indian subcontinent. The most widely spoken South Asian language in Canada is [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], which is spoken by the people from [[Punjab (India)|Punjab State]] and [[Chandigarh]] in India and by the people from [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab Province]] or [[Islamabad Capital Territory]] in Pakistan. In Canada, [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] is a language mainly spoken by [[South Asian Canadians]] with ties to the state of Punjab in [[Northern India]].

The next most widely spoken language by South Asians is [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. These individuals hail from the state of [[Tamil Nadu]] in [[Southern India]], however, speakers in Canada of the Tamil language come from both [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]].

[[Hindi]], as India's most spoken language, is now the language primarily used by new Indian immigrants, especially ones with ties to [[Northern India]] and [[Central India]]. As an official language used by the Government of India and by almost half of India's population, Hindi plays a key role as a [[lingua franca]] between Indian Canadians who don't necessarily feel comfortable to speak in English.

[[Urdu]] is primarily spoken by [[Muslim]] South Asians from [[Northern India]] and [[Pakistan]]. However, individuals of Indian descent from Africa and the Caribbean may also speak it as well.

[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] is spoken by people from the Indian state of [[Gujarat]]. Gujarati Hindus and [[Ismaili]] Muslims from the African Great Lakes who subsequently migrated to Canada speak Gujarati. Zoroastrians from the western part of India who form a small percentage of the population in Canada, also speak Gujarati.

[[Bengali language|Bengali]] is spoken by individuals from the state of [[West Bengal]], as well as by the people of [[Bangladesh]], and thus it is not exclusively spoken by Indians in Canada, but also by [[Bangladeshis]].

There are also a large number of [[Malayalam]] language-speakers, who hail from the state of [[Kerala]] in [[Southern India]].

There is also a community of Goans from the African Great Lakes. However, only a few members of this community speak their original language [[Konkani]].

[[Marathi language|Marathi]] is spoken by 12,578 people in Canada who have their roots from the Indian state of [[Maharashtra]].

[[Telugu language|Telugu]] is spoken by 15,655 people in Canada who primarily hail from the [[India]]n states of [[Telangana]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]].

===Marriage===
[[File:Indoreception.jpg|thumb|right|A group of Punjabi Indo-Canadians attending a Punjabi wedding reception]]
Marriage is an important cultural element amongst many Indo-Canadians, due to their Indian heritage and religious background.<ref name="another" >{{cite web|url=http://dating.lovetoknow.com/Indian_Dating|title=Indian Dating Traditions}}</ref> [[Arranged marriage]], which is still widely practised in India, is no longer widely practised among Canadian-born or naturalized Indians. However, marriages are sometimes still arranged by parents within their specific caste or Indian ethnic community. Since it may be difficult to find someone of the same Indian ethnic background with the desired characteristics, some Indo-Canadians now opt to use [[matrimonial]] services, including online services, in order to find a marriage partner. Marriage practices amongst Indo-Canadians are not as liberal as those of their Indian counterparts, with caste sometimes considered, but dowries almost non-existent.<ref name="another" />{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

In 2012 Mandeep Kaur, the author of the PhD thesis ''Canadian-Punjabi Philanthropy and its Impact on Punjab: A Sociological Study'', wrote that compared to other ethnic groups, Indo-Canadians engage in more arranged marriages within ethnic communities and castes and engage in less dating; this is because these Indo-Canadian communities wish to preserve their cultural practices.<ref name=Kaurp85>Kaur, Mandeep. "[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8022/10/10_chapter%203.pdf THE MAKING OF CANADIAN PUNJABI DIASPORA]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Tyy7ZDd1?url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8022/10/10_chapter%203.pdf |date=2014-11-10 }}) (Chapter 3). In: Kaur, Mandeep. ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/8022 Canadian-Punjabi Philanthropy and its Impact on Punjab: A Sociological Study]'' ([http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8022/1/01_title.pdf PhD thesis]). [[Punjabi University]]. Award date: 22 August 2012. p. 85 (PDF 25/32).</ref>

===Media===
There are numerous radio programs that represent Indo-Canadian culture. One notable program is Geetmala Radio, hosted by Darshan and Arvinder Sahota (also longtime television hosts of Indo-Canadian program, Eye on Asia).

A number of Canadian television networks broadcast programming that features Indo-Canadian culture. One prominent multicultural/multireligious channel, [[Vision TV]], presents a nonstop marathon of Indo-Canadian shows on Saturdays. These television shows often highlight Indo-Canadian events in Canada, and also show events from India involving Indians who reside there. In addition, other networks such as Omni Television, CityTV, and local community access channels also present local Indo-Canadian content, and Indian content from India.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

In recent years,{{when|date=November 2014}} there has been an establishment of Indian television networks from India on Canadian television. Shan Chandrasehkhar, an established Indo-Canadian who pioneered one of the first Indo-Canadian television shows in Canada, made a deal with the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC) to allow Indian television networks based in India to send a direct feed to Canada. In doing so, he branded these channels under his own company known as the [[Asian Television Network]]. Since 1997, Indo-Canadians can subscribe to channels from India via purchasing TV channel packages from their local satellite/cable companies. Indo-Canadians view such networks as [[Zee TV]], [[B4U (network)|B4U]], [[Sony Entertainment Television Asia|Sony Entertainment Television]], and [[Aaj Tak]] to name a few. Goan communities are connected by a number of city-based websites that inform the community of local activities such as dances, religious services, and village feasts, that serve to connect the community to its rural origins in Goa.<ref>German, Myna and Padmini Banerjee. ''Migration, Technology, and Transculturation: A Global Perspective''. [[Lindenwood University Press]] ([[St. Charles, Missouri]]), 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-9846307-4-5}}. Pp. 165-183. [https://books.google.com/books?id=p7YyuAAACAAJ&dq=Migration,+Technology,+and+Transculturation:+A+Global+Perspective&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wtZgVJW8CIS0yASKzIF4&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA See profile at] [[Google Books]].</ref>

Radio stations in the [[Greater Toronto Area]] with Indo Canadian content include [[CJSA-FM]] broadcasting on 101.3FM. Another station is [[CINA (AM)|CINA]] broadcasting on AM 1650.

Major newspapers include ''[[Canindia News]]'' in Toronto & Montreal, ''[[The Asian Star]]'' and ''[[The Punjabi Star]]'' in Vancouver.

As of 2012, there are many Punjabi newspapers, most of which are published in Vancouver and Toronto. As of that year, 50 of them are weekly, two are daily, and others are monthly.<ref name=Kaurp85/>

By 2012, partly due to coverage of [[Air India Flight 182]], coverage of Punjabi issues in ''[[The Globe and Mail]]'', the ''[[Vancouver Sun]]'', and other mainstream Canadian newspapers had increased.<ref name=Kaurp85/>

===Film and Television===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*''[[7 to 11, Indian]]'' (2003) (English)
*''[[8 X 10 Tasveer]]'' (2009) (Hindi)
*''[[Arasangam]]'' (2008) (Tamil)
*''[[Asa Nu Maan Watna Da]]'' (2004) (Punjabi)
*''[[Cooking with Stella]]'' (2009) (English)
*''[[Dus]]'' (2005) (Hindi)
*''[[Getting Married]]'' (English)
*''[[Humko Deewana Kar Gaye]]'' (2006) (Hindi)
*''[[Jatt and Juliet]]'' (2012) (Punjabi)
*''[[Jee Aayan Nu]]'' (2003) (Punjabi)
*''[[Jugni, Back to Roots (film)|Jugni Back to Roots]]'' (2013) (Punjabi/English)
*''[[Kismat Konnection]]'' (2008) (Hindi)
*''Masala'' (1992) (English)
*''[[Neal 'n' Nikki]]'' (2005) (Hindi)
*''[[Panchathantiram]]'' (2006) (Tamil)
*''[[Partition (2007 film)|Partition]]'' (2007) (English/Punjabi)
*''[[Shakti: The Power]]'' (2002) (Hindi)
*''[[Speedy Singhs]]'' (2011) (English)
*''[[Sweet Amerika]]'' (2008) (English)
*''[[Taal (film)|Taal]]'' (1999) (Hindi)
*''[[Thank You (2011 film)|Thank You]]'' (2011) (Hindi)
*''[[Tum Bin|Tum Bin...Love Will Find a Way]]'' (2001) (Hindi)
*''[[Two Countries]]'' (2016) (Malayalam)
}}

==Terminology==
Elizabeth Kamala Nayar, author of ''[[The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver: Three Generations Amid Tradition, Modernity, and Multiculturalism]]'', defined "Indo-Canadians" as [[Canadians|persons born in Canada]] of [[Indian subcontinent]] origins.<ref name=NayarSikhDiaspp236>Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth. ''The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver: Three Generations Amid Tradition, Modernity, and Multiculturalism''. [[University of Toronto Press]], 2004. {{ISBN|0802086314}}, 9780802086310. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NShXfaNbRyEC&pg=PA236 236]. See: "9 The term 'Indo-Canadians' came into use in the 1980s as a result of the Canadian government's policy and ideology of multiculturalism. It refers to Canadian-born people whose origins are on the Indian subcontinent." and "9 The term 'Indo-Canadians' came into use[...]"</ref> Kavita A. Sharma, author of ''The Ongoing Journey: Indian Migration to Canada'', wrote that she used "Indo-Canadians" to only refer to those of origins from India who have Canadian citizenship. Otherwise she uses "Indo-Canadian" in an interchangeable manner with "South Asians" and "East Indians".<ref>Sharma, Kavita A. ''The Ongoing Journey: Indian Migration to Canada''. [[Creative Books]], 1997. {{ISBN|8186318399}}, 9788186318393. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=xr2ZAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&dq=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mPtZVPSaItXcaqzrgfAC&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA 16]. "Notes 1 Indians are variously designated as East Indians, South Asians and Indo- Canadians. The terms are used interchangeably throughout this book except that 'Indo-Canadian' has been used for only those Indians who have acquired Canadian citizenship." - [https://www.google.com/search?q=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&btnG=Search+Books&tbm=bks&tbo=1&gws_rd=ssl Search view], [https://www.google.com/search?q=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&btnG=Search+Books&tbm=bks&tbo=1&gws_rd=ssl#newwindow=1&tbm=bks&q=%22Canadians.+The+terms+are%22 Search view #2]</ref> Priya S. Mani, the author of "Methodological Dilemmas Experienced in Researching Indo-Canadian Young Adults’ Decision-Making Process to Study the Sciences," defined "Indo-Canadian" as being children of persons who immigrated from South Asia to Canada.<ref>Mani, Priya S. ([[University of Manitoba]]). "[https://www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/5_2/PDF/mani.pdf Methodological Dilemmas Experienced in Researching Indo-Canadian Young Adults’ Decision-Making Process to Study the Sciences]." ''[[International Journal of Qualitative Methods]]'' 5 (2) June 2006. PDF p. 2/14. "The term South Asian refers to the Statistics Canada classification, which includes young adults who identify as Sikh, Hindu, or Muslim religious background (Statistics Canada, 2001). In this article, the term Indo-Canadian refers to children of South Asian immigrants."</ref>

As of 2004, "Indo-Canadian" is a term used in mainstream circles of people in Canada. The term originated as a part of the Canadian government's multicultural policies and ideologies in the 1980s.<ref name=NayarSikhDiaspp236/> [[Statistics Canada]] does not use "Indo-Canadian" as an official category for people.<ref name=Sumartojop8>Sumartojo, Widyarini. ''[http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf "My kind of Brown": Indo-Canadian youth identity and belonging in Greater Vancouver]'' (PhD thesis) ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TRTIgoR4?url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf |date=2014-10-19 }}). [[Simon Fraser University]], 2012. p. 8 (PDF document 18/182). [http://summit.sfu.ca/item/12245 See profile at] Simon Fraser University.</ref> Nayar, in ''The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver'', wrote that "many Canadian-born South Asians dislike the term because it differentiates them from other Canadians."<ref name=NayarSikhDiaspp236/>

In Canada "South Asian" refers to persons with ancestry throughout [[South Asia]], while "East Indian" means someone with origins specifically from India.<ref>Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth. ''The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver: Three Generations Amid Tradition, Modernity, and Multiculturalism''. [[University of Toronto Press]], 2004. {{ISBN|0802086314}}, 9780802086310, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NShXfaNbRyEC&pg=PA235 235]. "3 'East Indians' refers to people whose roots are specifically in India. Although there is no country called East India, the British gave and used the term 'East India.' The British and Canadians commonly used the term 'East Indian' during the early period of Indian migration to Canada." and "4 'South Asians' is a very broad category as it refers to people originally in the geographical area of South Asia, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. 'South Asians' also refers to Indians who have migrated to other parts of the world such as Fiji, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and East Africa."</ref> Both terms are used by Statistics Canada.<ref name=Sumartojop7>Sumartojo, Widyarini. ''[http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf "My kind of Brown": Indo-Canadian youth identity and belonging in Greater Vancouver]'' (PhD thesis) ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TRTIgoR4?url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf |date=2014-10-19 }}). [[Simon Fraser University]], 2012. p. 7 (PDF document 17/182). [http://summit.sfu.ca/item/12245 See profile at] Simon Fraser University.</ref> As of 2001 about half of foreign-born persons claiming an "East Indian" ancestry originated from India, while others originated from Bangladesh, East Africa, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.<ref>"[http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm The East Indian community in Canada 2007]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TL17vvRj?url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm |date=2014-10-15 }}). [[Statistics Canada]]. Retrieved on November 10, 2014. "That year, roughly half of all foreign-born Canadians of East Indian origin were from India, while smaller numbers were from Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, as well as East Africa"</ref>

Widyarini Sumartojo, the author of the PhD thesis ''"My kind of Brown": Indo-Canadian youth identity and belonging in Greater Vancouver'', which explores [[brown identity]], wrote that "While "South Asian" thus refers to a broader group of people, it is often used somewhat interchangeably with "East Indian" and "Indo-Canadian.""<ref name=Sumartojop7/> Despite the diversity in ethnic groups and places of origin among South Asians, previously the term "South Asian" had been used to be synonymous with "Indian."<ref name=Hendersonp65>Henderson, Martha L. ''Geographical Identities of Ethnic America: Race, Space, and Place''. [[University of Nevada Press]], 2002. {{ISBN|0874174872}}, 9780874174878. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=i9o8OkgLpTcC&pg=PA65 65].</ref> ''[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]'' stated that the same population has been "referred to as South Asians, Indo-Canadians or East Indians".<ref name=CanEncySouthAsian>"[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/south-asians/ South Asians]" ({{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110091602/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/south-asians/ |date=November 10, 2014 }}). ''[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]''. Retrieved on November 10, 2014.</ref> Martha L. Henderson, author of ''Geographical Identities of Ethnic America: Race, Space, and Place'', argued that "The term "South Asian" is meaningful as a defining boundary only in interactions between South Asians and mainstream Canadians."<ref name=Hendersonp65/> ''The Canadian Encyclopedia'' wrote that "People referred to as "South Asian" view the term in the way that those from European countries might view the label "European.""<ref name=CanEncySouthAsian/> Henderson added that because of the conflation of "South Asian" and "Indian," "It is very difficult to isolate the history of Asian Indians in Canada from that of other South Asians".<ref name=Hendersonp65/>

In 1962{{who|date=October 2014}} "Pakistani" and "Ceylonese" (Sri Lankan) were made into separate ethnic categories, while prior to that year people with those origins were counted as being "East Indian".<ref>Ames, Michael M. & Joy Inglis. 1974. "[http://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/bcstudies/article/download/789/832 Conflict and Change in British Columbia Sikh Family Life]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TUTZqEGx?url=http://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/bcstudies/article/download/789/832 |date=2014-10-21 }}). In ''[[British Columbia Studies]]'', Vol. 20. Winter 1973-1974. CITED: p. 19.</ref>

==Notable people==
{{main list|List of Indo-Canadians}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Canada|India}}
* [[Indian diaspora]]
* [[Indianisation]]
* [[Greater India]]
* [[South Asian Canadians]]
* [[Indo-Canadians in Toronto]]
* [[Indo-Canadians in Greater Vancouver]]
* [[Indo-Canadians in British Columbia]]

==References==

{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|40em}}
* Adhopia, Ajit. 1988. ''India to Canada: A Perspective of Indo-Canadians''. National Association of Indo-Canadians ([[Mississauga, Ontario]]).
* Badyal, Pindy P. 2003. ''[http://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/14888/ubc_2003-791955.pdf?sequence=1 Lived Experience of Wife Abuse for Indo-Canadian Sikh Women]'' (Ph.D. thesis) ([https://www.webcitation.org/6TzVQtRyZ?url=http://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/14888/ubc_2003-791955.pdf Archive]), [[The University of British Columbia]] (UBC). [http://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/14888 See Profile at] UBC.
* Dhruvarajan, Vanaja. 2003. "Second Generation Indo-Canadians: Change, Resistance and Adaptation". In ''Fractured Identity: The Indian Diaspora Canada'', Sushma J. Varma & Radhika Seshan (eds.). Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ghuman | first1 = P. A. S. | year = 1980 | title = Canadian or Indo-Canadian: A Study of South Asian Adolescents | journal = [[International Journal of Adolescence and Youth]] | volume = 4 | pages = 3–4 }}
* Klassen, Robert Mark. 2002. ''Motivation Beliefs of Indo-Canadian and Anglo-Canadian Early Adolescents: A Cross-cultural Investigation of Self- and Collective Efficacy'' (Ph.D. thesis), [[Simon Fraser University]].
* Mani, Priya Subra. 2003. ''Indo-Canadian Young Women's Career Decision-making Process to Enter the Applied Social Sciences: A Case Study Approach'' (Ph.D. thesis), [[University of Victoria]].
* Moulton, Edward C. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2756725 South Asian Studies in Canada, and the Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute]." ''[[Pacific Affairs]]'', [[University of British Columbia]]. Vol. 51, No. 2 (Summer, 1978), pp. 245–264
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/Products/standard/themes/DataProducts.cfm?S=1&T=44&ALEVEL=2&FREE=0 Statistics Canada Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Information. Detailed Tables of the ones included in the Demographics section of this article.] "Look under East Indian or South Asian in the Tables"
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150321131354/http://www.owlib.com/dir/dir.show?cat_id=2111 Hindu Temples in Canada]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120504020748/http://multiculturalcanada.ca/ Multicultural Canada website] includes oral histories and Indo-Canadian newspapers
*[http://komagatamarujourney.ca "Komagata Maru: Continuing the Journey"] Simon Fraser University Library website with digitized material pertaining to Indian immigration and settlement in Canada
*[http://www.asiancenturyinstitute.com/migration/470-the-indo-canadian-paradox/ Indo-Canadian Paradox]

{{People of Canada}}
{{Canadians of Asian descent}}
{{NRI-PIO}}
{{Portalbar|Canada|India}}

[[Category:Asian Canadian]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Indian descent| ]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Canada|Canadian]]
[[Category:Indo-Canadian culture]]
[[Category:South Asian Canadian]]

Indian Canadians

2020-12-15T09:23:57Z

175.141.124.220:

{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Indian Canadians ''{{lang|fr|Canadiens d'origine indienne}}'' ([[Canadian French|French]])
| native_name = भारतीय कनाडाई
| native_name_lang = hi
கனேடிய தமிழர்கள் Tamil
| image = [[File:Indian ancestry in Canada.png|350px]]
| caption = Indian ancestry in Canada (2016)
| flag =
| population = '''1,374,710'''<ref name="statcan2016"/> '''4.0%''' of the Canadian population (2016)<ref name="statcan2016">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2018/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D|title=Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables|publisher=statcan.gc.ca|date=2016-06-10|accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref>
| popplace =  [[Greater Toronto Area|Toronto]] • [[Greater Vancouver|Vancouver]] • [[Calgary metropolitan region|Calgary]] • [[Edmonton metropolitan region|Edmonton]] • [[Montreal metropolitan area|Montreal]] • [[Abbotsford-Mission|Abbotsford]] • [[Winnipeg Metro Region|Winnipeg]] • [[Ottawa metropolitan area|Ottawa]] • [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]
| langs = {{hlist|'''[[Canadian English]]''' • '''[[Canadian French]]''' {{smaller|[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] • [[Hindi]] • [[Urdu]] • [[Tamil language|Tamil]] • [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] Other [[Languages of India]]}}}}
| rels = '''Predominantly''': [[Sikhism]] • [[Hinduism]] '''Minorities''': {{smaller| [[Islam]] • [[Christianity]] • [[Buddhism]] • [[Zoroastrianism]] • [[Jainism]] • [[Judaism]] • [[Irreligion]]}}
| related = {{hlist|[[Asian Canadians]] • [[South Asian Canadians]] • [[Indian Americans]] • [[British Indians]] • [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Overseas Indians]]}}
}}

'''Indian Canadians''' are [[Canadians]] with ancestry from [[India]]. The term '''Indo-Canadian''' or '''East Indian''', is sometimes used to avoid confusion with the [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous Peoples of Canada]]. [[Statistics Canada]] specifically uses the term '''Asian Indian''' to refer to Indian Canadians. Categorically, Indian Canadians comprise a subgroup of [[South Asian Canadians]] which is a further subgroup of [[Asian Canadians]]. According to [[Statistics Canada]], Indian Canadians are one of the fastest growing communities in Canada, making up the second largest non-European group after [[Chinese Canadians]].<ref name="East Indians in Canada">{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm|author=Statistics Canada|title=The East Indian Community in Canada|accessdate=21 November 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TL17vvRj?url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm|archive-date=October 15, 2014 |author-link=Statistics Canada}}</ref>

Canada contains the world's [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|eighth largest Indian diaspora]]. The largest group of Indian Canadians are of [[Punjabis|Punjabi]] origin, accounting for around 50 percent of the Indo-Canadian population.<ref>{{cite web|title=Census Profile, 2016 Census, Canada|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Language&TABID=1|website=Government of Canada, Statistics Canada|accessdate=28 December 2018|date=2017-02-08}}</ref> The highest concentrations of Indian Canadians are found in the provinces of [[Ontario]] and [[British Columbia]], followed by growing communities in [[Alberta]] and [[Quebec]] as well, with the majority of them being foreign-born.<ref name="East Indians in Canada"/>

==History==
[[File:Streetcars passing at the 400 Block of Granville Street, Vancouver, in 1908.jpg|thumb|300px|Punjabi Sikhs in Vancouver, 1908]]
[[File:Sikh men on rail platform next to Canadian Pacific rail car, probably in British Columbia, circa 1905-1914 (AL+CA 6612).jpg|thumb|250px|Indians at CPR station in Vancouver, circa 1914]]
[[File:Komagata Maru incident VPL 127 (11326123445).jpg|thumb|250px|Komagata Maru Incident, 1914]]
[[File:GurdwaraSukhSagar1931.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Queensborough, New Westminster]] Sikh temple, 1931.]]
The Indo-Canadian community started around the late 19th century. The pioneers were men, mostly Punjabi [[Sikh]]s with some [[Punjabi Hindus]] and [[Punjabi Muslims]]; many were [[veteran]]s of the [[British Army]]. In 1897 a contingent of Sikh [[soldier]]s participated in the parade to celebrate [[Queen Victoria]]'s [[Diamond Jubilee]] in [[London]], England. On their subsequent journey home, they visited the western coast of [[Canada]], primarily [[British Columbia]] which at the time was very sparsely populated and the Canadian government wanted to settle in order to prevent a takeover of the territory by the [[United States]].

Upon retiring from the army, some of these men found their pensions to be inadequate. Some of them also found their land and estates back home in India were utilized by money lenders. They decided to try their fortunes in the countries they had visited. They joined an [[Indian diaspora]], which included people from [[Burma]] through [[Malaysia]], the [[East Indies]], the Philippines and [[China]]. They were able to get work in the [[police]] force and some were employed as night-watchmen by [[United Kingdom|British]] firms. Others started small businesses of their own. These were modest beginnings but they had bigger ideas.

Punjabi Sikhs, who had seen Canada, recommended the [[New World]] to their fellow countrymen who were in a position to venture out and seek new fortunes. They were guaranteed jobs by agents of big Canadian companies like the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] and the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. Overcoming their initial reluctance to go to these countries due to the treatment of Asians by the white population, many young men chose to go, having been assured that they would not meet the same fate. Since India was under British Crown Rule, they were [[British subject]]s and Canada was a part of the [[British Empire]]. Queen Victoria had proclaimed in 1858 that throughout the empire the people of India that they would enjoy "equal privileges with white people without discrimination of colour, creed or race."<ref name="Singh">{{cite journal|last=Singh|first=Khushwant|title=The Ghadr Rebellion|journal=Illustrated Weekly of India|date=Feb 26 – Mar 12, 1961|pages=Feb 26 – Mar 12|url=http://www.sikhpioneers.org/rebellion.html|accessdate=2 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324035007/http://www.sikhpioneers.org/rebellion.html|archive-date=March 24, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Initial settlement===
However, upon arrival to [[British Columbia]], the first Indian immigrants faced widespread racism by the local white Canadians. Most of the white Canadians feared workers who would work for less pay, and that an influx of more immigrants would threaten their jobs. As a result, there were a series of race riots that targeted the Indian immigrants, who were beat up by mobs of angry white Canadians, though often met with retaliation.<ref name="multiple" >"[https://web.archive.org/web/20060702205329/http://www.explorasian.org/history_sikhcdn.html SOME SIGNIFICANT MOMENTS IN SIKH-CANADIAN HISTORY]" ([https://www.webcitation.org/6TydbzK6t?url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060702205329/http://www.explorasian.org/history_sikhcdn.html Archive]). ExplorAsian. Retrieved on November 10, 2014.</ref> These mobs not only targeted Indians, but also other Asian groups such as the Chinese immigrants working on the railroad at the time, and [[Black Canadians]]. From the social pressure most decided to return to India, while a few stayed behind. To support the white Canadian population on the west coast of Canada, who did not want Indians to immigrate to Canada, the Canadian government prevented Indian men from bringing their wives and children until 1919, which was another considerable factor in their decision to leave Canada.<ref name="multiple" />

The restrictions by the Canadian government increased on Indians, as policies were put in place in 1907 to prevent Indians who had the right to vote from voting in future general elections.<ref name="multiple" /> Furthermore, government quotas were established to cap the number of Indians allowed to immigrate to Canada in the early 20th century. This was part of a policy adopted by Canada to ensure that the country retained its primarily European demographic, and was similar to [[United States|American]] and [[Australian]] immigration policies at the time. These quotas only allowed fewer than 100 people from India a year until 1957, when it was marginally increased (to 300 people a year). In comparison to the quotas established for Indians, Christian people from Europe immigrated freely without quotas in large numbers during that time to Canada, numbering in the tens of thousands yearly.<ref name="multiple" />

In 1906 and 1907 there was a spike in migration from the Indian sub-continent into British Columbia. Most of the migrants were Punjabi Sikhs, though there were large numbers of Punjabi Hindus and Muslims. An estimated 4,700 arrived, at around the same time as a rise in Chinese and Japanese immigration. The federal government curtailed the migration, and over the next seven years fewer than 125 South Asians were permitted to land in British Columbia. Those who had arrived were often single men and many returned to South Asia. Others sought opportunities south of the border in the USA. It is estimated that the number of South Asians in British Columbia fell to less than 2000 by 1914.<ref>Pg. 79. White Canada Forever. By W. Peter Ward. 2002. McGill, Quebec, Canada. {{ISBN|978-07735-2322-7}}</ref>

In 1914, the ''[[Komagata Maru incident|Komagata Maru]]'', a steam liner carrying 376 passengers from [[Punjab region|Punjab]], India (all were [[United Kingdom|British]] subjects) arrived in [[Vancouver]]. Most of the passengers were not allowed to land in Canada and were returned to India. When the ''Kamagata Maru'' returned to Calcutta (now Kolkata). Viewing this as evidence that Indians were not treated as equals under the [[British Empire]], they staged a peaceful protest upon returning to India. British forces saw this as a threat to their authority, and opened fire on the protestors, killing many. This was one of the most notorious incidents in the history of exclusion laws in Canada designed to keep out immigrants of Asian origin.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

===Recent settlement===
Policies changed rapidly during the second half of the 20th century.

The Canadian government re-enfranchised the Indo-Canadian community with the right to vote in 1947.<ref name="multiple" />

When British-occupied India was partitioned into India and Pakistan (East and West) upon independence in 1947, thousands of people were moved across the new borders. Research in Canada suggests that many of the early [[Goans]] to emigrate to Canada were those who were born and lived in [[Karachi]], [[Mumbai]] (formerly Bombay) and [[Kolkata]] (formerly Calcutta). At the time [[Goa]] was under Portuguese rule and faced an uncertain future.
Another group of people that arrived in Canada at this time were the [[Anglo-Indians]], people of mixed European and Indian ancestry.

In 1967 all immigration quotas based on specific ethnic groups were scrapped in Canada.<ref name="multiple" /> The social view in Canada towards people of other ethnic backgrounds was more open, and Canada was facing declining immigration from European countries, since these European countries had booming postwar economies, and thus more people decided to remain in their home countries. Canada introduced an immigration policy that was based on a point system, with each applicant being assessed on their trade skills and the need for these skills in Canada. This allowed many more Indians to immigrate in large numbers and a trickle of Goans (who were English-speaking and Catholic) started to arrive after the [[African Great Lakes]] countries imposed [[Africanization]] policies.<ref>Pg. 107. The Americanization of Goans. By Ladis DaSilva. 1976. Toronto. Ontario. Canada.</ref> In the 1970s, thousands of immigrants came yearly and mainly settled in Vancouver and Toronto.

Significant urbanization of the Indo-Canadian community began during the 1980s and early 1990s, when tens of thousands of immigrants moved from India into Canada each year. Prior to the large urban concentrations which exist in the present-day, statistically significant populations existed across rural British Columbia; a legacy of previous waves of immigration earlier in the 20th century. Forming nearly 20% of the population, [[Fort St. James]] had the highest proportion of Indo-Canadians of any municipality in Canada during the 1990s. <ref>https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census96/data/profiles/Rp-eng.cfm?TABID=2&LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=35782&PRID=0&PTYPE=3&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=1996&THEME=34&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=</ref>

According to [[Statistics Canada]], since the late 1990s, roughly 25,000–30,000 Indians arrive each year (which is now the most populous cultural group immigrating to Canada each year). The settlement pattern in the last two decades is still mainly focused around Vancouver and Toronto, but other cities such as Calgary, Edmonton, and Montreal have also become desirable due to growing economic prospects in these cities.

India became the highest source country of immigration to Canada in 2017. The number of arrivals as permanent residents increased from 30,915 in 2012 to 85,585 in 2019, representing 25 percent of the total immigration to Canada. Additionally, India is also the top source country for international students in Canada, rising from 48,765 in 2015 to 219,855 in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cicnews.com/2020/02/642000-international-students-canada-now-ranks-3rd-globally-in-foreign-student-attraction-0213763.html#gs.5ft5fi|title=642,000 international students: Canada now ranks 3rd globally in foreign student attraction}}</ref> The majority are from Punjab, with large numbers also from Delhi, Gujarat, and Southern India.

==Indians from other countries==
In addition to tracing their origin directly to the [[Indian subcontinent]], many Indian Canadians who arrive in Canada come from other parts of the world, as part of the global [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian diaspora]].

{|class="infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center><big>'''Number of Indians immigrating from different regions of the world'''</big> ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090309194615/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=68635&GID=517770&METH=1&APATH=3&PTYPE=55496&THEME=44&AID=0&FREE=0&FOCUS=0&VID=0&GC=0&GK=0&SC=1&SR=1&RL=0&CPP=99&RPP=9999&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&d1=12&d2=0&d3=0 source])</center>
|- style="text-align:center; background:#d9e9e9;"
|| '''Region'''
|| '''Total Responses'''
|-
| Immigrant population
| 474,530
|-
| [[United States]]
| 2,410
|-
| Central and [[South America]]
| 40,475
|-
| [[Caribbean]] and [[Bermuda]]
| 24,295
|-
| [[Europe]]
| 12,390
|-
| **[[United Kingdom]]
| 11,200
|-
| **Other European
| 1,190
|-
| [[Africa]]
| 45,530
|-
| [[Asia]]
| 332,150
|-
| **West [[Central Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]
| 6,965
|-
| **[[Eastern Asia]]
| 720
|-
| **[[Southeast Asia]]
| 4,260
|-
| **[[South Asia]]
| 320,200
|-
| [[Oceania]] and other
| 17,280
|-
| Non-permanent residents
| 9,950
|}

===Indians from Africa===
{{See also|Indian diaspora in Southeast Africa}}
Due to political turmoil and prejudice, many Indians residing in the African Great Lakes nations, such as [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Angola]] left the region for Canada and other Western countries. A majority of Indo-Canadians from Southeast Africa are [[Ismailis|Ismaili Muslims]] or [[Hindus|Gujarati Hindus]], with significant numbers from [[South Africa]] as well.

[[Deepak Obhrai]] was the first Indo-African Canadian to become a member of parliament in Canada as well as the first Hindu to be appointed to the [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada]], he was originally from [[Tanzania]]. He received the Pride of India award from the Indo-American Friends Group of Washington DC and Indo-American Business Chamber in a dinner ceremony held on Capitol Hill for his effort in strengthening ties between Canada and India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voiceonline.com/deepak-obhrai-awarded-pride-of-india-award-for-fostering-indo-canadian-relations/|title=Deepak Obhrai awarded Pride of India Award for fostering Indo-Canadian relations|first=posted by: Rattan|last=Mall|website=Indo-Canadian Voice}}</ref>

[[M.G. Vassanji]], an award-winning novelist who writes on the plight of Indians in the region, is a [[naturalization|naturalized]] Canadian of Indian descent who migrated from the Great Lakes.

The writer Ladis Da Silva (1920–1994) was a Zanzibar-born Canadian of Goan descent who wrote ''The Americanization of Goans''.<ref>The Americanization of Goans. By Ladis Da Silva. 1976. Toronto, Ontario, Canada.</ref>{{page needed|date=November 2014}} He emigrated in 1968 from Kenya and was a prolific writer and social reformer, working with First Nations, Inuit and Senior Citizens in the Greater Toronto Area.<ref>Pp.265-267. Profiles of Eminent Goans: Past and Present. By J. Clement Vaz Ph.D. 1997 New Delhi, India. {{ISBN|81-7022-619-8}}</ref>

Indians have also moved to Canada from Southern African nations such as [[Zambia]], [[Malawi]] and [[Indian South Africans|South Africa]] for similar reasons. Examples of successful Indo-Canadians from this migratory stream are [[Suhana Meharchand]] and Nirmala Naidoo, television newscasters of Indian descent from South Africa, who currently work for the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC). [[Indira Naidoo-Harris]] is another Canadian broadcaster who is of Indian descent from South Africa.

Two of the most high-profile Indo-Africans are CNN's [[Zain Verjee]] and [[Ali Velshi]]. Verjee was educated in Canada while Velshi's father [[Murad Velshi]] who immigrated from South Africa was the first MPP of Indian descent to sit in the Ontario legislature.

The most notable story of Indo-African immigration to Canada is set in the 1970s, when in 1972 50,000 [[India]]n [[Ugandan]]s were forced out of [[Uganda]] by the dictator [[Idi Amin]], and were not permitted to return to India by the Indian government. Although on the brink of facing torture and imprisonment on a massive scale, the [[Aga Khan IV]], leader of the [[Nizari Ismaili]] Community, specially negotiated his followers' safe departure from Uganda in exchange for all their belongings. He also negotiated their guaranteed asylum in Canada with Prime Minister and close friend [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]].

A notable descendant of Ugandan Indian settlement in Canada is [[Irshad Manji]], an acclaimed advocate for [[secularism]] and [[reform]] in [[Islam]]. The community of Goans is also mainly from the African Great Lakes.

===Indians from the Caribbean===
{{See also|Indo-Caribbeans}}

[[Indo-Caribbeans|Indo-Caribbean]] people or Caribbean Indians are Caribbean people with roots in India.

The Indo-Caribbean community has developed a unique cultural blend of both Indian, Western and "Creolised Caribbean" culture due to a long period of isolation from India, amongst other reasons. Some Indo-Caribbean Canadians associate themselves with the Indo-Canadian community. However, most associate with the [[Indo-Caribbeans|Indo-Caribbean]] community or the Wider Caribbean community or with both. Most mainly live within the [[Greater Toronto Area]] or Southern Ontario.

===Indians from the UK and the US===
{{See also|British Indians|Indian Americans}}

Some Indians have immigrated from the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]] due to both economic and family reasons. Indians move for economic prospects to Canada's economy and job market and have been performing well against many European and some American states. Lastly, individuals have decided to settle in Canada in order to reunite their families who may have settled in both the United States and the UK and not in Canada.

===Indians from the Middle East===
{{See also|Indians in the United Arab Emirates}}

Many Indians have been moving from countries in the Middle East to North America.

Most Indian immigrants from the Middle East are Indian businessmen and professionals that worked in the Middle Eastern countries like the [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Oman]], [[Kuwait]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]. A key priority for these immigrants is educational opportunities for their children post-schooling. Many of these students have stayed back after graduation and started their families there.

Canadian cricketer [[Nikhil Dutta]] was born in Kuwait to Indian Bengali parents but grew up in Canada. He represents [[Canada national cricket team]] in [[One Day International|ODIs]] and [[T20I]]s.

===Indians from Oceania===
{{See also|Indians in Fiji}}

Indians have long been settled in certain parts of [[Oceania]], mainly on some islands in [[Fiji]], where they comprise approximately 40% of Fiji's population. Since Fiji's independence, increased hostility between the Melanesian Fijian population and the [[Indians in Fiji|Indo-Fijian]] population has led to several significant confrontations politically. Notably, since the two coups d'état of 1987 many Indo-Fijians are moving from Fiji to US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand due to political instability and ethnic conflict. A majority of the Indo-Fijian immigrants have settled in [[British Columbia]] and [[Alberta]], with a significant population in the [[Greater Toronto Area]] as well, most of whom are Hindus, with a significant portion of Muslims. Other religions that are practised are Christianity and Sikhism. The Indo-Fijian population in Canada is not as diverse religiously as the general Indo-Canadian community. Indo-Fijians have established cultural centres and organisations in Vancouver, [[Surrey]], [[Burnaby]], [[Edmonton]], [[Calgary]] and [[Toronto]]. The biggest Indo-Fijian cultural centre in Canada is the [[Fiji Sanatan Society of Alberta]] in Edmonton, built in 1984 by some of the first Indo-Fijian immigrants in Edmonton, it is officially a Hindu temple, but also hosts many community events.

==Demographics==

===Population settlement===
The Indian Canadian population according to the Census 2016 in the 10 Canadian Provinces and 3 territories:<ref name="statcan2011">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D|title=Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables |publisher=statcan.gc.ca |date=2016-06-10 |accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
![[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
![[India]]n
!%
|-
|{{flag|Ontario}}
|774,495
|5.8%
|-
|{{flag|British Columbia}}
|309,315
|6.7%
|-
|{{flag|Alberta}}
|174,505
|4.3%
|-
|{{flag|Québec}}
|51,650
|0.6%
|-
|{{flag|Manitoba}}
|34,470
|2.7%
|-
|{{flag|Saskatchewan}}
|18,695
|1.7%
|-
|{{flag|Nova Scotia}}
|6,255
|0.6%
|-
|{{flag|New Brunswick}}
|2,145
|0.2%
|-
|{{flag|Newfoundland and Labrador}}
|1,820
|0.3%
|-
|{{flag|Yukon}}
|320
|0.9%
|-
|{{flag|Prince Edward Island}}
|615
|0.4%
|-
|{{flag|Northwest Territories}}
|360
|0.8%
|-
|{{flag|Nunavut}}
|65
|0.1%
|-
|{{flagicon|Canada}} '''Canada'''
|1,374,710
|4.0'''%'''
|}

Cities with large Indian Canadian populations:<ref name="statcan2011"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
![[Canadian cities|City]]
![[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
![[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian]]
!Percentage
|-
|[[Toronto]]
|[[Ontario, Canada|Ontario]]
|643,370
|10.4%
|-
|[[Greater Vancouver|Vancouver]]
|[[British Columbia]]
|243,135
|10.0%
|-
|[[Montréal]]
|[[Quebec]]
|48,485
|1.2%
|-
|[[Calgary]]
|[[Alberta]]
|90,625
|6.5%
|-
|[[Edmonton]]
|Alberta
|72,245
|5.5%
|-
|[[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]]
|British Columbia
|33,340
|18.9%
|-
|[[Winnipeg]]
|[[Manitoba]]
|30,800
|4.0%
|-
|[[Ottawa]]
|Ontario
|28,945
|2.2%
|-
|[[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]]
|Ontario
|23,390
|3.1%
|-
|[[Kitchener, Ontario|Kitchener]]
|Ontario
|19,295
|3.7%
|-
|}
As of 2016, the Indo-Canadian population numbers 1.37 million.

====Toronto====
{{main|Indo-Canadians in Toronto}}
Toronto has the largest Indian Canadian population in Canada. Almost 51% of the entire Indian Canadian community resides in the [[Greater Toronto Area]]. Most Indian Canadians in the Toronto area live in [[Brampton]], [[Markham, Ontario|Markham]], [[Scarborough, Toronto|Scarborough]], [[Etobicoke]], and [[Mississauga]]. Indian Canadians, particularly, [[Punjabi Sikhs]] and [[Punjabi Hindus]], have a particularly strong presence in Brampton, where they represent about a third of the population (Most live in the northeastern and eastern portion of the city). The area is middle and upper middle class, home ownership is very high. The Indian Canadians in this region are mostly of Punjabi, Telugu, Tamil, Gujarati, Marathi, Malayali and Goan origin. When compared to the Indian Canadian community of Greater Vancouver, the Greater Toronto Area is home to a much more diverse community of Indians – both linguistically and religiously. Canadian carrier [[Air Canada]] operates flights from [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] back to India.

Indian Canadians in the Greater Toronto Area have an average household income of $86,425, which is higher than the Canadian average of $79,102 but lower than the Toronto Census Metropolitan Area's average of $95,326. Indian Canadian students are also well-represented in Toronto-area universities; despite Indo-Canadians making up 10% of the Toronto area's population, students of Indian origin make up over 35% of [[Ryerson University]], 30% of [[York University]], and 20% of the [[University of Toronto]]'s student bodies, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CMA&Code1=535&Data=Count&SearchText=toronto&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=Income+of+households&B1=All&Custom=&TABID=1|title=2011 National Household Survey Profile - Census metropolitan area/Census agglomeration|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|last=Canada|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>

Canada's largest Hindu Mandir, the [[BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Toronto]], as well as Canada's largest Sikh gurdwara, the [[Ontario Khalsa Darbar]], are both located in the Greater Toronto Area. Both have been built by Canada's Indian community.

====Greater Vancouver====
{{main|Indo-Canadians in Greater Vancouver }}
Vancouver is home to the second largest Indian Canadian population in Canada, with just over 20% of the entire Indian Canadian community residing in the Lower Mainland.<ref name="fraser-valley2016">[https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CD&Code1=5909&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=fraser%20valley&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 Census Profile, 2016 Census: Fraser Valley, Regional district]. Statistics Canada. Retrieved 27 July 2018.</ref><ref name="vancouver-2016">[http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CD&Code1=5915&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=Greater%20Vancouver&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Visible%20minority&TABID=1 Census Profile, 2016 Census: Greater Vancouver, Regional district]. Statistics Canada. Retrieved 2 April 2018.</ref> The highest density concentrations of Indian Canadians are found in [[Vancouver]], [[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]], [[Burnaby, British Columbia|Burnaby]], [[Richmond, British Columbia|Richmond]], [[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]] and [[Delta, British Columbia|Delta]]. Recently, more Indians have been moving to other areas outside of [[Greater Vancouver]]. The city of [[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]] has nearly 170,000 South Asians,<ref name=2016censusethnicty>{{cite web | url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=5915004&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=Vancouver&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All | title=Surrey, City [Census subdivision], British Columbia and Greater Vancouver, Regional district [Census division], British Columbia | publisher=Statistics Canada | accessdate=January 18, 2019}}</ref> comprising 32% of the city's population.<ref name=JohnstonCanSurvive>Johnston, Jesse. "[http://www.news1130.com/2013/02/04/can-vancouvers-little-india-district-survive/ Can Vancouver's Little India district survive?]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TRWLQpWF?url=http://www.news1130.com/2013/02/04/can-vancouvers-little-india-district-survive/ |date=2014-10-19 }}). [[CKWX]] (News 1130). February 4, 2013. Retrieved on October 19, 2014.</ref> The [[Punjabi Market, Vancouver|Punjabi Market]] neighbourhood of South Vancouver also has a particularly high concentration of Indian residents, shops and restaurants.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tourismvancouver.com/activities/attractions/punjabi-market-guide/|title=Punjabi Market Guide|accessdate=January 18, 2019}}</ref>

A large majority of Indian Canadians within Vancouver are of [[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] [[Sikh]] origin.<ref>"[http://moia.gov.in/pdf/Canada.pdf Country Brief – Canada]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TTx1sUqs?url=http://moia.gov.in/pdf/Canada.pdf |date=2014-10-21 }}). [[Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs]]. p. 3/7. Retrieved on October 21, 2014. "The vast majority of Vancouver Indians are of Sikh Punjabi origin."</ref> However, there are also populations with other ethnic backgrounds including [[Indo-Fijians]], [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]], [[Sindhi people|Sindhi]], [[Tamil people|Tamil]], [[Bengali people|Bengali]], and [[Goan]]s.<ref name=StatsCanada>"[http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/indo-canadian/annexes.asp Annexes]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TUPtb0bd?url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/indo-canadian/annexes.asp |date=2014-10-21 }}). ''Report of Meetings with Representatives of the Indian Canadian Community''. [[Government of Canada]]. Retrieved on October 21, 2014.</ref>

===Religion===

{| class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center><big>'''Indian Canadian religious profile (2001)'''</big> ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090309194615/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=68635&GID=517770&METH=1&APATH=3&PTYPE=55496&THEME=44&AID=0&FREE=0&FOCUS=0&VID=0&GC=0&GK=0&SC=1&SR=1&RL=0&CPP=99&RPP=9999&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&d1=12&d2=0&d3=0 Source])</center>
|- style="text-align:center; background:#d9e9e9;"
|| '''Religion'''
|| '''Total responses'''
|| '''Single responses'''
|| '''Multiple Responses'''
|-
| '''Total'''
| 713,330
| 581,665
| 131,665
|-
| [[Sikhism]]
| 239,225
| 217,805
| 21,425
|-
| [[Hinduism]]
| 192,680
| 174,455
| 18,225
|-
| [[Islam]]
| 124,650
| 101,015
| 23,635
|-
| [[Christianity]]
| 117,430
| 65,485
| 51,945
|-
| [[Eastern religions]]
| 5,875
| 4,785
| 1,090
|-
| [[Buddhism]]
| 11,435
| 870
| 560
|-
| [[Jainism]]
| 1,291
| 803
| 600
|-
| [[Judaism]]
| 655
| 160
| 500
|-
| Other religions
| 655
| 540
| 120
|-
| No religious affiliation
| 30,725
| 16,555
| 14,175
|}

Indian Canadians are from very diverse religious backgrounds compared to many other ethnic groups, which is due in part to India's multi-religious population.<ref>{{cite web|title=India Census Religion 2011|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/religion.php|website=Census 2011|accessdate=6 June 2017}}</ref> Amongst the Indian Canadian population however, the religious views are more evenly divided. In 2001, Sikhs represented 35%, Hindus 28%, Muslims 17% and Christians 16%(7% Protestant/Evangelical, 9% Catholic).<ref name="EastIndiancommunityinCanada">"[http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm#6 The East Indian community in Canada]." [[Statistics Canada]]. Retrieved on November 10, 2014.</ref> Relatively few people of Indian origin have no religious affiliation. In 2001, just 4% said they had no religious affiliation, compared with 17% of the Canadian population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007006-eng.htm#6|title=The South Asian Community in Canada|website=www.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>

====Hindu Places of Worship====
There are approximately 500,000 Hindus in Canada<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=105399&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=95&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=|title=2011 National Household Survey: Data tables – Religion (108), Immigrant Status and Period of Immigration (11), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|last=Canada|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> which has resulted in over 180 Hindu temples across Canada with almost 100 in the [[Greater Toronto Area]] alone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.garamchai.com/canada/temples.htm|title=Canada Hindu Temple, mandirs and places of worship in North America from GaramChai.com's Canada Section|website=www.garamchai.com}}</ref>
Early in history when Hindus first arrived, the temples were more liberal and catered to all Hindus from different communities. In the past few decades, with the number of Hindu Canadians increasing, Hindu temples have now been established to cater to the needs of specific communities who speak different languages. There are temples for Punjabis, Gujaratis, Tamils, Bengalis, Sindhis, Trinidadians, Guyanese etc.

[[File:Hindu Heritage Centre Front.JPG|thumb|The [[Hindu Heritage Centre]] is located in [[Mississauga]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]].|alt=|299x299px]][[File:BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Toronto.jpg|thumb|The [[BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Toronto]] is located in [[Etobicoke]], [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]] and it was built by Canada's Gujarati Hindu community.|alt=|center|309x309px]]
Within [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]], the largest Hindu temple in Canada is located on Claireville Drive, which is called the [[BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Toronto]]. The entire Mandir is {{convert|32000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} and hosts numerous events on the Hindu religious calendar.

The [[Hindu Heritage Centre]] is another very large temple and perhaps the second biggest temple at {{convert|25000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} serving the Hindu community of Brampton and Mississauga. The temple is a very liberal [[Sanatani]] [[Dharmic]] Hindu temple which caters to the need of all different types of Hindus. Its devotees come from North and South India, as well as Pakistan, Nepal, and the West Indies. The centre is also focused on preserving Hindu culture by teaching a variety of different classes.

====Sikh Places of Worship====
There are over 175 [[Gurdwara|Gurdwaras]] in Canada. The oldest was built in 1908 in the [[Kitsilano]] neighbourhood of [[Vancouver]] and served early settlers who worked at nearby sawmills along [[False Creek]] at the time.<ref>https://www.vancouverheritagefoundation.org/place-that-matters/first-sikh-temple/</ref> The temple eventually closed in 1970 as the Sikh population relocated to the [[Sunset, Vancouver|Sunset]] neighbourhood of [[Vancouver South|South Vancouver]].
[[File:Gur Sikh Temple 01.jpg|thumb|Gur Sikh Temple (Abbotsford)|alt=|left|300x300px]]
[[File:Sikh Temple at 2nd Avenue, Vancouver.jpg|thumb|right|Vancouver Sikh Temple, c.1911]]
[[File:Sikh Temple Manning Drive Edmonton Alberta Canada 01A.jpg|center|thumb|300x300px|Gurudwara Nanaksar Sahib, Edmonton, Alberta]]

The oldest gurdwara still in service is the [[Gur Sikh Temple|Gurudwara Gur Sikh Temple]], located in Abbotsford, BC. Built in 1911, the gurdwara was designated as a National Historic Site in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HistoricPlaces.ca - HistoricPlaces.ca|url=https://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=9358|access-date=2020-09-26|website=www.historicplaces.ca}}</ref>

The [[Ontario Khalsa Darbar]], in Mississauga, is the largest Gurudwara in Canada. The other notable Gurudwaras include Gurudwara Guru Nanak Darbar Montreal, Gurudwara Dashmesh Darbar Brampton and the [https://sikhsocietyofmanitoba.com/about-us Sikh Society of Manitoba.]

The largest Sikh populations in Canada are located in [[British Columbia]] and [[Ontario]], concentrated in [[Greater Vancouver]] ([[Surrey]]) and [[Greater Toronto]] ([[Brampton]]).

====Indian Muslim Places of Worship====
There are also many Islamic societies and mosques throughout Canada, which have been established and supported by Non-Indian and Indian Muslims alike.

Many Indian Muslims along with Muslims of other nationalities worship at one of the largest mosques in Canada, the [[List of mosques#Canada|ISNA Centre]], located in Mississauga. The facility contains a mosque, high school, community centre, banquet hall and funeral service available for all Muslim Canadians.

The Ismailis have the first Ismaili Jamatkhana and Centre set up in [[Burnaby]], British Columbia. This high-profile building is the second in the world, with other locations in [[London]], [[Lisbon]], and [[Dubai]]. A second such building is being built in Toronto.

====Indian Christian Places of Worship====
Indian Christians tend to attend churches based on their state of origin and their particular traditions including the [[Church of North India]], [[Church of South India]], [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church]], [[Malankara Orthodox Church]], [[Catholic Church in India|Roman Catholic Church]], [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]], [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]] and [[Indian Pentecostal Church]].

The majority of people of Goan origin in Canada are Roman Catholics who share the same parish churches as other Catholic Canadians, however, they often celebrate the feast of [[St Francis Xavier]], who is the Patron Saint of the Indies, and whose body lies in Goa.<ref>Lira, Sergio, Rogerio Amoeda, and Cristina Pinheiro (editors). ''Sharing Cultures 2011''. Edited by Sergio Lira, Rogerio Amoeda and Cristina Pinheiro. [[Green Lines Institute for Sustainable Development]] (''Green Lines Instituto para o Desenvolvimento Sustentavel'') ([[Barcelos, Portugal|Barcelos]], Portugal), 2011. {{ISBN|978-989-95671-4-6}}. Pp531-540. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IOguMwEACAAJ&dq=Sharing+Cultures+2011&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dthgVJ_BMNWsyASlq4KgBA&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA See profile at] [[Google Books]].</ref>

==Culture==
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2014}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| header =
| width = 200
|image1= Bhangradancing.jpg
|caption1= A young Indo-Canadian woman performing [[Bhangra (dance)|Bhangra]] dancing.
|image2= Gujarat Folk Dance 06.JPG
|caption2= An Indo-Canadian girl performing a Gujarati folk dance in [[Downtown Calgary]].
}}
Indo-Canadian culture is closely linked to each specific Indian group's religious, regional, linguistic and ethnic backgrounds. For instance, Northern Indian cultural practices and languages differ from those of Southern Indians, and the Hindu community's cultural practices differ from those of the [[Jainism in Canada|Jain]], Sikh, Muslim, Christian and Jewish communities due to differences in ethnicity, regional affiliation, religion and/or language. Such cultural aspects have been preserved fairly well due to Canada's open policy of [[multiculturalism]], as opposed to a policy of [[melting pot|assimilation]] practised by the [[United States]].

The cultures and languages of various Indian communities have been able to thrive in part due to the freedom of these communities to establish structures and institutions for religious worship, social interaction, and cultural practices. In particular, Punjabi culture and language have been reinforced in Canada through radio and television.

Alternatively, Indo-Canadian culture has developed its own identity compared to other non-resident Indians and from people in India. It is not uncommon to find youth uninterested with traditional Indian cultural elements and events, instead of identifying with mainstream North American cultural mores. However such individuals exist in a minority and there are many youth that maintain a balance between western and eastern cultural values, and occasionally fusing the two to produce a new product, such as the new generation of [[Bhangra (music)|Bhangra]] incorporating hip-hop based rhythm. For instance, Sikh youth often mix in traditional Bhangra, which uses Punjabi instruments with hip hop beats as well as including rap with Black music entertainers. Notable entertainers include [[Raghav]] and [[Jazzy B]].

===Language===

{|class="infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center><big>'''Indian languages spoken at home in Canada'''</big> ([http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55763&APATH=3&GID=431515&METH=1&PTYPE=55430&THEME=41&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=0&GK=0&VID=0&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0 source])</center>
|- style="text-align:center; background:#d9e9e9;"
|| '''Language '''
|| '''Total: Language spoken at home'''
|| '''Only speaks'''
|| '''Mostly speaks'''
|| '''Equally speaks'''
|| '''Regularly speaks'''
|-
| [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]*
| 280,540
| 132,380
| 71,660
| 29,220
| 47,280
|-
| [[Hindi]]
| 165,890
| 114,175
| 116,075
| 19,090
| 26,550
|-
| [[Urdu]]*
| 89,365
| 30,760
| 27,840
| 12,200
| 18,565
|-
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]*
| 97,345
| 45,865
| 29,745
| 9,455
| 12,280
|-
| [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| 60,105
| 18,310
| 16,830
| 7,175
| 17,790
|-
| [[Malayalam]]
| 6,570
| 1,155
| 1,810
| 505
| 3,100
|-
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]*
| 29,705
| 12,840
| 9,615
| 2,780
| 4,470
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" cellspacing="0"|<center>* ''Note that these languages are also spoken in Canada by immigrants from other South Asian countries such as: [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Sri Lanka]]''</center>
|}
Indian Canadians speak a variety of languages, reflecting the cultural and ethnic diversity of the Indian subcontinent. The most widely spoken South Asian language in Canada is [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], which is spoken by the people from [[Punjab (India)|Punjab State]] and [[Chandigarh]] in India and by the people from [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab Province]] or [[Islamabad Capital Territory]] in Pakistan. In Canada, [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] is a language mainly spoken by [[South Asian Canadians]] with ties to the state of Punjab in [[Northern India]].

The next most widely spoken language by South Asians is [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. These individuals hail from the state of [[Tamil Nadu]] in [[Southern India]], however, speakers in Canada of the Tamil language come from both [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]].

[[Hindi]], as India's most spoken language, is now the language primarily used by new Indian immigrants, especially ones with ties to [[Northern India]] and [[Central India]]. As an official language used by the Government of India and by almost half of India's population, Hindi plays a key role as a [[lingua franca]] between Indian Canadians who don't necessarily feel comfortable to speak in English.

[[Urdu]] is primarily spoken by [[Muslim]] South Asians from [[Northern India]] and [[Pakistan]]. However, individuals of Indian descent from Africa and the Caribbean may also speak it as well.

[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] is spoken by people from the Indian state of [[Gujarat]]. Gujarati Hindus and [[Ismaili]] Muslims from the African Great Lakes who subsequently migrated to Canada speak Gujarati. Zoroastrians from the western part of India who form a small percentage of the population in Canada, also speak Gujarati.

[[Bengali language|Bengali]] is spoken by individuals from the state of [[West Bengal]], as well as by the people of [[Bangladesh]], and thus it is not exclusively spoken by Indians in Canada, but also by [[Bangladeshis]].

There are also a large number of [[Malayalam]] language-speakers, who hail from the state of [[Kerala]] in [[Southern India]].

There is also a community of Goans from the African Great Lakes. However, only a few members of this community speak their original language [[Konkani]].

[[Marathi language|Marathi]] is spoken by 12,578 people in Canada who have their roots from the Indian state of [[Maharashtra]].

[[Telugu language|Telugu]] is spoken by 15,655 people in Canada who primarily hail from the [[India]]n states of [[Telangana]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]].

===Marriage===
[[File:Indoreception.jpg|thumb|right|A group of Punjabi Indo-Canadians attending a Punjabi wedding reception]]
Marriage is an important cultural element amongst many Indo-Canadians, due to their Indian heritage and religious background.<ref name="another" >{{cite web|url=http://dating.lovetoknow.com/Indian_Dating|title=Indian Dating Traditions}}</ref> [[Arranged marriage]], which is still widely practised in India, is no longer widely practised among Canadian-born or naturalized Indians. However, marriages are sometimes still arranged by parents within their specific caste or Indian ethnic community. Since it may be difficult to find someone of the same Indian ethnic background with the desired characteristics, some Indo-Canadians now opt to use [[matrimonial]] services, including online services, in order to find a marriage partner. Marriage practices amongst Indo-Canadians are not as liberal as those of their Indian counterparts, with caste sometimes considered, but dowries almost non-existent.<ref name="another" />{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

In 2012 Mandeep Kaur, the author of the PhD thesis ''Canadian-Punjabi Philanthropy and its Impact on Punjab: A Sociological Study'', wrote that compared to other ethnic groups, Indo-Canadians engage in more arranged marriages within ethnic communities and castes and engage in less dating; this is because these Indo-Canadian communities wish to preserve their cultural practices.<ref name=Kaurp85>Kaur, Mandeep. "[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8022/10/10_chapter%203.pdf THE MAKING OF CANADIAN PUNJABI DIASPORA]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Tyy7ZDd1?url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8022/10/10_chapter%203.pdf |date=2014-11-10 }}) (Chapter 3). In: Kaur, Mandeep. ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/8022 Canadian-Punjabi Philanthropy and its Impact on Punjab: A Sociological Study]'' ([http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8022/1/01_title.pdf PhD thesis]). [[Punjabi University]]. Award date: 22 August 2012. p. 85 (PDF 25/32).</ref>

===Media===
There are numerous radio programs that represent Indo-Canadian culture. One notable program is Geetmala Radio, hosted by Darshan and Arvinder Sahota (also longtime television hosts of Indo-Canadian program, Eye on Asia).

A number of Canadian television networks broadcast programming that features Indo-Canadian culture. One prominent multicultural/multireligious channel, [[Vision TV]], presents a nonstop marathon of Indo-Canadian shows on Saturdays. These television shows often highlight Indo-Canadian events in Canada, and also show events from India involving Indians who reside there. In addition, other networks such as Omni Television, CityTV, and local community access channels also present local Indo-Canadian content, and Indian content from India.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

In recent years,{{when|date=November 2014}} there has been an establishment of Indian television networks from India on Canadian television. Shan Chandrasehkhar, an established Indo-Canadian who pioneered one of the first Indo-Canadian television shows in Canada, made a deal with the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC) to allow Indian television networks based in India to send a direct feed to Canada. In doing so, he branded these channels under his own company known as the [[Asian Television Network]]. Since 1997, Indo-Canadians can subscribe to channels from India via purchasing TV channel packages from their local satellite/cable companies. Indo-Canadians view such networks as [[Zee TV]], [[B4U (network)|B4U]], [[Sony Entertainment Television Asia|Sony Entertainment Television]], and [[Aaj Tak]] to name a few. Goan communities are connected by a number of city-based websites that inform the community of local activities such as dances, religious services, and village feasts, that serve to connect the community to its rural origins in Goa.<ref>German, Myna and Padmini Banerjee. ''Migration, Technology, and Transculturation: A Global Perspective''. [[Lindenwood University Press]] ([[St. Charles, Missouri]]), 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-9846307-4-5}}. Pp. 165-183. [https://books.google.com/books?id=p7YyuAAACAAJ&dq=Migration,+Technology,+and+Transculturation:+A+Global+Perspective&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wtZgVJW8CIS0yASKzIF4&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA See profile at] [[Google Books]].</ref>

Radio stations in the [[Greater Toronto Area]] with Indo Canadian content include [[CJSA-FM]] broadcasting on 101.3FM. Another station is [[CINA (AM)|CINA]] broadcasting on AM 1650.

Major newspapers include ''[[Canindia News]]'' in Toronto & Montreal, ''[[The Asian Star]]'' and ''[[The Punjabi Star]]'' in Vancouver.

As of 2012, there are many Punjabi newspapers, most of which are published in Vancouver and Toronto. As of that year, 50 of them are weekly, two are daily, and others are monthly.<ref name=Kaurp85/>

By 2012, partly due to coverage of [[Air India Flight 182]], coverage of Punjabi issues in ''[[The Globe and Mail]]'', the ''[[Vancouver Sun]]'', and other mainstream Canadian newspapers had increased.<ref name=Kaurp85/>

===Film and Television===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*''[[7 to 11, Indian]]'' (2003) (English)
*''[[8 X 10 Tasveer]]'' (2009) (Hindi)
*''[[Arasangam]]'' (2008) (Tamil)
*''[[Asa Nu Maan Watna Da]]'' (2004) (Punjabi)
*''[[Cooking with Stella]]'' (2009) (English)
*''[[Dus]]'' (2005) (Hindi)
*''[[Getting Married]]'' (English)
*''[[Humko Deewana Kar Gaye]]'' (2006) (Hindi)
*''[[Jatt and Juliet]]'' (2012) (Punjabi)
*''[[Jee Aayan Nu]]'' (2003) (Punjabi)
*''[[Jugni, Back to Roots (film)|Jugni Back to Roots]]'' (2013) (Punjabi/English)
*''[[Kismat Konnection]]'' (2008) (Hindi)
*''Masala'' (1992) (English)
*''[[Neal 'n' Nikki]]'' (2005) (Hindi)
*''[[Panchathantiram]]'' (2006) (Tamil)
*''[[Partition (2007 film)|Partition]]'' (2007) (English/Punjabi)
*''[[Shakti: The Power]]'' (2002) (Hindi)
*''[[Speedy Singhs]]'' (2011) (English)
*''[[Sweet Amerika]]'' (2008) (English)
*''[[Taal (film)|Taal]]'' (1999) (Hindi)
*''[[Thank You (2011 film)|Thank You]]'' (2011) (Hindi)
*''[[Tum Bin|Tum Bin...Love Will Find a Way]]'' (2001) (Hindi)
*''[[Two Countries]]'' (2016) (Malayalam)
}}

==Terminology==
Elizabeth Kamala Nayar, author of ''[[The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver: Three Generations Amid Tradition, Modernity, and Multiculturalism]]'', defined "Indo-Canadians" as [[Canadians|persons born in Canada]] of [[Indian subcontinent]] origins.<ref name=NayarSikhDiaspp236>Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth. ''The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver: Three Generations Amid Tradition, Modernity, and Multiculturalism''. [[University of Toronto Press]], 2004. {{ISBN|0802086314}}, 9780802086310. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NShXfaNbRyEC&pg=PA236 236]. See: "9 The term 'Indo-Canadians' came into use in the 1980s as a result of the Canadian government's policy and ideology of multiculturalism. It refers to Canadian-born people whose origins are on the Indian subcontinent." and "9 The term 'Indo-Canadians' came into use[...]"</ref> Kavita A. Sharma, author of ''The Ongoing Journey: Indian Migration to Canada'', wrote that she used "Indo-Canadians" to only refer to those of origins from India who have Canadian citizenship. Otherwise she uses "Indo-Canadian" in an interchangeable manner with "South Asians" and "East Indians".<ref>Sharma, Kavita A. ''The Ongoing Journey: Indian Migration to Canada''. [[Creative Books]], 1997. {{ISBN|8186318399}}, 9788186318393. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=xr2ZAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&dq=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mPtZVPSaItXcaqzrgfAC&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA 16]. "Notes 1 Indians are variously designated as East Indians, South Asians and Indo- Canadians. The terms are used interchangeably throughout this book except that 'Indo-Canadian' has been used for only those Indians who have acquired Canadian citizenship." - [https://www.google.com/search?q=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&btnG=Search+Books&tbm=bks&tbo=1&gws_rd=ssl Search view], [https://www.google.com/search?q=%22Indians+who+have+acquired+Canadian+citizenship%22&btnG=Search+Books&tbm=bks&tbo=1&gws_rd=ssl#newwindow=1&tbm=bks&q=%22Canadians.+The+terms+are%22 Search view #2]</ref> Priya S. Mani, the author of "Methodological Dilemmas Experienced in Researching Indo-Canadian Young Adults’ Decision-Making Process to Study the Sciences," defined "Indo-Canadian" as being children of persons who immigrated from South Asia to Canada.<ref>Mani, Priya S. ([[University of Manitoba]]). "[https://www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/5_2/PDF/mani.pdf Methodological Dilemmas Experienced in Researching Indo-Canadian Young Adults’ Decision-Making Process to Study the Sciences]." ''[[International Journal of Qualitative Methods]]'' 5 (2) June 2006. PDF p. 2/14. "The term South Asian refers to the Statistics Canada classification, which includes young adults who identify as Sikh, Hindu, or Muslim religious background (Statistics Canada, 2001). In this article, the term Indo-Canadian refers to children of South Asian immigrants."</ref>

As of 2004, "Indo-Canadian" is a term used in mainstream circles of people in Canada. The term originated as a part of the Canadian government's multicultural policies and ideologies in the 1980s.<ref name=NayarSikhDiaspp236/> [[Statistics Canada]] does not use "Indo-Canadian" as an official category for people.<ref name=Sumartojop8>Sumartojo, Widyarini. ''[http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf "My kind of Brown": Indo-Canadian youth identity and belonging in Greater Vancouver]'' (PhD thesis) ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TRTIgoR4?url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf |date=2014-10-19 }}). [[Simon Fraser University]], 2012. p. 8 (PDF document 18/182). [http://summit.sfu.ca/item/12245 See profile at] Simon Fraser University.</ref> Nayar, in ''The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver'', wrote that "many Canadian-born South Asians dislike the term because it differentiates them from other Canadians."<ref name=NayarSikhDiaspp236/>

In Canada "South Asian" refers to persons with ancestry throughout [[South Asia]], while "East Indian" means someone with origins specifically from India.<ref>Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth. ''The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver: Three Generations Amid Tradition, Modernity, and Multiculturalism''. [[University of Toronto Press]], 2004. {{ISBN|0802086314}}, 9780802086310, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NShXfaNbRyEC&pg=PA235 235]. "3 'East Indians' refers to people whose roots are specifically in India. Although there is no country called East India, the British gave and used the term 'East India.' The British and Canadians commonly used the term 'East Indian' during the early period of Indian migration to Canada." and "4 'South Asians' is a very broad category as it refers to people originally in the geographical area of South Asia, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. 'South Asians' also refers to Indians who have migrated to other parts of the world such as Fiji, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and East Africa."</ref> Both terms are used by Statistics Canada.<ref name=Sumartojop7>Sumartojo, Widyarini. ''[http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf "My kind of Brown": Indo-Canadian youth identity and belonging in Greater Vancouver]'' (PhD thesis) ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TRTIgoR4?url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12245/etd7152_WSumartojo.pdf |date=2014-10-19 }}). [[Simon Fraser University]], 2012. p. 7 (PDF document 17/182). [http://summit.sfu.ca/item/12245 See profile at] Simon Fraser University.</ref> As of 2001 about half of foreign-born persons claiming an "East Indian" ancestry originated from India, while others originated from Bangladesh, East Africa, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.<ref>"[http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm The East Indian community in Canada 2007]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TL17vvRj?url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007004-eng.htm |date=2014-10-15 }}). [[Statistics Canada]]. Retrieved on November 10, 2014. "That year, roughly half of all foreign-born Canadians of East Indian origin were from India, while smaller numbers were from Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, as well as East Africa"</ref>

Widyarini Sumartojo, the author of the PhD thesis ''"My kind of Brown": Indo-Canadian youth identity and belonging in Greater Vancouver'', which explores [[brown identity]], wrote that "While "South Asian" thus refers to a broader group of people, it is often used somewhat interchangeably with "East Indian" and "Indo-Canadian.""<ref name=Sumartojop7/> Despite the diversity in ethnic groups and places of origin among South Asians, previously the term "South Asian" had been used to be synonymous with "Indian."<ref name=Hendersonp65>Henderson, Martha L. ''Geographical Identities of Ethnic America: Race, Space, and Place''. [[University of Nevada Press]], 2002. {{ISBN|0874174872}}, 9780874174878. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=i9o8OkgLpTcC&pg=PA65 65].</ref> ''[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]'' stated that the same population has been "referred to as South Asians, Indo-Canadians or East Indians".<ref name=CanEncySouthAsian>"[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/south-asians/ South Asians]" ({{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110091602/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/south-asians/ |date=November 10, 2014 }}). ''[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]''. Retrieved on November 10, 2014.</ref> Martha L. Henderson, author of ''Geographical Identities of Ethnic America: Race, Space, and Place'', argued that "The term "South Asian" is meaningful as a defining boundary only in interactions between South Asians and mainstream Canadians."<ref name=Hendersonp65/> ''The Canadian Encyclopedia'' wrote that "People referred to as "South Asian" view the term in the way that those from European countries might view the label "European.""<ref name=CanEncySouthAsian/> Henderson added that because of the conflation of "South Asian" and "Indian," "It is very difficult to isolate the history of Asian Indians in Canada from that of other South Asians".<ref name=Hendersonp65/>

In 1962{{who|date=October 2014}} "Pakistani" and "Ceylonese" (Sri Lankan) were made into separate ethnic categories, while prior to that year people with those origins were counted as being "East Indian".<ref>Ames, Michael M. & Joy Inglis. 1974. "[http://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/bcstudies/article/download/789/832 Conflict and Change in British Columbia Sikh Family Life]" ({{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/6TUTZqEGx?url=http://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/bcstudies/article/download/789/832 |date=2014-10-21 }}). In ''[[British Columbia Studies]]'', Vol. 20. Winter 1973-1974. CITED: p. 19.</ref>

==Notable people==
{{main list|List of Indo-Canadians}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Canada|India}}
* [[Indian diaspora]]
* [[Indianisation]]
* [[Greater India]]
* [[South Asian Canadians]]
* [[Indo-Canadians in Toronto]]
* [[Indo-Canadians in Greater Vancouver]]
* [[Indo-Canadians in British Columbia]]

==References==

{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|40em}}
* Adhopia, Ajit. 1988. ''India to Canada: A Perspective of Indo-Canadians''. National Association of Indo-Canadians ([[Mississauga, Ontario]]).
* Badyal, Pindy P. 2003. ''[http://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/14888/ubc_2003-791955.pdf?sequence=1 Lived Experience of Wife Abuse for Indo-Canadian Sikh Women]'' (Ph.D. thesis) ([https://www.webcitation.org/6TzVQtRyZ?url=http://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/14888/ubc_2003-791955.pdf Archive]), [[The University of British Columbia]] (UBC). [http://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/14888 See Profile at] UBC.
* Dhruvarajan, Vanaja. 2003. "Second Generation Indo-Canadians: Change, Resistance and Adaptation". In ''Fractured Identity: The Indian Diaspora Canada'', Sushma J. Varma & Radhika Seshan (eds.). Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ghuman | first1 = P. A. S. | year = 1980 | title = Canadian or Indo-Canadian: A Study of South Asian Adolescents | journal = [[International Journal of Adolescence and Youth]] | volume = 4 | pages = 3–4 }}
* Klassen, Robert Mark. 2002. ''Motivation Beliefs of Indo-Canadian and Anglo-Canadian Early Adolescents: A Cross-cultural Investigation of Self- and Collective Efficacy'' (Ph.D. thesis), [[Simon Fraser University]].
* Mani, Priya Subra. 2003. ''Indo-Canadian Young Women's Career Decision-making Process to Enter the Applied Social Sciences: A Case Study Approach'' (Ph.D. thesis), [[University of Victoria]].
* Moulton, Edward C. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2756725 South Asian Studies in Canada, and the Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute]." ''[[Pacific Affairs]]'', [[University of British Columbia]]. Vol. 51, No. 2 (Summer, 1978), pp. 245–264
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/Products/standard/themes/DataProducts.cfm?S=1&T=44&ALEVEL=2&FREE=0 Statistics Canada Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Information. Detailed Tables of the ones included in the Demographics section of this article.] "Look under East Indian or South Asian in the Tables"
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150321131354/http://www.owlib.com/dir/dir.show?cat_id=2111 Hindu Temples in Canada]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120504020748/http://multiculturalcanada.ca/ Multicultural Canada website] includes oral histories and Indo-Canadian newspapers
*[http://komagatamarujourney.ca "Komagata Maru: Continuing the Journey"] Simon Fraser University Library website with digitized material pertaining to Indian immigration and settlement in Canada
*[http://www.asiancenturyinstitute.com/migration/470-the-indo-canadian-paradox/ Indo-Canadian Paradox]

{{People of Canada}}
{{Canadians of Asian descent}}
{{NRI-PIO}}
{{Portalbar|Canada|India}}

[[Category:Asian Canadian]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Indian descent| ]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Canada|Canadian]]
[[Category:Indo-Canadian culture]]
[[Category:South Asian Canadian]]

Malaysian Indians

2020-12-15T08:05:27Z

175.141.124.220:

{{Short description|Ethnic group}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Malaysian Indians
| native_name = 
Orang India Malaysia
மலேசிய இந்தியர்கள்
| image = [[File:Indian Classical Dance.jpg|300px]]
| caption =
| population = '''2,012,600''' (2015)<ref name="2015 population"/> '''7.0%''' of the Malaysian population (2016)<ref name="population"/>
| popplace = {{flagicon|MAS}} '''[[Peninsular Malaysia#East Coast and West Coast|West coast]] of [[Peninsular Malaysia]]'''
(mostly in [[Selangor]], [[Negeri Sembilan]], [[Perak]], [[Penang]], [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Kedah]] and [[Johor]]) '''{{flag|Singapore}}''' (20,483 in 2010)<ref name="singstat.gov.sg">{{cite web|url=https://www.singstat.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/publications/publications_and_papers/cop2010/census_2010_advance_census_release/c2010acr.pdf|title=Census of Population 2010|work=Singapore Department of Statistics|access-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016193638/https://www.singstat.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/publications/publications_and_papers/cop2010/census_2010_advance_census_release/c2010acr.pdf|archive-date=16 October 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| langs = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (majority) • [[Malay language|Malay]] • [[Malaysian English|English]] • [[Manglish]] (creole) • Other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] such as [[Telugu language|Telugu]] • [[Malayalam]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| rels = '''Predominantly''' [[Hinduism]]
 '''Minorities''' [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Buddhism]]{{·}}[[Sikhism]]{{·}}[[Jainism]]{{·}}[[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]]
| related = [[Indian Singaporeans]], [[Indians in Brunei|Bruneian Indians]], [[Indian Indonesians]], [[Chitty]], [[Chindians]]
}}
{{Contains special characters|Tamil}}
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}

'''Malaysian Indians''' or '''Indian Malaysians''', are a local ethnic group in Malaysia. The group is defined as local [[Malaysians]] of Indian or South Asian ancestry. Today, they form the third largest group in Malaysia after the [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] and the [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese]]. Most are descendants of those who migrated from India to Malaysia during the [[British Malaya|British colonisation of Malaya]].

Majority of Malaysian Indians are ethnic [[Tamils|Tamil Indians]], with other smaller groups such as [[Malayali]], [[Telugu people|Telugu]], [[Sikhs]] and others. Malaysian Indians form the 5th largest community of [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Overseas Indians]] in the world. Within Malaysia, they represent the third largest group (constituting 7% of the Malaysian population), after the ethnic [[Malaysian Malay|Malay]] and [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese]].<ref name="themalaymailonline.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/population-to-hit-30-million-today-statistics-department-says|title=Population to hit 30 million this week, Statistics Department says|newspaper=Malay Mail|date=26 February 2014|access-date=4 February 2018}}</ref> They are usually simply referred to as "Indian" in Malaysia, ''Orang India'' in Malay, "''Yin du ren''" in Chinese.

Malaysia's Indian population is notable for its class stratification, with large elite and lower income groups and diverse racial differences even within its fold. Malaysian Indians make up a disproportionately large percentage of professionals per capita - constituting 15.5% of Malaysia's professionals in 1999.<ref name="Haque">{{cite journal|title=The Role of the State in Managing Ethnic Tensions in Malaysia|journal= American Behavioral Scientist|volume= 47|number= 3|date=November 2003|pages=240–266|url=http://profile.nus.edu.sg/fass/polhaque/abs.pdf|author=M. Shamsul Haque|doi=10.1177/0002764203256186|s2cid= 53021386}}</ref> As of a census taken in 1984, up to 38% of the nation's medical professional workforce consists of Malaysian Indians.<ref name="Haque" /> In 1970, the per capita income of Malaysian Indians was 76% higher than that of the [[Malaysian Malay|Malay majority]].<ref name="Malaysiaincome">{{cite journal|last1=Saari|first1= M Yusof|last2=Dietzenbacher|first2=Erik|last3=Los|first3=Bart|title=Sources of Income Growth and Inequality Across Ethnic Groups in Malaysia, 1970–2000|url=http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/800401478218903632/Sources-of-Income-Growth-and-Inequality-Across-Ethnic-Groups.pdf|journal=World Development|year= 2015|volume=76|pages=311–328|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.07.015|access-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Despite somewhat fruitful attempts by the Malaysian government to redistribute wealth since the 1970s, Malaysian Indians still earn a 27% higher per capita income than that of the dominant Malay community as seen in data released in 2005.<ref name="Malaysiaincome"/> A substantial number of Malaysian Indians however remain among the poorest in the country.<ref name="malaymail2015"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianmalaysian.com/forgotten_community.htm |title=Many of Malaysia's poor are Indians |work=Indian Malaysian Online }}</ref>

==History==

===First Wave: Pre-colonial period===
{{main|Greater India}}
[[File:Candi Batu Pahat of Bujang Valley.jpg|left|upright|thumb|Candi Bukit Batu Pahat of [[Bujang Valley]]. A Hindu-Buddhist kingdom ruled ancient [[Kedah]] possibly as early as 110 A.D, the earliest evidence of strong Indian influence which was once prevalent among the pre-Islamic [[Kedahan Malay]]s.]]
[[Indian History|Ancient India]] exerted a profound influence over Southeast Asia through trade, religious missions, wars and other forms of contact. Pre-colonial Malaysia was part of 'Indianised Kingdoms' such as [[Srivijaya]], Kadaram and the [[Majapahit]], which formed part of a cultural region known as [[Greater India]]. There is a possibility that the first wave of migration from South Asia towards Southeast Asia happened during Asoka's invasion towards Kalinga and [[Samudragupta]]'s expedition towards the South.<ref>{{cite book|first=Balaji|last=Sadasivan|title=The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India|year=2011|pages=135–136|isbn=978-9814311670}}</ref>
[[File:Battle of kedah.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A Siamese painting depicting the [[Chola invasion of Kadaram|Chola raid on Kadaram]] (modern day [[Kedah]]) in year 1025.]]

The Arab and Indian traders had travelled this region including the southern tip of South East Asia the peninsula with maritime trade,<ref name=Sneddon2003>{{cite book | last = Sneddon| first = James|title = The Indonesian Language: Its history and role in modern society| year = 2003| publisher = University of South Wales Press Ltd| location = Sydney| page = 73}}</ref> the [[Sailendra]] kings of [[Java]] originating from [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] were able to take control of the [[Peninsular Malaysia|Peninsular]] and part of southern [[Siam]]. The kings welcomed Buddhist missionaries from India, accepting their teaching of the [[Mahayana]] sect, which spread through their territories. However, central and northeastern Thailand continued to adhere to the Hinayana teachings of the Theravada sect, which had been introduced by missionaries sent by the emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC.
Another theory of the introduction of Buddhism after Indian arrived in the peninsula is that after Kalinga conquered lower [[Burma]] in the 8th century their influence gradually spread down the peninsula. The ancient Indian Kalinga was located in southeastern India occupying modern day Orissa and northern Andhra Pradesh. In the 7th century an Indonesian kingdom was named Kalingga<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hgtVFGCJkj0C&pg=PT20 Sejarah SMA/MA Kls XI-Bahasa By H Purwanta, dkk]</ref> after the aforementioned Kalinga in India. Chinese sources mention this kingdom (''Holing'') as a center for Buddhist scholars around 604 before it was overshadowed by the Sanjaya or [[Mataram Kingdom]]. The most famous Kalingga ruler is Ratu Sima.

There is evidence of the existence of [[Indianised kingdom]]s such as [[Gangga Negara]], Old [[Kedah]], [[Srivijaya]] since approximately 1700 years ago.<ref name="Volume 7 2009">European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 7, Number 3 (2009)</ref> Early contact between the kingdoms of [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamilakkam]] and the Malay peninsula had been very close during the reigns of the [[Pallava dynasty]] (from the 4th to the 9th century CE) and [[Chola dynasty]] (from the 9th to the 13th century CE). The trade relations the Tamil merchants had with the ports of [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]] led to the emergence of Indianised kingdoms like Kadaram ([[Bujang Valley|Old Kedah]]) and [[Langkasuka|Langkasugam]].<ref name=International2000>{{cite book|last = International Tamil Language Foundation|title = The Handbook of Tamil Culture and Heritage| year = 2000| publisher = International Tamil Language Foundation| location = Chicago| page = 877}}</ref> Furthermore, Chola king [[Rajendra Chola I]] sent an expedition to Kadaram ([[Srivijaya]]) during the 11th century conquering that country on behalf of one of its rulers who sought his protection and to have established him on the throne. The Cholas had a powerful [[Merchant Navy|merchant]] and [[naval fleet]] in the Indian Ocean and the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Three kinds of craft are distinguished by the author of the ''Periplus'' – light coasting boats for local traffic, larger vessels of a more complicated structure and greater carrying capacity, and lastly the big ocean-going vessels that made the voyages to Malaya, [[Sumatra]], and the [[Ganges]].<ref name=Sastri2000>{{cite book | last = Sastri| first = K.A. Nilakanta|title = Cholas| orig-year = 1935 | edition = fifth printing | year = 2000| publisher = University of Madras| location = Chennai| pages = 86 & 318}}</ref> In [[Malacca Sultanate]], the [[Chitty]] people, played a huge role in Malacca's administration of the local ports such as [[Raja Mudaliar]], Syahbandar (Chief of Port) of Malacca and [[Bendahara]] [[Tun Mutahir of Malacca|Tun Mutahir]], a famous [[Bendahara]] of the [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malaccan Sultanate]].

===Second Wave: Colonial period===
[[File:SS Rajula.jpg|thumb|''SS Rajula'', operating her fortnightly "Straits Service" between [[Madras]] to Penang, [[Port Klang]] and Singapore from 1926 to 1972. The vessel transported many Indian migrants between South India to then-[[British Malaya]] as well as independent Malaysia.]]
Following the Portuguese colonisation of [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malacca]] ([[Malaysia]]) in 1511, the Portuguese government encouraged their explorers to bring their married Indian women who were converted already to Roman Catholic Christianity, under a policy set by [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], then [[Viceroy]] of [[Portuguese India|India]]. These people were [[Goan Catholics]] ([[Konkani people|Konkani]] Catholics) and [[East Indians]] (Catholics of [[Marathi people|Marathi descent]]). [[Kupari]]s who were of mixed Samvedic Brahmin, Goan and Portuguese descent also arrived. Their children already intermarried with Malay population, losing their ethnic identities. British acquisition of [[Penang]], [[Melaka]], and [[Singapore]] - the Straits Settlements from 1786 to 1824 started a steady inflow of Indian labour. This consisted of traders, policemen, plantation labourers and colonial soldiers (see [[sepoy]]s). Apart from this there was also substantial migration of Indians to work in the British colonial government, due to their general good command of the English language.<ref name="Volume 7 2009"/>

[[File:The Indian Stick Display at Balik Pulau, Penang in 1937.jpg|thumb|left|[[Thaipusam]] Celebration in [[Balik Pulau]], [[Penang]]. 1937]]
The establishment of the plantations and the need for cheap labour led to an influx of Indian migrants working under the indenture [[Kangani system]] in the 19th and early 20th century. Some, after the Kangani system ended in the early 20th century, also paid for their own passage to Malaya. These migrant workers were primarily Tamils (around 80%), with some [[Telugus]], [[Malayalis]] as well as other groups from northern India. The Tamils were primarily non-Brahmin middle-ranking or low caste Hindus, including [[Gounder]], [[Kallar (caste)|Kallar]], [[Muthuraja]], [[Pallar]], [[Vanniyar]] and [[Paraiyar]], the Telugus include [[Kamma (caste)|Kamma]] and [[Reddy]], while the Malayali were mostly from the [[Velakkathala Nair|Nayar]] caste.<ref name="rajoo">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-AR-V3ymAzoC&pg=PA150|title= Malaysian World-view|editor= Mohd. Taib Osman |author=R. Rajoo |pages= 149–150 |publisher=Inst of Southeast Asian Studies |date=1985|isbn= 978-9971988128}}</ref> These workers were distinct from the commercial and educated group of urban Indians, who were often high caste or high and middle class Tamils, Telugus, Malayali, [[Punjabis]], [[Sindhis]], [[Gujaratis]], [[Marwaris]] and others. These urban Indians may be Hindus, Christians, Sikhs or Muslims. The [[Sikhs]] mainly worked in the police force, while other northern Indians were involved in business. The Malayali, Ceylonese and Christian Tamils may be involved in government and private [[White-collar worker|white-collar work]], the [[Chettiar]] in money-lending or finance, while the [[Vellalar]] and Muslim Tamils may be in various kind of businesses.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-AR-V3ymAzoC&pg=PA151|title= Malaysian World-view|editor= Mohd. Taib Osman |author=R. Rajoo |pages= 150–151 |publisher=Inst of Southeast Asian Studies |date=1985|isbn= 978-9971988128}}</ref>

The Indian population in [[British Malaya|pre-independence Malaya]] and Singapore was predominantly adult males who were single or with family back in [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Hence the population fluctuated frequently with periods of immigration to Malaya and periods of exodus of people back to India. As early as 1901 the Indian population in the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States was approximately 120,000. By 1931 there were 640,000 Indians in Malaya and Singapore and they even outnumbered the native [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] in the state of [[Selangor]] that year.

However, during [[World War II]] many Indian men and women left for [[Burma]] as part of the [[Indian National Army]] with thousands thought to have perished. As a result, the population of Indians in 1957 had only increased to 820,000. While immigration was a major factor for the increase in population until Independence, the population growth began falling after that as the white collar classes in the civil service and plantations left when British institutions and companies left the country. Since then, lower birth rates and emigration to countries like [[Singapore]], [[Australia]], [[UK]], etc. in search of better educational and economic opportunities meant that Indians continue to see their share of Malaysia's population decline just as is the case with the [[Chinese people|Chinese]]. Today, Malaysian Indians account for approximately 7 per cent of the total population of Malaysia (approx. 2 million) and 9 per cent in Singapore (450,000).

===Third Wave : Contemporary period===
From the 1990s to the present period, there has also been a much smaller wave of Indian nationals into Singapore and Malaysia to work in the construction and engineering industry, restaurants, the IT sector, teaching and finance with many taking up permanent residence in Singapore where they account for nearly a quarter of the Singapore population. The unskilled labour mainly work in Indian restaurants. There are also foreign spouses from the Indian Subcontinent who are married to local Indians. Like the [[Malaysian Chinese]], the [[Social contract (Malaysia)|failure]] to live under [[Social equality|equal concepts]] has led to "strong identification with Indian identity" from every ethnic Malaysians Indians.

==Demographics==
{{Main|Malaysian Indian in Penang|Tamil Malaysians|Malaysian Malayali|Malaysian Telugu|Chitty}}
[[File:Little India (Johor Bahru).jpg|thumb|Little India in [[Johor Bahru]], [[Johor]].]]
[[File:Little India (Melaka).jpg|thumb|Little India in [[Melaka City]], [[Melaka]].]]
[[File:Karutha Naicker Hall.jpg|thumb|Tangkak District Indian Association in [[Tangkak]], [[Johor]].]]
[[File:MalaysianIndians.jpg|thumb|Malaysian Indian boys, 2009]]
7.0% of the Malaysian population are Indians as of 2016.<ref name="population"/>

There is a close correspondence between the ethnic and occupational divisions of the South Asian community, and this is inevitably reflected in the community's geographical distribution in Malaya. The South Indian Tamils were the majority throughout the country, on the rubber estates and railways, though a significant proportion found employment on the docks in [[Penang]] and [[Singapore]].
Selangor is the state with the most number of Indians in terms of absolute number whereas Negeri Sembilan is the state with the highest proportion of Malaysian Indians making up the population.<ref name="2015 population"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan="2"| State
!colspan="4" |Population{{ref|1|A}}
|-
!colspan="2" style= "width:9em;"|2010<ref name="demo">{{cite web |url= http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf|title= 2010 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205104835/http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2013 |publisher=Department of Statistics, Malaysia |pages=11, 62–81}}</ref>
!colspan="2" style="width:9em;"|2015<ref name="2015 population"/>{{ref|2|B}}
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Johor]]
| 217,058
| 7.1%
| 230,700
| 7.0%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Kedah]]
|136,482
|7.3%
|143,200
|7.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Kelantan]]
|3,849
|0.3%
|4,800
|0.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Malacca]]
|49,037
|6.2%
|51,400
|6.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Negeri Sembilan]]
| 146,214
|15.2%
|154,000
|14.9%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Pahang]]
|63,065
|4.4%
|66,300
|4.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Perak]]
||281,688
|12.3%
|293,300
|12.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Penang]]
|153,472
|10.4%
|166,000
|10.6%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Perlis]]
|2,745
|1.2%
|3,100
|1.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Sabah]]
|7,453
|0.3%
|12,200
|0.5%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Sarawak]]
|7,411
|0.3%
|7,900
|0.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Selangor]]
|679,130
|13.5%
|712,000
|13.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Terengganu]]
|2,397
|0.2%
|3,000
|0.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Kuala Lumpur]]
|156,316
|10.3%
|163,000
|10.1%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Labuan]]
|641
|0.9%
|800
|0.9%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Putrajaya]]
|869
|1.5%
|900
|1.0%
|}

*{{note|1|Note A}} Non-citizens are excluded in figures and percentage
*{{note|2|Note B}} Population estimates are rounded to the nearest hundred.

== Education ==
The economic state of Malaysian Indians is stratified and the distribution of wealth is uneven. However, while many Indians are part of the Malaysian [[working class]], there also exists a large group of educated [[upper middle class]] professionals.

Indians are well represented in Malaysian medical and legal fraternities. Indians also form a large portion of English language teachers in Malaysia. Law and medicine have traditionally been the preferred career choices in Indian families although more young Indian Malaysians are now venturing into other fields such as engineering, finance and entrepreneurship. [[Ananda Krishnan]] and [[Tony Fernandes]] are examples of notable Malaysian [[tycoon]]s of Indian heritage. There are major Indian business districts in [[Kuala Lumpur]] ([[Brickfields]], Jalan Ampang and [[Jalan Masjid India]]); (Lebuh Pasar) in [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], Penang; Jalan Tengku Kelana<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.visitselangor.com/little-india-klang/|title=Little India, Klang|work=VisitSelangor.com|access-date=25 April 2017}}</ref> in [[Klang, Malaysia|Klang]], Selangor; and [[Ipoh]], Perak. [[Education in Malaysia|Tamil primary schools]] are funded by the [[Government of Malaysia|Federal Government]] and use Tamil as the medium of instruction while Malay and English are taught as compulsory subjects. The government's failure to impose Malay as the sole unifying language throughout the country's educational systems unlike in China with [[Standard Chinese]] or Indonesia with [[Indonesian language]] are mainly attributed to the racial-based policy enforcement of ethnic inclusion and exclusion.{{sfn|Kee|Hill|Yin|2016|p=78}} Some argue that the educational policies imposed by the federal government over the years in regard to minority language education have created negative consequences for Malaysian youth: a mounting [[human capital flight|brain drain]] in particular. A study from 2000 found that the country had lost an ample amount of talented and skilled youth to other more favourable countries as the result of students form the large non-Malay minority language communities being forced to go to university abroad because they did not attend Malay language schools.{{sfn|Defillippi|Arthur|Lindsay|2009|p=117}}{{sfn|Fong|Zubair|2017|p=15}}

==Economy and employment==
There are considerable differences socially and economically between different groups of Indians in Malaysia. They form a significant part of the professional classes in Malaysia; in a census taken in 1999, Malaysian Indians were 15.5% of Malaysia's professional workforce.<ref name="Haque" /> These include doctors (28.4%), lawyers (26.8%), dentists (21%), veterinary surgeons (28.5%), engineers (6.4%), accountants (5.8%), surveyors (3.0%) and architects (1.5%).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thestar.com.my/news/community/2013/11/23/unite-as-a-community/|title=Unite as a community|last=Rajah|first=M|date=23 Nov 2013|website=The Star}}</ref> However, many Indians are also ranked amongst the most disadvantaged. In 1970, around 39% of Indians in Malaysia were ranked among the poorest of the country.<ref name="Haque"/> Incidence of poverty (those in the lowest 40% of the national income distribution) in Malaysia was 27.3% Indians.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=375}} Official figures suggest that the percentage of Indians living below the official poverty line has decreased from 39.2% in 1970 to 1.9% in 2002, but the figures have been criticised as inaccurate.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://cpps.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Low-Income-Malaysian-Indians-9MP-Recommendations.pdf |title= Ensuring Effective Targeting of Ethnic Minorities: The Case of Low Income Malaysian Indians|work=Centre for Public Policy Studies }}</ref> It has been claimed around 40% of Indians are at the bottom rung of the income ladder in 2015.<ref name="malaymail2015"/>

[[File:KITLV - 79935 - Kleingrothe, C.J. - Medan - Sowing on a rubber plantation in Malaysia - circa 1910.tif|thumb|Workers in a plantation {{circa}} 1910]]
Many of the early South Indian immigrants such as the Tamils and Telugus worked in the agriculture sector, in particular as workers in plantations. In 1930, 60% of all Indians were in this sector, and by 1970, 45% of Indians were still involved in agriculture in Malaysia.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=162}} Sri Lanka Tamils mainly occupied the subordinate administrative and technical positions in estates, positions they still dominate to this day.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=166}} Also in the estates are the Malayalis who hold assistant and managerial positions. Few of these estates however are Indian-owned.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=167}} Indians are also prominent in the transport and communication sector, either as labourers or as administrative and technical staff.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|pages=172–173}}

Many Indians are also involved in business and trade, the majority of the privately owned businesses belong to the [[Chettiar]]s.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=173–175}} The Sikhs and other Punjabis were initially recruited by the British to serve in the police and armed forces, and while in modern times these areas are now dominated by Malays, the descendants of Sikhs and other Punjabi are now found in every sphere of the economy, in particular as professionals, and in the mercantile and money-lending business.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=162}}

According to the [[Ninth Malaysia Plan]] report of 2006, Malaysian Indians also controlled only 1.2 percent of the corporate wealth in Malaysia, down from the previous figure of 1.5 percent.<ref>{{cite web |author= Osman, Mohamed Nawab Mohamed |date=2007|title= Marginalisation and the Indian Community in Malaysia|work= RSIS Commentaries, (131/2007) |publisher=Nanyang Technological University |url=https://dr.ntu.edu.sg/bitstream/handle/10220/6011/rsisc131-07.pdf?sequence=1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060404214547/http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/english/Chapter16.pdf |archive-date=4 April 2006 |url=http://www.epu.jpm.my:80/rm9/english/Chapter16.pdf |title=Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010 |chapter=Chapter 16 - Achieving Growth with Distribution |access-date=23 March 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Politics==
[[File:Headquarters of MIC.JPG|thumb|Headquarters of MIC in [[Kuala Lumpur]].]]
The [[Malaysian Indian Congress]] (MIC) is the oldest and largest Indian political party in Malaysia. It is a senior member of the [[Barisan Nasional]] coalition. The [[All Malaysian Indian Progressive Front|Indian Progressive Front]] (IPF), another Indian-based party, is affiliated with Barisan Nasional but is not a formal member. The [[People's Progressive Party (Malaysia)|People's Progressive Party]] (PPP) is technically a multiracial party but its membership is overwhelmingly Indian. It is a member of the Barisan Nasional. The [[People's Justice Party]] (PKR) and [[Democratic Action Party]] (DAP) have a large Indian membership and have many Indian lawmakers. Both parties are members of the ruling [[Pakatan Harapan]] coalition. The [[Socialist Party of Malaysia]] (PSM), a minor opposition party, has a strong Indian presence. The [[Hindu Rights Action Force]] (Hindraf) was formed in 2007 to address alleged racial discrimination against Indian Malaysians. It was banned after it staged a large anti-government rally in [[Kuala Lumpur]] in 2007. Hindraf's political wing is the [[Human Rights Party (Malaysia)|Human Rights Party]] (HRP). The [[Malaysian Indian Muslim Congress]] (KIMMA) is a party that represents the interests of the [[Indian Muslim]] community. There is the [[Punjabi Party of Malaysia]] (PPM) which represents Malaysia's Punjabi community. The [[Malaysian Ceylonese Congress]] (MCC) represents Malaysia's [[Sri Lankan Tamil]] community who are technically not Indian but often regarded as such by most Malaysians. Other Indian fringe parties include the pro-Barisan Nasional [[Malaysian Indian United Party]] (MIUP), [[Malaysia Makkal Sakti Party]] (MMSP) and the latest [[Malaysian Indian Justice Party]] (MIJP). There was also the [[Democratic Malaysian Indian Party]] (DMIP) which has been dissolved.

In the [[Malaysian general election, 2018|Malaysian general election]] held in 2018, sixteen Indians were elected to the [[Dewan Rakyat]]. This is the [[Ethnic Indians in the Dewan Rakyat|highest number of Malaysian Indians elected to parliament]] in Malaysian history.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://littleindia.com/malaysia-gets-16-indian-origin-members-of-parliament/|title=Malaysia Gets 16 Indian-Origin Members of Parliament|date=2018-05-15|work=Little India: Overseas Indian, NRI, Asian Indian, Indian American|access-date=2018-06-07|language=en-US}}</ref>

[[HINDRAF]] is a current ally to the present [[Pakatan Harapan]] government. This is in addition to [[Democratic Action Party (Malaysia)|DAP]] and [[People's Justice Party (Malaysia)|PKR]] which are multiracial parties with Indian representatives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nst.com.my/node/369691/amp|title=Malaysian Indians have dropped MIC, opt for multiracial parties|website=www.nst.com.my|language=en|access-date=2018-06-07}}</ref>

There are currently [[Ethnic Indians in the Cabinet of Malaysia|4 ministers and 1 deputy minister]] from the Malaysian Indian community.

== Media and the performing arts ==
[[File:Indian Classical Dance.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tamils#Performing arts|Tamil classical dance]], performed in Malaysia.]]
{{See also|Malaysian Tamil Cinema |Anugerah Industri Muzik Malaysian-Indian|Lists of Tamil-language media in Malaysia}}
Satellite television provider [[Astro (Malaysian satellite television)|Astro]] provides several [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[satellite television|satellite]] [[television channels]]. [[Astro Vaanavil]] and state-owned [[Radio Televisyen Malaysia|RTM]] [[TV2 (Malaysia)|TV2]] broadcast locally produced [[Tamil language|Tamil]] shows. [[India]]-based channels available in [[Malaysia]] are [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]], [[Jaya TV]], [[Chutti TV]]. Thanga Thirai and [[Velli Thirai]] are [[Tamil language|Tamil]] movie channels while [[B4U (network)|Astro B4U]] is a [[Hindi language|Hindi]] movie channel. The Malaysian Indian community is an important market for the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film industry [[Kollywood]]. There are 2-[[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[radio stations]] of the state-owned [[Minnal FM]] and the privately owned [[THR.fm|THR Raaga]].

It is also customary for major Malaysian corporations to produce television commercials in conjunction with [[Deepavali]]. They generally pay tribute to the contributions of the Indian community to the nation and are well received by Indians of all faiths. The heart-warming Deepavali commercials by the state petroleum company [[Petronas]] are especially popular. Indian Malaysians have also contributed to the mainstream Malaysian entertainment industry. The Jayhawkers from Seremban led by one Joe Chelliah was the first non-Malay pop band with only Indian musicians that recorded popular commercial albums in Malay in the mid 1960s itself. More recent notable Indian Malaysian artists with multiracial appeal are [[Reshmonu]], [[Jaclyn Victor]], and [[Alleycats (Malaysian rock band)|Alleycats]]. Indian Malaysians have also made significant contributions to the Malaysian English theatre scene. Tamil [[hip hop]] was started in Malaysia by pioneers like rappers [[Chakra Sonic]], Yogi B and several others, which had since then made its way to Kollywood.

[[Bharata Natyam]], the Tamil classical dance of India, is an important feature of Tamil culture and is hence popular in Malaysia. Ramli Ibrahim and [[Mavin Khoo]] are two non-Indian Malaysians who are world-renowned [[Indian classical dance]] performers. The Temple of Fine Arts in Brickfields, Kuala Lumpur is an academy that provides training in traditional Indian dance and music. The [[urumi (drum)|urumee]] drums are often played at religious and cultural events. The [[nadaswaram]] is a traditional Indian wind instrument often played at Indian weddings in Malaysia.

==Cuisine==
{{Further|Malaysian Indian Cuisine}}
[[File:Bananaleafrice001.jpg|thumb| [[Banana leaf rice]].]]
The contribution of the Indian community to [[Malaysian cuisine]] is enormous. Indian cuisine has had a strong influence on traditional [[Malay cuisine]] resulting in the popularity of curries in Malaysia. Indian restaurants are well received by Malaysians from all ethnic and religious backgrounds. They have become an important fixture in everyday Malaysian life and are the venue of choice for watching live televised football matches. [[Mamak stall|Mamak]] restaurants and stalls refer to eateries owned and staffed by [[Indian Muslims]]. The word 'Mamak' is sometimes erroneously used to describe any Indian restaurant. [[Roti canai]], [[nasi kandar]], [[maggi goreng]] and [[pasembur]] (Mamak rojak) are Indian dishes unique to Malaysia. Nasi kandar is sold exclusively in [[Indian Muslim]] restaurants and the recipes are closely guarded secrets. Unlike Indian cuisine in the United Kingdom and other Western countries which tend to focus on [[North Indian cuisine]], Indian cuisine in Malaysia is largely based on [[South Indian cuisine]] as the Malaysian Indian diaspora is overwhelmingly Tamil, although some northern dishes such as [[tandoori chicken]] and [[naan]] bread are common. Southern breakfast delicacies such as [[idli]], [[vadai]] and [[dosa]] (spelled in Malaysia as 'thosai') are common. The [[appam]] is a favourite breakfast dish in Tamil homes. ''Idiyappam'' is known as [[putu mayam]] in Malay and usually sold by mobile motorcycle vendors. [[Murukku]] is made to mark [[Deepavali]]. Meals of rice with various vegetable and meat dishes along with other condiments are served on banana leaves in restaurants for lunch and dinner, and also in Indian households during special occasions. Mutton ([[goat meat]]) is highly favoured and served as either ''varuval'' (dry curry) or ''peratal'' (curry with a thick gravy). Fried bitter gourd, banana chips, [[papadam]], [[Rasam (dish)|rasam]], yoghurt and pickles are the usual condiments. Desserts and sweets include [[payasam]], [[halva]], [[mysore pak]], palgoa and ghee balls.
Some Indian foods have been widely adopted and localised. This includes but not limited to [[Murukku]], [[Adhirasam]] and [[Puttu]].

==Religion==
{{bar box
| title = Religions of Indian Malaysians<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf |title=2010 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia |language=ms, en |access-date=17 June 2012 |publisher=Department of Statistics, Malaysia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522234002/http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf |archive-date=22 May 2014 }} p. 82</ref>
| titlebar =#Fcd116
| left1 = Religion
| right1 = Percent
| float = right
| bars =
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|Orange|86.2}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|Blue|6.0}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|Green|4.1}}
{{bar percent|Other Religion|Brown|1.9}}
{{bar percent|[[Buddhism]]|Yellow|1.7}}
{{bar percent|[[Irreligion|No Religion]]|Black|0.05}}
{{bar percent|Folk Religion|Red|0.04}}
{{bar percent|Unknown|Gray|0.01}}

}}
The Indian community which mostly consist of [[Tamils]] follow Hinduism as the main faith. Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the Malay Peninsula from India around the 2nd century AD . The Indian-influenced kingdoms of Kadaram ([[Early history of Kedah|Old Kedah]]), and Ilangosagam ([[Langkasuka]]) practised Hinduism and Buddhism during the rule of the Malay-[[Srivijaya]] and Tamil-[[Chola]] kingdoms.<ref name=Arasaratnam1970>{{cite book | last = Arasaratnam| first = Sinnappah|title = Indians in Malaysia and Singapore| url = https://archive.org/details/indiansinmalaysi0000aras| url-access = registration| year = 1970| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = London| pages = [https://archive.org/details/indiansinmalaysi0000aras/page/4 4], 168, 169, 170, 171, & 175}}</ref> The early few Indians arrived and assimilated quickly into the local population through intermarriage.

The Chola King had also launched an attack via a naval expedition on several Malay Kingdoms. Subsequent to invasion, both Chola kingdom and south east Asian Hindu Buddhist kingdoms went into decline and many would later totally disappear, and kingdoms in Malaysia Indonesia were gradually Islamised. Hinduism is the most practiced religion amongst the Tamils, including both the major Hindu and Tamil pantheon of deities. Tamils of both Indian and Sri Lankan backgrounds practice Hinduism.

[[Sikhism]] is practiced mainly by [[Punjabi people|Punjabis]]. Many Sindhis also worship in Sikh Gurdwaras in Malaysia. Christianity is practiced by a minority of Tamil people. In Malaysia, most of the Indian Christians are either [[Catholic]], [[Anglican]], [[Methodist]], [[Lutheran]] or [[Evangelical]]. Trade contact with the Tamils predate the Islamic period (c. 570-632 AD), or the birth of Islam. Indonesians and Malays came to know about Islam initially through Gujarati merchants and further developed on by the Arab traders. Most of the Indian Muslim community has been absorbed into the larger Malay community due to their common religious background, with a substantially high level of assimilation and intermarriage between the communities. In Malaysia, [[Tamil Muslim]]s are often referred to as 'Mamaks' while [[Mappila|Malayalee Muslims]] are known as 'Kakas' or 'Malabaris'.
<gallery>
File:Batu caves.jpg|[[Batu Caves]]
File:Sri Mahamariamman Temple 2, central Kuala Lumpur.jpg| [[Sri Mahamariamman Temple, Kuala Lumpur|Sri Mahamariamman Temple]] in Kuala Lumpur
File:Bmcity.jpg|[[St. Anne's Church, Bukit Mertajam|St. Anne's Church]] in [[Bukit Mertajam]]
File:Masjid Kapitan Keling.jpg|[[Kapitan Keling Mosque]] in [[George Town, Penang|George Town]]
File:Tawau Sabah ThirumuruganTemple-01.jpg|Thirumurugan Temple in [[Tawau]]
</gallery>

==Festivals==
[[File:Thaipusam idols.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Idols carried in procession during Thaipusam at Batu Caves.]]
One of the biggest Hindu festivals in Malaysia is [[Thaipusam]]. Thaipusam is dedicated to the Tamil deity [[Murugan]] which occurs on the day in the [[Hindu calendar|Tamil month]] of ''Thai'' (January–February) when the asterism ''Poosam'' is on the ascendant. It is celebrated in grand style in the temples of, [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], [[Ipoh]] and [[Kuala Lumpur]] for three days.

In Kuala Lumpur, Thaipusam has become an almost national seat for ''Poosam'' celebrations. The venue of the Kuala Lumpur celebrations is a picturesque shrine right inside a cave that lies many feet above the ground, and can only be approached by a steep climb. This place, known as [[Batu Caves]], is about eight miles from the city, and a [[Temple car|chariot]] procession carrying the image of the deity to and from the place adds to the color and gaiety of the festival. Crowds from all over the country throng to the cave, including people of all classes and groups. It is above all a day of penance, on which many vows are fulfilled. A 42.7m high statue of Lord Murugan was built at Batu Caves and was unveiled in January 2006, having taken three years to construct.

One of the most significant rites performed is the carrying of the [[kavadi]], a large wooden decorated arch, as an act of penance. When deities are taken on procession from one shrine to another, they would be followed by a number of these voluntary kavadi-bearers. In other towns and estates, kavadis would be carried for other festivals like ''Chittirai Paruvam''. Some of the more rigid practitioners would bear spikes, spears, and hooks pierced into their bodies. The ''Chittirai Paruvam'' festival and festivals to the Tamil deity [[Mariamman]] are usually accompanied by a fire-walking ceremony.<ref name=Arasaratnam1970/>

[[Deepavali]], popularly known as the 'Festival of Lights', is another major Hindu festival which is celebrated by all Hindu communities. Tamils celebrate [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]] which is a harvest festival usually held from 13–16 January. A similar festival known as [[Makar Sankranti]] is celebrated by most other Indian communities while the Punjabis call their harvest festival [[Lohri]].

The Malayalees celebrate [[Vishu]], the Malayalee New Year which usually falls in the month of April or the month of Medam in the [[Malayalam calendar]]. [[Onam]] is the most popular festival celebrated by the Malayalee community and is usually observed in the month of August or September.

The Telugus celebrate [[Ugadi]], the Telugu New Year which is based on the [[lunar calendar]]; unlike [[Puthandu]], the Tamil New Year and [[Vasakhi]], the Sikh New Year which are based on the [[solar calendar]]. [[Makar Sankranti]] is an important festival for [[Telugu people|Telugu]] community also celebrated as Pongal by Tamils.

The festivals celebrated by Malaysian Indians who profess the Christian faith are [[Easter]], [[Christmas]] and [[All Souls' Day]] (mainly celebrated by Catholics). Indian Muslims observe [[Ramadan]], the Muslim month of fasting; and celebrate [[Hari Raya Aidilfitri#South-East Asia|Hari Raya Aidilfitri]] and [[Eid al-Adha|Hari Raya Aidiladha]].

==Influence toward Malaysian Culture==
Indian influences could be seen on modern Malaysia as well as on traditional Malay culture. The diffusion of Indian culture is demonstrated with the following examples:

*[[Malay folklore]] contains a rich number of Indian-influenced mythological characters, such as [[Bidadari]], [[Jatayu|Jentayu]], [[Garuda]] and [[Nāga|Naga]].
*[[Malaysian literature|Early Malay literature]] was highly influenced by Indian epics, such as the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]''.
*[[Wayang]] shadow puppets and classical dance-dramas of Malaysia took stories from episodes of ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata''.

===Language and names===
{{Main|Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world}}
A good number of Tamil inscriptions as well as Hindu and Buddhist icons emanating from South India have been found in Southeast Asia (and even in parts of [[Northern and southern China|south China]]). On the Malay Peninsula, inscriptions have been found at [[Takuapa]], not far from the [[Vishnuite]] statues of Khao Phra Narai in [[Southern Thailand]]. It is a short inscription indicating that an artificial lake named ''Avani-naranam'' was dug by ''nangur-Udaiyan'' which is the name of an individual who possessed a military [[fief]] at Nangur, being famous for his abilities as a warrior, and that the lake was placed under the protection of the members of the Manikkiramam (which according to K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, was a merchant guild) living in the military camp.<ref name=Sastri1949>{{cite journal | author = Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta | year = 1949| title = Takuapa and its Tamil Inscription Part I. | journal = Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society| volume = 22}}</ref>

An inscription dated 779 AD has been found in [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom|Ligor]], Malay Peninsula. This refers to the trade relationship between the [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil country]] and Malaya.<ref name=Arokiaswamy2000>{{cite book | last = Arokiaswamy| first = Celine W.M.| title = Tamil Influences in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines| year = 2000| location = Manila s.n.| pages = 37, 38, 41, 43, 45–49, 51–57}}</ref> In [[Bujang Valley|ancient Kedah]] there is an inscription found by Dr. [[Horace Geoffrey Quaritch Wales|Quaritch Wales]]. It is an inscribed stone bar, rectangular in shape, bears the ye-dharmma formula<ref group="nb">{{cite web
|url=http://www.virtualvinodh.com/brahmi-lipitva/208-ye-dhamma-brahmi
|title=Ye Dhamma - The Verse of Causation
|date=2 April 2012
|publisher=Vinodh's Virtual Cyber Space
|access-date=13 April 2012
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/66tUhUL3l?url=http://www.virtualvinodh.com/brahmi-lipitva/208-ye-dhamma-brahmi
|archive-date=13 April 2012
|quote=The Pali verse 'Ye Dhamma... ' is a popular verse in Buddhism that explains the heart of Buddhism Philosophy i.e Dependant Origination. The Sanskrit version of the verse is called "Pratityasamutpada Hridaya Dharani" [The Heart Dharani of Dependant Origination] with Om added to the beginning of the Verse, and Svaha added at the end, thus Dharani-fying the entire verse. The Pali version never seems to have had any specific title.
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> in [[Vatteluttu alphabet|South Indian characters]] of the 4th century AD, thus proclaiming the Buddhist character of the shrine near the find-spot (site I) of which only the basement survives. The inscriptions are on three faces in ''Pallava Grantha script''. The Ruler Raja Ganga fled from his empire into the forests with his queen and an infant heir. Raja Ganga left traces of hideout on a nearby hill in form of artefacts on stones. All these inscriptions, both [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Sanskrit]] ones, relate to the activities of the people and rulers of the Tamil country of South India. The [[Tamil script|Tamil inscriptions]] are at least four centuries posterior to the Sanskrit inscriptions, from which the early Tamils themselves were patronizers of the Sanskrit language.<ref name=Arokiaswamy2000/> The Cherok Tokun Ancient Inscriptions were first documented by Colonel James Low, a British army officer, in 1845. In his log, Low recorded his disappointment of not finding a more spectacular ruin, expecting to find an ancient temple ruin. He documented what he made out to be "a group of seven inscriptions". The inscriptions were believed to be in pre-Pallava script and written in Sanskrit. They were attributed to the ancient Kingdom of Kadaaram, which flourished in northern Malaysia in the 5th to 6th centuries. However, according to J Laidlay, who translated the text in 1848, the inscription was in fact written in [[Pali]] - another ancient language of the Indian subcontinent.

An element needed to carry out commercial transactions is a common language understood by all parties involved in early trade. Historians such as J.V. Sebastian, K.T. Thirunavukkarasu, and A.W. Hamilton record that Tamil was the common language of commerce in Malaysia and Indonesia during historical times.<ref name="Arokiaswamy2000"/> The maritime Tamil significance in Sumatran and Malay Peninsula trading continued for centuries and borrowings into Malay from Tamil increased between the 15th and 19th centuries due to their commercial activities. In the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company was obliged to use Tamil as part of its correspondence. In Malacca and other seaports up to the 19th century, Malay terminology pertaining to book-keeping and accountancy was still largely Tamil.<ref name=Sneddon2003/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Tamil
!Malay
!English
|-
| Akka
(அக்கா)
| kakak
| elder sister
|-
| Kadai
(கடை)
| kedai
| shop
|-
| Kappal
(கப்பல்)
| kapal
| ship
|-
| Muthu
(முத்து)
| mutiara
| pearl
|-
| Vagai
(வகை)
| bagai
| variety/ like
|-
| Bhashai
(பாஷை)
| bahasa
| language
|-
| Tharmam
(தர்மம்)
| derma
| charity
|-
| Toppi
(தொப்பி)
| topi
| hat
|-
| Thaagam
(தாகம்)
| dahaga
| thirsty
|}

===Infrastructure===
Indians have contributed significantly to the building of Malaysia since the 19th century. The Indian workforce was instrumental in the clearing of land for infrastructure, established rubber plantations, built the roads, set up transmission lines as well as managed early Malayan railways, ports and airports. Indian doctors, chemists and veterinarians formed the bulk of medical personnel in Malaysia - their contributions still persist to present day. Indian civil servants formed the core of the civil service both pre- and post-independence. Indian teachers who were particularly fluent in the English language formed the backbone of Malaysian education, particularly in missionary schools. Indians also pioneered private education in Malaysia.

==Diaspora==
A number of Malaysian Indian immigrants are found in Australia, and they tended to be highly qualified and speak English fluently and were therefore highly employable.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins|last = Jupp|first = James|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2001|isbn = 9780521807890|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=wgoFxfSTfYAC&pg=PA432 |pages = 432}}</ref> There is also a small community of [[Indian Australian|Australians of Indian descent]] on the [[Australia]]n [[States and territories of Australia|external territory]] of [[Christmas Island]] who live alongside other Australians of ethnic Malaysian Chinese, Malay and European descent.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins|last = Jupp|first = James|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2001|isbn = 9780521807890|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=wgoFxfSTfYAC&pg=PA225 |pages = 225}}</ref>

==Notable people==
{{Main|List of Malaysian Indians}}

Among the notable people of Indian descent in Malaysia are [[K. Thamboosamy Pillay]], a significant figure of early [[Kuala Lumpur]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L_hwAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of Kuala Lumpur 1856–1939|first=J.M. |last=Gullick|publisher=The Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|year=2000|pages=43, 135, 140|isbn=9789679948158}}</ref> and [[Karpal Singh]], [[V. David]] and [[Samy Vellu]], all prominent [[List of Malaysian politicians of Indian descent|Malaysian Indian politicians]]. A number of notable Malays, including [[Mahathir Mohamad]], also have part-Indian ancestry.

==Challenges for the future==

Despite the fact that the average income of Malaysian Indians exceeds that of their Malay counterparts, there exists substantial portion of the community who are poor, with 40% of Malaysian Indians claimed to be at the bottom rung of the income ladder.<ref name="malaymail2015">{{cite news |url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/yps-40pc-of-indians-in-malaysia-still-at-bottom-rung-of-the-income-ladder |title=YPS: 40pc of Malaysian Indians still at bottom rung of the income ladder |work=The Malay Mail |date=15 May 2015 |author=Bernama}}</ref> Despite the obvious need of the poor, Malaysian Indians are not eligible for any of Malaysia's affirmative-action programmes, which are reserved for Malays and select indigenous people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/05/18/race-based-affirmative-action-is-failing-poor-malaysians |title=Race-based affirmative action is failing poor Malaysians |date=18 May 2017 }}</ref><ref name=ragesh>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-30861620071206 |title=Malaysian Indian leader seeks affirmative action |first=Y.P. |last=Rajesh |work=Reuters|date= 6 December 2007}}</ref> What has further added to the challenges faced by the community is religious conflict due to increasing Islamisation,<ref name=ragesh /> and there were communal clashes between Indians and Malays such as the [[2001 Kampung Medan riots]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1228679.stm |title=Ethnic strife shakes Malaysia |date= 18 March 2001 |work=BBC }}</ref> as well as protest over racial discrimination and temple demolitions during the [[2007 HINDRAF rally]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/Malaysian-Indians-a-disadvantaged-community/article14889855.ece |title=Malaysian Indians: a disadvantaged community |date=7 December 2007 |work=The Hindu |author=V. Suryanarayan}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-malaysia-protest/indian-protest-rocks-malaysia-ahead-of-polls-idUSKLR16504820071125 |title=Indian protest rocks Malaysia ahead of polls |author=Mark Bendeich |author2=Clarence Fernandez |work=Reuters |date=25 November 2007 }}</ref> These factors in part have resulted in the migration of many highly skilled Malaysian Indians abroad, where Indian migrants are largely upwardly mobile. A survey in 2017 found that 42% of Malaysian Indians who had completed their secondary or tertiary education wanted to emigrate.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cipd.asia/news/hr-news/malaysia-brain-drain |title= Malaysia 'must address issue of brain drain' |date=23 August 2017 |author= Poorna Rodrigo |author2=EK Heng NG }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="2015 population">{{cite web|url=http://pmr.penerangan.gov.my/index.php/info-terkini/19463-unjuran-populasi-penduduk-2015.html|title=Population by States and Ethnic Group|publisher=Department of Information, Ministry of Communications and Multimedia, Malaysia|year=2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212125740/http://pmr.penerangan.gov.my/index.php/info-terkini/19463-unjuran-populasi-penduduk-2015.html|archive-date=12 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="population">{{cite web|url=https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 |title=Current Population Estimates, Malaysia, 2014 - 2016 |work=Department of Statistics, Malaysia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812014710/https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column%2FcthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 |archive-date=12 August 2016 }}</ref>
}}

=== Notes ===
{{reflist|group=nb}}

=== Bibliography ===
* "Tragic Orphans: Indians in Malaysia" by Carl Vadivella Belle, Publisher: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, {{ISBN|978-981-4519-03-8}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TeExjdWUmJYC&pg=PA162|title=Indian Communities in Southeast Asia |edition=First Reprint |editor=K S Sandhu |editor2=A Mani |first=Kernial Singh |last=Sandhu|publisher=ISEAS Publishing |date=30 January 2006|isbn=978-9812304186}}

{{Ethnic groups in Malaysia}}
{{Indians in Malaysia}}
{{NRI-PIO}}

[[Category:Malaysian people of Indian descent| ]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora by country|Malaysia]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Malaysia| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Malaysia|Indian]]
[[Category:Immigration to Malaysia]]
[[Category:India–Malaysia relations]]

Malaysian Indians

2020-12-15T08:04:58Z

175.141.124.220:

{{Short description|Ethnic group}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Malaysian Indians
| native_name = 
Orang India Malaysia
மலேசியா இந்தியர்கள்
| image = [[File:Indian Classical Dance.jpg|300px]]
| caption =
| population = '''2,012,600''' (2015)<ref name="2015 population"/> '''7.0%''' of the Malaysian population (2016)<ref name="population"/>
| popplace = {{flagicon|MAS}} '''[[Peninsular Malaysia#East Coast and West Coast|West coast]] of [[Peninsular Malaysia]]'''
(mostly in [[Selangor]], [[Negeri Sembilan]], [[Perak]], [[Penang]], [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Kedah]] and [[Johor]]) '''{{flag|Singapore}}''' (20,483 in 2010)<ref name="singstat.gov.sg">{{cite web|url=https://www.singstat.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/publications/publications_and_papers/cop2010/census_2010_advance_census_release/c2010acr.pdf|title=Census of Population 2010|work=Singapore Department of Statistics|access-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016193638/https://www.singstat.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/publications/publications_and_papers/cop2010/census_2010_advance_census_release/c2010acr.pdf|archive-date=16 October 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| langs = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (majority) • [[Malay language|Malay]] • [[Malaysian English|English]] • [[Manglish]] (creole) • Other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] such as [[Telugu language|Telugu]] • [[Malayalam]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| rels = '''Predominantly''' [[Hinduism]]
 '''Minorities''' [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Buddhism]]{{·}}[[Sikhism]]{{·}}[[Jainism]]{{·}}[[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]]
| related = [[Indian Singaporeans]], [[Indians in Brunei|Bruneian Indians]], [[Indian Indonesians]], [[Chitty]], [[Chindians]]
}}
{{Contains special characters|Tamil}}
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}

'''Malaysian Indians''' or '''Indian Malaysians''', are a local ethnic group in Malaysia. The group is defined as local [[Malaysians]] of Indian or South Asian ancestry. Today, they form the third largest group in Malaysia after the [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] and the [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese]]. Most are descendants of those who migrated from India to Malaysia during the [[British Malaya|British colonisation of Malaya]].

Majority of Malaysian Indians are ethnic [[Tamils|Tamil Indians]], with other smaller groups such as [[Malayali]], [[Telugu people|Telugu]], [[Sikhs]] and others. Malaysian Indians form the 5th largest community of [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Overseas Indians]] in the world. Within Malaysia, they represent the third largest group (constituting 7% of the Malaysian population), after the ethnic [[Malaysian Malay|Malay]] and [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese]].<ref name="themalaymailonline.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/population-to-hit-30-million-today-statistics-department-says|title=Population to hit 30 million this week, Statistics Department says|newspaper=Malay Mail|date=26 February 2014|access-date=4 February 2018}}</ref> They are usually simply referred to as "Indian" in Malaysia, ''Orang India'' in Malay, "''Yin du ren''" in Chinese.

Malaysia's Indian population is notable for its class stratification, with large elite and lower income groups and diverse racial differences even within its fold. Malaysian Indians make up a disproportionately large percentage of professionals per capita - constituting 15.5% of Malaysia's professionals in 1999.<ref name="Haque">{{cite journal|title=The Role of the State in Managing Ethnic Tensions in Malaysia|journal= American Behavioral Scientist|volume= 47|number= 3|date=November 2003|pages=240–266|url=http://profile.nus.edu.sg/fass/polhaque/abs.pdf|author=M. Shamsul Haque|doi=10.1177/0002764203256186|s2cid= 53021386}}</ref> As of a census taken in 1984, up to 38% of the nation's medical professional workforce consists of Malaysian Indians.<ref name="Haque" /> In 1970, the per capita income of Malaysian Indians was 76% higher than that of the [[Malaysian Malay|Malay majority]].<ref name="Malaysiaincome">{{cite journal|last1=Saari|first1= M Yusof|last2=Dietzenbacher|first2=Erik|last3=Los|first3=Bart|title=Sources of Income Growth and Inequality Across Ethnic Groups in Malaysia, 1970–2000|url=http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/800401478218903632/Sources-of-Income-Growth-and-Inequality-Across-Ethnic-Groups.pdf|journal=World Development|year= 2015|volume=76|pages=311–328|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.07.015|access-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Despite somewhat fruitful attempts by the Malaysian government to redistribute wealth since the 1970s, Malaysian Indians still earn a 27% higher per capita income than that of the dominant Malay community as seen in data released in 2005.<ref name="Malaysiaincome"/> A substantial number of Malaysian Indians however remain among the poorest in the country.<ref name="malaymail2015"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianmalaysian.com/forgotten_community.htm |title=Many of Malaysia's poor are Indians |work=Indian Malaysian Online }}</ref>

==History==

===First Wave: Pre-colonial period===
{{main|Greater India}}
[[File:Candi Batu Pahat of Bujang Valley.jpg|left|upright|thumb|Candi Bukit Batu Pahat of [[Bujang Valley]]. A Hindu-Buddhist kingdom ruled ancient [[Kedah]] possibly as early as 110 A.D, the earliest evidence of strong Indian influence which was once prevalent among the pre-Islamic [[Kedahan Malay]]s.]]
[[Indian History|Ancient India]] exerted a profound influence over Southeast Asia through trade, religious missions, wars and other forms of contact. Pre-colonial Malaysia was part of 'Indianised Kingdoms' such as [[Srivijaya]], Kadaram and the [[Majapahit]], which formed part of a cultural region known as [[Greater India]]. There is a possibility that the first wave of migration from South Asia towards Southeast Asia happened during Asoka's invasion towards Kalinga and [[Samudragupta]]'s expedition towards the South.<ref>{{cite book|first=Balaji|last=Sadasivan|title=The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India|year=2011|pages=135–136|isbn=978-9814311670}}</ref>
[[File:Battle of kedah.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A Siamese painting depicting the [[Chola invasion of Kadaram|Chola raid on Kadaram]] (modern day [[Kedah]]) in year 1025.]]

The Arab and Indian traders had travelled this region including the southern tip of South East Asia the peninsula with maritime trade,<ref name=Sneddon2003>{{cite book | last = Sneddon| first = James|title = The Indonesian Language: Its history and role in modern society| year = 2003| publisher = University of South Wales Press Ltd| location = Sydney| page = 73}}</ref> the [[Sailendra]] kings of [[Java]] originating from [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] were able to take control of the [[Peninsular Malaysia|Peninsular]] and part of southern [[Siam]]. The kings welcomed Buddhist missionaries from India, accepting their teaching of the [[Mahayana]] sect, which spread through their territories. However, central and northeastern Thailand continued to adhere to the Hinayana teachings of the Theravada sect, which had been introduced by missionaries sent by the emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC.
Another theory of the introduction of Buddhism after Indian arrived in the peninsula is that after Kalinga conquered lower [[Burma]] in the 8th century their influence gradually spread down the peninsula. The ancient Indian Kalinga was located in southeastern India occupying modern day Orissa and northern Andhra Pradesh. In the 7th century an Indonesian kingdom was named Kalingga<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hgtVFGCJkj0C&pg=PT20 Sejarah SMA/MA Kls XI-Bahasa By H Purwanta, dkk]</ref> after the aforementioned Kalinga in India. Chinese sources mention this kingdom (''Holing'') as a center for Buddhist scholars around 604 before it was overshadowed by the Sanjaya or [[Mataram Kingdom]]. The most famous Kalingga ruler is Ratu Sima.

There is evidence of the existence of [[Indianised kingdom]]s such as [[Gangga Negara]], Old [[Kedah]], [[Srivijaya]] since approximately 1700 years ago.<ref name="Volume 7 2009">European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 7, Number 3 (2009)</ref> Early contact between the kingdoms of [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamilakkam]] and the Malay peninsula had been very close during the reigns of the [[Pallava dynasty]] (from the 4th to the 9th century CE) and [[Chola dynasty]] (from the 9th to the 13th century CE). The trade relations the Tamil merchants had with the ports of [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]] led to the emergence of Indianised kingdoms like Kadaram ([[Bujang Valley|Old Kedah]]) and [[Langkasuka|Langkasugam]].<ref name=International2000>{{cite book|last = International Tamil Language Foundation|title = The Handbook of Tamil Culture and Heritage| year = 2000| publisher = International Tamil Language Foundation| location = Chicago| page = 877}}</ref> Furthermore, Chola king [[Rajendra Chola I]] sent an expedition to Kadaram ([[Srivijaya]]) during the 11th century conquering that country on behalf of one of its rulers who sought his protection and to have established him on the throne. The Cholas had a powerful [[Merchant Navy|merchant]] and [[naval fleet]] in the Indian Ocean and the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Three kinds of craft are distinguished by the author of the ''Periplus'' – light coasting boats for local traffic, larger vessels of a more complicated structure and greater carrying capacity, and lastly the big ocean-going vessels that made the voyages to Malaya, [[Sumatra]], and the [[Ganges]].<ref name=Sastri2000>{{cite book | last = Sastri| first = K.A. Nilakanta|title = Cholas| orig-year = 1935 | edition = fifth printing | year = 2000| publisher = University of Madras| location = Chennai| pages = 86 & 318}}</ref> In [[Malacca Sultanate]], the [[Chitty]] people, played a huge role in Malacca's administration of the local ports such as [[Raja Mudaliar]], Syahbandar (Chief of Port) of Malacca and [[Bendahara]] [[Tun Mutahir of Malacca|Tun Mutahir]], a famous [[Bendahara]] of the [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malaccan Sultanate]].

===Second Wave: Colonial period===
[[File:SS Rajula.jpg|thumb|''SS Rajula'', operating her fortnightly "Straits Service" between [[Madras]] to Penang, [[Port Klang]] and Singapore from 1926 to 1972. The vessel transported many Indian migrants between South India to then-[[British Malaya]] as well as independent Malaysia.]]
Following the Portuguese colonisation of [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malacca]] ([[Malaysia]]) in 1511, the Portuguese government encouraged their explorers to bring their married Indian women who were converted already to Roman Catholic Christianity, under a policy set by [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], then [[Viceroy]] of [[Portuguese India|India]]. These people were [[Goan Catholics]] ([[Konkani people|Konkani]] Catholics) and [[East Indians]] (Catholics of [[Marathi people|Marathi descent]]). [[Kupari]]s who were of mixed Samvedic Brahmin, Goan and Portuguese descent also arrived. Their children already intermarried with Malay population, losing their ethnic identities. British acquisition of [[Penang]], [[Melaka]], and [[Singapore]] - the Straits Settlements from 1786 to 1824 started a steady inflow of Indian labour. This consisted of traders, policemen, plantation labourers and colonial soldiers (see [[sepoy]]s). Apart from this there was also substantial migration of Indians to work in the British colonial government, due to their general good command of the English language.<ref name="Volume 7 2009"/>

[[File:The Indian Stick Display at Balik Pulau, Penang in 1937.jpg|thumb|left|[[Thaipusam]] Celebration in [[Balik Pulau]], [[Penang]]. 1937]]
The establishment of the plantations and the need for cheap labour led to an influx of Indian migrants working under the indenture [[Kangani system]] in the 19th and early 20th century. Some, after the Kangani system ended in the early 20th century, also paid for their own passage to Malaya. These migrant workers were primarily Tamils (around 80%), with some [[Telugus]], [[Malayalis]] as well as other groups from northern India. The Tamils were primarily non-Brahmin middle-ranking or low caste Hindus, including [[Gounder]], [[Kallar (caste)|Kallar]], [[Muthuraja]], [[Pallar]], [[Vanniyar]] and [[Paraiyar]], the Telugus include [[Kamma (caste)|Kamma]] and [[Reddy]], while the Malayali were mostly from the [[Velakkathala Nair|Nayar]] caste.<ref name="rajoo">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-AR-V3ymAzoC&pg=PA150|title= Malaysian World-view|editor= Mohd. Taib Osman |author=R. Rajoo |pages= 149–150 |publisher=Inst of Southeast Asian Studies |date=1985|isbn= 978-9971988128}}</ref> These workers were distinct from the commercial and educated group of urban Indians, who were often high caste or high and middle class Tamils, Telugus, Malayali, [[Punjabis]], [[Sindhis]], [[Gujaratis]], [[Marwaris]] and others. These urban Indians may be Hindus, Christians, Sikhs or Muslims. The [[Sikhs]] mainly worked in the police force, while other northern Indians were involved in business. The Malayali, Ceylonese and Christian Tamils may be involved in government and private [[White-collar worker|white-collar work]], the [[Chettiar]] in money-lending or finance, while the [[Vellalar]] and Muslim Tamils may be in various kind of businesses.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-AR-V3ymAzoC&pg=PA151|title= Malaysian World-view|editor= Mohd. Taib Osman |author=R. Rajoo |pages= 150–151 |publisher=Inst of Southeast Asian Studies |date=1985|isbn= 978-9971988128}}</ref>

The Indian population in [[British Malaya|pre-independence Malaya]] and Singapore was predominantly adult males who were single or with family back in [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Hence the population fluctuated frequently with periods of immigration to Malaya and periods of exodus of people back to India. As early as 1901 the Indian population in the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States was approximately 120,000. By 1931 there were 640,000 Indians in Malaya and Singapore and they even outnumbered the native [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] in the state of [[Selangor]] that year.

However, during [[World War II]] many Indian men and women left for [[Burma]] as part of the [[Indian National Army]] with thousands thought to have perished. As a result, the population of Indians in 1957 had only increased to 820,000. While immigration was a major factor for the increase in population until Independence, the population growth began falling after that as the white collar classes in the civil service and plantations left when British institutions and companies left the country. Since then, lower birth rates and emigration to countries like [[Singapore]], [[Australia]], [[UK]], etc. in search of better educational and economic opportunities meant that Indians continue to see their share of Malaysia's population decline just as is the case with the [[Chinese people|Chinese]]. Today, Malaysian Indians account for approximately 7 per cent of the total population of Malaysia (approx. 2 million) and 9 per cent in Singapore (450,000).

===Third Wave : Contemporary period===
From the 1990s to the present period, there has also been a much smaller wave of Indian nationals into Singapore and Malaysia to work in the construction and engineering industry, restaurants, the IT sector, teaching and finance with many taking up permanent residence in Singapore where they account for nearly a quarter of the Singapore population. The unskilled labour mainly work in Indian restaurants. There are also foreign spouses from the Indian Subcontinent who are married to local Indians. Like the [[Malaysian Chinese]], the [[Social contract (Malaysia)|failure]] to live under [[Social equality|equal concepts]] has led to "strong identification with Indian identity" from every ethnic Malaysians Indians.

==Demographics==
{{Main|Malaysian Indian in Penang|Tamil Malaysians|Malaysian Malayali|Malaysian Telugu|Chitty}}
[[File:Little India (Johor Bahru).jpg|thumb|Little India in [[Johor Bahru]], [[Johor]].]]
[[File:Little India (Melaka).jpg|thumb|Little India in [[Melaka City]], [[Melaka]].]]
[[File:Karutha Naicker Hall.jpg|thumb|Tangkak District Indian Association in [[Tangkak]], [[Johor]].]]
[[File:MalaysianIndians.jpg|thumb|Malaysian Indian boys, 2009]]
7.0% of the Malaysian population are Indians as of 2016.<ref name="population"/>

There is a close correspondence between the ethnic and occupational divisions of the South Asian community, and this is inevitably reflected in the community's geographical distribution in Malaya. The South Indian Tamils were the majority throughout the country, on the rubber estates and railways, though a significant proportion found employment on the docks in [[Penang]] and [[Singapore]].
Selangor is the state with the most number of Indians in terms of absolute number whereas Negeri Sembilan is the state with the highest proportion of Malaysian Indians making up the population.<ref name="2015 population"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan="2"| State
!colspan="4" |Population{{ref|1|A}}
|-
!colspan="2" style= "width:9em;"|2010<ref name="demo">{{cite web |url= http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf|title= 2010 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205104835/http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2013 |publisher=Department of Statistics, Malaysia |pages=11, 62–81}}</ref>
!colspan="2" style="width:9em;"|2015<ref name="2015 population"/>{{ref|2|B}}
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Johor]]
| 217,058
| 7.1%
| 230,700
| 7.0%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Kedah]]
|136,482
|7.3%
|143,200
|7.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Kelantan]]
|3,849
|0.3%
|4,800
|0.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Malacca]]
|49,037
|6.2%
|51,400
|6.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Negeri Sembilan]]
| 146,214
|15.2%
|154,000
|14.9%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Pahang]]
|63,065
|4.4%
|66,300
|4.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Perak]]
||281,688
|12.3%
|293,300
|12.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Penang]]
|153,472
|10.4%
|166,000
|10.6%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Perlis]]
|2,745
|1.2%
|3,100
|1.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Sabah]]
|7,453
|0.3%
|12,200
|0.5%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Sarawak]]
|7,411
|0.3%
|7,900
|0.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Selangor]]
|679,130
|13.5%
|712,000
|13.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Terengganu]]
|2,397
|0.2%
|3,000
|0.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Kuala Lumpur]]
|156,316
|10.3%
|163,000
|10.1%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Labuan]]
|641
|0.9%
|800
|0.9%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Putrajaya]]
|869
|1.5%
|900
|1.0%
|}

*{{note|1|Note A}} Non-citizens are excluded in figures and percentage
*{{note|2|Note B}} Population estimates are rounded to the nearest hundred.

== Education ==
The economic state of Malaysian Indians is stratified and the distribution of wealth is uneven. However, while many Indians are part of the Malaysian [[working class]], there also exists a large group of educated [[upper middle class]] professionals.

Indians are well represented in Malaysian medical and legal fraternities. Indians also form a large portion of English language teachers in Malaysia. Law and medicine have traditionally been the preferred career choices in Indian families although more young Indian Malaysians are now venturing into other fields such as engineering, finance and entrepreneurship. [[Ananda Krishnan]] and [[Tony Fernandes]] are examples of notable Malaysian [[tycoon]]s of Indian heritage. There are major Indian business districts in [[Kuala Lumpur]] ([[Brickfields]], Jalan Ampang and [[Jalan Masjid India]]); (Lebuh Pasar) in [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], Penang; Jalan Tengku Kelana<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.visitselangor.com/little-india-klang/|title=Little India, Klang|work=VisitSelangor.com|access-date=25 April 2017}}</ref> in [[Klang, Malaysia|Klang]], Selangor; and [[Ipoh]], Perak. [[Education in Malaysia|Tamil primary schools]] are funded by the [[Government of Malaysia|Federal Government]] and use Tamil as the medium of instruction while Malay and English are taught as compulsory subjects. The government's failure to impose Malay as the sole unifying language throughout the country's educational systems unlike in China with [[Standard Chinese]] or Indonesia with [[Indonesian language]] are mainly attributed to the racial-based policy enforcement of ethnic inclusion and exclusion.{{sfn|Kee|Hill|Yin|2016|p=78}} Some argue that the educational policies imposed by the federal government over the years in regard to minority language education have created negative consequences for Malaysian youth: a mounting [[human capital flight|brain drain]] in particular. A study from 2000 found that the country had lost an ample amount of talented and skilled youth to other more favourable countries as the result of students form the large non-Malay minority language communities being forced to go to university abroad because they did not attend Malay language schools.{{sfn|Defillippi|Arthur|Lindsay|2009|p=117}}{{sfn|Fong|Zubair|2017|p=15}}

==Economy and employment==
There are considerable differences socially and economically between different groups of Indians in Malaysia. They form a significant part of the professional classes in Malaysia; in a census taken in 1999, Malaysian Indians were 15.5% of Malaysia's professional workforce.<ref name="Haque" /> These include doctors (28.4%), lawyers (26.8%), dentists (21%), veterinary surgeons (28.5%), engineers (6.4%), accountants (5.8%), surveyors (3.0%) and architects (1.5%).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thestar.com.my/news/community/2013/11/23/unite-as-a-community/|title=Unite as a community|last=Rajah|first=M|date=23 Nov 2013|website=The Star}}</ref> However, many Indians are also ranked amongst the most disadvantaged. In 1970, around 39% of Indians in Malaysia were ranked among the poorest of the country.<ref name="Haque"/> Incidence of poverty (those in the lowest 40% of the national income distribution) in Malaysia was 27.3% Indians.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=375}} Official figures suggest that the percentage of Indians living below the official poverty line has decreased from 39.2% in 1970 to 1.9% in 2002, but the figures have been criticised as inaccurate.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://cpps.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Low-Income-Malaysian-Indians-9MP-Recommendations.pdf |title= Ensuring Effective Targeting of Ethnic Minorities: The Case of Low Income Malaysian Indians|work=Centre for Public Policy Studies }}</ref> It has been claimed around 40% of Indians are at the bottom rung of the income ladder in 2015.<ref name="malaymail2015"/>

[[File:KITLV - 79935 - Kleingrothe, C.J. - Medan - Sowing on a rubber plantation in Malaysia - circa 1910.tif|thumb|Workers in a plantation {{circa}} 1910]]
Many of the early South Indian immigrants such as the Tamils and Telugus worked in the agriculture sector, in particular as workers in plantations. In 1930, 60% of all Indians were in this sector, and by 1970, 45% of Indians were still involved in agriculture in Malaysia.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=162}} Sri Lanka Tamils mainly occupied the subordinate administrative and technical positions in estates, positions they still dominate to this day.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=166}} Also in the estates are the Malayalis who hold assistant and managerial positions. Few of these estates however are Indian-owned.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=167}} Indians are also prominent in the transport and communication sector, either as labourers or as administrative and technical staff.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|pages=172–173}}

Many Indians are also involved in business and trade, the majority of the privately owned businesses belong to the [[Chettiar]]s.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=173–175}} The Sikhs and other Punjabis were initially recruited by the British to serve in the police and armed forces, and while in modern times these areas are now dominated by Malays, the descendants of Sikhs and other Punjabi are now found in every sphere of the economy, in particular as professionals, and in the mercantile and money-lending business.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=162}}

According to the [[Ninth Malaysia Plan]] report of 2006, Malaysian Indians also controlled only 1.2 percent of the corporate wealth in Malaysia, down from the previous figure of 1.5 percent.<ref>{{cite web |author= Osman, Mohamed Nawab Mohamed |date=2007|title= Marginalisation and the Indian Community in Malaysia|work= RSIS Commentaries, (131/2007) |publisher=Nanyang Technological University |url=https://dr.ntu.edu.sg/bitstream/handle/10220/6011/rsisc131-07.pdf?sequence=1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060404214547/http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/english/Chapter16.pdf |archive-date=4 April 2006 |url=http://www.epu.jpm.my:80/rm9/english/Chapter16.pdf |title=Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010 |chapter=Chapter 16 - Achieving Growth with Distribution |access-date=23 March 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Politics==
[[File:Headquarters of MIC.JPG|thumb|Headquarters of MIC in [[Kuala Lumpur]].]]
The [[Malaysian Indian Congress]] (MIC) is the oldest and largest Indian political party in Malaysia. It is a senior member of the [[Barisan Nasional]] coalition. The [[All Malaysian Indian Progressive Front|Indian Progressive Front]] (IPF), another Indian-based party, is affiliated with Barisan Nasional but is not a formal member. The [[People's Progressive Party (Malaysia)|People's Progressive Party]] (PPP) is technically a multiracial party but its membership is overwhelmingly Indian. It is a member of the Barisan Nasional. The [[People's Justice Party]] (PKR) and [[Democratic Action Party]] (DAP) have a large Indian membership and have many Indian lawmakers. Both parties are members of the ruling [[Pakatan Harapan]] coalition. The [[Socialist Party of Malaysia]] (PSM), a minor opposition party, has a strong Indian presence. The [[Hindu Rights Action Force]] (Hindraf) was formed in 2007 to address alleged racial discrimination against Indian Malaysians. It was banned after it staged a large anti-government rally in [[Kuala Lumpur]] in 2007. Hindraf's political wing is the [[Human Rights Party (Malaysia)|Human Rights Party]] (HRP). The [[Malaysian Indian Muslim Congress]] (KIMMA) is a party that represents the interests of the [[Indian Muslim]] community. There is the [[Punjabi Party of Malaysia]] (PPM) which represents Malaysia's Punjabi community. The [[Malaysian Ceylonese Congress]] (MCC) represents Malaysia's [[Sri Lankan Tamil]] community who are technically not Indian but often regarded as such by most Malaysians. Other Indian fringe parties include the pro-Barisan Nasional [[Malaysian Indian United Party]] (MIUP), [[Malaysia Makkal Sakti Party]] (MMSP) and the latest [[Malaysian Indian Justice Party]] (MIJP). There was also the [[Democratic Malaysian Indian Party]] (DMIP) which has been dissolved.

In the [[Malaysian general election, 2018|Malaysian general election]] held in 2018, sixteen Indians were elected to the [[Dewan Rakyat]]. This is the [[Ethnic Indians in the Dewan Rakyat|highest number of Malaysian Indians elected to parliament]] in Malaysian history.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://littleindia.com/malaysia-gets-16-indian-origin-members-of-parliament/|title=Malaysia Gets 16 Indian-Origin Members of Parliament|date=2018-05-15|work=Little India: Overseas Indian, NRI, Asian Indian, Indian American|access-date=2018-06-07|language=en-US}}</ref>

[[HINDRAF]] is a current ally to the present [[Pakatan Harapan]] government. This is in addition to [[Democratic Action Party (Malaysia)|DAP]] and [[People's Justice Party (Malaysia)|PKR]] which are multiracial parties with Indian representatives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nst.com.my/node/369691/amp|title=Malaysian Indians have dropped MIC, opt for multiracial parties|website=www.nst.com.my|language=en|access-date=2018-06-07}}</ref>

There are currently [[Ethnic Indians in the Cabinet of Malaysia|4 ministers and 1 deputy minister]] from the Malaysian Indian community.

== Media and the performing arts ==
[[File:Indian Classical Dance.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tamils#Performing arts|Tamil classical dance]], performed in Malaysia.]]
{{See also|Malaysian Tamil Cinema |Anugerah Industri Muzik Malaysian-Indian|Lists of Tamil-language media in Malaysia}}
Satellite television provider [[Astro (Malaysian satellite television)|Astro]] provides several [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[satellite television|satellite]] [[television channels]]. [[Astro Vaanavil]] and state-owned [[Radio Televisyen Malaysia|RTM]] [[TV2 (Malaysia)|TV2]] broadcast locally produced [[Tamil language|Tamil]] shows. [[India]]-based channels available in [[Malaysia]] are [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]], [[Jaya TV]], [[Chutti TV]]. Thanga Thirai and [[Velli Thirai]] are [[Tamil language|Tamil]] movie channels while [[B4U (network)|Astro B4U]] is a [[Hindi language|Hindi]] movie channel. The Malaysian Indian community is an important market for the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film industry [[Kollywood]]. There are 2-[[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[radio stations]] of the state-owned [[Minnal FM]] and the privately owned [[THR.fm|THR Raaga]].

It is also customary for major Malaysian corporations to produce television commercials in conjunction with [[Deepavali]]. They generally pay tribute to the contributions of the Indian community to the nation and are well received by Indians of all faiths. The heart-warming Deepavali commercials by the state petroleum company [[Petronas]] are especially popular. Indian Malaysians have also contributed to the mainstream Malaysian entertainment industry. The Jayhawkers from Seremban led by one Joe Chelliah was the first non-Malay pop band with only Indian musicians that recorded popular commercial albums in Malay in the mid 1960s itself. More recent notable Indian Malaysian artists with multiracial appeal are [[Reshmonu]], [[Jaclyn Victor]], and [[Alleycats (Malaysian rock band)|Alleycats]]. Indian Malaysians have also made significant contributions to the Malaysian English theatre scene. Tamil [[hip hop]] was started in Malaysia by pioneers like rappers [[Chakra Sonic]], Yogi B and several others, which had since then made its way to Kollywood.

[[Bharata Natyam]], the Tamil classical dance of India, is an important feature of Tamil culture and is hence popular in Malaysia. Ramli Ibrahim and [[Mavin Khoo]] are two non-Indian Malaysians who are world-renowned [[Indian classical dance]] performers. The Temple of Fine Arts in Brickfields, Kuala Lumpur is an academy that provides training in traditional Indian dance and music. The [[urumi (drum)|urumee]] drums are often played at religious and cultural events. The [[nadaswaram]] is a traditional Indian wind instrument often played at Indian weddings in Malaysia.

==Cuisine==
{{Further|Malaysian Indian Cuisine}}
[[File:Bananaleafrice001.jpg|thumb| [[Banana leaf rice]].]]
The contribution of the Indian community to [[Malaysian cuisine]] is enormous. Indian cuisine has had a strong influence on traditional [[Malay cuisine]] resulting in the popularity of curries in Malaysia. Indian restaurants are well received by Malaysians from all ethnic and religious backgrounds. They have become an important fixture in everyday Malaysian life and are the venue of choice for watching live televised football matches. [[Mamak stall|Mamak]] restaurants and stalls refer to eateries owned and staffed by [[Indian Muslims]]. The word 'Mamak' is sometimes erroneously used to describe any Indian restaurant. [[Roti canai]], [[nasi kandar]], [[maggi goreng]] and [[pasembur]] (Mamak rojak) are Indian dishes unique to Malaysia. Nasi kandar is sold exclusively in [[Indian Muslim]] restaurants and the recipes are closely guarded secrets. Unlike Indian cuisine in the United Kingdom and other Western countries which tend to focus on [[North Indian cuisine]], Indian cuisine in Malaysia is largely based on [[South Indian cuisine]] as the Malaysian Indian diaspora is overwhelmingly Tamil, although some northern dishes such as [[tandoori chicken]] and [[naan]] bread are common. Southern breakfast delicacies such as [[idli]], [[vadai]] and [[dosa]] (spelled in Malaysia as 'thosai') are common. The [[appam]] is a favourite breakfast dish in Tamil homes. ''Idiyappam'' is known as [[putu mayam]] in Malay and usually sold by mobile motorcycle vendors. [[Murukku]] is made to mark [[Deepavali]]. Meals of rice with various vegetable and meat dishes along with other condiments are served on banana leaves in restaurants for lunch and dinner, and also in Indian households during special occasions. Mutton ([[goat meat]]) is highly favoured and served as either ''varuval'' (dry curry) or ''peratal'' (curry with a thick gravy). Fried bitter gourd, banana chips, [[papadam]], [[Rasam (dish)|rasam]], yoghurt and pickles are the usual condiments. Desserts and sweets include [[payasam]], [[halva]], [[mysore pak]], palgoa and ghee balls.
Some Indian foods have been widely adopted and localised. This includes but not limited to [[Murukku]], [[Adhirasam]] and [[Puttu]].

==Religion==
{{bar box
| title = Religions of Indian Malaysians<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf |title=2010 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia |language=ms, en |access-date=17 June 2012 |publisher=Department of Statistics, Malaysia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522234002/http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf |archive-date=22 May 2014 }} p. 82</ref>
| titlebar =#Fcd116
| left1 = Religion
| right1 = Percent
| float = right
| bars =
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|Orange|86.2}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|Blue|6.0}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|Green|4.1}}
{{bar percent|Other Religion|Brown|1.9}}
{{bar percent|[[Buddhism]]|Yellow|1.7}}
{{bar percent|[[Irreligion|No Religion]]|Black|0.05}}
{{bar percent|Folk Religion|Red|0.04}}
{{bar percent|Unknown|Gray|0.01}}

}}
The Indian community which mostly consist of [[Tamils]] follow Hinduism as the main faith. Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the Malay Peninsula from India around the 2nd century AD . The Indian-influenced kingdoms of Kadaram ([[Early history of Kedah|Old Kedah]]), and Ilangosagam ([[Langkasuka]]) practised Hinduism and Buddhism during the rule of the Malay-[[Srivijaya]] and Tamil-[[Chola]] kingdoms.<ref name=Arasaratnam1970>{{cite book | last = Arasaratnam| first = Sinnappah|title = Indians in Malaysia and Singapore| url = https://archive.org/details/indiansinmalaysi0000aras| url-access = registration| year = 1970| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = London| pages = [https://archive.org/details/indiansinmalaysi0000aras/page/4 4], 168, 169, 170, 171, & 175}}</ref> The early few Indians arrived and assimilated quickly into the local population through intermarriage.

The Chola King had also launched an attack via a naval expedition on several Malay Kingdoms. Subsequent to invasion, both Chola kingdom and south east Asian Hindu Buddhist kingdoms went into decline and many would later totally disappear, and kingdoms in Malaysia Indonesia were gradually Islamised. Hinduism is the most practiced religion amongst the Tamils, including both the major Hindu and Tamil pantheon of deities. Tamils of both Indian and Sri Lankan backgrounds practice Hinduism.

[[Sikhism]] is practiced mainly by [[Punjabi people|Punjabis]]. Many Sindhis also worship in Sikh Gurdwaras in Malaysia. Christianity is practiced by a minority of Tamil people. In Malaysia, most of the Indian Christians are either [[Catholic]], [[Anglican]], [[Methodist]], [[Lutheran]] or [[Evangelical]]. Trade contact with the Tamils predate the Islamic period (c. 570-632 AD), or the birth of Islam. Indonesians and Malays came to know about Islam initially through Gujarati merchants and further developed on by the Arab traders. Most of the Indian Muslim community has been absorbed into the larger Malay community due to their common religious background, with a substantially high level of assimilation and intermarriage between the communities. In Malaysia, [[Tamil Muslim]]s are often referred to as 'Mamaks' while [[Mappila|Malayalee Muslims]] are known as 'Kakas' or 'Malabaris'.
<gallery>
File:Batu caves.jpg|[[Batu Caves]]
File:Sri Mahamariamman Temple 2, central Kuala Lumpur.jpg| [[Sri Mahamariamman Temple, Kuala Lumpur|Sri Mahamariamman Temple]] in Kuala Lumpur
File:Bmcity.jpg|[[St. Anne's Church, Bukit Mertajam|St. Anne's Church]] in [[Bukit Mertajam]]
File:Masjid Kapitan Keling.jpg|[[Kapitan Keling Mosque]] in [[George Town, Penang|George Town]]
File:Tawau Sabah ThirumuruganTemple-01.jpg|Thirumurugan Temple in [[Tawau]]
</gallery>

==Festivals==
[[File:Thaipusam idols.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Idols carried in procession during Thaipusam at Batu Caves.]]
One of the biggest Hindu festivals in Malaysia is [[Thaipusam]]. Thaipusam is dedicated to the Tamil deity [[Murugan]] which occurs on the day in the [[Hindu calendar|Tamil month]] of ''Thai'' (January–February) when the asterism ''Poosam'' is on the ascendant. It is celebrated in grand style in the temples of, [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], [[Ipoh]] and [[Kuala Lumpur]] for three days.

In Kuala Lumpur, Thaipusam has become an almost national seat for ''Poosam'' celebrations. The venue of the Kuala Lumpur celebrations is a picturesque shrine right inside a cave that lies many feet above the ground, and can only be approached by a steep climb. This place, known as [[Batu Caves]], is about eight miles from the city, and a [[Temple car|chariot]] procession carrying the image of the deity to and from the place adds to the color and gaiety of the festival. Crowds from all over the country throng to the cave, including people of all classes and groups. It is above all a day of penance, on which many vows are fulfilled. A 42.7m high statue of Lord Murugan was built at Batu Caves and was unveiled in January 2006, having taken three years to construct.

One of the most significant rites performed is the carrying of the [[kavadi]], a large wooden decorated arch, as an act of penance. When deities are taken on procession from one shrine to another, they would be followed by a number of these voluntary kavadi-bearers. In other towns and estates, kavadis would be carried for other festivals like ''Chittirai Paruvam''. Some of the more rigid practitioners would bear spikes, spears, and hooks pierced into their bodies. The ''Chittirai Paruvam'' festival and festivals to the Tamil deity [[Mariamman]] are usually accompanied by a fire-walking ceremony.<ref name=Arasaratnam1970/>

[[Deepavali]], popularly known as the 'Festival of Lights', is another major Hindu festival which is celebrated by all Hindu communities. Tamils celebrate [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]] which is a harvest festival usually held from 13–16 January. A similar festival known as [[Makar Sankranti]] is celebrated by most other Indian communities while the Punjabis call their harvest festival [[Lohri]].

The Malayalees celebrate [[Vishu]], the Malayalee New Year which usually falls in the month of April or the month of Medam in the [[Malayalam calendar]]. [[Onam]] is the most popular festival celebrated by the Malayalee community and is usually observed in the month of August or September.

The Telugus celebrate [[Ugadi]], the Telugu New Year which is based on the [[lunar calendar]]; unlike [[Puthandu]], the Tamil New Year and [[Vasakhi]], the Sikh New Year which are based on the [[solar calendar]]. [[Makar Sankranti]] is an important festival for [[Telugu people|Telugu]] community also celebrated as Pongal by Tamils.

The festivals celebrated by Malaysian Indians who profess the Christian faith are [[Easter]], [[Christmas]] and [[All Souls' Day]] (mainly celebrated by Catholics). Indian Muslims observe [[Ramadan]], the Muslim month of fasting; and celebrate [[Hari Raya Aidilfitri#South-East Asia|Hari Raya Aidilfitri]] and [[Eid al-Adha|Hari Raya Aidiladha]].

==Influence toward Malaysian Culture==
Indian influences could be seen on modern Malaysia as well as on traditional Malay culture. The diffusion of Indian culture is demonstrated with the following examples:

*[[Malay folklore]] contains a rich number of Indian-influenced mythological characters, such as [[Bidadari]], [[Jatayu|Jentayu]], [[Garuda]] and [[Nāga|Naga]].
*[[Malaysian literature|Early Malay literature]] was highly influenced by Indian epics, such as the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]''.
*[[Wayang]] shadow puppets and classical dance-dramas of Malaysia took stories from episodes of ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata''.

===Language and names===
{{Main|Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world}}
A good number of Tamil inscriptions as well as Hindu and Buddhist icons emanating from South India have been found in Southeast Asia (and even in parts of [[Northern and southern China|south China]]). On the Malay Peninsula, inscriptions have been found at [[Takuapa]], not far from the [[Vishnuite]] statues of Khao Phra Narai in [[Southern Thailand]]. It is a short inscription indicating that an artificial lake named ''Avani-naranam'' was dug by ''nangur-Udaiyan'' which is the name of an individual who possessed a military [[fief]] at Nangur, being famous for his abilities as a warrior, and that the lake was placed under the protection of the members of the Manikkiramam (which according to K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, was a merchant guild) living in the military camp.<ref name=Sastri1949>{{cite journal | author = Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta | year = 1949| title = Takuapa and its Tamil Inscription Part I. | journal = Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society| volume = 22}}</ref>

An inscription dated 779 AD has been found in [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom|Ligor]], Malay Peninsula. This refers to the trade relationship between the [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil country]] and Malaya.<ref name=Arokiaswamy2000>{{cite book | last = Arokiaswamy| first = Celine W.M.| title = Tamil Influences in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines| year = 2000| location = Manila s.n.| pages = 37, 38, 41, 43, 45–49, 51–57}}</ref> In [[Bujang Valley|ancient Kedah]] there is an inscription found by Dr. [[Horace Geoffrey Quaritch Wales|Quaritch Wales]]. It is an inscribed stone bar, rectangular in shape, bears the ye-dharmma formula<ref group="nb">{{cite web
|url=http://www.virtualvinodh.com/brahmi-lipitva/208-ye-dhamma-brahmi
|title=Ye Dhamma - The Verse of Causation
|date=2 April 2012
|publisher=Vinodh's Virtual Cyber Space
|access-date=13 April 2012
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/66tUhUL3l?url=http://www.virtualvinodh.com/brahmi-lipitva/208-ye-dhamma-brahmi
|archive-date=13 April 2012
|quote=The Pali verse 'Ye Dhamma... ' is a popular verse in Buddhism that explains the heart of Buddhism Philosophy i.e Dependant Origination. The Sanskrit version of the verse is called "Pratityasamutpada Hridaya Dharani" [The Heart Dharani of Dependant Origination] with Om added to the beginning of the Verse, and Svaha added at the end, thus Dharani-fying the entire verse. The Pali version never seems to have had any specific title.
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> in [[Vatteluttu alphabet|South Indian characters]] of the 4th century AD, thus proclaiming the Buddhist character of the shrine near the find-spot (site I) of which only the basement survives. The inscriptions are on three faces in ''Pallava Grantha script''. The Ruler Raja Ganga fled from his empire into the forests with his queen and an infant heir. Raja Ganga left traces of hideout on a nearby hill in form of artefacts on stones. All these inscriptions, both [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Sanskrit]] ones, relate to the activities of the people and rulers of the Tamil country of South India. The [[Tamil script|Tamil inscriptions]] are at least four centuries posterior to the Sanskrit inscriptions, from which the early Tamils themselves were patronizers of the Sanskrit language.<ref name=Arokiaswamy2000/> The Cherok Tokun Ancient Inscriptions were first documented by Colonel James Low, a British army officer, in 1845. In his log, Low recorded his disappointment of not finding a more spectacular ruin, expecting to find an ancient temple ruin. He documented what he made out to be "a group of seven inscriptions". The inscriptions were believed to be in pre-Pallava script and written in Sanskrit. They were attributed to the ancient Kingdom of Kadaaram, which flourished in northern Malaysia in the 5th to 6th centuries. However, according to J Laidlay, who translated the text in 1848, the inscription was in fact written in [[Pali]] - another ancient language of the Indian subcontinent.

An element needed to carry out commercial transactions is a common language understood by all parties involved in early trade. Historians such as J.V. Sebastian, K.T. Thirunavukkarasu, and A.W. Hamilton record that Tamil was the common language of commerce in Malaysia and Indonesia during historical times.<ref name="Arokiaswamy2000"/> The maritime Tamil significance in Sumatran and Malay Peninsula trading continued for centuries and borrowings into Malay from Tamil increased between the 15th and 19th centuries due to their commercial activities. In the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company was obliged to use Tamil as part of its correspondence. In Malacca and other seaports up to the 19th century, Malay terminology pertaining to book-keeping and accountancy was still largely Tamil.<ref name=Sneddon2003/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Tamil
!Malay
!English
|-
| Akka
(அக்கா)
| kakak
| elder sister
|-
| Kadai
(கடை)
| kedai
| shop
|-
| Kappal
(கப்பல்)
| kapal
| ship
|-
| Muthu
(முத்து)
| mutiara
| pearl
|-
| Vagai
(வகை)
| bagai
| variety/ like
|-
| Bhashai
(பாஷை)
| bahasa
| language
|-
| Tharmam
(தர்மம்)
| derma
| charity
|-
| Toppi
(தொப்பி)
| topi
| hat
|-
| Thaagam
(தாகம்)
| dahaga
| thirsty
|}

===Infrastructure===
Indians have contributed significantly to the building of Malaysia since the 19th century. The Indian workforce was instrumental in the clearing of land for infrastructure, established rubber plantations, built the roads, set up transmission lines as well as managed early Malayan railways, ports and airports. Indian doctors, chemists and veterinarians formed the bulk of medical personnel in Malaysia - their contributions still persist to present day. Indian civil servants formed the core of the civil service both pre- and post-independence. Indian teachers who were particularly fluent in the English language formed the backbone of Malaysian education, particularly in missionary schools. Indians also pioneered private education in Malaysia.

==Diaspora==
A number of Malaysian Indian immigrants are found in Australia, and they tended to be highly qualified and speak English fluently and were therefore highly employable.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins|last = Jupp|first = James|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2001|isbn = 9780521807890|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=wgoFxfSTfYAC&pg=PA432 |pages = 432}}</ref> There is also a small community of [[Indian Australian|Australians of Indian descent]] on the [[Australia]]n [[States and territories of Australia|external territory]] of [[Christmas Island]] who live alongside other Australians of ethnic Malaysian Chinese, Malay and European descent.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins|last = Jupp|first = James|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2001|isbn = 9780521807890|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=wgoFxfSTfYAC&pg=PA225 |pages = 225}}</ref>

==Notable people==
{{Main|List of Malaysian Indians}}

Among the notable people of Indian descent in Malaysia are [[K. Thamboosamy Pillay]], a significant figure of early [[Kuala Lumpur]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L_hwAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of Kuala Lumpur 1856–1939|first=J.M. |last=Gullick|publisher=The Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|year=2000|pages=43, 135, 140|isbn=9789679948158}}</ref> and [[Karpal Singh]], [[V. David]] and [[Samy Vellu]], all prominent [[List of Malaysian politicians of Indian descent|Malaysian Indian politicians]]. A number of notable Malays, including [[Mahathir Mohamad]], also have part-Indian ancestry.

==Challenges for the future==

Despite the fact that the average income of Malaysian Indians exceeds that of their Malay counterparts, there exists substantial portion of the community who are poor, with 40% of Malaysian Indians claimed to be at the bottom rung of the income ladder.<ref name="malaymail2015">{{cite news |url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/yps-40pc-of-indians-in-malaysia-still-at-bottom-rung-of-the-income-ladder |title=YPS: 40pc of Malaysian Indians still at bottom rung of the income ladder |work=The Malay Mail |date=15 May 2015 |author=Bernama}}</ref> Despite the obvious need of the poor, Malaysian Indians are not eligible for any of Malaysia's affirmative-action programmes, which are reserved for Malays and select indigenous people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/05/18/race-based-affirmative-action-is-failing-poor-malaysians |title=Race-based affirmative action is failing poor Malaysians |date=18 May 2017 }}</ref><ref name=ragesh>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-30861620071206 |title=Malaysian Indian leader seeks affirmative action |first=Y.P. |last=Rajesh |work=Reuters|date= 6 December 2007}}</ref> What has further added to the challenges faced by the community is religious conflict due to increasing Islamisation,<ref name=ragesh /> and there were communal clashes between Indians and Malays such as the [[2001 Kampung Medan riots]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1228679.stm |title=Ethnic strife shakes Malaysia |date= 18 March 2001 |work=BBC }}</ref> as well as protest over racial discrimination and temple demolitions during the [[2007 HINDRAF rally]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/Malaysian-Indians-a-disadvantaged-community/article14889855.ece |title=Malaysian Indians: a disadvantaged community |date=7 December 2007 |work=The Hindu |author=V. Suryanarayan}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-malaysia-protest/indian-protest-rocks-malaysia-ahead-of-polls-idUSKLR16504820071125 |title=Indian protest rocks Malaysia ahead of polls |author=Mark Bendeich |author2=Clarence Fernandez |work=Reuters |date=25 November 2007 }}</ref> These factors in part have resulted in the migration of many highly skilled Malaysian Indians abroad, where Indian migrants are largely upwardly mobile. A survey in 2017 found that 42% of Malaysian Indians who had completed their secondary or tertiary education wanted to emigrate.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cipd.asia/news/hr-news/malaysia-brain-drain |title= Malaysia 'must address issue of brain drain' |date=23 August 2017 |author= Poorna Rodrigo |author2=EK Heng NG }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="2015 population">{{cite web|url=http://pmr.penerangan.gov.my/index.php/info-terkini/19463-unjuran-populasi-penduduk-2015.html|title=Population by States and Ethnic Group|publisher=Department of Information, Ministry of Communications and Multimedia, Malaysia|year=2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212125740/http://pmr.penerangan.gov.my/index.php/info-terkini/19463-unjuran-populasi-penduduk-2015.html|archive-date=12 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="population">{{cite web|url=https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 |title=Current Population Estimates, Malaysia, 2014 - 2016 |work=Department of Statistics, Malaysia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812014710/https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column%2FcthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 |archive-date=12 August 2016 }}</ref>
}}

=== Notes ===
{{reflist|group=nb}}

=== Bibliography ===
* "Tragic Orphans: Indians in Malaysia" by Carl Vadivella Belle, Publisher: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, {{ISBN|978-981-4519-03-8}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TeExjdWUmJYC&pg=PA162|title=Indian Communities in Southeast Asia |edition=First Reprint |editor=K S Sandhu |editor2=A Mani |first=Kernial Singh |last=Sandhu|publisher=ISEAS Publishing |date=30 January 2006|isbn=978-9812304186}}

{{Ethnic groups in Malaysia}}
{{Indians in Malaysia}}
{{NRI-PIO}}

[[Category:Malaysian people of Indian descent| ]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora by country|Malaysia]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Malaysia| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Malaysia|Indian]]
[[Category:Immigration to Malaysia]]
[[Category:India–Malaysia relations]]

Malaysian Indians

2020-12-14T17:21:49Z

175.141.124.220:

{{Short description|Ethnic group}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Malaysian Indians
| native_name = {{lang|ta|மலேசிய இந்தியர்கள்}}
Orang India Malaysia
| native_name_lang =
| image = [[File:Indian Classical Dance.jpg|300px]]
| caption =
| population = '''2,012,600''' (2015)<ref name="2015 population"/> '''7.0%''' of the Malaysian population (2016)<ref name="population"/>
| popplace = {{flagicon|MAS}} '''[[Peninsular Malaysia#East Coast and West Coast|West coast]] of [[Peninsular Malaysia]]'''
(mostly in [[Selangor]], [[Negeri Sembilan]], [[Perak]], [[Penang]], [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Kedah]] and [[Johor]]) '''{{flag|Singapore}}''' (20,483 in 2010)<ref name="singstat.gov.sg">{{cite web|url=https://www.singstat.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/publications/publications_and_papers/cop2010/census_2010_advance_census_release/c2010acr.pdf|title=Census of Population 2010|work=Singapore Department of Statistics|access-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016193638/https://www.singstat.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/publications/publications_and_papers/cop2010/census_2010_advance_census_release/c2010acr.pdf|archive-date=16 October 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| langs = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (majority) • [[Malay language|Malay]] • [[Malaysian English|English]] • [[Manglish]] (creole) • Other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] such as [[Telugu language|Telugu]] • [[Malayalam]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| rels = '''Predominantly''' [[Hinduism]]
 '''Minorities''' [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Buddhism]]{{·}}[[Sikhism]]{{·}}[[Jainism]]{{·}}[[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]]
| related = [[Indian Singaporeans]], [[Indians in Brunei|Bruneian Indians]], [[Indian Indonesians]], [[Chitty]], [[Chindians]]
}}
{{Contains special characters|Tamil}}
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}

'''Malaysian Indians''' or '''Indian Malaysians''' ({{lang-ta|மலேசிய இந்தியர்கள்}}), are a local ethnic group in Malaysia. The group is defined as local [[Malaysians]] of Indian or South Asian ancestry. Today, they form the third largest group in Malaysia after the [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] and the [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese]]. Most are descendants of those who migrated from India to Malaysia during the [[British Malaya|British colonisation of Malaya]].

Majority of Malaysian Indians are ethnic [[Tamils|Tamil Indians]], with other smaller groups such as [[Malayali]], [[Telugu people|Telugu]], [[Sikhs]] and others. Malaysian Indians form the 5th largest community of [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Overseas Indians]] in the world. Within Malaysia, they represent the third largest group (constituting 7% of the Malaysian population), after the ethnic [[Malaysian Malay|Malay]] and [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese]].<ref name="themalaymailonline.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/population-to-hit-30-million-today-statistics-department-says|title=Population to hit 30 million this week, Statistics Department says|newspaper=Malay Mail|date=26 February 2014|access-date=4 February 2018}}</ref> They are usually simply referred to as "Indian" in Malaysia, ''Orang India'' in Malay, "''Yin du ren''" in Chinese.

Malaysia's Indian population is notable for its class stratification, with large elite and lower income groups and diverse racial differences even within its fold. Malaysian Indians make up a disproportionately large percentage of professionals per capita - constituting 15.5% of Malaysia's professionals in 1999.<ref name="Haque">{{cite journal|title=The Role of the State in Managing Ethnic Tensions in Malaysia|journal= American Behavioral Scientist|volume= 47|number= 3|date=November 2003|pages=240–266|url=http://profile.nus.edu.sg/fass/polhaque/abs.pdf|author=M. Shamsul Haque|doi=10.1177/0002764203256186|s2cid= 53021386}}</ref> As of a census taken in 1984, up to 38% of the nation's medical professional workforce consists of Malaysian Indians.<ref name="Haque" /> In 1970, the per capita income of Malaysian Indians was 76% higher than that of the [[Malaysian Malay|Malay majority]].<ref name="Malaysiaincome">{{cite journal|last1=Saari|first1= M Yusof|last2=Dietzenbacher|first2=Erik|last3=Los|first3=Bart|title=Sources of Income Growth and Inequality Across Ethnic Groups in Malaysia, 1970–2000|url=http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/800401478218903632/Sources-of-Income-Growth-and-Inequality-Across-Ethnic-Groups.pdf|journal=World Development|year= 2015|volume=76|pages=311–328|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.07.015|access-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Despite somewhat fruitful attempts by the Malaysian government to redistribute wealth since the 1970s, Malaysian Indians still earn a 27% higher per capita income than that of the dominant Malay community as seen in data released in 2005.<ref name="Malaysiaincome"/> A substantial number of Malaysian Indians however remain among the poorest in the country.<ref name="malaymail2015"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianmalaysian.com/forgotten_community.htm |title=Many of Malaysia's poor are Indians |work=Indian Malaysian Online }}</ref>

==History==

===First Wave: Pre-colonial period===
{{main|Greater India}}
[[File:Candi Batu Pahat of Bujang Valley.jpg|left|upright|thumb|Candi Bukit Batu Pahat of [[Bujang Valley]]. A Hindu-Buddhist kingdom ruled ancient [[Kedah]] possibly as early as 110 A.D, the earliest evidence of strong Indian influence which was once prevalent among the pre-Islamic [[Kedahan Malay]]s.]]
[[Indian History|Ancient India]] exerted a profound influence over Southeast Asia through trade, religious missions, wars and other forms of contact. Pre-colonial Malaysia was part of 'Indianised Kingdoms' such as [[Srivijaya]], Kadaram and the [[Majapahit]], which formed part of a cultural region known as [[Greater India]]. There is a possibility that the first wave of migration from South Asia towards Southeast Asia happened during Asoka's invasion towards Kalinga and [[Samudragupta]]'s expedition towards the South.<ref>{{cite book|first=Balaji|last=Sadasivan|title=The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India|year=2011|pages=135–136|isbn=978-9814311670}}</ref>
[[File:Battle of kedah.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A Siamese painting depicting the [[Chola invasion of Kadaram|Chola raid on Kadaram]] (modern day [[Kedah]]) in year 1025.]]

The Arab and Indian traders had travelled this region including the southern tip of South East Asia the peninsula with maritime trade,<ref name=Sneddon2003>{{cite book | last = Sneddon| first = James|title = The Indonesian Language: Its history and role in modern society| year = 2003| publisher = University of South Wales Press Ltd| location = Sydney| page = 73}}</ref> the [[Sailendra]] kings of [[Java]] originating from [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] were able to take control of the [[Peninsular Malaysia|Peninsular]] and part of southern [[Siam]]. The kings welcomed Buddhist missionaries from India, accepting their teaching of the [[Mahayana]] sect, which spread through their territories. However, central and northeastern Thailand continued to adhere to the Hinayana teachings of the Theravada sect, which had been introduced by missionaries sent by the emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC.
Another theory of the introduction of Buddhism after Indian arrived in the peninsula is that after Kalinga conquered lower [[Burma]] in the 8th century their influence gradually spread down the peninsula. The ancient Indian Kalinga was located in southeastern India occupying modern day Orissa and northern Andhra Pradesh. In the 7th century an Indonesian kingdom was named Kalingga<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hgtVFGCJkj0C&pg=PT20 Sejarah SMA/MA Kls XI-Bahasa By H Purwanta, dkk]</ref> after the aforementioned Kalinga in India. Chinese sources mention this kingdom (''Holing'') as a center for Buddhist scholars around 604 before it was overshadowed by the Sanjaya or [[Mataram Kingdom]]. The most famous Kalingga ruler is Ratu Sima.

There is evidence of the existence of [[Indianised kingdom]]s such as [[Gangga Negara]], Old [[Kedah]], [[Srivijaya]] since approximately 1700 years ago.<ref name="Volume 7 2009">European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 7, Number 3 (2009)</ref> Early contact between the kingdoms of [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamilakkam]] and the Malay peninsula had been very close during the reigns of the [[Pallava dynasty]] (from the 4th to the 9th century CE) and [[Chola dynasty]] (from the 9th to the 13th century CE). The trade relations the Tamil merchants had with the ports of [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]] led to the emergence of Indianised kingdoms like Kadaram ([[Bujang Valley|Old Kedah]]) and [[Langkasuka|Langkasugam]].<ref name=International2000>{{cite book|last = International Tamil Language Foundation|title = The Handbook of Tamil Culture and Heritage| year = 2000| publisher = International Tamil Language Foundation| location = Chicago| page = 877}}</ref> Furthermore, Chola king [[Rajendra Chola I]] sent an expedition to Kadaram ([[Srivijaya]]) during the 11th century conquering that country on behalf of one of its rulers who sought his protection and to have established him on the throne. The Cholas had a powerful [[Merchant Navy|merchant]] and [[naval fleet]] in the Indian Ocean and the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Three kinds of craft are distinguished by the author of the ''Periplus'' – light coasting boats for local traffic, larger vessels of a more complicated structure and greater carrying capacity, and lastly the big ocean-going vessels that made the voyages to Malaya, [[Sumatra]], and the [[Ganges]].<ref name=Sastri2000>{{cite book | last = Sastri| first = K.A. Nilakanta|title = Cholas| orig-year = 1935 | edition = fifth printing | year = 2000| publisher = University of Madras| location = Chennai| pages = 86 & 318}}</ref> In [[Malacca Sultanate]], the [[Chitty]] people, played a huge role in Malacca's administration of the local ports such as [[Raja Mudaliar]], Syahbandar (Chief of Port) of Malacca and [[Bendahara]] [[Tun Mutahir of Malacca|Tun Mutahir]], a famous [[Bendahara]] of the [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malaccan Sultanate]].

===Second Wave: Colonial period===
[[File:SS Rajula.jpg|thumb|''SS Rajula'', operating her fortnightly "Straits Service" between [[Madras]] to Penang, [[Port Klang]] and Singapore from 1926 to 1972. The vessel transported many Indian migrants between South India to then-[[British Malaya]] as well as independent Malaysia.]]
Following the Portuguese colonisation of [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malacca]] ([[Malaysia]]) in 1511, the Portuguese government encouraged their explorers to bring their married Indian women who were converted already to Roman Catholic Christianity, under a policy set by [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], then [[Viceroy]] of [[Portuguese India|India]]. These people were [[Goan Catholics]] ([[Konkani people|Konkani]] Catholics) and [[East Indians]] (Catholics of [[Marathi people|Marathi descent]]). [[Kupari]]s who were of mixed Samvedic Brahmin, Goan and Portuguese descent also arrived. Their children already intermarried with Malay population, losing their ethnic identities. British acquisition of [[Penang]], [[Melaka]], and [[Singapore]] - the Straits Settlements from 1786 to 1824 started a steady inflow of Indian labour. This consisted of traders, policemen, plantation labourers and colonial soldiers (see [[sepoy]]s). Apart from this there was also substantial migration of Indians to work in the British colonial government, due to their general good command of the English language.<ref name="Volume 7 2009"/>

[[File:The Indian Stick Display at Balik Pulau, Penang in 1937.jpg|thumb|left|[[Thaipusam]] Celebration in [[Balik Pulau]], [[Penang]]. 1937]]
The establishment of the plantations and the need for cheap labour led to an influx of Indian migrants working under the indenture [[Kangani system]] in the 19th and early 20th century. Some, after the Kangani system ended in the early 20th century, also paid for their own passage to Malaya. These migrant workers were primarily Tamils (around 80%), with some [[Telugus]], [[Malayalis]] as well as other groups from northern India. The Tamils were primarily non-Brahmin middle-ranking or low caste Hindus, including [[Gounder]], [[Kallar (caste)|Kallar]], [[Muthuraja]], [[Pallar]], [[Vanniyar]] and [[Paraiyar]], the Telugus include [[Kamma (caste)|Kamma]] and [[Reddy]], while the Malayali were mostly from the [[Velakkathala Nair|Nayar]] caste.<ref name="rajoo">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-AR-V3ymAzoC&pg=PA150|title= Malaysian World-view|editor= Mohd. Taib Osman |author=R. Rajoo |pages= 149–150 |publisher=Inst of Southeast Asian Studies |date=1985|isbn= 978-9971988128}}</ref> These workers were distinct from the commercial and educated group of urban Indians, who were often high caste or high and middle class Tamils, Telugus, Malayali, [[Punjabis]], [[Sindhis]], [[Gujaratis]], [[Marwaris]] and others. These urban Indians may be Hindus, Christians, Sikhs or Muslims. The [[Sikhs]] mainly worked in the police force, while other northern Indians were involved in business. The Malayali, Ceylonese and Christian Tamils may be involved in government and private [[White-collar worker|white-collar work]], the [[Chettiar]] in money-lending or finance, while the [[Vellalar]] and Muslim Tamils may be in various kind of businesses.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-AR-V3ymAzoC&pg=PA151|title= Malaysian World-view|editor= Mohd. Taib Osman |author=R. Rajoo |pages= 150–151 |publisher=Inst of Southeast Asian Studies |date=1985|isbn= 978-9971988128}}</ref>

The Indian population in [[British Malaya|pre-independence Malaya]] and Singapore was predominantly adult males who were single or with family back in [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Hence the population fluctuated frequently with periods of immigration to Malaya and periods of exodus of people back to India. As early as 1901 the Indian population in the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States was approximately 120,000. By 1931 there were 640,000 Indians in Malaya and Singapore and they even outnumbered the native [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] in the state of [[Selangor]] that year.

However, during [[World War II]] many Indian men and women left for [[Burma]] as part of the [[Indian National Army]] with thousands thought to have perished. As a result, the population of Indians in 1957 had only increased to 820,000. While immigration was a major factor for the increase in population until Independence, the population growth began falling after that as the white collar classes in the civil service and plantations left when British institutions and companies left the country. Since then, lower birth rates and emigration to countries like [[Singapore]], [[Australia]], [[UK]], etc. in search of better educational and economic opportunities meant that Indians continue to see their share of Malaysia's population decline just as is the case with the [[Chinese people|Chinese]]. Today, Malaysian Indians account for approximately 7 per cent of the total population of Malaysia (approx. 2 million) and 9 per cent in Singapore (450,000).

===Third Wave : Contemporary period===
From the 1990s to the present period, there has also been a much smaller wave of Indian nationals into Singapore and Malaysia to work in the construction and engineering industry, restaurants, the IT sector, teaching and finance with many taking up permanent residence in Singapore where they account for nearly a quarter of the Singapore population. The unskilled labour mainly work in Indian restaurants. There are also foreign spouses from the Indian Subcontinent who are married to local Indians. Like the [[Malaysian Chinese]], the [[Social contract (Malaysia)|failure]] to live under [[Social equality|equal concepts]] has led to "strong identification with Indian identity" from every ethnic Malaysians Indians.

==Demographics==
{{Main|Malaysian Indian in Penang|Tamil Malaysians|Malaysian Malayali|Malaysian Telugu|Chitty}}
[[File:Little India (Johor Bahru).jpg|thumb|Little India in [[Johor Bahru]], [[Johor]].]]
[[File:Little India (Melaka).jpg|thumb|Little India in [[Melaka City]], [[Melaka]].]]
[[File:Karutha Naicker Hall.jpg|thumb|Tangkak District Indian Association in [[Tangkak]], [[Johor]].]]
[[File:MalaysianIndians.jpg|thumb|Malaysian Indian boys, 2009]]
7.0% of the Malaysian population are Indians as of 2016.<ref name="population"/>

There is a close correspondence between the ethnic and occupational divisions of the South Asian community, and this is inevitably reflected in the community's geographical distribution in Malaya. The South Indian Tamils were the majority throughout the country, on the rubber estates and railways, though a significant proportion found employment on the docks in [[Penang]] and [[Singapore]].
Selangor is the state with the most number of Indians in terms of absolute number whereas Negeri Sembilan is the state with the highest proportion of Malaysian Indians making up the population.<ref name="2015 population"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan="2"| State
!colspan="4" |Population{{ref|1|A}}
|-
!colspan="2" style= "width:9em;"|2010<ref name="demo">{{cite web |url= http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf|title= 2010 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205104835/http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2013 |publisher=Department of Statistics, Malaysia |pages=11, 62–81}}</ref>
!colspan="2" style="width:9em;"|2015<ref name="2015 population"/>{{ref|2|B}}
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Johor]]
| 217,058
| 7.1%
| 230,700
| 7.0%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Kedah]]
|136,482
|7.3%
|143,200
|7.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Kelantan]]
|3,849
|0.3%
|4,800
|0.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Malacca]]
|49,037
|6.2%
|51,400
|6.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Negeri Sembilan]]
| 146,214
|15.2%
|154,000
|14.9%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Pahang]]
|63,065
|4.4%
|66,300
|4.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Perak]]
||281,688
|12.3%
|293,300
|12.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Penang]]
|153,472
|10.4%
|166,000
|10.6%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Perlis]]
|2,745
|1.2%
|3,100
|1.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Sabah]]
|7,453
|0.3%
|12,200
|0.5%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Sarawak]]
|7,411
|0.3%
|7,900
|0.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Selangor]]
|679,130
|13.5%
|712,000
|13.2%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Terengganu]]
|2,397
|0.2%
|3,000
|0.3%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Kuala Lumpur]]
|156,316
|10.3%
|163,000
|10.1%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Labuan]]
|641
|0.9%
|800
|0.9%
|-
|style="text-align:left;" |[[Putrajaya]]
|869
|1.5%
|900
|1.0%
|}

*{{note|1|Note A}} Non-citizens are excluded in figures and percentage
*{{note|2|Note B}} Population estimates are rounded to the nearest hundred.

== Education ==
The economic state of Malaysian Indians is stratified and the distribution of wealth is uneven. However, while many Indians are part of the Malaysian [[working class]], there also exists a large group of educated [[upper middle class]] professionals.

Indians are well represented in Malaysian medical and legal fraternities. Indians also form a large portion of English language teachers in Malaysia. Law and medicine have traditionally been the preferred career choices in Indian families although more young Indian Malaysians are now venturing into other fields such as engineering, finance and entrepreneurship. [[Ananda Krishnan]] and [[Tony Fernandes]] are examples of notable Malaysian [[tycoon]]s of Indian heritage. There are major Indian business districts in [[Kuala Lumpur]] ([[Brickfields]], Jalan Ampang and [[Jalan Masjid India]]); (Lebuh Pasar) in [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], Penang; Jalan Tengku Kelana<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.visitselangor.com/little-india-klang/|title=Little India, Klang|work=VisitSelangor.com|access-date=25 April 2017}}</ref> in [[Klang, Malaysia|Klang]], Selangor; and [[Ipoh]], Perak. [[Education in Malaysia|Tamil primary schools]] are funded by the [[Government of Malaysia|Federal Government]] and use Tamil as the medium of instruction while Malay and English are taught as compulsory subjects. The government's failure to impose Malay as the sole unifying language throughout the country's educational systems unlike in China with [[Standard Chinese]] or Indonesia with [[Indonesian language]] are mainly attributed to the racial-based policy enforcement of ethnic inclusion and exclusion.{{sfn|Kee|Hill|Yin|2016|p=78}} Some argue that the educational policies imposed by the federal government over the years in regard to minority language education have created negative consequences for Malaysian youth: a mounting [[human capital flight|brain drain]] in particular. A study from 2000 found that the country had lost an ample amount of talented and skilled youth to other more favourable countries as the result of students form the large non-Malay minority language communities being forced to go to university abroad because they did not attend Malay language schools.{{sfn|Defillippi|Arthur|Lindsay|2009|p=117}}{{sfn|Fong|Zubair|2017|p=15}}

==Economy and employment==
There are considerable differences socially and economically between different groups of Indians in Malaysia. They form a significant part of the professional classes in Malaysia; in a census taken in 1999, Malaysian Indians were 15.5% of Malaysia's professional workforce.<ref name="Haque" /> These include doctors (28.4%), lawyers (26.8%), dentists (21%), veterinary surgeons (28.5%), engineers (6.4%), accountants (5.8%), surveyors (3.0%) and architects (1.5%).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thestar.com.my/news/community/2013/11/23/unite-as-a-community/|title=Unite as a community|last=Rajah|first=M|date=23 Nov 2013|website=The Star}}</ref> However, many Indians are also ranked amongst the most disadvantaged. In 1970, around 39% of Indians in Malaysia were ranked among the poorest of the country.<ref name="Haque"/> Incidence of poverty (those in the lowest 40% of the national income distribution) in Malaysia was 27.3% Indians.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=375}} Official figures suggest that the percentage of Indians living below the official poverty line has decreased from 39.2% in 1970 to 1.9% in 2002, but the figures have been criticised as inaccurate.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://cpps.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Low-Income-Malaysian-Indians-9MP-Recommendations.pdf |title= Ensuring Effective Targeting of Ethnic Minorities: The Case of Low Income Malaysian Indians|work=Centre for Public Policy Studies }}</ref> It has been claimed around 40% of Indians are at the bottom rung of the income ladder in 2015.<ref name="malaymail2015"/>

[[File:KITLV - 79935 - Kleingrothe, C.J. - Medan - Sowing on a rubber plantation in Malaysia - circa 1910.tif|thumb|Workers in a plantation {{circa}} 1910]]
Many of the early South Indian immigrants such as the Tamils and Telugus worked in the agriculture sector, in particular as workers in plantations. In 1930, 60% of all Indians were in this sector, and by 1970, 45% of Indians were still involved in agriculture in Malaysia.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=162}} Sri Lanka Tamils mainly occupied the subordinate administrative and technical positions in estates, positions they still dominate to this day.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=166}} Also in the estates are the Malayalis who hold assistant and managerial positions. Few of these estates however are Indian-owned.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=167}} Indians are also prominent in the transport and communication sector, either as labourers or as administrative and technical staff.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|pages=172–173}}

Many Indians are also involved in business and trade, the majority of the privately owned businesses belong to the [[Chettiar]]s.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=173–175}} The Sikhs and other Punjabis were initially recruited by the British to serve in the police and armed forces, and while in modern times these areas are now dominated by Malays, the descendants of Sikhs and other Punjabi are now found in every sphere of the economy, in particular as professionals, and in the mercantile and money-lending business.{{sfn|Sandhu|2006|page=162}}

According to the [[Ninth Malaysia Plan]] report of 2006, Malaysian Indians also controlled only 1.2 percent of the corporate wealth in Malaysia, down from the previous figure of 1.5 percent.<ref>{{cite web |author= Osman, Mohamed Nawab Mohamed |date=2007|title= Marginalisation and the Indian Community in Malaysia|work= RSIS Commentaries, (131/2007) |publisher=Nanyang Technological University |url=https://dr.ntu.edu.sg/bitstream/handle/10220/6011/rsisc131-07.pdf?sequence=1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060404214547/http://www.epu.jpm.my/rm9/english/Chapter16.pdf |archive-date=4 April 2006 |url=http://www.epu.jpm.my:80/rm9/english/Chapter16.pdf |title=Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010 |chapter=Chapter 16 - Achieving Growth with Distribution |access-date=23 March 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Politics==
[[File:Headquarters of MIC.JPG|thumb|Headquarters of MIC in [[Kuala Lumpur]].]]
The [[Malaysian Indian Congress]] (MIC) is the oldest and largest Indian political party in Malaysia. It is a senior member of the [[Barisan Nasional]] coalition. The [[All Malaysian Indian Progressive Front|Indian Progressive Front]] (IPF), another Indian-based party, is affiliated with Barisan Nasional but is not a formal member. The [[People's Progressive Party (Malaysia)|People's Progressive Party]] (PPP) is technically a multiracial party but its membership is overwhelmingly Indian. It is a member of the Barisan Nasional. The [[People's Justice Party]] (PKR) and [[Democratic Action Party]] (DAP) have a large Indian membership and have many Indian lawmakers. Both parties are members of the ruling [[Pakatan Harapan]] coalition. The [[Socialist Party of Malaysia]] (PSM), a minor opposition party, has a strong Indian presence. The [[Hindu Rights Action Force]] (Hindraf) was formed in 2007 to address alleged racial discrimination against Indian Malaysians. It was banned after it staged a large anti-government rally in [[Kuala Lumpur]] in 2007. Hindraf's political wing is the [[Human Rights Party (Malaysia)|Human Rights Party]] (HRP). The [[Malaysian Indian Muslim Congress]] (KIMMA) is a party that represents the interests of the [[Indian Muslim]] community. There is the [[Punjabi Party of Malaysia]] (PPM) which represents Malaysia's Punjabi community. The [[Malaysian Ceylonese Congress]] (MCC) represents Malaysia's [[Sri Lankan Tamil]] community who are technically not Indian but often regarded as such by most Malaysians. Other Indian fringe parties include the pro-Barisan Nasional [[Malaysian Indian United Party]] (MIUP), [[Malaysia Makkal Sakti Party]] (MMSP) and the latest [[Malaysian Indian Justice Party]] (MIJP). There was also the [[Democratic Malaysian Indian Party]] (DMIP) which has been dissolved.

In the [[Malaysian general election, 2018|Malaysian general election]] held in 2018, sixteen Indians were elected to the [[Dewan Rakyat]]. This is the [[Ethnic Indians in the Dewan Rakyat|highest number of Malaysian Indians elected to parliament]] in Malaysian history.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://littleindia.com/malaysia-gets-16-indian-origin-members-of-parliament/|title=Malaysia Gets 16 Indian-Origin Members of Parliament|date=2018-05-15|work=Little India: Overseas Indian, NRI, Asian Indian, Indian American|access-date=2018-06-07|language=en-US}}</ref>

[[HINDRAF]] is a current ally to the present [[Pakatan Harapan]] government. This is in addition to [[Democratic Action Party (Malaysia)|DAP]] and [[People's Justice Party (Malaysia)|PKR]] which are multiracial parties with Indian representatives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nst.com.my/node/369691/amp|title=Malaysian Indians have dropped MIC, opt for multiracial parties|website=www.nst.com.my|language=en|access-date=2018-06-07}}</ref>

There are currently [[Ethnic Indians in the Cabinet of Malaysia|4 ministers and 1 deputy minister]] from the Malaysian Indian community.

== Media and the performing arts ==
[[File:Indian Classical Dance.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tamils#Performing arts|Tamil classical dance]], performed in Malaysia.]]
{{See also|Malaysian Tamil Cinema |Anugerah Industri Muzik Malaysian-Indian|Lists of Tamil-language media in Malaysia}}
Satellite television provider [[Astro (Malaysian satellite television)|Astro]] provides several [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[satellite television|satellite]] [[television channels]]. [[Astro Vaanavil]] and state-owned [[Radio Televisyen Malaysia|RTM]] [[TV2 (Malaysia)|TV2]] broadcast locally produced [[Tamil language|Tamil]] shows. [[India]]-based channels available in [[Malaysia]] are [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]], [[Jaya TV]], [[Chutti TV]]. Thanga Thirai and [[Velli Thirai]] are [[Tamil language|Tamil]] movie channels while [[B4U (network)|Astro B4U]] is a [[Hindi language|Hindi]] movie channel. The Malaysian Indian community is an important market for the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film industry [[Kollywood]]. There are 2-[[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[radio stations]] of the state-owned [[Minnal FM]] and the privately owned [[THR.fm|THR Raaga]].

It is also customary for major Malaysian corporations to produce television commercials in conjunction with [[Deepavali]]. They generally pay tribute to the contributions of the Indian community to the nation and are well received by Indians of all faiths. The heart-warming Deepavali commercials by the state petroleum company [[Petronas]] are especially popular. Indian Malaysians have also contributed to the mainstream Malaysian entertainment industry. The Jayhawkers from Seremban led by one Joe Chelliah was the first non-Malay pop band with only Indian musicians that recorded popular commercial albums in Malay in the mid 1960s itself. More recent notable Indian Malaysian artists with multiracial appeal are [[Reshmonu]], [[Jaclyn Victor]], and [[Alleycats (Malaysian rock band)|Alleycats]]. Indian Malaysians have also made significant contributions to the Malaysian English theatre scene. Tamil [[hip hop]] was started in Malaysia by pioneers like rappers [[Chakra Sonic]], Yogi B and several others, which had since then made its way to Kollywood.

[[Bharata Natyam]], the Tamil classical dance of India, is an important feature of Tamil culture and is hence popular in Malaysia. Ramli Ibrahim and [[Mavin Khoo]] are two non-Indian Malaysians who are world-renowned [[Indian classical dance]] performers. The Temple of Fine Arts in Brickfields, Kuala Lumpur is an academy that provides training in traditional Indian dance and music. The [[urumi (drum)|urumee]] drums are often played at religious and cultural events. The [[nadaswaram]] is a traditional Indian wind instrument often played at Indian weddings in Malaysia.

==Cuisine==
{{Further|Malaysian Indian Cuisine}}
[[File:Bananaleafrice001.jpg|thumb| [[Banana leaf rice]].]]
The contribution of the Indian community to [[Malaysian cuisine]] is enormous. Indian cuisine has had a strong influence on traditional [[Malay cuisine]] resulting in the popularity of curries in Malaysia. Indian restaurants are well received by Malaysians from all ethnic and religious backgrounds. They have become an important fixture in everyday Malaysian life and are the venue of choice for watching live televised football matches. [[Mamak stall|Mamak]] restaurants and stalls refer to eateries owned and staffed by [[Indian Muslims]]. The word 'Mamak' is sometimes erroneously used to describe any Indian restaurant. [[Roti canai]], [[nasi kandar]], [[maggi goreng]] and [[pasembur]] (Mamak rojak) are Indian dishes unique to Malaysia. Nasi kandar is sold exclusively in [[Indian Muslim]] restaurants and the recipes are closely guarded secrets. Unlike Indian cuisine in the United Kingdom and other Western countries which tend to focus on [[North Indian cuisine]], Indian cuisine in Malaysia is largely based on [[South Indian cuisine]] as the Malaysian Indian diaspora is overwhelmingly Tamil, although some northern dishes such as [[tandoori chicken]] and [[naan]] bread are common. Southern breakfast delicacies such as [[idli]], [[vadai]] and [[dosa]] (spelled in Malaysia as 'thosai') are common. The [[appam]] is a favourite breakfast dish in Tamil homes. ''Idiyappam'' is known as [[putu mayam]] in Malay and usually sold by mobile motorcycle vendors. [[Murukku]] is made to mark [[Deepavali]]. Meals of rice with various vegetable and meat dishes along with other condiments are served on banana leaves in restaurants for lunch and dinner, and also in Indian households during special occasions. Mutton ([[goat meat]]) is highly favoured and served as either ''varuval'' (dry curry) or ''peratal'' (curry with a thick gravy). Fried bitter gourd, banana chips, [[papadam]], [[Rasam (dish)|rasam]], yoghurt and pickles are the usual condiments. Desserts and sweets include [[payasam]], [[halva]], [[mysore pak]], palgoa and ghee balls.
Some Indian foods have been widely adopted and localised. This includes but not limited to [[Murukku]], [[Adhirasam]] and [[Puttu]].

==Religion==
{{bar box
| title = Religions of Indian Malaysians<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf |title=2010 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia |language=ms, en |access-date=17 June 2012 |publisher=Department of Statistics, Malaysia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522234002/http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf |archive-date=22 May 2014 }} p. 82</ref>
| titlebar =#Fcd116
| left1 = Religion
| right1 = Percent
| float = right
| bars =
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|Orange|86.2}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|Blue|6.0}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|Green|4.1}}
{{bar percent|Other Religion|Brown|1.9}}
{{bar percent|[[Buddhism]]|Yellow|1.7}}
{{bar percent|[[Irreligion|No Religion]]|Black|0.05}}
{{bar percent|Folk Religion|Red|0.04}}
{{bar percent|Unknown|Gray|0.01}}

}}
The Indian community which mostly consist of [[Tamils]] follow Hinduism as the main faith. Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the Malay Peninsula from India around the 2nd century AD . The Indian-influenced kingdoms of Kadaram ([[Early history of Kedah|Old Kedah]]), and Ilangosagam ([[Langkasuka]]) practised Hinduism and Buddhism during the rule of the Malay-[[Srivijaya]] and Tamil-[[Chola]] kingdoms.<ref name=Arasaratnam1970>{{cite book | last = Arasaratnam| first = Sinnappah|title = Indians in Malaysia and Singapore| url = https://archive.org/details/indiansinmalaysi0000aras| url-access = registration| year = 1970| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = London| pages = [https://archive.org/details/indiansinmalaysi0000aras/page/4 4], 168, 169, 170, 171, & 175}}</ref> The early few Indians arrived and assimilated quickly into the local population through intermarriage.

The Chola King had also launched an attack via a naval expedition on several Malay Kingdoms. Subsequent to invasion, both Chola kingdom and south east Asian Hindu Buddhist kingdoms went into decline and many would later totally disappear, and kingdoms in Malaysia Indonesia were gradually Islamised. Hinduism is the most practiced religion amongst the Tamils, including both the major Hindu and Tamil pantheon of deities. Tamils of both Indian and Sri Lankan backgrounds practice Hinduism.

[[Sikhism]] is practiced mainly by [[Punjabi people|Punjabis]]. Many Sindhis also worship in Sikh Gurdwaras in Malaysia. Christianity is practiced by a minority of Tamil people. In Malaysia, most of the Indian Christians are either [[Catholic]], [[Anglican]], [[Methodist]], [[Lutheran]] or [[Evangelical]]. Trade contact with the Tamils predate the Islamic period (c. 570-632 AD), or the birth of Islam. Indonesians and Malays came to know about Islam initially through Gujarati merchants and further developed on by the Arab traders. Most of the Indian Muslim community has been absorbed into the larger Malay community due to their common religious background, with a substantially high level of assimilation and intermarriage between the communities. In Malaysia, [[Tamil Muslim]]s are often referred to as 'Mamaks' while [[Mappila|Malayalee Muslims]] are known as 'Kakas' or 'Malabaris'.
<gallery>
File:Batu caves.jpg|[[Batu Caves]]
File:Sri Mahamariamman Temple 2, central Kuala Lumpur.jpg| [[Sri Mahamariamman Temple, Kuala Lumpur|Sri Mahamariamman Temple]] in Kuala Lumpur
File:Bmcity.jpg|[[St. Anne's Church, Bukit Mertajam|St. Anne's Church]] in [[Bukit Mertajam]]
File:Masjid Kapitan Keling.jpg|[[Kapitan Keling Mosque]] in [[George Town, Penang|George Town]]
File:Tawau Sabah ThirumuruganTemple-01.jpg|Thirumurugan Temple in [[Tawau]]
</gallery>

==Festivals==
[[File:Thaipusam idols.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Idols carried in procession during Thaipusam at Batu Caves.]]
One of the biggest Hindu festivals in Malaysia is [[Thaipusam]]. Thaipusam is dedicated to the Tamil deity [[Murugan]] which occurs on the day in the [[Hindu calendar|Tamil month]] of ''Thai'' (January–February) when the asterism ''Poosam'' is on the ascendant. It is celebrated in grand style in the temples of, [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], [[Ipoh]] and [[Kuala Lumpur]] for three days.

In Kuala Lumpur, Thaipusam has become an almost national seat for ''Poosam'' celebrations. The venue of the Kuala Lumpur celebrations is a picturesque shrine right inside a cave that lies many feet above the ground, and can only be approached by a steep climb. This place, known as [[Batu Caves]], is about eight miles from the city, and a [[Temple car|chariot]] procession carrying the image of the deity to and from the place adds to the color and gaiety of the festival. Crowds from all over the country throng to the cave, including people of all classes and groups. It is above all a day of penance, on which many vows are fulfilled. A 42.7m high statue of Lord Murugan was built at Batu Caves and was unveiled in January 2006, having taken three years to construct.

One of the most significant rites performed is the carrying of the [[kavadi]], a large wooden decorated arch, as an act of penance. When deities are taken on procession from one shrine to another, they would be followed by a number of these voluntary kavadi-bearers. In other towns and estates, kavadis would be carried for other festivals like ''Chittirai Paruvam''. Some of the more rigid practitioners would bear spikes, spears, and hooks pierced into their bodies. The ''Chittirai Paruvam'' festival and festivals to the Tamil deity [[Mariamman]] are usually accompanied by a fire-walking ceremony.<ref name=Arasaratnam1970/>

[[Deepavali]], popularly known as the 'Festival of Lights', is another major Hindu festival which is celebrated by all Hindu communities. Tamils celebrate [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]] which is a harvest festival usually held from 13–16 January. A similar festival known as [[Makar Sankranti]] is celebrated by most other Indian communities while the Punjabis call their harvest festival [[Lohri]].

The Malayalees celebrate [[Vishu]], the Malayalee New Year which usually falls in the month of April or the month of Medam in the [[Malayalam calendar]]. [[Onam]] is the most popular festival celebrated by the Malayalee community and is usually observed in the month of August or September.

The Telugus celebrate [[Ugadi]], the Telugu New Year which is based on the [[lunar calendar]]; unlike [[Puthandu]], the Tamil New Year and [[Vasakhi]], the Sikh New Year which are based on the [[solar calendar]]. [[Makar Sankranti]] is an important festival for [[Telugu people|Telugu]] community also celebrated as Pongal by Tamils.

The festivals celebrated by Malaysian Indians who profess the Christian faith are [[Easter]], [[Christmas]] and [[All Souls' Day]] (mainly celebrated by Catholics). Indian Muslims observe [[Ramadan]], the Muslim month of fasting; and celebrate [[Hari Raya Aidilfitri#South-East Asia|Hari Raya Aidilfitri]] and [[Eid al-Adha|Hari Raya Aidiladha]].

==Influence toward Malaysian Culture==
Indian influences could be seen on modern Malaysia as well as on traditional Malay culture. The diffusion of Indian culture is demonstrated with the following examples:

*[[Malay folklore]] contains a rich number of Indian-influenced mythological characters, such as [[Bidadari]], [[Jatayu|Jentayu]], [[Garuda]] and [[Nāga|Naga]].
*[[Malaysian literature|Early Malay literature]] was highly influenced by Indian epics, such as the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]''.
*[[Wayang]] shadow puppets and classical dance-dramas of Malaysia took stories from episodes of ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata''.

===Language and names===
{{Main|Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world}}
A good number of Tamil inscriptions as well as Hindu and Buddhist icons emanating from South India have been found in Southeast Asia (and even in parts of [[Northern and southern China|south China]]). On the Malay Peninsula, inscriptions have been found at [[Takuapa]], not far from the [[Vishnuite]] statues of Khao Phra Narai in [[Southern Thailand]]. It is a short inscription indicating that an artificial lake named ''Avani-naranam'' was dug by ''nangur-Udaiyan'' which is the name of an individual who possessed a military [[fief]] at Nangur, being famous for his abilities as a warrior, and that the lake was placed under the protection of the members of the Manikkiramam (which according to K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, was a merchant guild) living in the military camp.<ref name=Sastri1949>{{cite journal | author = Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta | year = 1949| title = Takuapa and its Tamil Inscription Part I. | journal = Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society| volume = 22}}</ref>

An inscription dated 779 AD has been found in [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom|Ligor]], Malay Peninsula. This refers to the trade relationship between the [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil country]] and Malaya.<ref name=Arokiaswamy2000>{{cite book | last = Arokiaswamy| first = Celine W.M.| title = Tamil Influences in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines| year = 2000| location = Manila s.n.| pages = 37, 38, 41, 43, 45–49, 51–57}}</ref> In [[Bujang Valley|ancient Kedah]] there is an inscription found by Dr. [[Horace Geoffrey Quaritch Wales|Quaritch Wales]]. It is an inscribed stone bar, rectangular in shape, bears the ye-dharmma formula<ref group="nb">{{cite web
|url=http://www.virtualvinodh.com/brahmi-lipitva/208-ye-dhamma-brahmi
|title=Ye Dhamma - The Verse of Causation
|date=2 April 2012
|publisher=Vinodh's Virtual Cyber Space
|access-date=13 April 2012
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/66tUhUL3l?url=http://www.virtualvinodh.com/brahmi-lipitva/208-ye-dhamma-brahmi
|archive-date=13 April 2012
|quote=The Pali verse 'Ye Dhamma... ' is a popular verse in Buddhism that explains the heart of Buddhism Philosophy i.e Dependant Origination. The Sanskrit version of the verse is called "Pratityasamutpada Hridaya Dharani" [The Heart Dharani of Dependant Origination] with Om added to the beginning of the Verse, and Svaha added at the end, thus Dharani-fying the entire verse. The Pali version never seems to have had any specific title.
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> in [[Vatteluttu alphabet|South Indian characters]] of the 4th century AD, thus proclaiming the Buddhist character of the shrine near the find-spot (site I) of which only the basement survives. The inscriptions are on three faces in ''Pallava Grantha script''. The Ruler Raja Ganga fled from his empire into the forests with his queen and an infant heir. Raja Ganga left traces of hideout on a nearby hill in form of artefacts on stones. All these inscriptions, both [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Sanskrit]] ones, relate to the activities of the people and rulers of the Tamil country of South India. The [[Tamil script|Tamil inscriptions]] are at least four centuries posterior to the Sanskrit inscriptions, from which the early Tamils themselves were patronizers of the Sanskrit language.<ref name=Arokiaswamy2000/> The Cherok Tokun Ancient Inscriptions were first documented by Colonel James Low, a British army officer, in 1845. In his log, Low recorded his disappointment of not finding a more spectacular ruin, expecting to find an ancient temple ruin. He documented what he made out to be "a group of seven inscriptions". The inscriptions were believed to be in pre-Pallava script and written in Sanskrit. They were attributed to the ancient Kingdom of Kadaaram, which flourished in northern Malaysia in the 5th to 6th centuries. However, according to J Laidlay, who translated the text in 1848, the inscription was in fact written in [[Pali]] - another ancient language of the Indian subcontinent.

An element needed to carry out commercial transactions is a common language understood by all parties involved in early trade. Historians such as J.V. Sebastian, K.T. Thirunavukkarasu, and A.W. Hamilton record that Tamil was the common language of commerce in Malaysia and Indonesia during historical times.<ref name="Arokiaswamy2000"/> The maritime Tamil significance in Sumatran and Malay Peninsula trading continued for centuries and borrowings into Malay from Tamil increased between the 15th and 19th centuries due to their commercial activities. In the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company was obliged to use Tamil as part of its correspondence. In Malacca and other seaports up to the 19th century, Malay terminology pertaining to book-keeping and accountancy was still largely Tamil.<ref name=Sneddon2003/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Tamil
!Malay
!English
|-
| Akka
(அக்கா)
| kakak
| elder sister
|-
| Kadai
(கடை)
| kedai
| shop
|-
| Kappal
(கப்பல்)
| kapal
| ship
|-
| Muthu
(முத்து)
| mutiara
| pearl
|-
| Vagai
(வகை)
| bagai
| variety/ like
|-
| Bhashai
(பாஷை)
| bahasa
| language
|-
| Tharmam
(தர்மம்)
| derma
| charity
|-
| Toppi
(தொப்பி)
| topi
| hat
|-
| Thaagam
(தாகம்)
| dahaga
| thirsty
|}

===Infrastructure===
Indians have contributed significantly to the building of Malaysia since the 19th century. The Indian workforce was instrumental in the clearing of land for infrastructure, established rubber plantations, built the roads, set up transmission lines as well as managed early Malayan railways, ports and airports. Indian doctors, chemists and veterinarians formed the bulk of medical personnel in Malaysia - their contributions still persist to present day. Indian civil servants formed the core of the civil service both pre- and post-independence. Indian teachers who were particularly fluent in the English language formed the backbone of Malaysian education, particularly in missionary schools. Indians also pioneered private education in Malaysia.

==Diaspora==
A number of Malaysian Indian immigrants are found in Australia, and they tended to be highly qualified and speak English fluently and were therefore highly employable.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins|last = Jupp|first = James|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2001|isbn = 9780521807890|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=wgoFxfSTfYAC&pg=PA432 |pages = 432}}</ref> There is also a small community of [[Indian Australian|Australians of Indian descent]] on the [[Australia]]n [[States and territories of Australia|external territory]] of [[Christmas Island]] who live alongside other Australians of ethnic Malaysian Chinese, Malay and European descent.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins|last = Jupp|first = James|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2001|isbn = 9780521807890|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=wgoFxfSTfYAC&pg=PA225 |pages = 225}}</ref>

==Notable people==
{{Main|List of Malaysian Indians}}

Among the notable people of Indian descent in Malaysia are [[K. Thamboosamy Pillay]], a significant figure of early [[Kuala Lumpur]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L_hwAAAAMAAJ|title=A History of Kuala Lumpur 1856–1939|first=J.M. |last=Gullick|publisher=The Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|year=2000|pages=43, 135, 140|isbn=9789679948158}}</ref> and [[Karpal Singh]], [[V. David]] and [[Samy Vellu]], all prominent [[List of Malaysian politicians of Indian descent|Malaysian Indian politicians]]. A number of notable Malays, including [[Mahathir Mohamad]], also have part-Indian ancestry.

==Challenges for the future==

Despite the fact that the average income of Malaysian Indians exceeds that of their Malay counterparts, there exists substantial portion of the community who are poor, with 40% of Malaysian Indians claimed to be at the bottom rung of the income ladder.<ref name="malaymail2015">{{cite news |url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/yps-40pc-of-indians-in-malaysia-still-at-bottom-rung-of-the-income-ladder |title=YPS: 40pc of Malaysian Indians still at bottom rung of the income ladder |work=The Malay Mail |date=15 May 2015 |author=Bernama}}</ref> Despite the obvious need of the poor, Malaysian Indians are not eligible for any of Malaysia's affirmative-action programmes, which are reserved for Malays and select indigenous people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/05/18/race-based-affirmative-action-is-failing-poor-malaysians |title=Race-based affirmative action is failing poor Malaysians |date=18 May 2017 }}</ref><ref name=ragesh>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-30861620071206 |title=Malaysian Indian leader seeks affirmative action |first=Y.P. |last=Rajesh |work=Reuters|date= 6 December 2007}}</ref> What has further added to the challenges faced by the community is religious conflict due to increasing Islamisation,<ref name=ragesh /> and there were communal clashes between Indians and Malays such as the [[2001 Kampung Medan riots]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1228679.stm |title=Ethnic strife shakes Malaysia |date= 18 March 2001 |work=BBC }}</ref> as well as protest over racial discrimination and temple demolitions during the [[2007 HINDRAF rally]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/Malaysian-Indians-a-disadvantaged-community/article14889855.ece |title=Malaysian Indians: a disadvantaged community |date=7 December 2007 |work=The Hindu |author=V. Suryanarayan}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-malaysia-protest/indian-protest-rocks-malaysia-ahead-of-polls-idUSKLR16504820071125 |title=Indian protest rocks Malaysia ahead of polls |author=Mark Bendeich |author2=Clarence Fernandez |work=Reuters |date=25 November 2007 }}</ref> These factors in part have resulted in the migration of many highly skilled Malaysian Indians abroad, where Indian migrants are largely upwardly mobile. A survey in 2017 found that 42% of Malaysian Indians who had completed their secondary or tertiary education wanted to emigrate.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cipd.asia/news/hr-news/malaysia-brain-drain |title= Malaysia 'must address issue of brain drain' |date=23 August 2017 |author= Poorna Rodrigo |author2=EK Heng NG }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="2015 population">{{cite web|url=http://pmr.penerangan.gov.my/index.php/info-terkini/19463-unjuran-populasi-penduduk-2015.html|title=Population by States and Ethnic Group|publisher=Department of Information, Ministry of Communications and Multimedia, Malaysia|year=2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212125740/http://pmr.penerangan.gov.my/index.php/info-terkini/19463-unjuran-populasi-penduduk-2015.html|archive-date=12 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="population">{{cite web|url=https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 |title=Current Population Estimates, Malaysia, 2014 - 2016 |work=Department of Statistics, Malaysia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812014710/https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column%2FcthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 |archive-date=12 August 2016 }}</ref>
}}

=== Notes ===
{{reflist|group=nb}}

=== Bibliography ===
* "Tragic Orphans: Indians in Malaysia" by Carl Vadivella Belle, Publisher: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, {{ISBN|978-981-4519-03-8}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TeExjdWUmJYC&pg=PA162|title=Indian Communities in Southeast Asia |edition=First Reprint |editor=K S Sandhu |editor2=A Mani |first=Kernial Singh |last=Sandhu|publisher=ISEAS Publishing |date=30 January 2006|isbn=978-9812304186}}

{{Ethnic groups in Malaysia}}
{{Indians in Malaysia}}
{{NRI-PIO}}

[[Category:Malaysian people of Indian descent| ]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora by country|Malaysia]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Malaysia| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Malaysia|Indian]]
[[Category:Immigration to Malaysia]]
[[Category:India–Malaysia relations]]