Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Mestizo

2024-10-10T17:50:13Z

190.196.211.42:

{{Short description|Spanish term to denote a person of mixed European and non-European indigenous ancestry}}
{{About|the Spanish term|the Portuguese term|Mestiço{{!}}''Mestiço''|the American rapper|Mestizo (rapper)|the Mexican pop group|Mestizzo}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Mestizo
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = Spanish
| image = [[File: Castas 01mestiza max.jpg |200px]]
| caption = A [[casta]] painting of a Spanish man and an Indigenous woman with a Mestizo child
| regions = [[Latin America]], [[United States]], [[Spain]], [[Philippines]], [[Micronesia]]
| langs = {{hlist|[[Spanish language|Spanish]] (mainly), [[Indigenous languages of the Americas]], and [[Austronesian languages]]}}
| rels = Predominantly [[Roman Catholic]]; religious minorities including [[Protestant]]s and [[syncretism]] with [[Native American religion|Indigenous beliefs]] exist
| related = 
}}

'''{{lang|es|Mestizo}}''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ɛ|ˈ|s|t|iː|z|oʊ|,_|m|ɪ|ˈ|-}} {{respell|mest|EE|zoh|,_|mist|-}},<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|mestizo|access-date=15 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|mestizo}}</ref> {{IPA|es|mesˈtiθo|lang}} {{IPA|es|mesˈtiso|label=or}}; fem. '''{{lang|es|mestiza}}''', literally 'banana person

The noun '''{{lang|es|mestizaje}}''', derived from the adjective {{lang|es|mestizo}}, is a term for racial mixing that did not come into usage until the 20th century; it was not a colonial-era term.<ref name="Rappaport, Joanne p. 247">Rappaport, Joanne. ''The Disappearing Mestizo'', p. 247.</ref> In the modern era, ''mestizaje'' is used by scholars such as [[Gloria E. Anzaldúa|Gloria Anzaldúa]] as a synonym for [[miscegenation]], but with positive connotations.<ref>Lewis, Stephen. "Mestizaje", in ''The Encyclopedia of Mexico''. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997, p. 840.</ref>

In the modern era, particularly in Latin America, {{lang|es|mestizo}} has become more of a cultural term, with the term ''indio'' being reserved exclusively for people who have maintained a separate Indigenous ethnic and cultural identity, [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|language]], [[tribal]] affiliation, community engagement, etc. In late 19th- and early 20th-century [[Peru]], for instance, ''mestizaje'' denoted those peoples with evidence of Euro-indigenous ethno-racial "descent" and access{{emdash}}usually monetary access, but not always{{emdash}}to secondary educational institutions. Similarly, well before the 20th century, Euramerican "descent" did not necessarily denote [[Iberian America|Iberian American]] ancestry or solely [[Spanish Americans|Spanish American]] ancestry (distinct Portuguese administrative classification: ''[[mestiço]]''), especially in Andean regions re-infrastructured by Euramerican "modernities" and buffeted by mining labor practices. This conception changed by the 1920s, especially after the national advancement and [[cultural economics]] of {{lang|es| [[Indigenismo#Indigenism in Peru|indigenismo]]}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tarica |first1=Estelle |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History |chapter=Indigenismo |chapter-url=https://oxfordre.com/latinamericanhistory/oso/viewentry/10.1093$002facrefore$002f9780199366439.001.0001$002facrefore-9780199366439-e-68 |website=Latin American History |year=2016 |publisher=Oxford Research Encyclopedias |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.68 |isbn=978-0-19-936643-9 |access-date=5 April 2022}}</ref>

To avoid confusion with the original usage of the term {{lang|es|mestizo}}, mixed people started to be referred to collectively as {{lang|es|castas}}. In some Latin American countries, such as [[Mexico]], the concept of the Mestizo became central to the formation of a new independent identity that was neither wholly Spanish nor wholly Indigenous. The word {{lang|es|mestizo}} acquired another meaning in the 1930 census, being used by the government to refer to all Mexicans who did not speak [[Languages of Mexico|Indigenous languages]] regardless of ancestry.<ref name="EL MESTIZAJE Y LAS CULTURAS REGIONALES">{{cite web|url= http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130823015618/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html|url-status= dead|title= en el censo de 1930 el gobierno mexicano dejó de clasificar a la población del país en tres categorías raciales, blanco, mestizo e indígena, y adoptó una nueva clasificación étnica que distinguía a los hablantes de lenguas indígenas del resto de la población, es decir de los hablantes de español.|archive-date= 23 August 2013}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite book |last= Bartolomé |first= Miguel Alberto |year= 1996 |chapter= Pluralismo cultural y redefinicion del estado en México |title= Coloquio sobre derechos indígenas |location= Oaxaca |publisher= IOC |isbn= 978-968-6951-31-8 |chapter-url= http://courses.cit.cornell.edu/iard4010/documents/Pluralismo_cultural_y_redefinicion_del_estado_en_Mexico.pdf |page= 5}}</ref> In 20th- and 21st-century Peru, the nationalization of [[Quechuan languages]] and [[Aymaran languages]] as "official languages of the State...wherever they predominate"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.congreso.gob.pe/Docs/files/CONSTITUTION_27_11_2012_ENG.pdf|title=Political Constitution of Peru}}</ref> has increasingly severed these languages from ''mestizaje'' as an exonym (and, in certain cases, ''indio''), with indigenous languages tied to [[Linguistic areas of the Americas|linguistic areas]] as well as<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Urban |first1=Matthias |title=Linguistic and cultural divisions in pre-Hispanic Northern Peru |journal=Language Sciences |date=1 May 2021 |volume=85 |pages=101354 |doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2020.101354 |s2cid=234217133 |language=en |issn=0388-0001|doi-access=free }}</ref> topographical and geographical contexts. ''La sierra'' from the [[Altiplano]] to [[Huascarán]], for instance, is more commonly connected to language families in both urban and rural vernacular.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coler |first1=Matt |last2=Valenzuela |first2=Pilar |last3=Zariquiey |first3=Roberto |title=Introduction |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |date=April 2018 |volume=84 |issue=S1 |pages=S1–S4 |doi=10.1086/695541 |s2cid=224808126 |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/695541 |language=en |issn=0020-7071}}</ref>

During the colonial era of Mexico, the category Mestizo was used rather flexibly to register births in local parishes and its use did not follow any strict genealogical pattern. With Mexican independence, in academic circles created by the "''mestizaje''" or "[[La Raza Cósmica|Cosmic Race]]" ideology, scholars asserted that Mestizos are the result of the mixing of all the races. After the [[Mexican Revolution]] the government, in its attempts to create an unified Mexican identity with no racial distinctions, adopted and actively promoted the "mestizaje" ideology.<ref name="EL MESTIZAJE Y LAS CULTURAS REGIONALES"/>
{{TOC limit|4}}

==Etymology==
The Spanish word {{lang|es|mestizo}} is from [[Latin language|Latin]] ''mixticius'', meaning mixed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mestizo |title=mestizo |year=2008 |work=Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster, Incorporated |quote=a person of mixed blood; specifically: Generally used in Latin America to describe a person of mixed European and American Indian indigenous ancestry. }}</ref><ref name="dictionary.reference.com">{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mestizo |title=Mestizo – Define Mestizo at Dictionary.com |work=Dictionary.com |access-date=29 March 2015}}</ref> Its usage was documented as early as 1275, to refer to the offspring of an [[Egypt|Egyptian/]]Afro Hamite and a [[Semitic people|Semite]]/Afro Asiatic.<ref name="AlfonsoX-p261R">{{cite book |author=Alfonso X |title=General Estoria. Primera parte |location=Spain |year=1275 |page=261R |url=http://Corpus.rae.es}}</ref> This term was first documented in English in 1582.<ref name="Herbst-p.144">{{cite book |last=Herbst |first=Philip |title=The Color of Words: An Encyclopædic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States |publisher=Intercultural Press |location=Yarmouth |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-877864-42-1 |page=144}}</ref>

===Cognates and related terms===
{{lang|es|Mestizo}} ({{IPA|es|mesˈtiθo|lang}} {{IPA|es|mesˈtiso|label=or}}), {{lang|pt|mestiço}} ({{IPA|pt-PT|mɨʃˈtisu|label=Portuguese:}} {{IPA|pt-BR|mesˈtʃisu|label=or}}), {{lang|fr|métis}} ({{IPA|fr|meti(s)|lang}}), {{lang|ca|mestís}} ({{IPA|ca|məsˈtis|lang}}), {{lang|de|Mischling}} ({{IPA|de|ˈmɪʃlɪŋ|lang}}), {{lang|it|meticcio}} ({{IPA|it|meˈtittʃo|lang}}), {{lang|nl|mestiezen}} ({{IPA|nl|mɛsˈtizə(n)|lang}}), {{lang|enm|mestee}} ({{IPA|enm|məsˈtiː|lang}}), and ''mixed'' are all [[cognates]] of the [[Latin language|Latin]] word {{lang|la|mixticius}}.

The [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[cognate]], {{lang|pt|[[mestiço]]}}, historically referred to any mixture of Portuguese and local populations in the [[Portuguese colonies]]. In [[colonial Brazil]], most of the non-enslaved population was initially {{lang|pt|[[caboclo|mestiço de indio]]}}, i.e. mixed Portuguese and [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Native Brazilian]]. There was no descent-based casta system, and children of upper-class Portuguese landlord males and enslaved females enjoyed privileges higher than those given to the lower classes, such as formal education. Such cases were not so common and the children of enslaved women tended not to be allowed to inherit property. This right of inheritance was generally given to children of free women, who tended to be legitimate offspring in cases of concubinage (this was a common practice in certain Native American and African cultures). In the Portuguese-speaking world, the contemporary sense has been the closest to the historical usage from the Middle Ages. Because of important linguistic and historical differences, {{lang|pt|mestiço}} (mixed, mixed-ethnicity, miscegenation, etc.) is separated altogether from {{lang|pt|pardo}} (which refers to any kind of brown people) and {{lang|pt|caboclo}} (brown people originally of European–Indigenous American admixture, or assimilated Indigenous American). The term {{lang|pt|mestiços}} can also refer to fully African or East Asian in their full definition (thus not brown). One does not need to be a {{lang|pt|mestiço}} to be classified as pardo or caboclo. 

In Brazil specifically, at least in modern times, all non-Indigenous people are considered to be a single ethnicity ({{lang|pt|os brasileiros}}. Lines between ethnic groups are historically fluid); since the earliest years of the Brazilian colony, the {{lang|pt|mestiço}} group has been the most numerous among the free people. As explained above, the concept of {{lang|pt|mestiço}} should not be confused with ''mestizo'' as used in either the Spanish-speaking world or the English-speaking one. It does not relate to being of Native American ancestry, and is not used interchangeably with {{lang|pt|pardo}}, literally "brown people". (There are {{lang|pt|mestiços}} among all major groups of the country: Indigenous, Asian, {{lang|pt|pardo}}, and African, and they likely constitute the majority in the three latter groups.)

In English-speaking Canada, [[Métis (Canada)|Canadian Métis]] (capitalized), as a loanword from French, refers to persons of mixed French or European and Indigenous ancestry, who were part of a particular ethnic group. French-speaking Canadians, when using the word ''métis'', are referring to Canadian Métis ethnicity, and all persons of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry. Many were involved in the fur trade with Canadian [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] peoples (especially [[Cree]] and [[Anishinaabeg]]). Over generations, they developed a separate culture of hunters and trappers, and were concentrated in the [[Red River Valley]] and speak the [[Michif language]].

==Mestizo as a colonial-era category==
{{Main|Casta}}
[[File:De español y mestiza, castiza.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[casta]] painting by Miguel Cabrera. Here he shows a Spanish (español) father, Mestiza (mixed Spanish–American Indian) mother, and their Castiza daughter.]]
[[File:Casta Painting by Luis de Mena.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Luis de Mena]], [[Virgin of Guadalupe]] and castas, 1750. The top left grouping is of an ''indio'' and an ''española'', with their Mestizo son. This is the only known casta painting with an ''indio'' man and española woman.]]
[[File:Ignacio María Barreda - Las castas mexicanas.jpg|thumb|upright|Casta painting showing 16 hierarchically arranged, mixed-race groupings. The top left grouping uses ''cholo'' as a synonym for ''mestizo''. Ignacio Maria Barreda, 1777. Real Academia Española de la Lengua, Madrid.]]
In the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonial period]], the Spanish developed a complex set of racial terms and ways to describe difference. Although this has been conceived of as a "system," and often called the ''sistema de castas'' or ''sociedad de castas'', archival research shows that racial labels were not fixed throughout a person's life.<ref name="rappaport"/> Artwork created mainly in eighteenth-century Mexico, "[[Casta#casta paintings|casta paintings]]," show groupings of racial types in hierarchical order, which has influenced the way that modern scholars have conceived of social difference in Spanish America.<ref name="rappaport">Rappaport, Joanne, ''The Disappearing Mestizo: Configuring Difference in the Colonial New Kingdom of Granada''. Durham: Duke University Press 2014, pp.208-09.</ref>

During the initial period of colonization of the Americas by the Spanish, there were three chief categories of ethnicities: Spaniard (''español''), American Indian (''indio''), and African (''negro''). Throughout the territories of the [[Spanish Empire]] in the Americas, ways of differentiating individuals in a racial hierarchy, often called in the modern era the ''sistema de castas'' or the ''sociedad de castas'', developed where society was divided based on color, ''calidad'' (status), and other factors.

The main divisions were as follows:
# ''Español'' (fem. española), i.e. [[Spaniards|Spaniard]] – person of Spanish ancestry; a blanket term, subdivided into ''Peninsulares'' and ''Criollos''
#*''[[Peninsulars|Peninsular]]'' – a person of Spanish descent born in Spain who later settled in the Americas;
#* ''[[Criollo people|Criollo]]'' (fem. criolla) – a person of Spanish descent born in the Americas;
# ''[[Castizo]]'' (fem. castiza) – a person with primarily Spanish and some American Indian ancestry born into a mixed family.
# ''Mestizo'' (fem. mestiza) – a person of extended mixed Spanish and American Indian ancestry;
# ''[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indio]]'' (fem. india) – a person of pure American Indian ancestry;
# ''[[Pardo]]'' (fem. parda) – a person of mixed Spanish, Amerindian and African ancestry; sometimes a polite term for a black person;
# ''[[Mulatto|Mulato]]'' (fem. mulata) – a person of mixed Spanish and African ancestry;
# ''[[Zambo]]'' – a person of mixed African and American Indian ancestry;
# ''[[Negro]]'' (fem. negra) – a person of [[Atlantic slave trade|African]] descent, primarily former enslaved Africans and their descendants.

In theory, and as depicted in some eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings, the offspring of a castizo/a [mixed Spanish - Mestizo] and an Español/a could be considered Español/a, or "returned" to that status.<ref>Mörner, ''Race Mixture'', p.58.</ref>

'''Racial labels in a set of eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings by [[Miguel Cabrera (painter)|Miguel Cabrera]]''':
*'''De Español e India, nace Mestiza'''
*'''De Español y Mestiza, nace Castiza'''
*De Castizo y Española, nace Española
*De Español y Negra, nace Mulata
*De Español y Mulata, nace Morisca
*De Español y Morisca, nace Albino
*De Español y Albina, nace [[Torna atrás]]
*De Español y Torna atrás, "Tente en el ayre"
*De Negro y India, Chino Cambuja
*De Chino Cambujo y India, [[Lobo (racial category)|Loba]]
*De Lobo y India, Albarazado
*'''De Albarazado y Mestiza, Barcino'''
*De Indio y Barcina, Zambaiga
*'''De Castizo y Mestiza, Chamizo'''
*Indios Gentiles (Barbarian [[Chichimeca|Meco Indians]])

In the early colonial period, the children of Spaniards and American Indians were raised either in the Hispanic world, if the father recognized the offspring as his natural child; or the child was raised in the Indigenous world of the mother if he did not. As early as 1533, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] mandated the high court ([[Real Audiencia|Audiencia]]) to take the children of Spanish men and Indigenous women from their mothers and educate them in the Spanish sphere.<ref name="auto1">Mörner, ''Race Mixture'', p. 55.</ref> This mixed group born out of Christian wedlock increased in numbers, generally living in their mother's Indigenous communities.<ref name="auto1"/>

Mestizos were the first group in the colonial era to be designated as a separate category from the Spanish (Españoles) and enslaved African blacks (''Negros'') and were included in the designation of "vagabonds" (''vagabundos'') in 1543 in Mexico. Although Mestizos were often classified as ''castas'', they had a higher standing than any mixed-race person since they did not have to pay tribute, the men could be ordained as priests, and they could be licensed to carry weapons, in contrast to ''negros'', mulattoes, and other castas. Unlike Blacks and mulattoes, Mestizos had no African ancestors.<ref>Lewis, Laura A. ''Hall of Mirrors: Power, Witchcraft, and Caste in Colonial Mexico''. Durham: Duke University Press 2003, p. 84.</ref> Intermarriage between Españoles and Mestizos resulted in offspring designated ''[[Castizo]]s'' ("three-quarters white"), and the marriage of a castizo/a to an Español/a resulted in the restoration of Español/a status to the offspring. Don Alonso O’Crouley observed in Mexico (1774), "If the mixed-blood is the offspring of a Spaniard and an Indian, the stigma [of race mixture] disappears at the third step in descent because it is held as systematic that a Spaniard and an Indian produce a ''mestizo''; a ''mestizo'' and a Spaniard, a ''castizo''; and a ''castizo'' and a Spaniard, a Spaniard. The admixture of Indian blood should not indeed be regarded as a blemish, since the provisions of law give the Indian all that he could wish for, and Philip II granted to ''mestizos'' the privilege of becoming priests. On this consideration is based the common estimation of descent from a union of Indian and European or creole Spaniard."<ref>Sr. Don Pedro Alonso O’Crouley, [https://books.google.com/books?id=y208AAAAIAAJ&q=%20%22If%20the%20mixed-blood%20is%20the%20offspring%20of%20a%20Spaniard%20and%20an%20Indian,%20the%20stigma%22 ''A Description of the Kingdom of New Spain''] (1774), trans. and ed. Sean Galvin. San Francisco: John Howell Books, 1972, 20</ref>  O’Crouley states that the same process of restoration of racial purity does not occur over generations for European-African offspring marrying whites. "From the union of a Spaniard and a Negro the mixed-blood retains the stigma for generations without losing the original quality of a mulato."<ref>O’Crouley, "A Description of the Kingdom of New Spain’’, p. 20</ref>

The Spanish colonial regime divided groups into two basic legal categories, the Republic of Indians (''República de Indios'') and the Republic of Spaniards (''República de Españoles'') comprised the Spanish (Españoles) and all other non-Indian peoples. Indians were free vassals of the crown, whose commoners paid tribute while Indigenous elites were considered nobles and tribute exempt, as were Mestizos. Indians were nominally protected by the crown, with non-Indians (Mestizos, blacks, and mulattoes) forbidden to live in Indigenous communities. Mestizos and Indians in Mexico habitually held each other in mutual antipathy. This was particularly the case with commoner American Indians against Mestizos, some of whom infiltrated their communities and became part of the ruling elite. Spanish authorities turned a blind eye to the Mestizos' presence, since they collected commoners' tribute for the crown and came to hold offices. They were useful intermediaries for the colonial state between the Republic of Spaniards and the Republic of Indians.<ref>Lewis, ''Hall of Mirrors'', pp. 86-91.</ref>

A person's legal racial classification in colonial Spanish America was closely tied to social status, wealth, culture, and language use. Wealthy people paid to change or obscure their actual ancestry. Many Indigenous people left their traditional villages and sought to be counted as Mestizos to avoid tribute payments to the Spanish.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Peter N. Stearns |author2=William L. Langer |name-list-style=amp |year=2001|title=Encyclopedia of World History:Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged|work=Houghton Mifflin Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C&q=mestizo+cuba&pg=RA1-PA401}}</ref> Many Indigenous people, and sometimes those with partial African descent, were classified as Mestizo if they spoke Spanish and lived as Mestizos.

In colonial [[Venezuela]], {{lang|es|[[pardo]]}} was more commonly used instead of {{lang|es|mestizo}}. {{lang|es|Pardo}} means being mixed without specifying which mixture;<ref name="Ethnic Groups in Venezuela">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/venezuela/17.htm |title=Venezuela – ETHNIC GROUPS |website=Countrystudies.us |access-date=29 March 2015}}</ref> it was used to describe anyone born in the Americas whose ancestry was a mixture of European, Native American, and African.<ref name="LAS CASTAS EN LA SOCIEDAD COLONIAL VENEZOLANA">{{cite web |url=http://www.eldesafiodelahistoria.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=193:silvio-di-bernardo&catid=94:publicate&Itemid=129 |title=El Desafío de la Historia |website=Eldesafiodelahistoria.com |access-date=15 October 2017 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194015/http://www.eldesafiodelahistoria.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=193:silvio-di-bernardo&catid=94:publicate&Itemid=129 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

When the [[First Mexican Republic]] was established in 1824, legal racial categories ceased to exist. The production of [[casta]] paintings in [[New Spain]] ceased at the same juncture, after almost a century as a genre.

Because the term had taken on a myriad of meanings, the designation "Mestizo" was actively removed from census counts in Mexico and is no longer in official nor governmental use.<ref name="Herbst-p.144"/>

===Gallery===
<gallery class="center">
File:José Joaquín Magón - El Mestizo.jpg|Español, India, Mestizo. José Joaquín Magón. 18th c Mexico
File:Mestizo.jpg|Casta painting. "Spanish and Indian produce Mestizo", 1780.
File:BMVB - anònim - "1 De Español y India sale Mestizo" - 1075.jpg|Español, India, Mestizo.
File:Castas 14chamizo max.jpg|Castizo, Mestiza, Chamizo. [[Miguel Cabrera (painter)|Miguel Cabrera]] 1763.
File:De Mulato y Mestiza.jpg|Mulatto and Mestiza, produce Mulatto, he is ''Torna Atrás'' [throwback]" by [[Juan Rodríguez Juárez]]
File:Cabrera 15 Coyote.jpg|Mestizo, India, Coyote. [[Miguel Cabrera (painter)|Miguel Cabrera]] 1763.
File:Coiote.jpg|''De mestizo e India, sale coiote'' (From a Mestizo man and an Indigenous American woman, a [[Coyote (racial category)|Coyote]] is begotten).
File:BMVB - anònim - "12 De Mestizo y Alba razada, Barsina" - 9349.jpg|Mestizo, Albarazada, Barcina.
File:Mestizo. Mestiza. Mestiza.jpg|''Mestizo, Mestiza, Mestizo'' Sample of a Peruvian casta painting, showing intermarriage ''within'' a casta category.
File:1919 The Barrientos family.jpg|1919 Barrientos family in [[Baracoa, Cuba]], headed by an ex Spanish soldier and his Indigenous wife
File:1808-BIRTH (10-10-1808) Jose Francisco Rosales (Top right) (with JoseRegino,Maria Rosalia,JuanAntonioAmbrosio,JuanaBustos).jpg|Examples of Mestizo and Mulatto classifications in 1808
File:1763-MARRIAGE (2-14-1763) Juan Antonio Ambrosio Rosales and Juana Anastacia Briones (Right, 2nd row) (with Salvador,JuanaJosefa).jpg|Examples of Mestizo and Mulatto classifications in 1763
</gallery>

==Spanish-speaking North America==

===Mexico===
{{See also|Mestizos in Mexico}}
Around 50–90% of Mexicans can be classified as "mestizos", meaning in modern Mexican usage that they identify fully neither with any European heritage nor with an Indigenous ethnic group, but rather identify as having cultural traits incorporating both European and Indigenous elements. In Mexico, mestizo has become a blanket term that not only refers to [[Mixed race|mixed]] Mexicans but includes all Mexican citizens who do not speak [[Languages of Mexico|Indigenous languages]]<ref name="EL MESTIZAJE Y LAS CULTURAS REGIONALES"/><ref name=redalyc>{{cite web |url=http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/105/10503808.pdf |title=Al respecto no debe olvidarse que en estos países buena parte de las personas consideradas biológicamente blancas son mestizas en el aspecto cultural, el que aquí nos interesa (p. 196) |publisher=Redalyc.org |date=16 March 2005 |access-date=27 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022220348/http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/105/10503808.pdf |archive-date=22 October 2013 }}</ref>

[[File:Gonzalo Guerrero.JPG|thumb|upright|A statue of [[Gonzalo Guerrero]], who adopted the Maya way of life and fathered the first mestizo children in [[Mexico]] and in the mainland [[Americas]] (the only mestizos before were those born in the Caribbean to Spanish men and Indigenous Caribbean women)]]
Sometimes, particularly outside of Mexico, the word "mestizo" is used with the meaning of Mexican persons with mixed Indigenous and European blood. This usage does not conform to the Mexican social reality where a person of pure Indigenous ancestry would be considered mestizo either by rejecting his Indigenous culture or by not speaking an Indigenous language,<ref name="Bartolomé 1996:2"/> and a person with none or very low Indigenous ancestry would be considered Indigenous either by speaking an Indigenous language or by identifying with a particular Indigenous cultural heritage.<ref name="Knight 1990:73">{{cite book |last=Knight |first=Alan |year=1990 |chapter=Racism, Revolution and ''indigenismo'': Mexico 1910–1940 |title=The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940 |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Graham |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ideaofraceinlat000grah/page/73 73] |location=Austin |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-73856-0 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ideaofraceinlat000grah/page/73}}</ref> In the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], the word mestizo has a different meaning to the one used in the rest of Mexico, being used to refer to the [[Yucatec Maya language|Maya]]-speaking populations living in traditional communities, because during the [[Caste War of Yucatán]] of the late 19th century those Maya who did not join the rebellion were classified as mestizos.<ref name="Bartolomé 1996:2">{{cite book |last=Bartolomé |first=Miguel Alberto |year=1996 |chapter=Pluralismo cultural y redefinicion del estado en México |title=Coloquio sobre derechos indígenas |location=Oaxaca |publisher=IOC |isbn=978-968-6951-31-8 |chapter-url=http://courses.cit.cornell.edu/iard4010/documents/Pluralismo_cultural_y_redefinicion_del_estado_en_Mexico.pdf |page=2}}</ref> In Chiapas, the term [[Ladino people|''Ladino'']] is used instead of Mestizo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wade |first=Peter |year=1997 |title=Race and Ethnicity in Latin America |location=Chicago |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-7453-0987-3 |pages=44–47}}</ref>

Due to the extensiveness of the modern definition of mestizo, various publications offer different estimations of this group, some try to use a biological, racial perspective and calculate the mestizo population in contemporary Mexico as being around a half and two-thirds of the population,<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Mexico- Ethnic groups|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/Ethnic-groups|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=1 October 2016}}</ref> while others use the culture-based definition, and estimate the percentage of mestizos as high as 90%<ref name="EL MESTIZAJE Y LAS CULTURAS REGIONALES" /> of the Mexican population, several others mix-up both due lack of knowledge in regards to the modern definition and assert that mixed ethnicity Mexicans are as much as 93% of Mexico's population.<ref name=INMEGEN1>{{cite web|last1=González Sobrino|first1=Blanca Zoila|last2=Silva Zolezzi|first2=Irma|last3=Sebastián Medina|first3=Leticia|title=Miradas sin rendicíon, imaginario y presencia del universo indígena|url=http://www.inmegen.gob.mx/tema/cms_page_media/397/Miradas_LETY%20SEBASTIÁN_.pdf|publisher=INMEGEN|access-date=8 March 2015|pages=51–67|language=es|date=2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705014357/http://www.inmegen.gob.mx/tema/cms_page_media/397/Miradas_LETY%20SEBASTI%C3%81N_.pdf|archive-date=5 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Paradoxically to its wide definition, the word mestizo has long been dropped off popular Mexican vocabulary, with the word sometimes having pejorative connotations,<ref name="Bartolomé 1996:2" /> which further complicates attempts to quantify mestizos via self-identification.

While for most of its history the concept of mestizo and mestizaje has been lauded by Mexico's intellectual circles, in recent times the concept has been a target of criticism, with its detractors claiming that it delegitimizes the importance of ethnicity in Mexico under the idea of "(racism) not existing here (in Mexico), as everybody is mestizo."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moreno Figueroa |first1=Mónica G. |last2=Moreno Figueroa |first2=Mónica G. |title=El archivo del estudio del racismo en México |trans-title=An Archive of the Study of Racism in Mexico |language=es |journal=Desacatos |date=August 2016 |issue=51 |pages=92–107 |id={{ProQuest|1812273925}} |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1607-050X2016000200092&lng=es&nrm=iso}}</ref> Anthropologist Federico Navarrete concludes that reintroducing racial classification, and accepting itself as a multicultural country, as opposed to a monolithic mestizo country, would bring benefits to Mexican society as a whole.<ref>{{cite web|title=El mestizaje en Mexico|url=http://enp4.unam.mx/amc/libro_munioz_cota/libro/cap4/lec10_federiconavarreteelmestizaje.pdf|access-date=15 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801102632/http://enp4.unam.mx/amc/libro_munioz_cota/libro/cap4/lec10_federiconavarreteelmestizaje.pdf|archive-date=1 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Genetic studies====
[[File:Genetic variation of mestizo populations in Latin America.PNG|thumb|Distribution of admixture estimates for individuals from [[Mexico City]] (left) and [[Quetalmahue]], Chile (right). The position of each dot on the triangle plot indicates the proportion of European, indigenous American and African ancestry estimated for each individual in the population.]]
A 2012 study published by the [[Journal of Human Genetics]] found that the Y-chromosome (paternal) ancestry of the average Mexican mestizo was predominantly European (64.9%), followed by Indigenous American (30.8%), and African (4.2%). The European ancestry was more prevalent in the north and west (66.7–95%) and Indigenous American ancestry increased in the centre and south-east (37–50%), the African ancestry was low and relatively homogeneous (0–8.8%).<ref name=pmid22832385>{{cite journal |last1=Martínez-Cortés |first1=Gabriela |last2=Salazar-Flores |first2=Joel |last3=Gabriela Fernández-Rodríguez |first3=Laura |last4=Rubi-Castellanos |first4=Rodrigo |last5=Rodríguez-Loya |first5=Carmen |last6=Velarde-Félix |first6=Jesús Salvador |last7=Francisco Muñoz-Valle |first7=José |last8=Parra-Rojas |first8=Isela |last9=Rangel-Villalobos |first9=Héctor |title=Admixture and population structure in Mexican-Mestizos based on paternal lineages |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |date=September 2012 |volume=57 |issue=9 |pages=568–574 |doi=10.1038/jhg.2012.67 |pmid=22832385 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The states that participated in this study were Aguascalientes, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, Veracruz and Yucatán.<ref name=pmid22832385 />

A study of 104 mestizos from Sonora, Yucatán, Guerrero, Zacatecas, Veracruz, and Guanajuato by Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine, reported that mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 31.05% Indigenous American, and 10.03% African. [[Sonora]] shows the highest European contribution (70.63%) and [[Guerrero]] the lowest (51.98%) which also has the highest Indigenous American contribution (37.17%). African contribution ranges from 2.8% in Sonora to 11.13% in [[Veracruz]]. 80% of the Mexican population was classed as mestizo (defined as "being racially mixed in some degree").<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ashg.org/genetics/ashg06s/f10071.htm|title=Evaluation of Ancestry and Linkage Disequilibrium Sharing in Admixed Population in Mexico|author1=J.K. Estrada|author2=A. Hidalgo-Miranda|author3=I. Silva-Zolezzi|author4=G. Jimenez-Sanchez|publisher=ASHG|access-date=18 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116235945/http://www.ashg.org/genetics/ashg06s/f10071.htm|archive-date=16 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In May 2009, the same institution (Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine) issued a report on a genomic study of 300 mestizos from those same states. The study found that the mestizo population of these Mexican states were on average 55% of Indigenous ancestry followed by 41.8% of European, 1.8% of African, and 1.2% of East Asian ancestry.<ref name="pmid19433783">{{cite journal |last1=Silva-Zolezzi |first1=Irma |last2=Hidalgo-Miranda |first2=Alfredo |last3=Estrada-Gil |first3=Jesus |last4=Fernandez-Lopez |first4=Juan Carlos |last5=Uribe-Figueroa |first5=Laura |last6=Contreras |first6=Alejandra |last7=Balam-Ortiz |first7=Eros |last8=del Bosque-Plata |first8=Laura |last9=Velazquez-Fernandez |first9=David |last10=Lara |first10=Cesar |last11=Goya |first11=Rodrigo |last12=Hernandez-Lemus |first12=Enrique |last13=Davila |first13=Carlos |last14=Barrientos |first14=Eduardo |last15=March |first15=Santiago |last16=Jimenez-Sanchez |first16=Gerardo |title=Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=26 May 2009 |volume=106 |issue=21 |pages=8611–8616 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0903045106 |pmid=19433783 |pmc=2680428 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.8611S |doi-access=free}}</ref> The study also noted that whereas mestizo individuals from the southern state of Guerrero showed on average 66% of Indigenous ancestry, those from the northern state of Sonora displayed about 61.6% European ancestry. The study found that there was an increase in Indigenous ancestry as one traveled towards to the Southern states in Mexico, while the Indigenous ancestry declined as one traveled to the Northern states in the country, such as Sonora.<ref name=pmid19433783 />

=== Central America ===
{{Main|Ladino people}}
The [[Ladino people]] are a mix of Mestizo or [[Hispanicization|Hispanicized]] peoples<ref name="DRAE">''[http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltGUIBusUsual?LEMA=ladino&TIPO_HTML=2&FORMATO=ampliado#0_2 Ladino]'' en el [[Diccionario de la Real Academia Española]] (DRAE)</ref> in [[Latin America]], principally in [[Central America]]. The [[demonym]] ''Ladino'' is a [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word that derives from ''[[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latino]]''. ''Ladino'' is an [[exonym]] dating to the [[European colonization of the Americas|colonial era]] to refer to those Spanish-speakers who were not colonial elites ([[Peninsulares]] and [[Criollo people|Criollos]]), or Indigenous peoples.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ress.afehc.apinc.org/_articles/portada_afehc_articulos29.pdf|title=Reflexiones sobre el mestizaje y la identidad nacional en Centroamérica: de la colonia a las Républicas liberales|author=Soto-Quiros, Ronald|year=2006|work=Boletín No. 25. AFEHC. Asociación para el Fomento de los Estudios en Centroamérica, "Mestizaje, Raza y Nación en Centroamérica: identidades tras conceptos, 1524-1950". Octubre 2006.|language=es|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826022842/http://ress.afehc.apinc.org/_articles/portada_afehc_articulos29.pdf|archive-date=26 August 2011}}</ref>

====Costa Rica====

[[File:Chavela Vargas 060701-cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Chavela Vargas]] Mixed-Costa Rican Born - Singer]]
[[File:RealM-Shahter15 (9).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Keylor Navas]] Mixed-Costa Rican - [[Real Madrid]] Goalkeeper]]

{{As of | 2012}}, most Costa Ricans are primarily of Spanish or mestizo ancestry with minorities of German, Italian, Jamaican, and Greek ancestry.

European migrants used Costa Rica to get across the isthmus of Central America as well to reach the U.S. West Coast ([[California]]) in the late 19th century and until the 1910s (before the [[Panama Canal]] opened). Other ethnic groups known to live in Costa Rica include Nicaraguan, Colombians, Venezuelans, Peruvian, Brazilians, Portuguese, [[Palestinians]], Caribbeans, Turks, Armenians, and Georgians.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

Many of the first Spanish colonists in Costa Rica may have been Jewish converts to [[Christianity]] who were expelled from Spain in 1492 and fled to colonial backwaters to avoid the Inquisition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jcpa.org/dje/articles2/costarica.htm|title=The Jewish Community in Costa Rica|access-date=29 March 2015}}</ref> The first sizable group of self-identified Jews immigrated from Poland, beginning in 1929. From the 1930s to the early 1950s, journalistic and official antisemitic campaigns fueled harassment of Jews; however, by the 1950s and 1960s, the immigrants won greater acceptance. Most of the 3,500 Costa Rican Jews today are not highly observant, but they remain largely endogamous.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.everyculture.com/Bo-Co/Costa-Rica.html|title=Culture of Costa Rica - history, people, women, beliefs, food, customs, family, social, marriage|access-date=29 March 2015}}</ref>

Costa Rica has four small minority groups: [[Mulatto]]s, [[Afro-Latin Americans|Afro]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous Costa Ricas]], and [[Asians]]. About 8% of the population is of African descent or mulatto (mix of European and African) who are called [[Afro-Costa Rican]]s, English-speaking descendants of 19th century Afro-[[Jamaica]]n immigrant workers.

By the late 20th century, allusions in textbooks and political discourse to "whiteness," or to Spain as the "mother country" of all Costa Ricans, were diminishing, replaced with a recognition of the multiplicity of peoples that make up the nation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.everyculture.com/Bo-Co/Costa-Rica.html#ixzz5VSnSmoYJ|title=Culture of Costa Rica - history, people, women, beliefs, food, customs, family, social, marriage|website=www.everyculture.com}}</ref>

====El Salvador====

[[File:Proclama de libertad (indep. Centroamérica).jpg|thumb|Painting of the First Independence Movement celebration in San Salvador, El Salvador. At the center, [[José Matías Delgado]], a Salvadoran priest and doctor known as El Padre de la Patria Salvadoreña (The Father of the Salvadoran Fatherland), alongside his nephew [[Manuel José Arce]], future Salvadoran president of the [[Federal Republic of Central America]].]]

In [[Central America]], intermarriage by European men with Indigenous women, typically of [[Lenca]], [[Cacaopera people|Cacaopera]] and [[Pipil people|Pipil]] backgrounds in what is now [[El Salvador]] happened almost immediately after the arrival of the [[Spaniards]] led by [[Pedro de Alvarado]]. Other Indigenous groups in the country such as [[Maya peoples|Maya]] [[Poqomam people]], [[Maya peoples|Maya]] [[Ch'orti' people]], [[Alaguilac people|Alaguilac]], [[Xinca people]], [[Mixe people|Mixe]] and [[Mangue language]] people became culturally extinct due to the mestizo process or diseases brought by the Spaniards. Mestizo culture quickly became the most successful and dominant culture in El Salvador. The majority of Salvadorans in modern El Salvador identify themselves as 86.3% Mestizo roots.<ref>[http://www.digestyc.gob.sv/servers/redatam/htdocs/CPV2007S/Docs/RESULTADOS_FINALES.pdf Ethnic Groups -2007 official Census]. Page 13, Digestyc.gob.sv</ref>

Historical evidence and census supports the explanation of "strong sexual asymmetry", as a result of a strong bias favoring children born to European man and Indigenous women, and to the important Indigenous male mortality during the conquest. The genetics thus suggests the Native men were sharply reduced in numbers due to the war and disease. Large numbers of Spaniard men settled in the region and married or forced themselves with the local women. The Natives were forced to adopt Spanish names, language, and religion, and in this way, the Lencas and Pipil women and children were Hispanicized. This has made El Salvador one of the worlds most highly mixed race nations.

In 1932, ruthless dictator [[Maximiliano Hernández Martínez]] was responsible for La Matanza ("The Slaughter"), known as the [[1932 Salvadoran peasant massacre]] in which the Indigenous people were murdered in an effort to wipe out the Indigenous people in El Salvador during the 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising. Indigenous peoples, mostly of Lenca, Cacaopera, and Pipil descent are still present in El Salvador in several communities, conserving their languages, customs, and traditions.

There is a significant Arab population (of about 100,000), mostly from [[Palestinian Salvadoran|Palestine]] (especially from the area of Bethlehem), but also from Lebanon. Salvadorans of Palestinian descent numbered around 70,000 individuals, while Salvadorans of [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] descent is around 27,000. There is also a small community of Jews who came to El Salvador from France, Germany, Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey. Many of these Arab groups naturally mixed and contributed into the modern Salvadoran Mestizo population.

[[Pardo]] is the term that was used in colonial El Salvador to describe a person of tri-racial or Indigenous, European, and African descent. El Salvador is the only country in Central America that does not have a significant African population due to many factors including El Salvador not having a Caribbean coast, and because of president [[Maximiliano Hernández Martínez]], who passed racial laws to keep people of African descent and others out of El Salvador, though [[Afro-Salvadoran|Salvadorans with African ancestry]], called Pardos, were already present in El Salvador, the majority are tri-racial Pardo Salvadorans who largely cluster with the Mestizo population. They have been mixed into and were naturally bred out by the general Mestizo population, which is a combination of a Mestizo majority and the minority of Pardo people, both of whom are racially mixed populations. A total of only 10,000 enslaved Africans were brought to El Salvador over the span of 75 years, starting around 1548, about 25 years after El Salvador's colonization. The enslaved Africans that were brought to El Salvador during the colonial times, eventually came to mix and merged into the much larger and vaster Mestizo mixed European Spanish/Native Indigenous population creating Pardo or Afromestizos who cluster with Mestizo people, contributing into the modern day Mestizo population in El Salvador, thus, there remains no significant extremes of African physiognomy among Salvadorans like there is in the other countries of Central America.

Today, many Salvadorans identify themselves as being culturally part of the majority Salvadoran mestizo population, even if they are racially European (especially Mediterranean), as well as Indigenous people in El Salvador who do not speak Indigenous languages nor have an Indigenous culture, and tri-racial/pardo Salvadorans or Arab Salvadorans.{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}

====Guatemala====
{{See also|Demographics of Guatemala}}
The Ladino population in [[Guatemala]] is officially recognized as a distinct ethnic group, and the Ministry of Education of Guatemala uses the following definition:
<blockquote>"The Ladino population has been characterized as a heterogeneous population which expresses itself in the Spanish language as a maternal language, which possesses specific cultural traits of Hispanic origin mixed with Indigenous cultural elements, and dresses in a style commonly considered as western."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.minedoc.gob.gt/administracion/dependencias/centrales/ccre/ccre_interculturalidad.htm |title=Reflexiones sobre el mestizaje y la identidad nacional en Centroamérica: de la colonia a las Républicas liberales |access-date=28 July 2008 |author=Ministerio de Educación (MINEDUC) |year=2008 |language=es }}{{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref></blockquote>

==Spanish-speaking South America==

===Argentina and Uruguay===
{{Further|Argentines|Uruguayans}}
[[File:Distribution of genetic ancestry among 441 individuals from Argentina by four major regions..png|thumb|Distribution of genetic ancestry among 441 individuals from Argentina by four major regions.]]
Initially colonial [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]] had a predominantly mestizo population like the rest of the Spanish colonies, but due to a flood of European migration in the 19th century and the repeated intermarriage with Europeans, the mestizo population became a so-called [[Castizo]] population. With more Europeans arriving in the early 20th century, the majority of these immigrants coming from [[Italy]] and [[Spain]], the face of Argentina and Uruguay has overwhelmingly become European in culture and tradition. Because of this, the term Mestizo has fallen into disuse. Nevertheless, the cultural practice of the region is commonly centred on the figure of the [[Gaucho]], which intrinsically mixes European and native traditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Casas |first1=Matías |title=Tradicionalistas Y Rioplatenses |journal=Humanidades: Revista de la Universidad de Montevideo |date=2021 |volume=9 (junio) |issue=9 |pages=209–40 |doi=10.25185/9.9 |s2cid=236372020 |url=https://doi.org/10.25185/9.9. |access-date=22 February 2023|hdl=11336/165345 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

[[Argentine Northwest]] still has a predominantly mestizo population, especially in the provinces of [[Jujuy]], [[Salta Province|Salta]], [[Tucumán]], [[Santiago del Estero]], [[Catamarca Province|Catamarca]] and [[La Rioja province (Argentina)|La Rioja]].<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Book of the Year (various issues). Britannica World Data: Argentina.</ref>

===Chile===
{{rquote|right|The Chilean race, as everybody knows, is a Mestizo race made of Spanish [[conquistador]]s and the [[Mapuche|Araucanian]]...|[[Nicolás Palacios]] in ''La raza chilena'' (1904).<ref>{{Cite book|title=La raza chilena|last=Palacios|first=Nicolás|year=1918|language=es|author-link=Nicolás Palacios|orig-year=1904|page=34}}</ref>}}
{{Main|Chilean people}}
In Chile, from the time the Spanish soldiers with [[Pedro de Valdivia]] entered northern Chile, a process of 'mestizaje' began where Spaniards began to intermarry and reproduce with the local bellicose [[Mapuche]] population of Indigenous Chileans to produce an overwhelmingly mestizo population during the first generation in all of the cities they founded. In Southern Chile, the Mapuche, were one of the only Indigenous tribes in the Americas that were in continuous conflict with the [[Spanish Empire]] and did not submit to a European power. But because Southern Chile was settled by German settlers in 1848, many mestizos include descendants of Mapuche and German settlers.

A public health book from the [[University of Chile]] states that 60% of the population is of only European origin; mestizos are estimated to amount to a total of 35%, while Indigenous peoples comprise the remaining 5%. A genetic study by the same university showed that the average Chilean's genes in the Mestizo segment are 60% European and 40% Indigenous American.

As [[Easter Island]] is a territory of Chile and the native settlers are [[rapa Nui people|Rapa Nui]], descendants of intermarriages of European Chileans (mostly Spanish) and Rapa Nui are even considered by Chilean law as mestizos.

===Colombia===
{{Main|Mestizo Colombians}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = left
|caption = Genetic ancestry of Mestizo Colombians according to Rojas et al (2010)<ref name=Rojas2010/>
|label1 = [[Indigenous peoples of Colombia|Amerindian]]
|value1 = 47
|color1 = #CE1126
|label2 = [[White People|European]]
|value2 = 42
|color2 = #003893
|label3 = [[Afro-Colombians|African]]
|value3 = 11
|color3 = #FCD116
}}
[[Colombia]] whose land was named after explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] is the product of the interacting and mixing of the European [[conquistador]]s and colonist with the different Amerindian peoples of Colombia. With the arrival of Europeans came the arrival of the enslaved Africans, whose cultural element was mostly introduced into the coastal areas of Colombia. To this day, [[Afro-Colombians]] form a majority in several coastal regions of the country. {{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

Over time Colombia has become a primarily Mestizo country due to limited immigration from Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries, with the minorities being: the [[mulatto]]es and [[pardo]]s, both mixed race groups of significant partial African ancestry who live primarily in coastal regions among other Afro-Colombians; and pockets of Amerindians living around the rural areas and the Amazonian Basin regions of the country.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

Estimates of the [[Mestizo]] or Mixed population in Colombia vary, as Colombia's national census does not distinguish between [[White people|White]] and Mestizo Colombians. According to the 2018 census, the Mestizo and White population combined make up approximately 87% of the Colombian population, while an estimated 50-60% of Colombians are Mestizo or mixed race.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Geoportal del DANE - Geovisor CNPV 2018|url=https://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-por-tema/demografia-y-poblacion/censo-nacional-de-poblacion-y-vivenda-2018|website=geoportal.dane.gov.co|access-date=2021-08-05|archive-date=27 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427211843/https://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-por-tema/demografia-y-poblacion/censo-nacional-de-poblacion-y-vivenda-2018|url-status=live}}</ref> A study by Rojas et al reported an average of 47% Amerindian, 42% European, and 11% African.<ref name="Rojas2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Rojas |first1=Winston |last2=Parra |first2=Maria V |last3=Campo |first3=Omer |last4=Caro |first4=María Antonieta |date=September 2010 |title=Genetic Make Up and Structure of Colombian Populations by Means of Uniparental and Biparental DNA Markers |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45822469 |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=143 |issue=1 |pages=13–20 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.21270 |pmid=20734436 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> A genetic study conducted by Criollo at el estimates that the average admixture for [[Mestizo Colombians]] is 50.8% European, 40.7% Amerindian, and 8.5% African ancestry, however this varies significantly across region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.03.02.23286692v1|title=Colorectal Cancer Risk and Ancestry in Colombian admixed Populations|first1=Angel|last1=Criollo-Rayo|first2=Mabel Elena|last2=Bohórquez|first3=Paul|last3=Lott|first4=Angel|last4=Carracedo|first5=Ian|last5=Tomlinson|first6=Jorge Mario|last6=Castro|first7=Gilbert|last7=Mateus|first8=Daniel|last8=Molina|first9=Catalina Rubio|last9=Vargas|first10=Carlos|last10=Puentes|first11=Chibcha|last11=Consortium|first12=Magdalena|last12=Echeverry|first13=Luis|last13=Carvajal|date=2 March 2023|via=medRxiv|doi=10.1101/2023.03.02.23286692}}</ref>

===Ecuador===
During the colonial era, the majority of Ecuadorians were Amerindians and the minorities were the Spanish [[conquistador]]s, who came with [[Francisco Pizarro]] and [[Sebastián de Belalcázar]]. With the passage of time these Spanish conquerors and succeeding Spanish colonists sired offspring, largely nonconsensually, with the local Amerindian population, since Spanish immigration did not initially include many European females to the colonies. In a couple of generations a predominantly Mestizo population emerged in Ecuador with a drastically declining Amerindian population due to European diseases and wars.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

[[Afro-Ecuadorians]], (including [[zambos]] and [[mulatto]]es), are a significant minority in the country, and can be found mostly in the [[Esmeraldas Province]] and in the [[Valle del Chota]] of the [[Imbabura Province]]. They form a majority in both of those regions. There are also small communities of Afro-Ecuadorians living along the coastal areas outside of the Esmeraldas province. However, significant numbers of Afro-Ecuadorians can be found in the countries' largest cities of [[Guayaquil]] and [[Quito]], where they have been migrating to from their ancestral regions in search of better opportunities.

Mestizos are the largest of all the ethnic groups, and comprise 70% of the current population. The next 30% of the population is comprised by four ethnic groups with about 7.5% each, the [[Montubio]] (a term for Mestizos from the inland countryside of coastal Ecuador - who are culturally distinct from Mestizos from the rest of the country), Afro-Ecuadorian, Amerindians, and Europeans.

===Paraguay===
{{Main|Paraguayan people}}
During the reign of [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]], the first consul of [[Paraguay]] from 1811 to 1840, he imposed a law that no Spaniard may intermarry with another Spaniard, and that they may only wed mestizos or Amerindians.<ref name="theconversation.com">Paraguay, a history lesson in racial equality, Juan Manuel Casal, 2 Dec, 2016. https://theconversation.com/amp/from-paraguay-a-history-lesson-on-racial-equality-68655.</ref> This was introduced to eliminate any sense of racial superiority, and also to end the predominantly Spanish influence in Paraguay. De Francia himself was not a Mestizo (although his paternal grandfather was [[Afro-Brazilian]]), but feared that racial superiority would create [[class division]] which would threaten his [[Autocracy|absolute rule]].

As a result of this, today 90% of Paraguay's population is mestizo, and the main language is the native [[Guaraní language|Guaraní]], spoken by 60% of the population as a first language, with Spanish spoken as a first language by 40% of the population, and fluently spoken by 75%, making Paraguay one of the most bilingual countries in the world. After the tremendous decline of male population as a result of the [[War of the Triple Alliance]], European male worker émigrés mixed with the female Mestizo population to create a middle-class of largely Mestizo background.<ref name="theconversation.com"/>{{failed verification|date=July 2021}}

===Peru===
[[File:Mestizo. Mestiza. Mestiza.jpg|thumb|Mestizo-Mestiza, Peru, circa 1770]]

According to Alberto Flores Galindo, "By the 1940 census, the last that utilized racial categories, Mestizos were grouped with white, and the two constituted more than 53% of the population. Mestizos likely outnumbered Indians and were the largest population group."<ref>{{cite book|last=Galindo|first=Alberto Flores|title=In Search of an Inca: Identity and Utopia in the Andes|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|page=247|isbn=978-0-521-59861-3}}</ref>

===Venezuela===
{{Main|Mestizos in Venezuela}}

Mestizos are the majority in Venezuela, accounting for 51.6% of the country's population. According to D'Ambrosio<ref>D'Ambrosio, B. ''L'emigrazione italiana nel Venezuela''. Edizioni "Universitá degli Studi di Genova". Genova, 1981</ref> 57.1% of Mestizos have mostly European characteristics, 28.5% have mostly African characteristics and 14.2% have mostly Amerindian characteristics.

== Spanish East Indies==

===Guam and Northern Mariana Islands===

In [[Guam]] and [[Northern Mariana Islands]], which were administered from the [[Philippines]] under the [[Spanish East Indies]], the term ''mestizo'' referred to people of mixed [[Chamorro people|Chamorro]] (''indio'') or [[Filipino people|Filipino]] and Spanish ancestry. In the administrative racial hierarchy, they were ranked below the full-blooded Spaniards (''[[peninsulares]]'' and ''[[criollos]]''), but ranked higher than full-blooded Indigenous Filipinos and Chamorro. The term ''indio'' originally applied to both Filipinos and Indigenous Chamorro, but they were later separately designated in Spanish censuses in Guam.<ref name="mestisu">{{cite web |title=Mestizo (Mestisu) |url=https://www.guampedia.com/mestizo-mestisu/ |website=Guampedia |date=29 September 2009 |access-date=31 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Indios |url=https://www.guampedia.com/indios/ |website=Guampedia |date=18 November 2009 |access-date=31 July 2023}}</ref><ref name="Rogers">{{cite book |last1=Rogers |first1=Robert F. |title=Destiny's Landfall A History of Guam, Revised Edition |date=2011 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=9780824860974 |page=354}}</ref> Like in the Philippines, this caste system was legally mandated and determined what taxes a person must pay. Both full-blooded Spaniards and ''mestizos'' were exempt from paying tribute as specified in the [[Laws of the Indies]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Campbell |first=Bruce L. |date=May 1987 |title=The Filipino Community of Guam |publisher=University of Hawaii|url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/ff03a158-8dd3-4b3d-af14-7f36bc017ad0/content}}</ref>

In modern Guam, the [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] term ''mestisu'' (feminine ''mestisa'') refers to a person of mixed Chamorro and any foreign ancestry. It can be heritage-specific, such as ''mestisan CHamoru yan Tagalu'' ("female of mixed Chamorro and Filipino descent") or ''mestison CHamoru yan Amerikanu'' ("male of mixed Chamorro and [[White American]] descent").<ref name="mestisu"/>

===Philippines===
{{Main|Filipino Mestizos}}
[[File:Spanish mestizo costume.jpg|thumb|''[[Filipino Mestizos|Mestizos]] de [[Spanish Filipino|Español]]'' in the [[Philippines]] by Jean Mallat de Bassilan (c.1846), both are wearing native [[barong tagalog]] and [[baro't saya]] finery]]


In the [[Philippines]], the term ''mestizo'' was used to refer to a person with mixed native (''[[Filipinos#Names|indio]]'') and either Spanish or Chinese ancestry during the [[Spanish colonial period of the Philippines|Spanish colonial period]] (1565–1898). It was a legal classification and played an important part in the colonial taxation system as well as social status.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=mestizo {{!}} Definition & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/mestizo |access-date=2021-03-15 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Reyes">{{cite book |last1=Reyes |first1=Angela |editor1-last=Alim |editor1-first=H. Samy |editor2-last=Reyes |editor2-first=Angela |editor3-last=Kroskrity |editor3-first=Paul V. |chapter=Coloniality of Mixed Race and Mixed Language |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |title=The Oxford Handbook of Language and Race |isbn=9780190845995 |pages=196–197}}</ref><ref name="Plehn">{{cite journal |last1=Plehn |first1=Carl C. |title=Taxation in the Philippines. I |journal=Political Science Quarterly |date=December 1901 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=680–711 |doi=10.2307/2140422|jstor=2140422 }}</ref>

The term most commonly applied to ''mestizos de español'' ("Spanish mestizos"), most of whom were descendants of intermarriage between Spanish settlers and the [[Maginoo|pre-colonial ruling families]] (''caciques''). They were part of the land-owning aristocratic class known as the ''[[Principalia]]''.<ref name="Riedinger">{{cite book |last1=Riedinger |first1=Jeffrey M. |title=Agrarian Reform in the Philippines Democratic Transitions and Redistributive Reform |date=1995 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=9780804725309 |pages=42–43}}</ref> Like people of full Spanish ancestry (''blanco'', the ''[[peninsulares]]'' and ''[[insulares]]''), ''mestizos de español'' were not required to pay the "tribute" (a personal tax) levied on natives specified in the [[Laws of the Indies]].<ref name="Plehn"/>

The ''mestizo'' classification was also applied to people of mixed native and Chinese ancestry who converted to [[Catholicism]], of which there was a much larger population. They were differentiated from the Spanish mestizos as ''[[mestizos de sangley]]'' ("Chinese mestizos"), most of whom were merchants and traders. They paid about twice the amount of taxes than natives, but less taxes than someone of full Chinese ancestry (the ''[[sangley]]es'').<ref name="Plehn"/><ref name="Wickberg">{{cite journal |last1=Wickberg |first1=E. |title=The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian History |date=1964 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=62–100 |doi=10.1017/S0217781100002222 |jstor=20067476 |hdl=1808/1129 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20067476|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Both ''mestizos de español'' and ''mestizos de sangley'' were often from wealthy families and thus part of the educated class in the late 19th century (the ''[[ilustrados]]''). Along with children from wealthy native families, they played a prominent part in the [[Propaganda Movement]] (1880-1895), which called for reforms in the colonial government of the Philippines. ''Mestizos'' were a key demographic in the development of [[Filipino nationalism]].<ref name="Wickberg"/><ref name="Cullinane">{{cite book |last1=Cullinane |first1=Michael |title=Ilustrado Politics Filipino Elite Responses to American Rule, 1898-1908 |date=2003 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |isbn=9789715504393 |pages=8–10}}</ref> During the 1700s, mixed [[Spanish Filipinos|Spanish Filipino]] Mestizos formed about 5% of the total tribute paying population<ref name="Estadismo1">{{Cite web |url=http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |title=ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO PRIMERO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish) |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=March 9, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309030040/http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|539}}<ref name="Estadismo2">[https://ia601608.us.archive.org/10/items/bub_gb_ElhFAAAAYAAJ_2/bub_gb_ElhFAAAAYAAJ.pdf ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO SEGUNDO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish)]</ref>{{rp|31,54,113}} whereas mixed [[Chinese Filipinos|Chinese Filipino]] Mestizos formed 20% of the population.<ref name="senate.gov.ph">{{cite press release|title=Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday|date=January 21, 2013|publisher=PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines|url=http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp|last=Macrohon|first=Pilar|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516035425/http://legacy.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp|archive-date=May 16, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf |title=The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia |access-date=April 23, 2012|page=96|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101131721/http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf|archive-date=November 1, 2018}}</ref><ref name="senate.gov.phb">{{cite press release|title=Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday|date=January 21, 2013|publisher=PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines|url=http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp|last=Macrohon|first=Pilar}}</ref>

During the [[American occupation of the Philippines]] (1898–1946), the term expanded to include people of mixed native and American ancestry.<ref name="Molnar">{{cite book |last1=Molnar |first1=Nicholas Trajano |title=American Mestizos, The Philippines, and the Malleability of Race: 1898-1961 |date=2017 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |isbn=978-0826221223 |pages=11–12}}</ref>

In the modern [[Philippines]], the [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] term ''[[wikt:mestiso|mestiso]]'' (feminine ''mestisa'') refers to anyone who has the fair-skinned appearance of mixed native and European ancestry, often used as a compliment. It is commonly shortened to ''"[[wikt:tisoy|tisoy]]"'' (feminine ''"tisay"'') in colloquial usage.<ref name="Lorenzana">{{cite book |last1=Lorenzana |first1=Jozon A. |editor1-last=Eng |editor1-first=Lai Ah |editor2-last=Collins |editor2-first=Francis L. |editor3-last=Yeoh |editor3-first=Brenda S.A. |title=Migration and Diversity in Asian Contexts|chapter=Being Indian in Post-colonial Metro Manila: Identities, Boundaries and the Media Practices |date=2013 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |location=Singapore |isbn=9789814380478 |pages=202–203}}</ref> ''Mestizo'' is also considered one of the archetypal [[beauty standard]]s in the Philippines, the others being ''moreno'' (brown-skinned native appearance) and ''chinito'' (lighter-skinned [[East Asia]]n appearance).<ref name="Cruz">{{cite book |last1=Cruz |first1=Denise |title=Transpacific Femininities The Making of the Modern Filipina |date=2012 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=9780822353164 |pages=4}}</ref><ref name="Sniegowski">{{cite news |last1=Sniegowski |first1=Julia |title=About face: Breaking down Filipina beauty |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/ystyle/2013/04/26/934842/about-face-breaking-down-filipina-beauty |access-date=29 July 2023 |work=The Philippine Star |date=26 April 2013}}</ref>

==Elsewhere in the Americas==

=== Belize ===
{{See also|:Category:Mestizo communities in Belize}}
{{Expand section|date=October 2022}}

=== United States ===

[[File:Fiestas Patrias Parade, South Park, Seattle, 2017 - 045 - Joyas Mestizas.jpg|thumb|The dance group Joyas Mestizas ("Mestiza jewels") performs at the Fiestas Patrias Parade, South Park, [[Seattle]], 2017]]

In the United States, a number of [[Latino Americans]] of Mexican or Central American or South American descent have family histories bound to categories such as ''mestizaje''. The term ''mestizo'' is not used for official purposes, with [[Mexican Americans]] being classed in roughly equal proportions as "white" or "some other ethnicity".<ref>https://www.heritage.org/civil-society/commentary/the-invention-hispanics-what-it-says-about-the-politics-race, “[the] race idea is somewhat at odds with the experience of Mexican Americans, over half of whom designate themselves racially as white.” </ref>

A 2015 report by the [[Pew Research Center]] showed that "When asked if they identify as "mestizo," "mulatto" or some other mixed-race combination, one-third of U.S. Hispanics say they do". These were more likely to be U.S. born, non-Mexican, and have a higher education attainment than those who do not so identify.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gonzalez-Barrera |first1=Ana |title='Mestizo' and 'mulatto': Mixed-race identities among U.S. Hispanics |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/07/10/mestizo-and-mulatto-mixed-race-identities-unique-to-hispanics/#:~:text=The%20term%20mestizo%20means%20mixed,European%20and%20an%20indigenous%20background. |website=Pew Research Center |date=10 July 2015 |access-date=5 June 2022}}</ref>

==''Mestizaje'' in Latin America==
{{Further|Race and ethnicity in Latin America}}
[[File:JoseVasconcelosStatueDF.JPG|thumb|upright|Statue of [[José Vasconcelos]] in Mexico City]]

'''''{{lang|es|Mestizaje}}''''' ({{IPA|es|mes.tiˈsa.xe|}}) is a term that came into usage in twentieth-century Latin America for racial mixing, not a colonial-era term.<ref name="Rappaport, Joanne p. 247"/> In the modern era, it is used to denote the positive unity of race mixtures in modern Latin America. This ideological stance is in contrast to the term ''[[miscegenation]]'', which usually has negative connotations.<ref name="Lewis 1997 Mestizaje">{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Stephen |chapter=Mestizaje |pages=840–841 |editor1-last=Werner |editor1-first=Michael S. |title=Encyclopedia of Mexico: M-Z |date=1997 |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers |isbn=978-1-884964-31-2 }}</ref> The main ideological advocate of ''mestizaje'' was [[José Vasconcelos]] (1882–1959), the Mexican Minister of Education in the 1920s. The term was in circulation in Mexico in the late nineteenth century, along with similar terms, ''cruzamiento'' ("crossing") and ''mestización'' (process of "mestizo-izing"). In Spanish America, the colonial-era system of castas sought to differentiate between individuals and groups on the basis of a hierarchical classification by ancestry, skin color, and status (''calidad''), giving separate labels to the perceived categorical differences and privileging whiteness. In contrast, the idea of modern ''mestizaje'' is the positive unity of a nation's citizenry based on racial mixture. "Mestizaje placed greater emphasis [than the casta system] on commonality and hybridity to engineer order and unity... [it] operated within the context of the nation-state and sought to derive meaning from Latin America's own internal experiences rather than the dictates and necessities of empire... ultimately [it] embraced racial mixture."<ref>Vinson, Ben III. ''Before Mestizaje''. New York: Cambridge University Press 2018, pp. 61-2.</ref>

===In post-revolution Mexico===
At independence in Mexico, the casta classifications were abolished, but discrimination based on skin color and socioeconomic status continued. Liberal intellectuals grappled with the "Indian Problem", that is, the Amerindians' lack of cultural assimilation to Mexican national life as citizens of the nation, rather than members of their Indigenous communities. Urban elites spurned mixed-race urban plebeians and Amerindians along with their traditional popular culture. In the late nineteenth century during the [[Porfiriato|rule of Porfirio Díaz]], elites sought to be, act, and look like modern Europeans, that is, different from the majority of the Mexican population. Díaz was mixed-race himself, but powdered his dark skin to hide his Mixtec Indigenous ancestry. At the end of the nineteenth century, however, as social and economic tensions increased in Mexico, two major works by Mexican intellectuals sought to rehabilitate the assessment of the mestizo. Díaz's Minister of Education, [[Justo Sierra]] published ''The Political Evolution of the Mexican People'' (1902), which situated Mexican identity in the mixing of European whites and Amerindians. Mexicans are "the sons of two peoples, of two races. [This fact] dominates our whole history; to this we owe our soul."<ref>Sierra, Justo. ''The Political Evolution of the Mexican People''. Trans. Charles Ramsdell. Austin: University of Texas Press. P. xvii.</ref> Intellectual [[Andrés Molina Enríquez]] also took a revisionist stance on Mestizos in his work ''Los grandes problemas nacionales'' (The Great National Problems) (1909).

The Mexican state after the [[Mexican Revolution]] (1910–20) embraced the ideology of mestizaje as a nation-building tool, aimed at integrating Amerindians culturally and politically in the construction of national identity. As such it has meant a systematic effort to eliminate Indigenous culture, in the name of integrating them into a supposedly inclusive mestizo identity. For [[Afro-Mexicans]], the ideology has denied their historical contributions to Mexico and their current place in Mexican political life. Mexican politicians and reformers such as José Vasconcelos and [[Manuel Gamio]] were instrumental in building a Mexican national identity on the concept of "mestizaje" (the process of ethnic homogenization).<ref>{{cite book |last=Wade |first=Peter |year=1997 |title=Race and Ethnicity in Latin America |location=Chicago |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-7453-0987-3 |page=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Knight |first=Alan |year=1990 |chapter=Racism, Revolution and ''indigenismo'': Mexico 1910–1940 |title=The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940 |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Graham |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ideaofraceinlat000grah/page/78 78–85] |location=Austin |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-73856-0 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ideaofraceinlat000grah/page/78}}</ref>

Cultural policies in early post-revolutionary Mexico were paternalistic towards the Indigenous people, with efforts designed to "help" Indigenous peoples achieve the same level of progress as the mestizo society, eventually assimilating Indigenous peoples completely to mainstream Mexican culture, working toward the goal of eventually solving the "Indian problem" by transforming Indigenous communities into mestizo communities.<ref name="auto"/>

In recent years, Mestizos' sole claim to Mexican national identity has begun to erode, at least rhetorically."<ref name="Lewis 1997 Mestizaje"/> A constitutional changes to Article 4 that now says that the "Mexican Nation has a pluricultural composition, originally based on its Indigenous peoples. The law will protect and promote the development of their languages, cultures, uses, customs, resources, and specific forms of social organization and will guarantee their members effective access to the jurisdiction of the State."

===Elsewhere in Latin America===
There has been considerable academic work on race and race mixture in various parts of Latin America in recent years. Including South America;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hale |first1=Charles R. |authorlink1=Charles R. Hale (anthropologist) |title=Mestizaje, Hybridity, and the Cultural Politics of Difference in Post-Revolutionary Central America |journal=Journal of Latin American Anthropology |date=28 June 2008 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=34–61 |doi=10.1525/jlca.1996.2.1.34 }}</ref> Venezuela<ref>Winthrop Wright, Cafe ́Con Leche: Race, Class and National Image in Venezuela. Austin: University of Texas Press 1990</ref> Brazil,<ref>Sueann Caulfield, 'Interracial Courtship in the Rio de Janeiro Courts, 1918–1940,' in Nancy P. Appelbaum, Anne S. Macpherson and Karin A. Rosemblatt (eds.) in ''Race and Nation in Modern Latin America''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003</ref> Peru<ref>Marisol de la Cadena,''Indigenous Mestizos: The Politics of Race and Culture in Cuzco, 1919–1991''. Durham: Duke University Press 2000</ref> and Colombia.<ref>Wade, Peter, ''Blackness and Race Mixture: The Dynamics of Racial Identity in Colombia''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1993</ref>

==Mestizos migrating to Europe==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2010}}

[[Martín Cortés (son of doña Marina)|Martín Cortés]], son of the [[conquistador|Spanish conquistador]] [[Hernán Cortés]] and of the [[Nahuatl]]–[[Maya languages|Maya]] Indigenous Mexican interpreter [[La Malinche|Malinche]], was one of the first documented mestizos to arrive in Spain. His first trip occurred in 1528, when he accompanied his father who sought to have him legitimized by [[Pope Clement VII]], the [[Pope of Rome]] from 1523 to 1534.

There is also verified evidence of the grandchildren of [[Moctezuma II]], [[Aztec]] emperor, whose royal descent the [[Spanish Crown]] acknowledged, willingly having set foot on European soil. Among these descendants are the Counts of Miravalle, and the [[Duke of Moctezuma de Tultengo|Dukes of Moctezuma de Tultengo]], who became part of the [[Spanish peerage]] and left many descendants in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alvarezgalloso.wordpress.com/2007/12/30/la-descendencia-espanola-de-moctezuma-reclama-pago-de-mexico/|title=La descendencia española de Moctezuma reclama pago de Mexico|work=El Noticiero de Alvarez Galloso|date=30 December 2007|access-date=29 March 2015}}</ref> The Counts of Miravalle, residing in [[Andalusia|Andalucía]], Spain, demanded in 2003 that the government of Mexico recommence payment of the so-called "Moctezuma pensions" it had cancelled in 1934.

The mestizo historian [[Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]], son of Spanish conquistador [[Sebastián Garcilaso de la Vega]] and of the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] princess Isabel Chimpo Oclloun arrived in Spain from Peru. He lived in the town of [[Montilla]], [[Andalucía]], where he died in 1616.

==See also==
{{Portal|Spain|Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Europe|Latin America}}
{{div col|colwidth=23em}}
* [[African diaspora in the Americas]]
* [[Arab-Berber]]
* [[Brown (racial classification)]]
* [[Bronze (racial classification)]]
* [[Casta]]
* [[Castizo]]
* [[Zambo]]
* [[European colonization of the Americas]]
* [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[Indo people]]
* [[Melting pot]]
* [[Mestizo art]]
* [[Métis]]
* [[Mischling]]
* [[Mixed-blood]]
* [[Mulatto]]
* [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]
{{div col end}}

{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*Ades Queija, Berta. "Mestizos en hábito de indios: Estraegias transgresoras o identidades difusas?" ''Pasar as fronteiras: Actas do II Colóqyui Internacional sobre Mediadores Culturais, séculos XV a XVIII'' (Lagos-Outubro 1997). Ed. Rui Manuel Loureiro and Serge Gruzinski, 122-46. Lagos, Nigeria: Centro de Estudios Gil Eanes 1999.
*{{cite book |last1=Batalla |first1=Guillermo |first2=Philip |last2=Dennis |title=Mexico Profundo: Reclaiming A Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/mexicoprofundore0000bonf |url-access=registration |publisher=Univ of Texas Pr |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-292-70843-3}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=Marc |title=The Limits of Indigenismo in Ecuador |journal=Latin American Perspectives |date=September 2012 |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=45–62 |doi=10.1177/0094582x12447273 |s2cid=145145902 }}
*Bonil Gómez, Katherine. ''Gobierno y calidad en el orden colonial: Las categorías del mestizaje en la provincia de Mariquita en la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII''. Bogotá: Ediciones Uniandes 2011.
*Chance, John K. ''Race and Class in Colonial Oaxaca''. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1978.
*Cope, R. Douglas. ''The Limits of Racial Domination: Plebeian Society in Col-515.onial Mexico City, 1660-1720''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1994.
*{{cite journal |last1=de la Cadena |first1=Marisol |title=Are Mestizos Hybrids? The Conceptual Politics of Andean Identities |journal=Journal of Latin American Studies |date=May 2005 |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=259–284 |doi=10.1017/S0022216X05009004 |id={{ProQuest|195913906}} |jstor=3875686 }}
*de la Cadena, Marisol. ''Indigenous Mestizos: The Politics of Race and Culture in Cuzco, Peru 1919-1991''. Durham: Duke University Press 2000.
*{{cite book |last=Duno Gottberg |first=Luis |title=Solventando las diferencias: la ideología del mestizaje en Cuba |location=Madrid |publisher=Iberoamericana |year=2003 |isbn=978-84-8489-091-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/solventandolasdi0000duno}}
*Fisher, Andrew B. and Matthew O'Hara, eds. ''Imperial Subjects: Race and Identity in Colonial Latin America''. Durham: Duke University Press 2009.
*Frederick, Jake. "Without Impediment: Crossing Racial Boundaries in Colonial Mexico." The Americas 67. 4 (2011): 495-515.
* {{cite journal |last1=Graubart |first1=Karen B. |title=The Creolization of the New World: Local Forms of Identification in Urban Colonial Peru, 1560–1640 |journal=Hispanic American Historical Review |date=1 August 2009 |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=471–499 |doi=10.1215/00182168-2009-003 }}
*Gruzinski, Serge. ''The Mestizo Mind: The Intellectual Dynamics of Colonization and Globalization''. Trans. Deke Dusinberre. Longon: Routledge 2002.
*Hill, ruth. "Casta as Culture and the ''Sociedad de Castas'' as Literature." ''Interpreting Colonialism''. Ed. Philip Stueward and byron Wells, 231-59. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation 2004.
*Katzew, Ilona. ''Casta Painting: Images of Race in Eighteenth-Century Mexico''. New Haven: Yale University Press 2004.
*Leibsohn, Dana, and Barbara E. Mundy, "Reckoning with Mestizaje," ''Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520-1820'' (2015). [https://vistas.ace.fordham.edu/themes/mestizaje-surveying/ http://www.fordham.edu/vistas].
*Lewis, Laura. ''Hall of Mirrors: Power, Witchcraft, and Caste in Colonial Mexico''. Durham: Duke University Press 2003.
*Martinez, Maria Elena. "Interrogating Blood Lines: "Purity of Blood," the Inquisition, and ''Casta'' categories." in ''Religion in New Spain''. ed. Susan Schroeder and Stafford Poole, 196-217. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2007.
*Mörner, Magnus. ''Race Mixture in the History of Latin America''. Boston: Little, Brown 1967,
*Rappaport, Joanne. ''The Disappearing Mestizo: Configuring Difference in the Colonial Kingdom of Granada''. Durham: Duke University Press 2014. {{ISBN|978-0-8223-5636-3}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Schwaller |first1=R. C. |title=The Importance of Mestizos and Mulatos as Bilingual Intermediaries in Sixteenth-Century New Spain |journal=Ethnohistory |date=1 October 2012 |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=713–738 |doi=10.1215/00141801-1642725 }}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/03/080320205224.htm |title=Genetic Study Of Latin Americans Sheds Light On A Troubled History |work=Science Daily}}
*Vinson, Ben III. ''Before Mestizaje: The Frontiers of Race and Caste in Colonial Mexico''. New York: Cambridge University Press 2018.
*{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=S. |last2=Ray |first2=N. |last3=Rojas |first3=W. |last4=Parra |first4=M. V. |last5=Bedoya |first5=G. |year=2008 |title=Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos |journal=PLOS Genet |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=e1000037 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1000037 |pmid=18369456 |pmc=2265669 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Mestizo}}
{{Commons category|Casta paintings}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://ww.latinola.com/story.php?story=4614 The 1921 Mexican Census]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071023050002/http://www2.truman.edu/~marc/webpages/andean2k/conquest/mestizo.html The Construction and Function of Race: Creating The Mestizo]
* {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Mestizo |short=x}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060207065423/http://www.manaus.am.gov.br/secretarias/secretariaMunicipalDeAdministracaoEPlanejamento/servicos/dom/2006/pdf/dom20061397cad1 Copy of the Mestizo Day law - City of Manaus]
*[http://www.nacaomestica.org/lei_do_dia_do_mestico_am.JPG Copy of the Mestizo Day law - State of Amazon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224215432/http://www.nacaomestica.org/lei_do_dia_do_mestico_am.JPG |date=24 February 2021 }}
*[http://www.imprensaoficial.rr.gov.br/diarios/doe-20071010.pdf Copy of the Mestizo Day law - State of Roraima] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815095643/http://www.imprensaoficial.rr.gov.br/diarios/doe-20071010.pdf |date=15 August 2016 }}
*[http://www.nacaomestica.org/ Mestizo Nation Movement]
*[http://nacaomestica.org/blog4/?p=1603 Legislative Assembly pays tribute to the caboclos and all Mestizos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405192023/https://nacaomestica.org/blog4/?p=1603 |date=5 April 2023 }}

{{Mestizos}}
{{Hispanics/Latinos}}
{{Miscegenation in Spanish colonies}}{{Multiethnicity}}{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mestizo| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Argentina]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Belize]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Bolivia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Central America]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Chile]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Colombia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Ecuador]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in El Salvador]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Guatemala]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Honduras]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Mexico]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Nicaragua]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Panama]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Paraguay]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Peru]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the United States]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Venezuela]]
[[Category:Latin American caste system]]
[[Category:Multiracial affairs in the Americas]]
[[Category:Spanish words and phrases]]

Battle of Rancagua

2024-03-26T12:27:16Z

190.196.211.42: /* Background */

{{Short description|1814 battle in the Chilean War of Independence}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Rancagua
|partof=the [[Chilean War of Independence]]
|image=Carga de O'Higgins.jpg
|image_size=300px
|caption=''Carga de O'Higgins'', Pedro Subercaseaux
|date=October 1–2, 1814
|place=[[Rancagua]], [[Captaincy General of Chile|Chile]]
|result=Royalist Victory
|combatant2={{flagicon image|Flag of Chile (1812-1814).svg}} [[Chile|Chilean patriots]]
|combatant1={{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Royalist (Spanish American independence)|Royalists]]
|commander2={{flagicon image|Flag of Chile (1812-1814).svg}} [[Bernardo O'Higgins]]
|commander1={{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Mariano Osorio]]
|strength2=2,000
|strength1=2,200
|casualties2=1,000 killed and wounded 888 captured
|casualties1=224 killed and wounded
}}
{{Campaignbox Chilean War of Independence}}

[[Image:BatallaDeRancagua.JPG|thumb|right|300px| The Battle of Rancagua]]

The '''Battle of Rancagua''', also known in Chile as the '''Disaster of Rancagua''', occurred on October 1, 1814, to October 2, 1814, when the Spanish Army under the command of [[Mariano Osorio]] defeated the rebel Chilean forces led by [[Bernardo O'Higgins|Bernardo O’Higgins]]. This put an end to the Chilean [[Patria Vieja]] and it was the decisive step of the Spanish military [[Reconquista (Spanish America)|Reconquest of Chile]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of Chile, 1808-2002 Second Edition|last=Collier|first=Simon|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-521-82749-3|location=Cambridge|pages=35–37}}</ref>

==Background==
When Spain heard about the Patriot revolt in [[Chile]], they sent an army of Spanish soldiers and royalists to defeat the rebellion. When O'Higgins heard about the besieged army in Rancagua, he went with his army of 1,000 patriots, to reinforce Juan Carrera's army in Rancagua. Outnumbered and with barely enough supplies, O'Higgins did not retreat and sealed the fate

==The Battle==
The battle occurred on the morning of October 1, 1814, outside the town of [[Rancagua]]. The Chilean forces had occupied the town prior to this confrontation and ultimately were surrounded by Osorio’s forces who advanced towards the town.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Armies, politics and revolution Chile, 1808-1826|last=Ossa|first=Juan|publisher=Liverpool University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-78138-132-8|location=Liverpool|pages=52}}</ref> The reason for occupying the town was its strategic importance in the defense of the Chilean capital, [[Santiago]]. The battle was fierce and the Spanish had an elite force of soldiers known as “Talaveras” who were veterans from the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in Europe. As the fighting continued onward to the evening, the Spanish forces decided to set fire to the town.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Armies, politics and revolution Chile, 1808, 1826|last=Ossa|first=Juan|publisher=Liverpool University Press|year=2014|location=Liverpool|pages=53}}</ref> With casualties growing, the Chilean forces requested reinforcements from the capital city of [[Santiago]], which was 87 Kilometers north of [[Rancagua]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Bernardo O'Higgins and the Independence of Chile|last=Clissold|first=Stephen|publisher=Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers|year=1969|location=Washington, New York|pages=129–131}}</ref> Ultimately the request failed, which forced the Chilean army to disperse and flee to the countryside and wilderness. After this victory, the Spanish army continued on to Santiago, crushed the Chilean Government and instituted their brutal [[Reconquista (Spanish America)|Reconquista]] of Chile.

==Aftermath==
After the Battle of Rancagua, the Spanish captured Santiago within a few days, which marked the beginning of the [[Reconquista (Spanish America)|Reconquista]] of South America. This battle became a stain on Chile's national memory as it was a time when the nation was lost and the people feared that their struggle for independence was in vain. The people fled elsewhere in South America as refugees to escape the violence the Spanish would have meted out to the rebels.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Bernardo O'Higgins|last=Kinsbruner|first=Jay|publisher=Twayne Publishers Inc.|year=1968|location=New York|pages=84}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Chilean War of Independence]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Coord missing|Chile}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rancagua, Battle Of}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1814]]
[[Category:Battles involving Chile]]
[[Category:Battles involving Spain]]
[[Category:Battles of the Spanish American wars of independence]]
[[Category:Battles of the Chilean War of Independence]]
[[Category:Battles of the Patria Vieja Campaign]]
[[Category:1814 in the Captaincy General of Chile]]
[[Category:Rancagua|Battle of Rancagua]]
[[Category:History of O'Higgins Region|Battle of Rancagua]]
[[Category:October 1814 events]]

Rhenium

2023-08-02T15:04:56Z

190.196.211.42: 2

{{For|the Parliament album|Rhenium (album)}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Infobox rhenium}}

pene

Discovered by [[Walter Noddack]], [[Ida Noddack|Ida Tacke]] and [[Otto Berg (scientist)|Otto Berg]] in 1925,<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1925-06-01 |title=Die Ekamangane |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01558746 |journal=Naturwissenschaften |language=de |volume=13 |issue=26 |pages=567–574 |doi=10.1007/BF01558746 |bibcode=1925NW.....13..567. |s2cid=32974087 |issn=1432-1904}}</ref> rhenium was the last [[stable element]] to be discovered. It was named after the river [[Rhine]] in Europe, from which the earliest samples had been obtained and worked commercially.<ref>{{cite web|title=From Hydrogen to Darmstadtium & More|page=144|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YWkvAQAAIAAJ|publisher=American Chemical Society|date=2003}}</ref>

[[Nickel]]-based [[superalloy]]s of rhenium are used in combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of [[jet engine]]s. These alloys contain up to 6% rhenium, making jet engine construction the largest single use for the element. The second-most important use is as a [[Catalysis|catalyst]]: rhenium is an excellent catalyst for [[hydrogenation]] and isomerization, and is used for example in [[catalytic reforming]] of naphtha for use in gasoline (rheniforming process). Because of the low availability relative to demand, rhenium is expensive, with price reaching an all-time high in 2008/2009 of US$10,600 per [[kilogram]] (US$4,800 per pound). Due to increases in rhenium recycling and a drop in demand for rhenium in catalysts, the price of rhenium had dropped to US$2,844 per [[kilogram]] (US$1,290 per pound) as of July 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apps.catalysts.basf.com/apps/eibprices/mp/YearlyCharts.aspx|title=BASF Catalysts - Metal Prices|website=apps.catalysts.basf.com}}</ref>

==History==
{{Redirect|Nipponium|element 113|nihonium}}
Rhenium ({{lang-la|Rhenus}} meaning: "[[Rhine]]")<ref>{{cite book|language=de|title=Forschen Suche und Sucht|first=Hans Georg|last=Tilgner|publisher=Books on Demand| date=2000|isbn=978-3-89811-272-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UWBWnMOGtMQC}}</ref> was the last-discovered of the elements that have a stable isotope (other new elements discovered in nature since then, such as [[francium]], are radioactive).<ref name="usgs">{{cite web|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rhenium/|work=Minerals Information|title=Rhenium: Statistics and Information|date=2011|access-date=2011-05-25}}</ref> The existence of a yet-undiscovered element at this position in the [[periodic table]] had been first predicted by [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]. Other calculated information was obtained by [[Henry Moseley]] in 1914.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Henry|last=Moseley|title=The High-Frequency Spectra of the Elements, Part II|doi=10.1080/14786440408635141|journal=Philosophical Magazine|date=1914|pages=703–713|volume=27|issue=160|url=http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_moseley_article.htm|access-date=2009-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100122022821/http://www.materials.manchester.ac.uk/research/facilities/moseley/biography/|archive-date=2010-01-22|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1908, [[Japan]]ese chemist [[Masataka Ogawa]] announced that he had discovered the 43rd element and named it ''nipponium'' (Np) after [[Japan]] (''Nippon'' in Japanese). However, recent analysis indicated the presence of rhenium (element 75), not [[Technetium|element 43]],<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.sab.2003.12.027|title=Discovery of a new element 'nipponiumʼ: re-evaluation of pioneering works of Masataka Ogawa and his son Eijiro Ogawa|date=2004|last=Yoshihara|first=H. K.|journal=Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy|volume=59|pages=1305–1310|bibcode=2004AcSpe..59.1305Y|issue=8}}</ref> although this reinterpretation has been questioned by [[Eric Scerri]].<ref>[[Eric Scerri]], ''A tale of seven elements,'' (Oxford University Press 2013) {{ISBN|978-0-19-539131-2}}, p.109–114</ref> The symbol Np was later used for the element [[neptunium]], and the name "nihonium", also [[Names of Japan#Nihon and Nippon|named after Japan]], along with symbol Nh, was later used for [[nihonium|element 113]]. Element 113 was also discovered by a team of Japanese scientists and was named in respectful homage to Ogawa's work.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Öhrström |first1=Lars |last2=Reedijk |first2=Jan |date=28 November 2016 |title=Names and symbols of the elements with atomic numbers 113, 115, 117 and 118 (IUPAC Recommendations 2016) |url=https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/pac.2016.88.issue-12/pac-2016-0501/pac-2016-0501.pdf |journal=Pure Appl. Chem. |volume=88 |issue=12 |pages=1225–1229 |doi=10.1515/pac-2016-0501 |access-date=22 April 2017|hdl=1887/47427 |s2cid=99429711 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Rhenium is generally considered to have been discovered by [[Walter Noddack]], [[Ida Tacke|Ida Noddack]], and [[Otto Berg (scientist)|Otto Berg]] in [[Germany]]. In 1925 they reported that they had detected the element in platinum ore and in the mineral [[columbite]]. They also found rhenium in [[gadolinite]] and [[molybdenite]].<ref name="'Ekamangane'">{{cite journal|last=Noddack|first=W.|author2=Tacke, I. |author3=Berg, O. |title=Die Ekamangane| journal=Naturwissenschaften| date=1925|volume=13|issue=26 |pages=567–574|doi=10.1007/BF01558746 |bibcode=1925NW.....13..567.|s2cid=32974087}}</ref> In 1928 they were able to extract 1 g of the element by processing 660 kg of molybdenite.<ref name="1g">{{cite journal|last=Noddack| first=W.|author2=Noddack, I. |title=Die Herstellung von einem Gram Rhenium |journal=Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie|date=1929|volume=183|issue=1|pages =353–375|doi=10.1002/zaac.19291830126|language=de}}</ref> It was estimated in 1968 that 75% of the rhenium metal in the [[United States]] was used for research and the development of [[refractory metal]] alloys. It took several years from that point before the superalloys became widely used.<ref>{{cite book| pages =4–5| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=oD8rAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA4| title =Trends in usage of rhenium: Report| last1 =Committee On Technical Aspects Of Critical And Strategic Material| first1 =National Research Council (U.S.)| date =1968}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Wd9GAAAAYAAJ
| title = Rhenium alloys
| last1 = Savitskiĭ
| first1 = Evgeniĭ Mikhaĭlovich
| last2 = Tulkina
| first2 = Mariia Aronovna
| last3 = Povarova
| first3 = Kira Borisovna
|author-link3=Kira Povarova
| date = 1970}}</ref>

==Characteristics==
Rhenium is a silvery-white metal with one of the highest [[melting point]]s of all elements, exceeded by only [[tungsten]] and [[carbon]]. It also has one of the highest [[boiling points]] of all elements, and the highest among stable elements. It is also one of the densest, exceeded only by [[platinum]], [[iridium]] and [[osmium]]. Rhenium has a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure, with lattice parameters ''a'' = 276.1 pm and ''c'' = 445.6 pm.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Effect of pressure and temperature on lattice parameters of rhenium|first1=L. G. |last1=Liu |last2= Takahashi|first2= T. |last3=Bassett |first3=W. A. |date=1970 |volume=31 |pages=1345–1351|doi = 10.1016/0022-3697(70)90138-1 |journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |issue=6|bibcode = 1970JPCS...31.1345L }}</ref>

Its usual commercial form is a powder, but this element can be consolidated by pressing and [[sintering]] in a vacuum or [[hydrogen]] atmosphere. This procedure yields a compact solid having a density above 90% of the density of the metal. When [[Annealing (metallurgy)|annealed]] this metal is very ductile and can be bent, coiled, or rolled.<ref name="CRC">{{cite book| first=C. R.| last=Hammond| chapter=The Elements| title=Handbook of Chemistry and Physics| edition=81st| publisher=CRC press| isbn=978-0-8493-0485-9| date=2004| chapter-url-access=registration| chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide}}</ref> Rhenium-molybdenum [[alloy]]s are [[Superconductivity|superconductive]] at 10 [[Kelvin|K]]; tungsten-rhenium alloys are also superconductive<ref>{{cite journal|title=Superconductivity of Some Alloys of the Tungsten-rhenium-carbon System|journal=Soviet Physics JETP|volume=27|page=13|date=1968|bibcode=1968JETP...27...13N|last=Neshpor|first=V. S.|author2=Novikov, V. I.|author3=Noskin, V. A.|author4=Shalyt, S. S.}}</ref> around 4–8 K, depending on the alloy. Rhenium metal superconducts at {{val|1.697|0.006|u=K}}.<ref>{{cite book | editor= Haynes, William M. | date = 2011 | title = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | edition = 92nd|page=12.60 | publisher = [[CRC Press]] | isbn = 978-1439855119| title-link = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0622881 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206104641/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0622881 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2017-02-06 |title=The Properties of Superconducting Mo-Re Alloys |author=Daunt, J. G. |author2=Lerner, E. |publisher=[[Defense Technical Information Center]] }}</ref>

In bulk form and at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, the element resists alkalis, [[sulfuric acid]], [[hydrochloric acid]], [[nitric acid]], and [[aqua regia]]. It will however, react with nitric acid upon heating.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Duk20wEVgJQ | title=Rhenium - A METAL WITHOUT WHICH THERE WOULdn't BE GASOLINE! | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref>

===Isotopes===
{{Main|Isotopes of rhenium}}
Rhenium has one [[Stable nuclide|stable]] isotope, rhenium-185, which nevertheless occurs in minority abundance, a situation found only in two other elements ([[indium]] and [[tellurium]]). Naturally occurring rhenium is only 37.4% 185Re, and 62.6% 187Re, which is [[Radionuclide|unstable]] but has a very long [[half-life]] (≈1010 years). A kilogram of natural rhenium emits 1.07 MBq of radiation due to the presence of this isotope. This lifetime can be greatly affected by the charge state of the rhenium atom.<ref>{{cite web|work=math.ucr.edu|url=http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/ParticleAndNuclear/decay_rates.html|title=How to Change Nuclear Decay Rates|date=1993|first=Bill|last=Johnson|access-date=2009-02-21}}</ref><ref name="Bosch1996">{{cite journal|last1=Bosch|first1=F.|last2=Faestermann|first2=T.|last3=Friese|first3=J.|last4=Heine|first4=F.|last5=Kienle|first5=P.|last6=Wefers|first6=E.|last7=Zeitelhack|first7=K.|last8=Beckert|first8=K.|last9=Franzke|first9=B.|last10=Klepper|first10=O.|last11=Kozhuharov|first11=C.|last12=Menzel|first12=G.|last13=Moshammer|first13=R.|last14=Nolden|first14=F.|last15=Reich|first15=H.|last16=Schlitt|first16=B.|last17=Steck|first17=M.|last18=Stöhlker|first18=T.|last19=Winkler|first19=T.|last20=Takahashi|first20=K.|display-authors=3|title=Observation of bound-state ''β''− decay of fully ionized 187Re: 187Re-187Os Cosmochronometry|date=1996|journal=[[Physical Review Letters]]|volume=77|issue=26|pages=5190–5193|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.77.5190|bibcode=1996PhRvL..77.5190B|pmid=10062738}}</ref> The [[beta decay]] of 187Re is used for [[rhenium–osmium dating]] of ores. The available energy for this beta decay (2.6 [[keV]]) is one of the lowest known among all [[radionuclide]]s.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} The isotope rhenium-186m is notable as being one of the longest lived [[metastable isotope]]s with a half-life of around 200,000 years. There are 33 other unstable isotopes that have been recognized, ranging from 160Re to 194Re, the longest-lived of which is 183Re with a half-life of 70 days.{{NUBASE2016|ref}}

===Compounds===
{{Category see also|Rhenium compounds}}

Rhenium compounds are known for all the [[oxidation states]] between −3 and +7 except −2. The oxidation states +7, +6, +4, and +2 are the most common.<ref name="HollemanAF">{{cite book|publisher = Walter de Gruyter|date = 1985|edition = 91–100|pages = 1118–1123|isbn = 978-3-11-007511-3|title = Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie|first = Arnold F.|last = Holleman|author2 = Wiberg, Egon|author3 = Wiberg, Nils|chapter = Rhenium| language = de}}</ref> Rhenium is most available commercially as salts of [[perrhenate]], including [[sodium perrhenate|sodium]] and [[ammonium perrhenate]]s. These are white, water-soluble compounds.<ref name="Brauer">Glemser, O. (1963) "Ammonium Perrhenate" in ''Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry'', 2nd ed., G. Brauer (ed.), Academic Press, NY., Vol. 1, pp. 1476–85.</ref> Tetrathioperrhenate anion [ReS4]− is possible.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Goodman |first1= JT |last2= Rauchfuss |first2= TB | title = Tetraethylammonium-tetrathioperrhenate [Et4N][ReS4] | journal = [[Inorganic Syntheses]] | year = 2002 | volume = 33 | pages = 107–110 | doi=10.1002/0471224502.ch2| isbn = 0471208256 }}</ref>

====Halides and oxyhalides====
The most common rhenium chlorides are ReCl6, [[Rhenium pentachloride|ReCl5]], ReCl4, and [[Rhenium trichloride|ReCl3]].<ref name="G&W">{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd}}</ref> The structures of these compounds often feature extensive Re-Re bonding, which is characteristic of this metal in oxidation states lower than VII. Salts of [Re2Cl8]2− feature a [[quadruple bond|quadruple]] metal-metal bond. Although the highest rhenium chloride features Re(VI), fluorine gives the d0 Re(VII) derivative [[rhenium heptafluoride]]. Bromides and iodides of rhenium are also well known.

Like tungsten and molybdenum, with which it shares chemical similarities, rhenium forms a variety of [[Oxohalide|oxyhalides]]. The oxychlorides are most common, and include ReOCl4, ReOCl3.

====Oxides and sulfides====
[[File:Perrhenic-acid-3D-balls.png|left|thumb|upright=0.5|Perrhenic acid (H4Re2O9) adopts an unconventional structure.]]

The most common oxide is the volatile yellow [[rhenium(VII) oxide|Re2O7]]. The red [[ReO3|rhenium trioxide]] ReO3 adopts a [[perovskite]]-like structure. Other oxides include Re2O5, [[Rhenium(IV) oxide|ReO2]], and Re2O3.<ref name="G&W" /> The [[sulfide]]s are [[rhenium disulfide|ReS2]] and [[Rhenium(VII) sulfide|Re2S7]]. Perrhenate salts can be converted to [[tetrathioperrhenate]] by the action of [[ammonium hydrosulfide]].<ref>{{cite book|last =Goodman|first=J. T.|author2=Rauchfuss, T. B. |title=Tetraethylammonium-tetrathioperrhenate [Et4N] [ReS4]|date=2002|volume=33|pages=107–110|doi=10.1002/0471224502.ch2|series=Inorganic Syntheses|isbn=9780471208259}}</ref>

====Other compounds====
[[Rhenium diboride]] (ReB2) is a hard compound having a hardness similar to that of [[tungsten carbide]], [[silicon carbide]], [[titanium diboride]] or [[zirconium diboride]].<ref>{{cite journal| first=Jiaqian|last=Qin|author2=He, Duanwei |author3=Wang, Jianghua |author4=Fang, Leiming |author5=Lei, Li |author6=Li, Yongjun |author7=Hu, Juan |author8=Kou, Zili |author9= Bi, Yan |title=Is Rhenium Diboride a Superhard Material?| journal= Advanced Materials |volume=20|date =2008| pages=4780–4783| doi=10.1002/adma.200801471| issue=24|bibcode=2008AdM....20.4780Q |s2cid=98327405 }}</ref>

====Organorhenium compounds====
{{Main|Organorhenium chemistry}}
[[Dirhenium decacarbonyl]] is the most common entry to organorhenium chemistry. Its reduction with sodium [[Amalgam (chemistry)|amalgam]] gives Na[Re(CO)5] with rhenium in the formal oxidation state −1.<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1002/cber.19901230103|title = Nucleophile Addition von Carbonylmetallaten an kationische Alkin-Komplexe [CpL2M(η2-RC≡CR)]+ (M = Ru, Fe): μ-η1:η1-Alkin-verbrückte Komplexe|date = 1990|author = Breimair, Josef|journal = Chemische Berichte|volume = 123|page = 7|last2 = Steimann|first2 = Manfred|last3 = Wagner|first3 = Barbara|last4 = Beck|first4 = Wolfgang}}</ref> Dirhenium decacarbonyl can be oxidised with [[bromine]] to [[bromopentacarbonylrhenium(I)]]:<ref>{{cite book|title=Pentacarbonylrhenium Halides|first=Steven P.|last =Schmidt|author2=Trogler, William C. |author3=Basolo, Fred | volume=28|date=1990|pages=154–159|doi=10.1002/9780470132593.ch42|series=Inorganic Syntheses|isbn=978-0-470-13259-3}}</ref>
:Re2(CO)10 + Br2 → 2 Re(CO)5Br

Reduction of this pentacarbonyl with [[zinc]] and [[acetic acid]] gives [[pentacarbonylhydridorhenium]]:<ref name="Urb">{{cite book|author=Michael A. Urbancic|author2=John R. Shapley|title=Pentacarbonylhydridorhenium|volume=28|pages=165–168|date=1990|doi =10.1002/9780470132593.ch43|series=Inorganic Syntheses|isbn=978-0-470-13259-3}}</ref>
:Re(CO)5Br + Zn + HOAc → Re(CO)5H + ZnBr(OAc)

[[Methylrhenium trioxide]] ("MTO"), CH3ReO3 is a volatile, colourless solid has been used as a [[catalyst]] in some laboratory experiments. It can be prepared by many routes, a typical method is the reaction of Re2O7 and [[tetramethyltin]]:
:Re2O7 + (CH3)4Sn → CH3ReO3 + (CH3)3SnOReO3
Analogous alkyl and aryl derivatives are known. MTO catalyses for the oxidations with [[hydrogen peroxide]]. Terminal [[alkyne]]s yield the corresponding acid or ester, internal alkynes yield diketones, and [[alkene]]s give epoxides. MTO also catalyses the conversion of [[aldehyde]]s and [[diazoalkane]]s into an alkene.<ref>Hudson, A. (2002) “Methyltrioxorhenium” in ''Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis''. John Wiley & Sons: New York, {{ISBN|9780470842898}}, {{doi|10.1002/047084289X}}.</ref>

====Nonahydridorhenate====
[[File:Nonahydridorhenate-3D-balls.png|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Structure of {{chem|ReH|9|2-}}.]]
A distinctive derivative of rhenium is [[Potassium nonahydridorhenate|nonahydridorhenate]], originally thought to be the ''rhenide'' anion, Re−, but actually containing the {{chem|ReH|9|2-}} anion in which the oxidation state of rhenium is +7.

===Occurrence===
[[Image:Molybdenit 1.jpg|thumb|left|Molybdenite]]
Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in [[Earth's crust]] with an average concentration of 1 ppb;<ref name="G&W" /> other sources quote the number of 0.5 ppb making it the 77th most abundant element in Earth's crust.<ref name="Emsley2001p358">{{cite book|title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements|last=Emsley|first=John|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2001|location=Oxford, England, UK|isbn=978-0-19-850340-8|chapter=Rhenium|pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/358 358–360]|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC|url=https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/358}}</ref> Rhenium is probably not found free in nature (its possible natural occurrence is uncertain), but occurs in amounts up to 0.2%<ref name="G&W" /> in the mineral [[molybdenite]] (which is primarily [[molybdenum disulfide]]), the major commercial source, although single molybdenite samples with up to 1.88% have been found.<ref name="Rousch" /> [[Chile]] has the world's largest rhenium reserves, part of the copper ore deposits, and was the leading producer as of 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2005/cimyb05.pdf |first=Steve T.|last=Anderson| publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|title=2005 Minerals Yearbook: Chile|access-date=2008-10-26}}</ref> It was only recently that the first rhenium [[mineral]] was found and described (in 1994), a rhenium [[sulfide mineral]] (ReS2) condensing from a [[fumarole]] on [[Kudriavy]] volcano, [[Iturup]] island, in the [[Kuril Islands]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Korzhinsky|first=M. A.|author2=Tkachenko, S. I. |author3=Shmulovich, K. I. |author4=Taran Y. A. |author5= Steinberg, G. S. | date=2004-05-05|title=Discovery of a pure rhenium mineral at Kudriavy volcano|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=369|pages=51–52|doi=10.1038/369051a0|issue=6475|bibcode = 1994Natur.369...51K |s2cid=4344624}}</ref> Kudriavy discharges up to 20–60 kg rhenium per year mostly in the form of rhenium disulfide.<ref>{{cite journal| last1 = Kremenetsky| first1 = A. A.| last2 = Chaplygin| first2 = I. V.| title = Concentration of rhenium and other rare metals in gases of the Kudryavy Volcano (Iturup Island, Kurile Islands)| journal = Doklady Earth Sciences| volume = 430| issue = 1| page = 114| date = 2010| doi = 10.1134/S1028334X10010253|bibcode = 2010DokES.430..114K | s2cid = 140632604}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tessalina | first1 = S. | last2 = Yudovskaya | first2 = M. | last3 = Chaplygin | first3 = I. | last4 = Birck | first4 = J. | last5 = Capmas | first5 = F. | title = Sources of unique rhenium enrichment in fumaroles and sulphides at Kudryavy volcano | journal = Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta | volume = 72 | page = 889 | date = 2008 | doi = 10.1016/j.gca.2007.11.015 | bibcode=2008GeCoA..72..889T | issue = 3}}</ref> Named [[rheniite]], this rare mineral commands high prices among collectors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.galleries.com/minerals/sulfides/rheniite/rheniite.htm|publisher=Amethyst Galleries|title=The Mineral Rheniite}}</ref> 
{{Clear}}

==Production==
[[Image:Ammonium perrhenate.jpg|thumb|right|Ammonium perrhenate]]
Approximately 80% of rhenium is extracted from [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] molybdenum deposits.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Chapter 7: By-Products of Porphyry Copper and Molybdenum Deposits|first1=D. A.|last1=John|first2=R. D.|last2=Taylor|title=Rare earth and critical elements in ore deposits|year=2016|volume=18|pages=137–164|doi=10.5382/Rev.18.07 |url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70048652|editor=Philip L. Verplanck and Murray W. Hitzman}}</ref> Some ores contain 0.001% to 0.2% rhenium.<ref name="G&W" /> Roasting the ore volatilizes rhenium oxides.<ref name="Rousch">{{cite journal|doi = 10.1021/cr60291a002|title = Recent advances in the chemistry of rhenium|date = 1974|author = Rouschias, George|journal = Chemical Reviews|volume = 74|page = 531|issue = 5}}</ref> [[Rhenium(VII) oxide]] and [[perrhenic acid]] readily dissolve in water; they are leached from flue dusts and gasses and extracted by precipitating with [[potassium chloride|potassium]] or [[ammonium chloride]] as the [[perrhenate]] salts, and purified by [[Recrystallization (chemistry)|recrystallization]].<ref name="G&W" /> Total world production is between 40 and 50 tons/year; the main producers are in Chile, the United States, Peru, and Poland.<ref name="USGS_2012_summary">{{cite web|title=Rhenium|work=Mineral Commodity Summaries |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|date=January 2012|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rhenium/mcs-2012-rheni.pdf|first=Michael J.|last=Magyar|access-date=2013-09-04}}</ref> Recycling of used Pt-Re catalyst and special alloys allow the recovery of another 10 tons per year. Prices for the metal rose rapidly in early 2008, from $1000–$2000 per [[kilogram|kg]] in 2003–2006 to over $10,000 in February 2008.<ref name="minormetals">{{cite web|title=MinorMetal prices|publisher=minormetals.com|url=http://www.minormetals.com/|access-date=2008-02-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/oilRpt/idINL1037587920080710|first=Jan|last=Harvey|title=Analysis: Super hot metal rhenium may reach "platinum prices"|date=2008-07-10|access-date=2008-10-26|publisher=Reuters India}}</ref> The metal form is prepared by reducing [[ammonium perrhenate]] with [[hydrogen]] at high temperatures:<ref name="Brauer" />

:2 NH4ReO4 + 7 H2 → 2 Re + 8 H2O + 2 NH3

There are technologies for the associated extraction of rhenium from productive solutions of underground leaching of uranium ores.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rudenko |first1=A.A. |last2=Troshkina |first2=I.D. |last3=Danileyko |first3=V.V. |last4=Barabanov |first4=O.S. |last5=Vatsura |first5=F.Y. |title=Prospects for selective-and-advanced recovery of rhenium from pregnant solutions of in-situ leaching of uranium ores at Dobrovolnoye deposit |url=https://mst.misis.ru/jour/article/view/287 |journal=Gornye Nauki i Tekhnologii = Mining Science and Technology (Russia) |year=2021 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=158–169|doi=10.17073/2500-0632-2021-3-158-169 |s2cid=241476783 }}</ref>

==Applications==
[[Image:Engine.f15.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pratt & Whitney F100|The Pratt & Whitney F-100 engine]] uses rhenium-containing second-generation superalloys]]
Rhenium is added to high-temperature superalloys that are used to make [[jet engine]] parts, using 70% of the worldwide rhenium production.<ref name="Naumov">{{cite journal|title=Rhythms of rhenium|journal=Russian Journal of Non-Ferrous Metals|volume=48|issue=6|date=2007|doi=10.3103/S1067821207060089|pages=418–423|first=A. V.|last=Naumov|s2cid=137550564}}</ref> Another major application is in platinum–rhenium [[catalyst]]s, which are primarily used in making [[lead]]-free, high-octane [[gasoline]].<ref name="USGS_2009_yearbook">{{cite web|title=2009 Mineral Yearbook: Rhenium|date=April 2011|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rhenium/myb1-2009-rheni.pdf| first=Michael J.|last=Magyar|publisher=United States Geological Survey}}</ref>

===Alloys===
The nickel-based [[superalloy]]s have improved [[Creep (deformation)|creep strength]] with the addition of rhenium. The alloys normally contain 3% or 6% of rhenium.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nickel Based Superalloys|first=H. K. D. H.|last=Bhadeshia|url=http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2003/Superalloys/superalloys.html|publisher=University of Cambridge|access-date=2008-10-17|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060825053006/http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2003/Superalloys/superalloys.html|archive-date=2006-08-25}}</ref> Second-generation alloys contain 3%; these alloys were used in the engines for the [[Pratt & Whitney F100|F-15 and F-16]], whereas the newer single-crystal third-generation alloys contain 6% of rhenium; they are used in the [[Pratt & Whitney F119|F-22]] and [[Pratt & Whitney F135|F-35]] engines.<ref name="USGS_2009_yearbook" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Aerospace Materials: An Oxford-Kobe Materials Text|first=B.|last=Cantor|author2=Grant, Patrick Assender Hazel |publisher=CRC Press| date=2001|isbn=978-0-7503-0742-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n09-HajhRHYC |pages=82–83}}</ref> Rhenium is also used in the superalloys, such as CMSX-4 (2nd gen) and CMSX-10 (3rd gen) that are used in industrial [[gas turbine]] engines like the GE 7FA. Rhenium can cause [[superalloy]]s to become microstructurally unstable, forming undesirable topologically close packed (TCP) [[phase (matter)|phases]]. In 4th- and 5th-generation [[superalloy]]s, [[ruthenium]] is used to avoid this effect. Among others the new [[superalloy]]s are EPM-102 (with 3% Ru) and TMS-162 (with 6% Ru),<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s11041-006-0099-6|title = Effect of high-gradient directed crystallization on the structure and properties of rhenium-bearing single-crystal alloy|date = 2006|author = Bondarenko, Yu. A.|journal = Metal Science and Heat Treatment|volume = 48|page = 360|last2 = Kablov|first2 = E. N.|last3 = Surova|first3 = V. A.|last4 = Echin|first4 = A. B.|issue = 7–8|bibcode = 2006MSHT...48..360B|s2cid = 136907279}}</ref> as well as TMS-138<ref>{{cite news| title=Fourth generation nickel base single crystal superalloy|url=http://sakimori.nims.go.jp/catalog/TMS-138-A.pdf}}</ref> and TMS-174.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Koizumi, Yutaka|display-authors=etal|title= Development of a Next-Generation Ni-base Single Crystal Superalloy|url=http://nippon.zaidan.info/seikabutsu/2003/00916/pdf/igtc2003tokyo_ts119.pdf|journal=Proceedings of the International Gas Turbine Congress, Tokyo November 2–7, 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Joint Development of a Fourth Generation Single Crystal Superalloy|author=Walston, S.|author2=Cetel, A.|author3=MacKay, R.|author4=O'Hara, K.|author5=Duhl, D.|author6=Dreshfield, R.|url=http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2004/TM-2004-213062.pdf| url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015113650/http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2004/TM-2004-213062.pdf |archive-date=2006-10-15}}</ref>

[[File:CFM56 P1220759.jpg|thumb|left|CFM International CFM56 jet engine with blades made with 3% rhenium]]

For 2006, the consumption is given as 28% for [[General Electric]], 28% [[Rolls-Royce plc]] and 12% [[Pratt & Whitney]], all for superalloys, whereas the use for catalysts only accounts for 14% and the remaining applications use 18%.<ref name="Naumov" /> In 2006, 77% of rhenium consumption in the United States was in alloys.<ref name="USGS_2009_yearbook" /> The rising demand for military jet engines and the constant supply made it necessary to develop superalloys with a lower rhenium content. For example, the newer [[CFM International CFM56]] high-pressure turbine (HPT) blades will use Rene N515 with a rhenium content of 1.5% instead of Rene N5 with 3%.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fink | first1 = Paul J. | last2 = Miller | first2 = Joshua L. | last3 = Konitzer | first3 = Douglas G. | title = Rhenium reduction—alloy design using an economically strategic element | journal = JOM | volume = 62 | issue = 1 | page = 55 | date = 2010 | doi = 10.1007/s11837-010-0012-z|bibcode = 2010JOM....62a..55F | s2cid = 137007996 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| first =Douglas G. | last =Konitzer | url = http://memagazine.asme.org/Articles/2010/September/Design_Era_Constrained.cfm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110725021809/http://memagazine.asme.org/Articles/2010/September/Design_Era_Constrained.cfm | archive-date = 2011-07-25 | title = Design in an Era of Constrained Resources | access-date = 2010-10-12| date = September 2010}}</ref>

Rhenium improves the properties of [[tungsten]]. Tungsten-rhenium alloys are more ductile at low temperature, allowing them to be more easily machined. The high-temperature stability is also improved. The effect increases with the rhenium concentration, and therefore tungsten alloys are produced with up to 27% of Re, which is the solubility limit.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tungsten: properties, chemistry, technology of the element, alloys, and chemical compounds|first=Erik|last=Lassner|author2=Schubert, Wolf-Dieter | publisher=Springer|date=1999|isbn=978-0-306-45053-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=foLRISkt9gcC&pg=PA256|page=256}}</ref> Tungsten-rhenium wire was originally created in efforts to develop a wire that was more ductile after recrystallization. This allows the wire to meet specific performance objectives, including superior vibration resistance, improved ductility, and higher resistivity.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ucfilament.com/materials/tungsten-rhenium/|title=Tungsten-Rhenium - Union City Filament|work=Union City Filament|access-date=2017-04-05|language=en-US}}</ref> One application for the tungsten-rhenium alloys is [[X-ray]] sources. The high melting point of both elements, together with their high atomic mass, makes them stable against the prolonged electron impact.<ref>{{cite book|title =Practical radiotherapy physics and equipment|first=Pam|last=Cherry|author2=Duxbury, Angela |publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1998|isbn=978-1-900151-06-1|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=5WIBbmmDm-gC&pg=PA55|page=55}}</ref> Rhenium tungsten alloys are also applied as [[thermocouple]]s to measure temperatures up to 2200 °[[Celsius|C]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Tungsten-Rhenium Thermocouples for Use at High Temperatures|journal=Review of Scientific Instruments|volume=39|page=1233|date=1968|doi=10.1063/1.1683642|first= R.|last=Asamoto|author2=Novak, P. E. |issue=8|bibcode = 1968RScI...39.1233A }}</ref>

The high temperature stability, low vapor pressure, good [[Wear|wear resistance]] and ability to withstand arc corrosion of rhenium are useful in self-cleaning [[Switch#Contacts|electrical contacts]]. In particular, the discharge that occurs during electrical switching oxidizes the contacts. However, rhenium oxide Re2O7 is volatile (sublimes at ~360 °C) and therefore is removed during the discharge.<ref name="Naumov" />

Rhenium has a high melting point and a low vapor pressure similar to [[tantalum]] and tungsten. Therefore, rhenium filaments exhibit a higher stability if the filament is operated not in vacuum, but in oxygen-containing atmosphere.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/j100873a513|date=1966|last=Blackburn|first=Paul E.|journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry|volume=70|pages=311–312|title=The Vapor Pressure of Rhenium}}</ref> Those filaments are widely used in [[mass spectrometer]]s, [[ion gauge]]s<ref>{{cite journal|title=Tungsten-Rhenium Filament Lifetime Variability in Low Pressure Oxygen Environments|last= Earle|first=G. D.|author2=Medikonduri, R. |author3=Rajagopal, N. |author4=Narayanan, V. |author5= Roddy, P. A. |journal= IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science|volume=33|issue=5|pages=1736–1737|doi =10.1109/TPS.2005.856413|date=2005|bibcode = 2005ITPS...33.1736E |s2cid= 26162679}}</ref> and [[photoflash]] lamps in [[photography]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The chemical element: a historical perspective|first=Andrew|last=Ede| publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|date=2006|isbn=978-0-313-33304-0}}</ref>

===Catalysts===
Rhenium in the form of rhenium-platinum alloy is used as catalyst for [[catalytic reforming]], which is a chemical process to convert petroleum refinery [[Petroleum naphtha|naphthas]] with low [[octane rating]]s into high-octane liquid products. Worldwide, 30% of catalysts used for this process contain rhenium.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Rhenium-containing catalysts in reactions of organic compounds|date=1998|journal=Russian Chemical Reviews|volume=67|pages=157–177|doi=10.1070/RC1998v067n02ABEH000390|first=Margarita A.|last= Ryashentseva|issue=2|bibcode = 1998RuCRv..67..157R |s2cid=250866233 }}</ref> The [[olefin metathesis]] is the other reaction for which rhenium is used as catalyst. Normally Re2O7 on [[alumina]] is used for this process.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Catalysis Today |volume=51| issue=2|date=1999|pages=289–299|title=Olefin metathesis over supported rhenium oxide catalysts|first=Johannes C.|last=Mol|doi=10.1016/S0920-5861(99)00051-6}}</ref> Rhenium catalysts are very resistant to [[catalyst poisoning|chemical poisoning]] from nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus, and so are used in certain kinds of hydrogenation reactions.<ref name="CRC" /><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.|volume=38|issue=5|pages=1830–1836|date=1999|title=Selective Rhenium Recovery from Spent Reforming Catalysts|doi= 10.1021/ie9806242|first=T. N. |last=Angelidis|author2=Rosopoulou, D. Tzitzios V. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Oxidation State of Rhenium and Its Role in Platinum-Rhenium|url=http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/pdf/pmr-v22-i2-057-060.pdf | first=Robert|last=Burch|journal=Platinum Metals Review|date=1978|volume=22|issue=2|pages =57–60}}</ref>

===Other uses===
The isotopes 186Re and 188Re are radioactive and are used for treatment of [[liver cancer]]. They both have similar [[penetration depth]] in tissue (5 mm for 186Re and 11 mm for 188Re), but 186Re has the advantage of a longer half life (90 hours vs. 17 hours).<ref name="Dilw">{{cite journal| first=Jonathan R.|last=Dilworth|author2=Parrott, Suzanne J. |title=The biomedical chemistry of technetium and rhenium| journal=Chemical Society Reviews|date= 1998|volume=27|pages=43–55|doi=10.1039/a827043z}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]|title=The Tungsten-188 and Rhenium-188 Generator Information|date=2005|url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nuclear_science_technology/nu_med/188info.htm|access-date=2008-02-03 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080109170105/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nuclear_science_technology/nu_med/188info.htm  |archive-date = 2008-01-09}}</ref>

188Re is also being used experimentally in a novel treatment of pancreatic cancer where it is delivered by means of the bacterium ''Listeria monocytogenes''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baker|first=Monya|title=Radioactive bacteria attack cancer|url=http://www.nature.com/news/radioactive-bacteria-attack-cancer-1.12841|journal=Nature|date=22 April 2013|doi=10.1038/nature.2013.12841|doi-access=free}}</ref> The 188Re isotope is also used for the rhenium-SCT ([[skin cancer]] therapy). The treatment uses the isotope's properties as a [[Beta decay|beta emitter]] for [[brachytherapy]] in the treatment of [[Basal-cell carcinoma|basal cell carcinoma]] and [[Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck|squamous cell carcinoma]] of the skin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cipriani|first1=Cesidio|last2=Desantis|first2=Maria|last3=Dahlhoff|first3=Gerhard|last4=Brown|first4=Shannon D.|last5=Wendler|first5=Thomas|last6=Olmeda|first6=Mar|last7=Pietsch|first7=Gunilla|last8=Eberlein|first8=Bernadette|date=2020-07-22|title=Personalized irradiation therapy for NMSC by rhenium-188 skin cancer therapy: a long-term retrospective study|journal=Journal of Dermatological Treatment|volume=33 |issue=2 |language=en|pages=969–975|doi=10.1080/09546634.2020.1793890|pmid=32648530|issn=0954-6634|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Related by [[periodic trends]], rhenium has a similar chemistry to that of [[technetium]]; work done to label rhenium onto target compounds can often be translated to technetium. This is useful for radiopharmacy, where it is difficult to work with technetium – especially the [[technetium-99m]] isotope used in medicine – due to its expense and short half-life.<ref name="Dilw" /><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1039/QR9621600299|title=An outline of technetium chemistry|date=1962|author=Colton, R.|author2=Peacock R. D. |journal=Quarterly Reviews, Chemical Society|volume=16|pages=299–315|issue=4}}</ref>

==Precautions==
Very little is known about the toxicity of rhenium and its compounds because they are used in very small amounts. Soluble salts, such as the rhenium halides or perrhenates, could be hazardous due to elements other than rhenium or due to rhenium itself.<ref name="Emsley">{{cite book|title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements|last=Emsley|first=J.|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2003|location=Oxford, England, UK|isbn=978-0-19-850340-8|chapter=Rhenium|pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/358 358–361]|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/358}}</ref> Only a few compounds of rhenium have been tested for their acute toxicity; two examples are potassium perrhenate and rhenium trichloride, which were injected as a solution into rats. The perrhenate had an [[Median lethal dose|LD50]] value of 2800 mg/kg after seven days (this is very low toxicity, similar to that of table salt) and the rhenium trichloride showed LD50 of 280 mg/kg.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Pharmacology and toxicology of potassium perrhenate and rhenium trichloride|pages=321–323|first =Thomas J.|last=Haley|author2=Cartwright, Frank D. |doi=10.1002/jps.2600570218|journal=Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=57|issue=2|date=1968|pmid=5641681}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Rhenium}}
{{Wiktionary|rhenium}}
* [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/075.htm Rhenium] at ''[[The Periodic Table of Videos]]'' (University of Nottingham)

{{Periodic table (navbox)}}
{{Rhenium compounds}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Good article}}

[[Category:Rhenium| ]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[Category:Noble metals]]
[[Category:Refractory metals]]
[[Category:Chemical elements predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev]]
[[Category:Chemical elements with hexagonal close-packed structure]]
[[Category:Native element minerals]]

Altiplano

2023-06-19T19:45:52Z

190.196.211.42:

{{Short description|Large plateau in west-central South America}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Mapa cuencas endorréicas meseta del collao.jpg|thumb|300px|A map of the [[endorheic basin|endorheic]] river basins that characterize the altiplano. In the north is [[Lake Titicaca]] and the [[Desaguadero River (Bolivia)|Desaguadero River]] system; in the south is the [[Salar de Uyuni]] salt flat. The non-endorheic altiplano extends southward into Argentina and Chile.]]
The '''Altiplano''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "high plain"), '''Collao''' ([[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] and [[Aymara language|Aymara]]: Qullaw, meaning "place of the [[Qulla people|Qulla]]") or '''Andean Plateau''', in west-central [[South America]], is the most extensive high [[plateau]] on Earth outside [[Tibet]]. The plateau is located at the latitude of the widest part of the north–south-trending [[Andes]]. The bulk of the Altiplano lies in [[Bolivia]], but its northern parts lie in [[Peru]], and its southwestern fringes lie in [[Chile]].

There are on the plateau several cities in each of these three nations, including [[El Alto]], [[La Paz]], [[Oruro, Bolivia|Oruro]], and [[Puno]]. The northeastern part of the Altiplano is more humid than the southwestern part, which has several [[Salt pan (geology)|salares]] (salt flats), due to its aridity. At the Bolivia–Peru border lies [[Lake Titicaca]], the largest lake in South America. Farther south, in Bolivia, there was until recently a lake, [[Lake Poopó]], but by December 2015 it had completely dried up, and was declared defunct. It is unclear whether that lake, which had been the second-largest in Bolivia, can be restored.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Mercado, David
|url=https://www.reuters.com/news/picture/lake-poopo-dries-up?articleId=USRTX1Z7EZ
|title=Lake Poopo Dries Up |publisher=Reuters |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219000451/https://www.reuters.com/news/picture/lake-poopo-dries-up?articleId=USRTX1Z7EZ
|archive-date=19 December 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="2ndlargest">{{Cite news |author=Paskevics, Emily |date=19 December 2015 |title=Lake Poopó, Second Largest In Bolivia, Dries Up Completely |newspaper=Headlines & Global News (HNGN) |url=http://www.hngn.com/articles/162142/20151219/lake-poop%C3%B3-second-largest-bolivia-dries-up-completely.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209062113/http://www.hngn.com/articles/162142/20151219/lake-poop%C3%B3-second-largest-bolivia-dries-up-completely.htm |archive-date=9 February 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Altiplano was the site of several pre-Columbian cultures, including the Chiripa, [[Tiawanaku]] and the [[Inca Empire]]. Spain conquered the region in the 16th century.

Today, major economic activities in the Altiplano include mining, [[llama]] and [[vicuña]] herding, and services (in its cities). The area also attracts some international tourism.

== Geography ==
[[File:La Paz Skyline.jpg|thumb|[[La Paz]], [[Bolivia]], is the second-largest city located in the Altiplano]]
[[Image:SajamaPark.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Volcanoes in [[Sajama National Park]] ([[Parinacota (volcano)|Parinacota]] and [[Pomerape]])]]
The Altiplano is an area of inland drainage ([[Endorheic basin|endorheism]]) lying in the central [[Andes]], occupying parts of northern [[Chile]], western [[Bolivia]], southern [[Peru]] and northwest Argentina. Its height averages about 3,750 meters (12,300 feet),<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hc-solar.de/Bericht_AR_2004_en_cm.pdf |title=The Use of Solar Energy for Improving the Living Conditions in Altiplano/Argentina |access-date=2009-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719035134/http://www.hc-solar.de/Bericht_AR_2004_en_cm.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> slightly less than that of the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. Unlike conditions in [[Tibet]], the Altiplano is dominated by massive active [[volcano]]es of the [[Central Volcanic Zone]] to the west, such as [[Ampato]] (6288 m), [[Tutupaca]] (5,816 m), [[Parinacota (volcano)|Parinacota]] (6348 m), [[Guallatiri, Chile|Guallatiri]] (6071 m), [[Paruma]] (5,728 m), [[Uturunku]] (6,008 m) and [[Licancabur]] (5,916 m), and the [[Cordillera Real (Bolivia)|Cordillera Real]] in the north east with [[Illampu]] (6,368 m), [[Huayna Potosí]] (6,088 m), [[Janq'u Uma]] (6,427 m) and [[Illimani]] (6,438 m).<ref>[http://andes.zoom-maps.com/ Andes map]</ref> The [[Atacama Desert]], one of the driest areas on the planet, lies to the southwest of the Altiplano; to the east lies the humid [[Amazon rainforest]].

The Altiplano is noted for [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxic]] air caused by very [[high altitude|high elevation]]. The communities that inhabit the Altiplano include [[Qulla people|Qulla]], [[Uros]], [[Quechua people|Quechua]] and [[Aymara people|Aymara]].

== Geology ==
{{See also|Altiplano Basin|Geology of Bolivia|Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex}}
[[Image:Arbol de Piedra.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[Ventifact|rock sculpted by wind]] [[erosion]] (or [[Aeolian processes]]) in the Bolivian Altiplano.]]
Several mechanisms have been put forth for the formation of the Altiplano plateau; hypotheses try to explain why the topography in the Andes incorporates this large area of low relief at high altitude (high plateau) within the [[Orogeny|orogen]]:
# Existence of weaknesses in the [[Earth's crust]] prior to tectonic shortening. Such weaknesses would cause the partition of tectonic deformation and uplift into the eastern and western ''cordillera'', leaving the necessary space for the formation of the altiplano basin.
# [[Magma]]tic processes rooted in the [[asthenosphere]] might have contributed to uplift of the plateau.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=González-Maurel|first1=Osvaldo|last2=le Roux|first2=Petrus|last3=Godoy|first3=Benigno|last4=Troll|first4=Valentin R.|last5=Deegan|first5=Frances M.|last6=Menzies|first6=Andrew|date=2019-11-15|title=The great escape: Petrogenesis of low-silica volcanism of Pliocene to Quaternary age associated with the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of northern Chile (21°10′-22°50′S)|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024493719303196|journal=Lithos|language=en|volume=346-347|pages=105162|doi=10.1016/j.lithos.2019.105162|s2cid=201291787 |issn=0024-4937}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=González-Maurel|first1=Osvaldo|last2=Deegan|first2=Frances M.|last3=le Roux|first3=Petrus|last4=Harris|first4=Chris|last5=Troll|first5=Valentin R.|last6=Godoy|first6=Benigno|date=2020-04-22|title=Constraining the sub-arc, parental magma composition for the giant Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, northern Chile|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=6864|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-63454-1|pmid=32321945 |pmc=7176692 |issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free}}</ref>
# Climate has controlled the spatial distribution of erosion and sediment deposition, controlling the lubrication along the subducting [[Nazca Plate]] and hence influencing the transmission of tectonic forces into South America.
# Climate also determined the formation of internal drainage ([[Endorheic basin|endorheism]]) and sediment trapping within the Andes, potentially blocking tectonic deformation in the central area between the two cordilleras, and expelling deformation towards the flanks of the orogen<ref>Garcia-Castellanos, D., 2007. The role of climate during high plateau formation. Insights from numerical experiments. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 257, 372-390, {{doi|10.1016/j.epsl.2007.02.039}}.</ref>
# Convective removal of the dense lower [[lithosphere]] beneath the Altiplano caused that region to isostatically 'float' higher

At various times during the [[Pleistocene]] epoch, both the southern and northern Altiplano were covered by vast [[pluvial lakes]]. Remnants are [[Lake Titicaca]], straddling the Peru–Bolivia border, and [[Poopó Lake|Poopó]], a [[salt lake]] that extends south of [[Oruro, Bolivia]]. ''[[Salar de Uyuni]]'', locally known as ''Salar de Tunupa'', and ''[[Coipasa Lake|Salar de Coipasa]]'' are two large dry [[Sink (geography)|salt flats]] formed after the Altiplano paleolakes dried out.

== Climate ==
[[Image:Altiplano.jpg|thumb|200px|The Bolivian Altiplano at about 4,250 m (14,000 feet). The snow-covered peaks of the [[Cordillera Real (Bolivia)|Cordillera Real]] rise in the background.]]
The term Altiplano is sometimes used to identify the altitude zone and the type of climate that prevails within it: it is colder than that of the ''[[tierra fría]]'' but not as cold as that of the [[tierra helada]]. Scientists classify the latter as commencing at an elevation of approximately 4,500 meters (or about 15,000 feet). Alternate names used in place of ''altiplano'' in this context include ''[[Puna (ecoregion)|puna]]'' and ''páramos''.

In general the climate is cool and humid to semi-arid and even [[arid]], with mean annual temperatures that vary from {{cvt|3|°C}} near the western mountain range to {{cvt|12|°C}} near Lake Titicaca; and total annual rainfall that ranges between less than {{cvt|200|mm|0}} to the south west to more than {{cvt|800|mm|0}} near and over Lake Titicaca. The diurnal cycle of temperature is very wide, with maximum temperatures in the order of {{cvt|12|to|24|°C}} and the minimum in the order of {{cvt|-20|to|10|°C}}.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

The coldest temperatures occur in the southwestern portion of the Altiplano during the winter months of June and July. The seasonal cycle of rainfall is marked, with the rainy season concentrated between December and March. The rest of the year tends to be very dry, cool, windy and sunny. [[Snow]]fall may happen between April and September, especially to the north, but it is not very common (between one and five times a year).

{{wide image|Altiplano Panorama.jpg|1010px|Panorama of Peruvian Altiplano.}}

== See also ==
* [[Lake Tauca]]
* [[Gran Chaco]]
* [[Guatemalan Highlands]]
* [[Mexican Plateau]]
* [[Puna de Atacama]]
* [[Yungas]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|Altiplano}}
{{Commons category|Altiplano}}
*[https://www.atacamaphoto.com/altiplano/ Photo Gallery of Altiplano in Argentina, Bolivia and Chile]
*[http://photosniper.com.ar/eng/nature/puna.html Photo Gallery: Argentinian Puna]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090812134734/http://www.recursoshidricosaltiplano.cl/ Water resources of Chilean Altiplano]
* {{cite journal |first=George |last=Steinmetz |title=Altiplano - Where Bolivia meets the sky |journal=[[National Geographic Magazine]] |date=July 2008 |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/07/bolivias-new-order/altiplano-guillermoprieto-text.html}}

{{Coord|16.00358|S|69.65332|W|source:placeopedia|display=title}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Plateaus of the Andes]]
[[Category:Climatic and glaciological subregions of the Andes]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of the Andes]]
[[Category:Montane ecology]]
[[Category:Landforms of Argentina]]
[[Category:Plateaus of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Plateaus of Chile]]
[[Category:Plateaus of Peru]]
[[Category:Endorheic basins of South America]]
[[Category:Natural regions of South America]]
[[Category:Physiographic sections]]
[[Category:Regions of Argentina]]
[[Category:Regions of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Altiplano]]

Altiplano

2023-06-19T19:43:15Z

190.196.211.42:

{{Short description|Large plateau in west-central South America}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Mapa cuencas endorréicas meseta del collao.jpg|thumb|300px|A map of the [[endorheic basin|endorheic]] river basins that characterize the altiplano. In the north is [[Lake Titicaca]] and the [[Desaguadero River (Bolivia)|Desaguadero River]] system; in the south is the [[Salar de Uyuni]] salt flat. The non-endorheic altiplano extends southward into Argentina and Chile.]]
The '''Altiplano''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "high plain"), '''Collao''' ([[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] and [[Aymara language|Aymara]]: Qullaw, meaning "place of the [[Qulla people|Qulla]]") or '''Andean Plateau''', in west-central [[South America]], is the most extensive high [[plateau]] on Earth outside [[Tibet]]. The plateau is located at the latitude of the widest part of the north–south-trending [[Andes]]. The bulk of the Altiplano lies in [[Bolivia]], but its northern parts lie in [[Peru]], and its southwestern fringes lie in [[Chile]].

There are on the plateau several cities in each of these three nations, including [[El Alto]], [[La Paz]], [[Oruro, Bolivia|Oruro]], and [[Puno]]. The northeastern part of the Altiplano is more humid than the southwestern part, which has several [[Salt pan (geology)|salares]] (salt flats), due to its aridity. At the Bolivia–Peru border lies [[Lake Titicaca]], the largest lake in South America. Farther south, in Bolivia, there was until recently a lake, [[Lake Poopó]], but by December 2015 it had completely dried up, and was declared defunct. It is unclear whether that lake, which had been the second-largest in Bolivia, can be restored.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Mercado, David
|url=https://www.reuters.com/news/picture/lake-poopo-dries-up?articleId=USRTX1Z7EZ
|title=Lake Poopo Dries Up |publisher=Reuters |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219000451/https://www.reuters.com/news/picture/lake-poopo-dries-up?articleId=USRTX1Z7EZ
|archive-date=19 December 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="2ndlargest">{{Cite news |author=Paskevics, Emily |date=19 December 2015 |title=Lake Poopó, Second Largest In Bolivia, Dries Up Completely |newspaper=Headlines & Global News (HNGN) |url=http://www.hngn.com/articles/162142/20151219/lake-poop%C3%B3-second-largest-bolivia-dries-up-completely.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209062113/http://www.hngn.com/articles/162142/20151219/lake-poop%C3%B3-second-largest-bolivia-dries-up-completely.htm |archive-date=9 February 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Altiplano was the site of several pre-Columbian cultures, including the Chiripa, [[Tiawanaku]] and the [[Inca Empire]]. Spain conquered the region in the 16th century.

Today, major economic activities in the Altiplano include mining, [[llama]] and [[vicuña]] herding, and services (in its cities). The area also attracts some international tourism. Emvape

== Geography ==
[[File:La Paz Skyline.jpg|thumb|[[La Paz]], [[Bolivia]], is the second-largest city located in the Altiplano]]
[[Image:SajamaPark.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Volcanoes in [[Sajama National Park]] ([[Parinacota (volcano)|Parinacota]] and [[Pomerape]])]]
The Altiplano is an area of inland drainage ([[Endorheic basin|endorheism]]) lying in the central [[Andes]], occupying parts of northern [[Chile]], western [[Bolivia]], southern [[Peru]] and northwest Argentina. Its height averages about 3,750 meters (12,300 feet),<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hc-solar.de/Bericht_AR_2004_en_cm.pdf |title=The Use of Solar Energy for Improving the Living Conditions in Altiplano/Argentina |access-date=2009-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719035134/http://www.hc-solar.de/Bericht_AR_2004_en_cm.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> slightly less than that of the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. Unlike conditions in [[Tibet]], the Altiplano is dominated by massive active [[volcano]]es of the [[Central Volcanic Zone]] to the west, such as [[Ampato]] (6288 m), [[Tutupaca]] (5,816 m), [[Parinacota (volcano)|Parinacota]] (6348 m), [[Guallatiri, Chile|Guallatiri]] (6071 m), [[Paruma]] (5,728 m), [[Uturunku]] (6,008 m) and [[Licancabur]] (5,916 m), and the [[Cordillera Real (Bolivia)|Cordillera Real]] in the north east with [[Illampu]] (6,368 m), [[Huayna Potosí]] (6,088 m), [[Janq'u Uma]] (6,427 m) and [[Illimani]] (6,438 m).<ref>[http://andes.zoom-maps.com/ Andes map]</ref> The [[Atacama Desert]], one of the driest areas on the planet, lies to the southwest of the Altiplano; to the east lies the humid [[Amazon rainforest]].

The Altiplano is noted for [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxic]] air caused by very [[high altitude|high elevation]]. The communities that inhabit the Altiplano include [[Qulla people|Qulla]], [[Uros]], [[Quechua people|Quechua]] and [[Aymara people|Aymara]].

== Geology ==
{{See also|Altiplano Basin|Geology of Bolivia|Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex}}
[[Image:Arbol de Piedra.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[Ventifact|rock sculpted by wind]] [[erosion]] (or [[Aeolian processes]]) in the Bolivian Altiplano.]]
Several mechanisms have been put forth for the formation of the Altiplano plateau; hypotheses try to explain why the topography in the Andes incorporates this large area of low relief at high altitude (high plateau) within the [[Orogeny|orogen]]:
# Existence of weaknesses in the [[Earth's crust]] prior to tectonic shortening. Such weaknesses would cause the partition of tectonic deformation and uplift into the eastern and western ''cordillera'', leaving the necessary space for the formation of the altiplano basin.
# [[Magma]]tic processes rooted in the [[asthenosphere]] might have contributed to uplift of the plateau.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=González-Maurel|first1=Osvaldo|last2=le Roux|first2=Petrus|last3=Godoy|first3=Benigno|last4=Troll|first4=Valentin R.|last5=Deegan|first5=Frances M.|last6=Menzies|first6=Andrew|date=2019-11-15|title=The great escape: Petrogenesis of low-silica volcanism of Pliocene to Quaternary age associated with the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of northern Chile (21°10′-22°50′S)|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024493719303196|journal=Lithos|language=en|volume=346-347|pages=105162|doi=10.1016/j.lithos.2019.105162|s2cid=201291787 |issn=0024-4937}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=González-Maurel|first1=Osvaldo|last2=Deegan|first2=Frances M.|last3=le Roux|first3=Petrus|last4=Harris|first4=Chris|last5=Troll|first5=Valentin R.|last6=Godoy|first6=Benigno|date=2020-04-22|title=Constraining the sub-arc, parental magma composition for the giant Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, northern Chile|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=6864|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-63454-1|pmid=32321945 |pmc=7176692 |issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free}}</ref>
# Climate has controlled the spatial distribution of erosion and sediment deposition, controlling the lubrication along the subducting [[Nazca Plate]] and hence influencing the transmission of tectonic forces into South America.
# Climate also determined the formation of internal drainage ([[Endorheic basin|endorheism]]) and sediment trapping within the Andes, potentially blocking tectonic deformation in the central area between the two cordilleras, and expelling deformation towards the flanks of the orogen<ref>Garcia-Castellanos, D., 2007. The role of climate during high plateau formation. Insights from numerical experiments. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 257, 372-390, {{doi|10.1016/j.epsl.2007.02.039}}.</ref>
# Convective removal of the dense lower [[lithosphere]] beneath the Altiplano caused that region to isostatically 'float' higher

At various times during the [[Pleistocene]] epoch, both the southern and northern Altiplano were covered by vast [[pluvial lakes]]. Remnants are [[Lake Titicaca]], straddling the Peru–Bolivia border, and [[Poopó Lake|Poopó]], a [[salt lake]] that extends south of [[Oruro, Bolivia]]. ''[[Salar de Uyuni]]'', locally known as ''Salar de Tunupa'', and ''[[Coipasa Lake|Salar de Coipasa]]'' are two large dry [[Sink (geography)|salt flats]] formed after the Altiplano paleolakes dried out.

== Climate ==
[[Image:Altiplano.jpg|thumb|200px|The Bolivian Altiplano at about 4,250 m (14,000 feet). The snow-covered peaks of the [[Cordillera Real (Bolivia)|Cordillera Real]] rise in the background.]]
The term Altiplano is sometimes used to identify the altitude zone and the type of climate that prevails within it: it is colder than that of the ''[[tierra fría]]'' but not as cold as that of the [[tierra helada]]. Scientists classify the latter as commencing at an elevation of approximately 4,500 meters (or about 15,000 feet). Alternate names used in place of ''altiplano'' in this context include ''[[Puna (ecoregion)|puna]]'' and ''páramos''.

In general the climate is cool and humid to semi-arid and even [[arid]], with mean annual temperatures that vary from {{cvt|3|°C}} near the western mountain range to {{cvt|12|°C}} near Lake Titicaca; and total annual rainfall that ranges between less than {{cvt|200|mm|0}} to the south west to more than {{cvt|800|mm|0}} near and over Lake Titicaca. The diurnal cycle of temperature is very wide, with maximum temperatures in the order of {{cvt|12|to|24|°C}} and the minimum in the order of {{cvt|-20|to|10|°C}}.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

The coldest temperatures occur in the southwestern portion of the Altiplano during the winter months of June and July. The seasonal cycle of rainfall is marked, with the rainy season concentrated between December and March. The rest of the year tends to be very dry, cool, windy and sunny. [[Snow]]fall may happen between April and September, especially to the north, but it is not very common (between one and five times a year).

{{wide image|Altiplano Panorama.jpg|1010px|Panorama of Peruvian Altiplano.}}

== See also ==
* [[Lake Tauca]]
* [[Gran Chaco]]
* [[Guatemalan Highlands]]
* [[Mexican Plateau]]
* [[Puna de Atacama]]
* [[Yungas]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|Altiplano}}
{{Commons category|Altiplano}}
*[https://www.atacamaphoto.com/altiplano/ Photo Gallery of Altiplano in Argentina, Bolivia and Chile]
*[http://photosniper.com.ar/eng/nature/puna.html Photo Gallery: Argentinian Puna]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090812134734/http://www.recursoshidricosaltiplano.cl/ Water resources of Chilean Altiplano]
* {{cite journal |first=George |last=Steinmetz |title=Altiplano - Where Bolivia meets the sky |journal=[[National Geographic Magazine]] |date=July 2008 |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/07/bolivias-new-order/altiplano-guillermoprieto-text.html}}

{{Coord|16.00358|S|69.65332|W|source:placeopedia|display=title}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Plateaus of the Andes]]
[[Category:Climatic and glaciological subregions of the Andes]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of the Andes]]
[[Category:Montane ecology]]
[[Category:Landforms of Argentina]]
[[Category:Plateaus of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Plateaus of Chile]]
[[Category:Plateaus of Peru]]
[[Category:Endorheic basins of South America]]
[[Category:Natural regions of South America]]
[[Category:Physiographic sections]]
[[Category:Regions of Argentina]]
[[Category:Regions of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Altiplano]]

Mapuche slavery

2022-08-10T16:16:02Z

190.196.211.42:

'''Slavery of Mapuches''' was commonplace in [[Colonial Chile|17th-century Chile]] and a direct consequence of the [[Arauco War]]. When Spanish [[conquistador]]s initially [[conquest of Chile|subdued indigenous inhabitants of Chile]] there was no slavery but a form servitude called [[encomienda]]. However, this form of forced labour was harsh and many Mapuche would end up dying in the Spanish gold mines in the 16th century.<ref name=BengoaAntiguo252-253>Bengoa 2003, pp. 252–253.</ref>

==Beginning of formal slavery==
Formal slavery of indigenous people was prohibited by the Spanish Crown. The 1598–1604 [[Mapuche]] uprising that ended with the [[Destruction of the Seven Cities]] made the King of Spain in 1608 declare slavery legal for those Mapuches caught in war.<ref name=Valenzuela231-233/> Rebelling Mapuches were considered Christian [[Apostasy|apostates]] and could therefore be enslaved according to the church teachings of the day.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foerster |first=Rolf |date=1993 |title=Introducción a la religiosidad mapuche |publisher=[[Editorial universitaria]] |page=21 |language=es }}</ref> This legal change formalized Mapuche slavery that was already occurring at the time, with captured Mapuches being treated as property in the way that they were bought and sold among the Spanish. Legalisation made Spanish [[slave raiding]] increasingly common in the [[Arauco War]].<ref name=Valenzuela231-233>Valenzuela Márquez 2009, p. 231–233</ref> Mapuche slaves were exported north as far as [[La Serena, Chile|La Serena]] and [[Lima]].<ref name=Valenzuela234236/>

Spanish slave raiding played a major role in unleashing the [[Mapuche uprising of 1655]]. This uprising took place in a context of increasing Spanish hostilities on behalf of [[maestre de campo]] [[Juan de Salazar]] who used the [[Army of Arauco]] to capture Mapuches and sell them into slavery.<ref name=Barana346>Barros Arana 2000, p. 346.</ref> In 1654 a large slave-hunting expedition against the [[Cunco people|Cuncos]] ended in a complete disaster at the [[Battle of Río Bueno]].<ref name=Barana347>Barros Arana 2000, p. 347.</ref><ref name=Pinoetal79>Pinochet ''et al''., 1997, p. 79.</ref> This setback did not stop the Spanish who under the leadership of Salazar organized a new expedition the summer of 1655.<ref name=Barana348>Barros Arana 2000, p. 348.</ref> Salazar himself is said to have profited greatly from Mapuche slave trade and being brother-in-law of [[Royal Governor of Chile|governor]] [[Francisco Antonio de Acuña Cabrera y Bayona|Antonio de Acuña Cabrera]] allowed him to exert influence in favour of his military campaigns.<ref name=Barana346/><ref name=Barana347/> Analysing the situation in the 1650s the [[Real Audiencia of Santiago]] opined that slavery of Mapuches was one of the reasons of constant state of war between the Spanish and the Mapuches.<ref name=Barana342>Barros Arana 2000, p. 342.</ref>

Much like the Spanish Mapuches had also captured Spanish, often women, trading their ownership among them.<ref name=Luz2013>{{Cite journal|title=Las cautivas de las Siete Ciudades: El cautiverio de mujeres hispanocriollas durante la Guerra de Arauco, en la perspectiva de cuatro cronistas (s. XVII)|journal=Intus-Legere Historia|last=Guzmán|first=Carmen Luz|volume=7|pages=77–97|issue=1|doi=10.15691/07176864.2014.0.94|year=2013|doi-broken-date=31 July 2022|language=es|trans-title=The captives of the Seven Cities: The captivity of hispanic-creole women during the Arauco's War, from the insight of four chroniclers (17th century)}}</ref> Indeed, with the Destruction of the Seven Cities Mapuches are reported to have taken 500 Spanish women captive, holding them as slaves.<ref name=Luz2013/> It was not uncommon for captive Spanish women to have changed owner several times.<ref name=Luz2013/>

Slavery for Mapuches "caught in war" was abolished in 1683 after decades of legal attempts by the Spanish Crown to suppress it. By that time free mestizo labour had become significantly cheaper than ownership of slaves which made historian [[Mario Góngora]] in 1966 conclude that economic factors were behind the abolition.<ref name=Valenzuela234236>Valenzuela Márquez 2009, pp. 234–236</ref>

This 1608 decree that legalized slavery was abused as Spanish settlers in [[Chiloé Archipelago]] used it also to launch slave raids against groups such the [[Chono people|Chono]] of northwestern Patagonia who had never been under Spanish rule and never rebelled.<ref name=UrbinaRod2007>{{Cite book|chapter=El pueblo chono: de vagabundo y pagano a cristiano y sedentario mestizado|url=http://www.turismocientifico.cl/admin/apps/filemanager/repository/%C3%A1reas%20del%20conocimiento/Poblamiento,%20historia%20y%20cultura/Antropologia/Etnias/Al%20Pueblo%20Chono.pdf|last=Urbina Burgos|first=Rodolfo|pages=325–346|title=Orbis incognitvs: avisos y legados del Nuevo Mundo|year=2007|publisher=Universidad de Huelva|location=Huelva|isbn=9788496826243|language=es}}</ref>

==Decline of Mapuche slavery==
Philip III of Spain successor [[Philip IV of Spain]] changed course in the latter part of his reign and began restricting Mapuche slavery.<ref>Philip requested a reassessment of the imperial policies in Chile and expressed his belief that slave taking had become the main obstacle to peace with the Mapuche Indians." Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 128). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref> Philip IV died without freeing the indigenous slaves of Chile but his wife [[Mariana of Austria]], serving as regent, and his son [[Charles II of Spain]] engaged in a broad anti-slavery campaign throughout the Spanish Empire.<ref>"...the king died before he could set the Indians of Chile free and discharge his royal conscience. But Philip was not alone in trying to make things right. His wife, Mariana, was thirty years younger than he, every bit as pious, and far more determined. The crusade to free the Indians of Chile, and those in the empire at large, gained momentum during Queen Mariana’s regency, from 1665 to 1675, and culminated in the reign of her son Charles II. Alarmed by reports of large slaving grounds on the periphery of the Spanish empire, they used the power of an absolute monarchy to bring about the immediate liberation of all indigenous slaves. Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 128). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref><ref>[They] took on deeply entrenched slaving interests, deprived the empire of much-needed revenue, and risked the very stability of distant provinces to advance their humanitarian agenda. They waged a war against Indian bondage that raged as far as the islands of the Philippines, the forests of Chile, the llanos (grasslands) of Colombia and Venezuela, and the deserts of Chihuahua and New Mexico.
Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (pp. 128-129). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref>

The anti-slavery campaign began with an order by Mariana of Austria in 1667 freeing all the Indian slaves in Peru that had been captured in Chile.<ref>Queen Mariana brought renewed energy to the abolitionist crusade. If we had to choose an opening salvo, it would be the queen’s 1667 order freeing all Chilean Indians who had been taken to Peru. Her order was published in the plazas of Lima and required all Peruvian slave owners to "turn their Indian slaves loose at the first opportunity". Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 136). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref> Her order was met with disbelief and dismay in Peru.<ref>When the viceroy of Peru learned of this order, he could not hide his disbelief. Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 136). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref> Without exception she freed the Indian slaves of Mexico in 1672.<ref>In 1672 she freed the Indian slaves of Mexico, irrespective of their provenance or the circumstances of their enslavement. Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 136). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref> After receiving a plea from the Pope she freed the slaves of the southern Andes.<ref>[she] waited only a few weeks to respond, banning all forms of slavery in Chile. They extended the same prohibition to the Calchaquí Valleys on the other side of the Andes. The campaign to liberate the Indians had kicked into high gear. Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (pp. 136-137). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition</ref> On 12 June 1679 Charles II issued a general declaration freeing all indigenous slaves in Spanish America. In 1680 this was included in the ''Recopilación de las leyes de Indias'', a codification of the laws of Spanish America.<ref>Finally, on 12 June 1679, he issued a decree of continental scope: "No Indians of my Western Indies, Islands, and Mainland of the Ocean Sea, under any circumstance or pretext can be held as slaves; instead they will be treated as my vassals...." Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 137). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref> The Caribes, "cannibals," were the only exception.<ref>As it turned out, they excluded two groups from their broad royal protection: the inhabitants of the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, "who have taken up the sect of Muhamad and are against our Church and empire", and the Carib Indians, "who attack our settlements and eat human flesh". Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (pp. 137-138). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref> Governor Juan Enríquez of Chile resisted strongly, writing protests to the king and not publishing the decrees freeing Indian slaves.<ref>Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 142-144). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref> The royal anti-slavery crusade did not end indigenous slavery in Spain's American possessions, but, in addition to resulting in the freeing of thousands of slaves, it ended the involvement and facilitation by government officials of slaving by the Spanish; purchase of slaves remained possible but only from indigenous slaver such as the Caribs of Venezuela or the [[Comanche]]s.<ref>"The crusade also had a chilling effect on European slavers. For all of his reluctance to free the slaves, Governor Enríquez of Chile did issue orders prohibiting soldiers from launching slave raids and taking Indian captives after 1676." Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (pp. 146-147). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref><ref>Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 177). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite book
| last = Barros Arana
| first = Diego
| author-link1 = Diego Barros Arana
| title = Historia General de Chile
| volume = IV
| url = http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-7987.html
| year = 2000
| orig-year = 1884
| edition = 2
| publisher = Editorial Universitaria
| location = Santiago, Chile
| isbn = 956-11-1535-2
| language = es
}}
*{{cite book |last=Bengoa |first=José |author-link=José Bengoa|title=Historia de los antiguos mapuches del sur |year=2003 |publisher=Catalonia |location=Santiago |isbn=978-956-8303-02-0 |language=es}}
*{{Cite book|title=Historia militar de Chile|last1=Pinochet Ugarte|first1=Augusto|publisher=Biblioteca Militar|year=1997|last2=Villaroel Carmona|first2=Rafael|last3=Lepe Orellana|first3=Jaime|last4=Fuente-Alba Poblete|first4=J. Miguel|last5=Fuenzalida Helms|first5=Eduardo|edition=3rd|language=es|author-link=Augusto Pinochet}}
*{{cite book |last=Valenzuela Márquez |first=Jaime |editor-last1=Gaune |editor-first1=Rafael |editor-last2=Lara |editor-first2=Martín |title=Historias de racismo y discriminación en Chile |date=2009 |chapter=Esclavos mapuches

Battle of Curalaba

2022-08-09T17:58:48Z

190.196.211.42:

{{Short description capó aras are the best 1598 uprising against Spanish colonists in Chile}}
{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = March 2019}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2017}}
{{Warbox
|conflict=Battle of Curalaba
|partof=[[Arauco War]]
|date=December 23, 1598
|place= Curalaba, on the banks of the [[Lumaco River]], 25 kilometers from [[Angol]]
|coordinates={{Coord|37|55|S|72|53|W|type:event|display=inline,title}}
|result= Mapuche victory
|combatant1=[[Image:Flag of New Spain.svg|border|22px]] [[Spanish Empire]]
|combatant2=[[Image:Lautaro flag.svg|22px]] [[Mapuche]]
|commander1=[[Image:Flag of New Spain.svg|border|22px]] [[Martín García Oñez de Loyola]]{{KIA}}
|commander2=[[Image:Lautaro flag.svg|22px]] vice [[toqui]] [[Pelantaru]]
|strength1= 50 Spanish and 300 [[Indian auxiliaries]]
|strength2= 600 warriors <ref>Diego de Ocaña (1987). ''A través de la América del Sur''. Madrid: Historia 16, pp. 105. Edición de Arturo Álvarez.</ref>
|casualties1= All but two Spaniards were killed,<ref>The Spanish survivors were a priest, Bartolomé Pérez, who was captured, and Bernardo de Pereda, a soldier left for dead with 23 wounds who made his way to La Imperial after 70 days.</ref> as were most of the Indian auxiliaries.
|casualties2= ?
}}
{{Campaignbox Arauco War}}
The '''Battle of Curalaba''' ({{lang-es|Batalla de Curalaba|links=no}} {{IPA-es|baˈtaʝa ðe kuɾaˈlaβa|pron}}) is a 1598 battle and ambush where [[Mapuche]] people led by [[Pelantaru]] soundly defeated Spanish conquerors led by [[Martín García Óñez de Loyola]] at Curalaba, southern [[Chile]]. In Chilean [[historiography]], where the event is often called the '''Disaster of Curalaba''' ({{lang-es|Desastre de Curalaba|links=no}}), the battle marks the end of the [[Conquest of Chile]] (''la conquista'') period in Chile's history, although the fast Spanish expansion in the south had already been halted in the 1550s. The battle contributed to unleash a general Mapuche uprising that resulted in the [[Destruction of the Seven Cities]]. This severe crisis reshaped [[Colonial Chile]] and forced the Spanish to reassess their mode of warfare.

==History==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2014}}
On December 21, 1598, governor Martín García Oñez de Loyola traveled to [[Purén]] leading 50 men. On the second day they camped in Curalaba without taking protective measures. The Mapuche people, aware of their presence, with their cavalry led by [[Pelantaru]] and his lieutenants, [[Anganamón]] and Guaiquimilla, with three hundred men, shadowed his movements and made a surprise night raid. Completely surprised, the governor and almost all of his soldiers and companions were killed.

This event was called the Disaster of Curalaba by the Spaniards. It not only involved the death of the Spanish governor, but the news rapidly spread among the Mapuche and triggered a general revolt, long-prepared by the [[toqui]] [[Paillamachu]], that destroyed Spanish camps and towns south of the [[Bío-Bío River]] over the next few years.

==See also==
* [[List of battles won by Indigenous peoples of the Americas]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
* [[Vicente Carvallo y Goyeneche]], [http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/index.asp?id_ut=descripcionhistorico-geograficadelreinodechile '''Descripcion Histórico Geografía del Reino de Chile''' (Description Historical Geography of the Kingdom of Chile), PDF E Libros from Memoria Chilena] (History of Chile 1542–1788)
* [http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documento_detalle.asp?id=MC0008928 Tomo I History 1542–1626, Tomo 8 de Colección de historiadores de Chile y de documentos relativos a la historia nacional. Santiago : Impr. del Ferrocarril, 1861.] '''Primera parte. Tomo I; Capítulo LXXIX.''' Llega a Chile un refuerzo de tropa del Perú – Levanta el Gobernador una ciudad en la provincia de Cuyo – Visita el país meridional de su gobernacion, i los indios le quitan la vida.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Curalaba, Battle of}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1598]]
[[Category:Battles involving Spain]]
[[Category:Battles of the Arauco War]]
[[Category:1598 in the Captaincy General of Chile]]
[[Category:History of Araucanía Region]]

{{Chile-hist-stub}}

The Magician's Nephew

2022-06-23T13:57:36Z

190.196.211.42:

{{Short description|Children's fantasy novel by C. S. Lewis, 1955}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox book
| name = ELPEPE
| image = https://es.memedroid.com/memes/detail/2931841/Borger
| caption = [[Dust jacket]] of first edition
| author = [[C. S. Lewis]]
| illustrator = [[Pauline Baynes]]
| cover_artist = Pauline Baynes
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| series = ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''
| subject = The creation of Narnia
| genre = [[Children's literature|Children's]] [[fantasy]] novel, [[Christian literature]]
| publisher = [[The Bodley Head]]
| pub_date = 2 May 1955
| media_type = Print (hardcover)
| pages = 183 (first edition)<ref name=isfdb>
[http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1589 "Bibliography: The Magician's Nephew"]. [[ISFDB]]. Retrieved 8 December 2012.</ref> 41,062 words (US)<ref>{{cite web|title=Scholastic Catalog – Book Information|url=http://src.scholastic.com/bookexpert/detail_title.asp?UID=0DEA1BBF4B1D4B00AE1690DB6BC45C75&subt=0&item=98091|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref>
| isbn = 978-0-00-671683-9
| isbn_note=(Collins, 1998; full-colour)<ref name=isfdb/> 
| oclc = 2497740 
| congress = PZ8.L48 Mag<ref name=LCC>
[http://lccn.loc.gov/55030864 "The magician's nephew"] (first edition). Library of Congress Catalog Record. 
[http://lccn.loc.gov/55014869 "The magician's nephew"] (first US edition). LCC record. Retrieved 2012-12-08.</ref> 
| preceded_by = [[The Horse and His Boy]]
| followed_by = [[The Last Battle]]
}}

'''''The Magician's Nephew''''' is a fantasy children's novel by [[C. S. Lewis]], published in 1955 by [[The Bodley Head]]. It is the sixth published of seven novels in ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' (1950–1956). In recent editions, which sequence the books according to Narnia history, it is volume one of the series. Like the others, it was illustrated by [[Pauline Baynes]] whose work has been retained in many later editions. The Bodley Head was a new publisher for ''The Chronicles'', a change from [[Geoffrey Bles]] who had published the previous five novels.<ref name=isfdb/><ref name=LCC/>

''The Magician's Nephew'' is a prequel to the series. The middle third of the novel features the creation of the Narnia world by Aslan the lion, centred on a section of a [[lamp-post]] brought by accidental observers from London in 1900. The visitors then participate in the beginning of Narnia history, 1000 years before ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''{{efn |name=timeline}} (which inaugurated the series in 1950).

The frame story, set in England, features two children ensnared in experimental travel via "the wood between the worlds". Thus, the novel shows Narnia and our middle-aged world to be only two of many in a [[multiverse]], which changes as some worlds begin and others end. It also explains the origin of foreign elements in Narnia, not only the lamp-post but also the White Witch and a human king and queen.

Lewis began ''The Magician's Nephew'' soon after completing ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', spurred by a friend's question about the lamp-post in the middle of nowhere, but he needed more than five years to complete it. The story includes several autobiographical elements and explores a number of themes with general moral and [[Christianity|Christian]] implications, including atonement, original sin, temptation and the order of nature.

==Plot summary==
The story begins in London during the summer of 1900. Two children, [[Digory Kirke|Digory]] and [[Polly Plummer|Polly]], meet while playing in the adjacent gardens of a row of [[terraced house]]s. They decide to explore the attic beyond Digory's house, but do not walk far enough, and find themselves in [[Andrew Ketterley|Uncle Andrew]]'s [[study (room)|study]]. Uncle Andrew tricks Polly into touching a yellow [[magic ring]], causing her to vanish. Then he explains to Digory that he has been dabbling in magic, and that the rings allow travel between one world and another. He blackmails Digory into taking another yellow ring to follow wherever Polly has gone, and two green rings so that they both can return.

Digory finds himself transported to a sleepy [[woodland]] with an almost narcotic effect; he finds Polly nearby. The woodland is filled with pools. Digory and Polly surmise that the wood is not really a proper world at all but a "[[Wood between the Worlds]]", similar to the attic that links their houses back in England, and that each pool leads to a separate universe. They decide to explore a different world before returning to England, and jump into one of the nearby pools. They then find themselves in a desolate abandoned city of the ancient world of [[Charn]]. Inside the ruined palace, they discover statues of Charn's former kings and queens, which degenerate from the fair and wise to the unhappy and cruel. They find a bell with a hammer and an inscription inviting the finder to strike the bell.

Despite protests from Polly, Digory rings the bell. This awakens the last of the statues, a witch queen named [[White Witch|Jadis]], who{{em dash}}to avoid defeat in battle{{em dash}}had deliberately killed every living thing in Charn by speaking the "[[Deplorable Word]]". As the only survivor left in her world, she placed herself in an enchanted sleep that would only be broken by someone ringing the bell.

The children recognise Jadis as evil and attempt to flee, but she follows them back to England by clinging to them as they clutch their rings. In England, she discovers that her magical powers do not work, although she retains her superhuman strength. Dismissing Uncle Andrew as a poor magician, she enslaves him and orders him to fetch her a "chariot"{{em dash}}a [[hansom cab]]{{em dash}}so she can set about conquering Earth. They leave, and she attracts attention by robbing a jewellery store in London. The police chase after her cab, until she crashes at the foot of the Kirke house. Jadis breaks off and tears an iron rod from a nearby lamp-post, using it to fight off police and onlookers when they mock her.

When Jadis threatens the crowd, Polly and Digory grab her and put on their rings to take her out of their world{{spaced en dash}}along with Uncle Andrew, Frank the cab-driver, and Frank's horse, Strawberry, who were all touching each other when the children grabbed their rings. In the Wood between the Worlds, Strawberry, looking to drink from one of the ponds, accidentally brings everyone into another world: a dark, empty void. At first, Digory believes it to be Charn, but Jadis recognises it as a world not yet created. They then all witness the creation of a new world by the lion [[Aslan]], who brings stars, plants, and animals into existence as he sings. Jadis, as terrified by his singing as the others are attracted to it, tries to kill Aslan with the iron rod; but it rebounds harmlessly off him, and in the creative soil of the new world it sprouts into a growing lamp-post. Jadis flees in terror.

Aslan gives some animals [[Talking animals in fiction|the power of speech]], commanding them to use it for justice and merriment or else risk becoming regular animals once again. Aslan confronts Digory with his responsibility for bringing Jadis into his young world, and tells Digory he must atone by helping to protect the new land of Narnia from her evil. Aslan transforms the cabbie's horse into a winged horse called Fledge, and Digory and Polly fly on him to a distant garden high in the mountains. Digory's task is to take an apple from a tree in this garden and plant it in Narnia. At the garden Digory finds a sign warning not to steal from the garden.

Digory picks one of the apples for his mission, but their overpowering smell tempts him. Jadis appears, having herself eaten an apple to become immortal, leaving her with pale white skin. She tempts Digory either to eat an apple himself and join her in immortality, or steal one to take back to Earth to heal his dying mother. Digory resists, knowing his mother would never condone theft, but hesitates. He sees through the Witch's ploy when she suggests he leave Polly behind{{spaced en dash}}not knowing Polly can get away by her own ring. Foiled, the Witch departs for the North, and taunts Digory for his refusal to eat the apple and gain immortality. Digory returns to Narnia and plants the apple, which grows into a mature tree behind them while the coronation proceeds. Aslan tells Digory how the tree works - anyone who steals the apples gets their heart's desire, but in a form that makes it unlikeable. In the Witch's case, she has achieved immortality, but it only means eternal misery because of her evil heart. Moreover, the magic apples are now a horror to her, such that the apple tree will repel her for centuries to come, but not forever. With Aslan's permission, Digory then takes an apple from the new tree to heal his mother. Aslan returns Digory, Polly, and Uncle Andrew to England. Frank and his wife, Helen (transported from England by Aslan) stay to rule Narnia as its first King and Queen. The Narnian creatures live in peace and joy, and neither the Witch nor any other enemy came to trouble Narnia for many hundreds of years.

Digory's apple restores his mother's health as his father returns for good after being away on business in [[India]], and he and Polly remain lifelong friends. Uncle Andrew reforms and gives up magic, but still enjoys bragging about his adventures with the Witch. Digory plants the apple's core with Uncle Andrew's rings in the back yard of his aunt's home in London, and it grows into a large tree. Soon afterwards, Digory's family inherits a mansion in the country, and many years later the apple tree blows down in a storm. Digory, now a middle-aged professor, has its wood made into a [[wardrobe]], setting up the events in ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''.

==Principal characters==

*[[Digory Kirke]]: The boy who becomes the Professor in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[Polly Plummer]]: Digory's friend, who lives next door
*[[List of The Chronicles of Narnia characters#Kirke, Mabel|Mabel Kirke]]: Digory's mother
*[[Andrew Ketterley]]: Digory's uncle, a minor magician
*[[Letitia Ketterley]]: Uncle Andrew's sister
*[[White Witch|Jadis]]: Empress of Charn, who becomes the White Witch appearing in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[Aslan]]: The Lion who creates Narnia and kills Jadis in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[King Frank]]: A cabby who becomes the first king of Narnia and forefather of the kings of Archenland
*[[Queen Helen (Narnia)|Queen Helen]]: The wife of King Frank, the first queen of Narnia, and the ancestress of the Archenlanders
*[[Fledge (horse)|Fledge]]: The winged horse, formerly the cab-horse Strawberry, who carries Polly and Digory to the mountain garden

==Writing==

Lewis had originally intended only to write the one Narnia novel, ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''. However, when [[Roger Lancelyn Green]] asked him how a lamp-post came to be standing in the midst of Narnian woodland, Lewis was intrigued enough by the question to attempt to find an answer by writing ''The Magician's Nephew'', which features a younger version of Professor Kirke from the first novel.<ref>Downing, p. 36.</ref>

''The Magician's Nephew'' seems to have been the most challenging Narnia novel for Lewis to write. The other six ''Chronicles of Narnia'' books were written between 1948 and 1953, ''The Magician's Nephew'' was written over a five-year period between 1949 and 1954. He started in the summer of 1949 after finishing ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', but came to a halt after producing 26 pages of manuscript and did not resume work until two years later. This may be as a result of the autobiographical aspects of the novel, as it reflects a number of incidents and parallels very close to his own experiences.<ref>Downing, p. 56.</ref>

He returned to ''The Magician's Nephew'' late in 1950, after completing ''[[The Silver Chair]]''. He managed to finish close to three-quarters of the novel, and then halted work once again after Roger Green, to whom Lewis showed all his writing at the time, suggested there was a structural problem in the story. Finally he returned to the novel in 1953, after finishing ''[[The Last Battle]]'' in the spring of that year and completed early in 1954.<ref name="duriez47">{{cite book | last = Duriez| first = Colin | title = The Life of C.S. Lewis | page = 47 | publisher = InterVarsity Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8308-3207-6}}</ref>

Lewis originally titled the novel "''Polly and Digory''"; his publisher changed it to ''The Magician's Nephew''.<ref name="2Lindskoog87">{{cite book | last = Lindskoog | first = Kathryn Ann | title = Journey into Narnia: C. S. Lewis's Tales Explored | page = [https://archive.org/details/journeyintonarni0000lind/page/87 87] | publisher = Hope Publishing House | year = 1997 | isbn = 0-932727-89-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/journeyintonarni0000lind/page/87 }}</ref> This book is dedicated to "the Kilmer family".<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-06-13 |title=Narnia creator CS Lewis's letters to children go on sale |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-oxfordshire-48612343 |access-date=2022-06-01}}</ref>

===The Lefay Fragment===

The original opening of the novel differs greatly from the published version, and was abandoned by Lewis. It is now known as 'The Lefay Fragment', and is named after Mrs Lefay, Digory's [[fairy godmother]], who is mentioned in the final version as Uncle Andrew's godmother, a less benevolent user of magic, who bequeathed him the box of dust used to create the magic rings.<ref>Downing, pp. 36–39.</ref>

In the Lefay Fragment, Digory is born with the ability to speak to (and understand) trees and animals; the distinction between Talking and non-talking Beasts which was to become such a characteristic feature of the Narnian world is absent. Digory lives with an Aunt Gertrude, a former school mistress with an officious, bullying nature, who has ended up as a Government minister after a lifetime of belligerent brow-beating of others. Whenever his aunt is absent, Digory finds solace with the animals and trees, including a squirrel named Pattertwig. Polly enters the story as a girl next door who is unable to understand the speech of non-human creatures. She wants to build a raft to explore a stream which leads to an underground world. Digory helps construct the raft, but saws a branch from a tree necessary to complete it, in order not to lose face with Polly. This causes him to lose his supernatural powers of understanding the speech of trees and animals. The following day he is visited by his godmother Mrs Lefay who knows that Digory has lost his abilities and gives him a card with the address of a furniture shop which she instructs him to visit. At this point the fragment ends.<ref>Downing, pp. 36–37.</ref>

Pattertwig and Aunt Gertrude do not appear in the final version of the novel. Pattertwig does, however, appear as a Narnian creature in ''[[Prince Caspian]]'', and Aunt Gertrude's career path is retraced by the Head of Experiment House in ''[[The Silver Chair]]''.<ref>Downing, p. 39.</ref>

====Authenticity====

Some doubt has been cast on the authenticity of the Lefay Fragment, as the handwriting in the manuscript differs in some ways from Lewis's usual style, and the writing is not of a similar calibre to his other work. Also in August 1963 Lewis had given instructions to [[Douglas Gresham]] to destroy all his unfinished or incomplete fragments of manuscript when his rooms at [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]] were being cleaned out, following his resignation from the college early in the month.<ref name="Lindskoog111-12">{{cite book | last = Lindskoog| first = Kathryn Ann | title = Sleuthing C.S. Lewis: more Light in the shadowlands | url = https://archive.org/details/sleuthingcslewis0000lind| url-access = registration| pages = [https://archive.org/details/sleuthingcslewis0000lind/page/111 111–12] | publisher = Mercer University Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-86554-730-0}}</ref>

===Autobiographical elements===

A number of aspects of ''The Magician's Nephew'' parallel Lewis's own life. Both Digory and Lewis were children in the early 1900s, both wanted a pony, and both were faced with the death of their mothers in childhood. Digory is separated from his father, who is in India, and misses him. Lewis was schooled in England after his mother's death, while his father remained in Ireland. He also had a brother in India. Lewis was a voracious reader when a child, Digory is also, and both are better with books than with numbers. Digory (and Polly) struggle with sums when trying to work out how far they must travel along the attic space to explore an abandoned house, Lewis failed the maths entrance exam for [[Oxford University]]. Lewis remembered rainy summer days from his youth and Digory is faced with the same woe in the novel. Additionally Digory becomes a professor when he grows up, who takes in evacuated children during [[World War II]].<ref>Hinten, pp. 68–69.</ref>

The character of [[Andrew Ketterley]] also closely resembles Robert Capron, a schoolmaster at [[Wynyard School]], which Lewis attended with his brother, whom Lewis suggested during his teens would make a good model for a villain in a future story. Ketterley resembles Capron in his age, appearance, and behaviour.<ref>Downing, pp. 57–59.</ref>

==Style==

''The Magician's Nephew'' is written in a lighter tone than other ''Chronicles of Narnia'' books, in particular ''[[The Last Battle]]'', which was published after. It frequently makes use of humour; this perhaps reflects the sense of looking back at an earlier part of the century with affection, and Lewis as a middle-aged man recalling his childhood during those years. There are a number of humorous references to life in the old days, in particular school life. Humorous exchanges also take place between Narnian animals. Jadis's attempt to conquer London is portrayed as more comical than threatening, and further humour derives from the contrast between the evil empress and [[Edwardian]] London and its social mores, and her humiliation of bumbling Andrew Ketterley after discovering he is not as powerful a sorcerer as she is (or was). This recalls the style of [[Edith Nesbit]]'s children's books.<ref>Myers, p. 174.</ref> Lewis was fond of these books, which he read in childhood, a number were set in the same period and ''The Magician's Nephew'' has some apparent references or homages to them.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/>

==Reading order==
{{Quote box|width=100%|align=center|quote="I think I agree with your [chronological] order for reading the books more than with your mother's. The series was not planned beforehand as she thinks. When I wrote The Lion I did not know I was going to write any more. Then I wrote P. Caspian as a sequel and still didn't think there would be any more, and when I had done The Voyage I felt quite sure it would be the last, but I found I was wrong. So perhaps it does not matter very much in which order anyone read them. I’m not even sure that all the others were written in the same order in which they were published."|source=—[[C. S. Lewis]]'s reply to a letter from Laurence Krieg, an American fan who was having an argument with his mother about the reading order.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dorsett |first=Lyle |editor=Marjorie Lamp Mead |title=C. S. Lewis: Letters to Children |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster|Touchstone]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-684-82372-0 }}</ref>}}
''The Magician's Nephew'' was originally published as the sixth book in the ''Narnia Chronicles''. Most reprintings of the novels until the 1980s also reflected the order of original publication. In 1980 [[HarperCollins]] published the series ordered by the chronology of the events in the novels. This meant ''The Magician's Nephew'' was numbered as the first in the series. HarperCollins, which had previously published editions of the novels outside the United States, also acquired the rights to publish the novels in that country in 1994 and used this sequence in the uniform worldwide edition published in that year.<ref>Schakel, pp. 13–16.</ref>

Laurence Krieg, a young fan, wrote to Lewis, asking him to adjudicate between his views of the correct sequence of reading the novels – according to the sequence of events, with ''The Magician's Nephew'' being placed first – and that of his mother, who thought the order of publication was more appropriate. Lewis wrote back, appearing to support the younger Krieg's views, although he did point out that perhaps it would not matter what order they were read in.<ref>Schakel, pp. 17–18.</ref>

Some literary scholars have argued that the publication order better draws the readers into the world of Narnia. In the book Lewis wrote first, [[Lucy Pevensie]]'s discovery of the wardrobe that opens onto a forest and a mysterious lamp-post creates a sense of suspense about an unknown land she is discovering for the first time. This would be anticlimactic if the reader has already been introduced to Narnia in ''The Magician's Nephew'' and already knows the origins of Narnia, the wardrobe, and the lamp-post. Lewis scholar Peter Schakel points out that the narrative of ''The Magician's Nephew'' assumes that the reader has already read ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' and is now being shown its beginnings.<ref>Schakel, pp. 19–21.</ref>

Paul Ford cites several scholars who have weighed in against the decision of HarperCollins to present the books in the order of their internal chronology,<ref>Ford, pp. xxiii–xxiv.</ref> and continues, "most scholars disagree with this decision and find it the least faithful to Lewis's deepest intentions". These scholars argue that the narrative of ''The Magician's Nephew'' appears to assume that the reader has already read ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' and is now being shown its beginnings.<ref>Ford, p. 24.</ref>

==Themes and interpretations==

===Parallels with the Book of Genesis===

Lewis suggested that he did not directly intend to write his Narnia stories as Christian tales, but that these aspects appeared subconsciously as he wrote, although the books did become Christian as they progressed. He thought that the tales were not direct representations or allegory, but that they might evoke or remind readers of Biblical stories.<ref name="sammons128-29">{{cite book | last = Sammons| first = Martha C. | title = A Guide Through Narnia | pages = 128–9 | publisher = Regent College Publishing | year = 2004 | isbn = 1-57383-308-8}}</ref> In ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', Aslan is a Christ-like figure who suffers a death of atonement and returns to life in a similar way to Christ's [[crucifixion]] and resurrection.<ref name="ryken165">{{cite book | last1 = Ryken | first1 = Leland | last2 = Lamp Mead | first2 = Marjorie | title = A reader's guide through the wardrobe: exploring C.S. Lewis's classic story | url = https://archive.org/details/readersguidethro00ryke | url-access = registration | page = [https://archive.org/details/readersguidethro00ryke/page/165 165] | publisher = Inter Varsity Press | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8308-3289-0}}</ref> ''The Magician's Nephew'' has similar biblical allusions, reflecting aspects of The Book of Genesis such as the creation, [[original sin]] and [[temptation]].<ref name="vaus76-77">{{cite book | last1 = Vaus | first1 = Will | last2 = Gresham | first2 = Douglas | title = Mere theology: a guide to the thought of C.S. Lewis | pages = 76–7 | publisher = Inter Varsity Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8308-2782-X}}</ref>

Parallels with events in the [[Book of Genesis]] include the [[forbidden fruit]] represented by an Apple of Life. Jadis tempts Digory to eat one of the forbidden apples in the garden, as the serpent tempts Eve into eating a forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden; unlike Eve however, Digory rejects the offer. (Lewis's ''[[Perelandra]]'' also features a re-enactment of the same Biblical story, which in that book also ends with the tempter foiled and the fall avoided.)

While the creation of Narnia closely echoes the creation of the Earth in the Book of Genesis, there are a number of important differences. Human beings are not created in Narnia by Aslan, they are brought into Narnia from our own world. Unlike Genesis, where souls are given only to human beings, animals and half-human half-animal creatures such as [[Faun]]s and [[Satyr]]s and even trees and watercourses are given souls and the power of rational thought and speech. This appears to suggest Lewis combined his Christian worldview with his fondness for nature, myth and fairy tales.<ref>Downing, pp 73–74.</ref>

Parallels may also be found in Lewis's other writings. Jadis's references to "reasons of State", and her claim to own the people of Charn and to be beyond morality, represent the eclipse of the medieval Christian belief in [[natural law]] by the political concept of sovereignty, as embodied first in [[Absolute monarchy|royal absolutism]] and then in modern dictatorships.<ref>Lewis (1944). ''English Literature in the Sixteenth Century Excluding Drama''. Chapter 1.</ref> Uncle Andrew represents the [[Faustian]] element in the origins of modern science.<ref>Lewis (1943). ''The Abolition of Man''.</ref>

===The Holy Spirit and the breath of life===

On a number of occasions in the ''Chronicles of Narnia'', Aslan uses his breath to give strength to characters, demonstrating his benevolent power of bringing life. He specifically does so in ''The Magician's Nephew'' when a "long warm breath" gives life to Narnia. Lewis used the symbol of the breath to represent the [[Holy Spirit]], also known as the Holy Ghost. Both ''spirit'' and ''ghost'' are translations of the word for ''breath'' in Hebrew and Greek. The flash from the stars when the Narnian animals are given the ability to talk also most probably represents the Holy Spirit<ref>Colbert, pp. 81–83.</ref> or "breath of life" of ''Genesis'' chapter 2, as well as (possibly) the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] concept of the divine [[active intellect]] that inspires human beings with rationality.{{efn |name=activeintellect}}

===Nature and a natural order===

''The Magician's Nephew'' suggests two opposing approaches to nature, a good approach associated with Aslan as creator and an evil approach associated with human deviation from divine intentions and the harmony of a natural order. On the one hand there is the beauty of Aslan's creation of Narnia, which is suggested as having a natural order by the use of musical harmony to bring landscapes and living things into being. There is also a distinct order to the process of creation, from earth to plants to animal, which evokes the concept of [[The Great Chain of Being]]. Lewis himself was a strong believer in the intrinsic value of nature for itself, rather than as a resource to be exploited. This is perhaps reflected in how Aslan also gives speech to spiritual aspects of nature, such as naiads in the water and dryads in the trees. Andrew Ketterley and Jadis represent an opposite, evil approach of bending the forces of nature to human will for the purpose of self gain. They see nature solely as a resource to use for their plans and thus disturb and destroy the natural order.<ref>Myers, pp. 169–70.</ref>

==Influences==
===John Milton's ''Paradise Lost''===
The sacred Garden in the west of the Narnian world is surrounded by a "high wall of green turf" with branches of trees overhanging it, and "high gates of gold, fast shut, facing due east", which must be the only entrance because the travellers "walked nearly all the way round it" before they found them. In all these points Lewis echoes [[John Milton]]'s description of Eden in ''[[Paradise Lost]]'':

:The [[wiktionary:verdurous|verdurous]] wall of Paradise up sprung...

:And higher than that Wall a circling row
:Of goodliest trees loaden with fairest fruit,
:Blossoms and fruits at once of golden hue,
:Appeerd, with gay enameld colours mixt...<ref>John Milton, ''Paradise Lost'', book IV, lines 143, 146–149</ref>

:One gate there only was, and that look'd east
:On th' other side...<ref>John Milton, ''Paradise Lost'', book IV, lines 178–179</ref>

Jadis takes on echoes of [[Satan#In art and literature|Satan]] from the same work: she climbs over the wall of the Garden in contempt of the command to enter only by the gate, and proceeds to tempt Digory as Satan tempted [[Adam and Eve#Arts and literature|Eve]], with lies and half-truths.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hardy|first=Elizabeth Baird|title=Milton, Spenser and The Chronicles of Narnia: literary sources for the C. S. Lewis novels|year=2007|publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc.|isbn=978-0-7864-2876-2}} pp30–34</ref>

Some details of the creation of Narnia, such as the emergence of animals from the ground, and the way they shake earth from their bodies are also similar to passages in ''Paradise Lost'', and may also have been inspired by descriptions of the processes of nature in The seventh book of [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[The Faerie Queene]]''.<ref>Myers, pp. 170–71.</ref>

===The Garden of the Hesperides===
Four years before the publication of the first Narnia book, Lewis had written as follows on the experience of reading really good poetry for the first time:
<blockquote>...I did not in the least feel that I was getting in more quantity or better quality a pleasure I had already known. It was more as if a cupboard which one had hitherto valued as a place for hanging coats proved one day, when you opened the door, to lead to the garden of the Hesperides...<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=C. S.|title=On Stories: and other essays on literature|year=1966|publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich|location=New York|page=121|editor=Walter Hooper|chapter=Different Tastes in Literature}}</ref>
</blockquote>

The element of the cupboard leading to a new world Lewis proceeded to use in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', but the snowy Narnia of that book is quite unlike the balmy [[Garden of the Hesperides]], most of whose major mythological features appear as attributes of the sacred Garden in ''The Magician's Nephew'' where it differs from the Biblical or Miltonian Eden. It is set in the far West of the world; it has a watchful guardian; a hero (Digory) is sent, like [[Labours of Hercules#Eleventh Labour: Apples of the Hesperides|Hercules]], to fetch an apple from it; a female villain (Jadis) steals another of the apples, like [[Apple of Discord|Eris]]. Since the eponymous [[Hesperides]] were daughters of [[Hesperus]], the god of the planet Venus in the evening, advocates of the [[The Chronicles of Narnia#Influences|planetary theory]] adduce this as evidence for a special association between ''The Magician's Nephew'' and [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Michael|title=Planet Narnia: the seven heavens in the imagination of C. S. Lewis|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

===Edith Nesbit===

Lewis read [[Edith Nesbit]]'s children's books as a child and was greatly fond of them.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/> ''The Magician's Nephew'' refers to these books in the opening of the novel as though their events were true, mentioning the setting of the piece as being when "Mr. [[Sherlock Holmes]] was still living in [[Baker Street]] and the Bastables were looking for treasure in the Lewisham Road". [[The Bastables]] were children who appeared in a number of Edith Nesbit's stories.<ref>Hinten, p. 68.</ref> In addition to being set in the same period and location as several of Nesbit's stories, ''The Magician's Nephew'' also has some similarities with Nesbit's ''[[The Story of the Amulet]]'' (1906). This novel focuses on four children living in London who discover a magic amulet. Their father is away and their mother is ill, as is the case with Digory. They also manage to transport the queen of [[Babylon|ancient Babylon]] to London and she is the cause of a riot; a very similar event takes place in ''The Magician's Nephew'' when Polly and Digory transport Queen Jadis to London and she also causes a similar disturbance.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/>

===J. R. R. Tolkien===

The creation of Narnia may also have been influenced by his close friend [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[The Silmarillion]]'', which also contains a creation scene driven by the effect of music.<ref>Downing, p. 59.</ref>

===Morgan Le Fay and Pandora's Box===

Lewis greatly enjoyed stories of [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian legend]] and wrote poetry about this world. Mrs Lefay visits Digory in The Lefay Fragment, and becomes Andrew Ketterley's nefarious godmother in the finished novel. She gives Ketterley a box from Atlantis containing the dust from which he constructs the rings Digory and Polly use to travel between worlds. Both Lefays are allusions to [[Morgan Le Fay]], a powerful sorceress in a number of versions of [[King Arthur]]'s tales, who is often portrayed as evil. The box itself is also evocative of [[Pandora's box]] from [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]], which also contained dangerous secrets.<ref name="colbert77-8">Colbert, pp. 77–78.</ref>

===The Atlantis legend===

The box of dust enabling travel between worlds originated in [[Atlantis]].<ref name="colbert77-8"/> Both Lewis and Tolkien were fascinated by the Atlantis legend. The degeneration of Charn's rulers, Jadis's ancestors, from the early kind and wise to the later cruel and arrogant is reminiscent of the similar degeneration in Tolkien's [[Númenor]], the fabled island kingdom that finally sank under the waves due to the sinfulness of its latter inhabitants. The world of Charn was destroyed when Jadis spoke The Deplorable Word, a form of knowledge ancient Charnian scholars feared for its destructive potential. A number of commentators believed Lewis was referring to the use of the [[nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]], used less than a decade earlier. It is perhaps more likely that Lewis was echoing the mythical destruction of Atlantis by the forces of evil and arrogance.<ref>Colbert, pp. 91–92.</ref> As noted by Alice Ward, the comparison with nuclear arms is made explicit in Aslan's last warning: "You [Earth] are growing more like it [Charn]. It is not certain that some wicked one of your race will not find out a secret as evil as The Deplorable Word and use it to destroy all living things".<ref>Dr. Alice Ward, "Dark Undertones in the Fantasy Writing of the later Twentieth Century" in Alexander O'Donnel (ed.) "Interdisciplinary Round Table on the Cultural Effects of the Nuclear Arms Race".</ref>

==Adaptations==

===Theatrical===
[[Aurand Harris]] was a well-known American playwright for children, whose works are among the most performed in that medium. He wrote 36 plays for children including an adaption of ''The Magician's Nephew''.<ref name="coleman46-47">{{cite book | last1 = Jennings | first1 = Coleman A. | last2 = Sendak | first2 = Maurice | title = Theatre for Young Audiences | pages = 46–7 | publisher = Macmillan | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-312-33714-0}}</ref> The play was first performed on 26 May 1984 by the Department of Drama, [[University of Texas, Austin]] and staged at the B. Iden Payne Theatre. A musical score by William Penn was written for use with productions of the play.<ref name="harris4-5">{{cite book | last1 = Harris | first1 = Aurand | last2 = Lewis | first2 = C.S. | last3 = Penn | first3 = William A. |title = The magician's nephew: a dramatization | pages = 4–5 | publisher = Dramatic Publishing | year = 1984 | isbn = 0-87129-541-5}}</ref>

Erina Caradus wrote a playscript for ''The Magician's Nephew'' that was performed in [[Dunedin]], New Zealand in 2005.<ref>[http://narniaproductions.co.nz Narnia Productions]. narniaproductions.co.nz (Dunedin, New Zealand). Retrieved 10 December 2012.</ref>{{efn |name=homepage}}

===Film===
An agreement among representatives of 20th Century Fox, Walden, and the C. S. Lewis estate determined that ''The Magician's Nephew'' would be the basis for the next movie following the release of the 2010 film ''[[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (film)|The Voyage of the Dawn Treader]]''.<ref>[http://www.christianpost.com/news/narnia-4-will-be-magicians-nephew-not-silver-chair-49517/ "Narnia 4 Will Be ''Magician's Nephew'', Not ''Silver Chair''"]. Katherine T. Phan. CP Entertainment. ''The Christian Post''. 22 March 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.charismamag.com/index.php/news/30308-the-voyage-of-the-dawn-treader-most-inspiring-faith-family-and-values-movie-of-2011 "''The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'' Most Inspiring Faith, Family and Values Movie of 2011"]. CharismaNews.com. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708135344/http://www.charismamag.com/index.php/news/30308-the-voyage-of-the-dawn-treader-most-inspiring-faith-family-and-values-movie-of-2011 |date=8 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>[http://insidemovies.ew.com/2011/03/23/magicians-nephew-new-narnia-film/ "''Narnia'': Walden, Fox in discussions on ''The Magician's Nephew''"]. Bryan Lufkin. Inside Movies. ''Entertainment Weekly'' (EW.com). 23 March 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref> However, in October 2011, Douglas Gresham confirmed that [[Walden Media]]'s contract with the C. S. Lewis estate had expired.<ref>[http://www.aslanscountry.com/2011/10/gresham-confirms-waldens-contract-expired/ "Gresham Confirms: Walden's Contract Expired"]. Aslan's Country. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223514/http://www.aslanscountry.com/2011/10/gresham-confirms-waldens-contract-expired/ |date=4 October 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancinema.com/catalog/newsdesk_info.php?newsdesk_id=1886# "Walden Media's Option for a Fourth Narnia film Expires"]. ChristianCinema.com. 18 October 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref>

On 1 October 2013, the C.S. Lewis Company announced that they had entered into an agreement with producer [[Mark Gordon (film)|Mark Gordon]] to jointly develop and produce ''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair'', ultimately deciding to continue releasing the films to mirror the novel series' publication order.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deadline.com/2013/10/chronicles-of-narnia-silver-chair-movie-mark-gordon/|title=Fourth 'Chronicles of Narnia' Movie in Works From Mark Gordon Co|date=1 October 2013|work=Deadline|access-date=4 October 2014}}</ref>

In October 2018, Netflix announced an agreement with the C.S. Lewis Company. Netflix will develop and produce new series and movies based on ''The Chronicles of Narnia''. Mark Gordon of [[Entertainment One]], Douglas Gresham and Vincent Sieber will serve as producers for films and executive producers for series.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Netflix to Develop Series and Films Based On C.S. Lewis' Beloved The Chronicles Of Narnia|url=https://www.narnia.com/netflix-to-develop-series-and-films-based-on-c-s-lewis-beloved-the-chronicles-of-narnia/|date=2018-10-03|website=Official Site {{!}} Narnia.com|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-17}}</ref>

===TV===
In 2003, the BBC produced a 10-part version read by Jane Lapotaire and signed by Jean St Clair wearing different Narnia-like clothes in British Sign Language, for the TV series ''Hands Up!'' which was first broadcast on the 16 January 2003.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/b627c79efe9a4a5a932ea9508e7b5fb6|title=Schools programmes|date=2003-01-09|work=The Radio Times|access-date=2019-11-01|issue=4113|pages=87|language=en-GB|issn=0033-8060}}</ref> Jean signed in front of various high quality illustrations representing parts of the novel. It was later repeated on [[CBBC (TV channel)|CBBC]] on the 3 December 2007, and [[BBC Two]] on the 16 September 2008.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/a8e0e756c74644558e6e9da3e58d2632|title=Schools programmes|date=2008-09-11|work=The Radio Times|access-date=2019-11-01|issue=4404|pages=79|language=en-GB|issn=0033-8060}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0078ydw|title=CBBC - The Chronicles of Narnia, The Magician's Nephew, Part 1|website=BBC|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0078ydw|title=BBC Two - The Chronicles of Narnia, The Magician's Nephew, Part 1|publisher=BBC}}</ref>

===Radio===
A [[BBC Radio 4]] adaptation exists.<ref>https://www.amazon.com/Complete-Chronicles-of-Narnia-audiobook/dp/B00O3FDQP4</ref> [[Focus on the Family]] also made an adaptation of this book with a full cast, sound editing, and music.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://store.focusonthefamily.com/radio-theatre-the-chronicles-of-narnia-collectors-edition/|title=Radio Theatre: The Chronicles of Narnia Collector's Edition}}</ref> Both productions adapted all seven books.

===Manga===
A [[HarperCollins|HarperCollins Japan]] manga adaptation, {{nihongo|'''''Chronicles Of Narnia: The Magician's Nephew: I Opened the Wrong Door!'''''|ナルニア国物語: 魔術師のおい: 間違ったドアを開けた!|Narnia Koku Monogatari: Majutsushi no Oi: Machigatta Doa o Aketa!|lead=yes}}, began publication in 2018, before concluding in 2020 after two volumes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.anime-planet.com/manga/the-chronicles-of-narnia-the-magicians-nephew|title = The Chronicles of Narnia: The Magician's Nephew|date = 3 March 2018}}</ref>

==Critical reception==
T.M. Wagner of SF Reviews said "''The Magician's Nephew'' may not be the best of the Narnia novels, but it's a brisk and funny tale certain to delight its intended young audience", saying that it may not satisfy readers in their teenage years and older.<ref name="Narnia Review">{{cite web|last=Wagner|first=T.M |title=Narnia01|url=http://www.sfreviews.net/narnia01.html|work=Science Fiction & Fantasy Book Reviews |publisher=SFReviews.net |access-date=11 June 2012}}</ref>

Jandy's Reading Room reviewed the book, saying that although they feel it is the weakest of the series, they would still recommend it. They say it "gives a wonderful picture of the beginning of a new world, in the manner of the Creation."<ref name="JRR Review">{{cite web|title=Book Review: The Magician's Nephew by C.S. Lewis|url=http://www.jandysbooks.com/sfbooks/magneph.html |work=Jandy's Reading Room|publisher=Jandy's Books (JandysBooks.com) |access-date=13 June 2012}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist |notes=
{{efn |name=timeline |1=
Forty years pass in our world, from 1900 to 1940, during that first millennium in Narnia. A manuscript by Lewis, the "[[Narnia (world)#Outline of Narnian History|Outline of Narnian History]]", dates major events in the Narnia world and simultaneous events in England. Since his death, it has been published in books about Narnia and is generally considered valid.
}}
{{efn |name=activeintellect |1=
In the view of [[Avicenna]] and [[Maimonides]], intellectual inspiration descends through ten angelic emanations, of which the first nine are the intelligences of the heavenly spheres and the tenth is the Active Intellect.
}}
{{efn |name=homepage |1=
The homepage now promotes the last of four Narnia theatrical productions, ''The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'' (2008). Information about the four numbers varies.
}}
}}

==References==
{{Reflist |30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | last = Colbert| first = David | title = The Magical Worlds of Narnia | publisher = McArthur & Company | year = 2005 | isbn = 1-55278-541-6}}
* {{cite book | last = Downing| first = David C. | title = Into the Wardrobe: C.S. Lewis and the Narnia Chronicles | url = https://archive.org/details/intowardrobecsle00down| url-access = registration| publisher = Jossey-Bass | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-7879-7890-7}}
* {{cite book |title=Companion to Narnia: Revised Edition |url=https://archive.org/details/pocketcompaniont00ford |url-access=registration |last=Ford |first=Paul |year=2005 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-06-079127-8 }}
* {{cite book | last = Hinten| first = Marvin D. | title = The Keys to the Chronicles: Unlocking the Symbols of C.S. Lewis's Narnia | publisher = B&H Publishing Group | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8054-4028-3}}
* {{cite book | last = Myers | first = Doris T. | title = C. S. Lewis in Context | publisher = Kent State University Press | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-87338-617-5}}
* {{cite book | last = Schakel| first = Peter J. | title = The way into Narnia: a reader's guide | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8028-2984-8}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|The Magician's Nephew}}
* {{FadedPage|id=201410A8|name=The Magician's Nephew}}
* {{worldcat |oclc=813649621}} ——immediately, the full-colour C. S. Lewis centenary edition 
* {{isfdb title|1589|The Magician's Nephew}}

{{Portal bar|Speculative fiction|Fantasy|Children's literature|Novels}}
{{Narnia}}
{{C. S. Lewis}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Magician's Nephew, The}}
[[Category:1955 British novels]]
[[Category:1955 children's books]]
[[Category:1955 fantasy novels]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into plays]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into television shows]]
[[Category:Children's fantasy novels]]
[[Category:Isekai anime and manga]]
[[Category:Isekai novels and light novels]]
[[Category:Prequel novels]]
[[Category:The Bodley Head books]]
[[Category:The Chronicles of Narnia books]]
[[Category:Witchcraft in written fiction]]

The Magician's Nephew

2022-06-23T13:55:34Z

190.196.211.42:

{{Short description|Children's fantasy novel by C. S. Lewis, 1955}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox book
| name = ELPEPE
| image = TheMagiciansNephew(1stEd).jpg
| caption = [[Dust jacket]] of first edition
| author = [[C. S. Lewis]]
| illustrator = [[Pauline Baynes]]
| cover_artist = Pauline Baynes
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| series = ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''
| subject = The creation of Narnia
| genre = [[Children's literature|Children's]] [[fantasy]] novel, [[Christian literature]]
| publisher = [[The Bodley Head]]
| pub_date = 2 May 1955
| media_type = Print (hardcover)
| pages = 183 (first edition)<ref name=isfdb>
[http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1589 "Bibliography: The Magician's Nephew"]. [[ISFDB]]. Retrieved 8 December 2012.</ref> 41,062 words (US)<ref>{{cite web|title=Scholastic Catalog – Book Information|url=http://src.scholastic.com/bookexpert/detail_title.asp?UID=0DEA1BBF4B1D4B00AE1690DB6BC45C75&subt=0&item=98091|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref>
| isbn = 978-0-00-671683-9
| isbn_note=(Collins, 1998; full-colour)<ref name=isfdb/> 
| oclc = 2497740 
| congress = PZ8.L48 Mag<ref name=LCC>
[http://lccn.loc.gov/55030864 "The magician's nephew"] (first edition). Library of Congress Catalog Record. 
[http://lccn.loc.gov/55014869 "The magician's nephew"] (first US edition). LCC record. Retrieved 2012-12-08.</ref> 
| preceded_by = [[The Horse and His Boy]]
| followed_by = [[The Last Battle]]
}}

'''''The Magician's Nephew''''' is a fantasy children's novel by [[C. S. Lewis]], published in 1955 by [[The Bodley Head]]. It is the sixth published of seven novels in ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' (1950–1956). In recent editions, which sequence the books according to Narnia history, it is volume one of the series. Like the others, it was illustrated by [[Pauline Baynes]] whose work has been retained in many later editions. The Bodley Head was a new publisher for ''The Chronicles'', a change from [[Geoffrey Bles]] who had published the previous five novels.<ref name=isfdb/><ref name=LCC/>

''The Magician's Nephew'' is a prequel to the series. The middle third of the novel features the creation of the Narnia world by Aslan the lion, centred on a section of a [[lamp-post]] brought by accidental observers from London in 1900. The visitors then participate in the beginning of Narnia history, 1000 years before ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''{{efn |name=timeline}} (which inaugurated the series in 1950).

The frame story, set in England, features two children ensnared in experimental travel via "the wood between the worlds". Thus, the novel shows Narnia and our middle-aged world to be only two of many in a [[multiverse]], which changes as some worlds begin and others end. It also explains the origin of foreign elements in Narnia, not only the lamp-post but also the White Witch and a human king and queen.

Lewis began ''The Magician's Nephew'' soon after completing ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', spurred by a friend's question about the lamp-post in the middle of nowhere, but he needed more than five years to complete it. The story includes several autobiographical elements and explores a number of themes with general moral and [[Christianity|Christian]] implications, including atonement, original sin, temptation and the order of nature.

==Plot summary==
The story begins in London during the summer of 1900. Two children, [[Digory Kirke|Digory]] and [[Polly Plummer|Polly]], meet while playing in the adjacent gardens of a row of [[terraced house]]s. They decide to explore the attic beyond Digory's house, but do not walk far enough, and find themselves in [[Andrew Ketterley|Uncle Andrew]]'s [[study (room)|study]]. Uncle Andrew tricks Polly into touching a yellow [[magic ring]], causing her to vanish. Then he explains to Digory that he has been dabbling in magic, and that the rings allow travel between one world and another. He blackmails Digory into taking another yellow ring to follow wherever Polly has gone, and two green rings so that they both can return.

Digory finds himself transported to a sleepy [[woodland]] with an almost narcotic effect; he finds Polly nearby. The woodland is filled with pools. Digory and Polly surmise that the wood is not really a proper world at all but a "[[Wood between the Worlds]]", similar to the attic that links their houses back in England, and that each pool leads to a separate universe. They decide to explore a different world before returning to England, and jump into one of the nearby pools. They then find themselves in a desolate abandoned city of the ancient world of [[Charn]]. Inside the ruined palace, they discover statues of Charn's former kings and queens, which degenerate from the fair and wise to the unhappy and cruel. They find a bell with a hammer and an inscription inviting the finder to strike the bell.

Despite protests from Polly, Digory rings the bell. This awakens the last of the statues, a witch queen named [[White Witch|Jadis]], who{{em dash}}to avoid defeat in battle{{em dash}}had deliberately killed every living thing in Charn by speaking the "[[Deplorable Word]]". As the only survivor left in her world, she placed herself in an enchanted sleep that would only be broken by someone ringing the bell.

The children recognise Jadis as evil and attempt to flee, but she follows them back to England by clinging to them as they clutch their rings. In England, she discovers that her magical powers do not work, although she retains her superhuman strength. Dismissing Uncle Andrew as a poor magician, she enslaves him and orders him to fetch her a "chariot"{{em dash}}a [[hansom cab]]{{em dash}}so she can set about conquering Earth. They leave, and she attracts attention by robbing a jewellery store in London. The police chase after her cab, until she crashes at the foot of the Kirke house. Jadis breaks off and tears an iron rod from a nearby lamp-post, using it to fight off police and onlookers when they mock her.

When Jadis threatens the crowd, Polly and Digory grab her and put on their rings to take her out of their world{{spaced en dash}}along with Uncle Andrew, Frank the cab-driver, and Frank's horse, Strawberry, who were all touching each other when the children grabbed their rings. In the Wood between the Worlds, Strawberry, looking to drink from one of the ponds, accidentally brings everyone into another world: a dark, empty void. At first, Digory believes it to be Charn, but Jadis recognises it as a world not yet created. They then all witness the creation of a new world by the lion [[Aslan]], who brings stars, plants, and animals into existence as he sings. Jadis, as terrified by his singing as the others are attracted to it, tries to kill Aslan with the iron rod; but it rebounds harmlessly off him, and in the creative soil of the new world it sprouts into a growing lamp-post. Jadis flees in terror.

Aslan gives some animals [[Talking animals in fiction|the power of speech]], commanding them to use it for justice and merriment or else risk becoming regular animals once again. Aslan confronts Digory with his responsibility for bringing Jadis into his young world, and tells Digory he must atone by helping to protect the new land of Narnia from her evil. Aslan transforms the cabbie's horse into a winged horse called Fledge, and Digory and Polly fly on him to a distant garden high in the mountains. Digory's task is to take an apple from a tree in this garden and plant it in Narnia. At the garden Digory finds a sign warning not to steal from the garden.

Digory picks one of the apples for his mission, but their overpowering smell tempts him. Jadis appears, having herself eaten an apple to become immortal, leaving her with pale white skin. She tempts Digory either to eat an apple himself and join her in immortality, or steal one to take back to Earth to heal his dying mother. Digory resists, knowing his mother would never condone theft, but hesitates. He sees through the Witch's ploy when she suggests he leave Polly behind{{spaced en dash}}not knowing Polly can get away by her own ring. Foiled, the Witch departs for the North, and taunts Digory for his refusal to eat the apple and gain immortality. Digory returns to Narnia and plants the apple, which grows into a mature tree behind them while the coronation proceeds. Aslan tells Digory how the tree works - anyone who steals the apples gets their heart's desire, but in a form that makes it unlikeable. In the Witch's case, she has achieved immortality, but it only means eternal misery because of her evil heart. Moreover, the magic apples are now a horror to her, such that the apple tree will repel her for centuries to come, but not forever. With Aslan's permission, Digory then takes an apple from the new tree to heal his mother. Aslan returns Digory, Polly, and Uncle Andrew to England. Frank and his wife, Helen (transported from England by Aslan) stay to rule Narnia as its first King and Queen. The Narnian creatures live in peace and joy, and neither the Witch nor any other enemy came to trouble Narnia for many hundreds of years.

Digory's apple restores his mother's health as his father returns for good after being away on business in [[India]], and he and Polly remain lifelong friends. Uncle Andrew reforms and gives up magic, but still enjoys bragging about his adventures with the Witch. Digory plants the apple's core with Uncle Andrew's rings in the back yard of his aunt's home in London, and it grows into a large tree. Soon afterwards, Digory's family inherits a mansion in the country, and many years later the apple tree blows down in a storm. Digory, now a middle-aged professor, has its wood made into a [[wardrobe]], setting up the events in ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''.

==Principal characters==

*[[Digory Kirke]]: The boy who becomes the Professor in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[Polly Plummer]]: Digory's friend, who lives next door
*[[List of The Chronicles of Narnia characters#Kirke, Mabel|Mabel Kirke]]: Digory's mother
*[[Andrew Ketterley]]: Digory's uncle, a minor magician
*[[Letitia Ketterley]]: Uncle Andrew's sister
*[[White Witch|Jadis]]: Empress of Charn, who becomes the White Witch appearing in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[Aslan]]: The Lion who creates Narnia and kills Jadis in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[King Frank]]: A cabby who becomes the first king of Narnia and forefather of the kings of Archenland
*[[Queen Helen (Narnia)|Queen Helen]]: The wife of King Frank, the first queen of Narnia, and the ancestress of the Archenlanders
*[[Fledge (horse)|Fledge]]: The winged horse, formerly the cab-horse Strawberry, who carries Polly and Digory to the mountain garden

==Writing==

Lewis had originally intended only to write the one Narnia novel, ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''. However, when [[Roger Lancelyn Green]] asked him how a lamp-post came to be standing in the midst of Narnian woodland, Lewis was intrigued enough by the question to attempt to find an answer by writing ''The Magician's Nephew'', which features a younger version of Professor Kirke from the first novel.<ref>Downing, p. 36.</ref>

''The Magician's Nephew'' seems to have been the most challenging Narnia novel for Lewis to write. The other six ''Chronicles of Narnia'' books were written between 1948 and 1953, ''The Magician's Nephew'' was written over a five-year period between 1949 and 1954. He started in the summer of 1949 after finishing ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', but came to a halt after producing 26 pages of manuscript and did not resume work until two years later. This may be as a result of the autobiographical aspects of the novel, as it reflects a number of incidents and parallels very close to his own experiences.<ref>Downing, p. 56.</ref>

He returned to ''The Magician's Nephew'' late in 1950, after completing ''[[The Silver Chair]]''. He managed to finish close to three-quarters of the novel, and then halted work once again after Roger Green, to whom Lewis showed all his writing at the time, suggested there was a structural problem in the story. Finally he returned to the novel in 1953, after finishing ''[[The Last Battle]]'' in the spring of that year and completed early in 1954.<ref name="duriez47">{{cite book | last = Duriez| first = Colin | title = The Life of C.S. Lewis | page = 47 | publisher = InterVarsity Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8308-3207-6}}</ref>

Lewis originally titled the novel "''Polly and Digory''"; his publisher changed it to ''The Magician's Nephew''.<ref name="2Lindskoog87">{{cite book | last = Lindskoog | first = Kathryn Ann | title = Journey into Narnia: C. S. Lewis's Tales Explored | page = [https://archive.org/details/journeyintonarni0000lind/page/87 87] | publisher = Hope Publishing House | year = 1997 | isbn = 0-932727-89-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/journeyintonarni0000lind/page/87 }}</ref> This book is dedicated to "the Kilmer family".<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-06-13 |title=Narnia creator CS Lewis's letters to children go on sale |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-oxfordshire-48612343 |access-date=2022-06-01}}</ref>

===The Lefay Fragment===

The original opening of the novel differs greatly from the published version, and was abandoned by Lewis. It is now known as 'The Lefay Fragment', and is named after Mrs Lefay, Digory's [[fairy godmother]], who is mentioned in the final version as Uncle Andrew's godmother, a less benevolent user of magic, who bequeathed him the box of dust used to create the magic rings.<ref>Downing, pp. 36–39.</ref>

In the Lefay Fragment, Digory is born with the ability to speak to (and understand) trees and animals; the distinction between Talking and non-talking Beasts which was to become such a characteristic feature of the Narnian world is absent. Digory lives with an Aunt Gertrude, a former school mistress with an officious, bullying nature, who has ended up as a Government minister after a lifetime of belligerent brow-beating of others. Whenever his aunt is absent, Digory finds solace with the animals and trees, including a squirrel named Pattertwig. Polly enters the story as a girl next door who is unable to understand the speech of non-human creatures. She wants to build a raft to explore a stream which leads to an underground world. Digory helps construct the raft, but saws a branch from a tree necessary to complete it, in order not to lose face with Polly. This causes him to lose his supernatural powers of understanding the speech of trees and animals. The following day he is visited by his godmother Mrs Lefay who knows that Digory has lost his abilities and gives him a card with the address of a furniture shop which she instructs him to visit. At this point the fragment ends.<ref>Downing, pp. 36–37.</ref>

Pattertwig and Aunt Gertrude do not appear in the final version of the novel. Pattertwig does, however, appear as a Narnian creature in ''[[Prince Caspian]]'', and Aunt Gertrude's career path is retraced by the Head of Experiment House in ''[[The Silver Chair]]''.<ref>Downing, p. 39.</ref>

====Authenticity====

Some doubt has been cast on the authenticity of the Lefay Fragment, as the handwriting in the manuscript differs in some ways from Lewis's usual style, and the writing is not of a similar calibre to his other work. Also in August 1963 Lewis had given instructions to [[Douglas Gresham]] to destroy all his unfinished or incomplete fragments of manuscript when his rooms at [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]] were being cleaned out, following his resignation from the college early in the month.<ref name="Lindskoog111-12">{{cite book | last = Lindskoog| first = Kathryn Ann | title = Sleuthing C.S. Lewis: more Light in the shadowlands | url = https://archive.org/details/sleuthingcslewis0000lind| url-access = registration| pages = [https://archive.org/details/sleuthingcslewis0000lind/page/111 111–12] | publisher = Mercer University Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-86554-730-0}}</ref>

===Autobiographical elements===

A number of aspects of ''The Magician's Nephew'' parallel Lewis's own life. Both Digory and Lewis were children in the early 1900s, both wanted a pony, and both were faced with the death of their mothers in childhood. Digory is separated from his father, who is in India, and misses him. Lewis was schooled in England after his mother's death, while his father remained in Ireland. He also had a brother in India. Lewis was a voracious reader when a child, Digory is also, and both are better with books than with numbers. Digory (and Polly) struggle with sums when trying to work out how far they must travel along the attic space to explore an abandoned house, Lewis failed the maths entrance exam for [[Oxford University]]. Lewis remembered rainy summer days from his youth and Digory is faced with the same woe in the novel. Additionally Digory becomes a professor when he grows up, who takes in evacuated children during [[World War II]].<ref>Hinten, pp. 68–69.</ref>

The character of [[Andrew Ketterley]] also closely resembles Robert Capron, a schoolmaster at [[Wynyard School]], which Lewis attended with his brother, whom Lewis suggested during his teens would make a good model for a villain in a future story. Ketterley resembles Capron in his age, appearance, and behaviour.<ref>Downing, pp. 57–59.</ref>

==Style==

''The Magician's Nephew'' is written in a lighter tone than other ''Chronicles of Narnia'' books, in particular ''[[The Last Battle]]'', which was published after. It frequently makes use of humour; this perhaps reflects the sense of looking back at an earlier part of the century with affection, and Lewis as a middle-aged man recalling his childhood during those years. There are a number of humorous references to life in the old days, in particular school life. Humorous exchanges also take place between Narnian animals. Jadis's attempt to conquer London is portrayed as more comical than threatening, and further humour derives from the contrast between the evil empress and [[Edwardian]] London and its social mores, and her humiliation of bumbling Andrew Ketterley after discovering he is not as powerful a sorcerer as she is (or was). This recalls the style of [[Edith Nesbit]]'s children's books.<ref>Myers, p. 174.</ref> Lewis was fond of these books, which he read in childhood, a number were set in the same period and ''The Magician's Nephew'' has some apparent references or homages to them.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/>

==Reading order==
{{Quote box|width=100%|align=center|quote="I think I agree with your [chronological] order for reading the books more than with your mother's. The series was not planned beforehand as she thinks. When I wrote The Lion I did not know I was going to write any more. Then I wrote P. Caspian as a sequel and still didn't think there would be any more, and when I had done The Voyage I felt quite sure it would be the last, but I found I was wrong. So perhaps it does not matter very much in which order anyone read them. I’m not even sure that all the others were written in the same order in which they were published."|source=—[[C. S. Lewis]]'s reply to a letter from Laurence Krieg, an American fan who was having an argument with his mother about the reading order.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dorsett |first=Lyle |editor=Marjorie Lamp Mead |title=C. S. Lewis: Letters to Children |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster|Touchstone]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-684-82372-0 }}</ref>}}
''The Magician's Nephew'' was originally published as the sixth book in the ''Narnia Chronicles''. Most reprintings of the novels until the 1980s also reflected the order of original publication. In 1980 [[HarperCollins]] published the series ordered by the chronology of the events in the novels. This meant ''The Magician's Nephew'' was numbered as the first in the series. HarperCollins, which had previously published editions of the novels outside the United States, also acquired the rights to publish the novels in that country in 1994 and used this sequence in the uniform worldwide edition published in that year.<ref>Schakel, pp. 13–16.</ref>

Laurence Krieg, a young fan, wrote to Lewis, asking him to adjudicate between his views of the correct sequence of reading the novels – according to the sequence of events, with ''The Magician's Nephew'' being placed first – and that of his mother, who thought the order of publication was more appropriate. Lewis wrote back, appearing to support the younger Krieg's views, although he did point out that perhaps it would not matter what order they were read in.<ref>Schakel, pp. 17–18.</ref>

Some literary scholars have argued that the publication order better draws the readers into the world of Narnia. In the book Lewis wrote first, [[Lucy Pevensie]]'s discovery of the wardrobe that opens onto a forest and a mysterious lamp-post creates a sense of suspense about an unknown land she is discovering for the first time. This would be anticlimactic if the reader has already been introduced to Narnia in ''The Magician's Nephew'' and already knows the origins of Narnia, the wardrobe, and the lamp-post. Lewis scholar Peter Schakel points out that the narrative of ''The Magician's Nephew'' assumes that the reader has already read ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' and is now being shown its beginnings.<ref>Schakel, pp. 19–21.</ref>

Paul Ford cites several scholars who have weighed in against the decision of HarperCollins to present the books in the order of their internal chronology,<ref>Ford, pp. xxiii–xxiv.</ref> and continues, "most scholars disagree with this decision and find it the least faithful to Lewis's deepest intentions". These scholars argue that the narrative of ''The Magician's Nephew'' appears to assume that the reader has already read ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' and is now being shown its beginnings.<ref>Ford, p. 24.</ref>

==Themes and interpretations==

===Parallels with the Book of Genesis===

Lewis suggested that he did not directly intend to write his Narnia stories as Christian tales, but that these aspects appeared subconsciously as he wrote, although the books did become Christian as they progressed. He thought that the tales were not direct representations or allegory, but that they might evoke or remind readers of Biblical stories.<ref name="sammons128-29">{{cite book | last = Sammons| first = Martha C. | title = A Guide Through Narnia | pages = 128–9 | publisher = Regent College Publishing | year = 2004 | isbn = 1-57383-308-8}}</ref> In ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', Aslan is a Christ-like figure who suffers a death of atonement and returns to life in a similar way to Christ's [[crucifixion]] and resurrection.<ref name="ryken165">{{cite book | last1 = Ryken | first1 = Leland | last2 = Lamp Mead | first2 = Marjorie | title = A reader's guide through the wardrobe: exploring C.S. Lewis's classic story | url = https://archive.org/details/readersguidethro00ryke | url-access = registration | page = [https://archive.org/details/readersguidethro00ryke/page/165 165] | publisher = Inter Varsity Press | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8308-3289-0}}</ref> ''The Magician's Nephew'' has similar biblical allusions, reflecting aspects of The Book of Genesis such as the creation, [[original sin]] and [[temptation]].<ref name="vaus76-77">{{cite book | last1 = Vaus | first1 = Will | last2 = Gresham | first2 = Douglas | title = Mere theology: a guide to the thought of C.S. Lewis | pages = 76–7 | publisher = Inter Varsity Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8308-2782-X}}</ref>

Parallels with events in the [[Book of Genesis]] include the [[forbidden fruit]] represented by an Apple of Life. Jadis tempts Digory to eat one of the forbidden apples in the garden, as the serpent tempts Eve into eating a forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden; unlike Eve however, Digory rejects the offer. (Lewis's ''[[Perelandra]]'' also features a re-enactment of the same Biblical story, which in that book also ends with the tempter foiled and the fall avoided.)

While the creation of Narnia closely echoes the creation of the Earth in the Book of Genesis, there are a number of important differences. Human beings are not created in Narnia by Aslan, they are brought into Narnia from our own world. Unlike Genesis, where souls are given only to human beings, animals and half-human half-animal creatures such as [[Faun]]s and [[Satyr]]s and even trees and watercourses are given souls and the power of rational thought and speech. This appears to suggest Lewis combined his Christian worldview with his fondness for nature, myth and fairy tales.<ref>Downing, pp 73–74.</ref>

Parallels may also be found in Lewis's other writings. Jadis's references to "reasons of State", and her claim to own the people of Charn and to be beyond morality, represent the eclipse of the medieval Christian belief in [[natural law]] by the political concept of sovereignty, as embodied first in [[Absolute monarchy|royal absolutism]] and then in modern dictatorships.<ref>Lewis (1944). ''English Literature in the Sixteenth Century Excluding Drama''. Chapter 1.</ref> Uncle Andrew represents the [[Faustian]] element in the origins of modern science.<ref>Lewis (1943). ''The Abolition of Man''.</ref>

===The Holy Spirit and the breath of life===

On a number of occasions in the ''Chronicles of Narnia'', Aslan uses his breath to give strength to characters, demonstrating his benevolent power of bringing life. He specifically does so in ''The Magician's Nephew'' when a "long warm breath" gives life to Narnia. Lewis used the symbol of the breath to represent the [[Holy Spirit]], also known as the Holy Ghost. Both ''spirit'' and ''ghost'' are translations of the word for ''breath'' in Hebrew and Greek. The flash from the stars when the Narnian animals are given the ability to talk also most probably represents the Holy Spirit<ref>Colbert, pp. 81–83.</ref> or "breath of life" of ''Genesis'' chapter 2, as well as (possibly) the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] concept of the divine [[active intellect]] that inspires human beings with rationality.{{efn |name=activeintellect}}

===Nature and a natural order===

''The Magician's Nephew'' suggests two opposing approaches to nature, a good approach associated with Aslan as creator and an evil approach associated with human deviation from divine intentions and the harmony of a natural order. On the one hand there is the beauty of Aslan's creation of Narnia, which is suggested as having a natural order by the use of musical harmony to bring landscapes and living things into being. There is also a distinct order to the process of creation, from earth to plants to animal, which evokes the concept of [[The Great Chain of Being]]. Lewis himself was a strong believer in the intrinsic value of nature for itself, rather than as a resource to be exploited. This is perhaps reflected in how Aslan also gives speech to spiritual aspects of nature, such as naiads in the water and dryads in the trees. Andrew Ketterley and Jadis represent an opposite, evil approach of bending the forces of nature to human will for the purpose of self gain. They see nature solely as a resource to use for their plans and thus disturb and destroy the natural order.<ref>Myers, pp. 169–70.</ref>

==Influences==
===John Milton's ''Paradise Lost''===
The sacred Garden in the west of the Narnian world is surrounded by a "high wall of green turf" with branches of trees overhanging it, and "high gates of gold, fast shut, facing due east", which must be the only entrance because the travellers "walked nearly all the way round it" before they found them. In all these points Lewis echoes [[John Milton]]'s description of Eden in ''[[Paradise Lost]]'':

:The [[wiktionary:verdurous|verdurous]] wall of Paradise up sprung...

:And higher than that Wall a circling row
:Of goodliest trees loaden with fairest fruit,
:Blossoms and fruits at once of golden hue,
:Appeerd, with gay enameld colours mixt...<ref>John Milton, ''Paradise Lost'', book IV, lines 143, 146–149</ref>

:One gate there only was, and that look'd east
:On th' other side...<ref>John Milton, ''Paradise Lost'', book IV, lines 178–179</ref>

Jadis takes on echoes of [[Satan#In art and literature|Satan]] from the same work: she climbs over the wall of the Garden in contempt of the command to enter only by the gate, and proceeds to tempt Digory as Satan tempted [[Adam and Eve#Arts and literature|Eve]], with lies and half-truths.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hardy|first=Elizabeth Baird|title=Milton, Spenser and The Chronicles of Narnia: literary sources for the C. S. Lewis novels|year=2007|publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc.|isbn=978-0-7864-2876-2}} pp30–34</ref>

Some details of the creation of Narnia, such as the emergence of animals from the ground, and the way they shake earth from their bodies are also similar to passages in ''Paradise Lost'', and may also have been inspired by descriptions of the processes of nature in The seventh book of [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[The Faerie Queene]]''.<ref>Myers, pp. 170–71.</ref>

===The Garden of the Hesperides===
Four years before the publication of the first Narnia book, Lewis had written as follows on the experience of reading really good poetry for the first time:
<blockquote>...I did not in the least feel that I was getting in more quantity or better quality a pleasure I had already known. It was more as if a cupboard which one had hitherto valued as a place for hanging coats proved one day, when you opened the door, to lead to the garden of the Hesperides...<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=C. S.|title=On Stories: and other essays on literature|year=1966|publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich|location=New York|page=121|editor=Walter Hooper|chapter=Different Tastes in Literature}}</ref>
</blockquote>

The element of the cupboard leading to a new world Lewis proceeded to use in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', but the snowy Narnia of that book is quite unlike the balmy [[Garden of the Hesperides]], most of whose major mythological features appear as attributes of the sacred Garden in ''The Magician's Nephew'' where it differs from the Biblical or Miltonian Eden. It is set in the far West of the world; it has a watchful guardian; a hero (Digory) is sent, like [[Labours of Hercules#Eleventh Labour: Apples of the Hesperides|Hercules]], to fetch an apple from it; a female villain (Jadis) steals another of the apples, like [[Apple of Discord|Eris]]. Since the eponymous [[Hesperides]] were daughters of [[Hesperus]], the god of the planet Venus in the evening, advocates of the [[The Chronicles of Narnia#Influences|planetary theory]] adduce this as evidence for a special association between ''The Magician's Nephew'' and [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Michael|title=Planet Narnia: the seven heavens in the imagination of C. S. Lewis|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

===Edith Nesbit===

Lewis read [[Edith Nesbit]]'s children's books as a child and was greatly fond of them.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/> ''The Magician's Nephew'' refers to these books in the opening of the novel as though their events were true, mentioning the setting of the piece as being when "Mr. [[Sherlock Holmes]] was still living in [[Baker Street]] and the Bastables were looking for treasure in the Lewisham Road". [[The Bastables]] were children who appeared in a number of Edith Nesbit's stories.<ref>Hinten, p. 68.</ref> In addition to being set in the same period and location as several of Nesbit's stories, ''The Magician's Nephew'' also has some similarities with Nesbit's ''[[The Story of the Amulet]]'' (1906). This novel focuses on four children living in London who discover a magic amulet. Their father is away and their mother is ill, as is the case with Digory. They also manage to transport the queen of [[Babylon|ancient Babylon]] to London and she is the cause of a riot; a very similar event takes place in ''The Magician's Nephew'' when Polly and Digory transport Queen Jadis to London and she also causes a similar disturbance.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/>

===J. R. R. Tolkien===

The creation of Narnia may also have been influenced by his close friend [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[The Silmarillion]]'', which also contains a creation scene driven by the effect of music.<ref>Downing, p. 59.</ref>

===Morgan Le Fay and Pandora's Box===

Lewis greatly enjoyed stories of [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian legend]] and wrote poetry about this world. Mrs Lefay visits Digory in The Lefay Fragment, and becomes Andrew Ketterley's nefarious godmother in the finished novel. She gives Ketterley a box from Atlantis containing the dust from which he constructs the rings Digory and Polly use to travel between worlds. Both Lefays are allusions to [[Morgan Le Fay]], a powerful sorceress in a number of versions of [[King Arthur]]'s tales, who is often portrayed as evil. The box itself is also evocative of [[Pandora's box]] from [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]], which also contained dangerous secrets.<ref name="colbert77-8">Colbert, pp. 77–78.</ref>

===The Atlantis legend===

The box of dust enabling travel between worlds originated in [[Atlantis]].<ref name="colbert77-8"/> Both Lewis and Tolkien were fascinated by the Atlantis legend. The degeneration of Charn's rulers, Jadis's ancestors, from the early kind and wise to the later cruel and arrogant is reminiscent of the similar degeneration in Tolkien's [[Númenor]], the fabled island kingdom that finally sank under the waves due to the sinfulness of its latter inhabitants. The world of Charn was destroyed when Jadis spoke The Deplorable Word, a form of knowledge ancient Charnian scholars feared for its destructive potential. A number of commentators believed Lewis was referring to the use of the [[nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]], used less than a decade earlier. It is perhaps more likely that Lewis was echoing the mythical destruction of Atlantis by the forces of evil and arrogance.<ref>Colbert, pp. 91–92.</ref> As noted by Alice Ward, the comparison with nuclear arms is made explicit in Aslan's last warning: "You [Earth] are growing more like it [Charn]. It is not certain that some wicked one of your race will not find out a secret as evil as The Deplorable Word and use it to destroy all living things".<ref>Dr. Alice Ward, "Dark Undertones in the Fantasy Writing of the later Twentieth Century" in Alexander O'Donnel (ed.) "Interdisciplinary Round Table on the Cultural Effects of the Nuclear Arms Race".</ref>

==Adaptations==

===Theatrical===
[[Aurand Harris]] was a well-known American playwright for children, whose works are among the most performed in that medium. He wrote 36 plays for children including an adaption of ''The Magician's Nephew''.<ref name="coleman46-47">{{cite book | last1 = Jennings | first1 = Coleman A. | last2 = Sendak | first2 = Maurice | title = Theatre for Young Audiences | pages = 46–7 | publisher = Macmillan | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-312-33714-0}}</ref> The play was first performed on 26 May 1984 by the Department of Drama, [[University of Texas, Austin]] and staged at the B. Iden Payne Theatre. A musical score by William Penn was written for use with productions of the play.<ref name="harris4-5">{{cite book | last1 = Harris | first1 = Aurand | last2 = Lewis | first2 = C.S. | last3 = Penn | first3 = William A. |title = The magician's nephew: a dramatization | pages = 4–5 | publisher = Dramatic Publishing | year = 1984 | isbn = 0-87129-541-5}}</ref>

Erina Caradus wrote a playscript for ''The Magician's Nephew'' that was performed in [[Dunedin]], New Zealand in 2005.<ref>[http://narniaproductions.co.nz Narnia Productions]. narniaproductions.co.nz (Dunedin, New Zealand). Retrieved 10 December 2012.</ref>{{efn |name=homepage}}

===Film===
An agreement among representatives of 20th Century Fox, Walden, and the C. S. Lewis estate determined that ''The Magician's Nephew'' would be the basis for the next movie following the release of the 2010 film ''[[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (film)|The Voyage of the Dawn Treader]]''.<ref>[http://www.christianpost.com/news/narnia-4-will-be-magicians-nephew-not-silver-chair-49517/ "Narnia 4 Will Be ''Magician's Nephew'', Not ''Silver Chair''"]. Katherine T. Phan. CP Entertainment. ''The Christian Post''. 22 March 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.charismamag.com/index.php/news/30308-the-voyage-of-the-dawn-treader-most-inspiring-faith-family-and-values-movie-of-2011 "''The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'' Most Inspiring Faith, Family and Values Movie of 2011"]. CharismaNews.com. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708135344/http://www.charismamag.com/index.php/news/30308-the-voyage-of-the-dawn-treader-most-inspiring-faith-family-and-values-movie-of-2011 |date=8 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>[http://insidemovies.ew.com/2011/03/23/magicians-nephew-new-narnia-film/ "''Narnia'': Walden, Fox in discussions on ''The Magician's Nephew''"]. Bryan Lufkin. Inside Movies. ''Entertainment Weekly'' (EW.com). 23 March 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref> However, in October 2011, Douglas Gresham confirmed that [[Walden Media]]'s contract with the C. S. Lewis estate had expired.<ref>[http://www.aslanscountry.com/2011/10/gresham-confirms-waldens-contract-expired/ "Gresham Confirms: Walden's Contract Expired"]. Aslan's Country. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223514/http://www.aslanscountry.com/2011/10/gresham-confirms-waldens-contract-expired/ |date=4 October 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancinema.com/catalog/newsdesk_info.php?newsdesk_id=1886# "Walden Media's Option for a Fourth Narnia film Expires"]. ChristianCinema.com. 18 October 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref>

On 1 October 2013, the C.S. Lewis Company announced that they had entered into an agreement with producer [[Mark Gordon (film)|Mark Gordon]] to jointly develop and produce ''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair'', ultimately deciding to continue releasing the films to mirror the novel series' publication order.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deadline.com/2013/10/chronicles-of-narnia-silver-chair-movie-mark-gordon/|title=Fourth 'Chronicles of Narnia' Movie in Works From Mark Gordon Co|date=1 October 2013|work=Deadline|access-date=4 October 2014}}</ref>

In October 2018, Netflix announced an agreement with the C.S. Lewis Company. Netflix will develop and produce new series and movies based on ''The Chronicles of Narnia''. Mark Gordon of [[Entertainment One]], Douglas Gresham and Vincent Sieber will serve as producers for films and executive producers for series.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Netflix to Develop Series and Films Based On C.S. Lewis' Beloved The Chronicles Of Narnia|url=https://www.narnia.com/netflix-to-develop-series-and-films-based-on-c-s-lewis-beloved-the-chronicles-of-narnia/|date=2018-10-03|website=Official Site {{!}} Narnia.com|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-17}}</ref>

===TV===
In 2003, the BBC produced a 10-part version read by Jane Lapotaire and signed by Jean St Clair wearing different Narnia-like clothes in British Sign Language, for the TV series ''Hands Up!'' which was first broadcast on the 16 January 2003.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/b627c79efe9a4a5a932ea9508e7b5fb6|title=Schools programmes|date=2003-01-09|work=The Radio Times|access-date=2019-11-01|issue=4113|pages=87|language=en-GB|issn=0033-8060}}</ref> Jean signed in front of various high quality illustrations representing parts of the novel. It was later repeated on [[CBBC (TV channel)|CBBC]] on the 3 December 2007, and [[BBC Two]] on the 16 September 2008.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/a8e0e756c74644558e6e9da3e58d2632|title=Schools programmes|date=2008-09-11|work=The Radio Times|access-date=2019-11-01|issue=4404|pages=79|language=en-GB|issn=0033-8060}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0078ydw|title=CBBC - The Chronicles of Narnia, The Magician's Nephew, Part 1|website=BBC|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0078ydw|title=BBC Two - The Chronicles of Narnia, The Magician's Nephew, Part 1|publisher=BBC}}</ref>

===Radio===
A [[BBC Radio 4]] adaptation exists.<ref>https://www.amazon.com/Complete-Chronicles-of-Narnia-audiobook/dp/B00O3FDQP4</ref> [[Focus on the Family]] also made an adaptation of this book with a full cast, sound editing, and music.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://store.focusonthefamily.com/radio-theatre-the-chronicles-of-narnia-collectors-edition/|title=Radio Theatre: The Chronicles of Narnia Collector's Edition}}</ref> Both productions adapted all seven books.

===Manga===
A [[HarperCollins|HarperCollins Japan]] manga adaptation, {{nihongo|'''''Chronicles Of Narnia: The Magician's Nephew: I Opened the Wrong Door!'''''|ナルニア国物語: 魔術師のおい: 間違ったドアを開けた!|Narnia Koku Monogatari: Majutsushi no Oi: Machigatta Doa o Aketa!|lead=yes}}, began publication in 2018, before concluding in 2020 after two volumes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.anime-planet.com/manga/the-chronicles-of-narnia-the-magicians-nephew|title = The Chronicles of Narnia: The Magician's Nephew|date = 3 March 2018}}</ref>

==Critical reception==
T.M. Wagner of SF Reviews said "''The Magician's Nephew'' may not be the best of the Narnia novels, but it's a brisk and funny tale certain to delight its intended young audience", saying that it may not satisfy readers in their teenage years and older.<ref name="Narnia Review">{{cite web|last=Wagner|first=T.M |title=Narnia01|url=http://www.sfreviews.net/narnia01.html|work=Science Fiction & Fantasy Book Reviews |publisher=SFReviews.net |access-date=11 June 2012}}</ref>

Jandy's Reading Room reviewed the book, saying that although they feel it is the weakest of the series, they would still recommend it. They say it "gives a wonderful picture of the beginning of a new world, in the manner of the Creation."<ref name="JRR Review">{{cite web|title=Book Review: The Magician's Nephew by C.S. Lewis|url=http://www.jandysbooks.com/sfbooks/magneph.html |work=Jandy's Reading Room|publisher=Jandy's Books (JandysBooks.com) |access-date=13 June 2012}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist |notes=
{{efn |name=timeline |1=
Forty years pass in our world, from 1900 to 1940, during that first millennium in Narnia. A manuscript by Lewis, the "[[Narnia (world)#Outline of Narnian History|Outline of Narnian History]]", dates major events in the Narnia world and simultaneous events in England. Since his death, it has been published in books about Narnia and is generally considered valid.
}}
{{efn |name=activeintellect |1=
In the view of [[Avicenna]] and [[Maimonides]], intellectual inspiration descends through ten angelic emanations, of which the first nine are the intelligences of the heavenly spheres and the tenth is the Active Intellect.
}}
{{efn |name=homepage |1=
The homepage now promotes the last of four Narnia theatrical productions, ''The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'' (2008). Information about the four numbers varies.
}}
}}

==References==
{{Reflist |30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | last = Colbert| first = David | title = The Magical Worlds of Narnia | publisher = McArthur & Company | year = 2005 | isbn = 1-55278-541-6}}
* {{cite book | last = Downing| first = David C. | title = Into the Wardrobe: C.S. Lewis and the Narnia Chronicles | url = https://archive.org/details/intowardrobecsle00down| url-access = registration| publisher = Jossey-Bass | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-7879-7890-7}}
* {{cite book |title=Companion to Narnia: Revised Edition |url=https://archive.org/details/pocketcompaniont00ford |url-access=registration |last=Ford |first=Paul |year=2005 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-06-079127-8 }}
* {{cite book | last = Hinten| first = Marvin D. | title = The Keys to the Chronicles: Unlocking the Symbols of C.S. Lewis's Narnia | publisher = B&H Publishing Group | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8054-4028-3}}
* {{cite book | last = Myers | first = Doris T. | title = C. S. Lewis in Context | publisher = Kent State University Press | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-87338-617-5}}
* {{cite book | last = Schakel| first = Peter J. | title = The way into Narnia: a reader's guide | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8028-2984-8}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|The Magician's Nephew}}
* {{FadedPage|id=201410A8|name=The Magician's Nephew}}
* {{worldcat |oclc=813649621}} ——immediately, the full-colour C. S. Lewis centenary edition 
* {{isfdb title|1589|The Magician's Nephew}}

{{Portal bar|Speculative fiction|Fantasy|Children's literature|Novels}}
{{Narnia}}
{{C. S. Lewis}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Magician's Nephew, The}}
[[Category:1955 British novels]]
[[Category:1955 children's books]]
[[Category:1955 fantasy novels]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into plays]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into television shows]]
[[Category:Children's fantasy novels]]
[[Category:Isekai anime and manga]]
[[Category:Isekai novels and light novels]]
[[Category:Prequel novels]]
[[Category:The Bodley Head books]]
[[Category:The Chronicles of Narnia books]]
[[Category:Witchcraft in written fiction]]

The Magician's Nephew

2022-06-23T13:54:14Z

190.196.211.42:

{{Short description|Children's fantasy novel by C. S. Lewis, 1955}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox book
| name = The Magician's Nephew
| image = TheMagiciansNephew(1stEd).jpg
| caption = [[Dust jacket]] of first edition
| author = [[C. S. Lewis]]
| illustrator = [[Pauline Baynes]]
| cover_artist = Pauline Baynes
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| series = ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''
| subject = The creation of Narnia
| genre = [[Children's literature|Children's]] [[fantasy]] novel, [[Christian literature]]
| publisher = [[The Bodley Head]]
| pub_date = 2 May 1955
| media_type = Print (hardcover)
| pages = 183 (first edition)<ref name=isfdb>
[http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1589 "Bibliography: The Magician's Nephew"]. [[ISFDB]]. Retrieved 8 December 2012.</ref> 41,062 words (US)<ref>{{cite web|title=Scholastic Catalog – Book Information|url=http://src.scholastic.com/bookexpert/detail_title.asp?UID=0DEA1BBF4B1D4B00AE1690DB6BC45C75&subt=0&item=98091|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref>
| isbn = 978-0-00-671683-9
| isbn_note=(Collins, 1998; full-colour)<ref name=isfdb/> 
| oclc = 2497740 
| congress = PZ8.L48 Mag<ref name=LCC>
[http://lccn.loc.gov/55030864 "The magician's nephew"] (first edition). Library of Congress Catalog Record. 
[http://lccn.loc.gov/55014869 "The magician's nephew"] (first US edition). LCC record. Retrieved 2012-12-08.</ref> 
| preceded_by = [[The Horse and His Boy]]
| followed_by = [[The Last Battle]]
}}

'''''The Magician's Nephew''''' is a fantasy children's novel by [[C. S. Lewis]], published in 1955 by [[The Bodley Head]]. It is the sixth published of seven novels in ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' (1950–1956). In recent editions, which sequence the books according to Narnia history, it is volume one of the series. Like the others, it was illustrated by [[Pauline Baynes]] whose work has been retained in many later editions. The Bodley Head was a new publisher for ''The Chronicles'', a change from [[Geoffrey Bles]] who had published the previous five novels.<ref name=isfdb/><ref name=LCC/>

''The Magician's Nephew'' is a prequel to the series. The middle third of the novel features the creation of the Narnia world by Aslan the lion, centred on a section of a [[lamp-post]] brought by accidental observers from London in 1900. The visitors then participate in the beginning of Narnia history, 1000 years before ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''{{efn |name=timeline}} (which inaugurated the series in 1950).

The frame story, set in England, features two children ensnared in experimental travel via "the wood between the worlds". Thus, the novel shows Narnia and our middle-aged world to be only two of many in a [[multiverse]], which changes as some worlds begin and others end. It also explains the origin of foreign elements in Narnia, not only the lamp-post but also the White Witch and a human king and queen.

Lewis began ''The Magician's Nephew'' soon after completing ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', spurred by a friend's question about the lamp-post in the middle of nowhere, but he needed more than five years to complete it. The story includes several autobiographical elements and explores a number of themes with general moral and [[Christianity|Christian]] implications, including atonement, original sin, temptation and the order of nature.

==Plot summary==
The story begins in London during the summer of 1900. Two children, [[Digory Kirke|Digory]] and [[Polly Plummer|Polly]], meet while playing in the adjacent gardens of a row of [[terraced house]]s. They decide to explore the attic beyond Digory's house, but do not walk far enough, and find themselves in [[Andrew Ketterley|Uncle Andrew]]'s [[study (room)|study]]. Uncle Andrew tricks Polly into touching a yellow [[magic ring]], causing her to vanish. Then he explains to Digory that he has been dabbling in magic, and that the rings allow travel between one world and another. He blackmails Digory into taking another yellow ring to follow wherever Polly has gone, and two green rings so that they both can return.

Digory finds himself transported to a sleepy [[woodland]] with an almost narcotic effect; he finds Polly nearby. The woodland is filled with pools. Digory and Polly surmise that the wood is not really a proper world at all but a "[[Wood between the Worlds]]", similar to the attic that links their houses back in England, and that each pool leads to a separate universe. They decide to explore a different world before returning to England, and jump into one of the nearby pools. They then find themselves in a desolate abandoned city of the ancient world of [[Charn]]. Inside the ruined palace, they discover statues of Charn's former kings and queens, which degenerate from the fair and wise to the unhappy and cruel. They find a bell with a hammer and an inscription inviting the finder to strike the bell.

Despite protests from Polly, Digory rings the bell. This awakens the last of the statues, a witch queen named [[White Witch|Jadis]], who{{em dash}}to avoid defeat in battle{{em dash}}had deliberately killed every living thing in Charn by speaking the "[[Deplorable Word]]". As the only survivor left in her world, she placed herself in an enchanted sleep that would only be broken by someone ringing the bell.

The children recognise Jadis as evil and attempt to flee, but she follows them back to England by clinging to them as they clutch their rings. In England, she discovers that her magical powers do not work, although she retains her superhuman strength. Dismissing Uncle Andrew as a poor magician, she enslaves him and orders him to fetch her a "chariot"{{em dash}}a [[hansom cab]]{{em dash}}so she can set about conquering Earth. They leave, and she attracts attention by robbing a jewellery store in London. The police chase after her cab, until she crashes at the foot of the Kirke house. Jadis breaks off and tears an iron rod from a nearby lamp-post, using it to fight off police and onlookers when they mock her.

When Jadis threatens the crowd, Polly and Digory grab her and put on their rings to take her out of their world{{spaced en dash}}along with Uncle Andrew, Frank the cab-driver, and Frank's horse, Strawberry, who were all touching each other when the children grabbed their rings. In the Wood between the Worlds, Strawberry, looking to drink from one of the ponds, accidentally brings everyone into another world: a dark, empty void. At first, Digory believes it to be Charn, but Jadis recognises it as a world not yet created. They then all witness the creation of a new world by the lion [[Aslan]], who brings stars, plants, and animals into existence as he sings. Jadis, as terrified by his singing as the others are attracted to it, tries to kill Aslan with the iron rod; but it rebounds harmlessly off him, and in the creative soil of the new world it sprouts into a growing lamp-post. Jadis flees in terror.

Aslan gives some animals [[Talking animals in fiction|the power of speech]], commanding them to use it for justice and merriment or else risk becoming regular animals once again. Aslan confronts Digory with his responsibility for bringing Jadis into his young world, and tells Digory he must atone by helping to protect the new land of Narnia from her evil. Aslan transforms the cabbie's horse into a winged horse called Fledge, and Digory and Polly fly on him to a distant garden high in the mountains. Digory's task is to take an apple from a tree in this garden and plant it in Narnia. At the garden Digory finds a sign warning not to steal from the garden.

Digory picks one of the apples for his mission, but their overpowering smell tempts him. Jadis appears, having herself eaten an apple to become immortal, leaving her with pale white skin. She tempts Digory either to eat an apple himself and join her in immortality, or steal one to take back to Earth to heal his dying mother. Digory resists, knowing his mother would never condone theft, but hesitates. He sees through the Witch's ploy when she suggests he leave Polly behind{{spaced en dash}}not knowing Polly can get away by her own ring. Foiled, the Witch departs for the North, and taunts Digory for his refusal to eat the apple and gain immortality. Digory returns to Narnia and plants the apple, which grows into a mature tree behind them while the coronation proceeds. Aslan tells Digory how the tree works - anyone who steals the apples gets their heart's desire, but in a form that makes it unlikeable. In the Witch's case, she has achieved immortality, but it only means eternal misery because of her evil heart. Moreover, the magic apples are now a horror to her, such that the apple tree will repel her for centuries to come, but not forever. With Aslan's permission, Digory then takes an apple from the new tree to heal his mother. Aslan returns Digory, Polly, and Uncle Andrew to England. Frank and his wife, Helen (transported from England by Aslan) stay to rule Narnia as its first King and Queen. The Narnian creatures live in peace and joy, and neither the Witch nor any other enemy came to trouble Narnia for many hundreds of years.

Digory's apple restores his mother's health as his father returns for good after being away on business in [[India]], and he and Polly remain lifelong friends. Uncle Andrew reforms and gives up magic, but still enjoys bragging about his adventures with the Witch. Digory plants the apple's core with Uncle Andrew's rings in the back yard of his aunt's home in London, and it grows into a large tree. Soon afterwards, Digory's family inherits a mansion in the country, and many years later the apple tree blows down in a storm. Digory, now a middle-aged professor, has its wood made into a [[wardrobe]], setting up the events in ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''.

==Principal characters==

*[[Digory Kirke]]: The boy who becomes the Professor in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[Polly Plummer]]: Digory's friend, who lives next door
*[[List of The Chronicles of Narnia characters#Kirke, Mabel|Mabel Kirke]]: Digory's mother
*[[Andrew Ketterley]]: Digory's uncle, a minor magician
*[[Letitia Ketterley]]: Uncle Andrew's sister
*[[White Witch|Jadis]]: Empress of Charn, who becomes the White Witch appearing in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[Aslan]]: The Lion who creates Narnia and kills Jadis in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[King Frank]]: A cabby who becomes the first king of Narnia and forefather of the kings of Archenland
*[[Queen Helen (Narnia)|Queen Helen]]: The wife of King Frank, the first queen of Narnia, and the ancestress of the Archenlanders
*[[Fledge (horse)|Fledge]]: The winged horse, formerly the cab-horse Strawberry, who carries Polly and Digory to the mountain garden

==Writing==

Lewis had originally intended only to write the one Narnia novel, ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''. However, when [[Roger Lancelyn Green]] asked him how a lamp-post came to be standing in the midst of Narnian woodland, Lewis was intrigued enough by the question to attempt to find an answer by writing ''The Magician's Nephew'', which features a younger version of Professor Kirke from the first novel.<ref>Downing, p. 36.</ref>

''The Magician's Nephew'' seems to have been the most challenging Narnia novel for Lewis to write. The other six ''Chronicles of Narnia'' books were written between 1948 and 1953, ''The Magician's Nephew'' was written over a five-year period between 1949 and 1954. He started in the summer of 1949 after finishing ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', but came to a halt after producing 26 pages of manuscript and did not resume work until two years later. This may be as a result of the autobiographical aspects of the novel, as it reflects a number of incidents and parallels very close to his own experiences.<ref>Downing, p. 56.</ref>

He returned to ''The Magician's Nephew'' late in 1950, after completing ''[[The Silver Chair]]''. He managed to finish close to three-quarters of the novel, and then halted work once again after Roger Green, to whom Lewis showed all his writing at the time, suggested there was a structural problem in the story. Finally he returned to the novel in 1953, after finishing ''[[The Last Battle]]'' in the spring of that year and completed early in 1954.<ref name="duriez47">{{cite book | last = Duriez| first = Colin | title = The Life of C.S. Lewis | page = 47 | publisher = InterVarsity Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8308-3207-6}}</ref>

Lewis originally titled the novel "''Polly and Digory''"; his publisher changed it to ''The Magician's Nephew''.<ref name="2Lindskoog87">{{cite book | last = Lindskoog | first = Kathryn Ann | title = Journey into Narnia: C. S. Lewis's Tales Explored | page = [https://archive.org/details/journeyintonarni0000lind/page/87 87] | publisher = Hope Publishing House | year = 1997 | isbn = 0-932727-89-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/journeyintonarni0000lind/page/87 }}</ref> This book is dedicated to "the Kilmer family".<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-06-13 |title=Narnia creator CS Lewis's letters to children go on sale |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-oxfordshire-48612343 |access-date=2022-06-01}}</ref>

===The Lefay Fragment===

The original opening of the novel differs greatly from the published version, and was abandoned by Lewis. It is now known as 'The Lefay Fragment', and is named after Mrs Lefay, Digory's [[fairy godmother]], who is mentioned in the final version as Uncle Andrew's godmother, a less benevolent user of magic, who bequeathed him the box of dust used to create the magic rings.<ref>Downing, pp. 36–39.</ref>

In the Lefay Fragment, Digory is born with the ability to speak to (and understand) trees and animals; the distinction between Talking and non-talking Beasts which was to become such a characteristic feature of the Narnian world is absent. Digory lives with an Aunt Gertrude, a former school mistress with an officious, bullying nature, who has ended up as a Government minister after a lifetime of belligerent brow-beating of others. Whenever his aunt is absent, Digory finds solace with the animals and trees, including a squirrel named Pattertwig. Polly enters the story as a girl next door who is unable to understand the speech of non-human creatures. She wants to build a raft to explore a stream which leads to an underground world. Digory helps construct the raft, but saws a branch from a tree necessary to complete it, in order not to lose face with Polly. This causes him to lose his supernatural powers of understanding the speech of trees and animals. The following day he is visited by his godmother Mrs Lefay who knows that Digory has lost his abilities and gives him a card with the address of a furniture shop which she instructs him to visit. At this point the fragment ends.<ref>Downing, pp. 36–37.</ref>

Pattertwig and Aunt Gertrude do not appear in the final version of the novel. Pattertwig does, however, appear as a Narnian creature in ''[[Prince Caspian]]'', and Aunt Gertrude's career path is retraced by the Head of Experiment House in ''[[The Silver Chair]]''.<ref>Downing, p. 39.</ref>

====Authenticity====

Some doubt has been cast on the authenticity of the Lefay Fragment, as the handwriting in the manuscript differs in some ways from Lewis's usual style, and the writing is not of a similar calibre to his other work. Also in August 1963 Lewis had given instructions to [[Douglas Gresham]] to destroy all his unfinished or incomplete fragments of manuscript when his rooms at [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]] were being cleaned out, following his resignation from the college early in the month.<ref name="Lindskoog111-12">{{cite book | last = Lindskoog| first = Kathryn Ann | title = Sleuthing C.S. Lewis: more Light in the shadowlands | url = https://archive.org/details/sleuthingcslewis0000lind| url-access = registration| pages = [https://archive.org/details/sleuthingcslewis0000lind/page/111 111–12] | publisher = Mercer University Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-86554-730-0}}</ref>

===Autobiographical elements===

A number of aspects of ''The Magician's Nephew'' parallel Lewis's own life. Both Digory and Lewis were children in the early 1900s, both wanted a pony, and both were faced with the death of their mothers in childhood. Digory is separated from his father, who is in India, and misses him. Lewis was schooled in England after his mother's death, while his father remained in Ireland. He also had a brother in India. Lewis was a voracious reader when a child, Digory is also, and both are better with books than with numbers. Digory (and Polly) struggle with sums when trying to work out how far they must travel along the attic space to explore an abandoned house, Lewis failed the maths entrance exam for [[Oxford University]]. Lewis remembered rainy summer days from his youth and Digory is faced with the same woe in the novel. Additionally Digory becomes a professor when he grows up, who takes in evacuated children during [[World War II]].<ref>Hinten, pp. 68–69.</ref>

The character of [[Andrew Ketterley]] also closely resembles Robert Capron, a schoolmaster at [[Wynyard School]], which Lewis attended with his brother, whom Lewis suggested during his teens would make a good model for a villain in a future story. Ketterley resembles Capron in his age, appearance, and behaviour.<ref>Downing, pp. 57–59.</ref>

==Style==

''The Magician's Nephew'' is written in a lighter tone than other ''Chronicles of Narnia'' books, in particular ''[[The Last Battle]]'', which was published after. It frequently makes use of humour; this perhaps reflects the sense of looking back at an earlier part of the century with affection, and Lewis as a middle-aged man recalling his childhood during those years. There are a number of humorous references to life in the old days, in particular school life. Humorous exchanges also take place between Narnian animals. Jadis's attempt to conquer London is portrayed as more comical than threatening, and further humour derives from the contrast between the evil empress and [[Edwardian]] London and its social mores, and her humiliation of bumbling Andrew Ketterley after discovering he is not as powerful a sorcerer as she is (or was). This recalls the style of [[Edith Nesbit]]'s children's books.<ref>Myers, p. 174.</ref> Lewis was fond of these books, which he read in childhood, a number were set in the same period and ''The Magician's Nephew'' has some apparent references or homages to them.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/>

==Reading order==
{{Quote box|width=100%|align=center|quote="I think I agree with your [chronological] order for reading the books more than with your mother's. The series was not planned beforehand as she thinks. When I wrote The Lion I did not know I was going to write any more. Then I wrote P. Caspian as a sequel and still didn't think there would be any more, and when I had done The Voyage I felt quite sure it would be the last, but I found I was wrong. So perhaps it does not matter very much in which order anyone read them. I’m not even sure that all the others were written in the same order in which they were published."|source=—[[C. S. Lewis]]'s reply to a letter from Laurence Krieg, an American fan who was having an argument with his mother about the reading order.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dorsett |first=Lyle |editor=Marjorie Lamp Mead |title=C. S. Lewis: Letters to Children |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster|Touchstone]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-684-82372-0 }}</ref>}}
''The Magician's Nephew'' was originally published as the sixth book in the ''Narnia Chronicles''. Most reprintings of the novels until the 1980s also reflected the order of original publication. In 1980 [[HarperCollins]] published the series ordered by the chronology of the events in the novels. This meant ''The Magician's Nephew'' was numbered as the first in the series. HarperCollins, which had previously published editions of the novels outside the United States, also acquired the rights to publish the novels in that country in 1994 and used this sequence in the uniform worldwide edition published in that year.<ref>Schakel, pp. 13–16.</ref>

Laurence Krieg, a young fan, wrote to Lewis, asking him to adjudicate between his views of the correct sequence of reading the novels – according to the sequence of events, with ''The Magician's Nephew'' being placed first – and that of his mother, who thought the order of publication was more appropriate. Lewis wrote back, appearing to support the younger Krieg's views, although he did point out that perhaps it would not matter what order they were read in.<ref>Schakel, pp. 17–18.</ref>

Some literary scholars have argued that the publication order better draws the readers into the world of Narnia. In the book Lewis wrote first, [[Lucy Pevensie]]'s discovery of the wardrobe that opens onto a forest and a mysterious lamp-post creates a sense of suspense about an unknown land she is discovering for the first time. This would be anticlimactic if the reader has already been introduced to Narnia in ''The Magician's Nephew'' and already knows the origins of Narnia, the wardrobe, and the lamp-post. Lewis scholar Peter Schakel points out that the narrative of ''The Magician's Nephew'' assumes that the reader has already read ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' and is now being shown its beginnings.<ref>Schakel, pp. 19–21.</ref>

Paul Ford cites several scholars who have weighed in against the decision of HarperCollins to present the books in the order of their internal chronology,<ref>Ford, pp. xxiii–xxiv.</ref> and continues, "most scholars disagree with this decision and find it the least faithful to Lewis's deepest intentions". These scholars argue that the narrative of ''The Magician's Nephew'' appears to assume that the reader has already read ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' and is now being shown its beginnings.<ref>Ford, p. 24.</ref>

==Themes and interpretations==

===Parallels with the Book of Genesis===

Lewis suggested that he did not directly intend to write his Narnia stories as Christian tales, but that these aspects appeared subconsciously as he wrote, although the books did become Christian as they progressed. He thought that the tales were not direct representations or allegory, but that they might evoke or remind readers of Biblical stories.<ref name="sammons128-29">{{cite book | last = Sammons| first = Martha C. | title = A Guide Through Narnia | pages = 128–9 | publisher = Regent College Publishing | year = 2004 | isbn = 1-57383-308-8}}</ref> In ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', Aslan is a Christ-like figure who suffers a death of atonement and returns to life in a similar way to Christ's [[crucifixion]] and resurrection.<ref name="ryken165">{{cite book | last1 = Ryken | first1 = Leland | last2 = Lamp Mead | first2 = Marjorie | title = A reader's guide through the wardrobe: exploring C.S. Lewis's classic story | url = https://archive.org/details/readersguidethro00ryke | url-access = registration | page = [https://archive.org/details/readersguidethro00ryke/page/165 165] | publisher = Inter Varsity Press | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8308-3289-0}}</ref> ''The Magician's Nephew'' has similar biblical allusions, reflecting aspects of The Book of Genesis such as the creation, [[original sin]] and [[temptation]].<ref name="vaus76-77">{{cite book | last1 = Vaus | first1 = Will | last2 = Gresham | first2 = Douglas | title = Mere theology: a guide to the thought of C.S. Lewis | pages = 76–7 | publisher = Inter Varsity Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8308-2782-X}}</ref>

Parallels with events in the [[Book of Genesis]] include the [[forbidden fruit]] represented by an Apple of Life. Jadis tempts Digory to eat one of the forbidden apples in the garden, as the serpent tempts Eve into eating a forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden; unlike Eve however, Digory rejects the offer. (Lewis's ''[[Perelandra]]'' also features a re-enactment of the same Biblical story, which in that book also ends with the tempter foiled and the fall avoided.)

While the creation of Narnia closely echoes the creation of the Earth in the Book of Genesis, there are a number of important differences. Human beings are not created in Narnia by Aslan, they are brought into Narnia from our own world. Unlike Genesis, where souls are given only to human beings, animals and half-human half-animal creatures such as [[Faun]]s and [[Satyr]]s and even trees and watercourses are given souls and the power of rational thought and speech. This appears to suggest Lewis combined his Christian worldview with his fondness for nature, myth and fairy tales.<ref>Downing, pp 73–74.</ref>

Parallels may also be found in Lewis's other writings. Jadis's references to "reasons of State", and her claim to own the people of Charn and to be beyond morality, represent the eclipse of the medieval Christian belief in [[natural law]] by the political concept of sovereignty, as embodied first in [[Absolute monarchy|royal absolutism]] and then in modern dictatorships.<ref>Lewis (1944). ''English Literature in the Sixteenth Century Excluding Drama''. Chapter 1.</ref> Uncle Andrew represents the [[Faustian]] element in the origins of modern science.<ref>Lewis (1943). ''The Abolition of Man''.</ref>

===The Holy Spirit and the breath of life===

On a number of occasions in the ''Chronicles of Narnia'', Aslan uses his breath to give strength to characters, demonstrating his benevolent power of bringing life. He specifically does so in ''The Magician's Nephew'' when a "long warm breath" gives life to Narnia. Lewis used the symbol of the breath to represent the [[Holy Spirit]], also known as the Holy Ghost. Both ''spirit'' and ''ghost'' are translations of the word for ''breath'' in Hebrew and Greek. The flash from the stars when the Narnian animals are given the ability to talk also most probably represents the Holy Spirit<ref>Colbert, pp. 81–83.</ref> or "breath of life" of ''Genesis'' chapter 2, as well as (possibly) the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] concept of the divine [[active intellect]] that inspires human beings with rationality.{{efn |name=activeintellect}}

===Nature and a natural order===

''The Magician's Nephew'' suggests two opposing approaches to nature, a good approach associated with Aslan as creator and an evil approach associated with human deviation from divine intentions and the harmony of a natural order. On the one hand there is the beauty of Aslan's creation of Narnia, which is suggested as having a natural order by the use of musical harmony to bring landscapes and living things into being. There is also a distinct order to the process of creation, from earth to plants to animal, which evokes the concept of [[The Great Chain of Being]]. Lewis himself was a strong believer in the intrinsic value of nature for itself, rather than as a resource to be exploited. This is perhaps reflected in how Aslan also gives speech to spiritual aspects of nature, such as naiads in the water and dryads in the trees. Andrew Ketterley and Jadis represent an opposite, evil approach of bending the forces of nature to human will for the purpose of self gain. They see nature solely as a resource to use for their plans and thus disturb and destroy the natural order.<ref>Myers, pp. 169–70.</ref>

==Influences==
===John Milton's ''Paradise Lost''===
The sacred Garden in the west of the Narnian world is surrounded by a "high wall of green turf" with branches of trees overhanging it, and "high gates of gold, fast shut, facing due east", which must be the only entrance because the travellers "walked nearly all the way round it" before they found them. In all these points Lewis echoes [[John Milton]]'s description of Eden in ''[[Paradise Lost]]'':

:The [[wiktionary:verdurous|verdurous]] wall of Paradise up sprung...

:And higher than that Wall a circling row
:Of goodliest trees loaden with fairest fruit,
:Blossoms and fruits at once of golden hue,
:Appeerd, with gay enameld colours mixt...<ref>John Milton, ''Paradise Lost'', book IV, lines 143, 146–149</ref>

:One gate there only was, and that look'd east
:On th' other side...<ref>John Milton, ''Paradise Lost'', book IV, lines 178–179</ref>

Jadis takes on echoes of [[Satan#In art and literature|Satan]] from the same work: she climbs over the wall of the Garden in contempt of the command to enter only by the gate, and proceeds to tempt Digory as Satan tempted [[Adam and Eve#Arts and literature|Eve]], with lies and half-truths.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hardy|first=Elizabeth Baird|title=Milton, Spenser and The Chronicles of Narnia: literary sources for the C. S. Lewis novels|year=2007|publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc.|isbn=978-0-7864-2876-2}} pp30–34</ref>

Some details of the creation of Narnia, such as the emergence of animals from the ground, and the way they shake earth from their bodies are also similar to passages in ''Paradise Lost'', and may also have been inspired by descriptions of the processes of nature in The seventh book of [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[The Faerie Queene]]''.<ref>Myers, pp. 170–71.</ref>

===The Garden of the Hesperides===
Four years before the publication of the first Narnia book, Lewis had written as follows on the experience of reading really good poetry for the first time:
<blockquote>...I did not in the least feel that I was getting in more quantity or better quality a pleasure I had already known. It was more as if a cupboard which one had hitherto valued as a place for hanging coats proved one day, when you opened the door, to lead to the garden of the Hesperides...<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=C. S.|title=On Stories: and other essays on literature|year=1966|publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich|location=New York|page=121|editor=Walter Hooper|chapter=Different Tastes in Literature}}</ref>
</blockquote>

The element of the cupboard leading to a new world Lewis proceeded to use in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', but the snowy Narnia of that book is quite unlike the balmy [[Garden of the Hesperides]], most of whose major mythological features appear as attributes of the sacred Garden in ''The Magician's Nephew'' where it differs from the Biblical or Miltonian Eden. It is set in the far West of the world; it has a watchful guardian; a hero (Digory) is sent, like [[Labours of Hercules#Eleventh Labour: Apples of the Hesperides|Hercules]], to fetch an apple from it; a female villain (Jadis) steals another of the apples, like [[Apple of Discord|Eris]]. Since the eponymous [[Hesperides]] were daughters of [[Hesperus]], the god of the planet Venus in the evening, advocates of the [[The Chronicles of Narnia#Influences|planetary theory]] adduce this as evidence for a special association between ''The Magician's Nephew'' and [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Michael|title=Planet Narnia: the seven heavens in the imagination of C. S. Lewis|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

===Edith Nesbit===

Lewis read [[Edith Nesbit]]'s children's books as a child and was greatly fond of them.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/> ''The Magician's Nephew'' refers to these books in the opening of the novel as though their events were true, mentioning the setting of the piece as being when "Mr. [[Sherlock Holmes]] was still living in [[Baker Street]] and the Bastables were looking for treasure in the Lewisham Road". [[The Bastables]] were children who appeared in a number of Edith Nesbit's stories.<ref>Hinten, p. 68.</ref> In addition to being set in the same period and location as several of Nesbit's stories, ''The Magician's Nephew'' also has some similarities with Nesbit's ''[[The Story of the Amulet]]'' (1906). This novel focuses on four children living in London who discover a magic amulet. Their father is away and their mother is ill, as is the case with Digory. They also manage to transport the queen of [[Babylon|ancient Babylon]] to London and she is the cause of a riot; a very similar event takes place in ''The Magician's Nephew'' when Polly and Digory transport Queen Jadis to London and she also causes a similar disturbance.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/>

===J. R. R. Tolkien===

The creation of Narnia may also have been influenced by his close friend [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[The Silmarillion]]'', which also contains a creation scene driven by the effect of music.<ref>Downing, p. 59.</ref>

===Morgan Le Fay and Pandora's Box===

Lewis greatly enjoyed stories of [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian legend]] and wrote poetry about this world. Mrs Lefay visits Digory in The Lefay Fragment, and becomes Andrew Ketterley's nefarious godmother in the finished novel. She gives Ketterley a box from Atlantis containing the dust from which he constructs the rings Digory and Polly use to travel between worlds. Both Lefays are allusions to [[Morgan Le Fay]], a powerful sorceress in a number of versions of [[King Arthur]]'s tales, who is often portrayed as evil. The box itself is also evocative of [[Pandora's box]] from [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]], which also contained dangerous secrets.<ref name="colbert77-8">Colbert, pp. 77–78.</ref>

===The Atlantis legend===

The box of dust enabling travel between worlds originated in [[Atlantis]].<ref name="colbert77-8"/> Both Lewis and Tolkien were fascinated by the Atlantis legend. The degeneration of Charn's rulers, Jadis's ancestors, from the early kind and wise to the later cruel and arrogant is reminiscent of the similar degeneration in Tolkien's [[Númenor]], the fabled island kingdom that finally sank under the waves due to the sinfulness of its latter inhabitants. The world of Charn was destroyed when Jadis spoke The Deplorable Word, a form of knowledge ancient Charnian scholars feared for its destructive potential. A number of commentators believed Lewis was referring to the use of the [[nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]], used less than a decade earlier. It is perhaps more likely that Lewis was echoing the mythical destruction of Atlantis by the forces of evil and arrogance.<ref>Colbert, pp. 91–92.</ref> As noted by Alice Ward, the comparison with nuclear arms is made explicit in Aslan's last warning: "You [Earth] are growing more like it [Charn]. It is not certain that some wicked one of your race will not find out a secret as evil as The Deplorable Word and use it to destroy all living things".<ref>Dr. Alice Ward, "Dark Undertones in the Fantasy Writing of the later Twentieth Century" in Alexander O'Donnel (ed.) "Interdisciplinary Round Table on the Cultural Effects of the Nuclear Arms Race".</ref>

==Adaptations==

===Theatrical===
[[Aurand Harris]] was a well-known American playwright for children, whose works are among the most performed in that medium. He wrote 36 plays for children including an adaption of ''The Magician's Nephew''.<ref name="coleman46-47">{{cite book | last1 = Jennings | first1 = Coleman A. | last2 = Sendak | first2 = Maurice | title = Theatre for Young Audiences | pages = 46–7 | publisher = Macmillan | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-312-33714-0}}</ref> The play was first performed on 26 May 1984 by the Department of Drama, [[University of Texas, Austin]] and staged at the B. Iden Payne Theatre. A musical score by William Penn was written for use with productions of the play.<ref name="harris4-5">{{cite book | last1 = Harris | first1 = Aurand | last2 = Lewis | first2 = C.S. | last3 = Penn | first3 = William A. |title = The magician's nephew: a dramatization | pages = 4–5 | publisher = Dramatic Publishing | year = 1984 | isbn = 0-87129-541-5}}</ref>

Erina Caradus wrote a playscript for ''The Magician's Nephew'' that was performed in [[Dunedin]], New Zealand in 2005.<ref>[http://narniaproductions.co.nz Narnia Productions]. narniaproductions.co.nz (Dunedin, New Zealand). Retrieved 10 December 2012.</ref>{{efn |name=homepage}}

===Film===
An agreement among representatives of 20th Century Fox, Walden, and the C. S. Lewis estate determined that ''The Magician's Nephew'' would be the basis for the next movie following the release of the 2010 film ''[[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (film)|The Voyage of the Dawn Treader]]''.<ref>[http://www.christianpost.com/news/narnia-4-will-be-magicians-nephew-not-silver-chair-49517/ "Narnia 4 Will Be ''Magician's Nephew'', Not ''Silver Chair''"]. Katherine T. Phan. CP Entertainment. ''The Christian Post''. 22 March 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.charismamag.com/index.php/news/30308-the-voyage-of-the-dawn-treader-most-inspiring-faith-family-and-values-movie-of-2011 "''The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'' Most Inspiring Faith, Family and Values Movie of 2011"]. CharismaNews.com. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708135344/http://www.charismamag.com/index.php/news/30308-the-voyage-of-the-dawn-treader-most-inspiring-faith-family-and-values-movie-of-2011 |date=8 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>[http://insidemovies.ew.com/2011/03/23/magicians-nephew-new-narnia-film/ "''Narnia'': Walden, Fox in discussions on ''The Magician's Nephew''"]. Bryan Lufkin. Inside Movies. ''Entertainment Weekly'' (EW.com). 23 March 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref> However, in October 2011, Douglas Gresham confirmed that [[Walden Media]]'s contract with the C. S. Lewis estate had expired.<ref>[http://www.aslanscountry.com/2011/10/gresham-confirms-waldens-contract-expired/ "Gresham Confirms: Walden's Contract Expired"]. Aslan's Country. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223514/http://www.aslanscountry.com/2011/10/gresham-confirms-waldens-contract-expired/ |date=4 October 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancinema.com/catalog/newsdesk_info.php?newsdesk_id=1886# "Walden Media's Option for a Fourth Narnia film Expires"]. ChristianCinema.com. 18 October 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref>

On 1 October 2013, the C.S. Lewis Company announced that they had entered into an agreement with producer [[Mark Gordon (film)|Mark Gordon]] to jointly develop and produce ''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair'', ultimately deciding to continue releasing the films to mirror the novel series' publication order.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deadline.com/2013/10/chronicles-of-narnia-silver-chair-movie-mark-gordon/|title=Fourth 'Chronicles of Narnia' Movie in Works From Mark Gordon Co|date=1 October 2013|work=Deadline|access-date=4 October 2014}}</ref>

In October 2018, Netflix announced an agreement with the C.S. Lewis Company. Netflix will develop and produce new series and movies based on ''The Chronicles of Narnia''. Mark Gordon of [[Entertainment One]], Douglas Gresham and Vincent Sieber will serve as producers for films and executive producers for series.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Netflix to Develop Series and Films Based On C.S. Lewis' Beloved The Chronicles Of Narnia|url=https://www.narnia.com/netflix-to-develop-series-and-films-based-on-c-s-lewis-beloved-the-chronicles-of-narnia/|date=2018-10-03|website=Official Site {{!}} Narnia.com|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-17}}</ref>

===TV===
In 2003, the BBC produced a 10-part version read by Jane Lapotaire and signed by Jean St Clair wearing different Narnia-like clothes in British Sign Language, for the TV series ''Hands Up!'' which was first broadcast on the 16 January 2003.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/b627c79efe9a4a5a932ea9508e7b5fb6|title=Schools programmes|date=2003-01-09|work=The Radio Times|access-date=2019-11-01|issue=4113|pages=87|language=en-GB|issn=0033-8060}}</ref> Jean signed in front of various high quality illustrations representing parts of the novel. It was later repeated on [[CBBC (TV channel)|CBBC]] on the 3 December 2007, and [[BBC Two]] on the 16 September 2008.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/a8e0e756c74644558e6e9da3e58d2632|title=Schools programmes|date=2008-09-11|work=The Radio Times|access-date=2019-11-01|issue=4404|pages=79|language=en-GB|issn=0033-8060}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0078ydw|title=CBBC - The Chronicles of Narnia, The Magician's Nephew, Part 1|website=BBC|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0078ydw|title=BBC Two - The Chronicles of Narnia, The Magician's Nephew, Part 1|publisher=BBC}}</ref>

===Radio===
A [[BBC Radio 4]] adaptation exists.<ref>https://www.amazon.com/Complete-Chronicles-of-Narnia-audiobook/dp/B00O3FDQP4</ref> [[Focus on the Family]] also made an adaptation of this book with a full cast, sound editing, and music.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://store.focusonthefamily.com/radio-theatre-the-chronicles-of-narnia-collectors-edition/|title=Radio Theatre: The Chronicles of Narnia Collector's Edition}}</ref> Both productions adapted all seven books.

===Manga===
A [[HarperCollins|HarperCollins Japan]] manga adaptation, {{nihongo|'''''Chronicles Of Narnia: The Magician's Nephew: I Opened the Wrong Door!'''''|ナルニア国物語: 魔術師のおい: 間違ったドアを開けた!|Narnia Koku Monogatari: Majutsushi no Oi: Machigatta Doa o Aketa!|lead=yes}}, began publication in 2018, before concluding in 2020 after two volumes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.anime-planet.com/manga/the-chronicles-of-narnia-the-magicians-nephew|title = The Chronicles of Narnia: The Magician's Nephew|date = 3 March 2018}}</ref>

==Critical reception==
T.M. Wagner of SF Reviews said "''The Magician's Nephew'' may not be the best of the Narnia novels, but it's a brisk and funny tale certain to delight its intended young audience", saying that it may not satisfy readers in their teenage years and older.<ref name="Narnia Review">{{cite web|last=Wagner|first=T.M |title=Narnia01|url=http://www.sfreviews.net/narnia01.html|work=Science Fiction & Fantasy Book Reviews |publisher=SFReviews.net |access-date=11 June 2012}}</ref>

Jandy's Reading Room reviewed the book, saying that although they feel it is the weakest of the series, they would still recommend it. They say it "gives a wonderful picture of the beginning of a new world, in the manner of the Creation."<ref name="JRR Review">{{cite web|title=Book Review: The Magician's Nephew by C.S. Lewis|url=http://www.jandysbooks.com/sfbooks/magneph.html |work=Jandy's Reading Room|publisher=Jandy's Books (JandysBooks.com) |access-date=13 June 2012}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist |notes=
{{efn |name=timeline |1=
Forty years pass in our world, from 1900 to 1940, during that first millennium in Narnia. A manuscript by Lewis, the "[[Narnia (world)#Outline of Narnian History|Outline of Narnian History]]", dates major events in the Narnia world and simultaneous events in England. Since his death, it has been published in books about Narnia and is generally considered valid.
}}
{{efn |name=activeintellect |1=
In the view of [[Avicenna]] and [[Maimonides]], intellectual inspiration descends through ten angelic emanations, of which the first nine are the intelligences of the heavenly spheres and the tenth is the Active Intellect.
}}
{{efn |name=homepage |1=
The homepage now promotes the last of four Narnia theatrical productions, ''The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'' (2008). Information about the four numbers varies.
}}
}}

==References==
{{Reflist |30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | last = Colbert| first = David | title = The Magical Worlds of Narnia | publisher = McArthur & Company | year = 2005 | isbn = 1-55278-541-6}}
* {{cite book | last = Downing| first = David C. | title = Into the Wardrobe: C.S. Lewis and the Narnia Chronicles | url = https://archive.org/details/intowardrobecsle00down| url-access = registration| publisher = Jossey-Bass | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-7879-7890-7}}
* {{cite book |title=Companion to Narnia: Revised Edition |url=https://archive.org/details/pocketcompaniont00ford |url-access=registration |last=Ford |first=Paul |year=2005 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-06-079127-8 }}
* {{cite book | last = Hinten| first = Marvin D. | title = The Keys to the Chronicles: Unlocking the Symbols of C.S. Lewis's Narnia | publisher = B&H Publishing Group | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8054-4028-3}}
* {{cite book | last = Myers | first = Doris T. | title = C. S. Lewis in Context | publisher = Kent State University Press | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-87338-617-5}}
* {{cite book | last = Schakel| first = Peter J. | title = The way into Narnia: a reader's guide | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8028-2984-8}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|The Magician's Nephew}}
* {{FadedPage|id=201410A8|name=The Magician's Nephew}}
* {{worldcat |oclc=813649621}} ——immediately, the full-colour C. S. Lewis centenary edition 
* {{isfdb title|1589|The Magician's Nephew}}

{{Portal bar|Speculative fiction|Fantasy|Children's literature|Novels}}
{{Narnia}}
{{C. S. Lewis}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Magician's Nephew, The}}
[[Category:1955 British novels]]
[[Category:1955 children's books]]
[[Category:1955 fantasy novels]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into plays]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into television shows]]
[[Category:Children's fantasy novels]]
[[Category:Isekai anime and manga]]
[[Category:Isekai novels and light novels]]
[[Category:Prequel novels]]
[[Category:The Bodley Head books]]
[[Category:The Chronicles of Narnia books]]
[[Category:Witchcraft in written fiction]]

ELPEPE

The Magician's Nephew

2022-06-23T13:53:15Z

190.196.211.42:

{{Short description|Children's fantasy novel by C. S. Lewis, 1955}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox book
| name = The Magician's Nephew
| image = TheMagiciansNephew(1stEd).jpg
| caption = [[Dust jacket]] of first edition
| author = [[C. S. Lewis]]
| illustrator = [[Pauline Baynes]]
| cover_artist = Pauline Baynes
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| series = ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''
| subject = The creation of Narnia
| genre = [[Children's literature|Children's]] [[fantasy]] novel, [[Christian literature]]
| publisher = [[The Bodley Head]]
| pub_date = 2 May 1955
| media_type = Print (hardcover)
| pages = 183 (first edition)<ref name=isfdb>
[http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?1589 "Bibliography: The Magician's Nephew"]. [[ISFDB]]. Retrieved 8 December 2012.</ref> 41,062 words (US)<ref>{{cite web|title=Scholastic Catalog – Book Information|url=http://src.scholastic.com/bookexpert/detail_title.asp?UID=0DEA1BBF4B1D4B00AE1690DB6BC45C75&subt=0&item=98091|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref>
| isbn = 978-0-00-671683-9
| isbn_note=(Collins, 1998; full-colour)<ref name=isfdb/> 
| oclc = 2497740 
| congress = PZ8.L48 Mag<ref name=LCC>
[http://lccn.loc.gov/55030864 "The magician's nephew"] (first edition). Library of Congress Catalog Record. 
[http://lccn.loc.gov/55014869 "The magician's nephew"] (first US edition). LCC record. Retrieved 2012-12-08.</ref> 
| preceded_by = [[The Horse and His Boy]]
| followed_by = [[The Last Battle]]
}}

'''''The Magician's Nephew''''' is a fantasy children's novel by [[C. S. Lewis]], published in 1955 by [[The Bodley Head]]. It is the sixth published of seven novels in ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' (1950–1956). In recent editions, which sequence the books according to Narnia history, it is volume one of the series. Like the others, it was illustrated by [[Pauline Baynes]] whose work has been retained in many later editions. The Bodley Head was a new publisher for ''The Chronicles'', a change from [[Geoffrey Bles]] who had published the previous five novels.<ref name=isfdb/><ref name=LCC/>

''The Magician's Nephew'' is a prequel to the series. The middle third of the novel features the creation of the Narnia world by Aslan the lion, centred on a section of a [[lamp-post]] brought by accidental observers from London in 1900. The visitors then participate in the beginning of Narnia history, 1000 years before ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''{{efn |name=timeline}} (which inaugurated the series in 1950).

The frame story, set in England, features two children ensnared in experimental travel via "the wood between the worlds". Thus, the novel shows Narnia and our middle-aged world to be only two of many in a [[multiverse]], which changes as some worlds begin and others end. It also explains the origin of foreign elements in Narnia, not only the lamp-post but also the White Witch and a human king and queen.

Lewis began ''The Magician's Nephew'' soon after completing ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', spurred by a friend's question about the lamp-post in the middle of nowhere, but he needed more than five years to complete it. The story includes several autobiographical elements and explores a number of themes with general moral and [[Christianity|Christian]] implications, including atonement, original sin, temptation and the order of nature.

==Plot summary==
The story begins in London during the summer of 1900. Two children, [[Digory Kirke|Digory]] and [[Polly Plummer|Polly]], meet while playing in the adjacent gardens of a row of [[terraced house]]s. They decide to explore the attic beyond Digory's house, but do not walk far enough, and find themselves in [[Andrew Ketterley|Uncle Andrew]]'s [[study (room)|study]]. Uncle Andrew tricks Polly into touching a yellow [[magic ring]], causing her to vanish. Then he explains to Digory that he has been dabbling in magic, and that the rings allow travel between one world and another. He blackmails Digory into taking another yellow ring to follow wherever Polly has gone, and two green rings so that they both can return.

Digory finds himself transported to a sleepy [[woodland]] with an almost narcotic effect; he finds Polly nearby. The woodland is filled with pools. Digory and Polly surmise that the wood is not really a proper world at all but a "[[Wood between the Worlds]]", similar to the attic that links their houses back in England, and that each pool leads to a separate universe. They decide to explore a different world before returning to England, and jump into one of the nearby pools. They then find themselves in a desolate abandoned city of the ancient world of [[Charn]]. Inside the ruined palace, they discover statues of Charn's former kings and queens, which degenerate from the fair and wise to the unhappy and cruel. They find a bell with a hammer and an inscription inviting the finder to strike the bell.

Despite protests from Polly, Digory rings the bell. This awakens the last of the statues, a witch queen named [[White Witch|Jadis]], who{{em dash}}to avoid defeat in battle{{em dash}}had deliberately killed every living thing in Charn by speaking the "[[Deplorable Word]]". As the only survivor left in her world, she placed herself in an enchanted sleep that would only be broken by someone ringing the bell.

The children recognise Jadis as evil and attempt to flee, but she follows them back to England by clinging to them as they clutch their rings. In England, she discovers that her magical powers do not work, although she retains her superhuman strength. Dismissing Uncle Andrew as a poor magician, she enslaves him and orders him to fetch her a "chariot"{{em dash}}a [[hansom cab]]{{em dash}}so she can set about conquering Earth. They leave, and she attracts attention by robbing a jewellery store in London. The police chase after her cab, until she crashes at the foot of the Kirke house. Jadis breaks off and tears an iron rod from a nearby lamp-post, using it to fight off police and onlookers when they mock her.

When Jadis threatens the crowd, Polly and Digory grab her and put on their rings to take her out of their world{{spaced en dash}}along with Uncle Andrew, Frank the cab-driver, and Frank's horse, Strawberry, who were all touching each other when the children grabbed their rings. In the Wood between the Worlds, Strawberry, looking to drink from one of the ponds, accidentally brings everyone into another world: a dark, empty void. At first, Digory believes it to be Charn, but Jadis recognises it as a world not yet created. They then all witness the creation of a new world by the lion [[Aslan]], who brings stars, plants, and animals into existence as he sings. Jadis, as terrified by his singing as the others are attracted to it, tries to kill Aslan with the iron rod; but it rebounds harmlessly off him, and in the creative soil of the new world it sprouts into a growing lamp-post. Jadis flees in terror.

Aslan gives some animals [[Talking animals in fiction|the power of speech]], commanding them to use it for justice and merriment or else risk becoming regular animals once again. Aslan confronts Digory with his responsibility for bringing Jadis into his young world, and tells Digory he must atone by helping to protect the new land of Narnia from her evil. Aslan transforms the cabbie's horse into a winged horse called Fledge, and Digory and Polly fly on him to a distant garden high in the mountains. Digory's task is to take an apple from a tree in this garden and plant it in Narnia. At the garden Digory finds a sign warning not to steal from the garden.

Digory picks one of the apples for his mission, but their overpowering smell tempts him. Jadis appears, having herself eaten an apple to become immortal, leaving her with pale white skin. She tempts Digory either to eat an apple himself and join her in immortality, or steal one to take back to Earth to heal his dying mother. Digory resists, knowing his mother would never condone theft, but hesitates. He sees through the Witch's ploy when she suggests he leave Polly behind{{spaced en dash}}not knowing Polly can get away by her own ring. Foiled, the Witch departs for the North, and taunts Digory for his refusal to eat the apple and gain immortality. Digory returns to Narnia and plants the apple, which grows into a mature tree behind them while the coronation proceeds. Aslan tells Digory how the tree works - anyone who steals the apples gets their heart's desire, but in a form that makes it unlikeable. In the Witch's case, she has achieved immortality, but it only means eternal misery because of her evil heart. Moreover, the magic apples are now a horror to her, such that the apple tree will repel her for centuries to come, but not forever. With Aslan's permission, Digory then takes an apple from the new tree to heal his mother. Aslan returns Digory, Polly, and Uncle Andrew to England. Frank and his wife, Helen (transported from England by Aslan) stay to rule Narnia as its first King and Queen. The Narnian creatures live in peace and joy, and neither the Witch nor any other enemy came to trouble Narnia for many hundreds of years.

Digory's apple restores his mother's health as his father returns for good after being away on business in [[India]], and he and Polly remain lifelong friends. Uncle Andrew reforms and gives up magic, but still enjoys bragging about his adventures with the Witch. Digory plants the apple's core with Uncle Andrew's rings in the back yard of his aunt's home in London, and it grows into a large tree. Soon afterwards, Digory's family inherits a mansion in the country, and many years later the apple tree blows down in a storm. Digory, now a middle-aged professor, has its wood made into a [[wardrobe]], setting up the events in ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''.

==Principal characters==

*[[Digory Kirke]]: The boy who becomes the Professor in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[Polly Plummer]]: Digory's friend, who lives next door
*[[List of The Chronicles of Narnia characters#Kirke, Mabel|Mabel Kirke]]: Digory's mother
*[[Andrew Ketterley]]: Digory's uncle, a minor magician
*[[Letitia Ketterley]]: Uncle Andrew's sister
*[[White Witch|Jadis]]: Empress of Charn, who becomes the White Witch appearing in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[Aslan]]: The Lion who creates Narnia and kills Jadis in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''
*[[King Frank]]: A cabby who becomes the first king of Narnia and forefather of the kings of Archenland
*[[Queen Helen (Narnia)|Queen Helen]]: The wife of King Frank, the first queen of Narnia, and the ancestress of the Archenlanders
*[[Fledge (horse)|Fledge]]: The winged horse, formerly the cab-horse Strawberry, who carries Polly and Digory to the mountain garden

==Writing==

Lewis had originally intended only to write the one Narnia novel, ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''. However, when [[Roger Lancelyn Green]] asked him how a lamp-post came to be standing in the midst of Narnian woodland, Lewis was intrigued enough by the question to attempt to find an answer by writing ''The Magician's Nephew'', which features a younger version of Professor Kirke from the first novel.<ref>Downing, p. 36.</ref>

''The Magician's Nephew'' seems to have been the most challenging Narnia novel for Lewis to write. The other six ''Chronicles of Narnia'' books were written between 1948 and 1953, ''The Magician's Nephew'' was written over a five-year period between 1949 and 1954. He started in the summer of 1949 after finishing ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', but came to a halt after producing 26 pages of manuscript and did not resume work until two years later. This may be as a result of the autobiographical aspects of the novel, as it reflects a number of incidents and parallels very close to his own experiences.<ref>Downing, p. 56.</ref>

He returned to ''The Magician's Nephew'' late in 1950, after completing ''[[The Silver Chair]]''. He managed to finish close to three-quarters of the novel, and then halted work once again after Roger Green, to whom Lewis showed all his writing at the time, suggested there was a structural problem in the story. Finally he returned to the novel in 1953, after finishing ''[[The Last Battle]]'' in the spring of that year and completed early in 1954.<ref name="duriez47">{{cite book | last = Duriez| first = Colin | title = The Life of C.S. Lewis | page = 47 | publisher = InterVarsity Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8308-3207-6}}</ref>

Lewis originally titled the novel "''Polly and Digory''"; his publisher changed it to ''The Magician's Nephew''.<ref name="2Lindskoog87">{{cite book | last = Lindskoog | first = Kathryn Ann | title = Journey into Narnia: C. S. Lewis's Tales Explored | page = [https://archive.org/details/journeyintonarni0000lind/page/87 87] | publisher = Hope Publishing House | year = 1997 | isbn = 0-932727-89-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/journeyintonarni0000lind/page/87 }}</ref> This book is dedicated to "the Kilmer family".<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-06-13 |title=Narnia creator CS Lewis's letters to children go on sale |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-oxfordshire-48612343 |access-date=2022-06-01}}</ref>

===The Lefay Fragment===

The original opening of the novel differs greatly from the published version, and was abandoned by Lewis. It is now known as 'The Lefay Fragment', and is named after Mrs Lefay, Digory's [[fairy godmother]], who is mentioned in the final version as Uncle Andrew's godmother, a less benevolent user of magic, who bequeathed him the box of dust used to create the magic rings.<ref>Downing, pp. 36–39.</ref>

In the Lefay Fragment, Digory is born with the ability to speak to (and understand) trees and animals; the distinction between Talking and non-talking Beasts which was to become such a characteristic feature of the Narnian world is absent. Digory lives with an Aunt Gertrude, a former school mistress with an officious, bullying nature, who has ended up as a Government minister after a lifetime of belligerent brow-beating of others. Whenever his aunt is absent, Digory finds solace with the animals and trees, including a squirrel named Pattertwig. Polly enters the story as a girl next door who is unable to understand the speech of non-human creatures. She wants to build a raft to explore a stream which leads to an underground world. Digory helps construct the raft, but saws a branch from a tree necessary to complete it, in order not to lose face with Polly. This causes him to lose his supernatural powers of understanding the speech of trees and animals. The following day he is visited by his godmother Mrs Lefay who knows that Digory has lost his abilities and gives him a card with the address of a furniture shop which she instructs him to visit. At this point the fragment ends.<ref>Downing, pp. 36–37.</ref>

Pattertwig and Aunt Gertrude do not appear in the final version of the novel. Pattertwig does, however, appear as a Narnian creature in ''[[Prince Caspian]]'', and Aunt Gertrude's career path is retraced by the Head of Experiment House in ''[[The Silver Chair]]''.<ref>Downing, p. 39.</ref>

====Authenticity====

Some doubt has been cast on the authenticity of the Lefay Fragment, as the handwriting in the manuscript differs in some ways from Lewis's usual style, and the writing is not of a similar calibre to his other work. Also in August 1963 Lewis had given instructions to [[Douglas Gresham]] to destroy all his unfinished or incomplete fragments of manuscript when his rooms at [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]] were being cleaned out, following his resignation from the college early in the month.<ref name="Lindskoog111-12">{{cite book | last = Lindskoog| first = Kathryn Ann | title = Sleuthing C.S. Lewis: more Light in the shadowlands | url = https://archive.org/details/sleuthingcslewis0000lind| url-access = registration| pages = [https://archive.org/details/sleuthingcslewis0000lind/page/111 111–12] | publisher = Mercer University Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-86554-730-0}}</ref>

===Autobiographical elements===

A number of aspects of ''The Magician's Nephew'' parallel Lewis's own life. Both Digory and Lewis were children in the early 1900s, both wanted a pony, and both were faced with the death of their mothers in childhood. Digory is separated from his father, who is in India, and misses him. Lewis was schooled in England after his mother's death, while his father remained in Ireland. He also had a brother in India. Lewis was a voracious reader when a child, Digory is also, and both are better with books than with numbers. Digory (and Polly) struggle with sums when trying to work out how far they must travel along the attic space to explore an abandoned house, Lewis failed the maths entrance exam for [[Oxford University]]. Lewis remembered rainy summer days from his youth and Digory is faced with the same woe in the novel. Additionally Digory becomes a professor when he grows up, who takes in evacuated children during [[World War II]].<ref>Hinten, pp. 68–69.</ref>

The character of [[Andrew Ketterley]] also closely resembles Robert Capron, a schoolmaster at [[Wynyard School]], which Lewis attended with his brother, whom Lewis suggested during his teens would make a good model for a villain in a future story. Ketterley resembles Capron in his age, appearance, and behaviour.<ref>Downing, pp. 57–59.</ref>

==Style==

''The Magician's Nephew'' is written in a lighter tone than other ''Chronicles of Narnia'' books, in particular ''[[The Last Battle]]'', which was published after. It frequently makes use of humour; this perhaps reflects the sense of looking back at an earlier part of the century with affection, and Lewis as a middle-aged man recalling his childhood during those years. There are a number of humorous references to life in the old days, in particular school life. Humorous exchanges also take place between Narnian animals. Jadis's attempt to conquer London is portrayed as more comical than threatening, and further humour derives from the contrast between the evil empress and [[Edwardian]] London and its social mores, and her humiliation of bumbling Andrew Ketterley after discovering he is not as powerful a sorcerer as she is (or was). This recalls the style of [[Edith Nesbit]]'s children's books.<ref>Myers, p. 174.</ref> Lewis was fond of these books, which he read in childhood, a number were set in the same period and ''The Magician's Nephew'' has some apparent references or homages to them.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/>

==Reading order==
{{Quote box|width=100%|align=center|quote="I think I agree with your [chronological] order for reading the books more than with your mother's. The series was not planned beforehand as she thinks. When I wrote The Lion I did not know I was going to write any more. Then I wrote P. Caspian as a sequel and still didn't think there would be any more, and when I had done The Voyage I felt quite sure it would be the last, but I found I was wrong. So perhaps it does not matter very much in which order anyone read them. I’m not even sure that all the others were written in the same order in which they were published."|source=—[[C. S. Lewis]]'s reply to a letter from Laurence Krieg, an American fan who was having an argument with his mother about the reading order.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dorsett |first=Lyle |editor=Marjorie Lamp Mead |title=C. S. Lewis: Letters to Children |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster|Touchstone]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-684-82372-0 }}</ref>}}
''The Magician's Nephew'' was originally published as the sixth book in the ''Narnia Chronicles''. Most reprintings of the novels until the 1980s also reflected the order of original publication. In 1980 [[HarperCollins]] published the series ordered by the chronology of the events in the novels. This meant ''The Magician's Nephew'' was numbered as the first in the series. HarperCollins, which had previously published editions of the novels outside the United States, also acquired the rights to publish the novels in that country in 1994 and used this sequence in the uniform worldwide edition published in that year.<ref>Schakel, pp. 13–16.</ref>

Laurence Krieg, a young fan, wrote to Lewis, asking him to adjudicate between his views of the correct sequence of reading the novels – according to the sequence of events, with ''The Magician's Nephew'' being placed first – and that of his mother, who thought the order of publication was more appropriate. Lewis wrote back, appearing to support the younger Krieg's views, although he did point out that perhaps it would not matter what order they were read in.<ref>Schakel, pp. 17–18.</ref>

Some literary scholars have argued that the publication order better draws the readers into the world of Narnia. In the book Lewis wrote first, [[Lucy Pevensie]]'s discovery of the wardrobe that opens onto a forest and a mysterious lamp-post creates a sense of suspense about an unknown land she is discovering for the first time. This would be anticlimactic if the reader has already been introduced to Narnia in ''The Magician's Nephew'' and already knows the origins of Narnia, the wardrobe, and the lamp-post. Lewis scholar Peter Schakel points out that the narrative of ''The Magician's Nephew'' assumes that the reader has already read ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' and is now being shown its beginnings.<ref>Schakel, pp. 19–21.</ref>

Paul Ford cites several scholars who have weighed in against the decision of HarperCollins to present the books in the order of their internal chronology,<ref>Ford, pp. xxiii–xxiv.</ref> and continues, "most scholars disagree with this decision and find it the least faithful to Lewis's deepest intentions". These scholars argue that the narrative of ''The Magician's Nephew'' appears to assume that the reader has already read ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' and is now being shown its beginnings.<ref>Ford, p. 24.</ref>

==Themes and interpretations==

===Parallels with the Book of Genesis===

Lewis suggested that he did not directly intend to write his Narnia stories as Christian tales, but that these aspects appeared subconsciously as he wrote, although the books did become Christian as they progressed. He thought that the tales were not direct representations or allegory, but that they might evoke or remind readers of Biblical stories.<ref name="sammons128-29">{{cite book | last = Sammons| first = Martha C. | title = A Guide Through Narnia | pages = 128–9 | publisher = Regent College Publishing | year = 2004 | isbn = 1-57383-308-8}}</ref> In ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', Aslan is a Christ-like figure who suffers a death of atonement and returns to life in a similar way to Christ's [[crucifixion]] and resurrection.<ref name="ryken165">{{cite book | last1 = Ryken | first1 = Leland | last2 = Lamp Mead | first2 = Marjorie | title = A reader's guide through the wardrobe: exploring C.S. Lewis's classic story | url = https://archive.org/details/readersguidethro00ryke | url-access = registration | page = [https://archive.org/details/readersguidethro00ryke/page/165 165] | publisher = Inter Varsity Press | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8308-3289-0}}</ref> ''The Magician's Nephew'' has similar biblical allusions, reflecting aspects of The Book of Genesis such as the creation, [[original sin]] and [[temptation]].<ref name="vaus76-77">{{cite book | last1 = Vaus | first1 = Will | last2 = Gresham | first2 = Douglas | title = Mere theology: a guide to the thought of C.S. Lewis | pages = 76–7 | publisher = Inter Varsity Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8308-2782-X}}</ref>

Parallels with events in the [[Book of Genesis]] include the [[forbidden fruit]] represented by an Apple of Life. Jadis tempts Digory to eat one of the forbidden apples in the garden, as the serpent tempts Eve into eating a forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden; unlike Eve however, Digory rejects the offer. (Lewis's ''[[Perelandra]]'' also features a re-enactment of the same Biblical story, which in that book also ends with the tempter foiled and the fall avoided.)

While the creation of Narnia closely echoes the creation of the Earth in the Book of Genesis, there are a number of important differences. Human beings are not created in Narnia by Aslan, they are brought into Narnia from our own world. Unlike Genesis, where souls are given only to human beings, animals and half-human half-animal creatures such as [[Faun]]s and [[Satyr]]s and even trees and watercourses are given souls and the power of rational thought and speech. This appears to suggest Lewis combined his Christian worldview with his fondness for nature, myth and fairy tales.<ref>Downing, pp 73–74.</ref>

Parallels may also be found in Lewis's other writings. Jadis's references to "reasons of State", and her claim to own the people of Charn and to be beyond morality, represent the eclipse of the medieval Christian belief in [[natural law]] by the political concept of sovereignty, as embodied first in [[Absolute monarchy|royal absolutism]] and then in modern dictatorships.<ref>Lewis (1944). ''English Literature in the Sixteenth Century Excluding Drama''. Chapter 1.</ref> Uncle Andrew represents the [[Faustian]] element in the origins of modern science.<ref>Lewis (1943). ''The Abolition of Man''.</ref>

===The Holy Spirit and the breath of life===

On a number of occasions in the ''Chronicles of Narnia'', Aslan uses his breath to give strength to characters, demonstrating his benevolent power of bringing life. He specifically does so in ''The Magician's Nephew'' when a "long warm breath" gives life to Narnia. Lewis used the symbol of the breath to represent the [[Holy Spirit]], also known as the Holy Ghost. Both ''spirit'' and ''ghost'' are translations of the word for ''breath'' in Hebrew and Greek. The flash from the stars when the Narnian animals are given the ability to talk also most probably represents the Holy Spirit<ref>Colbert, pp. 81–83.</ref> or "breath of life" of ''Genesis'' chapter 2, as well as (possibly) the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] concept of the divine [[active intellect]] that inspires human beings with rationality.{{efn |name=activeintellect}}

===Nature and a natural order===

''The Magician's Nephew'' suggests two opposing approaches to nature, a good approach associated with Aslan as creator and an evil approach associated with human deviation from divine intentions and the harmony of a natural order. On the one hand there is the beauty of Aslan's creation of Narnia, which is suggested as having a natural order by the use of musical harmony to bring landscapes and living things into being. There is also a distinct order to the process of creation, from earth to plants to animal, which evokes the concept of [[The Great Chain of Being]]. Lewis himself was a strong believer in the intrinsic value of nature for itself, rather than as a resource to be exploited. This is perhaps reflected in how Aslan also gives speech to spiritual aspects of nature, such as naiads in the water and dryads in the trees. Andrew Ketterley and Jadis represent an opposite, evil approach of bending the forces of nature to human will for the purpose of self gain. They see nature solely as a resource to use for their plans and thus disturb and destroy the natural order.<ref>Myers, pp. 169–70.</ref>

==Influences==
===John Milton's ''Paradise Lost''===
The sacred Garden in the west of the Narnian world is surrounded by a "high wall of green turf" with branches of trees overhanging it, and "high gates of gold, fast shut, facing due east", which must be the only entrance because the travellers "walked nearly all the way round it" before they found them. In all these points Lewis echoes [[John Milton]]'s description of Eden in ''[[Paradise Lost]]'':

:The [[wiktionary:verdurous|verdurous]] wall of Paradise up sprung...

:And higher than that Wall a circling row
:Of goodliest trees loaden with fairest fruit,
:Blossoms and fruits at once of golden hue,
:Appeerd, with gay enameld colours mixt...<ref>John Milton, ''Paradise Lost'', book IV, lines 143, 146–149</ref>

:One gate there only was, and that look'd east
:On th' other side...<ref>John Milton, ''Paradise Lost'', book IV, lines 178–179</ref>

Jadis takes on echoes of [[Satan#In art and literature|Satan]] from the same work: she climbs over the wall of the Garden in contempt of the command to enter only by the gate, and proceeds to tempt Digory as Satan tempted [[Adam and Eve#Arts and literature|Eve]], with lies and half-truths.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hardy|first=Elizabeth Baird|title=Milton, Spenser and The Chronicles of Narnia: literary sources for the C. S. Lewis novels|year=2007|publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc.|isbn=978-0-7864-2876-2}} pp30–34</ref>

Some details of the creation of Narnia, such as the emergence of animals from the ground, and the way they shake earth from their bodies are also similar to passages in ''Paradise Lost'', and may also have been inspired by descriptions of the processes of nature in The seventh book of [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[The Faerie Queene]]''.<ref>Myers, pp. 170–71.</ref>

===The Garden of the Hesperides===
Four years before the publication of the first Narnia book, Lewis had written as follows on the experience of reading really good poetry for the first time:
<blockquote>...I did not in the least feel that I was getting in more quantity or better quality a pleasure I had already known. It was more as if a cupboard which one had hitherto valued as a place for hanging coats proved one day, when you opened the door, to lead to the garden of the Hesperides...<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=C. S.|title=On Stories: and other essays on literature|year=1966|publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich|location=New York|page=121|editor=Walter Hooper|chapter=Different Tastes in Literature}}</ref>
</blockquote>

The element of the cupboard leading to a new world Lewis proceeded to use in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', but the snowy Narnia of that book is quite unlike the balmy [[Garden of the Hesperides]], most of whose major mythological features appear as attributes of the sacred Garden in ''The Magician's Nephew'' where it differs from the Biblical or Miltonian Eden. It is set in the far West of the world; it has a watchful guardian; a hero (Digory) is sent, like [[Labours of Hercules#Eleventh Labour: Apples of the Hesperides|Hercules]], to fetch an apple from it; a female villain (Jadis) steals another of the apples, like [[Apple of Discord|Eris]]. Since the eponymous [[Hesperides]] were daughters of [[Hesperus]], the god of the planet Venus in the evening, advocates of the [[The Chronicles of Narnia#Influences|planetary theory]] adduce this as evidence for a special association between ''The Magician's Nephew'' and [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Michael|title=Planet Narnia: the seven heavens in the imagination of C. S. Lewis|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

===Edith Nesbit===

Lewis read [[Edith Nesbit]]'s children's books as a child and was greatly fond of them.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/> ''The Magician's Nephew'' refers to these books in the opening of the novel as though their events were true, mentioning the setting of the piece as being when "Mr. [[Sherlock Holmes]] was still living in [[Baker Street]] and the Bastables were looking for treasure in the Lewisham Road". [[The Bastables]] were children who appeared in a number of Edith Nesbit's stories.<ref>Hinten, p. 68.</ref> In addition to being set in the same period and location as several of Nesbit's stories, ''The Magician's Nephew'' also has some similarities with Nesbit's ''[[The Story of the Amulet]]'' (1906). This novel focuses on four children living in London who discover a magic amulet. Their father is away and their mother is ill, as is the case with Digory. They also manage to transport the queen of [[Babylon|ancient Babylon]] to London and she is the cause of a riot; a very similar event takes place in ''The Magician's Nephew'' when Polly and Digory transport Queen Jadis to London and she also causes a similar disturbance.<ref name="2Lindskoog87"/>

===J. R. R. Tolkien===

The creation of Narnia may also have been influenced by his close friend [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[The Silmarillion]]'', which also contains a creation scene driven by the effect of music.<ref>Downing, p. 59.</ref>

===Morgan Le Fay and Pandora's Box===

Lewis greatly enjoyed stories of [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian legend]] and wrote poetry about this world. Mrs Lefay visits Digory in The Lefay Fragment, and becomes Andrew Ketterley's nefarious godmother in the finished novel. She gives Ketterley a box from Atlantis containing the dust from which he constructs the rings Digory and Polly use to travel between worlds. Both Lefays are allusions to [[Morgan Le Fay]], a powerful sorceress in a number of versions of [[King Arthur]]'s tales, who is often portrayed as evil. The box itself is also evocative of [[Pandora's box]] from [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]], which also contained dangerous secrets.<ref name="colbert77-8">Colbert, pp. 77–78.</ref>

===The Atlantis legend===

The box of dust enabling travel between worlds originated in [[Atlantis]].<ref name="colbert77-8"/> Both Lewis and Tolkien were fascinated by the Atlantis legend. The degeneration of Charn's rulers, Jadis's ancestors, from the early kind and wise to the later cruel and arrogant is reminiscent of the similar degeneration in Tolkien's [[Númenor]], the fabled island kingdom that finally sank under the waves due to the sinfulness of its latter inhabitants. The world of Charn was destroyed when Jadis spoke The Deplorable Word, a form of knowledge ancient Charnian scholars feared for its destructive potential. A number of commentators believed Lewis was referring to the use of the [[nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]], used less than a decade earlier. It is perhaps more likely that Lewis was echoing the mythical destruction of Atlantis by the forces of evil and arrogance.<ref>Colbert, pp. 91–92.</ref> As noted by Alice Ward, the comparison with nuclear arms is made explicit in Aslan's last warning: "You [Earth] are growing more like it [Charn]. It is not certain that some wicked one of your race will not find out a secret as evil as The Deplorable Word and use it to destroy all living things".<ref>Dr. Alice Ward, "Dark Undertones in the Fantasy Writing of the later Twentieth Century" in Alexander O'Donnel (ed.) "Interdisciplinary Round Table on the Cultural Effects of the Nuclear Arms Race".</ref>

==Adaptations==

===Theatrical===
[[Aurand Harris]] was a well-known American playwright for children, whose works are among the most performed in that medium. He wrote 36 plays for children including an adaption of ''The Magician's Nephew''.<ref name="coleman46-47">{{cite book | last1 = Jennings | first1 = Coleman A. | last2 = Sendak | first2 = Maurice | title = Theatre for Young Audiences | pages = 46–7 | publisher = Macmillan | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-312-33714-0}}</ref> The play was first performed on 26 May 1984 by the Department of Drama, [[University of Texas, Austin]] and staged at the B. Iden Payne Theatre. A musical score by William Penn was written for use with productions of the play.<ref name="harris4-5">{{cite book | last1 = Harris | first1 = Aurand | last2 = Lewis | first2 = C.S. | last3 = Penn | first3 = William A. |title = The magician's nephew: a dramatization | pages = 4–5 | publisher = Dramatic Publishing | year = 1984 | isbn = 0-87129-541-5}}</ref>

Erina Caradus wrote a playscript for ''The Magician's Nephew'' that was performed in [[Dunedin]], New Zealand in 2005.<ref>[http://narniaproductions.co.nz Narnia Productions]. narniaproductions.co.nz (Dunedin, New Zealand). Retrieved 10 December 2012.</ref>{{efn |name=homepage}}

===Film===
An agreement among representatives of 20th Century Fox, Walden, and the C. S. Lewis estate determined that ''The Magician's Nephew'' would be the basis for the next movie following the release of the 2010 film ''[[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (film)|The Voyage of the Dawn Treader]]''.<ref>[http://www.christianpost.com/news/narnia-4-will-be-magicians-nephew-not-silver-chair-49517/ "Narnia 4 Will Be ''Magician's Nephew'', Not ''Silver Chair''"]. Katherine T. Phan. CP Entertainment. ''The Christian Post''. 22 March 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.charismamag.com/index.php/news/30308-the-voyage-of-the-dawn-treader-most-inspiring-faith-family-and-values-movie-of-2011 "''The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'' Most Inspiring Faith, Family and Values Movie of 2011"]. CharismaNews.com. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708135344/http://www.charismamag.com/index.php/news/30308-the-voyage-of-the-dawn-treader-most-inspiring-faith-family-and-values-movie-of-2011 |date=8 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>[http://insidemovies.ew.com/2011/03/23/magicians-nephew-new-narnia-film/ "''Narnia'': Walden, Fox in discussions on ''The Magician's Nephew''"]. Bryan Lufkin. Inside Movies. ''Entertainment Weekly'' (EW.com). 23 March 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref> However, in October 2011, Douglas Gresham confirmed that [[Walden Media]]'s contract with the C. S. Lewis estate had expired.<ref>[http://www.aslanscountry.com/2011/10/gresham-confirms-waldens-contract-expired/ "Gresham Confirms: Walden's Contract Expired"]. Aslan's Country. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223514/http://www.aslanscountry.com/2011/10/gresham-confirms-waldens-contract-expired/ |date=4 October 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancinema.com/catalog/newsdesk_info.php?newsdesk_id=1886# "Walden Media's Option for a Fourth Narnia film Expires"]. ChristianCinema.com. 18 October 2011. Confirmed 10 December 2012.</ref>

On 1 October 2013, the C.S. Lewis Company announced that they had entered into an agreement with producer [[Mark Gordon (film)|Mark Gordon]] to jointly develop and produce ''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair'', ultimately deciding to continue releasing the films to mirror the novel series' publication order.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deadline.com/2013/10/chronicles-of-narnia-silver-chair-movie-mark-gordon/|title=Fourth 'Chronicles of Narnia' Movie in Works From Mark Gordon Co|date=1 October 2013|work=Deadline|access-date=4 October 2014}}</ref>

In October 2018, Netflix announced an agreement with the C.S. Lewis Company. Netflix will develop and produce new series and movies based on ''The Chronicles of Narnia''. Mark Gordon of [[Entertainment One]], Douglas Gresham and Vincent Sieber will serve as producers for films and executive producers for series.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Netflix to Develop Series and Films Based On C.S. Lewis' Beloved The Chronicles Of Narnia|url=https://www.narnia.com/netflix-to-develop-series-and-films-based-on-c-s-lewis-beloved-the-chronicles-of-narnia/|date=2018-10-03|website=Official Site {{!}} Narnia.com|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-17}}</ref>

===TV===
In 2003, the BBC produced a 10-part version read by Jane Lapotaire and signed by Jean St Clair wearing different Narnia-like clothes in British Sign Language, for the TV series ''Hands Up!'' which was first broadcast on the 16 January 2003.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/b627c79efe9a4a5a932ea9508e7b5fb6|title=Schools programmes|date=2003-01-09|work=The Radio Times|access-date=2019-11-01|issue=4113|pages=87|language=en-GB|issn=0033-8060}}</ref> Jean signed in front of various high quality illustrations representing parts of the novel. It was later repeated on [[CBBC (TV channel)|CBBC]] on the 3 December 2007, and [[BBC Two]] on the 16 September 2008.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/a8e0e756c74644558e6e9da3e58d2632|title=Schools programmes|date=2008-09-11|work=The Radio Times|access-date=2019-11-01|issue=4404|pages=79|language=en-GB|issn=0033-8060}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0078ydw|title=CBBC - The Chronicles of Narnia, The Magician's Nephew, Part 1|website=BBC|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0078ydw|title=BBC Two - The Chronicles of Narnia, The Magician's Nephew, Part 1|publisher=BBC}}</ref>

===Radio===
A [[BBC Radio 4]] adaptation exists.<ref>https://www.amazon.com/Complete-Chronicles-of-Narnia-audiobook/dp/B00O3FDQP4</ref> [[Focus on the Family]] also made an adaptation of this book with a full cast, sound editing, and music.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://store.focusonthefamily.com/radio-theatre-the-chronicles-of-narnia-collectors-edition/|title=Radio Theatre: The Chronicles of Narnia Collector's Edition}}</ref> Both productions adapted all seven books.

===Manga===
A [[HarperCollins|HarperCollins Japan]] manga adaptation, {{nihongo|'''''Chronicles Of Narnia: The Magician's Nephew: I Opened the Wrong Door!'''''|ナルニア国物語: 魔術師のおい: 間違ったドアを開けた!|Narnia Koku Monogatari: Majutsushi no Oi: Machigatta Doa o Aketa!|lead=yes}}, began publication in 2018, before concluding in 2020 after two volumes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.anime-planet.com/manga/the-chronicles-of-narnia-the-magicians-nephew|title = The Chronicles of Narnia: The Magician's Nephew|date = 3 March 2018}}</ref>

==Critical reception==
T.M. Wagner of SF Reviews said "''The Magician's Nephew'' may not be the best of the Narnia novels, but it's a brisk and funny tale certain to delight its intended young audience", saying that it may not satisfy readers in their teenage years and older.<ref name="Narnia Review">{{cite web|last=Wagner|first=T.M |title=Narnia01|url=http://www.sfreviews.net/narnia01.html|work=Science Fiction & Fantasy Book Reviews |publisher=SFReviews.net |access-date=11 June 2012}}</ref>

Jandy's Reading Room reviewed the book, saying that although they feel it is the weakest of the series, they would still recommend it. They say it "gives a wonderful picture of the beginning of a new world, in the manner of the Creation."<ref name="JRR Review">{{cite web|title=Book Review: The Magician's Nephew by C.S. Lewis|url=http://www.jandysbooks.com/sfbooks/magneph.html |work=Jandy's Reading Room|publisher=Jandy's Books (JandysBooks.com) |access-date=13 June 2012}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist |notes=
{{efn |name=timeline |1=
Forty years pass in our world, from 1900 to 1940, during that first millennium in Narnia. A manuscript by Lewis, the "[[Narnia (world)#Outline of Narnian History|Outline of Narnian History]]", dates major events in the Narnia world and simultaneous events in England. Since his death, it has been published in books about Narnia and is generally considered valid.
}}
{{efn |name=activeintellect |1=
In the view of [[Avicenna]] and [[Maimonides]], intellectual inspiration descends through ten angelic emanations, of which the first nine are the intelligences of the heavenly spheres and the tenth is the Active Intellect.
}}
{{efn |name=homepage |1=
The homepage now promotes the last of four Narnia theatrical productions, ''The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'' (2008). Information about the four numbers varies.
}}
}}

==References==
{{Reflist |30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | last = Colbert| first = David | title = The Magical Worlds of Narnia | publisher = McArthur & Company | year = 2005 | isbn = 1-55278-541-6}}
* {{cite book | last = Downing| first = David C. | title = Into the Wardrobe: C.S. Lewis and the Narnia Chronicles | url = https://archive.org/details/intowardrobecsle00down| url-access = registration| publisher = Jossey-Bass | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-7879-7890-7}}
* {{cite book |title=Companion to Narnia: Revised Edition |url=https://archive.org/details/pocketcompaniont00ford |url-access=registration |last=Ford |first=Paul |year=2005 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-06-079127-8 }}
* {{cite book | last = Hinten| first = Marvin D. | title = The Keys to the Chronicles: Unlocking the Symbols of C.S. Lewis's Narnia | publisher = B&H Publishing Group | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8054-4028-3}}
* {{cite book | last = Myers | first = Doris T. | title = C. S. Lewis in Context | publisher = Kent State University Press | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-87338-617-5}}
* {{cite book | last = Schakel| first = Peter J. | title = The way into Narnia: a reader's guide | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8028-2984-8}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|The Magician's Nephew}}
* {{FadedPage|id=201410A8|name=The Magician's Nephew}}
* {{worldcat |oclc=813649621}} ——immediately, the full-colour C. S. Lewis centenary edition 
* {{isfdb title|1589|The Magician's Nephew}}

{{Portal bar|Speculative fiction|Fantasy|Children's literature|Novels}}
{{Narnia}}
{{C. S. Lewis}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Magician's Nephew, The}}
[[Category:1955 British novels]]
[[Category:1955 children's books]]
[[Category:1955 fantasy novels]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into plays]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into television shows]]
[[Category:Children's fantasy novels]]
[[Category:Isekai anime and manga]]
[[Category:Isekai novels and light novels]]
[[Category:Prequel novels]]
[[Category:The Bodley Head books]]
[[Category:The Chronicles of Narnia books]]
[[Category:Witchcraft in written fiction]]

ELPEPE

Great Chicago Fire

2014-06-19T12:53:57Z

190.196.211.42: /* Origin */

[[File:Chicago-fire1.jpg|thumb|300px|Artist's rendering of the fire, by [[John R. Chapin]], originally printed in ''[[Harper's Weekly]]''; the view faces northeast across the Randolph Street Bridge.]]
The '''Great Chicago Fire''' was a [[conflagration]] that burned from Sunday, October 8, to early Tuesday, October 10, 1871. The fire killed up to 300 people, destroyed roughly {{convert|3.3|sqmi|km2|0}} of [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and left more than 100,000 residents homeless.<ref name="WhatDoWeKnow">{{cite web|url=http://www.thechicagofire.com/|title=What do we know about the Great Chicago Fire?|last=Bales|first=Richard|year=2004|accessdate=2008-11-14}}</ref> Though the fire was one of the largest [[United States|U.S.]] disasters of the 19th century, and destroyed much of the city's central business district, Chicago was rebuilt and continued to grow as one of the most populous and [[economically]] important American cities.

==Origin==
[[File:Great Chicago Fire map with starting point.jpg|right|thumb|200px|1868 map of Chicago, highlighting the area destroyed by the fire (location of O'Leary's barn indicated by red dot).]]
The fire started at about 9:00 P.M, October 8, in or around a small barn that bordered the alley behind 137 [[DeKoven Street (Chicago)|DeKoven Street]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Pierce | first =Bessie Louise | authorlink = Bessie Louise Pierce | title = A History of Chicago: Volume III: The Rise of a Modern City, 1871–1893 | publisher = University of Chicago Press | date = 1957, rep. 2007 | location = Chicago | pages = 4 | isbn = 978-0-226-66842-0}}</ref> The traditional account of the origin of the fire is that it was started by a cow kicking over a lantern in the barn owned by Patrick and [[Catherine O'Leary]]. In 1893, Michael Ahern, the ''Chicago Republican'' reporter who wrote the O'Leary account, admitted he had made it up as colorful copy.<ref>{{cite web | title = The O'Leary Legend | publisher = Chicago History Museum | url = http://greatchicagofire.org/oleary-legend | accessdate = 2007-03-18}}</ref> The barn was the first building to be consumed by the fire, but the official report could not determine the exact cause.<ref name = "owen">L.L. Owens, ''The Great Chicago Fire'', ABDO, p. 7.</ref> There has, however, been some speculation that would suggest the fire was caused by a person, instead of a cow. Some testimonies stated that a group of men were gambling inside the barn so they would not be seen by others. The lamp that they were using was accidentally knocked over, which is what started the fire. Little evidence has been presented to prove whether or not this is true.
There has been speculation as to whether the cause of the fire was related to other fires that began the same day. See [[#Questions about the fire|Questions about the fire]].

The fire's spread was aided by the city's use of wood as the predominant building material, a drought prior to the fire, and strong winds from the southwest that carried flying embers toward the heart of the city. More than ⅔ of the structures in Chicago at the time of the fire were made entirely of wood. Most houses and buildings were topped with highly flammable tar or shingle roofs. All the city's sidewalks and many roads were also made of wood.<ref>{|Murphy, Jim. The Great Fire. U.S.A: Scholastic Inc, 1995. Book.|}</ref> Compounding this problem, Chicago had only received an inch of rain from July 4 to October 9 causing severe drought conditions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald|title=City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0684831384|page=144}}</ref>

In 1871, the Chicago Fire Department had a force of 185 firefighters with just 17 horse-drawn steam engines to protect the entire city.<ref name="Miller 1996 146">{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald|title=City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0684831384|page=146}}</ref> The initial response by the fire department was quick but due to an error by the watchman, Matthias Schaffer, the fire fighters were sent to the wrong location allowing the fire to grow unchecked.<ref name="Miller 1996 146"/> An alarm sent from the area near the fire also failed to register at the courthouse where the fire watchmen were located. Additionally, the firefighters were tired from having fought numerous small fires and one large fire in the week before.<ref>{{Cite news | title = The fire Fiend | newspaper = Chicago Daily Tribune | pages = 3 | date = 1871-10-08 | accessdate = 2007-11-27}}</ref> These factors combined to turn a small barn fire into a large scale conflagration. chupen el pico

==Spread of the blaze==
[[File:Chicago-fire2.jpeg|thumb|left|200px|Aftermath of the fire, corner of Dearborn and Monroe Streets, 1871]]
[[File:Chicago Water Tower (October 2008).jpg|thumb|200px|Chicago Water Tower]]
By the time firefighters finally arrived at DeKoven Street, the fire had grown and spread to neighboring buildings and was progressing towards the central business district. Fire fighters had hoped that the South Branch of the Chicago River as well as an area that had previously thoroughly burned would act as a natural [[firebreak]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald|title=City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0684831384|page=147}}</ref> All along the river however were lumber yards, warehouses, and coal yards, along with barges and numerous bridges across the river. As the fire grew, the winds from the southwest intensified and became superheated, causing structures to catch fire from the heat as well as from burning debris blown by the winds. Around 2330, flaming debris blew across the river and landed on roofs and the South Side Gas Works.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald|title=City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0684831384|pages=147–148}}</ref>

With the fire across the river and moving rapidly towards the heart of the city, panic set in. About this time, Mayor [[Roswell B. Mason]] sent message to nearby towns asking for assistance. When the courthouse caught fire, he ordered the building to be evacuated and the prisoners jailed in the basement to be released. At 0220 on the 9th, the cupola of the courthouse collapsed sending the great bell crashing down.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald|title=City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0684831384|page=148}}</ref> Some witnesses reported hearing the sound from a mile away.

As more buildings succumbed to the flames, a major contributing factor to the fire’s spread was a meteorological phenomenon known as a [[fire whirl]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Abbott|first=Karen|title=What (or Who) Caused the Great Chicago Fire?|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/what-or-who-caused-the-great-chicago-fire-61481977/|work=Smithsonian Magazine|accessdate=14 February 2014}}</ref> As overheated air rises, it comes into contact with cooler air and begins to spin creating a tornado-like effect. These fire whirls are the likely causes of driving flaming debris so high and so far. Such debris was blown across the main branch of the Chicago River to a railroad car carrying kerosene.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald|title=City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0684831384|page=152}}</ref> The fire had jumped the river a second time and was now raging across the city’s north side.

Despite the fire spreading and growing rapidly, the city’s firefighters continued to battle the blaze. A short time after the fire jumped the river, a burning piece of timber lodged on the roof of the city’s waterworks. Within minutes, the interior of the building was engulfed in flames and the building was destroyed. With it, the city’s water mains went dry and the city was helpless.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald|title=City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0684831384|pages=152–153}}</ref> The fire burned unchecked from building to building, block to block.

Finally late into the evening of the 9th, it started to rain but the fire had already started to burn itself out. The fire had spread to the sparsely populated areas of the north side having consumed the densely populated areas thoroughly.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald|title=City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0684831384|page=158}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
[[File:Site of the Origin of the Chicago Fire 4.JPG|thumb|right|230px|The sculpture on the site of the origin of the fire, with the Chicago Fire Academy in the background]]
[[File:Chicago Fire Landmark.jpg|230px|thumb|right|A marker commemorating the fire outside the Chicago Fire Academy]]
[[File:Municipal Flag of Chicago.svg|right|230px|thumb|Municipal [[Flag of Chicago]]. The second star commemorates the fire.<ref>{{cite web | title = Municipal Flag of Chicago | publisher = Chicago Public Library | year = 2009 | url = http://www.chipublib.org/cplbooksmovies/cplarchive/symbols/flag.php | accessdate = 2009-03-04}}</ref>]]
[[File:PROCLAMATION, Chicago History Museum.JPG|thumb|PROCLAMATION, Chicago History Museum]]
[[File:Relief for the destitute, Chicago History Museum.JPG|thumb|Relief for the destitute, Chicago History Museum]]
[[File:To the Homeless of the Chicago Fire, Chicago History Museum.JPG|thumb|To the Homeless of the Chicago Fire, Chicago History Museum]]

Once the fire had ended, the smoldering remains were still too hot for a survey of the damage to be completed for days. Eventually the city determined that the fire destroyed an area about four miles (6 km) long and averaging 3/4 mile (1 km) wide, encompassing more than {{convert|2000|acre|ha}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald|title=City of the Century; The Epic of Chicago and the making of America|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0684831384|page=159}}</ref> Destroyed were more than {{convert|73|mi|km}} of roads, {{convert|120|mi|km}} of sidewalk, 2,000 lampposts, 17,500 buildings, and $222 million in property—about a third of the city's valuation. Of the 300,000 inhabitants, 100,000 were left homeless. 120 bodies were recovered, but the death toll may have been as high as 300. The county coroner speculated that an accurate count was impossible as some victims may have drowned or had been incinerated leaving no remains.

In the days and weeks following the fire, monetary donations flowed into Chicago from around the country and foreign cities, along with donations of food, clothing, and other goods. These donations came from individuals, corporations, and cities. New York City gave $450,000 along with clothing and provisions, St. Louis gave $300,000, and the Common Council of London gave 1,000 Guineas as well as ₤7,000 from private donations.<ref>"The Great Fires in Chicago and The West", by a Chicago Clergyman, Published by J.W. Goodspeed, Chicago, 1871</ref> Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Buffalo, all commercial rivals, donated hundreds and thousands of dollars. Milwaukee, along with other nearby cities, helped by sending fire-fighting equipment. Additionally, food, clothing and books were brought by train from all over the continent.<ref>John J. Pauly, "The Great Chicago Fire as a National Event," American Quarterly 36, no. 5 (Winter 1984): p.671. The Johns Hopkins University Press, http://0-www.jstor.org.mercury.concordia.ca/stable/2712866</ref> Mayor Mason placed the [[Chicago Relief and Aid Society]] in charge of the city’s relief efforts.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald|title=City of the Century; The Epic of Chicago and the making of America|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0684831384|page=162}}</ref>

Operating from the First Congregational Church, city officials and the Aldermen began taking steps to preserve order in the city. Price fixing was a key concern. In one ordinance, the city set the price of bread at 8¢ for a 12-ounce loaf.<ref>Pierce, Betty Louise, ''A History of Chicago: The Rise of a Modern City'', Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1957, p. 7</ref> Public buildings were opened as places of refuge, and saloons closed at 9 in the evening for the week following the fire.

The fire also led to questions about the developments in the United States. Due to Chicago’s rapid expansion at this time, the fire led to Americans reflecting on industrialization. The Religious point of view said that Americans should return to a more old-fashioned way of life, and that the fire was caused by people ignoring morality. Many Americans on the other hand believed that a lesson that should be learned from the fire was that cities needed to improve their building techniques. [[Frederick Law Olmsted]] attributed this to Chicago’s style of building:

''"Chicago had a weakness for “big things,” and liked to think that it was outbuilding New York. It did a great deal of commercial advertising in its house-tops. The faults of construction as well as of art in its great showy buildings must have been numerous. Their walls were thin, and were overweighted with gross and coarse misornamentation."''

Olmsted also believes that with brick walls and disciplined firemen and police, the damage caused and deaths would have been much less.<ref>John J. Pauly, "The Great Chicago Fire as a National Event," American Quarterly 36, no. 5 (Winter 1984): p.673-674. The Johns Hopkins University Press, http://0-www.jstor.org.mercury.concordia.ca/stable/2712866</ref>

Almost immediately, the city began to rewrite its fire standards, spurred by the efforts of leading insurance executives and fire prevention reformers such as [[Arthur C. Ducat]] and others. Chicago soon developed one of the country's leading fire fighting forces.

Land speculators, such as [[Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard]], and business owners quickly set about rebuilding the city. The first load of lumber for rebuilding was delivered the day the last burning building was extinguished. By the [[World's Columbian Exposition]] 22 years later, Chicago hosted more than 21 million visitors. The [[Palmer House]] hotel burned to the ground in the fire 13 days after its grand opening. Its developer Potter Palmer secured a loan and rebuilt the hotel to higher standards across the street from the original, proclaiming it to be "The World's First Fireproof Building".

In 1956, the remaining structures on the original O'Leary property at 558 W. [[DeKoven Street (Chicago)|DeKoven Street]] were torn down for construction of the Chicago Fire Academy, a training facility for Chicago firefighters. A bronze [[sculpture]] of stylized flames, entitled ''Pillar of Fire'' by sculptor [[Egon Weiner]], was erected on the point of origin in 1961.<ref>[http://www.cityofchicago.org/Landmarks/S/SiteChicagoFire.html Chicago Landmarks]. retrieved December 14, 2006</ref>

==Questions about the fire==
[[File:Mrs OLeary's cow.jpg|thumb|1871 illustration from ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'' depicting Mrs. O'Leary milking the cow.]]
Catherine O'Leary seemed the perfect [[scapegoat]]: she was a poor, Irish Catholic immigrant. During the latter half of the 19th century, [[anti-Irish sentiment]] was strong throughout the United States and in Chicago. This was intensified as a result of the growing political power of the city's Irish population.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Donald|title=City of the Century; The Epic of Chicago and the making of America|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0684831384|page=442}}</ref> This story was circulating in Chicago even before the flames had died out, and it was noted in the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'''s first post-fire issue. In 1893 the reporter Michael Ahern retracted the "cow-and-lantern" story, admitting it was fabricated.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Cromie | first = Robert | title = The Great Chicago Fire | publisher = Rutledge Hill Press | year = 1994 | location = New York | isbn = 1-55853-264-1 }}</ref>

The cow and fire story is the story which puts the blame on Catherine O’Leary; it is explained by Richard F. Bales. A fire broke out in the barn of Patrick and Catherine O’Leary and began to spread through Chicago. As the fire was still burning the fingers began to be pointed at Mrs. O’Leary and her cow. The story states that the fire began as Mrs. O’Leary was milking a cow and the cow kicked over the lamp which began the fire by setting the straw on fire which set the barn on fire . This was denied by the O’Leary household stating that they were already in bed before the fire started, but stories of the cow began to spread across the city. O’Leary was later exonerated.<ref>Richard F.Bales, "Did the Cow Do It? A New Look at the Cause of the Great Chicago Fire, "Illinois Historical Journal 90 no.1 (Spring 1997): p. 2,3,11.University of Illinois Press, http://0-www.jstor.org.mercury.concordia.ca/stable/40193107</ref>

[[File:ChicagoTribuneFire.jpg|230px|thumb|''Chicago Tribune'' editorial]]
The amateur historian Richard Bales has suggested the fire started when [[Daniel Sullivan (Great Chicago Fire)|Daniel "Pegleg" Sullivan]], who first reported the fire, ignited hay in the barn while trying to steal milk.<ref name="regen">{{Cite book | last = Bales | first = Richard F. |author2=Thomas F. Schwartz | title = The Great Chicago Fire and the Myth of Mrs. O'Leary's Cow | publisher = McFarland & Co. | year = 2005 | location = Jefferson, NC | pages = 127–130 | isbn = 0-7864-2358-7}}</ref>
Anthony DeBartolo reported evidence in the ''Chicago Tribune'' suggesting that [[Louis M. Cohn]] may have started the fire during a craps game.

Bales' account does not have consensus. The Chicago Public Library staff criticized his account in their web page on the fire.<ref>{{cite web | title = The Chicago Fire | publisher = Chicago Public Library | year = 2009 | url = http://www.thechicagofire.com/| accessdate = 2009-09-30}}</ref>

An alternative theory, first suggested in 1882 by [[Ignatius L. Donnelly]] in ''[[Ragnarok: The Age of Fire and Gravel]]'', is that the Great Chicago Fire was caused by a [[meteor shower]]. At a 2004 conference of the Aerospace Corporation and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, engineer and physicist Robert Wood suggested that the fire began when [[Biela's Comet]] broke up over the Midwest. That four large fires took place, all on the same day, all on the shores of [[Lake Michigan]] (see [[#Related events|Related Events]]), suggests a common root cause. Eyewitnesses reported sighting spontaneous ignitions, lack of smoke, "balls of fire" falling from the sky, and blue flames. According to Wood, these accounts suggest that the fires were caused by the [[methane]] that is commonly found in comets.<ref>{{cite web |first=Robert |last=Wood |title=Did Biela's Comet Cause the Chicago and Midwest Fires? |date=February 3, 2004 |publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics | url=http://pdf.aiaa.org/preview/CDReadyMPDC04_865/PV2004_1419.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>

But as [[meteorite]]s are not known to start or spread fires and are cool to the touch after reaching the ground, this theory has not found favor in the scientific community.<ref name = "Calfee">{{cite journal
| last = Calfee | first = Mica | authorlink =
| title = Was It A Cow Or A Meteorite?
| journal = Meteorite Magazine
| volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages =
| publisher = | location =
| date = February 2003 | language =
| url = http://www.fireserviceinfo.com/cow-comet.html
| accessdate = 2011-11-10}}</ref><ref name = "NASA">{{cite web
| title = Meteorites Don't Pop Corn
| work = [http://science.nasa.gov/ NASA Science]
| publisher = [[NASA]]
| date = 2001-07-27
| url = http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast27jul_1/
| format =
| accessdate = 2011-11-10}}</ref> A common cause for the fires in the Midwest can be found in the fact that the area had suffered through a tinder-dry summer, so that winds from the front that moved in that evening were capable of generating rapidly expanding blazes from available ignition sources, which were plentiful in the region.<ref name = "Gess">{{cite book
| last = Gess | first = D. | authorlink =
|author2=Lutz, W.
| title = Firestorm at Peshtigo: A Town, Its People, and the Deadliest Fire in American History
| publisher = Macmillan
| year = 2003 | location = New York | pages = | language =
| url = http://www.google.com/books?id=7ALzHG4sRmAC&pg=PA1
| isbn =978-0-8050-7293-8
| oclc = 52421495}}</ref><ref name = "Bales2">{{cite book
| last = Bales | first = R. F. | authorlink =
|author2=Schwartz, T. F.
| title = The Great Chicago Fire and the Myth of Mrs. O'Leary's Cow
| publisher = McFarland | chapter = Debunking Other Myths
| date = April 2005 | location = | page = 111 | language =
| url = http://www.google.com/books?id=clov25F-2dQC&pg=PA111
| isbn = 978-0-7864-2358-3
| oclc = 68940921}}</ref> Methane-air mixtures become flammable only when the methane concentration exceeds 5%, at which point the mixtures also become explosive.<ref name = "ToolBox">{{cite web
| title = Gases - Explosive and Flammability Concentration Limits
| work = | publisher = EngineeringToolBox.com
| url = http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/explosive-concentration-limits-d_423.html
| accessdate = 2011-11-13}}</ref><ref name = "FactSheet">{{cite web
| title = Landfill Gas
| work = Environmental Health Fact Sheet
| publisher = [[Illinois Department of Public Health]]
| url = http://www.idph.state.il.us/envhealth/factsheets/landfillgas.htm
| accessdate = 2011-11-13}}</ref> Methane gas is lighter than air and thus does not accumulate near the ground;<ref name = "FactSheet"/> any localized pockets of methane in the open air would rapidly dissipate. Moreover, if a fragment of an icy comet were to strike the Earth, the most likely outcome, due to the low [[tensile strength]] of such bodies, would be for it to disintegrate in the upper atmosphere, leading to an [[air burst]] explosion analogous to that of the [[Tunguska event]].<ref name = "Beech">{{cite journal
| last = Beech | first = M. | authorlink =
| title = The Problem of Ice Meteorites
| journal = Meteorite Quarterly
| volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 17–19 | publisher = | location =
| date = November 2006 | language =
| url = http://hyperion.cc.uregina.ca/~astro/Ice_Mets.pdf | doi =
| accessdate = 2011-11-13}}</ref>

==Surviving structures==

The following structures are the only structures from the burnt district still standing:

*[[St. Michael's Church, Old Town, Chicago|St. Michael's Church, Old Town]]
*[[Chicago Water Tower]]
*[[Chicago Avenue Pumping Station]]
* Police Constable Bellinger's cottage at 2121 N. Hudson{{reference needed|date=May 2014}}

Additionally, though the inhabitable portions of the building were destroyed, the bell tower of [[St._James_Cathedral_(Chicago)|St. James Cathedral]] survived the fire and was incorporated into the rebuilt church. The stones near the top of the tower are still blackened from the soot and smoke.

[[Holy Family Catholic Church (Chicago, Illinois)|Holy Family Catholic Church]] and its related structures were standing at the time of the fire and survived, but these buildings were several blocks outside the path of the fire and were never threatened.

St. Michael's Church and the Pumping Station were both gutted in the fire, but their exteriors survived, and the buildings were rebuilt using the surviving walls.

==Related events==
On that hot, dry, and windy autumn day, three other major fires occurred along the shores of [[Lake Michigan]] at the same time as the Great Chicago Fire. Some {{convert|250|mi|km}} to the north, the [[Peshtigo Fire]] consumed the town of [[Peshtigo, Wisconsin]], along with a dozen other villages. It killed 1,200 to 2,500 people and charred approximately 1.5 million acres (6,000 km²). The Peshtigo Fire remains the deadliest in American history but the remoteness of the region meant it was little noticed at the time.<ref name="sun">{{cite web
| last = Tasker | first = G. | title = Worst fire largely unknown
| work = [[The Baltimore Sun]] | publisher = | date = 2003-10-10
| url = http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2003-10-10/news/0310100309_1_firestorm-chicago-fire-fire-museum
| accessdate = 2013-10-09}}</ref>

Across the lake to the east, the town of [[Holland, Michigan]], and other nearby areas burned to the ground.<ref name = Wilkins2012>{{cite web
| last = Wilkins | first = A.
| title = October 8, 1871: The Night America Burned
| work = [http://io9.com/ io9.com]
| publisher = [[Gawker Media]] | date = 2012-03-29
| url = http://io9.com/5897629/october-8-1871-the-night-america-burned
| accessdate = 2013-10-09}}</ref> Some {{convert|100|mi|km}} to the north of Holland, the lumbering community of [[Manistee, Michigan|Manistee]] also went up in flames<ref name="Co1882">{{cite book|author=H. R. Page & Co.|title=History of Manistee County, Michigan|chapter = The Great Fire of 1871|url=http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~mimanist/ManHist14.html|year=1882|place=Chicago|publisher=H. R. Page & Co.}}</ref> in what became known as [[The Great Michigan Fire]].<ref name = Wilkins2012/>

Farther east, along the shore of [[Lake Huron]], the [[Port Huron Fire of 1871|Port Huron Fire]] swept through [[Port Huron, Michigan]] and much of [[Michigan]]'s [[The Thumb|"Thumb"]]. On October 9, 1871, a fire swept through the city of [[Urbana, Illinois]], {{convert|140|mi|km}} south of Chicago, destroying portions of its downtown area.<ref>{{cite web
| title = History Of The Urbana Fire Department
| work = | publisher = Urbana Firefighters Local 1147 | date = 2008-03-07
| url = http://www.iafflocal1147.org/?zone=/unionactive/view_article.cfm&HomeID=74831&page=About20Us
| format = | accessdate = 2011-11-11}}</ref> [[Windsor, Ontario]], likewise burned on October 12.<ref name = "Timeline">{{cite web
| title = The Timeline: Fire of 1871
| work = Settling Canada's South: How Windsor Was Made
| publisher = [[Windsor Public Library]] | year = 2002
| url = http://209.202.75.197/digi/chi/timeline.asp?Lang=english
| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071026073802/http://209.202.75.197/digi/chi/drawpage.asp?RelationID=fire
| archivedate = 2007-10-08 | deadurl = yes | accessdate = 2008-03-14}}</ref>

The city of [[Singapore, Michigan]], provided a large portion of the lumber to rebuild Chicago. As a result, the area was so heavily deforested that the land deteriorated into barren sand dunes and the town had to be abandoned.<ref>Royce, Julie Albrecht (2007). [http://books.google.com/books?id=hMLjOnGC_pAC&pg=PA58 ''Traveling Michigan's Sunset Coast''], pp. 58-59. Dog Ear Publishing. Retrieved 3 May 2014.</ref>

[[File:Chicago Fire Burned More than 17,000 Homes.jpg|thumb|Newspaper Clipping With Similar Fires]]

==In popular culture==
* The [[Chicago Fire Soccer Club|Chicago Fire]], a [[Major League Soccer]] team, was founded on October 8, 1997, the 126th anniversary of the Great Chicago Fire. Earlier, another [[Chicago Fire (American football)|Chicago Fire]] team had played in the short-lived [[World Football League]] for one year under the same name. Another Chicago Fire played in the [[American Football Association (1979–1982)|American Football Association]].{{citation needed|date = October 2013}}

* The [[University of Illinois at Chicago]] athletic teams are nicknamed the [[UIC Flames|Flames]], in commemoration of the Great Chicago Fire.<ref>{{Cite web | title = UIC Symbols: School Colors, Mascot, Song | work = UIC On-line Student Handbook | publisher = The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois | year = 2009 | url = http://www.vcsa.uic.edu/MainSite/departments/Handbook/Home/UIC+History+And+More.htm | accessdate = 2010-05-09}}</ref>

* Although set in Philadelphia, [[Theodore Dreiser]]'s 1912 novel ''[[The Financier]]'' portrays the nationwide impact the 1871 Chicago fire had on the stock markets and the financial world.{{citation needed|date = October 2013}}

* The 1937 film ''[[In Old Chicago]]'' is centered on the fire, with a highly fictionalized portrayal of the O'Leary family as the main characters.{{citation needed|date = October 2013}}

* A key section of [[Richard C. Meredith]]'s science fiction novel ''[[Run, Come See Jerusalem!]]'' depicts the Great Chicago Fire from the point of view of rival time-travelers from the future, whose struggle amidst the raging flames would impact the entire history of the world.{{citation needed|date = October 2013}}

* Events of [[James Reasoner|Dana Fuller Ross]]'s 1986 novel ''Illinois!'' occur around the Great Chicago Fire.{{citation needed|date = October 2013}}

*The punk rock band [[Allister]] wrote a song called "The Legend of Pegleg Sullivan" for their album [[Before the Blackout]]; the lyrics are written assuming [[Daniel Sullivan (Great Chicago Fire)]] started the fire.

==See also==
{{Portal|Chicago}}
*[[Bombardment of Brussels]]
*[[Chicago Flood]]
*[[Dwight L. Moody]] – 19th-century evangelist whose church was burnt down in the fire
*[[Great Fire of London]] – 1666
*[[Great Fire of Pittsburgh]] – 1845
*[[Great Boston Fire of 1872]]
*[[Great Fire of Toronto (1904)|Great Toronto Fire]] – 1904
*[[Horatio Spafford]] – Author of hymn "[[It Is Well With My Soul]]"
*[[Ida Henrietta Hyde]]

==Panorama==
{{Panorama
|image = File:Attributed to George N. Barnard - Untitled (Chicago after the Chicago Fire) - Google Art Project.jpg
|height = 400
|alt =
|caption = Panorama of Chicago after the 1871 Fire. Image attributed to George N. Barnard.
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Bales |first=Richard F. |title=The Great Chicago Fire and the Myth of Mrs. O'Leary's Cow |year=2002 |publisher=McFarland |location=Jefferson, NC. |isbn=0-7864-1424-3 }}
*''Chicago and the Great Conflagration'' – [[Elias Colbert]] and [[Everett Chamberlin]], 1871, 528 pp.
*"[http://www.hydeparkmedia.com/cohn.html Who Caused the Great Chicago Fire? A Possible Deathbed Confession]" – by Anthony DeBartolo, ''Chicago Tribune'', October 8, 1997 and "Odds Improve That a Hot Game of Craps in Mrs. O'Leary's Barn Touched Off Chicago Fire" – by Anthony DeBartolo, ''Chicago Tribune'', March 3, 1998
*"History of the Great Fires in Chicago and the West". – Rev. [[Edgar J. Goodspeed]], [[Doctor of Divinity|D.D.]], 677 pp.
* Morris, Roy, Jr., ''Sheridan: The Life and Wars of General Phil Sheridan'', Crown Publishing, 1992, ISBN 0-517-58070-5.
*"People & Events: The Great Fire of 1871". [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/chicago/peopleevents/e_fire.html The Public Broadcasting System (PBS) Website]. Retrieved September 3, 2004.
*''The Great Conflagration'' – [[James W. Sheahan]] and [[George P. Upton]], 1871, 458 pp.
*{{cite journal |last=Shaw |first=William B. |authorlink= |date=October 5, 1921 |title=The Chicago Fire – Fifty Years After |journal=[[The Outlook (New York)|The Outlook]] |volume=129 |issue= |pages=176–178 |id= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sVroBrOJL64C&pg=PA176 |accessdate=2009-07-30 |quote= }}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Carl |title=Urban Disorder and the Shape of Belief: The Great Chicago Fire, the Haymarket Bomb, and the Model Town of Pullman |year=1995 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago, Ill. |isbn=0-226-76416-8 }}
* "Mrs. O'Leary's Comet: Cosmic Causes of the Great Chicago Fire" by Mel Waskin (Jan 1985)

==External links==
{{commons category|1871 Great Chicago Fire}}
* [http://www.thechicagofire.com/ The Cause of the Great Chicago Fire]
* [http://www.chicagohs.org/fire/intro/gcf-index.html The Great Chicago Fire]
* [http://greatchicagofire.org/ Great Chicago Fire & the Web of Memory]
{{Coord|41.869313|-87.641791|display=title}}

{{Chicago}}
{{Chicago Landmark memorials and monuments}}

[[Category:1871 fires]]
[[Category:1871 in Illinois]]
[[Category:Urban fires in the United States|Chicago]]
[[Category:History of Chicago, Illinois]]
[[Category:History of the United States (1865–1918)]]
[[Category:Landmarks in Chicago, Illinois]]
[[Category:Fires in Illinois|Great Chicago Fire]]
[[Category:Great Chicago Fire| ]]
[[Category:19th century in Chicago, Illinois]]

Ivan Pavlov

2013-06-17T13:28:11Z

190.196.211.42: /* Early life and schooling */

{{other people}}

{{Infobox scientist
|name = Ivan Petrovich Pavlov Иван Петрович Павлов
|image = Ivan Pavlov NLM3.jpg
|image_size = 220px
|caption =
|birth_date = {{birth date|1849|09|26|df=yes}}
|birth_place = [[Ryazan]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1936|02|27|1849|09|26|df=yes}}
|death_place = [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], [[Soviet Union]]
|residence = [[Russian Empire]], [[Soviet Union]]
|nationality = [[Russians|Russian]], [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]
|field = [[Physiology|Physiologist]], [[physician]]
|work_institution = Military Medical Academy
|alma_mater = [[Saint Petersburg State University|Saint Petersburg University]]
|doctoral_advisor =
|doctoral_students =
|known_for = [[Classical conditioning]] [[Transmarginal inhibition]] [[Behavior modification]]
|prizes = [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (1904)
|footnotes =
}}
'''Ivan Petrovich Pavlov''' ({{lang-ru|Ива́н Петро́вич Па́влов}}; {{OldStyleDate|26 September|1849|14 September}}{{spaced ndash}}27 February 1936) was a famous Russian [[physiologist]]. From his childhood days Pavlov demonstrated intellectual brilliance along with an unusual energy which he named "the instinct for research".<ref name="cavendish9"/> Inspired when the progressive ideas which [[Dmitry Pisarev|D. I. Pisarev]], the most eminent of the Russian literary critics of the 1860s and [[Ivan Sechenov|I. M. Sechenov]], the father of Russian physiology, were spreading, Pavlov abandoned his religious career and decided to devote his life to science. In 1870 he enrolled in the physics and mathematics faculty at the [[Saint Petersburg State University|University of Saint Petersburg]] to take the course in natural science.<ref name="frs">{{cite doi|10.1098/rsbm.1936.0001}}</ref> Ivan Pavlov devoted his life to the study of physiology and sciences, making several remarkable discoveries and ideas that were passed on from generation to generation.<ref name=nobelbio>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine 1904 Ivan Pavlov|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/pavlov-bio.html|publisher=Nobelmedia|accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref> He won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1904.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/ |title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904 |publisher=nobelprize.org |accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="cavendish9"/>

==Early life and schooling==
[[File:Pavlov House Ryazan.JPG|thumb|left|The Pavlov Memorial Museum, [[Ryazan]]: Pavlov's former home, built in the early 19th century<ref>[http://pavlov.amr-museum.ru/engl/e_museum.htm The memorial estate] About the house</ref>]]

Ivan Pavlov era el mejor basebolista de la historia de haiti, tambien supo como era el triangulo pascal y cree en jesus mormon y judio, fue abandonado por barnie y luego fue a comer una big mac con su amigo negro, the eldest of eleven children,<ref name="Credo Reference">{{cite web|title=Ivan Petrovich Pavlov|work=Biographical Dictionary of Psychology|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=0415285615|editor=Sheehy, Noel; Chapman, Antony J. and Conroy, Wendy A. }}</ref> was born in [[Ryazan]] (now the [[Central Federal District]]) of Russia. His father, Peter Dmitrievich Pavlov (1823–1899), was a village [[priest]].<ref name=nobelbio/> His mother, Varvara Ivanovna Uspenskaya (1826–1890), was a devoted homemaker. As a child, Pavlov willingly participated in house duties such as doing the dishes and taking care of his siblings. He loved to garden, ride his bicycle, row, swim, and play [[gorodki]]; he devoted his summer vacations to these activities.<ref>Asratyan, p. 8</ref> Although able to read by the age of 7, Pavlov was seriously injured when he fell from a high wall onto stone pavement;<ref>Asratyan, p. 9</ref> he did not undergo formal schooling until he was 11 years old as a result of his injuries.<ref name="Credo Reference"/>

Pavlov attended and graduated from the Ryazan Church School before entering the local theological seminary. However, in 1870, Pavlov left the seminary without graduating to attend the university at St. Petersburg where he enrolled in the physics and math department and took natural science courses. In his fourth year, his first research project on the physiology of the nerves of the pancreas<ref>Asratyan, pp. 9–11</ref> won him a prestigious university award. In 1875, Pavlov completed his course with an outstanding record and received the degree of Candidate of Natural Sciences. However, impelled by his overwhelming interest in physiology, he decided to continue his studies and proceeded to the Academy of Medical Surgery. While at the Academy of Medical Surgery, Pavlov became an assistant to his former teacher, Tyson, but left the department when Tyson was replaced by another instructor.

After some time, Pavlov obtained a position as a laboratory assistant to Professor Ustimovich at the physiological department of the Veterinary Institute.<ref>Asratyan, p. 12</ref> For two years, Pavlov investigated the circulatory system for his medical dissertation.<ref name="Credo Reference"/> In 1878, Professor S.P. Botkin, a famous Russian clinician, invited the gifted young physiologist to work in the physiological laboratory as the clinic's chief. In 1879, Pavlov graduated from the Medical Military Academy with a gold metal award for his research work. After a competitive examination, Pavlov won a fellowship at the Academy for postgraduate work.<ref>Asratyan, p. 13</ref> The fellowship and his position as Director of the Physiological Laboratory at the clinic of the famous Russian clinician, [[Sergey Botkin|S. P. Botkin]] enabled Pavlov to continue his research work. In 1883, he presented his doctor's thesis on the subject of ''The centrifugal nerves of the heart'' and posited the idea of ''nervism'' and the basic principles on the trophic function of the nervous system. Additionally, his collaboration with the Botkin clinic produced evidence of a basic pattern in the regulation of reflexs in the activity of circulatory organs.
[[File:Ivan Pavlov NLM2.jpg|thumb|Ivan Pavlov]]

==Career==
After completing his doctorate, Pavlov went to Germany where he studied in [[Leipzig]] with [[Carl Ludwig]] in the Heidenhain laboratories in [[Breslau]]. He remained there from 1884 to 1886. Heidenhain was studying digestion in dogs, using an exteriorized section of the stomach. However, Pavlov perfected the technique by overcoming the problem of maintaining the external nerve supply. The exteriorized section became known as the Heidenhai or Pavlov pouch.<ref name="Credo Reference"/> After two years (1884–1886), Pavlov returned from Germany to look for a new position. His application for the chair of physiology at the [[University of Saint Petersburg]] was rejected. Eventually, Pavlov was given the chair of pharmacology at the [[Tomsk University]] and then at the [[University of Warsaw]]. However, he went to neither place. In 1890, he was appointed the role of professor of Pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy and occupied the position for 5 years.<ref name="Asratyan 1953 17–18">Asratyan, pp. 17–18</ref> Pavlov was invited to the [http://www.iemrams.spb.ru/ Institute of Experimental Medicine] in 1891 to organize and direct the Department of Physiology. Over a 45 year period, under his direction it became one of the most important centers of physiological research.<ref name=nobelbio/> While Pavlov directed the Department of Physiology at the Institute, he also transferred to the chair of physiology at the Medical Military Academy. This change in positions at the Academy occurred in 1895. He headed the physiology department at the Academy continuously for three decades.<ref name="Asratyan 1953 17–18"/> Also, starting in 1901, Pavlov was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for four successive years. However, he did not win because his nominations were not specific to any discovery and were based on a variety of laboratory findings.<ref name="Credo Reference">{{cite web|title=Ivan Pavlov|work=Science in the Early Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia.}}</ref> In 1904, Pavlov was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel laureate]] "in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged".<ref>[http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904 Ivan Pavlov]. nobelprize.org</ref>

While at the Institute of Experimental Medicine he carried out his classical experiments on the digestive glands which is how he eventually won the Nobel prize mentioned above.<ref>Asratyan, p. 18</ref> Pavlov investigated the [[stomach|gastric]] function of [[dog]]s, and later children,<ref>{{cite book|editor=Reagan, Leslie A., et al|title=Medicine's moving pictures|year=2007|publisher=University of Rochester Press|location=Rochester, NY|isbn=1-58046-234-0|page=285}}</ref> by externalizing a [[salivary gland]] so he could collect, measure, and analyze the [[saliva]] and what response it had to food under different conditions. He noticed that the dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths, and set out to investigate this "psychic secretion", as he called it. Pavlov’s laboratory housed a full-scale kennel for the experimental animals. Pavlov was interested in observing their long-term physiological processes. This required keeping them alive and healthy in order to conduct chronic experiments, as he called them. These were experiments over time, designed to understand the normal functions of animals. This was a new kind of study, because previously experiments had been “acute,” meaning that the dog went through [[vivisection]] and was ultimately killed in the process.<ref name="Credo Reference">{{cite web|title=Ivan Pavlov|work=Science in the Early Twentieth Century}}</ref>

A 1921 article by S. Morgulis in the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', came as a critique of Pavlov's work in that it addressed concerns about the environment in which these experiments had been performed. Based on a report from [[H. G. Wells]], claiming that Pavlov grew potatoes and carrots in his lab, the article stated, "It is gratifying to be assured that Professor Pavlov is raising potatoes only as a pastime and still gives the best of his genius to scientific investigation".<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.53.1360.74 |title=PROFESSOR PAVLOV|year=1921|last1=Morgulis|first1=S.|journal=Science|volume=53|issue=1360|pages=74|bibcode = 1921Sci....53Q..74M }}</ref> Also in 1921, Pavlov began holding laboratory meetings known as the ‘Wednesday meetings’ where he spoke bluntly on many topics, including his views on psychology. These meetings lasted until he died in 1936.<ref name="Credo Reference"/>

Pavlov was highly regarded by the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] government, and he was able to continue his research until he reached a considerable age. He was praised by [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/jan/24.htm |title=Concerning The Conditions Ensuring The Research Work Of Academician I. P. Pavlov and his associates|author=Lenin, V.I. |publisher=Marxists.org|accessdate=2012-04-15}}</ref> However, despite the praise from the Soviet Union government, the money that poured out to support his laboratory, and the honours he was given, Pavlov made no attempts to conceal the disapproval and contempt in which he held Soviet Communism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwwa.britannica.com/eb/article-5560 |title=Ivan Petrovich Pavlov :: Opposition to Communism – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=britannica.com |date=1936-02-27 |accessdate=2012-04-15}}</ref> For example, in 1923 he claimed that he would not sacrifice even the hind leg of a frog to the type of social experiment that the regime was conducting in Russia. Also, in 1927, he wrote to Stalin protesting at what was being done to Russian intellectuals and saying he was ashamed to be a Russian.<ref name="cavendish9"/> After the murder of [[Sergei Kirov]] in 1934, Pavlov wrote several letters to [[Vyacheslav Molotov|Molotov]] criticizing the mass persecutions which followed and asking for the reconsideration of cases pertaining to several people he knew personally.<ref name="cavendish9">{{cite journal|author=Cavendish, Richard. |url=http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/death-ivan-pavlov |title=Death of Ivan Pavlov|journal= History Today |volume=61|issue=2 |year=2011|page= 9}}</ref>

Conscious until his very last moment, Pavlov asked one of his students to sit beside his bed and to record the circumstances of his dying. He wanted to create unique evidence of subjective experiences of this terminal phase of life.<ref>Chance, Paul. ''Learning and Behaviour''. Wadsworth Pub. Co., 1988. ISBN 0-534-08508-3. p. 48.</ref> Pavlov died of [[double pneumonia]] at the age of 86. He was given a grandiose funeral, and his study and laboratory were preserved as a museum in his honour.<ref name="cavendish9"/>

==Married life and family problems==
{{tone|date=May 2013}}
Ivan Pavlov married Seraphima Vasilievna Karchevskaya on 1 May 1881. They met in 1878 or 1879 when Seraphima went to St. Petersburg to study at the Pedagogical Institute. Seraphima, called Sara for short, was born in 1855. In her later years, she suffered from ill health and died in 1947.
The first nine years of their marriage were marred by financial problems. Pavlov and his wife often had to stay with others in order to have a home. For a while they even had to live apart so they could find hospitality. Although their general lack of money caused despair, material welfare was a secondary consideration.

Sara’s first pregnancy ended in a miscarriage. When Sara became pregnant for the second time, however, the couple took precautions and the baby arrived safely. Their first child, a son, was named Mirchik. Sara adored Mirchik and became very depressed after he died very suddenly while still a child. Sara and Mirchik were staying in a country home when he died, most likely as a result of some children’s summer disease. Ivan and Sara eventually had three more children: Vsevolod, Vladimir, and Vera. Their youngest son, Vsevolod, died of [[pancreatic cancer]] in 1935, only one year before Pavlov’s own death.<ref>{{cite book|last=Babkin|first=B.P.|title=Pavlov, A Biography|year=1949|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago and London|pages=27–54|url=http://archive.org/details/pavlovabiography010332mbp|isbn=1406743976}}</ref>

==Reflex system research==
{{See also|Reflex}}
Pavlov contributed to many areas of physiology and neurological sciences. Most of his work involved research in [[temperament]]{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}, [[classical conditioning|conditioning]] and [[Reflex action|involuntary reflex actions]].

Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing ''The Work of the Digestive Glands'' in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/press.html |title=1904 Nobel prize laureates |publisher=Nobelprize.org |date=1904-12-10 |accessdate=2012-04-15}}</ref> These experiments included surgically extracting portions of the digestive system from animals, severing nerve bundles to determine the effects, and implanting [[fistula]]s between digestive organs and an external pouch to examine the organ's contents. This research served as a base for broad research on the [[digestive system]].

Further work on reflex actions involved involuntary reactions to stress and pain. Pavlov extended the definitions of the four temperament types under study at the time: phlegmatic, choleric, sanguine, and melancholic, updating the names to "the strong and impetuous type, the strong equilibrated and quiet type, the strong equilibrated and lively type, and the weak type." Pavlov and his researchers observed and began the study of [[transmarginal inhibition]] (TMI), the body's natural response of shutting down when exposed to overwhelming stress or pain by electric shock.<ref>Mazlish, Bruce (1995) Fourth Discontinuity: The Co-Evolution of Humans and Machines, Yale University Press, pp. 122–123 ISBN 0-300-06512-4</ref> This research showed how all temperament types responded to the stimuli the same way, but different temperaments move through the responses at different times. He commented "that the most basic inherited difference. .. was how soon they reached this shutdown point and that the quick-to-shut-down have a fundamentally different type of nervous system."<ref>Rokhin, L, Pavlov, I & Popov, Y. (1963) Psychopathology and Psychiatry, Foreign Languages Publication House: Moscow.</ref>

[[Carl Jung]] continued Pavlov's work on TMI and correlated the observed shutdown types in animals with his own introverted and extroverted temperament types in humans. Introverted persons, he believed, were more sensitive to stimuli and reached a TMI state earlier than their extroverted counterparts. This continuing research branch is gaining the name [[highly sensitive persons]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

[[William Sargant]] and others continued the behavioural research in mental conditioning to achieve [[memory implantation]] and brainwashing (any effort aimed at instilling certain attitudes and beliefs in a person).{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

==Legacy==
[[File:One of Pavlov's dogs.jpg|thumb|One of Pavlov's dogs, [[Taxidermy|preserved]] at The Pavlov Museum, [[Ryazan|Ryazan, Russia]]]]
The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the "[[Classical conditioning|conditioned reflex]]" (or in his own words the ''conditional reflex'': the translation of условный рефлекс into English is debatable) he developed jointly with his assistant [[Ivan Filippovitch Tolochinov]] in 1901. He had come to learn this concept of conditioned reflex when examining the rates of salivations among dogs. Pavlov had learned then when a bell was rung in subsequent time with food being presented to the dog in consecutive sequences, the dog will initially salivate when the food is presented. The dog will later come to associate the ringing of the bell with the presentation of the food and salivate upon the ringing of the bell.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Todes
| first = Daniel Philip
| title = Pavlov's Physiology Factory
| publisher =Johns Hopkins University Press
| year = 2002
| location = Baltimore MD
| pages = 232 ff.
| isbn = 0-8018-6690-1}}</ref>
Tolochinov, whose own term for the phenomenon had been "reflex at a distance", communicated the results at the Congress of Natural Sciences in [[Helsinki]] in 1903.<ref>{{cite book |last= Pavlov |first= I. P. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title= Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. Translated and Edited by G. V. Anrep |year= 1927 |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] |location= London |page=142 |url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Pavlov/}}</ref> Later the same year Pavlov more fully explained the findings, at the 14th International Medical Congress in [[Madrid]], where he read a paper titled ''The Experimental Psychology and Psychopathology of Animals''.<ref name=nobelbio/>

As Pavlov's work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of [[John B. Watson]], the idea of "conditioning" as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the developing specialism of [[comparative psychology]], and the general approach to psychology that underlay it, [[behaviorism]]. Pavlov's work with classical conditioning was of huge influence to how humans perceive themselves, their behavior and learning processes and his studies of classical conditioning continue to be central to modern behavior therapy.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Plaud, J. J., & Wolpe, J. |year=1997|title=Pavlov's contributions to behavior therapy: The obvious and the not so obvious|journal=American Psychologist|volume= 52|issue=9|pages=966–972|pmid=9382243|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.52.9.966}}</ref> The British [[philosophy|philosopher]] [[Bertrand Russell]] was an enthusiastic advocate of the importance of Pavlov's work for [[philosophy of mind]].<ref>Russell, Bertrand (1931), ''The Scientific Outlook'', London: George Allen & Unwin.</ref>

Pavlov's research on conditional reflexes greatly influenced not only science, but also popular culture. Pavlovian conditioning was a major theme in [[Aldous Huxley]]'s [[dystopian]] novel, ''[[Brave New World]]'', and also to a large degree in [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s ''[[Gravity's Rainbow]]''.

It is popularly believed that Pavlov always signaled the occurrence of food by ringing a bell. However, his writings record the use of a wide variety of stimuli, including electric shocks, [[whistle]]s, [[metronome]]s, [[tuning fork]]s, and a range of visual stimuli, in addition to the ring of a bell. Catania<ref>Catania, A. Charles (1994); ''Query: Did Pavlov's Research Ring a Bell?'', PSYCOLOQUY Newsletter, Tuesday, June 7, 1994</ref> cast doubt on whether Pavlov ever actually used a bell in his famous experiments. Littman<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.cogsci.ecs.soton.ac.uk/cgi/psyc/newpsy?5.80 |author=Littman, Richard A. |year=1994|title=Bekhterev and Watson Rang Pavlov's Bell|journal=Psycoloquy|volume= 5|issue=49}}</ref> tentatively attributed the popular imagery to Pavlov’s contemporaries [[Vladimir Bekhterev|Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev]] and [[John B. Watson]], until Thomas<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.cogsci.ecs.soton.ac.uk/cgi/psyc/newpsy?article=5.49 |author=Thomas, Roger K. |year=1994|title=Pavlov's Rats "dripped Saliva at the Sound of a Bell"|journal=Psycoloquy|volume= 5|issue=80}}</ref> found several references that unambiguously stated Pavlov did, indeed, use a bell.

It is less widely known that Pavlov's experiments on the conditional reflex extended to children, some of whom underwent surgical procedures, similar to those performed on the dogs, for the collection of saliva.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00xhgkd |title=The Brain: A Secret History at bbc.co.uk "Mind Control" broadcast on BBC 4 on 11 January 2011 |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2011-03-28 |accessdate=2012-04-15}}</ref>

In 1964 the eminent psychologist [[H. J. Eysenck]] reviewed Pavlov's "Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes" for the [[British Medical Journal]]: Volume I - "Twenty-five Years of Objective Study of the Higher Nervous Activity of Animals", Volume II - "Conditioned Reflexes and Psychiatry".<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.5401.111-b|title=Pavlov's Writings|year=1964|last1=Eysenck|first1=H. J.|journal=BMJ|volume=2|issue=5401|pages=111}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Behavior Modification]]
* [[Classical conditioning]]
* [[Orienting response]]
* [[Pavlovian session]]
* [[Ryazan]]
* [[Rostov State Medical University]]
* [[Georgii Zeliony]]

==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last=Asratyan|first=E.A.|title=I.P. Pavlov: His Life and Work|year=1953|publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House|location=Moscow}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last= Boakes |first= Robert |authorlink= |coauthors= |title= From Darwin to behaviourism |year= 1984 |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |location= Cambridge |isbn= 978-0-521-23512-9 }}
* {{cite book |last= Firkin |first= Barry G. |authorlink= |coauthors= J.A. Whitworth |title= Dictionary of Medical Eponyms |year= 1987 |publisher= Parthenon Publishing |location= |isbn= 978-1-85070-333-4 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Todes |first=D. P. |year=1997 |title=Pavlov's Physiological Factory |journal=Isis |volume=88 |publisher=The History of Science Society |pages=205–246 |issue=2 |jstor=236572 }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhpavl.html PBS article]
* [http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1904/pavlov-bio.html Nobel Prize website biography of I. P. Pavlov]
* [http://iemrams.spb.ru:8100/english/pavlov.htm Institute of Experimental Medicine article on Pavlov]
* [http://www.ivanpavlov.com/ Link to full text of Pavlov's lectures]
* [http://dubnaulab.cshl.edu/data/JD_dogs.html Link to a list of Pavlov's dogs with some pictures]
* [http://www.butler-bowdon.com/Pavlov-Conditioned-Reflexes Commentary on Pavlov's ''Conditioned Reflexes''] from ''50 Psychology Classics''
* [http://russian.lingualift.com/blog/ivan-pavlov-dogs-nobel/ Ivan Pavlov and his dogs]

{{Copley Medallists 1901-1950}}
{{Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Laureates 1901-1925}}
{{Psychology}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=36977716|LCCN=n/79/91172|GND=118592297}}

{{Persondata
|NAME= Pavlov, Ivan
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= [[Physiology|Physiologist]], [[physician]]
|DATE OF BIRTH= September 14, 1849
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Ryazan]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]]
|DATE OF DEATH= February 27, 1936
|PLACE OF DEATH= [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], [[Soviet Union]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich}}
[[Category:1849 births]]
[[Category:1936 deaths]]
[[Category:Saint Petersburg State University alumni]]
[[Category:Full Members of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Full Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)]]
[[Category:Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine]]
[[Category:Russian Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal]]
[[Category:History of neuroscience]]
[[Category:Animal trainers]]
[[Category:Ethologists]]
[[Category:Russian educationists]]
[[Category:Russian scientists]]
[[Category:Soviet scientists]]
[[Category:People from Saint Petersburg]]
[[Category:People from Ryazan]]
[[Category:Russian atheists]]

Educational technology

2013-04-11T11:58:32Z

190.196.211.42: /* Criticism */

{{Educational research}}
'''Educational technology''', sometimes termed '''EdTech''', is the study and ethical practice of facilitating [[e-learning]], which is the learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.<ref>Richey, R.C. (2008). Reflections on the 2008 AECT Definitions of the Field. TechTrends. 52(1) 24-25</ref> The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, [[instructional theory]] and [[Learning theory (education)|learning theory]]. While '''[[instructional technology]]''' is "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning," according to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology Committee,<ref>{{cite book | title = E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Framework for Research and Practice | author = D. Randy Garrison and Terry Anderson | isbn = 0-415-26346-8 | year = 2003 | publisher = Routledge | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=UZOG5KEoiCQC&pg=PA33&dq=define-instructional-technology&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=ClahR5qoMY_-sQPyx-2bCg&sig=P3kU_P8ZfHHGAvedqg3rF2UG7gc }}</ref> educational technology includes other systems used in the process of developing human capability. Educational technology includes, but is not limited to, software, hardware, as well as Internet applications, such as wikis and blogs, and activities. But there is still debate on what these terms mean.<ref>Lowenthal, P. R., & Wilson, B. G. (2010). Labels do matter! A critique of AECT’s redefinition of the field. ''TechTrends, 54''(1), 38-46. {{doi|10.1007/s11528-009-0362-y}}</ref>

Technology of education is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student learning and may be measured in how and why individuals behave. Educational Technology relies on a broad definition of the word "[[technology]]." Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not limited to overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools such as "smartphones" and games (both online and offline) are beginning to draw serious attention for their learning potential. [[Media psychology]] is the field of study that applies theories in human behavior to educational technology.

Consider the ''Handbook of Human Performance Technology''.<ref>''Handbook of Human Performance Technology'' (Eds. Harold Stolovich, Erica Keeps, James Pershing) (3rd ed, 2006)</ref> The word technology for the sister fields of Educational and [[Human Performance Technology]] means "applied science." In other words, any valid and reliable process or procedure that is derived from basic research using the "scientific method" is considered a "technology." Educational or Human Performance Technology may be based purely on algorithmic or heuristic processes, but neither necessarily implies physical technology. The word technology comes from the Greek "[[techne]]" which means craft or art. Another word, "technique," with the same origin, also may be used when considering the field Educational Technology. So Educational Technology may be extended to include the techniques of the educator.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}}

A classic example of an Educational Psychology text is Bloom's 1956 book, ''Taxonomy of Educational Objectives''.<ref>Bloom B. S. (1956). ''Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain''. New York: David McKay Co Inc.</ref> [[Bloom's Taxonomy]] is helpful when designing learning activities to keep in mind what is expected of—and what are the learning goals for—learners. However, Bloom's work does not explicitly deal with educational technology ''per se'' and is more concerned with pedagogical strategies.

According to some, an Educational Technologist is someone who transforms basic educational and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction. Educational Technologists typically have a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of Educational, Instructional or Human Performance Technology or [[Instruction design|Instructional Systems Design]]. But few of those listed below as theorists would ever use the term "educational technologist" as a term to describe themselves, preferring terms such as "educator."{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} The transformation of educational technology from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville, Browne, and Whitaker.<ref>Shurville, S., Browne, T., & Whitaker, M. (2009). Accommodating the newfound strategic importance of educational technologists within higher education: A critical literature review. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 26 (3), 201-231.</ref>

==History==
[[File:03212012Matitec entrega dispositivos santafe084.jpg|thumb|[[Smartphone]] programmed for primary school mathematics learning, part of the "Mati Tec" program sponsored by the [[Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Mexico City]].]]
[[File:03212012Matitec entrega dispositivos santafe083.jpg|thumb|Teacher showing primary school students how to work the program at a primary school in [[Santa Fe, Mexico City]].]]

Educational technology in a way could be traced back to the emergence of very early tools, e.g., paintings on cave walls. But usually its history starts with educational film (1900s) or Sidney Pressey's mechanical teaching machines in the 1920s.

The first large scale usage of new technologies can be traced to US WWII training of soldiers through training films and other mediated materials. Today, presentation-based technology, based on the idea that people can learn through aural and visual reception, exists in many forms, e.g., streaming audio and video, or PowerPoint presentations with voice-over. Another interesting invention of the 1940s was hypertext, i.e., V. Bush's memex.

The 1950s led to two major, still popular designs. Skinners work led to "[[programmed instruction]]" focusing on the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small units and rewarding correct responses early and often. Advocating a mastery approach to learning based on his taxonomy of intellectual behaviors, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. Models based on these designs were usually referred to as computer-based training" (CBT), Computer-aided instruction or computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in the 1970s through the 1990s. In a more simplified form they correspond to today's "e-contents" that often form the core of "[[e-learning]]" set-ups, sometimes also referred to as web-based training (WBT) or e-instruction. The course designer divides learning contents into smaller chunks of text augmented with graphics and multimedia presentation. Frequent Multiple Choice questions with immediate feedback are added for self-assessment and guidance. Such e-contents can rely on standards defined by IMS, ADL/[[SCORM]] and IEEE.

The 1980s and 1990s produced a variety of schools that can be put under the umbrella of the label Computer-based learning (CBL). Frequently based on constructivist and cognitivist learning theories, these environments focused on teaching both abstract and domain-specific problem solving. Preferred technologies were micro-worlds (computer environments where learners could explore and build), simulations (computer environments where learner can play with parameters of dynamic systems) and hypertext.

Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid 80s and became popular by the mid-90's, in particular through the World-Wide Web (WWW), eMail and Forums. There is a difference between two major forms of online learning. The earlier type, based on either Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computer-based learning (CBL), focused on the interaction between the student and computer drills plus tutorials on one hand or micro-worlds and simulations on the other. Both can be delivered today over the WWW. Today, the prevailing paradigm in the regular school system is Computer-mediated communication (CMC), where the primary form of interaction is between students and instructors, mediated by the computer. CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while CMC involves teacher/tutor facilitation and requires scenarization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge management tasks. It also provides tools for student and curriculum management.

In addition to classroom enhancement, learning technologies also play a major role in full-time [[distance education|distance teaching]]. While most quality offers still rely on paper, videos and occasional CBT/CBL materials, there is increased use of e-tutoring through forums, instant messaging, video-conferencing etc. Courses addressed to smaller groups frequently use blended or hybrid designs that mix presence courses (usually in the beginning and at the end of a module) with distance activities and use various pedagogical styles (e.g., drill & practise, exercises, projects, etc.).

The 2000s emergence of multiple mobile and ubiquitous technologies gave a new impulse to situated learning theories favoring learning-in-context scenarios. Some literature uses the concept of integrated learning to describe [[blended learning]] scenarios that integrate both school and authentic (e.g., workplace) settings.

Students are now growing up in a digital age where they have constant exposure to a variety of media.<ref>Geer, R., & Sweeney, T. (2012). Students’ voices about learning with technology. Journal of social sciences, 8 (2). 294-303</ref>

==Theories and practices==
Three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks have been present in the educational technology literature. These are [[Behaviorism]], [[Cognitivism (psychology)|Cognitivism]] and [[Constructivism (learning theory)|Constructivism]]. Each of these schools of thought are still present in today's literature but have evolved as the [[Psychology]] literature has evolved.

===Behaviorism===
This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century with the animal learning experiments of [[Ivan Pavlov]], [[Edward Thorndike]], [[Edward C. Tolman]], [[Clark L. Hull]], [[B.F. Skinner]] and many others. Many psychologists used these theories to describe and experiment that is parallel to human learning. While still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor with many educators.

====Skinner's contributions====
[[B.F. Skinner]] wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysis of [[Verbal Behavior]]<ref>Skinner, B.F. The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 1954, 24, 86-97., Teaching machines. ''Science'', 1958, 128, 969-77. and others see http://www.bfskinner.org/f/EpsteinBibliography.pdf</ref> and wrote "The Technology of Teaching",<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |year=1965 |volume=162 |issue=989 |pages=427–43 |title= The technology of teaching |author= Skinner BF |doi=10.1098/rspb.1965.0048 |pmid=4378497}}</ref> an attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education as well as promote his system he called [[programmed instruction]]. [[Ogden Lindsley]] also developed the Celeration learning system similarly based on behavior analysis but quite different from Keller's and Skinner's models.

===Cognitivism===
[[Cognitive science]] has changed on how educators view learning. Since the very early beginning of the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning.

After memory theories like the [[Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model]] and Baddeley's [[Working memory]] model were established as a theoretical framework in [[Cognitive Psychology]], new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. It is important to note that Computer Science and Information Technology have had a major influence on Cognitive Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly known as short term memory) and long term memory have been facilitated by research and technology from the field of Computer Science. Another major influence on the field of Cognitive Science is [[Noam Chomsky]]. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like [[Cognitive load]] and [[Information Processing]] Theory. In addition, psychology as applied to media is easily measured in studying behavior. The area of media psychology is both cognative and affective and is central to understanding educational technology.

===Constructivism===
[[Constructivism (learning theory)|Constructivism]] is a learning theory or educational philosophy that many educators began to consider in the 1990s. One of the primary tenets of this philosophy is that learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or others with different perspectives.

Constructivist learning environments require students to use their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning. Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen (1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners and that "ill-structured" environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing technology when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose technologies that reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving environment.

==Instructional technique and technologies==
“Children and young people are growing up in a vastly changing context. No aspect of their lives is untouched by the digital era which is transforming how they live, relate and learn”<ref>Craft, A. (2012). Childhood in a Digital Age: Creative Challenges for Educational Futures. London Review of Education, 10 (2), 173-190.</ref> Some examples of these changes in the classroom include [[Problem Based Learning]], [[Project-based Learning]], and [[Inquiry-based learning]]. Together they are [[active learning]] educational technologies used to facilitate learning. [[Technology]] which includes physical and process applied science can be incorporated into project, problem, inquiry-based learning as they all have a similar educational philosophy. All three are student centered, ideally involving real-world scenarios in which students are actively engaged in critical thinking activities. The process that students are encouraged to employ (as long as it is based on empirical research) is considered to be a technology. Classic examples of technologies used by teachers and Educational Technologists include Bloom's Taxonomy and Instructional Design.<ref>Forehand, M. (2010). Bloom’s Taxonomy. From Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology. Retrieved October 25, 2012, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/.</ref>

==Theorists==
This is an area where new thinkers are coming to the forefront everyday. Many of the ideas spread from theorists, researchers, and experts through their blogs. Extensive lists of educational bloggers by area of interest are available at Steve Hargadon's "SupportBloggers" site or at the "movingforward" wiki started by Scott McLeod.<ref>See http://supportblogging.com/Links+to+School+Bloggers and http://movingforward.wikispaces.com/Blogs</ref> Many of these blogs are recognized by their peers each year through the edublogger awards.<ref>[http://edublogawards.com/ » Welcome to the Eddies! The Edublog Awards]</ref> [[Web 2.0]] technologies have led to a huge increase in the amount of information available on this topic and the number of educators formally and informally discussing it. Most listed below have been around for more than a decade, however, and few new thinkers mentioned above are listed here.

{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
*[[Alan November]]
*[[Seymour Papert]]<ref>[http://www.papert.org/ Professor Seymour Papert]</ref>
*[[Will Richardson]]
*[[John Sweller]]
*[[Don Krug]]
{{Col-2}}
*[[Alex Jones (educational theorist)|Alex Jones]]
*[[George Siemens]]
*[[David A. Wiley|David Wiley]]
*[[David Wilson (educational theorist)|David Wilson]]
*[[Bernard Luskin]]
{{Col-end}}

==Benefits==
Educational technology is intended to improve education over what it would be without technology. Some of the claimed benefits are listed below:
*'''Easy-to-access course materials'''. Instructors can post the course material or important information on a course website, which means students can study at a time and location they prefer and can obtain the study material very quickly<ref name="num1">[http://www.nsba.org/sbot/toolkit/tiol.html Technology Impact on Learning]</ref>
*'''Student motivation'''. Computer-based instruction can give instant feedback to students and explain correct answers. Moreover, a computer is patient and non-judgmental, which can give the student motivation to continue learning. According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used for instruction, students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based instruction and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based classes.<ref name="num2">[http://www.electronic-school.com/0997f3.html Technology's Impact]</ref> The American educator, [[Cassandra B. Whyte]], researched and reported about the importance of [[locus of control]] and successful academic performance and by the late 1980s, she wrote of how important computer usage and information technology would become in the higher education experience of the future.<ref>Whyte,Cassandra Bolyard. (1980). "An Integrated Counseling and Learning Assistance Center." New Directions Sourcebook. Jossey-Bass, Inc. San Francisco, California.</ref><ref>Whyte, Cassandra B. (1989). Student Affairs - The Future", Journal of College Student Development, 10, (1), 86-89.</ref>
*'''Wide participation'''. Learning material can be used for long distance learning and are accessible to a wider audience<ref>[http://www.nsba.org/sbot/toolkit/tuie.html Technology Uses in Education]</ref>
*'''Improved student writing'''. It is convenient for students to edit their written work on word processors, which can, in turn, improve the quality of their writing. According to some studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network with students they know<ref name="num1"/>
*'''Subjects made easier to learn'''. Many different types of educational software are designed and developed to help children or teenagers to learn specific subjects. Examples include pre-school software, computer simulators, and graphics software<ref name="num2"/>
*A structure that is more amenable to measurement and improvement of outcomes. With proper structuring it can become easier to monitor and maintain student work while also quickly gauging modifications to the instruction necessary to enhance student learning.
*'''Differentiated Instruction.''' Educational technology provides the means to focus on active student participation and to present differentiated questioning strategies. It broadens individualized instruction and promotes the development of personalized learning plans. Students are encouraged to use multimedia components and to incorporate the knowledge they gained in creative ways.<ref>Smith, Grace and Stephanie Throne. Differentiating Instruction with Technology in the K-5 Classrooms. International Society for Technology in Education. 2004</ref>
The use of internet in education has had a positive impact on the students, educators, as well as the educational system as a whole.
Effective technologies use many evidence-based strategies (e.g., adaptive content, frequent testing, immediate feedback, etc.), as do effective teachers.<ref>Ross, S., Morrison, G., & Lowther, D. (2010). Educational technology research past and present: balancing rigor and relavance to impact learning. Contemporary Educational Technology, 1(1).</ref>

Studies done in "computer intensive" settings found increases in student centre, cooperative and higher order learning, students writing skills, problem solving, and using technology.<ref>An, Y. J., & Reigeluth, C. (2011). Creating Technology-Enhanced, Learner-Centered Classrooms: K–12 Teachers’ Beliefs, Perceptions, Barriers, and Support Needs. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 28(2), 54-62.</ref> In addition, postie attitudes toward technology as a learning tool by parents, students and teachers.

*The Internet itself has unlocked a world of opportunity for students. Information and ideas that were previously out of reach are a click away. Students of all ages can connect, share, and learn on a global scale.
*Success at difficult technological tasks, as well as social networking such as [[Facebook]] can also lead to improved[[self-esteem]].
*Many students have different types of learning styles and using different types of technology is a great way to help all kinds of learners. Providing remedial instruction for low-achieving students, Providing enrichment activities for students who successfully complete the regular lesson before students who require more time to learn.
* Using computers or other forms of technology can give students practice on core content and skills while the teacher can work with others, conduct assessments, or perform other tasks.<ref>Ross, S., Morrison, G., & Lowther, D. (2010). Educational technology research past and present: balancing rigor and relavance to impact learning. Contemporary Educational Technology, 1(1).</ref>
* Using technology in the classroom can allow teachers' to effectively organize and present lessons. Multimedia presentations can make the material more meaningful and engaging.
* ''"“Technology’s impact in schools has been significant, advancing how students learn, how teachers teach and how efficiently and effectively educational services can be delivered,” said Carolyn April, director, industry analysis, CompTIA.” With emerging technologies such as tablets and netbooks, interactive whiteboards and wireless solutions gaining ground in the classroom, the reliance on IT by the education market will only grow in the years ahead.”''[http://www.comptia.org/news/pressreleases/11-06-28/Making_the_Grade_Technology_Helps_Boosts_Student_Performance_Staff_Productivity_in_Nation%E2%80%99s_Schools_New_CompTIA_Study_Finds.aspx]
* Using online resources such as [[Khan Academy]] or [[TED]] Talks can help students spend more time on specific aspects of what they may be learning in school, but at home. These online resources have added the opportunity to take learning outside of the classroom and into any atmosphere that has an internet connection. These online lessons allow for students who do not fit the learning styles that our educational system caters to use other resources to help them understand the things they are learning better. These tutorials can focus on small concepts of large ideas taught in class, or the other way around. Schools like [[MIT]] have even made their course materials free online so that anybody can access them. Although there are still some aspects of a classroom setting that are missed by using these resources, they are still helpful tools to buffer an already existing educational system.

==Criticism==hola
Although technology in the classroom does have many benefits, there are clear drawbacks as well. Limited access to sufficient quantities of a technology, lack of training, the extra time required for the implementations of technology, and the apprehension associated with assessing the effectiveness of technology in the classroom are just a few of the reasons that technology is often not used extensively in the classroom. To understand educational technology one must also understand theories in human behavior as behavior is affected by technology. Media Psychology is the study of media, technology and how and why individuals, groups and societies behave the way they do. The first Ph.D program with a concentration in media psychology was started in 2002 at Fielding Graduate University by Bernard Luskin.<ref name="Luskin, B. 1996">Luskin, B. (1996). Media Psychology: A Field whose time is here. The California Psychologist, 15 (1), 14-18.</ref> The Media Psychology division of APA, division 46 has a focus on media psychology. Media and the family is another emerging area affected by rapidly changing educational technology.<ref name="Luskin, B. 1996"/>
There are many benefits of using technology in the education system, however there are also negative aspects.

Technology base educational videos and games are being integrated into the lives and classrooms of new generations. These videos and games are meant to be used as tools to help growing minds develop, and to increase knowledge and awareness.
Videos such as [[Baby Einstein]]s line of infant DVDs are a topic of conflicting interest, according to the University of Washington study of infant vocabulary is slipping due to educational baby DVDs.

Published in the [[Journal of Pediatrics]], a 2007 [[University of Washington]] study on the vocabulary of babies surveyed over 1,000 parents in [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] and [[Minnesota]]. The study found that for every one hour that babies 8–16 months of age watched DVDs and Videos they knew 6-8 fewer of 90 common baby words than the babies that did not watch them. Andrew Meltzoff, Ph.D, a surveyor in this study states that the result makes sense, that if the baby's 'alert time' is spent in front of DVDs and TV, instead of with people speaking, the babies are not going to get the same linguistic experience. Dr. Dimitri Chistakis, another surveyor reported that the evidence is mounting that baby DVDs are of no value and may be hhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Educational_technology&action=edit&section=10#armful.

Electronic devices such as cellphones and computers facilitate rapid access to a constant stream of sources, each of which may receive cursory attention. Michel Rich, an associate professor at [[Harvard Medical School]] and executive director of the center on Media and Child Health in Boston, said of the digital generation, "Their brains are rewarded not for staying on task, but for jumping to the next thing, and the side effects could linger: the worry is we're raising a generation of kids in front of screens whose brains are going to be wired differently."{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}} In addition, poorly designed technologies tend to produce low test scores and negative reactions from students.{{Citation needed|date=March nmil{iíj9p
Many students who are at high risk for school failure have the potential to learn; but their academic achievement in the core areas of reading, mathematics and writing falls far short of their potential. There is growing evidence that the academic difficulties experienced by these students is cumulative in nature, and the gap between achievement and potential grows from childhood into adolescence. These young adults tend to drop out of school more frequently than do students without these difficulties, and they experience higher levels of unemployment and underemployment. As a group, they face a significant risk for lifelong problems.<ref>{{cite web|last=Stratham|first=Dawn|title=Computers in the Classroom: The Impact of Technology on Student Learning|url=http://www.temple.edu/lss/htmlpublications/spotlights/200/spot206.htm|publisher=Army Research Institute|accessdate=29 March 2012}}</ref>
ccc
"''Students have always faced distractions and time-wasters. But computers and cellphones, and the they offer, pose a profound new challenge to focusing and learning. Researchers say the lure of these s , while it affects adults too, is particularly powerful for young people. The risk, they say, is that developing brains can become more easily habituated than adult brains to constantly switching tasks — and less able to sustain attention."''[http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/21/technology/21brain.html]

===Digital Divide===
One of the greatest barriers{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}} of integrating technology into the school system deals with the digital divide. The concept of the digital divide was originally defined as a gap between those who have access to digital technologies and those who do not.<ref name="Wei, L 2011">Wei, L. and Hindman, D. (2011). Does the Digital Divide Matter More? Comparing the Effects of New Media and Old Media Use on the Education-Based Knowledge Gap.” Mass Communication and Society, 14 (1), 216-235.</ref> This access is associated with age, gender, education, income, ethnicity, and geography.<ref name="Wei, L 2011"/> The first deals with the onset of integrating technology into the curriculum and the gap between the digital haves and have nots.<ref name="Jenkins, H. 2009">Jenkins, H. (2009). Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.</ref> In most cases, this form of the digital divide means that those who have access to a computer and the Internet are considered a digital have, while on the other hand, those who do not are considered a digital have not. In today’s society, this is still a significant barrier to implementing technology into the curriculum because the socio-economic status of a school, and its students, will impact whether resources can be purchased and implemented in the school system. Schools that are able to provide technology within the classroom are able to expose their students to a new means of learning, while the students in lower socio-economic schools may miss out on these experiences.

As more and more people have gone online and started using the Internet for an increasing number of activities, researchers have begun to reconsider the notion of the digital divide.<ref name="Wei, L 2011"/> Some scholars offered a redefined understanding by seeing the digital divide as a complex and dynamic phenomenon that is essentially multifaced and includes technical access (the physical availability of technology) and social access (the mix of professional knowledge, economic resources, and technical skills required for effectual use of echnology).<ref name="Wei, L 2011"/> This means that even if schools and students have access to technology, the ways in which teachers use and introduce it is significant to consider. This form of the digital divide is yet another barrier because it also goes hand-in-hand with the resources the schools have and the training teachers receive. If a teacher, for example, is not well equipped and confident in utilizing a form of technology, those students will miss out on gaining the valuable skills required for today’s society.

Another factor that plays into the digital divide, which makes it difficult to implement technology into the curriculum, is the generational digital divide. Herrington<ref name="ascilite.org.au">Herrington, J., Oliver, R., Herrington, T., Sparrow, H. (2000). Towards a New Tradition of Online Instruction: Using Situated Learning Theory to Design Web-Based United. Paper presented as ASCILITE. Available at http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/coffs00/papers/jan_herrington.pdf.</ref> recognizes that the generational divide is interpreted to mean that people on one side of the gap, including the youth, have more access and a greater ability to use new technologies than those on the other side like the adults who were born before the advent of the Internet. The generational digital divide is a common barrier because it challenges teachers to keep up with the ever-changing technology in the classroom. Even extending beyond the classroom, by the time an individual “adopts a technology, a new one is developed, marketed, and requires a new adoption cycle”.<ref>Straub, E. (2009). Understanding Technology Adoption: Theory and Future Directions for Informal Learning. Review of Educational Research, 79 (2), 625-649.</ref> Students, who have grown up in a digital environment, may be well acquainted with the on-going process of new technological innovation but may be lacking the guidance they need in order to use these technologies effectively. From the teacher’s perspective, this process could be an intimidating experience because something as foreign as the computer and Internet must first be learned and then taught to the students in a classroom setting. It is difficult to formulate a curriculum, which aims to integrate technology into the classroom, when the decision-makers are still in the process of learning about it themselves.

===Teacher Training===

Similar to learning a new task or trade, special training is vital to ensuring the effective integration of classroom technology. The current school curriculum tends to guide teachers in training students to be autonomous problem solvers.<ref name="Jenkins, H. 2009"/> This has become a significant barrier to effective training because the traditional methods of teaching have clashed with what is expected in the present workplace. Today’s students in the workplace are increasingly being asked to work in teams, drawing on different sets of expertise, and collaborating to solve problem.<ref name="Jenkins, H. 2009"/> These experiences are not highly centered on in the traditional classroom, but are twenty-first century skills that can be attained through the incorporation and engagement with technology.<ref>De Castell, S. (2011). Ludic Epistemology: What Game-Based Learning Can Teach Curriculum Studies. Journal of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies, 8 (2), 19-27.</ref> Changes in instruction and use of technology can also promote a higher level of learning among students with different types of intelligence.<ref>Robinson, T. (2006). Schools Kill Creativity. TED Talks. [Video]. Retrieved on October 25, 2012 from http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity.html.</ref> Please see the presentation by Ted Robinson where he discusses the ways in which schools kill creativity.<ref>http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity.html</ref> Therefore since technology is not the end goal of education, but rather a means by which it can be accomplished, educators must have a good grasp of the technology being used and its advantages over more traditional methods. If there is a lack in either of these areas, technology will be seen as a hindrance and not a benefit to the goals of teaching.

Another major issue arises because of the evolving nature of technology. Teachers may find themselves acting as perpetual novices when it comes to learning about technology. This is because technology, including the Internet and its range of applications, is always in a state of change and teachers must attempt to keep current.<ref name="Harris, J. 2009">Harris, J., Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. (2009). Teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Integration Reframed. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 41 (4), 393-416.</ref> The ways in which teachers are taught to use technology is also outdated because the primary focus of training is on computer literacy, rather than the deeper, more essential understanding and mastery of technology for information processing, communication, and problem solving.<ref name="Harris, J. 2009"/> New resources have to be designed and distributed whenever the technological platform has been changed. However, finding quality materials to support classroom objectives after such changes is often difficult even after they exist in sufficient quantity and teachers must design these resources on their own. The study by Harris<ref name="Harris, J. 2009"/> notes that the use of random Professional Development days is not adequate enough in order to foster the much-needed skills required to teach and apply technology in the classroom. Learning, therefore, becomes and on-going process, which takes time and a strong commitment among the community of educators.<ref name="Harris, J. 2009"/>

Teacher training faces another drawback when it comes to one’s mindset on the integration of technology into the curriculum. The generational divide might also lead to a generational bias, whereby teachers do not feel the need to change the traditional education system because it has been successful in the past.<ref name="Jenkins, H. 2009"/> This does not necessarily mean it is the right way to teach for the current and future generations. Considering the fact that today’s students are constantly exposed to the impacts of the digital era, learning styles, and the methods of collecting information has evolved. To illustrate this concept Jenkins<ref name="Jenkins, H. 2009"/> states, “students often feel locked out of the worlds described in their textbooks through the depersonalized and abstract prose used to describe them,” whereas games can construct worlds for players to move through and have some stake in the events unfolding. Even though technology can provide a more personalized, yet collaborative, and creative, yet informative, approach to learning, it may be difficult to motivate the use of these contemporary approaches among teachers who have been in the field for a number of years.

===Assessment===

Research has shown that there is a great deal of apprehension associated with assessing the effectiveness of technology in the classroom and its development of information-age skills. This is because information-age skills, also commonly referred to as twenty-first century literacies, are relatively new to the field of education.<ref>Eisenberg, M. (2008). Information Literacy: Essential Skills for the Information Age. Journal of Library & Information Technology, 28 (2), 39-47.</ref> According to the New Media Consortium, these include “the set of abilities and skills where aural, visual, and digital literacy overlap”.<ref name="Jenkins, H. 2009"/> Jenkins modifies this definition by acknowledging them as building on the foundation of traditional literacy, research skills, technical skills and critical-analysis skills taught in the classroom.<ref name="Jenkins, H. 2009"/>

Current school assessments are based on standardized tests and the ability to complete these uniform tests, regardless of one’s preferred learning style. Many factors play into this observation including the strong impact of time. By using technology and learning through discovery, teachers may feel that they are not able to cover the material needed to meet the requirements of the curriculum.<ref name="ascilite.org.au"/> Therefore, the traditional style of teaching, including the lecturing in front of the class, and a “one-size-fits-all” approach to testing is common in today’s classrooms. This is a barrier because it prevents the full integration of technology into the curriculum, the ability to learn through inquiry, and the collaborative problem-solving skills, which prove to be essential traits needed in the twenty-first century.

==Educational technology and the humanities==
Research from the Alberta Initiative for School Improvement (AISI)<ref>[http://education.alberta.ca/media/616853/techprojectsreview.pdf AISI Technology Projects Research Review]</ref> indicates that [[Inquiry-based learning|inquiry]] and [[Project-based learning|project-based]] approaches, combined with a focus on curriculum, effectively supports the infusion of educational technologies into the learning and teaching process.

==The advancement of education through technology==

===OpenCourseWare===
In recent years, [[OpenCourseWare]] (OCW), an academic initiative that gives the public access to much of the same information used in undergraduate and graduate programs at institutions of higher education, has greatly improved the quality of educational material available for free on the Internet. The idea of OpenCourseWare gained prevalence in 2002 when MIT began distributing academic material from courses to the public for free.<ref>"OpenCourseWare: An 'MIT Thing'?" 2006-11, 14(10):53-58 Searcher: The Magazine for Database Professionals</ref> Through the early 2000s, this idea began to gain popularity with other colleges and universities. As of 2008, there were close to 150 collegiate institutions that had operational OpenCourseWare programs, or were in the process of planning such programs.<ref>Iiyoshi, T., & Kumar, M. S. (2008).Opening up education: the collective advancement of education through open technology, open content, and open knowledge. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.</ref> These institutions include Harvard, Princeton, Stanford, University of Pennsylvania, and University of Michigan.<ref>Lewin, T. (2012, May 2). Harvard and M.I.T. Team Up to Offer Free Online Courses. New York Times, p. .. Retrieved November 26, 2012, from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/03/education/harvard-and-mit-team-up-to-offer-free-online-courses.html?_r=0</ref> Such programs are an example of how technology can allow more people to have access to information and resources that have originally only been accessible to students at prestigious universities.

== Technology in the classroom ==
There are various types of technologies currently used in traditional classrooms. Among these are:

*'''Computer in the classroom:''' Having a computer in the classroom is an asset to any teacher. With a computer in the classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present new material, illustrate how to use new programs, and show new websites.<ref>
[http://www.thejournal.com/articles/15769 Using Technology to Enhance the Classroom Environment]. THE Journal, 01 January 2002
</ref>

*'''Class website:''' An easy way to display your student's work is to create a web page designed for your class. Once a web page is designed, teachers can post homework assignments, student work, famous quotes, trivia games, and so much more. In today's society, children know how to use the computer and navigate their way through a website, so why not give them one where they can be a published author. Just be careful as most districts maintain strong policies to manage official websites for a school or classroom. Also, most school districts provide teacher webpages that can easily be viewed through the school district's website.

*'''Class blogs and wikis:''' There are a variety of Web 2.0 tools that are currently being implemented in the classroom. Blogs allow for students to maintain a running dialogue, such as a journal,thoughts, ideas, and assignments that also provide for student comment and reflection. Wikis are more group focused to allow multiple members of the group to edit a single document and create a truly collaborative and carefully edited finished product.
Blogs allow the student to express their knowledge of the information learned in a way that they like. Blogging is something that students do for fun sometimes, so when they are assigned an assignment to do a blog they are eager to do it! If you are a teacher and need to find a way to get your students eager to learn, create, and inspire assign them a blog. They will love it.

*'''Wireless classroom microphones:''' Noisy classrooms are a daily occurrence, and with the help of microphones, students are able to hear their teachers more clearly. Children learn better when they hear the teacher clearly. The benefit for teachers is that they no longer lose their voices at the end of the day.

*'''Mobile devices:''' Mobile devices such as [[Clicker (classroom)|clickers]] or [[smartphone]] can be used to enhance the experience in the classroom by providing the possibility for professors to get feedback.<ref>{{cite web | last = Tremblay | first = Eric|title = Educating the Mobile Generation – using personal cell phones as audience response systems in post-secondary science teaching. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 2010, 29(2), 217-227. Chesapeake, VA: AACE.| url=http://editlib.org/p/32314 |accessdate = 2010-11-05}}</ref> See also [[MLearning]].

*'''Interactive Whiteboards:''' An interactive whiteboard that provides touch control of computer applications. These enhance the experience in the classroom by showing anything that can be on a computer screen. This not only aids in visual learning, but it is interactive so the students can draw, write, or manipulate images on the interactive whiteboard.

*'''Digital video-on-demand:''' Replacement of hard copy videos (DVD, VHS) with digital video accessed from a central server (e.g. SAFARI Montage). Digital video eliminates the need for in-classroom hardware (players) and allows teachers and students to access video clips immediately by not utilizing the public Internet.

*'''Online media:''' Streamed video websites can be used to enhance a classroom lesson (e.g. United Streaming, Teacher Tube, etc.)

*'''Online study tools:''' Tools that motivate studying by making studying more fun or individualized for the student (e.g. [http://cocoa.io Study Cocoa])

*'''Digital Games:''' The field of educational games and serious games has been growing significantly over the last few years. The digital games are being provided as tools for the classroom and have a lot of positive feedback including higher motivation for students.<ref>{{cite web|last=Biocchi|first=Michael|title=Games in the Classroom|url=http://educationtech.ca/2011/03/24/games-in-the-classroom/|work=Gaming in the Classroom|accessdate=24 March 2011}}</ref>

There are many other tools being used depending on the local school board and funds available. These may include: digital cameras, video cameras, interactive whiteboard tools, document cameras, or LCD projectors.

*'''Podcasts:''' Podcasting is a relatively new invention that allows anybody to publish files to the Internet where individuals can subscribe and receive new files from people by a subscription. The primary benefit of podcasting for educators is quite simple. It enables teachers to reach students through a medium that is both "cool" and a part of their daily lives. For a technology that only requires a computer, microphone and internet connection, podcasting has the capacity of advancing a student’s education beyond the classroom. When students listen to the podcasts of other students as well as their own, they can quickly demonstrate their capacities to identify and define "quality." This can be a great tool for learning and developing literacy inside and outside the classroom. Podcasting can help sharpen students’ vocabulary, writing, editing, public speaking, and presentation skills. Students will also learn skills that will be valuable in the working world, such as communication, time management, and problem-solving.

Although podcasts are a new phenomenon in classrooms, especially on college campuses, studies have shown the differences in effectiveness between a live lecture versus podcast are minor in terms of the education of the student.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Reeves|first=Thomas C.|title=The Impact of Media and Technology in Schools|date=February 12, 1998|accessdate=3 October 2011}}</ref>

==Societies==
Societies concerned with educational technology include:
* [[Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE)]] http://www.aace.org/
* [[Association for Educational Communications and Technology]] http://www.aect.org/newsite/
* [[Association for Learning Technology]] http://www.alt.ac.uk/
* [[International Society for Performance Improvement]] http://www.ispi.org/
* [[Association for Learning Technology]] http://www.alt.ac.uk/

==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
* [[RM plc]]
* [[ADDIE Model]]
* [[Assistive technology]]
* [http://www.camemis.com CAMEMIS] - Free Education Management Information System
* [[Computerized adaptive testing]]
* [[Edsurge]]
* [[Impact of technology on the educational system]]
* [[Information and communication technologies in education]]
* [[Information mapping]]
* [[Intelligent tutoring system]]
{{Col-2}}
* [[Matching Person & Technology Model]]
* [[Mind map]]
* [[MyEdu]]
* [[Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge]]
* [[Usability testing]]
==See also==
{{Portal|Education}}
* [[Instructional technology]]
* [[Instructional theory]]
* [[Learning theory (education)]]
* [[Educational psychology]]
* [[Educational research]]
* [[Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge]]
* [[M-learning]]
* [[E-learning]]
* [[Flexible Learning]]
* [[Mind Map]]
{{Col-end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Library resources box|others=no}}
*Mechling, L. C., Gast, D. L., & Krupa, K. (2007). Impact of SMART Board technology: An investigation of sight word reading and observational learning. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(10), 1869-1882.
*Hudson, H. (2011). The Digital Divide. Instructor, 121(2), 46-50
*Technology in Education. (2011, September 1). In Education Week. Retrieved November 9, 2011, fromhttp://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/technology-in-education/
* US Department of Education. Effects of Technology on Classrooms and Students. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Dec. 2011.<http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/EdReformStudies/EdTech/effectsstudents.html>.
*Sikorski, Joy. [http://www.familymagazinegroup.com/milestones/story_The+Negativ+Impact+of+Baby+DVDs.html “Family Magazine Group::Milestones-The Negative Impact of Baby DVDs]. Los Angeles Family Magazine::Your Essential Parenting Resource. Family Magazine Group, 2007.Web. 17 Mar. 2011.*Bednar, M. R., & Sweeder, J. J. (2005). Defining and applying idea technologies: A systematic, conceptual framework for teachers. ''Computers in the Schools, 22''(3/4).
* {{cite book | first=Alan | last=Januszewski | year=2001 | title=Educational Technology: The Development of a Concept | publisher=Libraries Unlimited | isbn=1-56308-749-9}}
*Jonassen, D. (1997). Instructional design models for well-structured and ill-structured problem-solving learning outcomes. ''Educational Technology Research & Development'', 45, 65–94.
* {{cite book | first=D H| last= Jonassen | year=2006| title= Modeling with Technology: Mindtools for Conceptual Change| publisher= OH: Merrill/Prentice-Hall}}
* [http://www.cogtech.usc.edu/publications/kirschner_Sweller_Clark.pdf Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., and Clark, R. E. (2006) Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist 41 (2) 75-86]
* {{cite book | first=K L | last=Kumar | year=1997 | title=Educational Technology: A Practical Textbook for Students, Teachers, Professionals and Trainers | publisher=New Age International | location=New Delhi | isbn=81-224-0833-8}}
* [http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/ Encyclopedia of Educational Technology], a comprehensive resource of articles about Educational Technology, published by the Department of Educational Technology, [[San Diego State University]]
* [http://www.open.ac.uk/pbpl/resources/details/detail.php?itemId=49d62232adc62 Looking Back to Look Ahead - Learning Through and From the Human Spirit]
* [http://quest.eeaonline.org/india/test/images/india/Image/File/output/Geetha%20Keynote.pdf Geetha Narayanan's Keynote address at Symposium on Education and Technology in Schools in 2008, Bangalore]
* Lipsitz, Lawrence, (Editor); Reisner, Trudi, [http://books.google.com/books?id=pFzxLUAnSS8C&printsec=frontcover ''The Computer and Education''], Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Educational Technology Publications, January 1973. Articles selected from ''Educational Technology'' magazine.
* L Low & M O'Connell, [https://olt.qut.edu.au/udf/OLT2006/gen/static/papers/Low_OLT2006_paper.pdf Learner-Centric Design of Digital Mobile Learning], Queensland University of Technology, 2006.
*Professor Brian J. Ford, ''[http://www.brianjford.com/a-05-ZENO.HTM Absolute Zeno]'', Laboratory News p 16, January 2006.
* McKenzie, Jamie (2006). [http://fno.org/dec05/writing.html "Inspired Writing and Thinking"]
* McKenzie, Jamie (2007). [http://fno.org/nov07/nativism.html "Digital Nativism, Digital Delusions, and Digital Deprivation"]
* McKenzie, Jamie (2008). [http://fno.org/may08/digital.html "What Digital Age?"]
* Mishra, P. & Koehler, M.J. (2006). [http://www.tcrecord.org/content.asp?contentid=12516 Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for integrating technology in teacher knowledge]. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054.
* Monahan, Torin (2005). ''Globalization, Technological Change, and Public Education''. New York: Routledge: ISBN 0-415-95103-8.
* {{cite book | last=Randolph | first=J. J. | year=2007| title=Multidisciplinary Methods in Educational Technology Research and Development | publisher=Hameenlinna, Finland: HAMK | accessdate=2008-06-10 | isbn=978-951-784-453-6 | url=http://justus.randolph.name/methods }}
* {{cite book | first=S K | last= Soni | year=2004 | title=An Information Resource on Educational Technology for: Technical & Vocational Education and Training (TVET) | publisher= Sarup & Sons Publishers | location = New Delhi | isbn=81-7625-506-8}}
* Scherer, M.J. (2004). ''Connecting to Learn: Educational and Assistive Technology for People with Disabilities''. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (APA) Books: ISBN 1-55798-982-6.
* Shurville, S., Browne, H. and Whitaker, M. (2008). [http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/shurville.pdf "Employing Educational Technologists: A Call for Evidenced Change"]. In Hello! Where are you in the landscape of educational technology? Proceedings ascilite Melbourne 2008.
* {{cite book | first=B.F.| last=Skinner| year=1968 | title= The technology of teaching| publisher=New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts | id=Library of Congress Card Number 68-12340 E 81290}}
* [[Patrick Suppes|Suppes, Patrick]], [http://suppes-corpus.stanford.edu/article.html?id=67 "The Uses of Computers in Education"], Scientific American, v215 n3 p206-20 Sep 1966
*Courts, B., & Tucker, J. (2012). Using Technology To Create A Dynamic Classroom Experience. Journal of College Teaching & Learning (TLC), 9(2), 121-128.
*Anderson, S., Groulx, J., & Maninger, R, (2011). Relationship among preservice teachers’ technology-related abilities, beliefs, and intentions to use technology in their future classroom. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 45(3).
*Milliot, Jim. [http://www.parapublishing.com/sites/para/resources/statistics.cfm "Book Industry Statistics"]. ''Para Publishing - Welocme to Para Publishing.'' 1 Mar. 2008. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.
*Begley, Sharon. [http://www.newsweek.com/2011/02/27/i-can-t-think.html "The Science of Making Decisions"]. ''Newsweek'' 27 Feb. 2011. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.
*[http://www.chadda.org/Page3.html Facts & Statistics Children & Adults Against Drugging America.] ''Home Page Children & Adults Against Drugging America.'' Web. 14 Mar. 2011.
*[http://www.eric.ed.goc/ERICWebPortral/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED444603&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED44603 "The Power of the Internet for Learning: Moving from Promise to Pracitce"]. ''ERIC – World’s Largest Digital Library of Education Literature.'' N/A, Dec. 2000. Web.14 Mar. 2011.
*[http://thepmn.org/pressreleases/060109 "Gen Y's Are Not Yet Taking Flight on Twitter"]. ''Welcome to the Participatory Marketing Network.'' 21 June 2009. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.
*Jacoy, Christine, and David DiBiase. “Plagiarism by Adult Learners Online: A Case Study in Detection and Remediation.” IRRODL The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. 2006. Web. 17 Mar. 2011.
*Ritchel, Matt. [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/21/technology/21brain.html Growing up Digital, Wired for Distraction]. The New York Times. 21 Nov. 2010.
*Cynthia Haven. [http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2009/pr-lunsford-writing-101209.html The new literacy: Stanford study finds richness and complexity in students' writing]. Stanford News Service. October 12, 2009.
*Sample, Ian. "Oxford Scientist Calls for Research on Technology 'mind Change' | Science | The Guardian." ''Latest News, Comment and Reviews from the Guardian | Guardian.co.uk.'' 14 Dec. 2010. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.<http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2010/sep/14/oxford-scientist-brain-change>.
*Laster, Jill. "Students Retain Information in Print-Like Formats Better - Wired Campus - The Chronicle of Higher Education."''Home - The Chronicle of Higher Education.'' 27 Mar. 2010. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.<http://chronicle.com/blogPost/Students-Retain-Print/22088/>.
*http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-565207/Modern-technology-changing-way-brains-work-says-neuroscientist.html

{{Technology}}
{{Education}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Educational Technology}}
[[Category:Educational technology| ]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]

[[nl:Leermiddel]]