Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Buddhist monasticism

2008-10-04T16:01:26Z

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{{WikiProject Buddhism|class=Start}}

=="One meal a day" rule ought to be bent seasonally in addition to conditionally==
In the crab season, if [[bardo]] deliverances are not sufficiently conducted in the monastries where outside people are favourite to eating crabs there will be a big chance for monks and nuns to catch up karmic illness. Under this kind of environment, the rule ought to be bent to prevent the sickness happening. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/64.62.138.24|64.62.138.24]] ([[User talk:64.62.138.24|talk]]) 02:40, 16 November 2007 (UTC) 
:To counter the defects of eating meal at night, alternative methods may need to be employed such as both showering in the morning and at night, changing liniens frequently to keep body and [[aura]] clean —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/64.62.138.24|64.62.138.24]] ([[User talk:64.62.138.24|talk]]) 02:47, 16 November 2007 (UTC) 

==Additional possessions==
It mentions that some additional possessions are allowed in practise, could that include something like a laptop? [[User:Tyciol|Tyciol]] ([[User talk:Tyciol|talk]]) 20:08, 11 September 2008 (UTC)

The following sentences are very confusing, and probably quite misleading, for a new reader: "In modern practice, the bhikkhuni lineage died out in some Theravada communities, having failed to establish themselves in the Vajrayana communities of Tibet and Nepal, and currently exists only in a few orders."

Tamang people

2008-09-27T03:33:11Z

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[[Image:9183253 d6cc44f859 o.jpg|250px|right|thumb|A mountainside village inhabited by Tamang]]
[[Image:Nepal ethnic groups.png|250px|right|thumb|Selected ethnic groups of Nepal;
 [[Bhutia|Bhotia]], [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]], [[Thakali]]
 [[Gurung]]
 [[Kirant]]i, [[Rai (ethnic group)|Rai]], [[Limbu people|Limbu]]
 [[Newar]]i
 [[Pahari]]
 [[Tamang]]]]

The '''Tamang''' (also known as Murmi) are one of the several ethnic groups living in [[Nepal]] descended from Tibeto-Burman origins. Living mainly north and east of the country, they constitute 5.6% of [[Nepal]]'s population, which places their population at 1,280,000, slightly higher than the [[Newar]]s.Their language, also called Tamang is related to both [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] and [[Sharpa (people)|Sherpa]] languages.

The name Tamang,normally it is Tamag in[[Tibetan language|Tibetan]], means horse warriors, Tamags were border police sent by king Trisong of Tibet around 755.Many of them are still practicing [[Bön]] religion,which was religion befor buddhism was introduced in Tibet,They are also good mountaineers and trekking guides.Many of Tamang are also recruited to serve in Indian and British Gurkha regiments since British raj.

The Tamangs are followers of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] mixed with elements of the pre-Buddhist [[Bön]] and the Tambaist religion. Due to their proximity to the [[Newar]], a slight [[Hindu]] influence can be seen in their practises. Their priests include Lama, Bombo and Tamba. According to the 2001 census, 98.26% of the ethnic Tamang in Nepal were Boudhists and 2.69% were Hindus.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The typical song and dance of the Tamangs is "tamang selo" in which they dance to the beat of a drum called "damphu." Damphu is the traditional drum of the Tamangs.

Many Tamang clans do not permit intermarriage with other ethnic groups, although some clans do permit intermarriages with the [[Gurung]], [[Magar]], [[Newar]], and [[Sherpas]]. Their descent is traced [[patrilineal]]ly.

== See also ==
* [[Tamang language]]
* [[Prashant Tamang]]

The meaning of Tamang is Ta meaning horse and Mang meaning soldier in Tibetan i.e. solders on horse back.

== References ==
* [http://www.k2news.com/lesson10.htm Lesson 10: The Newars and the Tamang]

With reference to the meaning of Tamang it is Ta meaning horse and Mang meaning soldiers so the correct meaning of Tamang would be soldiers on horse backs.

http://www.tamangsamaj.com

http://www.tamangs.com

http://www.tamang.com

== External links ==
* [http://www.tamangsamaj.com Tamang Samaj, Biggest Tamang Portal around the World. Get All Information about Tamang from these site. ]
* [http://www.tamangs.com/aitba.htm All India Tamang Buddhist Association]
* [http://www.tamang.com General Profile about the Tamangs]
*[http://www.ambedkar.org]
* [http://members.fortunecity.com/dharantimes/tamang.htm Tamang People]
* http://www.tamangs.com
* http://www.tamangsamaj.com
*[http://www.boudhadharma.com Portal of Buddhism]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Nepal]]

[[de:Tamang]]
[[fr:Tamang]]
[[ko:따망족]]
[[it:Tamang]]
[[ja:タマン族]]
[[no:Tamang]]
[[ru:Таманги]]
[[sh:Tamang]]
[[vi:Người Tamang]]

Buddhism

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{{Copyedit|date=September 2008}}
{{toolong}}
{{revisions sandboxed|sandboxed=Talk:Buddhism/Revised|placedby=[[User talk:Ludwigs2|Ludwigs2]]}}

{{Buddhism}}
'''Buddhism''' is a family of beliefs and practices, considered by some religion,<ref>These refer to it as a "religion:" ''Chambers Dictionary'', 2006; ''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'', 2003; ''New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions'', px998; ''Dewey Decimal System of Book Classification''; Robinson & Johnson, ''The Buddhist Religion''</ref> but not by all.<ref>Excluding it as a "religion" by definition: ''Numen'', vol 49, p 388; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', vol III, p 403; ''Numen'', vol 49, p 389; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', Routledge, 2005, vol III, p 403</ref> A Buddhist is one who takes refuge in [[The Three Jewels]]: the ''[[Buddha]]'' (the Awakened One), the ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]'' (the Teaching of the Buddha) and the ''[[Sangha]]'' (the Community of Buddhists). Depending on the source, the number of Buddhists in the world ranges from 230 to 500 million or more, <ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Buddhism Major Religions Ranked by Size]</ref><ref>U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2004. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/ Accessed 20 September 2008.</ref><ref>Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.</ref><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/xx.html#People CIA - The World Factbook</ref>. Most Buddhists live in Asia, but adherants are found world-wide.

Buddhism is based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]], sometimes known simply as "Buddha", who lived in or around the fifth century BCE in the northeastern region of [[ancient India]]. Buddhists recognize him as an awakened teacher who shared his insights to help [[Sentient being (Buddhism)|sentient beings]] end their [[dukkha|suffering]] by understanding the true nature of phenomena, thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth ([[saṃsāra]]). Among the methods various schools of Buddhism apply towards this goal are: ethical conduct, cultivation of wisdom, [[meditation]], study, understanding, altruistic behaviour, [[Nekkhamma|renunciation of worldly matters]], devotional practices and the invocation of holy beings that help them achieve [[Nirvana]].
"Buddha" is actually a title, meaning the "Enlightened One." After he became enlightened, he taught that the way to eliminate suffering begins with understanding the true nature of the world. However, the Buddha considered knowledge important only insofar as it remains practical. He rejected speculation about such matters as God, the nature of the universe, and the afterlife, urging his followers to focus instead on the Four Noble Truths by which they can free themselves from suffering.

Buddhism has spread through these main branches:
* [[Theravada]], which extended south and east from its origins and now has a widespread following in [[Southeast Asia]].
* [[Mahayana]] (including Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren and [[Vajrayana]]), which diffused from its origins west, north and east throughout [[East Asia]].
Both branches then spread further into [[Buddhism in Europe|Europe]] and to the [[Buddhism in the Americas|America]]s.

Buddhist schools disagree on what the historical teachings of Gautama Buddha were, so much so that some scholars claim Buddhism doesn't have a clearly definable common core.<ref>Robinson et al, ''Buddhist Religions'', page xx; ''Philosophy East and West'', vol 54, ps 269f; Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1st edn, 1989, ps 275f/2nd edn, 2008, p 266</ref> Also, there is significant disagreement over the importance of various scriptures. For instance, the [[Tipitaka]]'s [[Nikaya]]s ([[Āgama (Buddhism)|Agamas]] to Mahayana Buddhists) are recognized by most Buddhist schools. However, in addition to this, the Mahayana branch regard the [[Mahayana sutras]] as more significant, scriptures that the Theravadins find irrelevant. Also, [[Vajrayana]] Buddhists find great value in the Tantras.<ref>[http://www.kagyuoffice.org/buddhism.3vehicles.html The Three Vehicles of Buddhism]</ref>

==Gautama Buddha==
{{main|Gautama Buddha}}
Scholars are increasingly hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of Gautama Buddha's life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lopez | title= ''Buddhism in Practice''| publisher=Princeton University Press| year= 1995 |pages= 16 }}</ref><ref>For instance, Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a ''rājan''—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (''Theravada Buddhism'', p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, ''The Life of the Buddha'', ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources.</ref> According to Michael Carrithers, while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, "the outline of the life must be true: birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death."<ref>Carrithers, Michael. "The Buddha," in the Oxford University paperback ''Founders of Faith,'' 1986, page 10.</ref> Most historians accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but do not consistently accept most details in his biographies.<ref>''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' Vol. 1, page 352</ref>

The following information about his life comes from the Tipitaka (other [[Buddhist texts|scriptures]]{{which}} give differing accounts). Siddhartha [[Gautama Buddha|Gautama]], the founder of Buddhism, was born in the city of [[Lumbini]], [[Nepal]], in [[Ancient India]], and was raised in [[Kapilavastu]].<ref>[[UNESCO]] webpage entitled [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/666 "Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha"]. Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 19, which states that in the mid-third century BCE the Emperor [[Ashoka]] determined that Lumbini was the Buddha's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "... this is where the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas, was born."</ref><ref> For instance, Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a ''rājan''—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (''Theravada Buddhism'', p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edwerard Thomas, ''The Life of the Budddddddddha'', ascribe the name Siattha/fitta to later sources</ref> Moments after birth, according to the scriptures, he performed the first of [[Miracles of Gautama Buddha|several miracles]]. He took a few steps and proclaimed, "Supreme am I in the world. Greatest am I in the world. Noblest am I in the world. This is my last birth. Never shall I be reborn."

Shortly thereafter, a wise man visited his father, King [[Śuddhodana]]. The wise man said that Siddhartha would either become a great king (''[[chakravartin]]'') or a holy man (''[[Sadhu]]'') based on whether he saw life outside of the palace walls. Determined to make Siddhartha a king, Śuddhodana shielded his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life. Years after this, Gautama married Yasodhara, his first cousin, with whom he had a son, Rahula, who later became a Buddhist monk.

At the age of 29, Siddhartha ventured outside the palace complex several times despite his father's wishes. As a result he discovered the suffering of his people, through encounters with an old man, a [[disease]]d man, a decaying [[corpse]] and an [[ascetic]]. These are known among Buddhists as "The Four Sights",<ref>http://buddhism.about.com/library/blbudlifesights2.htm The Life of the Buddha: The Four Sights ''"On the first visit he encountered an old man. On the next excursion he encountered a sick man. On his third excursion, he encountered a corpse being carried to cremation. Such sights sent home to him the prevalence of suffering in the world and that he too was subject to old age, sickness and death. On his fourth excursion, however, he encountered a holy man or sadhu, apparently content and at peace with the world."''</ref> one of the first contemplations of Siddharta. The Four Sights eventually prompted Gautama to abandon royal life to take up his spiritual quest to become free from suffering by living the life of a [[mendicant]] [[ascetism|ascetic]], a highly respected spiritual practice at the time in ancient India. He found companions with similar spiritual goals and teachers who taught him various forms of meditation, including [[Jhāna in Theravada|jhāna]].

Ascetics practised many forms of self denial, including severe undereating. One day, after almost starving to death, Gautama accepted a little milk and rice from a village girl named Sujata. After this experience, he concluded that ascetic practices, such as fasting, holding one's breath, and exposure to pain, brought little spiritual benefit. He viewed them as counterproductive due to their reliance on self hatred and mortification.<ref>http://www.wildmind.org/mantras/figures/shakyamuni/5 Wild mind Buddhist Meditation, ''The Buddha’s biography: Spiritual Quest and Awakening''</ref> He abandoned asceticism, concentrating instead on ''[[anapanasati]]'' [[meditation]] (awareness of breathing), thus discovering what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]], a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

After discovering the Middle Way, he sat under a [[Sacred fig]] tree, also known as the [[Bodhi tree]], in the town of [[Bodh Gaya]] and vowed not to rise before achieving Nirvana. At age 35, after many days of meditation, he attained his goal of becoming a [[Buddha]]. He spent the rest of his life teaching the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]].<ref>Skilton, ''Concise'', p. 25</ref> He died at age 80 in [[Kushinagara]], India of food poisoning.<ref>"the reputed place of the Buddha's death and cremation,"[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-312979/Kasia Encyclopedia Britannica, Kusinagara]</ref>

== Buddhist Concepts ==

{{main|Buddhist terms and concepts}}

===Karma: Cause and Effect===
{{main|Karma in Buddhism}}
In Buddhism, ''Karma'' (from [[Sanskrit]]: action, work<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit] dictionary, using कर्मन् as input</ref>) is used specifically for those actions which spring from mental intent (in Pāli: ''cetana''),<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 40</ref> which brings about ''[[phala]]'' (from Sanskrit: fruit or consequence<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de sanskrit-english dictionary] with फल as input</ref>) or ''[[vipāka]]'' (from Pāli: result). Karma can be either negative or positive; with its respective negative or positive ''vipāka''.

Karma is the energy which drives ''Saṃsāra'', the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. ''Kusala'' (skillful) and ''akusala'' (unskillful) actions produce "seeds" in the mind which come to [[Vipaka|fruition]] either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.<ref>T.P. Kasulis of Ohio State University, ''Zen as a Social Ethics of Responsiveness." Journal of Buddhist Ethics: [http://www.buddhistethics.org/13/zse1-kasulis.pdf].</ref> The content of unwholesome actions and the lower types of wholesome actions belongs to the subject of ''[[Śīla]]'' (from Sanskrit: ethical conduct).

The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].{{Fact|date=September 2008}} In Theravada Buddhism there is no divine salvation or forgiveness from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. In contrast, in some Mahayana ''sutras'' it is taught that powerful ''sutras'' (such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]]) can wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma by being heard or recited. According to the Japanese [[Pure Land]] teacher [[Genshin]], the [[Amida Buddha|Buddha Amitabha]] has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in ''samsara''.<ref>Lopez, ''Story of Buddhism'', page 239/''Buddhism'', page 248</ref>

===Rebirth===
{{main|Rebirth (Buddhism)}}
Rebirth means to be born again as one of many possible forms of sentient life, each existing within one of five realms, according to Theravadins, or [[Six Realms|six]] according to other schools.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 34</ref><ref>Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume Two), page 711</ref> These are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence:<ref>[http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/allexistence.pdf ''The 31 Planes of Existence'' by Ven. Suvanno Mahathera]</ref>
#[[Naraka (Buddhism)|Naraka beings]]: those who live in one of many ''Narakas'' (Hells).
#[[Animals in Buddhism|Animals]]: sharing some space with humans, but considered another type of life.
#[[Preta]]: Sometimes sharing some space with humans, but invisible to most people; an important variety is the hungry ghost.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 33</ref>
#[[Human beings in Buddhism|Human beings]]: one of the realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible.
#[[Asura (Buddhism)|Asuras]]: variously translated as lowly deities, demons, titans, antigods; not recognized by Theravada (Mahavihara) tradition as a separate realm: "There are only five destinies ... the kalakanjika asuras have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the pretas, with whom ... they marry. As for the Vepacittiparisa, they have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the gods, with whom they marry."
#[[Deva (Buddhism)|Devas]] including [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahmas]]: variously translated as gods, deities, spirits, angels, or left untranslated.

Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the [[Buddhist_cosmology#.C5.9Auddh.C4.81v.C4.81sa_worlds|Śuddhāvāsa Worlds]] (Pure Abodes), can be attained only by [[anāgāmi]]s (non-returners). Rebirths in the [[Buddhist_cosmology#.C4.80r.C5.ABpyadh.C4.81tu|arupa-dhatu]] (formless realms) can be attained only by those who can meditate on the arupa-jhānas.

===The Four Noble Truths===

{{main|The Four Noble Truths}}
According to the [[Pali Tipitaka]], the Four Noble Truths were the first teaching of [[Gautama Buddha]] after attaining Nirvana.<ref>{{cite book|chapter =Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta |title= The Book of Protection | author = Thera, Piyadassi |chapterurl=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.piya.html|year = 1999 | publisher= Buddhist Publication Society}} In what is said in Theravada to be the Buddha's first sermon, the [[Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta]], which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. He talks about the Middle Way, the noble eightfold path and the Four Noble Truths.</ref> They are sometimes considered as containing the essence of the teachings of the Buddha and are presented in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at that time:

According to ''one'' interpretation, they state that:
#Life as we know it ultimately is or leads to "suffering" in one way or the other.
#The cause of this "suffering" is attachment to, or craving for worldly pleasures of all kinds and clinging to this very existence, our "self" and the things or people we - due to our delusions - deem the cause of our respective happiness or unhappiness.
#The "suffering" ends when the craving ends, or one is freed from all desires by eliminating the delusions, reaches "Enlightenment";
#The way to reach that liberated state is by following the [[The Noble Eightfold Path|path]] the Buddha has laid out.

This interpretation is followed closely by many modern Theravadins,{{Fact|date=September 2008}} described by early westerns scholars and taught as an introduction to Buddhism by some contemporary Mahayana teachers like the [[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]].<ref>See for example: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html ''The Four Noble Truths''</ref>

According to other interpretations by Buddhist teachers and scholars and lately recognized by some western scholars as well<ref>Gethin, ''Foundations'', page 60</ref> the "truths" do not represent mere statements, but divisions or aspects of most phenomena, which falls into one of these four categories:
#Suffering and causes of suffering
#Cessation and the path towards liberation of suffering.

Thus, according to the Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism''<ref>(2004), Volume One, page 296</ref> they are
# "the noble truth that is suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the arising of suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the end of suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the way leading to the end of suffering"

The early teaching<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', p. 47</ref>, and the traditional understanding in the Theravada,<ref name=penguin>{{cite book| title = The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions |author = Hinnels, John R. | publisher = Penguin Books | location = London | year = 1998 | isbn = 0140514805}},pages 393f</ref> is that the four noble truths are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and more expansive Mahayana teachings.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', p. 92</ref> They are little known in the Far East.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Budhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 60</ref>

====The Noble Eightfold Path====
{{main|Noble Eightfold Path}}
[[Image:Dharma Wheel.svg|thumb|The [[Dharmacakra]] represents the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].]]
The Noble Eightfold Path, the fourth of the Buddha's [[Four Noble Truths|Noble Truth]]s, is the way to the cessation of suffering ([[dukkha]]). In the early sources (the four main ''[[Nikaya]]s'') it is not generally taught to laypeople, and it is little known in the Far East.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Buddhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, pages 59f</ref> It has eight sections, each starting with ''samyak'' (Sanskrit, meaning correctly, properly or well,<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de with सम्यक् as input]</ref> frequently translated into English as ''right''), and presented in three groups:

*''[[Prajñā]]'' is the wisdom that purifies the mind to attain spiritual insight into the true nature of all things. It includes:
<ol start="1">
<li>{{unicode|dṛṣṭi}}; viewing<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with दृष्टि as input</ref> reality as it is, not just as it appears to be.</li>
<li>{{unicode|saṃkalpa}}; intention<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with संकल्प as input</ref> of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness.</li>
</ol>
*''[[Sila|Śīla]]'' is the ethics or morality, or abstention from unwholesome deeds. It includes:
<ol start="3">
<li>{{unicode|vāc}}; speaking<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with वाच् as input</ref> in a truthful and non hurtful way</li>
<li>{{unicode|karman}}; acting<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with कर्मन् as input</ref> in a non harmful way</li>
<li>{{unicode|ājīvana}}; a non harmful livelihood<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with आजीवन as input</ref></li>
</ol>
*''[[Samadhi]]'' is the mental discipline required to develop mastery over one’s own mind. This is done through the practice of various contemplative and meditative practices, and includes:
<ol start="6">
<li>{{unicode|vyāyāma}}; making an effort<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with व्यायाम as input</ref> to improve</li>
<li>{{unicode|smṛti}}; awareness<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with स्मृति as input</ref> to see things for what they are with clear consciousness, being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion</li>
<li>{{unicode|samādhi}}; correct meditation or concentration<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with समाधि as input</ref> explained as the first 4 ''[[dhyāna]]s''</li>
</ol>

The practice of the Eightfold Path is understood in one of two ways. It either requires simultaneous development—all eight items are practiced in parallel, or it is conceived as a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another.

====Middle Way====
{{main|Middle Way}}
In general, the Middle Way or Middle Path (Sanskrit: madhyamā-pratipad; Pali: majjhimā paṭipadā)[1] is the Buddhist practice of non-extremism.[2]

More specifically, in Theravada Buddhism's Pali Canon, the Middle Way crystallizes the Buddha's Nirvana-bound path of moderation away from the extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification and toward the practice of wisdom, morality and mental cultivation. In later Theravada texts as well as in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, the Middle Way refers to the concept, enunciated in the Canon, of direct knowledge that transcends seemingly antithetical claims about existence

===Reality in Buddhism===
{{main|Reality in Buddhism}}
According to the [[Pali Canon|scriptures]], his lifetime, the Buddha remained silent when asked several [[metaphysical]] questions. On issues such as whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha responded only with silence. One explanation for this is that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[bodhi|enlightenment]].<ref>[[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 72 [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.072.than.html (Thanissaro, 1997)]. For further discussion of the context in which these statements was made, see [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn44/sn44.intro.than.html Thanissaro (2004)].</ref> Another is that both affirmative and negative positions regarding these questions are based on attachment to and misunderstanding of the [[skandhas|aggregates]] and sense media. When one sees these things for what they are, as they are actually present, the idea of forming any of these positions simply does not occur to one.<ref>Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "Introduction to the Avyakata Samyutta," [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn44/sn44.intro.than.html].</ref> Another, closely related explanation is that reality, as it really is, is [[shunyata|devoid of designations]], and therefore language itself is a priori inadequate.<ref>Gadjin M. Nagao, ''Madhyamika and Yogachara.'' Leslie S. Kawamura, translator, SUNY Press, Albany 1991, pages 40-41.</ref>

The Buddha's silence does not indicate [[misology]] or disdain for philosophy. Rather, it indicates that he viewed these questions as not leading to true knowledge.<ref>Gadjin M. Nagao, ''Madhyamika and Yogachara.'' Leslie S. Kawamura, translator, SUNY Press, Albany 1991, pages 40-41.</ref> [[Dependent origination]] is one of the Buddha's great contributions to philosophy, and provides a framework for analysis of reality that is not based on [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] assumptions regarding existence or non-existence, but instead on direct cognition of phenomena as they are presented to the mind. This informs and supports the Buddhist approach to liberation via ethical and meditative training known as the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].

The Buddha is said not to have given lengthy descriptions of "ultimate reality." According to Karel Werner, <blockquote>Experience is ... the path most elaborated in early Buddhism. The doctrine on the other hand was kept low. The Buddha avoided doctrinal formulations concerning the final reality as much as possible in order to prevent his followers from resting content with minor achievements on the path in which the absence of the final experience could be substituted by conceptual understanding of the doctrine or by religious faith, a situation which sometimes occurs, in both varieties, in the context of Hindu systems of doctrine.<ref>Karel Werner, ''Mysticism and Indian Spirituality.'' In Karel Werner, ed., ''The Yogi and the Mystic.'' Curzon Press, 1989, page 27.</ref></blockquote>

The Mahayana developed those statements he is said to have made into an extensive, diverse set of sometimes contrasting descriptions of reality "as it really is."<ref>See [www.lulu.com/items/volume_63/2864000/2864713/1/print/Microsoft_Word_-_Ron_Henshall__Dissertation__2007.pdf], a master's thesis by a student of Peter Harvey.</ref>

In the Pali Canon and numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha is portrayed stessing that Dharma (Truth) cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: Reality transcends all worldly concepts. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation and confidence in the sutras{{Fact|date=September 2008}}, which are as fingers pointing to the Truth, not the Truth itself. Then to let go of rationalizations and to experience direct Liberation itself.

In the Mahayana [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], the Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the [[Bodhi]] nature. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]], a scripture of the [[Nyingma]] school of Tibetan Buddhism) also emphasises how Buddhist Truth lies beyond the range of discursive/verbal thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ...."<ref>''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111–112.</ref> Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]].

Most Buddhists agree that, to a greater or lesser extent, words are inadequate to describe the goal; schools differ radically on the usefulness of words in the path to that goal.<ref>''Philosophy East and West'', volume Twenty-Six, page 138</ref>

Buddhist scholars have produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some people at some stages.

Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic concept of truth:<ref>Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1989, page 2</ref> doctrines are "true" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial. In modern Chinese Buddhism, all doctrinal traditions are regarded as equally valid.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 395</ref>

Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. Some of the writings attributed to him made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the agamas. Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be [[shunyata|śūnya]] (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] (no-self) and [[pratitya-samutpada|pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the [[Madhyamaka]]. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Madhyamaka system.<ref>Christian Lindtner, ''Master of Wisdom.'' Dharma Publishing 1997, page 324.</ref>

Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna, was reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|{{IAST|Asaṅga}}]] and were adapted into the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school held that asserting the existence or non-existence of any ultimately real thing was inappropriate, some exponents of Yogācāra asserted that the mind and only the mind is ultimately real. Not all Yogācārins asserted that mind was truly existent, [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|{{IAST|Asaṅga}}]] in particular did not.<ref>[[Dan Lusthaus]], "What is and what isn't Yogacara." [http://www.acmuller.net/yogacara/articles/intro-uni.htm].</ref> These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.

In the Mahayana school, emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness ([[shunyata]]), perfected spiritual insight ([[prajnaparamita]]) and [[Buddha-nature]] (the deathless [[tathagatagarbha]], or Buddha womb, inherent in all beings and creatures). In the tathagatagarbha sutras the Buddha is portrayed proclaiming that the teaching of the tathagatagarbha constitutes the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma—the highest presentation of Truth (other sūtras make similar statements about other teachings). This has traditionally been regarded as the highest teaching in East Asian Buddhism. However, in modern China all doctrines are regarded as equally valid.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 395</ref> The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist [[panentheism]] ([[God in Buddhism]]).

Theravāda promotes the concept of [[Vibhajjavada]] ([[Pāli|Pali]]), literally "Teaching of Analysis". This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith.

====The Cycle of Samsara====
{{main|Pratītyasamutpāda}}
Human beings crave pleasure and satisfaction of the six senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking) from birth to death. After another rebirth they do the same, and continue repeating this cycle ([[Samsara]]). Humans always expect pleasure and do not like to feel pain. This cycle of suffering is explained in twelve links of [[dependent origination]], each conditioning the next:

#Avidyā: ignorance, specifically spiritual<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 56</ref>
#Saṃskāras: literally formations, explained as referring to [[Karma]].
#Vijñāna: consciousness, specifically discriminative<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 57</ref>
#Nāmarūpa: literally name and form, referring to mind and body<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 58</ref>
#Ṣaḍāyatana: the six sense bases: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind-organ
#Sparśa: variously translated contact, impression, stimulation
#Vedanā: usually translated feeling: this is the "hedonic tone", i.e. whether something is pleasant, unpleasant or neutral
#Tṛṣṇā: literally thirst, but nearly always in Buddhism used to mean craving
#Upādāna: clinging or grasping; the word also means fuel, which feeds the continuing cycle of rebirth
#Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. (The Theravada explains this as having two meanings: karma, which produces a new existence, and the existence itself.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 59</ref>)
#Jāti: literally birth, but life is understood as starting at conception<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 60</ref>
#Jarāmaraṇa (old age and death) and also śokaparidevaduḥkhadaurmanasyopāyāsa (sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness and misery)

Human beings always suffer throughout ''samsara'', until they become free from this suffering when attaining ''[[Nirvana]]''. Then the absence of ignorance leads to the absence of the others as above.

===Nirvana===
{{main|Nirvana}}

Nirvana (Sanskrit: निर्वन, Pali "Nibbana") means "cessation", "extinction" (of suffering) or ([[tṛṣṇā]]) "extinguished", "quited", "calmed"<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit] dictionary with निर्वन as input</ref>; it's also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. Also, Buddhists believe that anybody who has achieved nirvana (also known as ''bodhi'') is in fact a Buddha.

Mahayana Buddhism generally regards as its most important teaching the path of the [[bodhisattva]]. This already existed as a possibility in earlier Buddhism, as it still does in Theravada today, but the Mahayana gave it an increasing emphasis, eventually saying everyone should follow it.

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tend to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see ''[[Dharmakaya]]'') beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the [[eternal Buddha]] himself.

[[Image:StandingBuddha.jpg|thumb|[[Gautama Buddha]], ancient region
of [[Gandhara]], northern [[Pakistan]], 1st century CE, [[Musée Guimet, Paris]].]]

''[[Bodhi]]'' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]], in devanagari: बॊधि) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of [[arahants]]. Bodhi literally means "awakening", but is more commonly referred to as "enlightenment". In [[Early Buddhism]] Bodhi carries a meaning synonymous to [[Nirvana]], using only some different similes to describe the experience, which implied the extinction of ''raga'' (greed),<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:489.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref> ''dosa'' (hate)<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2598.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref> and ''moha'' (delusion).<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:229.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref>

===Buddhas===
{{main|Buddhahood}}

====Theravada====
A person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of [[Reality in Buddhism|reality]]; such people are called [[arahant]]s. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving they have also reached the end of the compulsive cycle of rebirths, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being.

These people, also occasionally referred to as buddhas, are classified into three types.
* [[Buddhahood|Sammasambuddha]], usually just called Buddha, who discovers the truth by himself and teaches the path to awakening to others
* [[Pratyekabuddha|Paccekabuddha]], who discovers the truth by himself but lacks the skill to teach others
* [[Sāvakabuddha]], who has followed the teaching of a Buddha, and may use it to guide others (see also: [[Arhat]])

Bodhi and Nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate and delusion. The Arahant, according to Theravada doctrine, has thus overcome greed, hatred, ''and'' delusion, attaining Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, the extinction of only greed (in relation to the sense sphere) and hatred, while a residue of delusion remains, is called [[Anagami]].

====Mahayana====
Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence, but who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings.

Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher attainment that eradicate delusion entirely.<ref>''An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (= passion and hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment.’’ How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 67</ref> Thus, the [[Arahant]] attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the [[Buddhahood|Buddha]] attains Bodhi.



The method of self-exertion or "self-power" - without reliance on an external force or being - stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, "Pure Land", which is characterised by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amida Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in [[Amitabha]] Buddha and/or the chanting of homage to his name will provide the spiritual energy that will liberate one at death into the "happy land" (''sukhavati'') or "pure land" of Amitabha (called Amida in Japanese) Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only people will have faith in the power of that limitless great Vow, or will utter the liberational chant of Amida's name.

Nearly all Chinese Buddhists accept that the chances of attaining sufficient enlightenment by one's own efforts are very slim, so that Pure Land practice is essential as an "insurance policy" even if one practises something else.<ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page 611</ref>

====Buddha Eras====
Buddhists believe the Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism. A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest ''known'' Buddha. This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge, evidence and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of human existence.<ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bullitt/bfaq.html#maitreya ''Access to Insight'', a Theravada Buddhist website, discusses Buddha Eras]</ref><ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.26.0.than.html Gautama Buddha discusses tne Maitreya Buddha in the Tipitaka]</ref> The Gautama Buddha, then, is ''the Buddha of this era'', who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas).

In addition, Mahayana believes there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes,<ref>Kogen Mizuno, ''Essentials of Buddhism'', Shunju-sha, 1972, English translation, Kosei, Tokyo, 1996, page 57</ref> but Theravada denies this.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}

The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in East Asian Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few if any are capable of following the path, so most or all must rely on the power of the Buddha Amitabha. Zen and Nichiren traditionally hold that few if any can follow the "complicated" path of some other schools, and present a "simple" practice instead.

===Bodhisattvas===
Mahayana encourages everyone to follow a bodhisattva path, while Theravada regards it as an option. Theravada and some Mahayana sources consider a bodhisattva as someone on the path to Buddhahood, while other Mahayana sources speak of bodhisattvas renouncing Buddhahood.<ref>Cook, ''Hua-yen Buddhism'', Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977, pages 110f; Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume One), page 351</ref> The Mahayana summarizes bodhisattva practice in six perfections: giving,morality, patience, energy, concentration and wisdom.

==Practice==

===Devotion===
{{main|Buddhist devotion}}

Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists.<ref>Harvey, page 170</ref> Devotional practices include bowing, offerings, pilgrimage, chanting. In Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha Amitabha is the main practice. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice.

====Refuge in the Three Jewels====
[[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]] with [[Dharmachakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]]
{{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}}

Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three Jewels ([[Sanskrit]]: ''tri-ratna'', [[Pāli]]: ''ti-ratana'')<ref>{{cite web
|title=Refuge
|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi
|author= Bhikku, Thanissaro
|year=2001
|work=An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha
|publisher=Access to Insight}}</ref> as the foundation of one's religious practice. The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned<ref>''Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha'', tr Nanamoli, rev Bodhi, Wisdom Pubns, 1995, pages 708f</ref> in the [[Majjhima Nikaya]], recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf [[Infant baptism]]). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the ''[[lama]]''. In Mahayana, the person who chooses the ''[[bodhisattva]]'' path makes a vow/pledge; which is considered the ultimate expression of compassion.

The "Three Jewels" are:
* The [[Buddha]]. This is a title for those who attained Nirvana. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha]]. The Buddha could also be represented as a concept instead of a specific person: the perfect wisdom that understands Dharma and sees reality in its true form.
* The ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''. The teachings or law of nature as expounded by the Gautama Buddha. It can also, especially in Mahayana, connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
* The ''[[Sangha]]''; the "community" of Buddhists or "congregation" of monks and nuns.

According to the scriptures, [[Gautama Buddha]] presented himself as a model, however, he did not ask his followers simply to have faith (Sanskrit: ''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]'', Pāli: ''saddhā'') in the Dharma but a personal realization of [[Bodhi]]. In addition, he encouraged them to put his teachings to the test and accept what they could verify on their own, provided that this was also "praised by the wise" (see [[Kalama Sutta]]). The Dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. The ''{{unicode|Saṅgha}}'' (Buddhist Order of monks) is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

===Buddhist Ethics===
{{main|The Five Precepts}}
''[[Sila|Śīla]]'' (Sanskrit) or ''sīla'' (Pāli) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' (''sila'', ''samadhi'', and ''panya'') and the second ''[[Paramita|pāramitā]]''. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of ''śīla'' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment.

''Śīla'' is the foundation of ''Samadhi/Bhāvana'' (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internal, but also peace in the community, which is external. According to the Law of Karma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.

''Śīla'' refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. There are several levels of ''sila'', which correspond to 'basic morality' ([[five precepts]]), 'basic morality with asceticism' ([[eight precepts]]), 'novice monkhood' ([[ten precepts]]) and 'monkhood' (''[[Vinaya]]'' or ''[[Patimokkha]]''). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the [[eight precepts]], which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.

The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.
:1. To refrain from taking life. (non-violence towards [[Sentience|sentient]] life forms)
:2. To refrain from taking that which is not given. (not committing [[theft]])
:3. To refrain from sensual (sexual) misconduct.
:4. To refrain from lying. (speaking truth always)
:5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of [[mindfulness]]. (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)

In the [[eight precepts]], the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of [[celibacy]]. The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:
:6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time. (only eat from sunrise to noon)
:7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelry, going to shows, etc.
:8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

===Monastic life===
[[Vinaya]] is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the [[Patimokkha]], a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the [[vinayapitaka]] (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. [[Samanera|Novice-monks]] use the [[ten precepts]], which are the basic precepts for monastics.

In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and [[vegetarianism]] is actively encouraged (see ''[[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]''). In Japan, this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.

=== Meditation===
{{main|Buddhist meditation}}

Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind and using it to explore itself and other phenomena.<ref>B. Alan Wallace, ''Contemplative Science.'' Columbia University Press, 2007, page 81.</ref> According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation, [[Samatha meditation|''samatha'' meditation]] (Sanskrit: ''śamatha'') and [[vipassana|''vipassanā'' meditation]] (Sanskrit: ''vipaśyanā''). In Chinese Buddhism, these exist (translated ''chih kuan''), but Chan (Zen) meditation is more popular.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 396</ref> Throughout most of Buddhist history before modern times, serious meditation by lay people has been unusual.<ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page 502</ref>

====Samādhi/Bhāvanā (Meditative cultivation): samatha meditation====
{{main|Samadhi|Dhyāna}}

In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, ''samyaksamādhi'' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating ''samādhi'' is meditation. Upon development of ''samādhi'', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.

Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]'', Sanskrit ध्यान ''dhyāna''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

[[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (''jhāna'') There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath ([[anapanasati]]), because this practice can lead to both ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'.

In Buddhist practice, it is said that while ''samatha'' meditation can calm the mind, only ''vipassanā'' meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to ''[[jnana|jñāna]]'' (Pāli ''{{IAST|ñāṇa}}'' knowledge), ''[[prajñā]]'' (Pāli ''paññā'' pure understanding) and thus can lead to ''nirvāṇa'' (Pāli ''nibbāna''). When one is in jhana, all defilements are suppressed temporarily. Only ''prajñā'' or ''vipassana'' eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also resting states which ''arahants'' abide in order to rest.

=====In Theravāda=====
{{main|Jhāna in Theravada}}

In Theravāda Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as the craving, which carries with it the various defilements. These various defilements are traditionally summed up as greed, hatred and delusion. These are believed to be parasites that have infested the mind and create suffering and stress. In order to be free from suffering and stress, these defilements need to be permanently uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing, experiencing, and understanding of the true nature of those defilements by using ''jhāna'', a technique which is part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It will then lead the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and ''[[Nirvana|Nibbana]]''. Nibbana is the ultimate goal of Theravadins.

====Prajñā (Wisdom): vipassana meditation====
{{main|Prajñā|Vipassana}}

''Prajñā'' (Sanskrit) or ''paññā'' (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], The Four Noble Truths and the [[three marks of existence]]. ''Prajñā'' is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about ''bodhi''. It is spoken of as the principal means of attaining ''{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}'', through its revelation of the true nature of all things as ''[[dukkha]]'' (unsatisfactoriness), ''[[anicca]]'' (impermanence) and ''[[anatta]]'' (not-self). ''Prajñā'' is also listed as the sixth of the six ''[[Paramita|pāramitās]]'' of the Mahayana.

Initially, ''prajñā'' is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.

====Zen ====
{{Main|Zen}}

''Ch'an'' (Chinese) or Zen (Japanese) Buddhism (derived from the Sanskrit term, ''dhyana'' - "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation.<ref>According to Charles S. Prebish (in his ''Historical Dictionary of Buddhism'', Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, 1993, p. 287): "Although a variety of Zen 'schools' developed in Japan, they all emphasize Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts, that provides the potential for direct realization, that the realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature possessed by each sentient being ...".</ref> Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth.

Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai and Soto, the former greatly favouring the use in meditation on the [[koan]] (meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focusing more on ''shikantaza'' or "just sitting".<ref>Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): "It presumes that ''sitting in meditation itself'' (i.e. ''zazen'') is an expression of Buddha nature." The method is to detach the mind from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar Stephen Hodge writes (''Zen Masterclass'', Godsfield Press, 2002, pp. 12–13): "... practitioners of Zen believe that Enlightenment, the awakening of the Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature, is our natural state, but has been covered over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts. According to this view, Enlightenment is not something that we must acquire a bit at a time, but a state that can occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of mental and emotional obscurations."</ref>

Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha himself.<ref>(''Critical Sermons on the Zen Tradition'', Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2002, ''passim'') Commenting on Rinzai Zen and its Chinese founder, Linji, Hisamatsu states: "Linji indicates our true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and 'True Self'. It is independent of words or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching. Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures. It is just our direct awakening to Self ..." (Hisamatsu, op. cit., p. 46).</ref> Nevertheless, Zen does not neglect the scriptures.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', pages 165f</ref>

====Tantra====
Though based upon Mahayana, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is one of the schools that practice ''[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]'' or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism, or [[esotericism|esoteric]] Buddhism). It accepts all the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative practices.<ref>Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1st ed, 1989, page 185</ref> One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy through ritual, visualization, and meditation as a means of developing the mind. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years.

According to some Tibetan authorities, the physical practice of sexual yoga is necessary at the highest level for the attainment of Buddhahood.<ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', page 781</ref> The use of sexual yoga is highly regulated. It is only permitted after years of training.<ref>Peter Harvey, ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics.'' Cambridge University Press, 2000, page 142. [http://books.google.com/books?id=URZNk9noWJEC&pg=PA141&dq=sexual+yoga&sig=ACfU3U1N2atsSlWp73ApspY1F1AOb5eAMA#PPA142,M1]</ref> The physical practice of sexual yoga is extremely rare, and has been historically.<ref>Thomas Laird, ''The Story of Tibet.'' Grove Press, 2006, page 81. [http://books.google.com/books?id=CaV2y65qb4EC&pg=PA81&dq=sexual+yoga&sig=ACfU3U0WkWe21VOnhT12tQIDlX7ntA4OSA#PPA82,M1]</ref> A great majority of Tibetans believe that the only proper practice of tantric texts is metaphorically, not physically, in rituals and during meditative visualizations.<ref>Thomas Laird, ''The Story of Tibet.'' Grove Press, 2006, page 82. [http://books.google.com/books?id=CaV2y65qb4EC&pg=PA81&dq=sexual+yoga&sig=ACfU3U0WkWe21VOnhT12tQIDlX7ntA4OSA#PPA82,M1]</ref> The dominant [[Gelug]] sect of Tibetan Buddhism holds that sexual yoga as an actual physical practice is the only way to attain Buddhahood in one lifetime. The founder of the sect [[Tsongkhapa]] did not, according to tradition, engage in this practice, but instead attained complete enlightenment at the moment of death, that being according to this school the nearest possible without sexual yoga. The school also taught that they are only appropriate for the most elite practitioners, who had directly realized emptiness and who had unusually strong compassion. The next largest school in Tibet, the Nyingma, holds that this is not necessary to achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime. <ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', page 781; the briefer statement in this article by Powers should be understood in the light of his fuller statement in his book ''Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism'', Snow Lion, 1995, pages 252f</ref> The current leader of the Gelug sect, the fourteenth [[Dalai Lama]], holds that the practice should only be done as a visualization.<ref>Thomas Laird, ''The Story of Tibet.'' Grove Press, 2006, page 82. [http://books.google.com/books?id=CaV2y65qb4EC&pg=PA81&dq=sexual+yoga&sig=ACfU3U0WkWe21VOnhT12tQIDlX7ntA4OSA#PPA82,M1]</ref> Shingon, along with all non-tantric forms of Buddhism, does not recognize sexual yoga.

==History==
{{main|History of Buddhism}}

===Indian Buddhism===
{{main|History of Buddhism in India}}
[[Image:ElloraPuja.jpg|thumb|The Buddhist "Carpenter's Cave" at [[Ellora]] in [[Maharashtra]], India.]]

====Early Buddhism====
{{main|Early Buddhist schools}}
The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into the following five periods:<ref>A History of Indian Buddhism - Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) - Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 7</ref>
# [[Early Buddhism]] or [[Early Buddhist Schools]] (also called [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism]]); Hajime Nakamura<ref>''Indian Buddhism'', Japan, 1980, reprinted Motilal Banarsidass,Delhi,1987,1989,table of contents</ref> subdivides this into two subperiods:
## original Buddhism (other scholars call this earliest Buddhism or precanonical Buddhism{{Fact|date=September 2008}})
## early Buddhism
# Period of the [[Early Buddhist schools]] (also called Sectarian Buddhism, [[Nikaya Buddhism]])
# Early [[Mahayana Buddhism]]
# Later Mahayana Buddhism
# [[Vajrayana Buddhism]] (also called Esoteric Buddhism)

These developments were not always consecutive. For example, the early schools continued to exist alongside Mahayana. Some scholars have argued that Mahayana remained marginal for centuries.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}

=====Pre-sectarian Buddhism=====
{{main|Pre-sectarian Buddhism}}
The earliest phase of Buddhism (pre-sectarian Buddhism) recognized by nearly all scholars (the main exception is Dr Gregory Schopen,<ref> Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. His main views and arguments can be found in his book ''Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks'', University of Hawai'i Press</ref>) is based on a comparison of the [[Pali Canon]] with surviving portions of other early canons.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} Its main scriptures are the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the four principal [[Nikaya]]s or [[Agama]]s.

Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught at least:<ref>Mitchell, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 2002, page 34 & table of contents</ref>

* the [[three characteristics]]
* the [[five aggregates]]
* [[dependent arising]]
* [[karma]] and [[rebirth]]
* the [[four noble truths]]
* the [[eightfold path]]
* [[nirvana]]

Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories.<ref>Skorupski, ''Buddhist Forum'', vol I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London, 1990, page 5; ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'', vol 21 (1998), part 1, pages 4, 11
</ref>

===== Councils =====
{{main|Buddhist councils}}
According to the scriptures, soon after the [[Paranirvana|{{IAST|paranirvāṇa}}]] (from Sanskrit: परनिर्वाण "highest extinguishment")<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit.de dictionary] with पर and निर्वाण as input</ref> of Gautama Buddha, the [[first Buddhist council]] was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission. In the first council, [[Ananda|Ānanda]], a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses (''sūtras'', Pāli ''sutta''s) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the [[abhidhamma]]. [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the monastic rules (''[[vinaya]]''). Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist</ref>

According to most scholars, at some period after the Second Council the ''Sangha'' began to break into separate factions. (Schopen suggests that Buddhism was very diverse from the beginning and became less so.)<ref>''Journal of the Pāli Text Society'', volume XVI, p. 105)</ref> The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred. According to the ''[[Dipavamsa]]'' of the Pāli tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council, the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN, the [[Sarvastivada]] tradition of [[Vasumitra]] says it was in the time of Asoka and the [[Mahasanghika]] tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE.

The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that "the Sangha has been made unified". This may refer to a dispute such as that described in the account of the [[Third Buddhist Council]] at Pataliputta. This concerns the expulsion of non-Buddhist heretics from the ''sangha'', and does not speak of a schism. However, the late Professor Hirakawa argued that the first schism occurred after the death of Asoka. These schisms occurred within the [[early Buddhist schools]], at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.

The root schism was between the [[Sthaviras]] and the [[Mahāsāṅghikas]]. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika. This contradicts the Mahasanghikas' own ''vinaya'', which shows them as on the same, winning side. The northern lineages, including the Sarvastivada and Puggalavada (both branches of the ancient Sthaviras) attribute the Mahāsāṅghika schism to the '5 points' that erode the status of the ''arahant''.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} The Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the ''vinaya'' and may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[arhat]]ship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.<ref>Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. ''Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism'' in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237–272</ref>

The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravāda school. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', p. 74</ref>

=====Further developments=====
{{main|Timeline of Buddhism}}
[[Image:Asoka Kaart.gif|thumb|250px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] (260–218 BCE).]]

Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an [[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma]], a detailed scholastic reworking of doctrinal material appearing in the [[Sutta]]s, according to schematic classifications. These Abhidharma texts do not contain systematic philosophical treatises, but summaries or numerical lists<ref>"Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.</ref>. Scholars generally date these texts to around the third century BCE, 100 to 200 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore the seven Abhidhamma works are generally claimed not to represent the words of the Buddha himself, but those of disciples and great scholars<ref>"Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.</ref>. Every school had its own version of the Adhidharma, with different theories and different texts. The different Adhidharmas of the various schools did not agree with each other. The exception to this might have been the Mahasanghika school, which according to scholarly opinion<ref>"Abhidhamma Pitaka." Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.</ref> did not have an Abhidhamma Pitaka (which agrees with their statement that they did not want to add to the Buddha's teachings). But the Chinese pilgrims Fa-hsien ([[Faxian]]), Yuan Chuang and [[Xuanzang]] report that in the 5th and 7th centuries CE, when the Mahasanghika existed for close to 1000 years, it did have a version of Abhidhamma.<ref >{{Cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2124|title=Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms |accessdate=2008-08-18|Author=Fa-Hien|Translator=James Legge|publisher=Project Gutenberg}}"In the community here, moreover, we got the Samyuktabhi-dharma-hridaya-(sastra), containing about six or seven thousand gathas; he also got a Sutra of 2500 gathas; one chapter of the Parinir-vana-vaipulya Sutra, of about 5000 gathas; and the Mahasan-ghikah Abhidharma"</ref><ref >{{Cite web|url=http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/sha.htm|title=Notes on the Nagarjunikonda Inscriptions|accessdate=2008-08-18|Author=Dutt, Nalinaksha|publisher=The Indian Historical Quarterly}}"the Mahasanghikas, so far as the traditions go, did not recognise the seven texts of the Theravadins as Buddhabhasita, (6) but had an Abhidharma Pitaka of their own according to the testimony of Yuan Chuang,(7) who further supplies us with the information that he himself studied certain Abhidharma treatises of the Mahasanghika"</ref><ref>Samuel Beal, "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang: By the Shaman Hwui Li. With an introduction containing an account of the works of I-tsing", published by Tuebner and Co, London (1911), Digital version: University of Michigan. "this is the spot where the assembly of the Great Congregation (Mahdsanghikas) was held….So they made another collection of the Sutra-pitaka, and the Vinaya-pitaka, and the Abhidharma-pitaka, and of the Miscellaneous-pitaka, and the Dharall-pitaka, five pitakas in all. As in this assembly there were both ordinary persons and holy men present; it is called the convocation of the Mahasanghikas."</ref>

[[Image:MenandrosCoin.jpg|thumb|150px|Buddhist tradition records in the [[Milinda Panha]] that the 2nd century BCE [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Menander I|Menander]] converted to the Buddhist faith and became an [[arhat]].]]
Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]], who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more [[stupa|stūpas]] (Buddhist religious memorials) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Central Asia]], beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of [[Sri Lanka]] south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.

This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts of Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread Buddhism (Dharma), particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring [[Seleucid Empire]], and even farther to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]], and to the development of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries{{Fact|date=September 2008}}.

===Buddhism today===
{{main|Timeline of Buddhism#Common Era}}
Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength in India and elsewhere. Estimates of the number of Buddhist followers by scholars range from 230 million to 500 million, with most around 350 million. Most scholars classify similar numbers of people under a category they call "Chinese folk" or "traditional" religion, an amalgam of various traditions that include Buddhism. One Buddhist organization claims the total could be as much as 1.691 billion. Estimates are uncertain and in dispute because of:
* difficulties in defining who counts as a Buddhist;
* [[syncretism]] in the [[Eastern religions]], such as Buddhism, [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Shinto]], and [[Chinese folk religion|traditional religions]], [[shamanism]] and [[animism]], which involves beliefs comprising mixed religious ideas;<ref>[http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/lopez.html Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion]</ref><ref>[http://asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html Windows on Asia - Chinese Religions]</ref><ref>[http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/religion Religions and Beliefs in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.sacu.org/religion.html SACU Religion in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.index-china.com/index-english/people-religions-s.html Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions]</ref><ref>[http://www.askasia.org/teachers/essays/essay.php?no=16 AskAsia - Buddhism in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.globaled.org/curriculum/china/bessay1.htm BUDDHISM AND ITS SPREAD ALONG THE SILK ROAD]</ref>
* it is difficult to accurately estimate the number of Buddhists who do not have congregational memberships and often do not participate in public ceremonies;<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)]</ref>
* of uncertainties in the situation for several countries; most notably [[Religion in China|China]], [[Religion in Vietnam|Vietnam]] and [[Religion in North Korea|North Korea]]<ref>[http://www.opendemocracy.net/pix/home/stateattitudes.pdf [[openDemocracy.net]] - 'The Atlas of Religion,' Joanne O'Brien & Martin Palmer: State Attitudes to Religion]</ref><ref>[http://crf.hudson.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=survey_files Center for Religious Freedom - Survey Files]</ref><ref>[http://crf.hudson.org/articledocs/TheRangeofReligiousFreedom.doc The Range of Religious Freedom]</ref>.

According to one analysis,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Garfinkel, Perry | title = Buddha Rising | journal = National Geographic | month= December | year= 2005 | pages = 88–109}}</ref> Buddhism is the fourth-largest [[major world religions|religion in the world]] behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and [[Hinduism]]. The monks' order ([[Sangha]]), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is among the oldest organizations on earth.

[[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]]
* [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Burma]]. Also the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]] in India (inspired by [[B. R. Ambedkar]]) practices Theravada.
* East Asian forms of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of China, Japan, [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
* [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is found in [[Tibet]] and the surrounding areas in India, [[Bhutan]], [[Mongolia]], [[Northeast China]], [[Nepal]], and the [[Russian Federation]].
* Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the [[Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]], though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.

The numbers of adherents of the three main traditions listed above are about 124, 185 and 20 million, respectively.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.htm/#Buddhism], retrieved on 2008-01-15</ref>

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While, in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and traditional. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. In the [[Buddhism in the West|West]], Buddhism is recognized as one of the growing spiritual influences.

There is an overwhelming diversity of recent forms of Buddhism.<ref>''Philosophy East and West'', volume 54, page 270</ref>

==Schools and Traditions==
{{main|Schools of Buddhism}}
Buddhists generally classify themselves as either [[Theravada]] or [[Mahayana]]<ref>Keown, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 1996, page 12</ref> This classification is also used by some scholars<ref>Smith, ''Buddhism''; Juergensmeyer, ''Oxford Handbook''.</ref>{{page number}} and is the one ordinarily used in the English language.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tibetan Buddhism |encyclopedia=American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | publisher= Houghton Mifflin Company | year=2004 |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tibetan%20buddhism | accessdate=2007-07-07}}</ref> An alternative scheme used by some scholars<ref>(Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984); Gethin (1998), pp. 1–2, identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism."; Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia," "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area," "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West; Penguin ''handbook of Living Religions'', 1984, page 279; Prebish & Keown, ''Introducing Buddhism'', ebook, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 2005, printed ed, Harper, 2006</ref> divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: [[Theravada]], [[East Asian Buddhism]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]].
Some scholars<ref>See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Macmillan, New York, 1987, volume 2, pages 440ff</ref> use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes. Hinayana (literally "smaller vehicle") is used to name Theravada, but this can be considered derogatory.



Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them.

Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

Despite some differences among the Theravada and Mahayana schools, there are several [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana|concepts common to both major Buddhist branches]]:<ref>http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/comparative.htm</ref>
* Both accept [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]] as their teacher.
* Both accept the [[middle way]], [[dependent origination]], the [[four noble truths]] and the [[noble eightfold path]], in theory, though in practice these have little or no importance in some traditions.
* Both accept that members of the laity and of the [[sangha]] can pursue the path toward enlightenment ([[bodhi]]).
* Both consider buddhahood to be the highest attainment; however Theravadins consider the [[nirvana]] ([[nibbana]] to the Theravadins) attained by [[arahants]] as identical to that attained by the Buddha himself, as there is only one type of nirvana. According to Theravadins, a buddha is someone who has discovered the path all by himself and taught it to others.

===Theravāda===
{{main|Theravada}}
[[Theravada|Theravāda]] ("Doctrine of the Elders", or "Ancient Doctrine") is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It is relatively conservative, and ''generally'' closest to early Buddhism.<ref>Gethin, ''Foundations'', page 1</ref> This school is derived from the [[Vibhajjavada|Vibhajjavāda]] grouping which emerged amongst the older [[Sthavira]] group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE). This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.

The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] and its commentaries. After being orally transmitted for a few centuries, its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were finally committed to writing in the last century BCE, in Sri Lanka, at what the Theravada usually reckon as the fourth council. It is also one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the complete set of its canon into writing. The [[sutra|Sutta]] collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka]]), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Theravāda is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Burma]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]] as well as small portions of China, [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Bangladesh]]. It has a growing presence in [[Europe]] and [[Americas|America]].

===Mahayana===
{{main|Mahayana}}
[[Image:Mahayanabuddha.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese Seated Buddha, [[Tang Dynasty]], [[Hebei|Hebei province]], ca. 650 CE. Chinese Buddhism is of the [[Mahayana]] tradition, with popular schools today being [[Pure Land]] and [[Zen]].]]
The precise geographical origins of [[Mahayana]] are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the [[Kushan Empire]] (within present-day northern [[Pakistan]]), and in areas within the [[Shatavahana]] Empire, including [[Amaravati]] to the south-east (in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]), to the west around the port of [[Bharukaccha]] (present-day [[Bharuch]], a town near [[Bombay]]), and around the various cave complexes, such as [[Ajanta]] and [[Karli]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]). Some scholars have argued that Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around [[stupa]] devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a [[bodhisattva]] were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. Other scholar reject this theory.<ref>{{cite book | author = Williams, Paul | title = Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations |publisher = Routledge | location = London | year= 1989}}, pages 20f</ref> Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the [[Sarvastivada]] school and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan Empire, seem to have had major influence.

[[Image:MahayanaMap.gif|thumb|left|Expansion of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.]]
Around the second century CE, the Kushan emperor [[Kanishka]] is said to have convened what many western scholars call the [[fourth Buddhist council]]. This council is not recognised by the Theravada line of Buddhism. According to Mahayana sources, this council did not simply rely on the original [[Tripitaka]]. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the [[Lotus Sutra]], an early version of the [[Heart Sutra]] and the [[Amitabha Sutra]] were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for all beings (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattvas who embody [[Buddha-nature]] who strive to achieve such a goal. However, most western scholars believe this council was purely Sarvastivada, while the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it entirely fictitious.<ref>{{cite book |author = Lamotte, Étienne (trans. to French)| others= trans. Sara Boin| title = Teaching of Vimalakirti |publisher = Pali Text Society |location = London |year = 1976|isbn =0710085400|pages = XCIII}}</ref> The new scriptures were first written in [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]] or one of the [[Prakrit]]s. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana would spread from India to [[Southeast Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]] and then east to China where Mahayana was [[Sinicized]] and this Sinicized Mahayana would be passed on to [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]] and finally to Japan in 538 CE. The East Asians would go on to write more indigenous sutras and commentaries to the Mahayana Canon.
[[Image:GBA8.jpg|thumb|One of the [[Buddhas of Bamyan]], Afghanistan as it stood in 1963.]]

After the end of the [[Kushan Empire|{{IAST|Kuṣāṇas}}]], Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the [[Gupta]]s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the [[Nalanda University|Nālandā University]] in north-eastern India.

[[Image:Status of Kuan Yin.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese [[Ming dynasty]] porcelain figure of [[Guanyin]], "Goddess of Mercy."]]
Mahayana schools recognize all or part of the [[Mahayana Sutras|Mahayana scriptures]]. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself, and faith in and veneration of those texts are stated in some sutras (e.g. the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]) to lay the foundations for the later attainment of Buddhahood itself.

Native Eastern Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, [[Korea]], [[Singapore]], parts of Russia and most of [[Vietnam]]. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Northern Buddhism. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. However, in Japan they form separate denominations. The five major ones are the following.

* [[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren]], peculiar to Japan
* [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]]
* [[Shingon]], a form of Vajrayana
* [[Tendai]]
* [[Zen|Chan/Zen]]

In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong to the Chogye school, which is officially Son (Zen), but with substantial elements from other traditions.<ref>Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume One), pages 430, 435</ref>

====Pure Land Buddhism====
{{main|Pure Land Buddhism}}
There are estimated to be around 100 million Chinese Buddhists.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 191, & volume 2, page 10</ref> Pure Land Buddhism is the most popular form in China, particularly among the laity.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 152</ref> In the first half of the twentieth century, most Chinese monks practised Pure Land.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism 1900-1950'', Harvard, 1967, page 396</ref>Chan (Zen) survived into the 20th century in a small number of monasteries, but died out in mainland China after the communist takeover.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism 1900-1950'', Harvard, 1967, pages 47, 396</ref> In Taiwan Chan meditation is popular,<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 283</ref> but most Buddhists follow Pure Land.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, volume 1, page 723</ref>

There are estimated to be about 40 million Buddhists in Vietnam.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 803</ref> The Buddhism of monks and educated lay people is mainly Thien (Zen), with elements of Pure Land and tantra, but that of most ordinary Buddhists has little or no Thien element, being mainly Pure Land.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', page 159; Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume Two), page 882</ref>

===Vajrayāna or Tibetan Buddhism===
{{main|Vajrayana}}
[[Image:Young monks of Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung]]
There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its [[Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)|tantric practice]] started. In the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan tradition]], it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, [[Tibet]], Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition.

In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject, [[Fairfield University]] professor Ronald M. Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the changing political climate in India at the time. With the fall of the [[Gupta]] dynasty, in an increasingly fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting patronage, and the folk movement led by [[siddhas]] became more prominent. After perhaps two hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the monastic establishment.<ref>{{cite book|author = Davidson, Ronald M. | title = Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement | publisher = Columbia University Press |location =New York| year= 2003 |isbn= 0231126190 }}</ref>{{page number}}

Vajrayana combined and developed a variety of elements, a number of which had already existed for centuries.<ref>Prebish & Keown, ''Introducing Buddhism'', page 89</ref> In addition to the Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of [[Buddhist texts#Vajrayana Texts|Buddhist Tantras]], some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.

Although it continued to in surrounding countries, over the centuries Buddhism gradually declined in India and it [[Decline of Buddhism in India|was virtually extinct]] there by the time of the British conquest.

==Buddhist texts==
{{main|Buddhist texts}}
Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on learning the various texts. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. Buddhist scriptures are written in these languages: [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan (language)|Tibetan]], [[Mongolian (language)|Mongolian]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], along with some texts that still exist in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]].

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. However, some scholars have referred to the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the first four Nikayas of the [[Sutta Pitaka]] as the common core of all Buddhist traditions.<ref>A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000)</ref> However, this could be considered misleading, as Mahāyāna considers these merely a preliminary, and not a core, teaching, the Tibetan Buddhists have not even translated most of the āgamas, though theoretically they recognize them, and they play no part in the religious life of either clergy or laity in China and Japan.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Buddhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 16</ref> The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own ''vinaya''. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the ''[[agama (text)|āgamas]]''.

Over the years, various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture.

Dwight [[Goddard]] collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen, along with other classics of [[Eastern philosophy]], such as the [[Tao Te Ching]], into his 'Buddhist Bible' in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]] attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles in [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ "The Buddha and His Dhamma"]. Other such efforts have persisted to present day, but currently there is no single text that represents all Buddhist traditions.

===Pāli Tipitaka===
{{main|Pāli Canon}}
{{PaliCanon|abbrev=1}}
The Pāli Tipitaka, which means "three baskets", refers to its three main:
* The ''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Pitaka]]'' contains disciplinary rules for the Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as explanations of why and how these rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
* The ''[[Sutta Pitaka]]'' contains discourses ascribed to [[Gautama Buddha]].
* The ''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidhamma Pitaka]]'' contains material often described as systematic expositions of the Gautama Buddha's teachings.

According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings—sūtras (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli)—and codify monastic rules (vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses, and according to some sources{{which}} the ''[[abhidhamma]]'', and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the ''vinaya''. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the ''vinaya'' of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Gautama Buddha's previous lives, and various other subjects.

=== Mahayana Sutras ===
[[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|left|thumb|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]]
The [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered by some to be the word of Gautama Buddha, but supposedly were transmitted in secret, or came directly from other Buddhas or [[Bodhisattva]]s. Approximately six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations. In addition, East Asian Buddhism recognizes some ''sutras'' regarded by scholars as of Chinese origin.

Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pāli Canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic, valid teachings of Gautama Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual understanding. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of Gautama Buddha. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali Canon represents the full and final statement by Gautama Buddha of his Dhamma—and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of Gautama Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.

For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the ''Mahāyāna sutras'' do indeed contain basic and foundational pronouncements of Gautama Buddha. From the Mahayana standpoint the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the [[bodhisattva]] path. That path is explained as being built upon the motivation to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which expresses availability both to the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The theme of greatness can be seen in many elements of Mahayana Buddhism, from the length of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow, which strives for ''all'' future time to help free ''all'' other persons and creatures from pain, to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "Great Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "Great Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For Theravadins and many scholars, including [[A.K. Warder]],<ref>A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000), p. 4</ref> however, the self-proclaimed "greatness" of the [[Mahayana Sutras]] does not make them a true account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha.

==Buddhist symbols==
{{main|Buddhist symbolism}}

===Comparative studies===

Buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of subjects. For example, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] can be considered one contribution of Buddhism to metaphysics. On the other hand, Buddhism's emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in countries that adopted it throughout its history.

'''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies'''
* [[Buddhism and Jainism]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Christianity]]
* [[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism, mysticism, and monotheism)
* [[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
* [[Buddhism and psychology]]
* [[Buddhism and science]]
* [[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics)
* [[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
* Buddhism and Thelema<ref name=IAO131>[http://www.geocities.com/hdbq111/JoTS/JoTS1-1.pdf Thelema & Buddhism] in ''Journal of Thelemic Studies'', Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007, pp. 18-32</ref>

==See also==
* [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]]
* [[Buddhism and Christianity]]
* [[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Jainism]]
* [[Buddhism and psychology]]
* [[Buddhism and science]]
* [[Buddhism in the West]]
* [[Buddhist Ethics]]
* [[Buddhist Ceremonies]]
* [[Buddhist flag]]
* [[Buddhist philosophy]]
* [[Buddhist terms and concepts]]
* [[God in Buddhism]]
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
* [[List of Buddhists]]
* [[Shinbutsu shūgō]]

==Notes==


{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Bechert, Heinz & Richard Gombrich (ed.) (1984). ''The World of Buddhism'', Thames & Hudson.
* {{cite journal| last = Cousins| first = L. S.| title = The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article| journal = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society| volume = Series 3| issue = 6.1| pages = 57–63| year= 1996| url = http://indology.info/papers/cousins/| accessdate = 2007-07-11}}; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', volume I; NB in the online transcript a little text has been accidentally omitted: in section 4, between "... none of the other contributions in this section envisage a date before 420 B.C." and "to 350 B.C." insert "Akira Hirakawa defends the short chronology and Heinz Bechert himself sets a range from 400 B.C."
* {{cite book|author = Davidson, Ronald M. | title = Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement | publisher = Columbia University Press |location =New York| year= 2003 |isbn= 0231126190 }}
* {{cite book | author=de Give, Bernard | title= Les rapports de l'Inde et de l'Occident des origines au règne d'Asoka | publisher=Les Indes savants | year=2006 | id=ISBN-10: 2846540365}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Rupert Gethin|Gethin, Rupert]] | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-19-289223-1}}
* {{cite book| author=Harvey, Peter | title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=1990| id= ISBN 0-52-131333-3}}
* {{cite book |author = Lamotte, Étienne (trans. from French)| others= trans. Sara Boin| title = Teaching of Vimalakirti |publisher = Pali Text Society |location = London |year = 1976|isbn =0710085400|pages = XCIII}}
* {{cite book | title = A Concise History of Buddhism | author = Skilton, Andrew | year = 1997 | publisher = Windhorse Publications | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GEKd4iqH3C0C&dq=history+of+buddhism |isbn = 0904766926}}
* {{cite book | author = Williams, Paul | title = Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations |publisher = Routledge | location = London | year= 1989}}
* Williams, Paul (ed.) (2005). ''Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies'', 8 volumes, Routledge, London & New York.
* {{cite book | author=Armstrong, Karen | title=Buddha | year=2001 | publisher=Penguin Books | isbn=0-14-303436-7 | pages=187}}
* {{cite book | author=Buswell, Robert E. (ed.) | title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year= 2003 | isbn=978-0028657189}}
* {{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}}
* {{cite book | author=Donath, Dorothy C. | title=Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day | publisher=Julian Press | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0-07-017533-0}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Henepola Gunaratana|Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola]] | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-86171-321-4}} Also available on this websites: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm saigon.com] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html urbandharma.org] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php vipassana.com]
* {{cite book | author=Juergensmeyer, Mark | title = The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions | series = Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0195137989}}
* {{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The Vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1-903296-91-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Kohn, Michael H. (trans.) | title=The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen | publisher=Shambhala | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-87773-520-4}}
* Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), ''The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists'', Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distributed by Wisdom Books
* {{cite book | author=Nattier, Jan | title=A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprccha) | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-8248-2607-8}}
* {{cite book | author=Robinson, Richard H., and Johnson, Willard L. | title=The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction | publisher=Wadsworth Publishing | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0-534-01027-X}}
* {{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 81-208-2144-0}}
* {{cite book | author=Smith, Huston | title=Buddhism: A Concise Introduction | coauthors=Phillip Novak | publisher=HarperSanFrancisco | year=2003 | isbn=978-0060730673}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]] | title=[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha] (3rd ed., rev.) | year=2001}}
* {{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
* {{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0-271-00601-3}}
* {{cite book|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
*{{cite book|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White|White, Kenneth]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
*{{cite book|author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}}
*{{cite book|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0-86171-133-5.
*{{cite book|author=Indian Books Centre|title=Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series, Delhi}}
*{{cite book|author=Ranjini|title=Jewels of the Doctrine|work=Buddhist Stories of the Thirteenth Century|publisher=Sri Satguru Publications}}

===Online===
* {{cite web|author=Berzin, Alexander | work=Berzin Archives | title=Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan|month=November | year=2001|url=http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html}}
* {{cite web|author=[http://www.weiwuwei.8k.com/ Wei, Wei Wu]| work=Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London | publisher=[http://www.sentientpublications.com/authors/weiwuwei.php Sentient Publications] |title=Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra|month= | year=1960|url=http://www.sentientpublications.com/catalog/lazarus.php}}
*{{cite web|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda|Dhammananda, K. Sri]] | url=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf | title=What Buddhists Believe | work=[http://www.bmsm.org.my/ Buddhist Missionary Society of Malaysia]|year=2002}}

==External links==
{{external links}}

{{portal}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Buddhism}}
* [http://www.boudhadharma.com/ Portal Of Buddhism]
* [http://www.aboutbuddhism.org About Buddhism]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org Access to Insight]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet]
* [http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net Seeing Through The Net]
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Buddhism/ Buddhism] at Open Directory Project
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/index.html
|title= Buddhism - objects, art and history
|work=Asia
|accessdate= 2007-12-06}}
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/budhist/index.htm Buddhism Potpourri]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/index.htm Buddhist texts] (English translations)
* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
* [http://www.vwsp.eu/tathagata/budh-diags/nut_gr1.htm Essential Theravada Buddhism in graphics]
* [http://www.webspawner.com/users/bodhisattva/index.html Tathagatagarbha Mahayana sutras]
* [http://www.veoh.com/videos/v7071978efhj2aF6 Video documentary Buddhist history in India]
* [http://www.what-Buddha-taught.net What Buddha Taught ] Multi-lingual

{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Religion topics}}

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[[ms:Agama Buddha]]
[[mn:Буддизм]]
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[[pt:Budismo]]
[[ro:Budism]]
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[[ru:Буддизм]]
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[[sq:Budizmi]]
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[[si:බුදු දහම]]
[[simple:Buddhism]]
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[[sl:Budizem]]
[[sr:Будизам]]
[[fi:Buddhalaisuus]]
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[[ta:பௌத்தம்]]
[[te:బౌద్ధ మతము]]
[[th:พระพุทธศาสนา]]
[[vi:Phật giáo]]
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Buddha (disambiguation)

2008-09-23T03:34:43Z

202.79.62.16:

{{wiktionarypar|buddha|Buddha}}
{{tocright}}
'''Buddha''' (pronunciation: {{IPA|[bʊd̪.d̪ʰə]}}) ("Awakened one" in Sanskrit) may refer to:

==Religion==
* [[Gautama Buddha]], founder of [[Buddhism]], clan name Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Gotama), personal name said to be Siddhārtha (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha), epithet Śākyamuni (Sanskrit; Pali: Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni).
*The Buddhist concept of [[Buddhahood]].
* ''[[Buddharupa]]'', a statue or other representation of a Buddha

===Other Buddhas===
Other figures considered to be Buddhas by various Buddhist groups include:
* [[Amitābha]], principal Buddha of Pure Land sect
* [[Vairocana]], embodiment of [[Dharmakaya]]
* [[Dipankara]], First Buddha of the current world age.

For other possible figures referred to by the term buddha see the [[list of Buddhas]]

==Modern culture==
* [[Buddha (album)|''Buddha'' (album)]], an album by Blink-182
* [[Buddha (manga)|''Buddha'' (manga)]]
* [[Buddha (2007 film)|''Buddha'' (2007 film)]] or ''Gautama Buddha''
* [[Buddha Records]]

==Other usage==
* [[Buddha Air]], a Nepalese airline
* [[Buddha, Indiana]], a small town in the United States.

==See also==
* [[http://www.boudhadharma.com]]
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Buddha (other religions)]]
* [[Buddha from the Hindu perspective]]
* [[Adi-Buddha]], the primordial Buddha
* [[Budha]], the planet Venus in Buddhist mythology
* ''[[Little Buddha]]'', a film
* Budda (''[[Eremophila duttonii]]''), a plant from inland Australia

{{disambig}}
[[ca:Buda]]
[[et:Buddha]]
[[fr:Bouddha (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Boeddha]]
[[ja:ブッダ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[sv:Buddha (olika betydelser)]]

Buddha (disambiguation)

2008-09-23T03:18:35Z

202.79.62.16: /* See also */

{{wiktionarypar|buddha|Buddha}}
{{tocright}}
'''Buddha''' (pronunciation: {{IPA|[bʊd̪.d̪ʰə]}}) ("Awakened one" in Sanskrit) may refer to:

==Religion==
* [[Gautama Buddha]], founder of [[Buddhism]], clan name Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Gotama), personal name said to be Siddhārtha (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha), epithet Śākyamuni (Sanskrit; Pali: Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni).
*The Buddhist concept of [[Buddhahood]].
* ''[[Buddharupa]]'', a statue or other representation of a Buddha

===Other Buddhas===
Other figures considered to be Buddhas by various Buddhist groups include:
* [[Amitābha]], principal Buddha of Pure Land sect
* [[Vairocana]], embodiment of [[Dharmakaya]]
* [[Dipankara]], First Buddha of the current world age.

For other possible figures referred to by the term buddha see the [[list of Buddhas]]

==Modern culture==
* [[Buddha (album)|''Buddha'' (album)]], an album by Blink-182
* [[Buddha (manga)|''Buddha'' (manga)]]
* [[Buddha (2007 film)|''Buddha'' (2007 film)]] or ''Gautama Buddha''
* [[Buddha Records]]

==Other usage==
* [[Buddha Air]], a Nepalese airline
* [[Buddha, Indiana]], a small town in the United States.

==See also==
Biggest website on Buddhism 
http://www.boudhadharma.com 
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Buddha (other religions)]]
* [[Buddha from the Hindu perspective]]
* [[Adi-Buddha]], the primordial Buddha
* [[Budha]], the planet Venus in Buddhist mythology
* ''[[Little Buddha]]'', a film
* Budda (''[[Eremophila duttonii]]''), a plant from inland Australia

{{disambig}}
[[ca:Buda]]
[[et:Buddha]]
[[fr:Bouddha (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Boeddha]]
[[ja:ブッダ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[sv:Buddha (olika betydelser)]]

Buddhism

2008-09-22T11:23:34Z

202.79.62.16: /* Gautama Buddha */

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{toolong}}
{{revisions sandboxed|sandboxed=Talk:Buddhism/Revised|placedby=[[User talk:Ludwigs2|Ludwigs2]]}}

{{Buddhism}}
'''Buddhism''' is a family of beliefs and practices that has distribution throughout the world. While it is usually considered a religion,<ref>These refer to it as a "religion:" ''Chambers Dictionary'', 2006; ''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'', 2003; ''New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions'', px998; ''Dewey Decimal System of Book Classification''; Robinson & Johnson, ''The Buddhist Religion''</ref> some scholars have defined religion in ways that exclude it.<ref>Excluding it as a "religion" by definition: ''Numen'', vol 49, p 388; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', vol III, p 403; ''Numen'', vol 49, p 389; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', Routledge, 2005, vol III, p 403</ref> Depending on the source, the number of Buddhists in the world ranges from 230 to 500 million or more, <ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Buddhism Major Religions Ranked by Size]</ref><ref>U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2004. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/ Accessed 20 September 2008.</ref><ref>Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.</ref><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/xx.html#People CIA - The World Factbook</ref> mostly in Asia.

Buddhism is based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]], sometimes known simply as "The Buddha", who lived in or around the fifth century BCE in the northeastern region of [[ancient India]]. Buddhists recognize him as an awakened teacher who shared his insights to help [[Sentient being (Buddhism)|sentient beings]] end their [[dukkha|suffering]] by understanding the true nature of phenomena; thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth ([[Saṃsāra]]). Among the methods various schools of Buddhism apply towards this goal are: ethical conduct, cultivation of wisdom, [[meditation]], study, understanding, altruistic behaviour, [[Nekkhamma|renunciation of worldly matters]], devotional practices and the invocation of holy beings that help them achieving [[Nirvana]]. A Buddhist is one who takes refuge in [[The Three Jewels]]; ''[[Buddha]]'' (Awakened One), ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]'' (Teaching of the Buddha) and ''[[Sangha]]'' (Community of Buddhists).

Buddhism has spread through these main branches:
* [[Theravada]], which extended south and east from its origins and now has a widespread following in [[Southeast Asia]].
* [[Mahayana]] (the parent branch to many other schools, including [[Vajrayana]]), which diffused from its origins west, north and east throughout [[East Asia]].
Both branches then spread further into [[Buddhism_in_Europe|Europe]] and to the [[Buddhism in the Americas|America]]s.

Buddhist schools disagree over what are and are not the teachings of Gautama Buddha. There are scholars who claim that Buddhism doesn't have a clearly definable common core.<ref>Robinson et al, ''Buddhist Religions'', page xx; ''Philosophy East and West'', vol 54, ps 269f; Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1st edn, 1989, ps 275f/2nd edn, 2008, p 266</ref> Certain key texts, known as ''[[nikayas]]'' or ''[[agamas]]'', are preserved by both Theravada and Mahayana and some of them by Tibetan Buddhism. These texts are central in the Theravada, but are rarely explicitly used in the Mahayana. The primary Mahayana scriptures are the [[Mahayana sutras]]; some schools also use [[Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)|tantras]]. Mahayana texts are irrelevant to or incompatible with Theravadin thought.

==Gautama Buddha== 
http://www.boudhadharma.com 

{{main|Gautama Buddha}}
'''Scholars are increasingly reluctant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of Gautama Buddha's life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lopez | title= ''Buddhism in Practice''| publisher=Princeton University Press| year= 1995 |pages= 16 }}</ref><ref>For instance, Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a ''rājan''—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (''Theravada Buddhism'', p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, ''The Life of the Buddha'', ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources.</ref> There are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, though according to Michael Carrithers, the outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.<ref>Michael Carrithers, ''The Buddha,'' in the Oxford University paperback ''Founders of Faith,'' 1986, page 10.</ref> According to the Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism''<ref>(Volume One), page 352</ref> historians accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but cannot easily accept most details in his biographies.

The following information about his life comes from the Tipitaka (other [[Buddhist texts|scriptures]]{{which}} give differing accounts). Siddhartha [[Gautama Buddha|Gautama]], the founder of Buddhism, was born in the city of [[Lumbini]] and was raised in [[Kapilavastu]].<ref>[[UNESCO]] webpage entitled [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/666 "Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha"]. Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 19, which states that in the mid-third century BCE the Emperor [[Ashoka]] determined that Lumbini was the Buddha's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "... this is where the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas, was born."</ref><ref> For instance, Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a ''rājan''—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (''Theravada Buddhism'', p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, ''The Life of the Buddha'', ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources</ref> Moments after birth, according to the scriptures, he performed his first [[miracle]]. He took a few steps and proclaimed "this is my last birth,
never shall I be reborn". The scriptures mention that he performed [[Miracles of Gautama Buddha|several other miracles]] after achieving Nirvana.

Shortly thereafter, a wise man visited his father, King [[Śuddhodana]]. The wise man said that Siddhartha would either become a great king (''[[chakravartin]]'') or a holy man (''[[Sadhu]]'') based on whether he saw life outside of the palace walls. Determined to make Siddhartha a king, Śuddhodana shielded his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life. Years after this, Gautama married Yasodhara, his first cousin, with whom he had a son, Rahula, who later became a Buddhist monk.

At the age of 29, Siddhartha ventured outside the palace complex several times despite his father's wishes. As a result he discovered the suffering of his people, through encounters with an old man, a [[disease]]d man, a decaying [[corpse]] and an [[ascetic]]. These are known among Buddhists as "The Four Sights",<ref>http://buddhism.about.com/library/blbudlifesights2.htm The Life of the Buddha: The Four Sights ''"On the first visit he encountered an old man. On the next excursion he encountered a sick man. On his third excursion, he encountered a corpse being carried to cremation. Such sights sent home to him the prevalence of suffering in the world and that he too was subject to old age, sickness and death. On his fourth excursion, however, he encountered a holy man or sadhu, apparently content and at peace with the world."''</ref> one of the first contemplations of Siddharta. The Four Sights eventually prompted Gautama to abandon royal life to take up his spiritual quest to become free from suffering by living the life of a [[mendicant]] [[ascetism|ascetic]], a highly respected spiritual practice at the time in ancient India. He found companions with similar spiritual goals and teachers who taught him various forms of meditation, including [[Jhāna in Theravada|jhāna]].

Ascetics practised many forms of self denial, including severe undereating. One day, after almost starving to death, Gautama accepted a little milk and rice from a village girl named Sujata.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} After this experience, he concluded that ascetic practices, such as fasting, holding one's breath, and exposure to pain, brought little spiritual benefit. He viewed them as counterproductive due to their reliance on self hatred and mortification.<ref>http://www.wildmind.org/mantras/figures/shakyamuni/5 Wild mind Buddhist Meditation, ''The Buddha’s biography: Spiritual Quest and Awakening''</ref> He abandoned asceticism, concentrating instead on ''[[anapanasati]]'' [[meditation]] (awareness of breathing), thus discovering what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]], a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

After discovering the Middle Way, he sat under a [[Sacred fig]] (''Ficus religiosa''),<ref>see: [http://www.angelfire.com/electronic/bodhidharma/bodhi_tree.html The Bodhi Tree]</ref> also known as the Bodhi tree,<ref>[http://www.buddhamind.info/leftside/arty/bod-leaf.htm Bodhi leaf]</ref> in the town of [[Bodh Gaya]] and vowed not to rise before achieving [[Nirvana]]. At age 35, after many days of meditation, he attained his goal of becoming a [[Buddha]]. He spent the rest of his life teaching the ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''.<ref>Skilton, ''Concise'', p. 25</ref> He died at age 80 in [[Kushinagara]], India. <ref>"the reputed place of the Buddha's death and cremation,"[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-312979/Kasia Encyclopedia Britannica, Kusinagara]</ref>

== Buddhist Concepts ==

{{main|Buddhist terms and concepts}}

===Karma: Cause and Effect===
{{main|Karma in Buddhism}}
In Buddhism, ''Karma'' (from [[Sanskrit]]: action, work<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit] dictionary, using कर्मन् as input</ref>) is used specifically for those actions which spring from mental intent (in Pāli: ''cetana''),<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Budhism'', page 40</ref> which brings about ''[[phala]]'' (from Sanskrit: fruit or consequence<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de sanskrit-english dictionary] with फल as input</ref>) or ''[[vipāka]]'' (from Pāli: result). Karma can be either negative or positive; with its respective negative or positive ''vipāka''.

Karma is the energy which drives ''Saṃsāra'', the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. ''Kusala'' (skillful) and ''akusala'' (unskillful) actions produce "seeds" in the mind which come to [[Vipaka|fruition]] either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.<ref>T.P. Kasulis of Ohio State University, ''Zen as a Social Ethics of Responsiveness." Journal of Buddhist Ethics: [http://www.buddhistethics.org/13/zse1-kasulis.pdf].</ref> The content of unwholesome actions and the lower types of wholesome actions belongs to the subject of ''[[Śīla]]'' (from Sanskrit: ethical conduct).

The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].{{Fact|date=September 2008}} In Theravada Buddhism there is no divine salvation or forgiveness from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. In contrast, in some Mahayana ''sutras'' it is taught that powerful ''sutras'' (such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]]) can wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma by being heard or recited. According to the Japanese [[Pure Land]] teacher [[Genshin]], the [[Amida Buddha|Buddha Amitabha]] has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in ''samsara''.<ref>Lopez, ''Story of Buddhism'', page 239/''Buddhism'', page 248</ref>

===Rebirth===
{{main|Rebirth (Buddhism)}}
Rebirth means to be born again in one of many possible types of life, which where later formally classified as the Five or [[Six Realms]]:<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 34</ref>

#[[Naraka (Buddhism)|Naraka beings]]: those who live in one of many ''Narakas'' (Hells).
#[[Animals in Buddhism|Animals]]: sharing some space with humans, but considered another type of life.
#[[Preta]]: Sometimes sharing some space with humans, but invisible without the ''[[Tathagata]]'' eye; an important variety is the hungry ghosts.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 33</ref>
#[[Human beings in Buddhism|Human beings]]: one of the types of realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible.
#[[Asura (Buddhism)|Asuras]]: variously translated as lowly deities, demons, titans, antigods; not recognized by Theravada (Mahavihara) tradition as a separate realm: "There are only five destinies ... the kalakanjika asuras have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the petas, with whom ... they marry. As for the Vepacittiparisa, they have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the gods, with whom they marry."
#[[Deva (Buddhism)|Devas]] including [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahmas]]: variously translated as gods, deities, spirits, angels, or left untranslated.

Theravada has some definite doctrines relating to rebirths in the higher heavens. These can be attained only by the practice of ''[[samatha]]'' meditation to sustained ''jhana'' levels. Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the [[Buddhist_cosmology#.C5.9Auddh.C4.81v.C4.81sa_worlds|Śuddhāvāsa Worlds]] (Pure Abodes), can be attained only by ''[[anāgāmi]]s'' (non-returners). Rebirths in the ''[[Buddhist_cosmology#.C4.80r.C5.ABpyadh.C4.81tu|arupa-dhatu]]'' can be attained only by meditators that attain the ''arupa-jhānas''.

===The Four Noble Truths===

{{main|The Four Noble Truths}}
According to the [[Pali Tipitaka]], the Four Noble Truths were the first teaching of [[Gautama Buddha]] after attaining Nirvana.<ref>{{cite book|chapter =Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta |title= The Book of Protection | author = Thera, Piyadassi |chapterurl=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.piya.html|year = 1999 | publisher= Buddhist Publication Society}} In what is said in Theravada to be the Buddha's first sermon, the [[Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta]], which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. He talks about the Middle Way, the noble eightfold path and the Four Noble Truths.</ref> They are sometimes considered as containing the essence of the teachings of the Buddha and are presented in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at that time:

According to ''one'' interpretation, they state that:
#Life as we know it ultimately is or leads to "suffering" in one way or the other.
#The cause of this "suffering" is attachment to, or craving for worldly pleasures of all kinds and clinging to this very existence, our "self" and the things or people we - due to our delusions - deem the cause of our respective happiness or unhappiness.
#The "suffering" ends when the craving ends, or one is freed from all desires by eliminating the delusions, reaches "Enlightenment";
#The way to reach that liberated state is by following the [[The Noble Eightfold Path|path]] the Buddha has laid out.

This interpretation is followed closely by many modern Theravadins,{{Fact|date=September 2008}} described by early westerns scholars and taught as an introduction to Buddhism by some contemporary Mahayana teachers like the [[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]].<ref>See for example: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html ''The Four Noble Truths''</ref>

According to other interpretations by Buddhist teachers and scholars and lately recognized by some western scholars as well<ref>Gethin, ''Foundations'', page 60</ref> the "truths" do not represent mere statements, but divisions or aspects of most phenomena, which falls into one of these four categories:
#Suffering and causes of suffering
#Cessation and the path towards liberation of suffering.

Thus, according to the Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism''<ref>(2004), Volume One, page 296</ref> they are
# "the noble truth that is suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the arising of suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the end of suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the way leading to the end of suffering"

The early teaching<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', p. 47</ref>, and the traditional understanding in the Theravada,<ref name=penguin>{{cite book| title = The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions |author = Hinnels, John R. | publisher = Penguin Books | location = London | year = 1998 | isbn = 0140514805}},pages 393f</ref> is that the four noble truths are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and more expansive Mahayana teachings.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', p. 92</ref> They are little known in the Far East.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Budhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 60</ref>

====The Noble Eightfold Path====
{{main|Noble Eightfold Path}}
[[Image:Dharma Wheel.svg|thumb|The [[Dharmacakra]] represents the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].]]
The Noble Eightfold Path, the fourth of the Buddha's [[Four Noble Truths|Noble Truth]]s, is the way to the cessation of suffering ([[dukkha]]). In the early sources (the four main ''[[Nikaya]]s'') it is not generally taught to laypeople, and it is little known in the Far East.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Buddhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, pages 59f</ref> It has eight sections, each starting with ''samyak'' (Sanskrit, meaning correctly, properly or well,<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de with सम्यक् as input]</ref> frequently translated into English as ''right''), and presented in three groups:

*''[[Prajñā]]'' is the wisdom that purifies the mind to attain spiritual insight into the true nature of all things. It includes:
<ol start="1">
<li>{{unicode|dṛṣṭi}}; viewing<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with दृष्टि as input</ref> reality as it is, not just as it appears to be.</li>
<li>{{unicode|saṃkalpa}}; intention<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with संकल्प as input</ref> of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness.</li>
</ol>
*''[[Sila|Śīla]]'' is the ethics or morality, or abstention from unwholesome deeds. It includes:
<ol start="3">
<li>{{unicode|vāc}}; speaking<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with वाच् as input</ref> in a truthful and non hurtful way</li>
<li>{{unicode|karman}}; acting<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with कर्मन् as input</ref> in a non harmful way</li>
<li>{{unicode|ājīvana}}; a non harmful livelihood<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with आजीवन as input</ref></li>
</ol>
*''[[Samadhi]]'' is the mental discipline required to develop mastery over one’s own mind. This is done through the practice of various contemplative and meditative practices, and includes:
<ol start="6">
<li>{{unicode|vyāyāma}}; making an effort<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with व्यायाम as input</ref> to improve</li>
<li>{{unicode|smṛti}}; awareness<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with स्मृति as input</ref> to see things for what they are with clear consciousness, being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion</li>
<li>{{unicode|samādhi}}; correct meditation or concentration<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with समाधि as input</ref> explained as the first 4 ''[[dhyāna]]s''</li>
</ol>

The practice of the Eightfold Path is understood in one of two ways. It either requires simultaneous development—all eight items are practiced in parallel, or it is conceived as a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another.

====Middle Way====
{{main|Middle Way}}
An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] which was said to have been discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment (''[[bodhi]]''). The ''Middle Way'' or ''Middle Path'' has several definitions:
# It is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification.
# It also refers to taking a middle ground between certain [[metaphysical]] views, e.g. that things ultimately either exist or do not exist.<ref>Kohn, ''Shambhala'', pp. 131, 143</ref>
# An explanation of the state of [[nirvana]] and perfect enlightenment where all dualities fuse and cease to exist as separate entities (see [[Seongcheol]]).
# Another term for [[emptiness]], the ultimate nature of all phenomena, lack of inherent existence, which avoids the extremes of permanence and nihilism or inherent existence and nothingness.

===Reality in Buddhism===

{{main|Reality in Buddhism}}
According to the [[Pali Canon|scriptures]], in his lifetime, the Buddha refused to answer several [[metaphysical]] questions. On issues such as whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha had remained silent. One explanation for this is that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[bodhi|enlightenment]].<ref>[[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 72 [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.072.than.html (Thanissaro, 1997)]. For further discussion of the context in which these statements was made, see [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn44/sn44.intro.than.html Thanissaro (2004)].</ref> Another is that such questions in their very formulations assume that there is world or self that are permanent; the Buddha stated that to either affirm or deny such statements would be detrimental.<ref>Thanissaro Bhikkhu, ''The Not-Self Strategy.'' See Point 3, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/notself.html]. The Canon quote Thanissaro Bhikkhu draws attention to is the Sabbasava Sutta, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.002.than.html#ayoniso].</ref>

The Buddha is said not to have given lengthy descriptions of "ultimate reality." According to Karel Werner, <blockquote>Experience is ... the path most elaborated in early Buddhism. The doctrine on the other hand was kept low. The Buddha avoided doctrinal formulations concerning the final reality as much as possible in order to prevent his followers from resting content with minor achievements on the path in which the absence of the final experience could be substituted by conceptual understanding of the doctrine or by religious faith, a situation which sometimes occurs, in both varieties, in the context of Hindu systems of doctrine.<ref>Karel Werner, ''Mysticism and Indian Spirituality.'' In Karel Werner, ed., ''The Yogi and the Mystic.'' Curzon Press, 1989, page 27.</ref></blockquote>

The Mahayana developed those statements he is said to have made into an extensive, diverse set of sometimes contrasting descriptions of reality "as it really is."<ref>See [www.lulu.com/items/volume_63/2864000/2864713/1/print/Microsoft_Word_-_Ron_Henshall__Dissertation__2007.pdf], a master's thesis by a student of Peter Harvey.</ref>

In the Pali Canon and numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha is potrayed stessing that Dharma (Truth) cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: Reality transcends all worldly concepts. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation and confidence in the sutras{{Fact|date=September 2008}}, which are as fingers pointing to the Truth, not the Truth itself. Then to let go of rationalizations and to experience direct Liberation itself.

In the Mahayana [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], the Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the [[Bodhi]] nature. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]], a scripture of the [[Nyingma]] school of Tibetan Buddhism) also emphasises how Buddhist Truth lies beyond the range of discursive/verbal thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ...."<ref>''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111–112.</ref> Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]].

Most Buddhists agree that, to a greater or lesser extent, words are inadequate to describe the goal; schools differ radically on the usefulness of words in the path to that goal.<ref>''Philosophy East and West'', volume Twenty-Six, page 138</ref>

Buddhist scholars have produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some people at some stages.

Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic concept of truth:<ref>Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1989, page 2</ref> doctrines are "true" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial. In modern Chinese Buddhism, all doctrinal traditions are regarded as equally valid.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 395</ref>

Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. Some of the writings attributed to him made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the agamas. Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be [[shunyata|śūnya]] (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] (no-self) and [[pratitya-samutpada|pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the [[Madhyamaka]]. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Madhyamaka system.<ref>Christian Lindtner, ''Master of Wisdom.'' Dharma Publishing 1997, page 324.</ref>

Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna, was reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|{{IAST|Asaṅga}}]] and were adapted into the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.

In the Mahayana school, emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness ([[shunyata]]), perfected spiritual insight ([[prajnaparamita]]) and [[Buddha-nature]] (the deathless [[tathagatagarbha]], or Buddhic Essence, inherent in all beings and creatures). in the tathagatagarbha sutras the Buddha is portrayed proclaiming that the teaching of the tathagatagarbha constitutes the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma—the highest presentation of Truth (other sūtras make similar statements about other teachings). This has traditionally been regarded as the highest teaching in East Asian Buddhism. However, in modern China all doctrines are regarded as equally valid.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 395</ref> The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist [[panentheism]] ([[God in Buddhism]]).

Theravāda promotes the concept of [[Vibhajjavada]] ([[Pāli|Pali]]), literally "Teaching of Analysis". This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith.

====The Cycle of Samsara====
{{main|Pratītyasamutpāda}}
Human beings crave pleasure and satisfaction of the six senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking) from birth to death. After another rebirth they do the same, and continue repeating this cycle ([[Samsara]]). Humans always expect pleasure and do not like to feel pain. This cycle of suffering is explained in twelve links of [[dependent origination]], each conditioning the next:

#Avidyā: ignorance, specifically spiritual<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 56</ref>
#Saṃskāras: literally formations, explained as referring to [[Karma]].
#Vijñāna: consciousness, specifically discriminative<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 57</ref>
#Nāmarūpa: literally name and form, referring to mind and body<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 58</ref>
#Ṣaḍāyatana: the six sense bases: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind-organ
#Sparśa: variously translated contact, impression, stimulation
#Vedanā: usually translated feeling: this is the "hedonic tone", i.e. whether something is pleasant, unpleasant or neutral
#Tṛṣṇā: literally thirst, but nearly always in Buddhism used to mean craving
#Upādāna: clinging or grasping; the word also means fuel, which feeds the continuing cycle of rebirth
#Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. (The Theravada explains this as having two meanings: karma, which produces a new existence, and the existence itself.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 59</ref>)
#Jāti: literally birth, but life is understood as starting at conception<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 60</ref>
#Jarāmaraṇa (old age and death) and also śokaparidevaduḥkhadaurmanasyopāyāsa (sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness and misery)

Human beings always suffer throughout ''samsara'', until they become free from this suffering when attaining ''[[Nirvana]]''. Then the absence of ignorance leads to the absence of the others as above.

===Nirvana===
{{main|Nirvana}}
Nirvana (Sanskrit: निर्वन, Pali "Nibbana") means "cessation", "extinction" (of suffering) or ([[tṛṣṇā]]) "extinguished", "quited", "calmed"<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit] dictionary with निर्वन as input</ref>; it's also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. Also, Buddhists believe that anybody who has achieved nirvana (also known as ''bodhi'') is in fact a Buddha.

Mahayana Buddhism generally regards as its most important teaching the path of the [[bodhisattva]]. This already existed as a possibility in earlier Buddhism, as it still does in Theravada today, but the Mahayana gave it an increasing emphasis, eventually saying everyone should follow it.

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see ''[[Dharmakaya]]'') beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the [[eternal Buddha]] himself.

[[Image:StandingBuddha.jpg|thumb|[[Gautama Buddha]], ancient region
of [[Gandhara]], northern [[Pakistan]], 1st century CE, [[Musée Guimet, Paris]].]]

''[[Bodhi]]'' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]], in devanagari: बॊधि) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of [[arahants]]. Bodhi literally means "awakening", but is more commonly referred to as "enlightenment". In [[Early Buddhism]] Bodhi carries a meaning synonymous to [[Nirvana]], using only some different similes to describe the experience, which implied the extinction of ''raga'' (greed),<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:489.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref> ''dosa'' (hate)<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2598.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref> and ''moha'' (delusion).<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:229.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref>

===Buddhas===
{{main|Buddhahood}}

====Theravada====

A person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of [[Reality in Buddhism|reality]]; such people are called [[arahant]]s. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving they have also reached the end of the compulsive cycle of rebirths, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being.

These people, also occasionally referred to as buddhas, are classified into three types.
* [[Buddhahood|Sammasambuddha]], usually just called Buddha, who discovers the truth by himself and teaches the path to awakening to others
* [[Pratyekabuddha|Paccekabuddha]], who discovers the truth by himself but lacks the skill to teach others
* [[Sāvakabuddha]], who has followed the teaching of a Buddha, and may use it to guide others (see also: [[Arhat]])

Bodhi and Nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate and delusion. The Arahant, according to Theravada doctrine, has thus overcome greed, hatred, ''and'' delusion, attaining Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, the extinction of only greed (in relation to the sense sphere) and hatred, while a residue of delusion remains, is called [[Anagami]].

====Mahayana====

Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence, but who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings.

Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher attainment that eradicate delusion entirely.<ref>''An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (= passion and hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment.’’ How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 67</ref> Thus, the [[Arahant]] attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the [[Buddhahood|Buddha]] attains Bodhi.



The method of self-exertion or "self-power" - without reliance on an external force or being - stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, "Pure Land", which is characterised by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amida Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in [[Amitabha]] Buddha and/or the chanting of homage to his name will provide the spiritual energy that will liberate one at death into the "happy land" (''sukhavati'') or "pure land" of Amitabha (called Amida in Japanese) Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only people will have faith in the power of that limitless great Vow, or will utter the liberational chant of Amida's name.

Nearly all Chinese Buddhists accept that the chances of attaining sufficient enlightenment by one's own efforts are very slim, so that Pure Land practice is essential as an "insurance policy" even if one practises something else.<ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page 611</ref>

====Buddha Eras====
Buddhists believe the Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism. A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest ''known'' Buddha. This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge, evidence and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of human existence.<ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bullitt/bfaq.html#maitreya ''Access to Insight'', a Theravada Buddhist website, discusses Buddha Eras]</ref><ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.26.0.than.html Gautama Buddha discusses tne Maitreya Buddha in the Tipitaka]</ref> The Gautama Buddha, then, is ''the Buddha of this era'', who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas).

In addition, Mahayana believes there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes,<ref>Kogen Mizuno, ''Essentials of Buddhism'', Shunju-sha, 1972, English translation, Kosei, Tokyo, 1996, page 57</ref> but Theravada denies this.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}

The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in East Asian Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few if any are capable of following the path, so most or all must rely on the power of the Buddha Amitabha. Zen and Nichiren traditionally hold that few if any can follow the "complicated" path of some other schools, and present a "simple" practice instead.

===Bodhisattvas===

Mahayana encourages everyone to follow a bodhisattva path, while Theravada regards it as an option. Theravada and some Mahayana sources consider a bodhisattva as someone on the path to Buddhahood, while other Mahayana sources speak of bodhisattvas renouncing Buddhahood.<ref>Cook, ''Hua-yen Buddhism'', Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977, pages 110f; Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume One), page 351</ref> The Mahayana summarizes bodhisattva practice in six perfections: giving,morality, patience, energy, concentration and wisdom.

==Practice==

===Devotion===

{{main|Buddhist devotion}}

Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists.<ref>Harvey, page 170</ref> Devotional practices include bowing, offerings, pilgrimage, chanting. In Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha Amitabha is the main practice. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice.

====Refuge in the Three Jewels====

[[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]] with [[Dharmachakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]]
{{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}}

Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three Jewels ([[Sanskrit]]: ''tri-ratna'', [[Pāli]]: ''ti-ratana'')<ref>{{cite web
|title=Refuge
|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi
|author= Bhikku, Thanissaro
|year=2001
|work=An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha
|publisher=Access to Insight}}</ref> as the foundation of one's religious practice. The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned<ref>''Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha'', tr Nanamoli, rev Bodhi, Wisdom Pubns, 1995, pages 708f</ref> in the [[Majjhima Nikaya]], recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf [[Infant baptism]]). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the ''[[lama]]''. In Mahayana, the person who chooses the ''[[bodhisattva]]'' path makes a vow/pledge; which is considered the ultimate expression of compassion.

The "Three Jewels" are:
* The [[Buddha]]. This is a title for those who attained Nirvana. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha]]. The Buddha could also be represented as a concept instead of a specific person: the perfect wisdom that understands Dharma and sees reality in its true form.
* The ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''. The teachings or law of nature as expounded by the Gautama Buddha. It can also, especially in Mahayana, connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
* The ''[[Sangha]]''; the "community" of Buddhists or "congregation" of monks and nuns.

According to the scriptures, [[Gautama Buddha]] presented himself as a model, however, he did not ask his followers simply to have faith (Sanskrit: ''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]'', Pāli: ''saddhā'') in the Dharma but a personal realization of [[Bodhi]]. In addition, he encouraged them to put his teachings to the test and accept what they could verify on their own, provided that this was also "praised by the wise" (see [[Kalama Sutta]]). The Dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. The ''{{unicode|Saṅgha}}'' (Buddhist Order of monks) is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

===Buddhist Ethics===
{{main|The Five Precepts}}
''[[Sila|Śīla]]'' (Sanskrit) or ''sīla'' (Pāli) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' (''sila'', ''samadhi'', and ''panya'') and the second ''[[Paramita|pāramitā]]''. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of ''śīla'' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment.

''Śīla'' is the foundation of ''Samadhi/Bhāvana'' (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internal, but also peace in the community, which is external. According to the Law of Karma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.

''Śīla'' refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. There are several levels of ''sila'', which correspond to 'basic morality' ([[five precepts]]), 'basic morality with asceticism' ([[eight precepts]]), 'novice monkhood' ([[ten precepts]]) and 'monkhood' (''[[Vinaya]]'' or ''[[Patimokkha]]''). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the [[eight precepts]], which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.

The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.
:1. To refrain from taking life. (non-violence towards [[Sentience|sentient]] life forms)
:2. To refrain from taking that which is not given. (not committing [[theft]])
:3. To refrain from sensual (sexual) misconduct.
:4. To refrain from lying. (speaking truth always)
:5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of [[mindfulness]]. (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)

In the [[eight precepts]], the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of [[celibacy]]. The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:
:6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time. (only eat from sunrise to noon)
:7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelry, going to shows, etc.
:8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

===Monastic life===

[[Vinaya]] is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the [[Patimokkha]], a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the [[vinayapitaka]] (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. [[Samanera|Novice-monks]] use the [[ten precepts]], which are the basic precepts for monastics.

In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and [[vegetarianism]] is actively encouraged (see ''[[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]''). In Japan, this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.

===Samādhi: Meditation===
{{main|Buddhist meditation}}

Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind and using it to explore itself and other phenomena.<ref>B. Alan Wallace, ''Contemplative Science.'' Columbia University Press, 2007, page 81.</ref> In Theravada there are two basic types of meditation, combined in various ways: samatha and vipassana, developing samadhi and panna (prajna) respectively. Similar practices exist in Mahayana alongside others that those traditions do not generally classify that way.

====Samādhi/Bhāvanā (Meditative cultivation)====
{{main|Samadhi|Dhyāna}}

In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, ''samyaksamādhi'' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating ''samādhi'' is meditation. According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation, [[Samatha meditation|''samatha'' meditation]] (Sanskrit: ''śamatha'') and [[vipassana|''vipassanā'' meditation]] (Sanskrit: ''vipaśyanā''). In Chinese Buddhism, these exist (translated ''chih kuan''), but Chan (Zen) meditation is more popular.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 396</ref> Throughout most of Buddhist history before modern times, serious meditation by lay people has been unusual.<ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page 502</ref> Upon development of ''samādhi'', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.

Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]'', Sanskrit ध्यान ''dhyāna''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

[[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (''jhāna'') There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath ([[anapanasati]]), because this practice can lead to both ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'.

In Buddhist practice, it is said that while ''samatha'' meditation can calm the mind, only ''vipassanā'' meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to ''[[jnana|jñāna]]'' (Pāli ''{{IAST|ñāṇa}}'' knowledge), ''[[prajñā]]'' (Pāli ''paññā'' pure understanding) and thus can lead to ''nirvāṇa'' (Pāli ''nibbāna''). When one is in jhana, all defilements are suppressed temporarily. Only ''prajñā'' or ''vipassana'' eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also resting states which ''arahants'' abide in order to rest.
=====In Theravāda=====
{{main|Jhāna in Theravada}}
In Theravāda Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as the craving, which carries with it the various defilements. These various defilements are traditionally summed up as greed, hatred and delusion. These are believed to be parasites that have infested the mind and create suffering and stress. In order to be free from suffering and stress, these defilements need to be permanently uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing, experiencing, and understanding of the true nature of those defilements by using ''jhāna'', a technique which is part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It will then lead the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and ''[[Nirvana|Nibbana]]''. Nibbana is the ultimate goal of Theravadins.

====Prajñā (Wisdom)====
{{main|Prajñā|Vipassana}}

''Prajñā'' (Sanskrit) or ''paññā'' (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], The Four Noble Truths and the [[three marks of existence]]. ''Prajñā'' is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about ''bodhi''. It is spoken of as the principal means of attaining ''{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}'', through its revelation of the true nature of all things as ''[[dukkha]]'' (unsatisfactory), ''[[anicca]]'' (impermanence) and ''[[anatta]]'' (devoid of self). ''Prajñā'' is also listed as the sixth of the six ''[[Paramita|pāramitās]]'' of the Mahayana.

Initially, ''prajñā'' is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.

====Zen ====
{{Main|Zen}}

''Ch'an'' (Chinese) or Zen (Japanese) Buddhism (derived from the Sanskrit term, ''dhyana'' - "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation.<ref>According to Charles S. Prebish (in his ''Historical Dictionary of Buddhism'', Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, 1993, p. 287): "Although a variety of Zen 'schools' developed in Japan, they all emphasize Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts, that provides the potential for direct realization, that the realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature possessed by each sentient being ...".</ref> Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth.

Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai and Soto, the former greatly favouring the use in meditation on the [[koan]] (meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focusing more on ''shikantaza'' or "just sitting".<ref>Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): "It presumes that ''sitting in meditation itself'' (i.e. ''zazen'') is an expression of Buddha nature." The method is to detach the mind from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar Stephen Hodge writes (''Zen Masterclass'', Godsfield Press, 2002, pp. 12–13): "... practitioners of Zen believe that Enlightenment, the awakening of the Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature, is our natural state, but has been covered over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts. According to this view, Enlightenment is not something that we must acquire a bit at a time, but a state that can occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of mental and emotional obscurations."</ref>

Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha himself.<ref>(''Critical Sermons on the Zen Tradition'', Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2002, ''passim'') Commenting on Rinzai Zen and its Chinese founder, Linji, Hisamatsu states: "Linji indicates our true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and 'True Self'. It is independent of words or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching. Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures. It is just our direct awakening to Self ..." (Hisamatsu, op. cit., p. 46).</ref> Nevertheless, Zen does not neglect the scriptures.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', pages 165f</ref>

====Tantra====

Though based upon Mahāyāna, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is one of the schools that practice ''[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]'' or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism, or [[esotericism|esoteric]] Buddhism). It accepts all the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative practices.<ref>Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1st ed, 1989, page 185</ref> One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years.

==History==
{{main|History of Buddhism}}
===Indian Buddhism===
{{main|History of Buddhism in India}}
[[Image:ElloraPuja.jpg|thumb|The Buddhist "Carpenter's Cave" at [[Ellora]] in [[Maharashtra]], India.]]

====Early Buddhism====
{{main|Early Buddhist schools}}
The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into the following five periods:<ref>A History of Indian Buddhism - Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) - Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 7</ref>
# [[Early Buddhism]] or [[Early Buddhist Schools]] (also called [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism]]); Hajime Nakamura<ref>''Indian Buddhism'', Japan, 1980, reprinted Motilal Banarsidass,Delhi,1987,1989,table of contents</ref> subdivides this into two subperiods:
## original Buddhism (other scholars call this earliest Buddhism or precanonical Buddhism{{Fact|date=September 2008}})
## early Buddhism
# Period of the [[Early Buddhist schools]] (also called Sectarian Buddhism, [[Nikaya Buddhism]])
# Early [[Mahayana Buddhism]]
# Later Mahayana Buddhism
# [[Vajrayana Buddhism]] (also called Esoteric Buddhism)

These developments were not always consecutive. For example, the early schools continued to exist alongside Mahayana. Some scholars have argued that Mahayana remained marginal for centuries.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}
=====Pre-sectarian Buddhism=====
{{main|Pre-sectarian Buddhism}}
The earliest phase of Buddhism (pre-sectarian Buddhism) recognized by nearly all scholars (the main exception is Dr Gregory Schopen,<ref> Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. His main views and arguments can be found in his book ''Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks'', University of Hawai'i Press</ref>) is based on a comparison of the [[Pali Canon]] with surviving portions of other early canons.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} Its main scriptures are the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the four principal [[Nikaya]]s or [[Agama]]s.

Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught at least:<ref>Mitchell, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 2002, page 34 & table of contents</ref>

* the [[three characteristics]]
* the [[five aggregates]]
* [[dependent arising]]
* [[karma]] and [[rebirth]]
* the [[four noble truths]]
* the [[eightfold path]]
* [[nirvana]]

Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories.<ref>Skorupski, ''Buddhist Forum'', vol I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London, 1990, page 5; ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'', vol 21 (1998), part 1, pages 4, 11
</ref>

===== Councils =====
{{main|Buddhist councils}}
According to the scriptures, soon after the [[Paranirvana|{{IAST|paranirvāṇa}}]] (from Sanskrit: परनिर्वाण "highest extinguishment")<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit.de dictionary] with पर and निर्वाण as input</ref> of Gautama Buddha, the [[first Buddhist council]] was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission. In the first council, [[Ananda|Ānanda]], a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses (''sūtras'', Pāli ''sutta''s) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the [[abhidhamma]]. [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the monastic rules (''[[vinaya]]''). Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist</ref>

According to most scholars, at some period after the Second Council the ''Sangha'' began to break into separate factions. (Schopen suggests that Buddhism was very diverse from the beginning and became less so.)<ref>''Journal of the Pāli Text Society'', volume XVI, p. 105)</ref> The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred. According to the ''[[Dipavamsa]]'' of the Pāli tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council, the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN, the [[Sarvastivada]] tradition of [[Vasumitra]] says it was in the time of Asoka and the [[Mahasanghika]] tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE.

The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that "the Sangha has been made unified". This may refer to a dispute such as that described in the account of the [[Third Buddhist Council]] at Pataliputta. This concerns the expulsion of non-Buddhist heretics from the ''sangha'', and does not speak of a schism. However, the late Professor Hirakawa argued that the first schism occurred after the death of Asoka. These schisms occurred within the [[early Buddhist schools]], at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.

The root schism was between the [[Sthaviras]] and the [[Mahāsāṅghikas]]. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika. This contradicts the Mahasanghikas' own ''vinaya'', which shows them as on the same, winning side. The northern lineages, including the Sarvastivada and Puggalavada (both branches of the ancient Sthaviras) attribute the Mahāsāṅghika schism to the '5 points' that erode the status of the ''arahant''.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} The Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the ''vinaya'' and may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[arhat]]ship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.<ref>Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. ''Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism'' in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237–272</ref>

The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravāda school. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', p. 74</ref>

=====Further developments=====
{{main|Timeline of Buddhism}}
[[Image:Asoka Kaart.gif|thumb|250px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] (260–218 BCE).]]
{{unicode|Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an [[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma]], a collection of philosophical texts and commentaries. Early sources for these probably existed in the time of the Buddha as simple lists. However, as time went on and Buddhism spread further, the (perceived) teachings of Gautama Buddha were formalized in a more systematic manner in a new [[Pitaka]]: the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]]. Some modern academics refer to it as Abhidhamma Buddhism. Interestingly, in the opinion of some scholars{{Fact|date=September 2008}}, the [[Mahasanghika]] school did not have an Abhidhamma Pitaka, which agrees with their statement that they did not want to add to the Buddha's teachings. But according to Chinese pilgrims Fa-hsien ([[Faxian]]) (5th century CE), Yuan Chuang and Hsüan-tsang ([[Xuanzang]], 7th century CE), Mahasanghika School did have their own version of Abhidhamma.}}<ref >{{Cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2124|title=Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms |accessdate=2008-08-18|Author=Fa-Hien|Translator=James Legge|publisher=Project Gutenberg}}"In the community here, moreover, we got the Samyuktabhi-dharma-hridaya-(sastra), containing about six or seven thousand gathas; he also got a Sutra of 2500 gathas; one chapter of the Parinir-vana-vaipulya Sutra, of about 5000 gathas; and the Mahasan-ghikah Abhidharma"</ref><ref >{{Cite web|url=http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/sha.htm|title=Notes on the Nagarjunikonda Inscriptions|accessdate=2008-08-18|Author=Dutt, Nalinaksha|publisher=The Indian Historical Quarterly}}"the Mahasanghikas, so far as the traditions go, did not recognise the seven texts of the Theravadins as Buddhabhasita, (6) but had an Abhidharma Pitaka of their own according to the testimony of Yuan Chuang,(7) who further supplies us with the information that he himself studied certain Abhidharma treatises of the Mahasanghika"</ref><ref>Samuel Beal, "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang: By the Shaman Hwui Li. With an introduction containing an account of the works of I-tsing", published by Tuebner and Co, London (1911), Digital version: University of Michigan. "this is the spot where the assembly of the Great Congregation (Mahdsanghikas) was held….So they made another collection of the Sutra-pitaka, and the Vinaya-pitaka, and the Abhidharma-pitaka, and of the Miscellaneous-pitaka, and the Dharall-pitaka, five pitakas in all. As in this assembly there were both ordinary persons and holy men present; it is called the convocation of the Mahasafghikas."</ref>

[[Image:MenandrosCoin.jpg|thumb|150px|Buddhist tradition records in the [[Milinda Panha]] that the 2nd century BCE [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Menander I|Menander]] converted to the Buddhist faith and became an [[arhat]].]]
Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]], who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more [[stupa|stūpas]] (Buddhist religious memorials) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Central Asia]], beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of [[Sri Lanka]] south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.

This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts of Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread Buddhism (Dharma), particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring [[Seleucid Empire]], and even farther to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]], and to the development of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries{{Fact|date=September 2008}}.

===Buddhism today===
{{main|Timeline of Buddhism#Common Era}}
Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength in India and elsewhere. Estimates of the number of Buddhist followers are uncertain, ranging from 230 to more than 1.600 million worldwide. Most scholars classify similar numbers of people under a category they call Chinese folk or traditional religion, which is an amalgam of various traditions, including Buddhism. Estimates are uncertain and in dispute because:
* of difficulties in defining who counts as a Buddhist;
* of [[syncretism]] in the [[Eastern religions]] such as Buddhism, [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Shinto]] and [[Chinese folk religion|traditional religions]] or [[Shamanism]], [[animism]]; having beliefs comprising a mix of religious ideas;<ref>[http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/lopez.html Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion]</ref><ref>[http://asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html Windows on Asia - Chinese Religions]</ref><ref>[http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/religion Religions and Beliefs in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.sacu.org/religion.html SACU Religion in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.index-china.com/index-english/people-religions-s.html Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions]</ref><ref>[http://www.askasia.org/teachers/essays/essay.php?no=16 AskAsia - Buddhism in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.globaled.org/curriculum/china/bessay1.htm BUDDHISM AND ITS SPREAD ALONG THE SILK ROAD]</ref>
* it was difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists because they did not have congregational memberships and often did not participate in public ceremonies;<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)]</ref>
* of uncertainties in the situation for several countries; most notably [[Religion in China|China]], [[Religion in Vietnam|Vietnam]] and [[Religion in North Korea|North Korea]]<ref>[http://www.opendemocracy.net/pix/home/stateattitudes.pdf [[openDemocracy.net]] - 'The Atlas of Religion,' Joanne O'Brien & Martin Palmer: State Attitudes to Religion]</ref><ref>[http://crf.hudson.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=survey_files Center for Religious Freedom - Survey Files]</ref><ref>[http://crf.hudson.org/articledocs/TheRangeofReligiousFreedom.doc The Range of Religious Freedom]</ref>.

According to one analysis,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Garfinkel, Perry | title = Buddha Rising | journal = National Geographic | month= December | year= 2005 | pages = 88–109}}</ref> Buddhism is the fourth-largest [[major world religions|religion in the world]] behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and [[Hinduism]]. The monks' order ([[Sangha]]), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is among the oldest organizations on earth.

[[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]]
* [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Burma]]. Also the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]] in India (inspired by [[B. R. Ambedkar]]) practices Theravada.
* East Asian forms of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of China, Japan, [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
* [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is found in [[Tibet]] and the surrounding areas in India, [[Bhutan]], [[Mongolia]], [[Northeast China]], [[Nepal]], and the [[Russian Federation]].
* Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the [[Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]], though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.

The numbers of adherents of the three main traditions listed above are about 124, 185 and 20 million, respectively.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.htm/#Buddhism], retrieved on 2008-01-15</ref>

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While, in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and traditional. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. In the [[Buddhism in the West|West]], Buddhism is recognized as one of the growing spiritual influences.

==Schools and Traditions==
{{main|Schools of Buddhism}}
Buddhists generally classify themselves as either [[Theravada]] or [[Mahayana]]<ref>Keown, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 1996, page 12</ref> This classification is also used by some scholars<ref>Smith, ''Buddhism''; Juergensmeyer, ''Oxford Handbook''.</ref>{{page number}} and is the one ordinarily used in the English language.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tibetan Buddhism |encyclopedia=American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | publisher= Houghton Mifflin Company | year=2004 |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tibetan%20buddhism | accessdate=2007-07-07}}</ref> An alternative scheme used by some scholars<ref>(Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984); Gethin (1998), pp. 1–2, identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism."; Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia," "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area," "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West; Penguin ''handbook of Living Religions'', 1984, page 279; Prebish & Keown, ''Introducing Buddhism'', ebook, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 2005, printed ed, Harper, 2006</ref> divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: [[Theravada]], [[East Asian Buddhism]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]].
Some scholars<ref>See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Macmillan, New York, 1987, volume 2, pages 440ff</ref> use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes. Hinayana (literally "smaller vehicle") is used to name Theravada, but this can be considered derogatory.



Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them.

Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

Despite some differences among the Theravada and Mahayana schools, there are several [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana|concepts common to both major Buddhist branches]]:<ref>http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/comparative.htm</ref>
* Both accept [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]] as their teacher.
* Both accept the [[middle way]], [[dependent origination]], the [[four noble truths]] and the [[noble eightfold path]], in theory, though in practice these have little or no importance in some traditions.
* Both accept that members of the laity and of the [[sangha]] can pursue the path toward enlightenment ([[bodhi]]).
* Both consider buddhahood to be the highest attainment; however Theravadins consider the [[nirvana]] ([[nibbana]] to the Theravadins) attained by [[arahants]] as identical to that attained by the Buddha himself, as there is only one type of nirvana. According to Theravadins, a buddha is someone who has discovered the path all by himself and taught it to others.

===Theravāda===
{{main|Theravada}}
[[Theravada|Theravāda]] ("Doctrine of the Elders", or "Ancient Doctrine") is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It is relatively conservative, and ''generally'' closest to early Buddhism.<ref>Gethin, ''Foundations'', page 1</ref> This school is derived from the [[Vibhajjavada|Vibhajjavāda]] grouping which emerged amongst the older [[Sthavira]] group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE). This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.

The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] and its commentaries. After being orally transmitted for a few centuries, its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were finally committed to writing in the last century BCE, in Sri Lanka, at what the Theravada usually reckon as the fourth council. It is also one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the complete set of its canon into writing. The [[sutra|Sutta]] collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka]]), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Theravāda is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Burma]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]] as well as small portions of China, [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Bangladesh]]. It has a growing presence in [[Europe]] and [[Americas|America]].

===Mahayana===
{{main|Mahayana}}
[[Image:Mahayanabuddha.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese Seated Buddha, [[Tang Dynasty]], [[Hebei|Hebei province]], ca. 650 CE. Chinese Buddhism is of the [[Mahayana]] tradition, with popular schools today being [[Pure Land]] and [[Zen]].]]
The precise geographical origins of [[Mahayana]] are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the [[Kushan Empire]] (within present-day northern [[Pakistan]]), and in areas within the [[Shatavahana]] Empire, including [[Amaravati]] to the south-east (in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]), to the west around the port of [[Bharukaccha]] (present-day [[Bharuch]], a town near [[Bombay]]), and around the various cave complexes, such as [[Ajanta]] and [[Karli]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]). Some scholars have argued that Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around [[stupa]] devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a [[bodhisattva]] were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. Other scholar reject this theory.<ref>{{cite book | author = Williams, Paul | title = Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations |publisher = Routledge | location = London | year= 1989}}, pages 20f</ref> Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the [[Sarvastivada]] school and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan Empire, seem to have had major influence.

[[Image:MahayanaMap.gif|thumb|left|Expansion of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.]]
Around the second century CE, the Kushan emperor [[Kanishka]] is said to have convened what many western scholars call the [[fourth Buddhist council]]. This council is not recognised by the Theravada line of Buddhism. According to Mahayana sources, this council did not simply rely on the original [[Tripitaka]]. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the [[Lotus Sutra]], an early version of the [[Heart Sutra]] and the [[Amitabha Sutra]] were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for all beings (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattvas who embody the indwelling yet transcendent [[Buddha-nature]] who strive to achieve such a goal. However, most western scholars believe this council was purely Sarvastivada, while the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it entirely fictitious.<ref>{{cite book |author = Lamotte, Étienne (trans. to French)| others= trans. Sara Boin| title = Teaching of Vimalakirti |publisher = Pali Text Society |location = London |year = 1976|isbn =0710085400|pages = XCIII}}</ref> The new scriptures were first written in [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]] or one of the [[Prakrit]]s. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana would spread from India to [[Southeast Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]] and then east to China where Mahayana was [[Sinicized]] and this Sinicized Mahayana would be passed on to [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]] and finally to Japan in 538 CE. The East Asians would go on to write more indigenous sutras and commentaries to the Mahayana Canon.
[[Image:GBA8.jpg|thumb|One of the [[Buddhas of Bamyan]], Afghanistan as it stood in 1963.]]

After the end of the [[Kushan Empire|{{IAST|Kuṣāṇas}}]], Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the [[Gupta]]s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the [[Nalanda University|Nālandā University]] in north-eastern India.

[[Image:Status of Kuan Yin.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese [[Ming dynasty]] porcelain figure of [[Guanyin]], "Goddess of Mercy."]]
Mahayana schools recognize all or part of the [[Mahayana Sutras|Mahayana scriptures]]. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself, and faith in and veneration of those texts are stated in some sutras (e.g. the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]) to lay the foundations for the later attainment of Buddhahood itself.

Native Eastern Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, [[Korea]], [[Singapore]], parts of Russia and most of [[Vietnam]]. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Northern Buddhism. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. However, in Japan they form separate denominations. The five major ones are the following.

* [[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren]], peculiar to Japan
* [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]]
* [[Shingon]], a form of Vajrayana
* [[Tendai]]
* [[Zen|Chan/Zen]]

In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong to the Chogye school, which is officially Son (Zen), but with substantial elements from other traditions.<ref>Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume One), pages 430, 435</ref>

====Pure Land Buddhism====
{{main|Pure Land Buddhism}}
There are estimated to be around 100 million Chinese Buddhists.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 191, & volume 2, page 10</ref> Pure Land Buddhism is the most popular form in China, particularly among the laity.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 152</ref> In the first half of the twentieth century, most Chinese monks practised Pure Land, some combining it with Chan (Zen); Chan survived into the 20th century in a small number of monasteries, but died out in mainland China after the communist takeover.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism 1900-1950'', Harvard, 1967, pages 47, 396</ref> In Taiwan Chan meditation is popular,<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 283</ref> but most Buddhists follow Pure Land.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, volume 1, page 723</ref>

There are estimated to be about 40 million Buddhists in Vietnam.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 803</ref> The Buddhism of monks and educated lay people is mainly Thien (Zen), with elements of Pure Land and tantra, but that of most ordinary Buddhists has little or no Thien element, being mainly Pure Land.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', page 159; Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume Two), page 882</ref>

===Vajrayāna or Tibetan Buddhism===
{{main|Vajrayana}}
[[Image:Young monks of Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung]]
There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its [[tantra|tantric practice]] started. In the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan tradition]], it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, [[Tibet]], Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition.

In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject, [[Fairfield University]] professor Ronald M. Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the changing political climate in India at the time. With the fall of the [[Gupta]] dynasty, in an increasingly fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting patronage, and the folk movement led by [[siddhas]] became more prominent. After perhaps two hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the monastic establishment.<ref>{{cite book|author = Davidson, Ronald M. | title = Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement | publisher = Columbia University Press |location =New York| year= 2003 |isbn= 0231126190 }}</ref>{{page number}}

Vajrayana combined and developed a variety of elements, a number of which had already existed for centuries.<ref>Prebish & Keown, ''Introducing Buddhism'', page 89</ref> In addition to the Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of [[Buddhist texts#Vajrayana Texts|Buddhist Tantras]], some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.

Although it continued to in surrounding countries, over the centuries Buddhism gradually declined in India and it [[Decline of Buddhism in India|was virtually extinct]] there by the time of the British conquest.

==Buddhist texts==
{{main|Buddhist texts}}
Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on learning the various texts. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. Buddhist scriptures are written in this languages: [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan (language)|Tibetan]], [[Mongolian (language)|Mongolian]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], along with some texts that still exist in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]].

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. However, some scholars have referred to the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the first four Nikayas of the [[Sutta Pitaka]] as the common core of all Buddhist traditions.<ref>A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000)</ref> However, this could be considered misleading, as Mahāyāna considers these merely a preliminary, and not a core, teaching, the Tibetan Buddhists have not even translated most of the āgamas, though theoretically they recognize them, and they play no part in the religious life of either clergy or laity in China and Japan.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Buddhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 16</ref> The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own ''vinaya''. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the ''[[agama (text)|āgamas]]''.

Over the years, various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture.

Dwight [[Goddard]] collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen, along with other classics of [[Eastern philosophy]], such as the [[Tao Te Ching]], into his 'Buddhist Bible' in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]] attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles in [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ "The Buddha and His Dhamma"]. Other such efforts have persisted to present day, but currently there is no single text that represents all Buddhist traditions.

===Pāli Tipitaka===
{{main|Pāli Canon}}
{{PaliCanon|abbrev=1}}
The Pāli Tipitaka, which means "three baskets", refers to its three main:
* The ''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Pitaka]]'' contains disciplinary rules for the Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as explanations of why and how these rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
* The ''[[Sutta Pitaka]]'' contains discourses ascribed to [[Gautama Buddha]].
* The ''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidhamma Pitaka]]'' contains material often described as systematic expositions of the Gautama Buddha's teachings.

According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings—sūtras (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli)—and codify monastic rules (vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses, and according to some sources{{which}} the ''[[abhidhamma]]'', and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the ''vinaya''. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the ''vinaya'' of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Gautama Buddha's previous lives, and various other subjects.

=== Mahayana Sutras ===
[[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|left|thumb|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]]
The [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered by some to be the word of Gautama Buddha, but supposedly were transmitted in secret, or came directly from other Buddhas or [[Bodhisattva]]s. Approximately six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations. In addition, East Asian Buddhism recognizes some ''sutras'' regarded by scholars as of Chinese origin.

Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pāli Canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic, valid teachings of Gautama Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual understanding. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of Gautama Buddha. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali Canon represents the full and final statement by Gautama Buddha of his Dhamma—and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of Gautama Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.

For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the ''Mahāyāna sutras'' do indeed contain basic and foundational pronouncements of Gautama Buddha. From the Mahayana standpoint the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the [[bodhisattva]] path. That path is explained as being built upon the motivation to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which expresses availability both to the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The theme of greatness can be seen in many elements of Mahayana Buddhism, from the length of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow, which strives for ''all'' future time to help free ''all'' other persons and creatures from pain, to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "Great Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "Great Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For Theravadins and many scholars, including [[A.K. Warder]],<ref>A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000), p. 4</ref> however, the self-proclaimed "greatness" of the [[Mahayana Sutras]] does not make them a true account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha.

==Buddhist symbols==
{{main|Buddhist symbolism}}

===Comparative studies===

Buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of subjects. For example, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] can be considered one contribution of Buddhism to metaphysics. On the other hand, Buddhism's emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in countries that adopted it throughout its history.

'''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies'''
* [[Buddhism and Jainism]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Christianity]]
* [[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism, mysticism, and monotheism)
* [[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
* [[Buddhism and psychology]]
* [[Buddhism and science]]
* [[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics)
* [[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
* Buddhism and Thelema<ref name=IAO131>[http://www.geocities.com/hdbq111/JoTS/JoTS1-1.pdf Thelema & Buddhism] in ''Journal of Thelemic Studies'', Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007, pp. 18-32</ref>

==See also==
http://www.boudhadharma.com
* [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]]
* [[Buddhism and Christianity]]
* [[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Jainism]]
* [[Buddhism and psychology]]
* [[Buddhism and science]]
* [[Buddhism in the West]]
* [[Buddhist Ethics]]
* [[Buddhist Ceremonies]]
* [[Buddhist flag]]
* [[Buddhist philosophy]]
* [[Buddhist terms and concepts]]
* [[God in Buddhism]]
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
* [[List of Buddhists]]
* [[Shinbutsu shūgō]]

==Notes==


{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Bechert, Heinz & Richard Gombrich (ed.) (1984). ''The World of Buddhism'', Thames & Hudson.
* {{cite journal| last = Cousins| first = L. S.| title = The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article| journal = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society| volume = Series 3| issue = 6.1| pages = 57–63| year= 1996| url = http://indology.info/papers/cousins/| accessdate = 2007-07-11}}; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', volume I; NB in the online transcript a little text has been accidentally omitted: in section 4, between "... none of the other contributions in this section envisage a date before 420 B.C." and "to 350 B.C." insert "Akira Hirakawa defends the short chronology and Heinz Bechert himself sets a range from 400 B.C."
* {{cite book|author = Davidson, Ronald M. | title = Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement | publisher = Columbia University Press |location =New York| year= 2003 |isbn= 0231126190 }}
* {{cite book | author=de Give, Bernard | title= Les rapports de l'Inde et de l'Occident des origines au règne d'Asoka | publisher=Les Indes savants | year=2006 | id=ISBN-10: 2846540365}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Rupert Gethin|Gethin, Rupert]] | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-19-289223-1}}
* {{cite book| author=Harvey, Peter | title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=1990| id= ISBN 0-52-131333-3}}
* {{cite book |author = Lamotte, Étienne (trans. from French)| others= trans. Sara Boin| title = Teaching of Vimalakirti |publisher = Pali Text Society |location = London |year = 1976|isbn =0710085400|pages = XCIII}}
* {{cite book | title = A Concise History of Buddhism | author = Skilton, Andrew | year = 1997 | publisher = Windhorse Publications | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GEKd4iqH3C0C&dq=history+of+buddhism |isbn = 0904766926}}
* {{cite book | author = Williams, Paul | title = Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations |publisher = Routledge | location = London | year= 1989}}
* Williams, Paul (ed.) (2005). ''Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies'', 8 volumes, Routledge, London & New York.
* {{cite book | author=Armstrong, Karen | title=Buddha | year=2001 | publisher=Penguin Books | isbn=0-14-303436-7 | pages=187}}
* {{cite book | author=Buswell, Robert E. (ed.) | title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year= 2003 | isbn=978-0028657189}}
* {{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}}
* {{cite book | author=Donath, Dorothy C. | title=Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day | publisher=Julian Press | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0-07-017533-0}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Henepola Gunaratana|Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola]] | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-86171-321-4}} Also available on this websites: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm saigon.com] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html urbandharma.org] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php vipassana.com]
* {{cite book | author=Juergensmeyer, Mark | title = The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions | series = Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0195137989}}
* {{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The Vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1-903296-91-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Kohn, Michael H. (trans.) | title=The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen | publisher=Shambhala | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-87773-520-4}}
* Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), ''The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists'', Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distributed by Wisdom Books
* {{cite book | author=Nattier, Jan | title=A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprccha) | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-8248-2607-8}}
* {{cite book | author=Robinson, Richard H., and Johnson, Willard L. | title=The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction | publisher=Wadsworth Publishing | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0-534-01027-X}}
* {{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 81-208-2144-0}}
* {{cite book | author=Smith, Huston | title=Buddhism: A Concise Introduction | coauthors=Phillip Novak | publisher=HarperSanFrancisco | year=2003 | isbn=978-0060730673}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]] | title=[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha] (3rd ed., rev.) | year=2001}}
* {{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
* {{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0-271-00601-3}}
* {{cite book|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
*{{cite book|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White|White, Kenneth]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
*{{cite book|author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}}
*{{cite book|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0-86171-133-5.
*{{cite book|author=Indian Books Centre|title=Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series, Delhi}}
*{{cite book|author=Ranjini|title=Jewels of the Doctrine|work=Buddhist Stories of the Thirteenth Century|publisher=Sri Satguru Publications}}

===Online===
* {{cite web|author=Berzin, Alexander | work=Berzin Archives | title=Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan|month=November | year=2001|url=http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html}}
* {{cite web|author=[http://www.weiwuwei.8k.com/ Wei, Wei Wu]| work=Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London | publisher=[http://www.sentientpublications.com/authors/weiwuwei.php Sentient Publications] |title=Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra|month= | year=1960|url=http://www.sentientpublications.com/catalog/lazarus.php}}
*{{cite web|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda|Dhammananda, K. Sri]] | url=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf | title=What Buddhists Believe | work=[http://www.bmsm.org.my/ Buddhist Missionary Society of Malaysia]|year=2002}}

==External links==
{{external links}}

{{portal}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Buddhism}}
* [http://www.aboutbuddhism.org About Buddhism]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org Access to Insight]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet]
* [http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net Seeing Through The Net]
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Buddhism/ Buddhism] at Open Directory Project
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/index.html
|title= Buddhism - objects, art and history
|work=Asia
|accessdate= 2007-12-06}}
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/budhist/index.htm Buddhism Potpourri]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/index.htm Buddhist texts] (English translations)
* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
* [http://www.vwsp.eu/tathagata/budh-diags/nut_gr1.htm Essential Theravada Buddhism in graphics]
* [http://www.webspawner.com/users/bodhisattva/index.html Tathagatagarbha Mahayana sutras]
* [http://www.veoh.com/videos/v7071978efhj2aF6 Video documentary Buddhist history in India]
* [http://www.what-Buddha-taught.net What Buddha Taught ] Multi-lingual

{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Religion topics}}

[[Category:Buddhism| ]]

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Buddhism

2008-09-22T11:22:30Z

202.79.62.16: /* See also */

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{{Buddhism}}
'''Buddhism''' is a family of beliefs and practices that has distribution throughout the world. While it is usually considered a religion,<ref>These refer to it as a "religion:" ''Chambers Dictionary'', 2006; ''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'', 2003; ''New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions'', px998; ''Dewey Decimal System of Book Classification''; Robinson & Johnson, ''The Buddhist Religion''</ref> some scholars have defined religion in ways that exclude it.<ref>Excluding it as a "religion" by definition: ''Numen'', vol 49, p 388; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', vol III, p 403; ''Numen'', vol 49, p 389; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', Routledge, 2005, vol III, p 403</ref> Depending on the source, the number of Buddhists in the world ranges from 230 to 500 million or more, <ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Buddhism Major Religions Ranked by Size]</ref><ref>U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2004. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/ Accessed 20 September 2008.</ref><ref>Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.</ref><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/xx.html#People CIA - The World Factbook</ref> mostly in Asia.

Buddhism is based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]], sometimes known simply as "The Buddha", who lived in or around the fifth century BCE in the northeastern region of [[ancient India]]. Buddhists recognize him as an awakened teacher who shared his insights to help [[Sentient being (Buddhism)|sentient beings]] end their [[dukkha|suffering]] by understanding the true nature of phenomena; thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth ([[Saṃsāra]]). Among the methods various schools of Buddhism apply towards this goal are: ethical conduct, cultivation of wisdom, [[meditation]], study, understanding, altruistic behaviour, [[Nekkhamma|renunciation of worldly matters]], devotional practices and the invocation of holy beings that help them achieving [[Nirvana]]. A Buddhist is one who takes refuge in [[The Three Jewels]]; ''[[Buddha]]'' (Awakened One), ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]'' (Teaching of the Buddha) and ''[[Sangha]]'' (Community of Buddhists).

Buddhism has spread through these main branches:
* [[Theravada]], which extended south and east from its origins and now has a widespread following in [[Southeast Asia]].
* [[Mahayana]] (the parent branch to many other schools, including [[Vajrayana]]), which diffused from its origins west, north and east throughout [[East Asia]].
Both branches then spread further into [[Buddhism_in_Europe|Europe]] and to the [[Buddhism in the Americas|America]]s.

Buddhist schools disagree over what are and are not the teachings of Gautama Buddha. There are scholars who claim that Buddhism doesn't have a clearly definable common core.<ref>Robinson et al, ''Buddhist Religions'', page xx; ''Philosophy East and West'', vol 54, ps 269f; Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1st edn, 1989, ps 275f/2nd edn, 2008, p 266</ref> Certain key texts, known as ''[[nikayas]]'' or ''[[agamas]]'', are preserved by both Theravada and Mahayana and some of them by Tibetan Buddhism. These texts are central in the Theravada, but are rarely explicitly used in the Mahayana. The primary Mahayana scriptures are the [[Mahayana sutras]]; some schools also use [[Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)|tantras]]. Mahayana texts are irrelevant to or incompatible with Theravadin thought.

==Gautama Buddha==

{{main|Gautama Buddha}}
'''Scholars are increasingly reluctant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of Gautama Buddha's life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lopez | title= ''Buddhism in Practice''| publisher=Princeton University Press| year= 1995 |pages= 16 }}</ref><ref>For instance, Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a ''rājan''—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (''Theravada Buddhism'', p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, ''The Life of the Buddha'', ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources.</ref> There are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, though according to Michael Carrithers, the outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.<ref>Michael Carrithers, ''The Buddha,'' in the Oxford University paperback ''Founders of Faith,'' 1986, page 10.</ref> According to the Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism''<ref>(Volume One), page 352</ref> historians accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but cannot easily accept most details in his biographies.

The following information about his life comes from the Tipitaka (other [[Buddhist texts|scriptures]]{{which}} give differing accounts). Siddhartha [[Gautama Buddha|Gautama]], the founder of Buddhism, was born in the city of [[Lumbini]] and was raised in [[Kapilavastu]].<ref>[[UNESCO]] webpage entitled [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/666 "Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha"]. Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 19, which states that in the mid-third century BCE the Emperor [[Ashoka]] determined that Lumbini was the Buddha's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "... this is where the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas, was born."</ref><ref> For instance, Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a ''rājan''—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (''Theravada Buddhism'', p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, ''The Life of the Buddha'', ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources</ref> Moments after birth, according to the scriptures, he performed his first [[miracle]]. He took a few steps and proclaimed "this is my last birth,
never shall I be reborn". The scriptures mention that he performed [[Miracles of Gautama Buddha|several other miracles]] after achieving Nirvana.

Shortly thereafter, a wise man visited his father, King [[Śuddhodana]]. The wise man said that Siddhartha would either become a great king (''[[chakravartin]]'') or a holy man (''[[Sadhu]]'') based on whether he saw life outside of the palace walls. Determined to make Siddhartha a king, Śuddhodana shielded his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life. Years after this, Gautama married Yasodhara, his first cousin, with whom he had a son, Rahula, who later became a Buddhist monk.

At the age of 29, Siddhartha ventured outside the palace complex several times despite his father's wishes. As a result he discovered the suffering of his people, through encounters with an old man, a [[disease]]d man, a decaying [[corpse]] and an [[ascetic]]. These are known among Buddhists as "The Four Sights",<ref>http://buddhism.about.com/library/blbudlifesights2.htm The Life of the Buddha: The Four Sights ''"On the first visit he encountered an old man. On the next excursion he encountered a sick man. On his third excursion, he encountered a corpse being carried to cremation. Such sights sent home to him the prevalence of suffering in the world and that he too was subject to old age, sickness and death. On his fourth excursion, however, he encountered a holy man or sadhu, apparently content and at peace with the world."''</ref> one of the first contemplations of Siddharta. The Four Sights eventually prompted Gautama to abandon royal life to take up his spiritual quest to become free from suffering by living the life of a [[mendicant]] [[ascetism|ascetic]], a highly respected spiritual practice at the time in ancient India. He found companions with similar spiritual goals and teachers who taught him various forms of meditation, including [[Jhāna in Theravada|jhāna]].

Ascetics practised many forms of self denial, including severe undereating. One day, after almost starving to death, Gautama accepted a little milk and rice from a village girl named Sujata.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} After this experience, he concluded that ascetic practices, such as fasting, holding one's breath, and exposure to pain, brought little spiritual benefit. He viewed them as counterproductive due to their reliance on self hatred and mortification.<ref>http://www.wildmind.org/mantras/figures/shakyamuni/5 Wild mind Buddhist Meditation, ''The Buddha’s biography: Spiritual Quest and Awakening''</ref> He abandoned asceticism, concentrating instead on ''[[anapanasati]]'' [[meditation]] (awareness of breathing), thus discovering what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]], a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

After discovering the Middle Way, he sat under a [[Sacred fig]] (''Ficus religiosa''),<ref>see: [http://www.angelfire.com/electronic/bodhidharma/bodhi_tree.html The Bodhi Tree]</ref> also known as the Bodhi tree,<ref>[http://www.buddhamind.info/leftside/arty/bod-leaf.htm Bodhi leaf]</ref> in the town of [[Bodh Gaya]] and vowed not to rise before achieving [[Nirvana]]. At age 35, after many days of meditation, he attained his goal of becoming a [[Buddha]]. He spent the rest of his life teaching the ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''.<ref>Skilton, ''Concise'', p. 25</ref> He died at age 80 in [[Kushinagara]], India. <ref>"the reputed place of the Buddha's death and cremation,"[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-312979/Kasia Encyclopedia Britannica, Kusinagara]</ref>

== Buddhist Concepts ==

{{main|Buddhist terms and concepts}}

===Karma: Cause and Effect===
{{main|Karma in Buddhism}}
In Buddhism, ''Karma'' (from [[Sanskrit]]: action, work<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit] dictionary, using कर्मन् as input</ref>) is used specifically for those actions which spring from mental intent (in Pāli: ''cetana''),<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Budhism'', page 40</ref> which brings about ''[[phala]]'' (from Sanskrit: fruit or consequence<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de sanskrit-english dictionary] with फल as input</ref>) or ''[[vipāka]]'' (from Pāli: result). Karma can be either negative or positive; with its respective negative or positive ''vipāka''.

Karma is the energy which drives ''Saṃsāra'', the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. ''Kusala'' (skillful) and ''akusala'' (unskillful) actions produce "seeds" in the mind which come to [[Vipaka|fruition]] either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.<ref>T.P. Kasulis of Ohio State University, ''Zen as a Social Ethics of Responsiveness." Journal of Buddhist Ethics: [http://www.buddhistethics.org/13/zse1-kasulis.pdf].</ref> The content of unwholesome actions and the lower types of wholesome actions belongs to the subject of ''[[Śīla]]'' (from Sanskrit: ethical conduct).

The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].{{Fact|date=September 2008}} In Theravada Buddhism there is no divine salvation or forgiveness from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. In contrast, in some Mahayana ''sutras'' it is taught that powerful ''sutras'' (such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]]) can wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma by being heard or recited. According to the Japanese [[Pure Land]] teacher [[Genshin]], the [[Amida Buddha|Buddha Amitabha]] has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in ''samsara''.<ref>Lopez, ''Story of Buddhism'', page 239/''Buddhism'', page 248</ref>

===Rebirth===
{{main|Rebirth (Buddhism)}}
Rebirth means to be born again in one of many possible types of life, which where later formally classified as the Five or [[Six Realms]]:<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 34</ref>

#[[Naraka (Buddhism)|Naraka beings]]: those who live in one of many ''Narakas'' (Hells).
#[[Animals in Buddhism|Animals]]: sharing some space with humans, but considered another type of life.
#[[Preta]]: Sometimes sharing some space with humans, but invisible without the ''[[Tathagata]]'' eye; an important variety is the hungry ghosts.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 33</ref>
#[[Human beings in Buddhism|Human beings]]: one of the types of realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible.
#[[Asura (Buddhism)|Asuras]]: variously translated as lowly deities, demons, titans, antigods; not recognized by Theravada (Mahavihara) tradition as a separate realm: "There are only five destinies ... the kalakanjika asuras have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the petas, with whom ... they marry. As for the Vepacittiparisa, they have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the gods, with whom they marry."
#[[Deva (Buddhism)|Devas]] including [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahmas]]: variously translated as gods, deities, spirits, angels, or left untranslated.

Theravada has some definite doctrines relating to rebirths in the higher heavens. These can be attained only by the practice of ''[[samatha]]'' meditation to sustained ''jhana'' levels. Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the [[Buddhist_cosmology#.C5.9Auddh.C4.81v.C4.81sa_worlds|Śuddhāvāsa Worlds]] (Pure Abodes), can be attained only by ''[[anāgāmi]]s'' (non-returners). Rebirths in the ''[[Buddhist_cosmology#.C4.80r.C5.ABpyadh.C4.81tu|arupa-dhatu]]'' can be attained only by meditators that attain the ''arupa-jhānas''.

===The Four Noble Truths===

{{main|The Four Noble Truths}}
According to the [[Pali Tipitaka]], the Four Noble Truths were the first teaching of [[Gautama Buddha]] after attaining Nirvana.<ref>{{cite book|chapter =Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta |title= The Book of Protection | author = Thera, Piyadassi |chapterurl=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.piya.html|year = 1999 | publisher= Buddhist Publication Society}} In what is said in Theravada to be the Buddha's first sermon, the [[Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta]], which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. He talks about the Middle Way, the noble eightfold path and the Four Noble Truths.</ref> They are sometimes considered as containing the essence of the teachings of the Buddha and are presented in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at that time:

According to ''one'' interpretation, they state that:
#Life as we know it ultimately is or leads to "suffering" in one way or the other.
#The cause of this "suffering" is attachment to, or craving for worldly pleasures of all kinds and clinging to this very existence, our "self" and the things or people we - due to our delusions - deem the cause of our respective happiness or unhappiness.
#The "suffering" ends when the craving ends, or one is freed from all desires by eliminating the delusions, reaches "Enlightenment";
#The way to reach that liberated state is by following the [[The Noble Eightfold Path|path]] the Buddha has laid out.

This interpretation is followed closely by many modern Theravadins,{{Fact|date=September 2008}} described by early westerns scholars and taught as an introduction to Buddhism by some contemporary Mahayana teachers like the [[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]].<ref>See for example: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html ''The Four Noble Truths''</ref>

According to other interpretations by Buddhist teachers and scholars and lately recognized by some western scholars as well<ref>Gethin, ''Foundations'', page 60</ref> the "truths" do not represent mere statements, but divisions or aspects of most phenomena, which falls into one of these four categories:
#Suffering and causes of suffering
#Cessation and the path towards liberation of suffering.

Thus, according to the Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism''<ref>(2004), Volume One, page 296</ref> they are
# "the noble truth that is suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the arising of suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the end of suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the way leading to the end of suffering"

The early teaching<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', p. 47</ref>, and the traditional understanding in the Theravada,<ref name=penguin>{{cite book| title = The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions |author = Hinnels, John R. | publisher = Penguin Books | location = London | year = 1998 | isbn = 0140514805}},pages 393f</ref> is that the four noble truths are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and more expansive Mahayana teachings.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', p. 92</ref> They are little known in the Far East.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Budhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 60</ref>

====The Noble Eightfold Path====
{{main|Noble Eightfold Path}}
[[Image:Dharma Wheel.svg|thumb|The [[Dharmacakra]] represents the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].]]
The Noble Eightfold Path, the fourth of the Buddha's [[Four Noble Truths|Noble Truth]]s, is the way to the cessation of suffering ([[dukkha]]). In the early sources (the four main ''[[Nikaya]]s'') it is not generally taught to laypeople, and it is little known in the Far East.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Buddhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, pages 59f</ref> It has eight sections, each starting with ''samyak'' (Sanskrit, meaning correctly, properly or well,<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de with सम्यक् as input]</ref> frequently translated into English as ''right''), and presented in three groups:

*''[[Prajñā]]'' is the wisdom that purifies the mind to attain spiritual insight into the true nature of all things. It includes:
<ol start="1">
<li>{{unicode|dṛṣṭi}}; viewing<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with दृष्टि as input</ref> reality as it is, not just as it appears to be.</li>
<li>{{unicode|saṃkalpa}}; intention<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with संकल्प as input</ref> of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness.</li>
</ol>
*''[[Sila|Śīla]]'' is the ethics or morality, or abstention from unwholesome deeds. It includes:
<ol start="3">
<li>{{unicode|vāc}}; speaking<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with वाच् as input</ref> in a truthful and non hurtful way</li>
<li>{{unicode|karman}}; acting<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with कर्मन् as input</ref> in a non harmful way</li>
<li>{{unicode|ājīvana}}; a non harmful livelihood<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with आजीवन as input</ref></li>
</ol>
*''[[Samadhi]]'' is the mental discipline required to develop mastery over one’s own mind. This is done through the practice of various contemplative and meditative practices, and includes:
<ol start="6">
<li>{{unicode|vyāyāma}}; making an effort<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with व्यायाम as input</ref> to improve</li>
<li>{{unicode|smṛti}}; awareness<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with स्मृति as input</ref> to see things for what they are with clear consciousness, being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion</li>
<li>{{unicode|samādhi}}; correct meditation or concentration<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with समाधि as input</ref> explained as the first 4 ''[[dhyāna]]s''</li>
</ol>

The practice of the Eightfold Path is understood in one of two ways. It either requires simultaneous development—all eight items are practiced in parallel, or it is conceived as a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another.

====Middle Way====
{{main|Middle Way}}
An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] which was said to have been discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment (''[[bodhi]]''). The ''Middle Way'' or ''Middle Path'' has several definitions:
# It is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification.
# It also refers to taking a middle ground between certain [[metaphysical]] views, e.g. that things ultimately either exist or do not exist.<ref>Kohn, ''Shambhala'', pp. 131, 143</ref>
# An explanation of the state of [[nirvana]] and perfect enlightenment where all dualities fuse and cease to exist as separate entities (see [[Seongcheol]]).
# Another term for [[emptiness]], the ultimate nature of all phenomena, lack of inherent existence, which avoids the extremes of permanence and nihilism or inherent existence and nothingness.

===Reality in Buddhism===

{{main|Reality in Buddhism}}
According to the [[Pali Canon|scriptures]], in his lifetime, the Buddha refused to answer several [[metaphysical]] questions. On issues such as whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha had remained silent. One explanation for this is that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[bodhi|enlightenment]].<ref>[[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 72 [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.072.than.html (Thanissaro, 1997)]. For further discussion of the context in which these statements was made, see [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn44/sn44.intro.than.html Thanissaro (2004)].</ref> Another is that such questions in their very formulations assume that there is world or self that are permanent; the Buddha stated that to either affirm or deny such statements would be detrimental.<ref>Thanissaro Bhikkhu, ''The Not-Self Strategy.'' See Point 3, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/notself.html]. The Canon quote Thanissaro Bhikkhu draws attention to is the Sabbasava Sutta, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.002.than.html#ayoniso].</ref>

The Buddha is said not to have given lengthy descriptions of "ultimate reality." According to Karel Werner, <blockquote>Experience is ... the path most elaborated in early Buddhism. The doctrine on the other hand was kept low. The Buddha avoided doctrinal formulations concerning the final reality as much as possible in order to prevent his followers from resting content with minor achievements on the path in which the absence of the final experience could be substituted by conceptual understanding of the doctrine or by religious faith, a situation which sometimes occurs, in both varieties, in the context of Hindu systems of doctrine.<ref>Karel Werner, ''Mysticism and Indian Spirituality.'' In Karel Werner, ed., ''The Yogi and the Mystic.'' Curzon Press, 1989, page 27.</ref></blockquote>

The Mahayana developed those statements he is said to have made into an extensive, diverse set of sometimes contrasting descriptions of reality "as it really is."<ref>See [www.lulu.com/items/volume_63/2864000/2864713/1/print/Microsoft_Word_-_Ron_Henshall__Dissertation__2007.pdf], a master's thesis by a student of Peter Harvey.</ref>

In the Pali Canon and numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha is potrayed stessing that Dharma (Truth) cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: Reality transcends all worldly concepts. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation and confidence in the sutras{{Fact|date=September 2008}}, which are as fingers pointing to the Truth, not the Truth itself. Then to let go of rationalizations and to experience direct Liberation itself.

In the Mahayana [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], the Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the [[Bodhi]] nature. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]], a scripture of the [[Nyingma]] school of Tibetan Buddhism) also emphasises how Buddhist Truth lies beyond the range of discursive/verbal thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ...."<ref>''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111–112.</ref> Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]].

Most Buddhists agree that, to a greater or lesser extent, words are inadequate to describe the goal; schools differ radically on the usefulness of words in the path to that goal.<ref>''Philosophy East and West'', volume Twenty-Six, page 138</ref>

Buddhist scholars have produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some people at some stages.

Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic concept of truth:<ref>Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1989, page 2</ref> doctrines are "true" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial. In modern Chinese Buddhism, all doctrinal traditions are regarded as equally valid.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 395</ref>

Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. Some of the writings attributed to him made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the agamas. Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be [[shunyata|śūnya]] (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] (no-self) and [[pratitya-samutpada|pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the [[Madhyamaka]]. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Madhyamaka system.<ref>Christian Lindtner, ''Master of Wisdom.'' Dharma Publishing 1997, page 324.</ref>

Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna, was reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|{{IAST|Asaṅga}}]] and were adapted into the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.

In the Mahayana school, emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness ([[shunyata]]), perfected spiritual insight ([[prajnaparamita]]) and [[Buddha-nature]] (the deathless [[tathagatagarbha]], or Buddhic Essence, inherent in all beings and creatures). in the tathagatagarbha sutras the Buddha is portrayed proclaiming that the teaching of the tathagatagarbha constitutes the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma—the highest presentation of Truth (other sūtras make similar statements about other teachings). This has traditionally been regarded as the highest teaching in East Asian Buddhism. However, in modern China all doctrines are regarded as equally valid.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 395</ref> The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist [[panentheism]] ([[God in Buddhism]]).

Theravāda promotes the concept of [[Vibhajjavada]] ([[Pāli|Pali]]), literally "Teaching of Analysis". This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith.

====The Cycle of Samsara====
{{main|Pratītyasamutpāda}}
Human beings crave pleasure and satisfaction of the six senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking) from birth to death. After another rebirth they do the same, and continue repeating this cycle ([[Samsara]]). Humans always expect pleasure and do not like to feel pain. This cycle of suffering is explained in twelve links of [[dependent origination]], each conditioning the next:

#Avidyā: ignorance, specifically spiritual<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 56</ref>
#Saṃskāras: literally formations, explained as referring to [[Karma]].
#Vijñāna: consciousness, specifically discriminative<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 57</ref>
#Nāmarūpa: literally name and form, referring to mind and body<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 58</ref>
#Ṣaḍāyatana: the six sense bases: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind-organ
#Sparśa: variously translated contact, impression, stimulation
#Vedanā: usually translated feeling: this is the "hedonic tone", i.e. whether something is pleasant, unpleasant or neutral
#Tṛṣṇā: literally thirst, but nearly always in Buddhism used to mean craving
#Upādāna: clinging or grasping; the word also means fuel, which feeds the continuing cycle of rebirth
#Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. (The Theravada explains this as having two meanings: karma, which produces a new existence, and the existence itself.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 59</ref>)
#Jāti: literally birth, but life is understood as starting at conception<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 60</ref>
#Jarāmaraṇa (old age and death) and also śokaparidevaduḥkhadaurmanasyopāyāsa (sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness and misery)

Human beings always suffer throughout ''samsara'', until they become free from this suffering when attaining ''[[Nirvana]]''. Then the absence of ignorance leads to the absence of the others as above.

===Nirvana===
{{main|Nirvana}}
Nirvana (Sanskrit: निर्वन, Pali "Nibbana") means "cessation", "extinction" (of suffering) or ([[tṛṣṇā]]) "extinguished", "quited", "calmed"<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit] dictionary with निर्वन as input</ref>; it's also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. Also, Buddhists believe that anybody who has achieved nirvana (also known as ''bodhi'') is in fact a Buddha.

Mahayana Buddhism generally regards as its most important teaching the path of the [[bodhisattva]]. This already existed as a possibility in earlier Buddhism, as it still does in Theravada today, but the Mahayana gave it an increasing emphasis, eventually saying everyone should follow it.

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see ''[[Dharmakaya]]'') beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the [[eternal Buddha]] himself.

[[Image:StandingBuddha.jpg|thumb|[[Gautama Buddha]], ancient region
of [[Gandhara]], northern [[Pakistan]], 1st century CE, [[Musée Guimet, Paris]].]]

''[[Bodhi]]'' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]], in devanagari: बॊधि) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of [[arahants]]. Bodhi literally means "awakening", but is more commonly referred to as "enlightenment". In [[Early Buddhism]] Bodhi carries a meaning synonymous to [[Nirvana]], using only some different similes to describe the experience, which implied the extinction of ''raga'' (greed),<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:489.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref> ''dosa'' (hate)<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2598.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref> and ''moha'' (delusion).<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:229.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref>

===Buddhas===
{{main|Buddhahood}}

====Theravada====

A person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of [[Reality in Buddhism|reality]]; such people are called [[arahant]]s. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving they have also reached the end of the compulsive cycle of rebirths, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being.

These people, also occasionally referred to as buddhas, are classified into three types.
* [[Buddhahood|Sammasambuddha]], usually just called Buddha, who discovers the truth by himself and teaches the path to awakening to others
* [[Pratyekabuddha|Paccekabuddha]], who discovers the truth by himself but lacks the skill to teach others
* [[Sāvakabuddha]], who has followed the teaching of a Buddha, and may use it to guide others (see also: [[Arhat]])

Bodhi and Nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate and delusion. The Arahant, according to Theravada doctrine, has thus overcome greed, hatred, ''and'' delusion, attaining Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, the extinction of only greed (in relation to the sense sphere) and hatred, while a residue of delusion remains, is called [[Anagami]].

====Mahayana====

Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence, but who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings.

Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher attainment that eradicate delusion entirely.<ref>''An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (= passion and hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment.’’ How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 67</ref> Thus, the [[Arahant]] attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the [[Buddhahood|Buddha]] attains Bodhi.



The method of self-exertion or "self-power" - without reliance on an external force or being - stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, "Pure Land", which is characterised by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amida Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in [[Amitabha]] Buddha and/or the chanting of homage to his name will provide the spiritual energy that will liberate one at death into the "happy land" (''sukhavati'') or "pure land" of Amitabha (called Amida in Japanese) Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only people will have faith in the power of that limitless great Vow, or will utter the liberational chant of Amida's name.

Nearly all Chinese Buddhists accept that the chances of attaining sufficient enlightenment by one's own efforts are very slim, so that Pure Land practice is essential as an "insurance policy" even if one practises something else.<ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page 611</ref>

====Buddha Eras====
Buddhists believe the Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism. A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest ''known'' Buddha. This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge, evidence and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of human existence.<ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bullitt/bfaq.html#maitreya ''Access to Insight'', a Theravada Buddhist website, discusses Buddha Eras]</ref><ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.26.0.than.html Gautama Buddha discusses tne Maitreya Buddha in the Tipitaka]</ref> The Gautama Buddha, then, is ''the Buddha of this era'', who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas).

In addition, Mahayana believes there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes,<ref>Kogen Mizuno, ''Essentials of Buddhism'', Shunju-sha, 1972, English translation, Kosei, Tokyo, 1996, page 57</ref> but Theravada denies this.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}

The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in East Asian Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few if any are capable of following the path, so most or all must rely on the power of the Buddha Amitabha. Zen and Nichiren traditionally hold that few if any can follow the "complicated" path of some other schools, and present a "simple" practice instead.

===Bodhisattvas===

Mahayana encourages everyone to follow a bodhisattva path, while Theravada regards it as an option. Theravada and some Mahayana sources consider a bodhisattva as someone on the path to Buddhahood, while other Mahayana sources speak of bodhisattvas renouncing Buddhahood.<ref>Cook, ''Hua-yen Buddhism'', Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977, pages 110f; Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume One), page 351</ref> The Mahayana summarizes bodhisattva practice in six perfections: giving,morality, patience, energy, concentration and wisdom.

==Practice==

===Devotion===

{{main|Buddhist devotion}}

Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists.<ref>Harvey, page 170</ref> Devotional practices include bowing, offerings, pilgrimage, chanting. In Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha Amitabha is the main practice. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice.

====Refuge in the Three Jewels====

[[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]] with [[Dharmachakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]]
{{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}}

Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three Jewels ([[Sanskrit]]: ''tri-ratna'', [[Pāli]]: ''ti-ratana'')<ref>{{cite web
|title=Refuge
|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi
|author= Bhikku, Thanissaro
|year=2001
|work=An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha
|publisher=Access to Insight}}</ref> as the foundation of one's religious practice. The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned<ref>''Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha'', tr Nanamoli, rev Bodhi, Wisdom Pubns, 1995, pages 708f</ref> in the [[Majjhima Nikaya]], recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf [[Infant baptism]]). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the ''[[lama]]''. In Mahayana, the person who chooses the ''[[bodhisattva]]'' path makes a vow/pledge; which is considered the ultimate expression of compassion.

The "Three Jewels" are:
* The [[Buddha]]. This is a title for those who attained Nirvana. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha]]. The Buddha could also be represented as a concept instead of a specific person: the perfect wisdom that understands Dharma and sees reality in its true form.
* The ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''. The teachings or law of nature as expounded by the Gautama Buddha. It can also, especially in Mahayana, connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
* The ''[[Sangha]]''; the "community" of Buddhists or "congregation" of monks and nuns.

According to the scriptures, [[Gautama Buddha]] presented himself as a model, however, he did not ask his followers simply to have faith (Sanskrit: ''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]'', Pāli: ''saddhā'') in the Dharma but a personal realization of [[Bodhi]]. In addition, he encouraged them to put his teachings to the test and accept what they could verify on their own, provided that this was also "praised by the wise" (see [[Kalama Sutta]]). The Dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. The ''{{unicode|Saṅgha}}'' (Buddhist Order of monks) is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

===Buddhist Ethics===
{{main|The Five Precepts}}
''[[Sila|Śīla]]'' (Sanskrit) or ''sīla'' (Pāli) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' (''sila'', ''samadhi'', and ''panya'') and the second ''[[Paramita|pāramitā]]''. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of ''śīla'' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment.

''Śīla'' is the foundation of ''Samadhi/Bhāvana'' (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internal, but also peace in the community, which is external. According to the Law of Karma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.

''Śīla'' refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. There are several levels of ''sila'', which correspond to 'basic morality' ([[five precepts]]), 'basic morality with asceticism' ([[eight precepts]]), 'novice monkhood' ([[ten precepts]]) and 'monkhood' (''[[Vinaya]]'' or ''[[Patimokkha]]''). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the [[eight precepts]], which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.

The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.
:1. To refrain from taking life. (non-violence towards [[Sentience|sentient]] life forms)
:2. To refrain from taking that which is not given. (not committing [[theft]])
:3. To refrain from sensual (sexual) misconduct.
:4. To refrain from lying. (speaking truth always)
:5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of [[mindfulness]]. (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)

In the [[eight precepts]], the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of [[celibacy]]. The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:
:6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time. (only eat from sunrise to noon)
:7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelry, going to shows, etc.
:8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

===Monastic life===

[[Vinaya]] is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the [[Patimokkha]], a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the [[vinayapitaka]] (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. [[Samanera|Novice-monks]] use the [[ten precepts]], which are the basic precepts for monastics.

In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and [[vegetarianism]] is actively encouraged (see ''[[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]''). In Japan, this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.

===Samādhi: Meditation===
{{main|Buddhist meditation}}

Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind and using it to explore itself and other phenomena.<ref>B. Alan Wallace, ''Contemplative Science.'' Columbia University Press, 2007, page 81.</ref> In Theravada there are two basic types of meditation, combined in various ways: samatha and vipassana, developing samadhi and panna (prajna) respectively. Similar practices exist in Mahayana alongside others that those traditions do not generally classify that way.

====Samādhi/Bhāvanā (Meditative cultivation)====
{{main|Samadhi|Dhyāna}}

In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, ''samyaksamādhi'' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating ''samādhi'' is meditation. According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation, [[Samatha meditation|''samatha'' meditation]] (Sanskrit: ''śamatha'') and [[vipassana|''vipassanā'' meditation]] (Sanskrit: ''vipaśyanā''). In Chinese Buddhism, these exist (translated ''chih kuan''), but Chan (Zen) meditation is more popular.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 396</ref> Throughout most of Buddhist history before modern times, serious meditation by lay people has been unusual.<ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page 502</ref> Upon development of ''samādhi'', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.

Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]'', Sanskrit ध्यान ''dhyāna''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

[[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (''jhāna'') There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath ([[anapanasati]]), because this practice can lead to both ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'.

In Buddhist practice, it is said that while ''samatha'' meditation can calm the mind, only ''vipassanā'' meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to ''[[jnana|jñāna]]'' (Pāli ''{{IAST|ñāṇa}}'' knowledge), ''[[prajñā]]'' (Pāli ''paññā'' pure understanding) and thus can lead to ''nirvāṇa'' (Pāli ''nibbāna''). When one is in jhana, all defilements are suppressed temporarily. Only ''prajñā'' or ''vipassana'' eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also resting states which ''arahants'' abide in order to rest.
=====In Theravāda=====
{{main|Jhāna in Theravada}}
In Theravāda Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as the craving, which carries with it the various defilements. These various defilements are traditionally summed up as greed, hatred and delusion. These are believed to be parasites that have infested the mind and create suffering and stress. In order to be free from suffering and stress, these defilements need to be permanently uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing, experiencing, and understanding of the true nature of those defilements by using ''jhāna'', a technique which is part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It will then lead the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and ''[[Nirvana|Nibbana]]''. Nibbana is the ultimate goal of Theravadins.

====Prajñā (Wisdom)====
{{main|Prajñā|Vipassana}}

''Prajñā'' (Sanskrit) or ''paññā'' (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], The Four Noble Truths and the [[three marks of existence]]. ''Prajñā'' is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about ''bodhi''. It is spoken of as the principal means of attaining ''{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}'', through its revelation of the true nature of all things as ''[[dukkha]]'' (unsatisfactory), ''[[anicca]]'' (impermanence) and ''[[anatta]]'' (devoid of self). ''Prajñā'' is also listed as the sixth of the six ''[[Paramita|pāramitās]]'' of the Mahayana.

Initially, ''prajñā'' is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.

====Zen ====
{{Main|Zen}}

''Ch'an'' (Chinese) or Zen (Japanese) Buddhism (derived from the Sanskrit term, ''dhyana'' - "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation.<ref>According to Charles S. Prebish (in his ''Historical Dictionary of Buddhism'', Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, 1993, p. 287): "Although a variety of Zen 'schools' developed in Japan, they all emphasize Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts, that provides the potential for direct realization, that the realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature possessed by each sentient being ...".</ref> Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth.

Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai and Soto, the former greatly favouring the use in meditation on the [[koan]] (meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focusing more on ''shikantaza'' or "just sitting".<ref>Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): "It presumes that ''sitting in meditation itself'' (i.e. ''zazen'') is an expression of Buddha nature." The method is to detach the mind from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar Stephen Hodge writes (''Zen Masterclass'', Godsfield Press, 2002, pp. 12–13): "... practitioners of Zen believe that Enlightenment, the awakening of the Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature, is our natural state, but has been covered over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts. According to this view, Enlightenment is not something that we must acquire a bit at a time, but a state that can occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of mental and emotional obscurations."</ref>

Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha himself.<ref>(''Critical Sermons on the Zen Tradition'', Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2002, ''passim'') Commenting on Rinzai Zen and its Chinese founder, Linji, Hisamatsu states: "Linji indicates our true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and 'True Self'. It is independent of words or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching. Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures. It is just our direct awakening to Self ..." (Hisamatsu, op. cit., p. 46).</ref> Nevertheless, Zen does not neglect the scriptures.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', pages 165f</ref>

====Tantra====

Though based upon Mahāyāna, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is one of the schools that practice ''[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]'' or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism, or [[esotericism|esoteric]] Buddhism). It accepts all the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative practices.<ref>Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1st ed, 1989, page 185</ref> One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years.

==History==
{{main|History of Buddhism}}
===Indian Buddhism===
{{main|History of Buddhism in India}}
[[Image:ElloraPuja.jpg|thumb|The Buddhist "Carpenter's Cave" at [[Ellora]] in [[Maharashtra]], India.]]

====Early Buddhism====
{{main|Early Buddhist schools}}
The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into the following five periods:<ref>A History of Indian Buddhism - Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) - Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 7</ref>
# [[Early Buddhism]] or [[Early Buddhist Schools]] (also called [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism]]); Hajime Nakamura<ref>''Indian Buddhism'', Japan, 1980, reprinted Motilal Banarsidass,Delhi,1987,1989,table of contents</ref> subdivides this into two subperiods:
## original Buddhism (other scholars call this earliest Buddhism or precanonical Buddhism{{Fact|date=September 2008}})
## early Buddhism
# Period of the [[Early Buddhist schools]] (also called Sectarian Buddhism, [[Nikaya Buddhism]])
# Early [[Mahayana Buddhism]]
# Later Mahayana Buddhism
# [[Vajrayana Buddhism]] (also called Esoteric Buddhism)

These developments were not always consecutive. For example, the early schools continued to exist alongside Mahayana. Some scholars have argued that Mahayana remained marginal for centuries.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}
=====Pre-sectarian Buddhism=====
{{main|Pre-sectarian Buddhism}}
The earliest phase of Buddhism (pre-sectarian Buddhism) recognized by nearly all scholars (the main exception is Dr Gregory Schopen,<ref> Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. His main views and arguments can be found in his book ''Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks'', University of Hawai'i Press</ref>) is based on a comparison of the [[Pali Canon]] with surviving portions of other early canons.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} Its main scriptures are the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the four principal [[Nikaya]]s or [[Agama]]s.

Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught at least:<ref>Mitchell, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 2002, page 34 & table of contents</ref>

* the [[three characteristics]]
* the [[five aggregates]]
* [[dependent arising]]
* [[karma]] and [[rebirth]]
* the [[four noble truths]]
* the [[eightfold path]]
* [[nirvana]]

Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories.<ref>Skorupski, ''Buddhist Forum'', vol I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London, 1990, page 5; ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'', vol 21 (1998), part 1, pages 4, 11
</ref>

===== Councils =====
{{main|Buddhist councils}}
According to the scriptures, soon after the [[Paranirvana|{{IAST|paranirvāṇa}}]] (from Sanskrit: परनिर्वाण "highest extinguishment")<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit.de dictionary] with पर and निर्वाण as input</ref> of Gautama Buddha, the [[first Buddhist council]] was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission. In the first council, [[Ananda|Ānanda]], a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses (''sūtras'', Pāli ''sutta''s) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the [[abhidhamma]]. [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the monastic rules (''[[vinaya]]''). Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist</ref>

According to most scholars, at some period after the Second Council the ''Sangha'' began to break into separate factions. (Schopen suggests that Buddhism was very diverse from the beginning and became less so.)<ref>''Journal of the Pāli Text Society'', volume XVI, p. 105)</ref> The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred. According to the ''[[Dipavamsa]]'' of the Pāli tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council, the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN, the [[Sarvastivada]] tradition of [[Vasumitra]] says it was in the time of Asoka and the [[Mahasanghika]] tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE.

The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that "the Sangha has been made unified". This may refer to a dispute such as that described in the account of the [[Third Buddhist Council]] at Pataliputta. This concerns the expulsion of non-Buddhist heretics from the ''sangha'', and does not speak of a schism. However, the late Professor Hirakawa argued that the first schism occurred after the death of Asoka. These schisms occurred within the [[early Buddhist schools]], at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.

The root schism was between the [[Sthaviras]] and the [[Mahāsāṅghikas]]. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika. This contradicts the Mahasanghikas' own ''vinaya'', which shows them as on the same, winning side. The northern lineages, including the Sarvastivada and Puggalavada (both branches of the ancient Sthaviras) attribute the Mahāsāṅghika schism to the '5 points' that erode the status of the ''arahant''.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} The Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the ''vinaya'' and may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[arhat]]ship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.<ref>Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. ''Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism'' in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237–272</ref>

The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravāda school. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', p. 74</ref>

=====Further developments=====
{{main|Timeline of Buddhism}}
[[Image:Asoka Kaart.gif|thumb|250px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] (260–218 BCE).]]
{{unicode|Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an [[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma]], a collection of philosophical texts and commentaries. Early sources for these probably existed in the time of the Buddha as simple lists. However, as time went on and Buddhism spread further, the (perceived) teachings of Gautama Buddha were formalized in a more systematic manner in a new [[Pitaka]]: the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]]. Some modern academics refer to it as Abhidhamma Buddhism. Interestingly, in the opinion of some scholars{{Fact|date=September 2008}}, the [[Mahasanghika]] school did not have an Abhidhamma Pitaka, which agrees with their statement that they did not want to add to the Buddha's teachings. But according to Chinese pilgrims Fa-hsien ([[Faxian]]) (5th century CE), Yuan Chuang and Hsüan-tsang ([[Xuanzang]], 7th century CE), Mahasanghika School did have their own version of Abhidhamma.}}<ref >{{Cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2124|title=Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms |accessdate=2008-08-18|Author=Fa-Hien|Translator=James Legge|publisher=Project Gutenberg}}"In the community here, moreover, we got the Samyuktabhi-dharma-hridaya-(sastra), containing about six or seven thousand gathas; he also got a Sutra of 2500 gathas; one chapter of the Parinir-vana-vaipulya Sutra, of about 5000 gathas; and the Mahasan-ghikah Abhidharma"</ref><ref >{{Cite web|url=http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/sha.htm|title=Notes on the Nagarjunikonda Inscriptions|accessdate=2008-08-18|Author=Dutt, Nalinaksha|publisher=The Indian Historical Quarterly}}"the Mahasanghikas, so far as the traditions go, did not recognise the seven texts of the Theravadins as Buddhabhasita, (6) but had an Abhidharma Pitaka of their own according to the testimony of Yuan Chuang,(7) who further supplies us with the information that he himself studied certain Abhidharma treatises of the Mahasanghika"</ref><ref>Samuel Beal, "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang: By the Shaman Hwui Li. With an introduction containing an account of the works of I-tsing", published by Tuebner and Co, London (1911), Digital version: University of Michigan. "this is the spot where the assembly of the Great Congregation (Mahdsanghikas) was held….So they made another collection of the Sutra-pitaka, and the Vinaya-pitaka, and the Abhidharma-pitaka, and of the Miscellaneous-pitaka, and the Dharall-pitaka, five pitakas in all. As in this assembly there were both ordinary persons and holy men present; it is called the convocation of the Mahasafghikas."</ref>

[[Image:MenandrosCoin.jpg|thumb|150px|Buddhist tradition records in the [[Milinda Panha]] that the 2nd century BCE [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Menander I|Menander]] converted to the Buddhist faith and became an [[arhat]].]]
Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]], who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more [[stupa|stūpas]] (Buddhist religious memorials) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Central Asia]], beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of [[Sri Lanka]] south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.

This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts of Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread Buddhism (Dharma), particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring [[Seleucid Empire]], and even farther to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]], and to the development of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries{{Fact|date=September 2008}}.

===Buddhism today===
{{main|Timeline of Buddhism#Common Era}}
Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength in India and elsewhere. Estimates of the number of Buddhist followers are uncertain, ranging from 230 to more than 1.600 million worldwide. Most scholars classify similar numbers of people under a category they call Chinese folk or traditional religion, which is an amalgam of various traditions, including Buddhism. Estimates are uncertain and in dispute because:
* of difficulties in defining who counts as a Buddhist;
* of [[syncretism]] in the [[Eastern religions]] such as Buddhism, [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Shinto]] and [[Chinese folk religion|traditional religions]] or [[Shamanism]], [[animism]]; having beliefs comprising a mix of religious ideas;<ref>[http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/lopez.html Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion]</ref><ref>[http://asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html Windows on Asia - Chinese Religions]</ref><ref>[http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/religion Religions and Beliefs in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.sacu.org/religion.html SACU Religion in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.index-china.com/index-english/people-religions-s.html Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions]</ref><ref>[http://www.askasia.org/teachers/essays/essay.php?no=16 AskAsia - Buddhism in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.globaled.org/curriculum/china/bessay1.htm BUDDHISM AND ITS SPREAD ALONG THE SILK ROAD]</ref>
* it was difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists because they did not have congregational memberships and often did not participate in public ceremonies;<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)]</ref>
* of uncertainties in the situation for several countries; most notably [[Religion in China|China]], [[Religion in Vietnam|Vietnam]] and [[Religion in North Korea|North Korea]]<ref>[http://www.opendemocracy.net/pix/home/stateattitudes.pdf [[openDemocracy.net]] - 'The Atlas of Religion,' Joanne O'Brien & Martin Palmer: State Attitudes to Religion]</ref><ref>[http://crf.hudson.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=survey_files Center for Religious Freedom - Survey Files]</ref><ref>[http://crf.hudson.org/articledocs/TheRangeofReligiousFreedom.doc The Range of Religious Freedom]</ref>.

According to one analysis,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Garfinkel, Perry | title = Buddha Rising | journal = National Geographic | month= December | year= 2005 | pages = 88–109}}</ref> Buddhism is the fourth-largest [[major world religions|religion in the world]] behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and [[Hinduism]]. The monks' order ([[Sangha]]), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is among the oldest organizations on earth.

[[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]]
* [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Burma]]. Also the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]] in India (inspired by [[B. R. Ambedkar]]) practices Theravada.
* East Asian forms of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of China, Japan, [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
* [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is found in [[Tibet]] and the surrounding areas in India, [[Bhutan]], [[Mongolia]], [[Northeast China]], [[Nepal]], and the [[Russian Federation]].
* Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the [[Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]], though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.

The numbers of adherents of the three main traditions listed above are about 124, 185 and 20 million, respectively.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.htm/#Buddhism], retrieved on 2008-01-15</ref>

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While, in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and traditional. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. In the [[Buddhism in the West|West]], Buddhism is recognized as one of the growing spiritual influences.

==Schools and Traditions==
{{main|Schools of Buddhism}}
Buddhists generally classify themselves as either [[Theravada]] or [[Mahayana]]<ref>Keown, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 1996, page 12</ref> This classification is also used by some scholars<ref>Smith, ''Buddhism''; Juergensmeyer, ''Oxford Handbook''.</ref>{{page number}} and is the one ordinarily used in the English language.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tibetan Buddhism |encyclopedia=American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | publisher= Houghton Mifflin Company | year=2004 |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tibetan%20buddhism | accessdate=2007-07-07}}</ref> An alternative scheme used by some scholars<ref>(Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984); Gethin (1998), pp. 1–2, identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism."; Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia," "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area," "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West; Penguin ''handbook of Living Religions'', 1984, page 279; Prebish & Keown, ''Introducing Buddhism'', ebook, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 2005, printed ed, Harper, 2006</ref> divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: [[Theravada]], [[East Asian Buddhism]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]].
Some scholars<ref>See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Macmillan, New York, 1987, volume 2, pages 440ff</ref> use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes. Hinayana (literally "smaller vehicle") is used to name Theravada, but this can be considered derogatory.



Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them.

Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

Despite some differences among the Theravada and Mahayana schools, there are several [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana|concepts common to both major Buddhist branches]]:<ref>http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/comparative.htm</ref>
* Both accept [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]] as their teacher.
* Both accept the [[middle way]], [[dependent origination]], the [[four noble truths]] and the [[noble eightfold path]], in theory, though in practice these have little or no importance in some traditions.
* Both accept that members of the laity and of the [[sangha]] can pursue the path toward enlightenment ([[bodhi]]).
* Both consider buddhahood to be the highest attainment; however Theravadins consider the [[nirvana]] ([[nibbana]] to the Theravadins) attained by [[arahants]] as identical to that attained by the Buddha himself, as there is only one type of nirvana. According to Theravadins, a buddha is someone who has discovered the path all by himself and taught it to others.

===Theravāda===
{{main|Theravada}}
[[Theravada|Theravāda]] ("Doctrine of the Elders", or "Ancient Doctrine") is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It is relatively conservative, and ''generally'' closest to early Buddhism.<ref>Gethin, ''Foundations'', page 1</ref> This school is derived from the [[Vibhajjavada|Vibhajjavāda]] grouping which emerged amongst the older [[Sthavira]] group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE). This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.

The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] and its commentaries. After being orally transmitted for a few centuries, its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were finally committed to writing in the last century BCE, in Sri Lanka, at what the Theravada usually reckon as the fourth council. It is also one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the complete set of its canon into writing. The [[sutra|Sutta]] collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka]]), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Theravāda is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Burma]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]] as well as small portions of China, [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Bangladesh]]. It has a growing presence in [[Europe]] and [[Americas|America]].

===Mahayana===
{{main|Mahayana}}
[[Image:Mahayanabuddha.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese Seated Buddha, [[Tang Dynasty]], [[Hebei|Hebei province]], ca. 650 CE. Chinese Buddhism is of the [[Mahayana]] tradition, with popular schools today being [[Pure Land]] and [[Zen]].]]
The precise geographical origins of [[Mahayana]] are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the [[Kushan Empire]] (within present-day northern [[Pakistan]]), and in areas within the [[Shatavahana]] Empire, including [[Amaravati]] to the south-east (in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]), to the west around the port of [[Bharukaccha]] (present-day [[Bharuch]], a town near [[Bombay]]), and around the various cave complexes, such as [[Ajanta]] and [[Karli]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]). Some scholars have argued that Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around [[stupa]] devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a [[bodhisattva]] were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. Other scholar reject this theory.<ref>{{cite book | author = Williams, Paul | title = Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations |publisher = Routledge | location = London | year= 1989}}, pages 20f</ref> Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the [[Sarvastivada]] school and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan Empire, seem to have had major influence.

[[Image:MahayanaMap.gif|thumb|left|Expansion of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.]]
Around the second century CE, the Kushan emperor [[Kanishka]] is said to have convened what many western scholars call the [[fourth Buddhist council]]. This council is not recognised by the Theravada line of Buddhism. According to Mahayana sources, this council did not simply rely on the original [[Tripitaka]]. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the [[Lotus Sutra]], an early version of the [[Heart Sutra]] and the [[Amitabha Sutra]] were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for all beings (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattvas who embody the indwelling yet transcendent [[Buddha-nature]] who strive to achieve such a goal. However, most western scholars believe this council was purely Sarvastivada, while the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it entirely fictitious.<ref>{{cite book |author = Lamotte, Étienne (trans. to French)| others= trans. Sara Boin| title = Teaching of Vimalakirti |publisher = Pali Text Society |location = London |year = 1976|isbn =0710085400|pages = XCIII}}</ref> The new scriptures were first written in [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]] or one of the [[Prakrit]]s. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana would spread from India to [[Southeast Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]] and then east to China where Mahayana was [[Sinicized]] and this Sinicized Mahayana would be passed on to [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]] and finally to Japan in 538 CE. The East Asians would go on to write more indigenous sutras and commentaries to the Mahayana Canon.
[[Image:GBA8.jpg|thumb|One of the [[Buddhas of Bamyan]], Afghanistan as it stood in 1963.]]

After the end of the [[Kushan Empire|{{IAST|Kuṣāṇas}}]], Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the [[Gupta]]s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the [[Nalanda University|Nālandā University]] in north-eastern India.

[[Image:Status of Kuan Yin.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese [[Ming dynasty]] porcelain figure of [[Guanyin]], "Goddess of Mercy."]]
Mahayana schools recognize all or part of the [[Mahayana Sutras|Mahayana scriptures]]. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself, and faith in and veneration of those texts are stated in some sutras (e.g. the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]) to lay the foundations for the later attainment of Buddhahood itself.

Native Eastern Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, [[Korea]], [[Singapore]], parts of Russia and most of [[Vietnam]]. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Northern Buddhism. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. However, in Japan they form separate denominations. The five major ones are the following.

* [[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren]], peculiar to Japan
* [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]]
* [[Shingon]], a form of Vajrayana
* [[Tendai]]
* [[Zen|Chan/Zen]]

In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong to the Chogye school, which is officially Son (Zen), but with substantial elements from other traditions.<ref>Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume One), pages 430, 435</ref>

====Pure Land Buddhism====
{{main|Pure Land Buddhism}}
There are estimated to be around 100 million Chinese Buddhists.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 191, & volume 2, page 10</ref> Pure Land Buddhism is the most popular form in China, particularly among the laity.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 152</ref> In the first half of the twentieth century, most Chinese monks practised Pure Land, some combining it with Chan (Zen); Chan survived into the 20th century in a small number of monasteries, but died out in mainland China after the communist takeover.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism 1900-1950'', Harvard, 1967, pages 47, 396</ref> In Taiwan Chan meditation is popular,<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 283</ref> but most Buddhists follow Pure Land.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, volume 1, page 723</ref>

There are estimated to be about 40 million Buddhists in Vietnam.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 803</ref> The Buddhism of monks and educated lay people is mainly Thien (Zen), with elements of Pure Land and tantra, but that of most ordinary Buddhists has little or no Thien element, being mainly Pure Land.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', page 159; Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume Two), page 882</ref>

===Vajrayāna or Tibetan Buddhism===
{{main|Vajrayana}}
[[Image:Young monks of Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung]]
There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its [[tantra|tantric practice]] started. In the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan tradition]], it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, [[Tibet]], Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition.

In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject, [[Fairfield University]] professor Ronald M. Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the changing political climate in India at the time. With the fall of the [[Gupta]] dynasty, in an increasingly fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting patronage, and the folk movement led by [[siddhas]] became more prominent. After perhaps two hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the monastic establishment.<ref>{{cite book|author = Davidson, Ronald M. | title = Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement | publisher = Columbia University Press |location =New York| year= 2003 |isbn= 0231126190 }}</ref>{{page number}}

Vajrayana combined and developed a variety of elements, a number of which had already existed for centuries.<ref>Prebish & Keown, ''Introducing Buddhism'', page 89</ref> In addition to the Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of [[Buddhist texts#Vajrayana Texts|Buddhist Tantras]], some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.

Although it continued to in surrounding countries, over the centuries Buddhism gradually declined in India and it [[Decline of Buddhism in India|was virtually extinct]] there by the time of the British conquest.

==Buddhist texts==
{{main|Buddhist texts}}
Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on learning the various texts. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. Buddhist scriptures are written in this languages: [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan (language)|Tibetan]], [[Mongolian (language)|Mongolian]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], along with some texts that still exist in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]].

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. However, some scholars have referred to the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the first four Nikayas of the [[Sutta Pitaka]] as the common core of all Buddhist traditions.<ref>A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000)</ref> However, this could be considered misleading, as Mahāyāna considers these merely a preliminary, and not a core, teaching, the Tibetan Buddhists have not even translated most of the āgamas, though theoretically they recognize them, and they play no part in the religious life of either clergy or laity in China and Japan.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Buddhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 16</ref> The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own ''vinaya''. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the ''[[agama (text)|āgamas]]''.

Over the years, various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture.

Dwight [[Goddard]] collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen, along with other classics of [[Eastern philosophy]], such as the [[Tao Te Ching]], into his 'Buddhist Bible' in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]] attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles in [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ "The Buddha and His Dhamma"]. Other such efforts have persisted to present day, but currently there is no single text that represents all Buddhist traditions.

===Pāli Tipitaka===
{{main|Pāli Canon}}
{{PaliCanon|abbrev=1}}
The Pāli Tipitaka, which means "three baskets", refers to its three main:
* The ''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Pitaka]]'' contains disciplinary rules for the Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as explanations of why and how these rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
* The ''[[Sutta Pitaka]]'' contains discourses ascribed to [[Gautama Buddha]].
* The ''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidhamma Pitaka]]'' contains material often described as systematic expositions of the Gautama Buddha's teachings.

According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings—sūtras (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli)—and codify monastic rules (vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses, and according to some sources{{which}} the ''[[abhidhamma]]'', and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the ''vinaya''. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the ''vinaya'' of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Gautama Buddha's previous lives, and various other subjects.

=== Mahayana Sutras ===
[[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|left|thumb|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]]
The [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered by some to be the word of Gautama Buddha, but supposedly were transmitted in secret, or came directly from other Buddhas or [[Bodhisattva]]s. Approximately six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations. In addition, East Asian Buddhism recognizes some ''sutras'' regarded by scholars as of Chinese origin.

Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pāli Canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic, valid teachings of Gautama Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual understanding. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of Gautama Buddha. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali Canon represents the full and final statement by Gautama Buddha of his Dhamma—and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of Gautama Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.

For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the ''Mahāyāna sutras'' do indeed contain basic and foundational pronouncements of Gautama Buddha. From the Mahayana standpoint the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the [[bodhisattva]] path. That path is explained as being built upon the motivation to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which expresses availability both to the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The theme of greatness can be seen in many elements of Mahayana Buddhism, from the length of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow, which strives for ''all'' future time to help free ''all'' other persons and creatures from pain, to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "Great Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "Great Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For Theravadins and many scholars, including [[A.K. Warder]],<ref>A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000), p. 4</ref> however, the self-proclaimed "greatness" of the [[Mahayana Sutras]] does not make them a true account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha.

==Buddhist symbols==
{{main|Buddhist symbolism}}

===Comparative studies===

Buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of subjects. For example, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] can be considered one contribution of Buddhism to metaphysics. On the other hand, Buddhism's emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in countries that adopted it throughout its history.

'''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies'''
* [[Buddhism and Jainism]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Christianity]]
* [[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism, mysticism, and monotheism)
* [[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
* [[Buddhism and psychology]]
* [[Buddhism and science]]
* [[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics)
* [[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
* Buddhism and Thelema<ref name=IAO131>[http://www.geocities.com/hdbq111/JoTS/JoTS1-1.pdf Thelema & Buddhism] in ''Journal of Thelemic Studies'', Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007, pp. 18-32</ref>

==See also==
http://www.boudhadharma.com
* [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]]
* [[Buddhism and Christianity]]
* [[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Jainism]]
* [[Buddhism and psychology]]
* [[Buddhism and science]]
* [[Buddhism in the West]]
* [[Buddhist Ethics]]
* [[Buddhist Ceremonies]]
* [[Buddhist flag]]
* [[Buddhist philosophy]]
* [[Buddhist terms and concepts]]
* [[God in Buddhism]]
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
* [[List of Buddhists]]
* [[Shinbutsu shūgō]]

==Notes==


{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Bechert, Heinz & Richard Gombrich (ed.) (1984). ''The World of Buddhism'', Thames & Hudson.
* {{cite journal| last = Cousins| first = L. S.| title = The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article| journal = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society| volume = Series 3| issue = 6.1| pages = 57–63| year= 1996| url = http://indology.info/papers/cousins/| accessdate = 2007-07-11}}; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', volume I; NB in the online transcript a little text has been accidentally omitted: in section 4, between "... none of the other contributions in this section envisage a date before 420 B.C." and "to 350 B.C." insert "Akira Hirakawa defends the short chronology and Heinz Bechert himself sets a range from 400 B.C."
* {{cite book|author = Davidson, Ronald M. | title = Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement | publisher = Columbia University Press |location =New York| year= 2003 |isbn= 0231126190 }}
* {{cite book | author=de Give, Bernard | title= Les rapports de l'Inde et de l'Occident des origines au règne d'Asoka | publisher=Les Indes savants | year=2006 | id=ISBN-10: 2846540365}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Rupert Gethin|Gethin, Rupert]] | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-19-289223-1}}
* {{cite book| author=Harvey, Peter | title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=1990| id= ISBN 0-52-131333-3}}
* {{cite book |author = Lamotte, Étienne (trans. from French)| others= trans. Sara Boin| title = Teaching of Vimalakirti |publisher = Pali Text Society |location = London |year = 1976|isbn =0710085400|pages = XCIII}}
* {{cite book | title = A Concise History of Buddhism | author = Skilton, Andrew | year = 1997 | publisher = Windhorse Publications | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GEKd4iqH3C0C&dq=history+of+buddhism |isbn = 0904766926}}
* {{cite book | author = Williams, Paul | title = Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations |publisher = Routledge | location = London | year= 1989}}
* Williams, Paul (ed.) (2005). ''Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies'', 8 volumes, Routledge, London & New York.
* {{cite book | author=Armstrong, Karen | title=Buddha | year=2001 | publisher=Penguin Books | isbn=0-14-303436-7 | pages=187}}
* {{cite book | author=Buswell, Robert E. (ed.) | title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year= 2003 | isbn=978-0028657189}}
* {{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}}
* {{cite book | author=Donath, Dorothy C. | title=Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day | publisher=Julian Press | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0-07-017533-0}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Henepola Gunaratana|Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola]] | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-86171-321-4}} Also available on this websites: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm saigon.com] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html urbandharma.org] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php vipassana.com]
* {{cite book | author=Juergensmeyer, Mark | title = The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions | series = Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0195137989}}
* {{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The Vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1-903296-91-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Kohn, Michael H. (trans.) | title=The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen | publisher=Shambhala | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-87773-520-4}}
* Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), ''The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists'', Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distributed by Wisdom Books
* {{cite book | author=Nattier, Jan | title=A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprccha) | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-8248-2607-8}}
* {{cite book | author=Robinson, Richard H., and Johnson, Willard L. | title=The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction | publisher=Wadsworth Publishing | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0-534-01027-X}}
* {{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 81-208-2144-0}}
* {{cite book | author=Smith, Huston | title=Buddhism: A Concise Introduction | coauthors=Phillip Novak | publisher=HarperSanFrancisco | year=2003 | isbn=978-0060730673}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]] | title=[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha] (3rd ed., rev.) | year=2001}}
* {{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
* {{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0-271-00601-3}}
* {{cite book|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
*{{cite book|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White|White, Kenneth]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
*{{cite book|author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}}
*{{cite book|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0-86171-133-5.
*{{cite book|author=Indian Books Centre|title=Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series, Delhi}}
*{{cite book|author=Ranjini|title=Jewels of the Doctrine|work=Buddhist Stories of the Thirteenth Century|publisher=Sri Satguru Publications}}

===Online===
* {{cite web|author=Berzin, Alexander | work=Berzin Archives | title=Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan|month=November | year=2001|url=http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html}}
* {{cite web|author=[http://www.weiwuwei.8k.com/ Wei, Wei Wu]| work=Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London | publisher=[http://www.sentientpublications.com/authors/weiwuwei.php Sentient Publications] |title=Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra|month= | year=1960|url=http://www.sentientpublications.com/catalog/lazarus.php}}
*{{cite web|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda|Dhammananda, K. Sri]] | url=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf | title=What Buddhists Believe | work=[http://www.bmsm.org.my/ Buddhist Missionary Society of Malaysia]|year=2002}}

==External links==
{{external links}}

{{portal}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Buddhism}}
* [http://www.aboutbuddhism.org About Buddhism]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org Access to Insight]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet]
* [http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net Seeing Through The Net]
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Buddhism/ Buddhism] at Open Directory Project
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/index.html
|title= Buddhism - objects, art and history
|work=Asia
|accessdate= 2007-12-06}}
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/budhist/index.htm Buddhism Potpourri]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/index.htm Buddhist texts] (English translations)
* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
* [http://www.vwsp.eu/tathagata/budh-diags/nut_gr1.htm Essential Theravada Buddhism in graphics]
* [http://www.webspawner.com/users/bodhisattva/index.html Tathagatagarbha Mahayana sutras]
* [http://www.veoh.com/videos/v7071978efhj2aF6 Video documentary Buddhist history in India]
* [http://www.what-Buddha-taught.net What Buddha Taught ] Multi-lingual

{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Religion topics}}

[[Category:Buddhism| ]]

{{Link FA|ro}}
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[af:Boeddhisme]]
[[als:Buddhismus]]
[[ar:بوذية]]
[[an:Budismo]]
[[ast:Budismu]]
[[az:Buddizm]]
[[bn:বৌদ্ধ ধর্ম]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hu̍t-kàu]]
[[bcl:Budismo]]
[[bar:Buddhismus]]
[[bs:Budizam]]
[[br:Boudaegezh]]
[[bg:Будизъм]]
[[ca:Budisme]]
[[cs:Buddhismus]]
[[cy:Bwdhaeth]]
[[da:Buddhisme]]
[[de:Buddhismus]]
[[et:Budism]]
[[el:Βουδισμός]]
[[es:Budismo]]
[[eo:Budhismo]]
[[eu:Budismo]]
[[fa:آئین بودایی]]
[[fr:Bouddhisme]]
[[fy:Boedisme]]
[[fur:Budisim]]
[[ga:Búdachas]]
[[gan:佛教]]
[[gl:Budismo]]
[[zh-classical:佛教]]
[[ko:불교]]
[[hy:Բուդդայականություն]]
[[hi:बौद्ध धर्म]]
[[hr:Budizam]]
[[io:Budismo]]
[[ilo:Budhismo]]
[[id:Agama Buddha]]
[[ia:Buddhismo]]
[[ie:Budhisme]]
[[is:Búddismi]]
[[it:Buddhismo]]
[[he:בודהיזם]]
[[kn:ಬುದ್ಧ]]
[[ka:ბუდიზმი]]
[[kk:Буддизм]]
[[kw:Bouddhisteth]]
[[ky:Буддизм]]
[[sw:Ubuddha]]
[[ht:Boudis]]
[[lo:ພຸດທະສາດສະໜາ]]
[[la:Buddhismus]]
[[lv:Budisms]]
[[lt:Budizmas]]
[[li:Boeddhisme]]
[[jbo:bu'ojda]]
[[lmo:Budiism]]
[[hu:Buddhizmus]]
[[mk:Будизам]]
[[ml:ബുദ്ധമതം]]
[[mt:Buddiżmu]]
[[mr:बौद्ध धर्म]]
[[ms:Agama Buddha]]
[[mn:Буддизм]]
[[my:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[nl:Boeddhisme]]
[[ja:仏教]]
[[pih:Budism]]
[[no:Buddhisme]]
[[nn:Buddhismen]]
[[oc:Bodisme]]
[[uz:Buddizm]]
[[ps:بوديزم]]
[[nds:Buddhismus]]
[[pl:Buddyzm]]
[[pt:Budismo]]
[[ro:Budism]]
[[qu:Budismu]]
[[ru:Буддизм]]
[[sc:Buddhismu]]
[[sco:Buddhism]]
[[sq:Budizmi]]
[[scn:Buddismu]]
[[si:බුදු දහම]]
[[simple:Buddhism]]
[[sk:Budhizmus]]
[[sl:Budizem]]
[[sr:Будизам]]
[[fi:Buddhalaisuus]]
[[sv:Buddhism]]
[[tl:Budismo]]
[[ta:பௌத்தம்]]
[[te:బౌద్ధ మతము]]
[[th:พระพุทธศาสนา]]
[[vi:Phật giáo]]
[[tpi:Budisim]]
[[tr:Budizm]]
[[uk:Буддизм]]
[[ur:بدھ مت]]
[[yi:בודהיזם]]
[[yo:Buddhism]]
[[zh-yue:佛教]]
[[bat-smg:Budėzmos]]
[[zh:佛教]]

Buddha (disambiguation)

2008-09-22T11:18:02Z

202.79.62.16: /* Other Buddhas */

{{wiktionarypar|buddha|Buddha}}
{{tocright}}
'''Buddha''' (pronunciation: {{IPA|[bʊd̪.d̪ʰə]}}) ("Awakened one" in Pali, Sanskrit and Arabic) may refer to:

==Religion==
* [[Gautama Buddha]], founder of [[Buddhism]], clan name Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Gotama), personal name said to be Siddhārtha (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha), epithet Śākyamuni (Sanskrit; Pali: Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni).
*The Buddhist concept of [[Buddhahood]].
* ''[[Buddharupa]]'', a statue or other representation of a Buddha

===Other Buddhas===
Other figures considered to be Buddhas by various Buddhist groups include:
* [[Amitābha]], principal Buddha of Pure Land sect
* [[Vairocana]], embodiment of [[Dharmakaya]]
* [[http://www.boudhadharma.com]], Biggest site on Buddha
For other possible figures referred to by the term buddha see the [[list of Buddhas]]

http://www.boudhadharma.com

==Modern culture==
* [[Buddha (album)|''Buddha'' (album)]], an album by Blink-182
* [[Buddha (manga)|''Buddha'' (manga)]]
* [[Buddha (2007 film)|''Buddha'' (2007 film)]] or ''Gautama Buddha''
* [[Buddha Records]]

==Other usage==
* [[Buddha Air]], a Nepalese airline
* [[Buddha, Indiana]], a small town in the United States.

==See also==
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Buddha (other religions)]]
* [[Buddha from the Hindu perspective]]
* [[Adi-Buddha]], the primordial Buddha
* [[Budha]], the planet Venus in Buddhist mythology
* ''[[Little Buddha]]'', a film
* Budda (''[[Eremophila duttonii]]''), a plant from inland Australia

{{disambig}}
[[ca:Buda]]
[[et:Buddha]]
[[fr:Bouddha (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Boeddha]]
[[ja:ブッダ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[sv:Buddha (olika betydelser)]]

Buddha (disambiguation)

2008-09-22T11:10:30Z

202.79.62.16: /* See also */

{{wiktionarypar|buddha|Buddha}}
{{tocright}}
'''Buddha''' (pronunciation: {{IPA|[bʊd̪.d̪ʰə]}}) ("Awakened one" in Pali, Sanskrit and Arabic) may refer to:

==Religion==
* [[Gautama Buddha]], founder of [[Buddhism]], clan name Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Gotama), personal name said to be Siddhārtha (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha), epithet Śākyamuni (Sanskrit; Pali: Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni).
*The Buddhist concept of [[Buddhahood]].
* ''[[Buddharupa]]'', a statue or other representation of a Buddha

===Other Buddhas===
Other figures considered to be Buddhas by various Buddhist groups include:
* [[Amitābha]], principal Buddha of Pure Land sect
* [[Vairocana]], embodiment of [[Dharmakaya]]
* [[Dipankara]], First Buddha of the current world age.

For other possible figures referred to by the term buddha see the [[list of Buddhas]]
h* [[Log on biggest site on Buddha http://www.boudhadharma.com
<gallery>
Image:Example.jpg|Caption1
Image:Example.jpg|Caption2
</gallery>]]

<gallery>
Image:Example.jpg|Caption1
Image:Example.jpg|Caption2
</gallery>==Modern culture==
* [[Buddha (album)|''Buddha'' (album)]], an album by Blink-182
* [[Buddha (manga)|''Buddha'' (manga)]]
* [[Buddha (2007 film)|''Buddha'' (2007 film)]] or ''Gautama Buddha''
* [[Buddha Records]]

==Other usage==
* [[Buddha Air]], a Nepalese airline
* [[Buddha, Indiana]], a small town in the United States.

==See also==
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Buddha (other religions)]]
* [[Buddha from the Hindu perspective]]
* [[Adi-Buddha]], the primordial Buddha
* [[Budha]], the planet Venus in Buddhist mythology
* ''[[Little Buddha]]'', a film
* Budda (''[[Eremophila duttonii]]''), a plant from inland Australia

{{disambig}}
[[ca:Buda]]
[[et:Buddha]]
[[fr:Bouddha (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Boeddha]]
[[ja:ブッダ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[sv:Buddha (olika betydelser)]]
http://www.boudhadharma.com

Buddha (disambiguation)

2008-09-22T11:07:32Z

202.79.62.16: http://www.boudhadharma.com

{{wiktionarypar|buddha|Buddha}}
{{tocright}}
'''Buddha''' (pronunciation: {{IPA|[bʊd̪.d̪ʰə]}}) ("Awakened one" in Pali, Sanskrit and Arabic) may refer to:

==Religion==
* [[Gautama Buddha]], founder of [[Buddhism]], clan name Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Gotama), personal name said to be Siddhārtha (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha), epithet Śākyamuni (Sanskrit; Pali: Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni).
*The Buddhist concept of [[Buddhahood]].
* ''[[Buddharupa]]'', a statue or other representation of a Buddha

===Other Buddhas===
Other figures considered to be Buddhas by various Buddhist groups include:
* [[Amitābha]], principal Buddha of Pure Land sect
* [[Vairocana]], embodiment of [[Dharmakaya]]
* [[Dipankara]], First Buddha of the current world age.

For other possible figures referred to by the term buddha see the [[list of Buddhas]]
h* [[Log on biggest site on Buddha http://www.boudhadharma.com
<gallery>
Image:Example.jpg|Caption1
Image:Example.jpg|Caption2
</gallery>]]

<gallery>
Image:Example.jpg|Caption1
Image:Example.jpg|Caption2
</gallery>==Modern culture==
* [[Buddha (album)|''Buddha'' (album)]], an album by Blink-182
* [[Buddha (manga)|''Buddha'' (manga)]]
* [[Buddha (2007 film)|''Buddha'' (2007 film)]] or ''Gautama Buddha''
* [[Buddha Records]]

==Other usage==
* [[Buddha Air]], a Nepalese airline
* [[Buddha, Indiana]], a small town in the United States.

==See also==
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Buddha (other religions)]]
* [[Buddha from the Hindu perspective]]
* [[Adi-Buddha]], the primordial Buddha
* [[Budha]], the planet Venus in Buddhist mythology
* ''[[Little Buddha]]'', a film
* Budda (''[[Eremophila duttonii]]''), a plant from inland Australia

{{disambig}}
[[ca:Buda]]
[[et:Buddha]]
[[fr:Bouddha (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Boeddha]]
[[ja:ブッダ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[sv:Buddha (olika betydelser)]]

Buddha (disambiguation)

2008-09-22T11:06:22Z

202.79.62.16: http://www.boudhadharma.com

{{wiktionarypar|buddha|Buddha}}
{{tocright}}
'''Buddha''' (pronunciation: {{IPA|[bʊd̪.d̪ʰə]}}) ("Awakened one" in Pali, Sanskrit and Arabic) may refer to:

==Religion==
* [[Gautama Buddha]], founder of [[Buddhism]], clan name Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Gotama), personal name said to be Siddhārtha (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha), epithet Śākyamuni (Sanskrit; Pali: Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni).
*The Buddhist concept of [[Buddhahood]].
* ''[[Buddharupa]]'', a statue or other representation of a Buddha

===Other Buddhas===
Other figures considered to be Buddhas by various Buddhist groups include:
* [[Amitābha]], principal Buddha of Pure Land sect
* [[Vairocana]], embodiment of [[Dharmakaya]]
* [[Dipankara]], First Buddha of the current world age.

For other possible figures referred to by the term buddha see the [[list of Buddhas]]
h* [[Log on biggest site on Buddha http://www.boudhadharma.com
<gallery>
Image:Example.jpg|Caption1
Image:Example.jpg|Caption2
</gallery>]]

==Modern culture==
* [[Buddha (album)|''Buddha'' (album)]], an album by Blink-182
* [[Buddha (manga)|''Buddha'' (manga)]]
* [[Buddha (2007 film)|''Buddha'' (2007 film)]] or ''Gautama Buddha''
* [[Buddha Records]]

==Other usage==
* [[Buddha Air]], a Nepalese airline
* [[Buddha, Indiana]], a small town in the United States.

==See also==
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Buddha (other religions)]]
* [[Buddha from the Hindu perspective]]
* [[Adi-Buddha]], the primordial Buddha
* [[Budha]], the planet Venus in Buddhist mythology
* ''[[Little Buddha]]'', a film
* Budda (''[[Eremophila duttonii]]''), a plant from inland Australia

{{disambig}}
[[ca:Buda]]
[[et:Buddha]]
[[fr:Bouddha (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Boeddha]]
[[ja:ブッダ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[sv:Buddha (olika betydelser)]]

Tamang people

2008-09-22T10:48:46Z

202.79.62.16: /* External links */

[[Image:9183253 d6cc44f859 o.jpg|250px|right|thumb|A mountainside village inhabited by Tamang]]
[[Image:Nepal_ethnic_groups.png|250px|right|thumb|Selected ethnic groups of Nepal;
 [[Bhutia|Bhotia]], [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]], [[Thakali]]
 [[Gurung]]
 [[Kirant|Kiranti]], [[Rai_%28ethnic_group%29|Rai]], [[Limbu people|Limbu]]
 [[Newar|Newari]]
 [[Pahari]]
 [[Tamang]]]]

The '''Tamang''' (also known as Murmi) are one of the several ethnic groups living in [[Nepal]] descended from Tibeto-Burman origins. Living mainly north and east of the country, they constitute 5.6% of [[Nepal]]'s population, which places their population at 1,280,000, slightly higher than the [[Newar]]s.Their language, also called Tamang is related to both [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] and [[Sharpa (people)|Sherpa]] languages.

The name Tamang,normaly it is Tamag in[[Tibetan language|Tibetan]], means horse warriors, Tamags were border police sent by king Trisong of Tibet around 755.Many of them are still practicing [[Bön]] religion,which was religion befor buddhism was introduced in Tibet,They are also good mountaineers and trekking guides.Many of Tamang are also recruited to serve in Indian and British Gurkha regiments since British raj.

The Tamangs are followers of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] mixed with elements of the pre-Buddhist [[Bön]] and the Tambaist religion. Due to their proximity to the [[Newar]], a slight [[Hindu]] influence can be seen in their practises. Their priests include Lama, Bombo and Tamba. According to the 2001 census, 98.26% of the ethnic Tamang in Nepal were Boudhists and 2.69% were Hindus.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The typical song and dance of the Tamangs is "tamang selo" in which they dance to the beat of a drum called "damphu." Damphu is the traditional drum of the Tamangs.

Many Tamang clans do not permit intermarriage with other ethnic groups, although some clans do permit intermarriages with the [[Gurung]], [[Magar]], [[Newar]], and [[Sherpas]]. Their descent is traced [[patrilineal]]ly.

== See also ==
* [[Tamang language]]
* [[Prashant Tamang]]

The meaning of Tamang is Ta meaning horse and Mang meaning soldier in Tibetan i.e. solders on horse back.

== References ==

* [http://www.k2news.com/lesson10.htm Lesson 10: The Newars and the Tamang]

With reference to the meaning of Tamang it is Ta meaning horse and Mang meaning soldiers so the correct meaning of Tamang would be soldiers on horse backs.

http://www.tamangsamaj.com

http://www.tamangs.com

http://www.tamang.com

== External links ==
* [http://www.tamangsamaj.com Tamang Samaj, Biggest Tamang Portal around the World. Get All Information about Tamang from these site. ]
* [http://www.tamangs.com/aitba.htm All India Tamang Buddhist Association]
* [http://www.tamang.com General Profile about the Tamangs]
*[http://www.ambedkar.org]
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Buddhism

2008-09-22T10:41:40Z

202.79.62.16: /* Gautama Buddha */

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{{Buddhism}}
'''Buddhism''' is a family of beliefs and practices that has distribution throughout the world. While it is usually considered a religion,<ref>These refer to it as a "religion:" ''Chambers Dictionary'', 2006; ''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'', 2003; ''New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions'', px998; ''Dewey Decimal System of Book Classification''; Robinson & Johnson, ''The Buddhist Religion''</ref> some scholars have defined religion in ways that exclude it.<ref>Excluding it as a "religion" by definition: ''Numen'', vol 49, p 388; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', vol III, p 403; ''Numen'', vol 49, p 389; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', Routledge, 2005, vol III, p 403</ref> Depending on the source, the number of Buddhists in the world ranges from 230 to 500 million or more, <ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Buddhism Major Religions Ranked by Size]</ref><ref>U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2004. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/ Accessed 20 September 2008.</ref><ref>Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.</ref><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/xx.html#People CIA - The World Factbook</ref> mostly in Asia.

Buddhism is based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]], sometimes known simply as "The Buddha", who lived in or around the fifth century BCE in the northeastern region of [[ancient India]]. Buddhists recognize him as an awakened teacher who shared his insights to help [[Sentient being (Buddhism)|sentient beings]] end their [[dukkha|suffering]] by understanding the true nature of phenomena; thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth ([[Saṃsāra]]). Among the methods various schools of Buddhism apply towards this goal are: ethical conduct, cultivation of wisdom, [[meditation]], study, understanding, altruistic behaviour, [[Nekkhamma|renunciation of worldly matters]], devotional practices and the invocation of holy beings that help them achieving [[Nirvana]]. A Buddhist is one who takes refuge in [[The Three Jewels]]; ''[[Buddha]]'' (Awakened One), ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]'' (Teaching of the Buddha) and ''[[Sangha]]'' (Community of Buddhists).

Buddhism has spread through these main branches:
* [[Theravada]], which extended south and east from its origins and now has a widespread following in [[Southeast Asia]].
* [[Mahayana]] (the parent branch to many other schools, including [[Vajrayana]]), which diffused from its origins west, north and east throughout [[East Asia]].
Both branches then spread further into [[Buddhism_in_Europe|Europe]] and to the [[Buddhism in the Americas|America]]s.

Buddhist schools disagree over what are and are not the teachings of Gautama Buddha. There are scholars who claim that Buddhism doesn't have a clearly definable common core.<ref>Robinson et al, ''Buddhist Religions'', page xx; ''Philosophy East and West'', vol 54, ps 269f; Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1st edn, 1989, ps 275f/2nd edn, 2008, p 266</ref> Certain key texts, known as ''[[nikayas]]'' or ''[[agamas]]'', are preserved by both Theravada and Mahayana and some of them by Tibetan Buddhism. These texts are central in the Theravada, but are rarely explicitly used in the Mahayana. The primary Mahayana scriptures are the [[Mahayana sutras]]; some schools also use [[Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)|tantras]]. Mahayana texts are irrelevant to or incompatible with Theravadin thought.

==Gautama Buddha==

{{main|Gautama Buddha}}
'''Scholars are increasingly reluctant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of Gautama Buddha's life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lopez | title= ''Buddhism in Practice''| publisher=Princeton University Press| year= 1995 |pages= 16 }}</ref><ref>For instance, Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a ''rājan''—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (''Theravada Buddhism'', p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, ''The Life of the Buddha'', ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources.</ref> There are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, though according to Michael Carrithers, the outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.<ref>Michael Carrithers, ''The Buddha,'' in the Oxford University paperback ''Founders of Faith,'' 1986, page 10.</ref> According to the Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism''<ref>(Volume One), page 352</ref> historians accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but cannot easily accept most details in his biographies.

The following information about his life comes from the Tipitaka (other [[Buddhist texts|scriptures]]{{which}} give differing accounts). Siddhartha [[Gautama Buddha|Gautama]], the founder of Buddhism, was born in the city of [[Lumbini]] and was raised in [[Kapilavastu]].<ref>[[UNESCO]] webpage entitled [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/666 "Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha"]. Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 19, which states that in the mid-third century BCE the Emperor [[Ashoka]] determined that Lumbini was the Buddha's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "... this is where the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas, was born."</ref><ref> For instance, Gethin ''Foundations,'' p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a ''rājan''—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (''Theravada Buddhism'', p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, ''The Life of the Buddha'', ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources</ref> Moments after birth, according to the scriptures, he performed his first [[miracle]]. He took a few steps and proclaimed "this is my last birth,
never shall I be reborn". The scriptures mention that he performed [[Miracles of Gautama Buddha|several other miracles]] after achieving Nirvana.

Shortly thereafter, a wise man visited his father, King [[Śuddhodana]]. The wise man said that Siddhartha would either become a great king (''[[chakravartin]]'') or a holy man (''[[Sadhu]]'') based on whether he saw life outside of the palace walls. Determined to make Siddhartha a king, Śuddhodana shielded his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life. Years after this, Gautama married Yasodhara, his first cousin, with whom he had a son, Rahula, who later became a Buddhist monk.

At the age of 29, Siddhartha ventured outside the palace complex several times despite his father's wishes. As a result he discovered the suffering of his people, through encounters with an old man, a [[disease]]d man, a decaying [[corpse]] and an [[ascetic]]. These are known among Buddhists as "The Four Sights",<ref>http://buddhism.about.com/library/blbudlifesights2.htm The Life of the Buddha: The Four Sights ''"On the first visit he encountered an old man. On the next excursion he encountered a sick man. On his third excursion, he encountered a corpse being carried to cremation. Such sights sent home to him the prevalence of suffering in the world and that he too was subject to old age, sickness and death. On his fourth excursion, however, he encountered a holy man or sadhu, apparently content and at peace with the world."''</ref> one of the first contemplations of Siddharta. The Four Sights eventually prompted Gautama to abandon royal life to take up his spiritual quest to become free from suffering by living the life of a [[mendicant]] [[ascetism|ascetic]], a highly respected spiritual practice at the time in ancient India. He found companions with similar spiritual goals and teachers who taught him various forms of meditation, including [[Jhāna in Theravada|jhāna]].

Ascetics practised many forms of self denial, including severe undereating. One day, after almost starving to death, Gautama accepted a little milk and rice from a village girl named Sujata.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} After this experience, he concluded that ascetic practices, such as fasting, holding one's breath, and exposure to pain, brought little spiritual benefit. He viewed them as counterproductive due to their reliance on self hatred and mortification.<ref>http://www.wildmind.org/mantras/figures/shakyamuni/5 Wild mind Buddhist Meditation, ''The Buddha’s biography: Spiritual Quest and Awakening''</ref> He abandoned asceticism, concentrating instead on ''[[anapanasati]]'' [[meditation]] (awareness of breathing), thus discovering what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]], a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

After discovering the Middle Way, he sat under a [[Sacred fig]] (''Ficus religiosa''),<ref>see: [http://www.angelfire.com/electronic/bodhidharma/bodhi_tree.html The Bodhi Tree]</ref> also known as the Bodhi tree,<ref>[http://www.buddhamind.info/leftside/arty/bod-leaf.htm Bodhi leaf]</ref> in the town of [[Bodh Gaya]] and vowed not to rise before achieving [[Nirvana]]. At age 35, after many days of meditation, he attained his goal of becoming a [[Buddha]]. He spent the rest of his life teaching the ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''.<ref>Skilton, ''Concise'', p. 25</ref> He died at age 80 in [[Kushinagara]], India. <ref>"the reputed place of the Buddha's death and cremation,"[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-312979/Kasia Encyclopedia Britannica, Kusinagara]</ref>

http://www.boudhadharma.com

== Buddhist Concepts ==

{{main|Buddhist terms and concepts}}

===Karma: Cause and Effect===
{{main|Karma in Buddhism}}
In Buddhism, ''Karma'' (from [[Sanskrit]]: action, work<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit] dictionary, using कर्मन् as input</ref>) is used specifically for those actions which spring from mental intent (in Pāli: ''cetana''),<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Budhism'', page 40</ref> which brings about ''[[phala]]'' (from Sanskrit: fruit or consequence<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de sanskrit-english dictionary] with फल as input</ref>) or ''[[vipāka]]'' (from Pāli: result). Karma can be either negative or positive; with its respective negative or positive ''vipāka''.

Karma is the energy which drives ''Saṃsāra'', the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. ''Kusala'' (skillful) and ''akusala'' (unskillful) actions produce "seeds" in the mind which come to [[Vipaka|fruition]] either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.<ref>T.P. Kasulis of Ohio State University, ''Zen as a Social Ethics of Responsiveness." Journal of Buddhist Ethics: [http://www.buddhistethics.org/13/zse1-kasulis.pdf].</ref> The content of unwholesome actions and the lower types of wholesome actions belongs to the subject of ''[[Śīla]]'' (from Sanskrit: ethical conduct).

The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].{{Fact|date=September 2008}} In Theravada Buddhism there is no divine salvation or forgiveness from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. In contrast, in some Mahayana ''sutras'' it is taught that powerful ''sutras'' (such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]]) can wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma by being heard or recited. According to the Japanese [[Pure Land]] teacher [[Genshin]], the [[Amida Buddha|Buddha Amitabha]] has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in ''samsara''.<ref>Lopez, ''Story of Buddhism'', page 239/''Buddhism'', page 248</ref>

===Rebirth===
{{main|Rebirth (Buddhism)}}
Rebirth means to be born again in one of many possible types of life, which where later formally classified as the Five or [[Six Realms]]:<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 34</ref>

#[[Naraka (Buddhism)|Naraka beings]]: those who live in one of many ''Narakas'' (Hells).
#[[Animals in Buddhism|Animals]]: sharing some space with humans, but considered another type of life.
#[[Preta]]: Sometimes sharing some space with humans, but invisible without the ''[[Tathagata]]'' eye; is important variety are the hungry ghosts.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 33</ref>
#[[Human beings in Buddhism|Human beings]]: one of the types of realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible.
#[[Asura (Buddhism)|Asuras]]: variously translated as lowly deities, demons, titans, antigods; not recognized by Theravada (Mahavihara) tradition as a separate realm: "There are only five destinies ... the kalakanjika asuras have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the petas, with whom ... they marry. As for the Vepacittiparisa, they have the same colour, same nourishment, same foods, same lifespan as the gods, with whom they marry."
#[[Deva (Buddhism)|Devas]] including [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahmas]]: variously translated as gods, deities, spirits, angels, or left untranslated.

Theravada has some definite doctrines relating to rebirths in the higher heavens. These can be attained only by the practice of ''[[samatha]]'' meditation to sustained ''jhana'' levels. Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the [[Buddhist_cosmology#.C5.9Auddh.C4.81v.C4.81sa_worlds|Śuddhāvāsa Worlds]] (Pure Abodes), can be attained only by ''[[anāgāmi]]s'' (non-returners). Rebirths in the ''[[Buddhist_cosmology#.C4.80r.C5.ABpyadh.C4.81tu|arupa-dhatu]]'' can be attained only by meditators that attain the ''arupa-jhānas''.

===The Four Noble Truths===

{{main|The Four Noble Truths}}
According to the [[Pali Tipitaka]], the Four Noble Truths were the first teaching of [[Gautama Buddha]] after attaining Nirvana.<ref>{{cite book|chapter =Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta |title= The Book of Protection | author = Thera, Piyadassi |chapterurl=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.piya.html|year = 1999 | publisher= Buddhist Publication Society}} In what is said in Theravada to be the Buddha's first sermon, the [[Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta]], which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. He talks about the Middle Way, the noble eightfold path and the Four Noble Truths.</ref> They are sometimes considered as containing the essence of the teachings of the Buddha and are presented in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at that time:

According to ''one'' interpretation, they state that:
#Life as we know it ultimately is or leads to "suffering" in one way or the other.
#The cause of this "suffering" is attachment to, or craving for worldly pleasures of all kinds and clinging to this very existence, our "self" and the things or people we - due to our delusions - deem the cause of our respective happiness or unhappiness.
#The "suffering" ends when the craving ends, or one is freed from all desires by eliminating the delusions, reaches "Enlightenment";
#The way to reach that liberated state is by following the [[The Noble Eightfold Path|path]] the Buddha has laid out.

This interpretation is followed closely by many modern Theravadins,{{Fact|date=September 2008}} described by early westerns scholars and taught as an introduction to Buddhism by some contemporary Mahayana teachers like the [[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]].<ref>See for example: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html ''The Four Noble Truths''</ref>

According to other interpretations by Buddhist teachers and scholars and lately recognized by some western scholars as well<ref>Gethin, ''Foundations'', page 60</ref> the "truths" do not represent mere statements, but divisions or aspects of most phenomena, which falls into one of these four categories:
#Suffering and causes of suffering
#Cessation and the path towards liberation of suffering.

Thus, according to the Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism''<ref>(2004), Volume One, page 296</ref> they are
# "the noble truth that is suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the arising of suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the end of suffering"
# "the noble truth that is the way leading to the end of suffering"

The early teaching<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', p. 47</ref>, and the traditional understanding in the Theravada,<ref name=penguin>{{cite book| title = The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions |author = Hinnels, John R. | publisher = Penguin Books | location = London | year = 1998 | isbn = 0140514805}},pages 393f</ref> is that the four noble truths are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and more expansive Mahayana teachings.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', p. 92</ref> They are little known in the Far East.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Budhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 60</ref>

====The Noble Eightfold Path====
{{main|Noble Eightfold Path}}
[[Image:Dharma Wheel.svg|thumb|The [[Dharmacakra]] represents the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].]]
The Noble Eightfold Path, the fourth of the Buddha's [[Four Noble Truths|Noble Truth]]s, is the way to the cessation of suffering ([[dukkha]]). In the early sources (the four main ''[[Nikaya]]s'') it is not generally taught to laypeople, and it is little known in the Far East.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Buddhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, pages 59f</ref> It has eight sections, each starting with ''samyak'' (Sanskrit, meaning correctly, properly or well,<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de with सम्यक् as input]</ref> frequently translated into English as ''right''), and presented in three groups:

*''[[Prajñā]]'' is the wisdom that purifies the mind to attain spiritual insight into the true nature of all things. It includes:
<ol start="1">
<li>{{unicode|dṛṣṭi}}; viewing<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with दृष्टि as input</ref> reality as it is, not just as it appears to be.</li>
<li>{{unicode|saṃkalpa}}; intention<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with संकल्प as input</ref> of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness.</li>
</ol>
*''[[Sila|Śīla]]'' is the ethics or morality, or abstention from unwholesome deeds. It includes:
<ol start="3">
<li>{{unicode|vāc}}; speaking<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with वाच् as input</ref> in a truthful and non hurtful way</li>
<li>{{unicode|karman}}; acting<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with कर्मन् as input</ref> in a non harmful way</li>
<li>{{unicode|ājīvana}}; a non harmful livelihood<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with आजीवन as input</ref></li>
</ol>
*''[[Samadhi]]'' is the mental discipline required to develop mastery over one’s own mind. This is done through the practice of various contemplative and meditative practices, and includes:
<ol start="6">
<li>{{unicode|vyāyāma}}; making an effort<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with व्यायाम as input</ref> to improve</li>
<li>{{unicode|smṛti}}; awareness<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with स्मृति as input</ref> to see things for what they are with clear consciousness, being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion</li>
<li>{{unicode|samādhi}}; correct meditation or concentration<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit dictionary] with समाधि as input</ref> explained as the first 4 ''[[dhyāna]]s''</li>
</ol>

The practice of the Eightfold Path is understood in one of two ways. It either requires simultaneous development—all eight items are practiced in parallel, or it is conceived as a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another.

====Middle Way====
{{main|Middle Way}}
An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] which was said to have been discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment (''[[bodhi]]''). The ''Middle Way'' or ''Middle Path'' has several definitions:
# It is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification.
# It also refers to taking a middle ground between certain [[metaphysical]] views, e.g. that things ultimately either exist or do not exist.<ref>Kohn, ''Shambhala'', pp. 131, 143</ref>
# An explanation of the state of [[nirvana]] and perfect enlightenment where all dualities fuse and cease to exist as separate entities (see [[Seongcheol]]).
# Another term for [[emptiness]], the ultimate nature of all phenomena, lack of inherent existence, which avoids the extremes of permanence and nihilism or inherent existence and nothingness.

===Reality in Buddhism===

{{main|Reality in Buddhism}}
According to the [[Pali Canon|scriptures]], in his lifetime, the Buddha refused to answer several [[metaphysical]] questions. On issues such as whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha had remained silent. One explanation for this is that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[bodhi|enlightenment]].<ref>[[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 72 [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.072.than.html (Thanissaro, 1997)]. For further discussion of the context in which these statements was made, see [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn44/sn44.intro.than.html Thanissaro (2004)].</ref> Another is that such questions in their very formulations assume that there is world or self that are permanent; the Buddha stated that to either affirm or deny such statements would be detrimental.<ref>Thanissaro Bhikkhu, ''The Not-Self Strategy.'' See Point 3, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/notself.html]. The Canon quote Thanissaro Bhikkhu draws attention to is the Sabbasava Sutta, [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.002.than.html#ayoniso].</ref>

The Buddha is said not to have given lengthy descriptions of "ultimate reality." According to Karel Werner, <blockquote>Experience is ... the path most elaborated in early Buddhism. The doctrine on the other hand was kept low. The Buddha avoided doctrinal formulations concerning the final reality as much as possible in order to prevent his followers from resting content with minor achievements on the path in which the absence of the final experience could be substituted by conceptual understanding of the doctrine or by religious faith, a situation which sometimes occurs, in both varieties, in the context of Hindu systems of doctrine.<ref>Karel Werner, ''Mysticism and Indian Spirituality.'' In Karel Werner, ed., ''The Yogi and the Mystic.'' Curzon Press, 1989, page 27.</ref></blockquote>

The Mahayana developed those statements he is said to have made into an extensive, diverse set of sometimes contrasting descriptions of reality "as it really is."<ref>See [www.lulu.com/items/volume_63/2864000/2864713/1/print/Microsoft_Word_-_Ron_Henshall__Dissertation__2007.pdf], a master's thesis by a student of Peter Harvey.</ref>

In the Pali Canon and numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha is potrayed stessing that Dharma (Truth) cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: Reality transcends all worldly concepts. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation and confidence in the sutras{{Fact|date=September 2008}}, which are as fingers pointing to the Truth, not the Truth itself. Then to let go of rationalizations and to experience direct Liberation itself.

In the Mahayana [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], the Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the [[Bodhi]] nature. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]], a scripture of the [[Nyingma]] school of Tibetan Buddhism) also emphasises how Buddhist Truth lies beyond the range of discursive/verbal thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ...."<ref>''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111–112.</ref> Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]].

Most Buddhists agree that, to a greater or lesser extent, words are inadequate to describe the goal; schools differ radically on the usefulness of words in the path to that goal.<ref>''Philosophy East and West'', volume Twenty-Six, page 138</ref>

Buddhist scholars have produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some people at some stages.

Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic concept of truth:<ref>Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1989, page 2</ref> doctrines are "true" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial. In modern Chinese Buddhism, all doctrinal traditions are regarded as equally valid.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 395</ref>

Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. Some of the writings attributed to him made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the agamas. Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be [[shunyata|śūnya]] (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] (no-self) and [[pratitya-samutpada|pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the [[Madhyamaka]]. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Madhyamaka system.<ref>Christian Lindtner, ''Master of Wisdom.'' Dharma Publishing 1997, page 324.</ref>

Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna, was reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|{{IAST|Asaṅga}}]] and were adapted into the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.

In the Mahayana school, emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness ([[shunyata]]), perfected spiritual insight ([[prajnaparamita]]) and [[Buddha-nature]] (the deathless [[tathagatagarbha]], or Buddhic Essence, inherent in all beings and creatures). in the tathagatagarbha sutras the Buddha is portrayed proclaiming that the teaching of the tathagatagarbha constitutes the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma—the highest presentation of Truth (other sūtras make similar statements about other teachings). This has traditionally been regarded as the highest teaching in East Asian Buddhism. However, in modern China all doctrines are regarded as equally valid.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 395</ref> The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist [[panentheism]] ([[God in Buddhism]]).

Theravāda promotes the concept of [[Vibhajjavada]] ([[Pāli|Pali]]), literally "Teaching of Analysis". This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith.

====The Cycle of Samsara====
{{main|Pratītyasamutpāda}}
Human beings crave pleasure and satisfaction of the six senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking) from birth to death. After another rebirth they do the same, and continue repeating this cycle ([[Samsara]]). Humans always expect pleasure and do not like to feel pain. This cycle of suffering is explained in twelve links of [[dependent origination]], each conditioning the next:

#Avidyā: ignorance, specifically spiritual<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 56</ref>
#Saṃskāras: literally formations, explained as referring to [[Karma]].
#Vijñāna: consciousness, specifically discriminative<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 57</ref>
#Nāmarūpa: literally name and form, referring to mind and body<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 58</ref>
#Ṣaḍāyatana: the six sense bases: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind-organ
#Sparśa: variously translated contact, impression, stimulation
#Vedanā: usually translated feeling: this is the "hedonic tone", i.e. whether something is pleasant, unpleasant or neutral
#Tṛṣṇā: literally thirst, but nearly always in Buddhism used to mean craving
#Upādāna: clinging or grasping; the word also means fuel, which feeds the continuing cycle of rebirth
#Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. (The Theravada explains this as having two meanings: karma, which produces a new existence, and the existence itself.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 59</ref>)
#Jāti: literally birth, but life is understood as starting at conception<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 60</ref>
#Jarāmaraṇa (old age and death) and also śokaparidevaduḥkhadaurmanasyopāyāsa (sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness and misery)

Human beings always suffer throughout ''samsara'', until they become free from this suffering when attaining ''[[Nirvana]]''. Then the absence of ignorance leads to the absence of the others as above.

===Nirvana===
{{main|Nirvana}}
Nirvana (Sanskrit: निर्वन, Pali "Nibbana") means "cessation", "extinction" (of suffering) or ([[tṛṣṇā]]) "extinguished", "quited", "calmed"<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit] dictionary with निर्वन as input</ref>; it's also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. Also, Buddhists believe that anybody who has achieved nirvana (also known as ''bodhi'') is in fact a Buddha.

Mahayana Buddhism generally regards as its most important teaching the path of the [[bodhisattva]]. This already existed as a possibility in earlier Buddhism, as it still does in Theravada today, but the Mahayana gave it an increasing emphasis, eventually saying everyone should follow it.

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see ''[[Dharmakaya]]'') beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the [[eternal Buddha]] himself.

[[Image:StandingBuddha.jpg|thumb|[[Gautama Buddha]], ancient region
of [[Gandhara]], northern [[Pakistan]], 1st century CE, [[Musée Guimet, Paris]].]]

''[[Bodhi]]'' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]], in devanagari: बॊधि) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of [[arahants]]. Bodhi literally means "awakening", but is more commonly referred to as "enlightenment". In [[Early Buddhism]] Bodhi carries a meaning synonymous to [[Nirvana]], using only some different similes to describe the experience, which implied the extinction of ''raga'' (greed),<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:489.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref> ''dosa'' (hate)<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2598.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref> and ''moha'' (delusion).<ref>http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:229.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary</ref>

===Buddhas===
{{main|Buddhahood}}

====Theravada====

A person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of [[Reality in Buddhism|reality]]; such people are called [[arahant]]s. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving they have also reached the end of the compulsive cycle of rebirths, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being.

These people, also occasionally referred to as buddhas, are classified into three types.
* [[Buddhahood|Sammasambuddha]], usually just called Buddha, who discovers the truth by himself and teaches the path to awakening to others
* [[Pratyekabuddha|Paccekabuddha]], who discovers the truth by himself but lacks the skill to teach others
* [[Sāvakabuddha]], who has followed the teaching of a Buddha, and may use it to guide others (see also: [[Arhat]])

Bodhi and Nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate and delusion. The Arahant, according to Theravada doctrine, has thus overcome greed, hatred, ''and'' delusion, attaining Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, the extinction of only greed (in relation to the sense sphere) and hatred, while a residue of delusion remains, is called [[Anagami]].

====Mahayana====

Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence, but who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings.

Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher attainment that eradicate delusion entirely.<ref>''An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (= passion and hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment.’’ How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 67</ref> Thus, the [[Arahant]] attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the [[Buddhahood|Buddha]] attains Bodhi.



The method of self-exertion or "self-power" - without reliance on an external force or being - stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, "Pure Land", which is characterised by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amida Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in [[Amitabha]] Buddha and/or the chanting of homage to his name will provide the spiritual energy that will liberate one at death into the "happy land" (''sukhavati'') or "pure land" of Amitabha (called Amida in Japanese) Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only people will have faith in the power of that limitless great Vow, or will utter the liberational chant of Amida's name.

Nearly all Chinese Buddhists accept that the chances of attaining sufficient enlightenment by one's own efforts are very slim, so that Pure Land practice is essential as an "insurance policy" even if one practises something else.<ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page 611</ref>

====Buddha Eras====
Buddhists believe the Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism. A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest ''known'' Buddha. This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge, evidence and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of human existence.<ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bullitt/bfaq.html#maitreya ''Access to Insight'', a Theravada Buddhist website, discusses Buddha Eras]</ref><ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.26.0.than.html Gautama Buddha discusses tne Maitreya Buddha in the Tipitaka]</ref> The Gautama Buddha, then, is ''the Buddha of this era'', who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas).

In addition, Mahayana believes there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes,<ref>Kogen Mizuno, ''Essentials of Buddhism'', Shunju-sha, 1972, English translation, Kosei, Tokyo, 1996, page 57</ref> but Theravada denies this.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}

The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in East Asian Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few if any are capable of following the path, so most or all must rely on the power of the Buddha Amitabha. Zen and Nichiren traditionally hold that few if any can follow the "complicated" path of some other schools, and present a "simple" practice instead.

===Bodhisattvas===

Mahayana encourages everyone to follow a bodhisattva path, while Theravada regards it as an option. Theravada and some Mahayana sources consider a bodhisattva as someone on the path to Buddhahood, while other Mahayana sources speak of bodhisattvas renouncing Buddhahood.<ref>Cook, ''Hua-yen Buddhism'', Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977, pages 110f; Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume One), page 351</ref> The Mahayana summarizes bodhisattva practice in six perfections: giving,morality, patience, energy, concentration and wisdom.

==Practice==

===Devotion===

{{main|Buddhist devotion}}

Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists.<ref>Harvey, page 170</ref> Devotional practices include bowing, offerings, pilgrimage, chanting. In Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha Amitabha is the main practice. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice.

====Refuge in the Three Jewels====

[[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]] with [[Dharmachakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]]
{{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}}

Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three Jewels ([[Sanskrit]]: ''tri-ratna'', [[Pāli]]: ''ti-ratana'')<ref>{{cite web
|title=Refuge
|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi
|author= Bhikku, Thanissaro
|year=2001
|work=An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha
|publisher=Access to Insight}}</ref> as the foundation of one's religious practice. The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned<ref>''Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha'', tr Nanamoli, rev Bodhi, Wisdom Pubns, 1995, pages 708f</ref> in the [[Majjhima Nikaya]], recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf [[Infant baptism]]). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the ''[[lama]]''. In Mahayana, the person who chooses the ''[[bodhisattva]]'' path makes a vow/pledge; which is considered the ultimate expression of compassion.

The "Three Jewels" are:
* The [[Buddha]]. This is a title for those who attained Nirvana. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha]]. The Buddha could also be represented as a concept instead of a specific person: the perfect wisdom that understands Dharma and sees reality in its true form.
* The ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''. The teachings or law of nature as expounded by the Gautama Buddha. It can also, especially in Mahayana, connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
* The ''[[Sangha]]''; the "community" of Buddhists or "congregation" of monks and nuns.

According to the scriptures, [[Gautama Buddha]] presented himself as a model, however, he did not ask his followers simply to have faith (Sanskrit: ''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]'', Pāli: ''saddhā'') in the Dharma but a personal realization of [[Bodhi]]. In addition, he encouraged them to put his teachings to the test and accept what they could verify on their own, provided that this was also "praised by the wise" (see [[Kalama Sutta]]). The Dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. The ''{{unicode|Saṅgha}}'' (Buddhist Order of monks) is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

===Buddhist Ethics===
{{main|The Five Precepts}}
''[[Sila|Śīla]]'' (Sanskrit) or ''sīla'' (Pāli) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' (''sila'', ''samadhi'', and ''panya'') and the second ''[[Paramita|pāramitā]]''. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of ''śīla'' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment.

''Śīla'' is the foundation of ''Samadhi/Bhāvana'' (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internal, but also peace in the community, which is external. According to the Law of Karma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.

''Śīla'' refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. There are several levels of ''sila'', which correspond to 'basic morality' ([[five precepts]]), 'basic morality with asceticism' ([[eight precepts]]), 'novice monkhood' ([[ten precepts]]) and 'monkhood' (''[[Vinaya]]'' or ''[[Patimokkha]]''). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the [[eight precepts]], which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.

The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.
:1. To refrain from taking life. (non-violence towards [[Sentience|sentient]] life forms)
:2. To refrain from taking that which is not given. (not committing [[theft]])
:3. To refrain from sensual (sexual) misconduct.
:4. To refrain from lying. (speaking truth always)
:5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of [[mindfulness]]. (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)

In the [[eight precepts]], the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of [[celibacy]]. The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:
:6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time. (only eat from sunrise to noon)
:7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelry, going to shows, etc.
:8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

===Monastic life===

[[Vinaya]] is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the [[Patimokkha]], a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the [[vinayapitaka]] (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. [[Samanera|Novice-monks]] use the [[ten precepts]], which are the basic precepts for monastics.

In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and [[vegetarianism]] is actively encouraged (see ''[[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]''). In Japan, this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.

===Samādhi: Meditation===
{{main|Buddhist meditation}}

Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind and using it to explore itself and other phenomena.<ref>B. Alan Wallace, ''Contemplative Science.'' Columbia University Press, 2007, page 81.</ref> In Theravada there are two basic types of meditation, combined in various ways: samatha and vipassana, developing samadhi and panna (prajna) respectively. Similar practices exist in Mahayana alongside others that those traditions do not generally classify that way.

====Samādhi/Bhāvanā (Meditative cultivation)====
{{main|Samadhi|Dhyāna}}

In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, ''samyaksamādhi'' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating ''samādhi'' is meditation. According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation, [[Samatha meditation|''samatha'' meditation]] (Sanskrit: ''śamatha'') and [[vipassana|''vipassanā'' meditation]] (Sanskrit: ''vipaśyanā''). In Chinese Buddhism, these exist (translated ''chih kuan''), but Chan (Zen) meditation is more popular.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism'', Harvard, 1967, page 396</ref> Throughout most of Buddhist history before modern times, serious meditation by lay people has been unusual.<ref>Routledge ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', 2007, page 502</ref> Upon development of ''samādhi'', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.

Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]'', Sanskrit ध्यान ''dhyāna''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

[[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (''jhāna'') There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath ([[anapanasati]]), because this practice can lead to both ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'.

In Buddhist practice, it is said that while ''samatha'' meditation can calm the mind, only ''vipassanā'' meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to ''[[jnana|jñāna]]'' (Pāli ''{{IAST|ñāṇa}}'' knowledge), ''[[prajñā]]'' (Pāli ''paññā'' pure understanding) and thus can lead to ''nirvāṇa'' (Pāli ''nibbāna''). When one is in jhana, all defilements are suppressed temporarily. Only ''prajñā'' or ''vipassana'' eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also resting states which ''arahants'' abide in order to rest.
=====In Theravāda=====
{{main|Jhāna in Theravada}}
In Theravāda Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as the craving, which carries with it the various defilements. These various defilements are traditionally summed up as greed, hatred and delusion. These are believed to be parasites that have infested the mind and create suffering and stress. In order to be free from suffering and stress, these defilements need to be permanently uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing, experiencing, and understanding of the true nature of those defilements by using ''jhāna'', a technique which is part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It will then lead the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and ''[[Nirvana|Nibbana]]''. Nibbana is the ultimate goal of Theravadins.

====Prajñā (Wisdom)====
{{main|Prajñā|Vipassana}}

''Prajñā'' (Sanskrit) or ''paññā'' (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], The Four Noble Truths and the [[three marks of existence]]. ''Prajñā'' is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about ''bodhi''. It is spoken of as the principal means of attaining ''{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}'', through its revelation of the true nature of all things as ''[[dukkha]]'' (unsatisfactory), ''[[anicca]]'' (impermanence) and ''[[anatta]]'' (devoid of self). ''Prajñā'' is also listed as the sixth of the six ''[[Paramita|pāramitās]]'' of the Mahayana.

Initially, ''prajñā'' is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.

====Zen ====
{{Main|Zen}}

''Ch'an'' (Chinese) or Zen (Japanese) Buddhism (derived from the Sanskrit term, ''dhyana'' - "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation.<ref>According to Charles S. Prebish (in his ''Historical Dictionary of Buddhism'', Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, 1993, p. 287): "Although a variety of Zen 'schools' developed in Japan, they all emphasize Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts, that provides the potential for direct realization, that the realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature possessed by each sentient being ...".</ref> Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth.

Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai and Soto, the former greatly favouring the use in meditation on the [[koan]] (meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focusing more on ''shikantaza'' or "just sitting".<ref>Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): "It presumes that ''sitting in meditation itself'' (i.e. ''zazen'') is an expression of Buddha nature." The method is to detach the mind from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar Stephen Hodge writes (''Zen Masterclass'', Godsfield Press, 2002, pp. 12–13): "... practitioners of Zen believe that Enlightenment, the awakening of the Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature, is our natural state, but has been covered over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts. According to this view, Enlightenment is not something that we must acquire a bit at a time, but a state that can occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of mental and emotional obscurations."</ref>

Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha himself.<ref>(''Critical Sermons on the Zen Tradition'', Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2002, ''passim'') Commenting on Rinzai Zen and its Chinese founder, Linji, Hisamatsu states: "Linji indicates our true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and 'True Self'. It is independent of words or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching. Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures. It is just our direct awakening to Self ..." (Hisamatsu, op. cit., p. 46).</ref> Nevertheless, Zen does not neglect the scriptures.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', pages 165f</ref>

====Tantra====

Though based upon Mahāyāna, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is one of the schools that practice ''[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]'' or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism, or [[esotericism|esoteric]] Buddhism). It accepts all the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative practices.<ref>Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1st ed, 1989, page 185</ref> One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years.

==History==
{{main|History of Buddhism}}
===Indian Buddhism===
{{main|History of Buddhism in India}}
[[Image:ElloraPuja.jpg|thumb|The Buddhist "Carpenter's Cave" at [[Ellora]] in [[Maharashtra]], India.]]

====Early Buddhism====
{{main|Early Buddhist schools}}
The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into the following five periods:<ref>A History of Indian Buddhism - Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) - Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 7</ref>
# [[Early Buddhism]] or [[Early Buddhist Schools]] (also called [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism]]); Hajime Nakamura<ref>''Indian Buddhism'', Japan, 1980, reprinted Motilal Banarsidass,Delhi,1987,1989,table of contents</ref> subdivides this into two subperiods:
## original Buddhism (other scholars call this earliest Buddhism or precanonical Buddhism{{Fact|date=September 2008}})
## early Buddhism
# Period of the [[Early Buddhist schools]] (also called Sectarian Buddhism, [[Nikaya Buddhism]])
# Early [[Mahayana Buddhism]]
# Later Mahayana Buddhism
# [[Vajrayana Buddhism]] (also called Esoteric Buddhism)

These developments were not always consecutive. For example, the early schools continued to exist alongside Mahayana. Some scholars have argued that Mahayana remained marginal for centuries.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}
=====Pre-sectarian Buddhism=====
{{main|Pre-sectarian Buddhism}}
The earliest phase of Buddhism (pre-sectarian Buddhism) recognized by nearly all scholars (the main exception is Dr Gregory Schopen,<ref> Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. His main views and arguments can be found in his book ''Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks'', University of Hawai'i Press</ref>) is based on a comparison of the [[Pali Canon]] with surviving portions of other early canons.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} Its main scriptures are the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the four principal [[Nikaya]]s or [[Agama]]s.

Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught at least:<ref>Mitchell, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 2002, page 34 & table of contents</ref>

* the [[three characteristics]]
* the [[five aggregates]]
* [[dependent arising]]
* [[karma]] and [[rebirth]]
* the [[four noble truths]]
* the [[eightfold path]]
* [[nirvana]]

Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories.<ref>Skorupski, ''Buddhist Forum'', vol I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London, 1990, page 5; ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'', vol 21 (1998), part 1, pages 4, 11
</ref>

===== Councils =====
{{main|Buddhist councils}}
According to the scriptures, soon after the [[Paranirvana|{{IAST|paranirvāṇa}}]] (from Sanskrit: परनिर्वाण "highest extinguishment")<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de spokensanskrit.de dictionary] with पर and निर्वाण as input</ref> of Gautama Buddha, the [[first Buddhist council]] was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission. In the first council, [[Ananda|Ānanda]], a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses (''sūtras'', Pāli ''sutta''s) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the [[abhidhamma]]. [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the monastic rules (''[[vinaya]]''). Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist</ref>

According to most scholars, at some period after the Second Council the ''Sangha'' began to break into separate factions. (Schopen suggests that Buddhism was very diverse from the beginning and became less so.)<ref>''Journal of the Pāli Text Society'', volume XVI, p. 105)</ref> The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred. According to the ''[[Dipavamsa]]'' of the Pāli tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council, the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN, the [[Sarvastivada]] tradition of [[Vasumitra]] says it was in the time of Asoka and the [[Mahasanghika]] tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE.

The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that "the Sangha has been made unified". This may refer to a dispute such as that described in the account of the [[Third Buddhist Council]] at Pataliputta. This concerns the expulsion of non-Buddhist heretics from the ''sangha'', and does not speak of a schism. However, the late Professor Hirakawa argued that the first schism occurred after the death of Asoka. These schisms occurred within the [[early Buddhist schools]], at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.

The root schism was between the [[Sthaviras]] and the [[Mahāsāṅghikas]]. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika. This contradicts the Mahasanghikas' own ''vinaya'', which shows them as on the same, winning side. The northern lineages, including the Sarvastivada and Puggalavada (both branches of the ancient Sthaviras) attribute the Mahāsāṅghika schism to the '5 points' that erode the status of the ''arahant''.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} The Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the ''vinaya'' and may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[arhat]]ship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.<ref>Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. ''Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism'' in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237–272</ref>

The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravāda school. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', p. 74</ref>

=====Further developments=====
{{main|Timeline of Buddhism}}
[[Image:Asoka Kaart.gif|thumb|250px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] (260–218 BCE).]]
{{unicode|Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an [[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma]], a collection of philosophical texts and commentaries. Early sources for these probably existed in the time of the Buddha as simple lists. However, as time went on and Buddhism spread further, the (perceived) teachings of Gautama Buddha were formalized in a more systematic manner in a new [[Pitaka]]: the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]]. Some modern academics refer to it as Abhidhamma Buddhism. Interestingly, in the opinion of some scholars{{Fact|date=September 2008}}, the [[Mahasanghika]] school did not have an Abhidhamma Pitaka, which agrees with their statement that they did not want to add to the Buddha's teachings. But according to Chinese pilgrims Fa-hsien ([[Faxian]]) (5th century CE), Yuan Chuang and Hsüan-tsang ([[Xuanzang]], 7th century CE), Mahasanghika School did have their own version of Abhidhamma.}}<ref >{{Cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2124|title=Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms |accessdate=2008-08-18|Author=Fa-Hien|Translator=James Legge|publisher=Project Gutenberg}}"In the community here, moreover, we got the Samyuktabhi-dharma-hridaya-(sastra), containing about six or seven thousand gathas; he also got a Sutra of 2500 gathas; one chapter of the Parinir-vana-vaipulya Sutra, of about 5000 gathas; and the Mahasan-ghikah Abhidharma"</ref><ref >{{Cite web|url=http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/sha.htm|title=Notes on the Nagarjunikonda Inscriptions|accessdate=2008-08-18|Author=Dutt, Nalinaksha|publisher=The Indian Historical Quarterly}}"the Mahasanghikas, so far as the traditions go, did not recognise the seven texts of the Theravadins as Buddhabhasita, (6) but had an Abhidharma Pitaka of their own according to the testimony of Yuan Chuang,(7) who further supplies us with the information that he himself studied certain Abhidharma treatises of the Mahasanghika"</ref><ref>Samuel Beal, "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang: By the Shaman Hwui Li. With an introduction containing an account of the works of I-tsing", published by Tuebner and Co, London (1911), Digital version: University of Michigan. "this is the spot where the assembly of the Great Congregation (Mahdsanghikas) was held….So they made another collection of the Sutra-pitaka, and the Vinaya-pitaka, and the Abhidharma-pitaka, and of the Miscellaneous-pitaka, and the Dharall-pitaka, five pitakas in all. As in this assembly there were both ordinary persons and holy men present; it is called the convocation of the Mahasafghikas."</ref>

[[Image:MenandrosCoin.jpg|thumb|150px|Buddhist tradition records in the [[Milinda Panha]] that the 2nd century BCE [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Menander I|Menander]] converted to the Buddhist faith and became an [[arhat]].]]
Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]], who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more [[stupa|stūpas]] (Buddhist religious memorials) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Central Asia]], beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of [[Sri Lanka]] south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.

This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts of Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread Buddhism (Dharma), particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring [[Seleucid Empire]], and even farther to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]], and to the development of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries{{Fact|date=September 2008}}.

===Buddhism today===
{{main|Timeline of Buddhism#Common Era}}
Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength in India and elsewhere. Estimates of the number of Buddhist followers are uncertain, ranging from 230 to more than 1.600 million worldwide. Most scholars classify similar numbers of people under a category they call Chinese folk or traditional religion, which is an amalgam of various traditions, including Buddhism. Estimates are uncertain and in dispute because:
* of difficulties in defining who counts as a Buddhist;
* of [[synchretism]] in the [[Eastern religions]] such as Buddhism, [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Shinto]] and [[Chinese folk religion|traditional religions]] or [[Shamanism]], [[animism]]; having beliefs comprising a mix of religious ideas;<ref>[http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/lopez.html Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion]</ref><ref>[http://asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html Windows on Asia - Chinese Religions]</ref><ref>[http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/religion Religions and Beliefs in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.sacu.org/religion.html SACU Religion in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.index-china.com/index-english/people-religions-s.html Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions]</ref><ref>[http://www.askasia.org/teachers/essays/essay.php?no=16 AskAsia - Buddhism in China]</ref><ref>[http://www.globaled.org/curriculum/china/bessay1.htm BUDDHISM AND ITS SPREAD ALONG THE SILK ROAD]</ref>
* it was difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists because they did not have congregational memberships and often did not participate in public ceremonies;<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)]</ref>
* of uncertainties in the situation for several countries; most notably [[Religion in China|China]], [[Religion in Vietnam|Vietnam]] and [[Religion in North Korea|North Korea]]<ref>[http://www.opendemocracy.net/pix/home/stateattitudes.pdf [[openDemocracy.net]] - 'The Atlas of Religion,' Joanne O'Brien & Martin Palmer: State Attitudes to Religion]</ref><ref>[http://crf.hudson.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=survey_files Center for Religious Freedom - Survey Files]</ref><ref>[http://crf.hudson.org/articledocs/TheRangeofReligiousFreedom.doc The Range of Religious Freedom]</ref>.

According to one analysis,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Garfinkel, Perry | title = Buddha Rising | journal = National Geographic | month= December | year= 2005 | pages = 88–109}}</ref> Buddhism is the fourth-largest [[major world religions|religion in the world]] behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and [[Hinduism]]. The monks' order ([[Sangha]]), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha in India, is among the oldest organizations on earth.

[[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]]
* [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Burma]]. Also the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]] in India (inspired by [[B. R. Ambedkar]]) practices Theravada.
* East Asian forms of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of China, Japan, [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
* [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is found in [[Tibet]] and the surrounding areas in India, [[Bhutan]], [[Mongolia]], [[Northeast China]], [[Nepal]], and the [[Russian Federation]].
* Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the [[Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]], though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.

The numbers of adherents of the three main traditions listed above are about 124, 185 and 20 million, respectively.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.htm/#Buddhism], retrieved on 2008-01-15</ref>

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While, in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and traditional. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. In the [[Buddhism in the West|West]], Buddhism is recognized as one of the growing spiritual influences.

==Schools and Traditions==
{{main|Schools of Buddhism}}
Buddhists generally classify themselves as either [[Theravada]] or [[Mahayana]]<ref>Keown, ''Buddhism'', Oxford University Press, 1996, page 12</ref> This classification is also used by some scholars<ref>Smith, ''Buddhism''; Juergensmeyer, ''Oxford Handbook''.</ref>{{page number}} and is the one ordinarily used in the English language.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tibetan Buddhism |encyclopedia=American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | publisher= Houghton Mifflin Company | year=2004 |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tibetan%20buddhism | accessdate=2007-07-07}}</ref> An alternative scheme used by some scholars<ref>(Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984); Gethin (1998), pp. 1–2, identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism."; Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia," "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area," "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West; Penguin ''handbook of Living Religions'', 1984, page 279; Prebish & Keown, ''Introducing Buddhism'', ebook, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 2005, printed ed, Harper, 2006</ref> divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: [[Theravada]], [[East Asian Buddhism]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]].
Some scholars<ref>See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Macmillan, New York, 1987, volume 2, pages 440ff</ref> use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes. Hinayana (literally "smaller vehicle") is used to name Theravada, but this can be considered derogatory.



Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them.

Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

Despite some differences among the Theravada and Mahayana schools, there are several [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana|concepts common to both major Buddhist branches]]:<ref>http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/comparative.htm</ref>
* Both accept [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha]] as their teacher.
* Both accept the [[middle way]], [[dependent origination]], the [[four noble truths]] and the [[noble eightfold path]], in theory, though in practice these have little or no importance in some traditions.
* Both accept that members of the laity and of the [[sangha]] can pursue the path toward enlightenment ([[bodhi]]).
* Both consider buddhahood to be the highest attainment; however Theravadins consider the [[nirvana]] ([[nibbana]] to the Theravadins) attained by [[arahants]] as identical to that attained by the Buddha himself, as there is only one type of nirvana. According to Theravadins, a buddha is someone who has discovered the path all by himself and taught it to others.

===Theravāda===
{{main|Theravada}}
[[Theravada|Theravāda]] ("Doctrine of the Elders", or "Ancient Doctrine") is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It is relatively conservative, and ''generally'' closest to early Buddhism.<ref>Gethin, ''Foundations'', page 1</ref> This school is derived from the [[Vibhajjavada|Vibhajjavāda]] grouping which emerged amongst the older [[Sthavira]] group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE). This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.

The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] and its commentaries. After being orally transmitted for a few centuries, its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were finally committed to writing in the last century BCE, in Sri Lanka, at what the Theravada usually reckon as the fourth council. It is also one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the complete set of its canon into writing. The [[sutra|Sutta]] collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka]]), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Theravāda is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Burma]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]] as well as small portions of China, [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Bangladesh]]. It has a growing presence in [[Europe]] and [[Americas|America]].

===Mahayana===
{{main|Mahayana}}
[[Image:Mahayanabuddha.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese Seated Buddha, [[Tang Dynasty]], [[Hebei|Hebei province]], ca. 650 CE. Chinese Buddhism is of the [[Mahayana]] tradition, with popular schools today being [[Pure Land]] and [[Zen]].]]
The precise geographical origins of [[Mahayana]] are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the [[Kushan Empire]] (within present-day northern [[Pakistan]]), and in areas within the [[Shatavahana]] Empire, including [[Amaravati]] to the south-east (in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]), to the west around the port of [[Bharukaccha]] (present-day [[Bharuch]], a town near [[Bombay]]), and around the various cave complexes, such as [[Ajanta]] and [[Karli]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]). Some scholars have argued that Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around [[stupa]] devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a [[bodhisattva]] were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. Other scholar reject this theory.<ref>{{cite book | author = Williams, Paul | title = Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations |publisher = Routledge | location = London | year= 1989}}, pages 20f</ref> Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the [[Sarvastivada]] school and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan Empire, seem to have had major influence.

[[Image:MahayanaMap.gif|thumb|left|Expansion of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.]]
Around the second century CE, the Kushan emperor [[Kanishka]] is said to have convened what many western scholars call the [[fourth Buddhist council]]. This council is not recognised by the Theravada line of Buddhism. According to Mahayana sources, this council did not simply rely on the original [[Tripitaka]]. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the [[Lotus Sutra]], an early version of the [[Heart Sutra]] and the [[Amitabha Sutra]] were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for all beings (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattvas who embody the indwelling yet transcendent [[Buddha-nature]] who strive to achieve such a goal. However, most western scholars believe this council was purely Sarvastivada, while the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it entirely fictitious.<ref>{{cite book |author = Lamotte, Étienne (trans. to French)| others= trans. Sara Boin| title = Teaching of Vimalakirti |publisher = Pali Text Society |location = London |year = 1976|isbn =0710085400|pages = XCIII}}</ref> The new scriptures were first written in [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]] or one of the [[Prakrit]]s. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana would spread from India to [[Southeast Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]] and then east to China where Mahayana was [[Sinicized]] and this Sinicized Mahayana would be passed on to [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]] and finally to Japan in 538 CE. The East Asians would go on to write more indigenous sutras and commentaries to the Mahayana Canon.
[[Image:GBA8.jpg|thumb|One of the [[Buddhas of Bamyan]], Afghanistan as it stood in 1963.]]

After the end of the [[Kushan Empire|{{IAST|Kuṣāṇas}}]], Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the [[Gupta]]s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the [[Nalanda University|Nālandā University]] in north-eastern India.

[[Image:Status of Kuan Yin.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese [[Ming dynasty]] porcelain figure of [[Guanyin]], "Goddess of Mercy."]]
Mahayana schools recognize all or part of the [[Mahayana Sutras|Mahayana scriptures]]. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself, and faith in and veneration of those texts are stated in some sutras (e.g. the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]) to lay the foundations for the later attainment of Buddhahood itself.

Native Eastern Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, [[Korea]], [[Singapore]], parts of Russia and most of [[Vietnam]]. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Northern Buddhism. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. However, in Japan they form separate denominations. The five major ones are the following.

* [[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren]], peculiar to Japan
* [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]]
* [[Shingon]], a form of Vajrayana
* [[Tendai]]
* [[Zen|Chan/Zen]]

In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong to the Chogye school, which is officially Son (Zen), but with substantial elements from other traditions.<ref>Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume One), pages 430, 435</ref>

====Pure Land Buddhism====
{{main|Pure Land Buddhism}}
There are estimated to be around 100 million Chinese Buddhists.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 191, & volume 2, page 10</ref> Pure Land Buddhism is the most popular form in China, particularly among the laity.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 152</ref> In the first half of the twentieth century, most Chinese monks practised Pure Land, some combining it with Chan (Zen); Chan survived into the 20th century in a small number of monasteries, but died out in mainland China after the communist takeover.<ref>Welch, ''Practice of Chinese Buddhism 1900-1950'', Harvard, 1967, pages 47, 396</ref> In Taiwan Chan meditation is popular,<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction to Buddhism'', page 283</ref> but most Buddhists follow Pure Land.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, volume 1, page 723</ref>

There are estimated to be about 40 million Buddhists in Vietnam.<ref>''World Christian Encyclopedia'', 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 803</ref> The Buddhism of monks and educated lay people is mainly Thien (Zen), with elements of Pure Land and tantra, but that of most ordinary Buddhists has little or no Thien element, being mainly Pure Land.<ref>Harvey, ''Introduction'', page 159; Macmillan ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (Volume Two), page 882</ref>

===Vajrayāna or Tibetan Buddhism===
{{main|Vajrayana}}
[[Image:Young monks of Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung]]
There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its [[tantra|tantric practice]] started. In the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan tradition]], it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, [[Tibet]], Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition.

In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject, [[Fairfield University]] professor Ronald M. Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the changing political climate in India at the time. With the fall of the [[Gupta]] dynasty, in an increasingly fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting patronage, and the folk movement led by [[siddhas]] became more prominent. After perhaps two hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the monastic establishment.<ref>{{cite book|author = Davidson, Ronald M. | title = Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement | publisher = Columbia University Press |location =New York| year= 2003 |isbn= 0231126190 }}</ref>{{page number}}

Vajrayana combined and developed a variety of elements, a number of which had already existed for centuries.<ref>Prebish & Keown, ''Introducing Buddhism'', page 89</ref> In addition to the Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of [[Buddhist texts#Vajrayana Texts|Buddhist Tantras]], some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.

Although it continued to in surrounding countries, over the centuries Buddhism gradually declined in India and it [[Decline of Buddhism in India|was virtually extinct]] there by the time of the British conquest.

==Buddhist texts==
{{main|Buddhist texts}}
Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on learning the various texts. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. Buddhist scriptures are written in this languages: [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan (language)|Tibetan]], [[Mongolian (language)|Mongolian]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], along with some texts that still exist in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]].

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. However, some scholars have referred to the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the first four Nikayas of the [[Sutta Pitaka]] as the common core of all Buddhist traditions.<ref>A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000)</ref> However, this could be considered misleading, as Mahāyāna considers these merely a preliminary, and not a core, teaching, the Tibetan Buddhists have not even translated most of the āgamas, though theoretically they recognize them, and they play no part in the religious life of either clergy or laity in China and Japan.<ref>Eliot, ''Japanese Buddhism'', Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 16</ref> The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own ''vinaya''. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the ''[[agama (text)|āgamas]]''.

Over the years, various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture.

Dwight [[Goddard]] collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen, along with other classics of [[Eastern philosophy]], such as the [[Tao Te Ching]], into his 'Buddhist Bible' in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]] attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles in [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ "The Buddha and His Dhamma"]. Other such efforts have persisted to present day, but currently there is no single text that represents all Buddhist traditions.

===Pāli Tipitaka===
{{main|Pāli Canon}}
{{PaliCanon|abbrev=1}}
The Pāli Tipitaka, which means "three baskets", refers to its three main:
* The ''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Pitaka]]'' contains disciplinary rules for the Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as explanations of why and how these rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
* The ''[[Sutta Pitaka]]'' contains discourses ascribed to [[Gautama Buddha]].
* The ''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidhamma Pitaka]]'' contains material often described as systematic expositions of the Gautama Buddha's teachings.

According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings—sūtras (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli)—and codify monastic rules (vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses, and according to some sources{{which}} the ''[[abhidhamma]]'', and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the ''vinaya''. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the ''vinaya'' of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Gautama Buddha's previous lives, and various other subjects.

=== Mahayana Sutras ===
[[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|left|thumb|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]]
The [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered by some to be the word of Gautama Buddha, but supposedly were transmitted in secret, or came directly from other Buddhas or [[Bodhisattva]]s. Approximately six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations. In addition, East Asian Buddhism recognizes some ''sutras'' regarded by scholars as of Chinese origin.

Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pāli Canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic, valid teachings of Gautama Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual understanding. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of Gautama Buddha. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali Canon represents the full and final statement by Gautama Buddha of his Dhamma—and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of Gautama Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.

For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the ''Mahāyāna sutras'' do indeed contain basic and foundational pronouncements of Gautama Buddha. From the Mahayana standpoint the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the [[bodhisattva]] path. That path is explained as being built upon the motivation to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which expresses availability both to the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The theme of greatness can be seen in many elements of Mahayana Buddhism, from the length of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow, which strives for ''all'' future time to help free ''all'' other persons and creatures from pain, to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "Great Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "Great Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For Theravadins and many scholars, including [[A.K. Warder]],<ref>A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000), p. 4</ref> however, the self-proclaimed "greatness" of the [[Mahayana Sutras]] does not make them a true account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha.

==Buddhist symbols==
{{main|Buddhist symbolism}}

===Comparative studies===

Buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of subjects. For example, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] can be considered one contribution of Buddhism to metaphysics. On the other hand, Buddhism's emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in countries that adopted it throughout its history.

'''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies'''
* [[Buddhism and Jainism]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Christianity]]
* [[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism, mysticism, and monotheism)
* [[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
* [[Buddhism and psychology]]
* [[Buddhism and science]]
* [[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics)
* [[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
* Buddhism and Thelema<ref name=IAO131>[http://www.geocities.com/hdbq111/JoTS/JoTS1-1.pdf Thelema & Buddhism] in ''Journal of Thelemic Studies'', Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007, pp. 18-32</ref>

==See also==
* [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]]
* [[Buddhism and Christianity]]
* [[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Jainism]]
* [[Buddhism and psychology]]
* [[Buddhism and science]]
* [[Buddhism in the West]]
* [[Buddhist Ethics]]
* [[Buddhist Ceremonies]]
* [[Buddhist flag]]
* [[Buddhist philosophy]]
* [[Buddhist terms and concepts]]
* [[God in Buddhism]]
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
* [[List of Buddhists]]
* [[Shinbutsu shūgō]]

==Notes==


{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Bechert, Heinz & Richard Gombrich (ed.) (1984). ''The World of Buddhism'', Thames & Hudson.
* {{cite journal| last = Cousins| first = L. S.| title = The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article| journal = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society| volume = Series 3| issue = 6.1| pages = 57–63| year= 1996| url = http://indology.info/papers/cousins/| accessdate = 2007-07-11}}; reprinted in Williams, ''Buddhism'', volume I; NB in the online transcript a little text has been accidentally omitted: in section 4, between "... none of the other contributions in this section envisage a date before 420 B.C." and "to 350 B.C." insert "Akira Hirakawa defends the short chronology and Heinz Bechert himself sets a range from 400 B.C."
* {{cite book|author = Davidson, Ronald M. | title = Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement | publisher = Columbia University Press |location =New York| year= 2003 |isbn= 0231126190 }}
* {{cite book | author=de Give, Bernard | title= Les rapports de l'Inde et de l'Occident des origines au règne d'Asoka | publisher=Les Indes savants | year=2006 | id=ISBN-10: 2846540365}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Rupert Gethin|Gethin, Rupert]] | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-19-289223-1}}
* {{cite book| author=Harvey, Peter | title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=1990| id= ISBN 0-52-131333-3}}
* {{cite book |author = Lamotte, Étienne (trans. from French)| others= trans. Sara Boin| title = Teaching of Vimalakirti |publisher = Pali Text Society |location = London |year = 1976|isbn =0710085400|pages = XCIII}}
* {{cite book | title = A Concise History of Buddhism | author = Skilton, Andrew | year = 1997 | publisher = Windhorse Publications | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GEKd4iqH3C0C&dq=history+of+buddhism |isbn = 0904766926}}
* {{cite book | author = Williams, Paul | title = Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations |publisher = Routledge | location = London | year= 1989}}
* Williams, Paul (ed.) (2005). ''Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies'', 8 volumes, Routledge, London & New York.
* {{cite book | author=Armstrong, Karen | title=Buddha | year=2001 | publisher=Penguin Books | isbn=0-14-303436-7 | pages=187}}
* {{cite book | author=Buswell, Robert E. (ed.) | title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year= 2003 | isbn=978-0028657189}}
* {{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}}
* {{cite book | author=Donath, Dorothy C. | title=Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day | publisher=Julian Press | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0-07-017533-0}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Henepola Gunaratana|Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola]] | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-86171-321-4}} Also available on this websites: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm saigon.com] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html urbandharma.org] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php vipassana.com]
* {{cite book | author=Juergensmeyer, Mark | title = The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions | series = Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0195137989}}
* {{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The Vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1-903296-91-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Kohn, Michael H. (trans.) | title=The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen | publisher=Shambhala | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-87773-520-4}}
* Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), ''The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists'', Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distributed by Wisdom Books
* {{cite book | author=Nattier, Jan | title=A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprccha) | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-8248-2607-8}}
* {{cite book | author=Robinson, Richard H., and Johnson, Willard L. | title=The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction | publisher=Wadsworth Publishing | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0-534-01027-X}}
* {{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 81-208-2144-0}}
* {{cite book | author=Smith, Huston | title=Buddhism: A Concise Introduction | coauthors=Phillip Novak | publisher=HarperSanFrancisco | year=2003 | isbn=978-0060730673}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]] | title=[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha] (3rd ed., rev.) | year=2001}}
* {{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
* {{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0-271-00601-3}}
* {{cite book|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
*{{cite book|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White|White, Kenneth]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
*{{cite book|author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}}
*{{cite book|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0-86171-133-5.
*{{cite book|author=Indian Books Centre|title=Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series, Delhi}}
*{{cite book|author=Ranjini|title=Jewels of the Doctrine|work=Buddhist Stories of the Thirteenth Century|publisher=Sri Satguru Publications}}

===Online===
* {{cite web|author=Berzin, Alexander | work=Berzin Archives | title=Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan|month=November | year=2001|url=http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html}}
* {{cite web|author=[http://www.weiwuwei.8k.com/ Wei, Wei Wu]| work=Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London | publisher=[http://www.sentientpublications.com/authors/weiwuwei.php Sentient Publications] |title=Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra|month= | year=1960|url=http://www.sentientpublications.com/catalog/lazarus.php}}
*{{cite web|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda|Dhammananda, K. Sri]] | url=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf | title=What Buddhists Believe | work=[http://www.bmsm.org.my/ Buddhist Missionary Society of Malaysia]|year=2002}}

==External links==
{{external links}}

{{portal}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Buddhism}}
* [http://www.aboutbuddhism.org About Buddhism]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org Access to Insight]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet]
* [http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net Seeing Through The Net]
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Buddhism/ Buddhism] at Open Directory Project
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/index.html
|title= Buddhism - objects, art and history
|work=Asia
|accessdate= 2007-12-06}}
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/budhist/index.htm Buddhism Potpourri]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/index.htm Buddhist texts] (English translations)
* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
* [http://www.vwsp.eu/tathagata/budh-diags/nut_gr1.htm Essential Theravada Buddhism in graphics]
* [http://www.webspawner.com/users/bodhisattva/index.html Tathagatagarbha Mahayana sutras]
* [http://www.veoh.com/videos/v7071978efhj2aF6 Video documentary Buddhist history in India]
* [http://www.what-Buddha-taught.net What Buddha Taught ] Multi-lingual

{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Religion topics}}

[[Category:Buddhism| ]]

{{Link FA|ro}}
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[af:Boeddhisme]]
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[[zh-min-nan:Hu̍t-kàu]]
[[bcl:Budismo]]
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[[bs:Budizam]]
[[br:Boudaegezh]]
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Buddha (disambiguation)

2008-09-22T10:36:47Z

202.79.62.16:

{{wiktionarypar|buddha|Buddha}}
{{tocright}}
'''Buddha''' (pronunciation: {{IPA|[bʊd̪.d̪ʰə]}}) ("Awakened one" in Pali, Sanskrit and Arabic) may refer to:

==Religion==
* [[Gautama Buddha]], founder of [[Buddhism]], clan name Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Gotama), personal name said to be Siddhārtha (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha), epithet Śākyamuni (Sanskrit; Pali: Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni).
*The Buddhist concept of [[Buddhahood]].
* ''[[Buddharupa]]'', a statue or other representation of a Buddha

===Other Buddhas===
Other figures considered to be Buddhas by various Buddhist groups include:
* [[Amitābha]], principal Buddha of Pure Land sect
* [[Vairocana]], embodiment of [[Dharmakaya]]
* [[Dipankara]], First Buddha of the current world age.

For other possible figures referred to by the term buddha see the [[list of Buddhas]]

==Modern culture==
* [[Buddha (album)|''Buddha'' (album)]], an album by Blink-182
* [[Buddha (manga)|''Buddha'' (manga)]]
* [[Buddha (2007 film)|''Buddha'' (2007 film)]] or ''Gautama Buddha''
* [[Buddha Records]]

==Other usage==
* [[Buddha Air]], a Nepalese airline
* [[Buddha, Indiana]], a small town in the United States.
http://www.boudhadharma.com

==See also==
http://www.boudhadharma.com
* [[Buddha (other religions)]]
* [[Buddha from the Hindu perspective]]
* [[Adi-Buddha]], the primordial Buddha
* [[Budha]], the planet Venus in Buddhist mythology
* ''[[Little Buddha]]'', a film
* Budda (''[[Eremophila duttonii]]''), a plant from inland Australia

{{disambig}}
[[ca:Buda]]
[[et:Buddha]]
[[fr:Bouddha (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Boeddha]]
[[ja:ブッダ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[sv:Buddha (olika betydelser)]]

Buddha (disambiguation)

2008-09-22T10:34:02Z

202.79.62.16: /* Other usage */

{{wiktionarypar|buddha|Buddha}}
{{tocright}}
'''Buddha''' (pronunciation: {{IPA|[bʊd̪.d̪ʰə]}}) ("Awakened one" in Pali, Sanskrit and Arabic) may refer to:

==Religion==
* [[Gautama Buddha]], founder of [[Buddhism]], clan name Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Gotama), personal name said to be Siddhārtha (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha), epithet Śākyamuni (Sanskrit; Pali: Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni).
*The Buddhist concept of [[Buddhahood]].
* ''[[Buddharupa]]'', a statue or other representation of a Buddha

===Other Buddhas===
Other figures considered to be Buddhas by various Buddhist groups include:
* [[Amitābha]], principal Buddha of Pure Land sect
* [[Vairocana]], embodiment of [[Dharmakaya]]
* [[Dipankara]], First Buddha of the current world age.

For other possible figures referred to by the term buddha see the [[list of Buddhas]]

==Modern culture==
* [[Buddha (album)|''Buddha'' (album)]], an album by Blink-182
* [[Buddha (manga)|''Buddha'' (manga)]]
* [[Buddha (2007 film)|''Buddha'' (2007 film)]] or ''Gautama Buddha''
* [[Buddha Records]]

==Other usage==
* [[Buddha Air]], a Nepalese airline
* [[Buddha, Indiana]], a small town in the United States.
http://www.boudhadharma.com

==See also==
* [[www.boudhadharma.com]]
* [[Buddha (other religions)]]
* [[Buddha from the Hindu perspective]]
* [[Adi-Buddha]], the primordial Buddha
* [[Budha]], the planet Venus in Buddhist mythology
* ''[[Little Buddha]]'', a film
* Budda (''[[Eremophila duttonii]]''), a plant from inland Australia

{{disambig}}
[[ca:Buda]]
[[et:Buddha]]
[[fr:Bouddha (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Boeddha]]
[[ja:ブッダ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[sv:Buddha (olika betydelser)]]

Buddha (disambiguation)

2008-09-22T10:31:31Z

202.79.62.16:

{{wiktionarypar|buddha|Buddha}}
{{tocright}}
'''Buddha''' (pronunciation: {{IPA|[bʊd̪.d̪ʰə]}}) ("Awakened one" in Pali, Sanskrit and Arabic) may refer to:

==Religion==
* [[Gautama Buddha]], founder of [[Buddhism]], clan name Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Gotama), personal name said to be Siddhārtha (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha), epithet Śākyamuni (Sanskrit; Pali: Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni).
*The Buddhist concept of [[Buddhahood]].
* ''[[Buddharupa]]'', a statue or other representation of a Buddha

===Other Buddhas===
Other figures considered to be Buddhas by various Buddhist groups include:
* [[Amitābha]], principal Buddha of Pure Land sect
* [[Vairocana]], embodiment of [[Dharmakaya]]
* [[Dipankara]], First Buddha of the current world age.

For other possible figures referred to by the term buddha see the [[list of Buddhas]]

==Modern culture==
* [[Buddha (album)|''Buddha'' (album)]], an album by Blink-182
* [[Buddha (manga)|''Buddha'' (manga)]]
* [[Buddha (2007 film)|''Buddha'' (2007 film)]] or ''Gautama Buddha''
* [[Buddha Records]]

==Other usage==
* [[Buddha Air]], a Nepalese airline
* [[Buddha, Indiana]], a small town in the United States.

==See also==
* [[www.boudhadharma.com]]
* [[Buddha (other religions)]]
* [[Buddha from the Hindu perspective]]
* [[Adi-Buddha]], the primordial Buddha
* [[Budha]], the planet Venus in Buddhist mythology
* ''[[Little Buddha]]'', a film
* Budda (''[[Eremophila duttonii]]''), a plant from inland Australia

{{disambig}}
[[ca:Buda]]
[[et:Buddha]]
[[fr:Bouddha (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Boeddha]]
[[ja:ブッダ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[sv:Buddha (olika betydelser)]]

Wikipedia:Public domain

2008-09-22T10:25:01Z

202.79.62.16: http://www.boudhadharma.com

{{subcat guideline|content guideline|Public domain|WP:PD}}
{{Wikipedia copyright}}

:''See also the encyclopedia article on the [[public domain]].''
:''WP:PD redirects here. You may be looking for [[Wikipedia:Proposed deletion]] (shortcut: [[WP:PROD]]) instead.''
For all practical purposes on Wikipedia, the '''public domain''' comprises copyright-free works: anyone can use them in any way and for any purpose. Proper attribution to the author or source of a work, even if it is in the public domain, is still required to avoid [[plagiarism]].

The public domain is generally defined (e.g. by the [http://www.copyright.gov/help/faq/faq-definitions.html#public_domain U.S. Copyright Office]) as the sum of works that are not [[copyright]]ed, i.e.
* that were not eligible for copyright in the first place, or
* whose copyright has expired.

However, there is no such thing as ''the'' public domain on the Internet. International treaties, like the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]], are not self-executing and do not supersede local law. There is [http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl100.html ''no'' globally valid "International Copyright Law"] that would take precedence over local laws. Instead, signatory countries of the Berne Convention have adapted their laws to comply with the minimum standards set forth by the treaty, often with ''stronger'' provisions than required. Whether or not something is copyright-free in some country depends on the laws of individual countries.

[[Wikipedia]], and the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], its legal body, are based in [[Florida]], [[United States]]. Although legislation is sometimes unclear about which laws are to apply on the Internet, the primary law relevant for Wikipedia is that of the United States. For re-users of Wikipedia content, it is the laws of their respective countries.

In the U.S., any work '''published before [[January 1]], [[1923]]''' ''anywhere in the world''<ref name="US1909">Strictly speaking, only U.S. works published before [[January 1]] [[1923]] and foreign works published in compliance with U.S. formalities (registration, © notice) before that date are in the public domain in the U.S. For non-U.S. works published ''without'' compliance with U.S. formalities (i.e., without © notice), the situation is a bit more complicated:
*If published before 1909, such works are in the public domain in the U.S.
*If published between 1909 and 1922 (inclusive) in a language ''other than English'', the [[United States federal judicial circuits|Ninth Circuit]] has considered them as "unpublished works" according to [http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm#Footnote_11 Peter Hirtle] and following the decision of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]] in the case ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=9th&navby=case&no=9515250 Twin Books v. Disney]'' in 1996. The case was about the book [[Bambi, A Life in the Woods]]; the decision is heavily criticized in ''Nimmer on Copyright'' (ISBN 0-820-51465-9), the standard commentary on U.S. copyright law.
*If published between 1909 and 1922 (inclusive) in English, they are ''highly likely'' to be PD, given that the aforementioned controversial case was only about a work published in a foreign language.
*Additionally, any work first published outside of the United States without copyright notice prior to 1989, when the U.S. joined the Berne Convention, is in the public domain in the U.S. if it was in the public domain in its country of origin on the URAA date (in most cases [[January 1]], [[1996]]). See the section on [[#Country-specific rules|country-specific rules]] for more information.
Also, the 1923 cut-off date applies only to the U.S. This means foreign works first published before 1923 are in the public domain in the U.S., but may still be copyrighted outside the U.S.</ref> is in the '''public domain'''. Other countries are ''not'' bound to that 1923 date, though. Complications arise when special cases are considered, such as trying to determine whether a work published later might be in the public domain in the U.S., or when dealing with unpublished works. When a work has not been published in the U.S. but in some other country, that other country's copyright laws also must be taken into account. Re-users of Wikipedia content also might find the explanations here useful.

== Important documents ==

* The [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] is the primary legislative document governing international copyright. Signatory states agree to amend their legislations to meet the minimum requirements of this convention, but the convention itself is ''not'' law. Signatory countries have the right to "opt out" from a few of its paragraphs (most are mandatory and non-negotiable, though), and how any particular country implements the Berne Convention is a question of local legislation. The [http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs/en/wo/wo001en.htm full text] of the Berne Convention is available at the [[WIPO]] web site.

* The U.S. Copyright Law is [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/ Title 17 of the United States Code (17 USC)], chapters 1 through 8 and 10 through 12. Chapters 9 and 13 contain design protection laws on semiconductor chips and ship hulls that are of no interest or relevance for Wikipedia.

* The EU [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]] is a ''binding'' directive for all member countries of the [[European Union]], harmonizing the term of copyright. It became effective on [[July 1]], [[1995]]. Individual countries have amended their laws to comply with this directive. The EU legislation web site has the [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0098:EN:HTML full text (1993)], plus a [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32001L0029:EN:HTML 2001 amendment] modifying §3(2). See [[#Retroactive changes in copyright legislation|Retroactive changes in copyright legislation]] below for some discussion.

The U.S. Copyright Law explicitly makes clear that the Berne Convention is just a treaty, not some "super-law" that would take precedence over U.S. Law: [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104 17 USC 104(c)] states that
:''"No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto...."''
When discussing copyright issues informally (and ''all'' such discussions on Wikipedia ''are'' informal), one may nevertheless argue in terms of the Berne Convention: writing "according to ''§y'' of the Berne Convention..." is then just a short-hand for writing "according to ''§x'' of ''country's copyright law'', which implements ''§y'' of the Berne Convention, ..." However, one should bear in mind that some paragraphs of the Berne Convention are optional, and that any country may go beyond the minimum standards specified by the Berne Convention for the most part.

=== Other documents ===

There are some other documents related to copyright issues that one occasionally comes across, but they generally are less important for Wikipedia's purposes.

*The [[Universal Copyright Convention]] ([http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/lipa/copyrights/The%20Universal%20Copyright%20Convention%20_Geneva%20Text--September.pdf 1952 Geneva text], [http://www.ifla.org/documents/infopol/copyright/ucc.txt 1971 Paris text]) was an alternate international copyright treaty. It prescribed less stringent protections than the Berne Convention. Since the UCC explicitly said that if a signatory of the UCC was also a signatory of the Berne Convention, the latter should prevail, and most countries have since joined the Berne Convention, the UCC is largely irrelevant today. However, the adherence dates of some states to the UCC may still be of interest.
*The [[Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations|Rome Convention]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/rome/index.html International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations]) from 1961 is a treaty augmenting the Berne Convention by copyright on performances and recordings thereof.
*The [[Geneva Phonograms Convention]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/phonograms/index.html Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms]) is an additional international treaty extending copyright to [[#Sound recordings|sound recordings]].
*The [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wct/index.html WCT]) from 1996, effective 2002, is an extension of the Berne Convention, bringing computer programs and databases under the auspices of copyright. In the U.S., it is implemented by the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act|DMCA]].
*The [[WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wppt/index.html WPPT]) from 1996 entered in force in 2002. It is an update of the [[Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations|Rome Convention]]. In the U.S., it was implemented as [[WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act|part of the DMCA]].

Log on www.boudhadharma.com

== Works ineligible for copyright protection ==

:'''In short: U.S. Federal Government works, or no creative content'''

:''See also:'' [[Wikipedia:Copyright on emblems|Copyright on emblems]].

=== U.S. government works ===
For the U.S., federal government works are not eligible for copyright protection ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#105 17 USC 105]). It is not clear whether this applies world-wide, see the [http://www.cendi.gov/publications/04-8copyright.html#317 CENDI Copyright FAQ list, 3.1.7] and a discussion on that at the [http://blog.librarylaw.com/librarylaw/2004/09/copyright_in_go.html LibraryLaw Blog].

In practice, this means that ''much'' material on <tt>*.gov</tt> and <tt>*.mil</tt>, as well as material on some <tt>*.us</tt> web sites (such as the sites of the [[U.S. Forest Service]]), are in the public domain. Please note that not ''all'' such material is in the public domain, though:
* U.S. governmental web sites may use copyrighted works, too; either by having licensed them or under a "fair use" provision. In general, such copyrighted works on web sites of the U.S. federal government and its agencies are indicated by appropriate bylines. An example are "visitor image galleries" on [[National Park Service|U.S. National Park Service]] websites: unless these have some indication that the photographs are placed in the public domain by publishing them on that NPS web site, these images are copyrighted by their photographers, who are visitors of national parks, not employees of the NPS.
* Some U.S. ''state'' governments also have web sites in the <tt>*.gov</tt> domain. '''State and local governments''' usually ''do'' retain a copyright on their works. 17 USC §105 only places ''federal'' documents in the public domain.<ref name="state_pubs">Publications of U.S. ''state'', district, county, or municipal agencies are eligible to coypright. Only works of ''federal'' agencies are exempt from copyright; see [http://library.findlaw.com/1999/Jan/1/241476.html Radcliffe & Brinson: ''Copyright Law''], or the [http://cendi.dtic.mil/publications/04-8copyright.html#30 CENDI Copyright FAQ list, 3.1.3].</ref>
* Works produced under a commission from the U.S. government by a contractor ''are'' most likely copyrighted. This typically includes any documents from research labs. The [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]], for instance, is operated by a contractor for the [[U.S. Department of Energy]], but that does not mean the works it produces are "works of the federal government". ORNL works ''are'' copyrighted, and the U.S. government is granted a non-exclusive license to use, publish, and allow republication of such works. The precise terms vary from one lab to the next, but in general, commercial re-use of their works is prohibited.<ref name="contractors">[http://www.cendi.gov/publications/04-8copyright.html#40 CENDI Copyright FAQ list, section 4.0], and [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#105 17 USC 105].</ref> This also applies to works authored by ''independent contractors'' or ''freelance writers or artists'', even when their works are commissioned by some U.S. government agency.<ref name="Gorman_52ff">Gorman, R. A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law, 2nd ed.]'', [[Federal Judicial Center|U.S. Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]; chapter 2: The Subject Matter of Copyright, section "Government works", pp. 52ff. URL last accessed [[2008-08-13]].</ref>
* Even the U.S. federal government may hold copyrights, if the original copyright holder assigns or transfers the copyright to the U.S. government. A notable example of this is the obverse of the [[Sacagawea dollar]], in which its designer [[Glenna Goodacre]] claimed copyright before she transferred the design and its copyright to the [[United States Mint]].<ref name="sacagawea"> See "Intellectual Property Rights" in the U.S. Mint website's privacy policy [http://www.usmint.gov/policy/index.cfm?action=TermsOfUse#rights]. </ref> Of course, when a U.S. governmental agency holds such a transferred copyright, it is free to declare the work to be in the public domain (or not).<ref name="Gorman_52ff"/>

Under U.S. law, laws themselves and legal rulings also form a special class. All current or formerly binding laws, codes, and regulations produced by government at any level and the public record of any court case are in the public domain. [http://www.baconsrebellion.com/Issues04/08-09/Dale.htm] This applies even to the laws enacted in states and municipalities that ordinarily claim copyright over their work. The US Copyright Office has interpreted this as applying to all "edicts of government" both domestic and foreign.<ref name="compendium206_01">The Compendium of Copyright Office Practices (Compendium II) section 206.01 [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp states], "Edicts of government, such as judicial opinions, administrative rulings, legislative enactments, public ordinances, and similar official legal documents are not copyrightable for reasons of public policy. This applies to such works whether they are Federal, State, or local as well as to those of foreign governments." and 206.03 [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp clarifies] "Works (other than edicts of government) prepared by officers or employees of any government (except the U.S. Government) including State, local, or foreign governments, are subject to registration if they are otherwise copyrightable."</ref>

Note that other countries' governments ''may'' hold copyrights; in fact, most do so and their works are thus copyright protected. At the same time, many countries declare their edicts such as laws and court decisions to be exempt from copyright. Such exemptions are typically narrowly defined and ''cannot'' be construed to mean "any publication by a government office".

The [[United States Copyright Office]], in section 206.02(b), 206.02(c), and 206.02(d) of the [[Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices]], has stated its position that works of the [[U.S. Postal Service]], of the government of the [[District of Columbia]], or of the government of [[Puerto Rico]] are ''not'' "works of the U.S. government" and thus ''are'' subject to copyright.<ref>See 206.02(b), 206.02(c), and 206.02(d) of the [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp Compendium of Copyright Office Practices] of the U.S. Copyright Office</ref> Works of the [[United States Post Office Department]] prior to the formation of the U.S. Postal Service are still considered government works and are in the public domain.{{fact}} Works of the [[United Nations]] or its agencies or of the [[Organization of American States|OAS]] are subject to copyright. <ref name="us_un">See section 206.03 of the [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp Compendium of Copyright Office Practices] of the U.S. Copyright Office, and also [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104 17 USC 104(b)(5)].</ref> On the UN, see [[#Works of the United Nations|Works of the United Nations]] for some important exceptions: some UN documents ''are'' in the public domain.

=== Non-creative works ===

:'''In short: Bare facts are in the public domain. Works must show sufficient ''human'' creativity to be eligible to copyright at all.'''

A second category of works that in general cannot be copyright protected are those that have no (or no significant) creative content: they do not pass the [[threshold of originality]]. In the U.S., the classic example is a telephone directory. The names and numbers therein are, in the doctrine of case law (e.g. ''[[Feist v. Rural]]''), "facts that were discovered", rather than the result of a creative expression or judgment. The U.S. has explicitly rejected the position that the amount of effort involved in the discovery of a fact can justify its protection. As a result of this doctrine, addresses, phone numbers, most scientific data, sports scores, the results of polls, and similar facts are exempt from copyright.

While the facts themselves are exempt, other creative elements in a compilation of facts may warrant copyright protection. For example, ''Eckes v. Card Prices Update'' established that the specific selection of which facts to include in a list, when done as the result of a creative act, merits protection even when the individual elements do not. (See also [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#103 17 USC 103(b)].) The [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]] is an international treaty that follows this concept; it has been adopted also by the [[European Union]] (EU) in its [[EU Database Directive]], a ''[[sui generis]]'' protection that prohibits any significant "extraction" or "re-utilization" of information from a database created by significant effort. In all these cases, the copyright is on the database as a whole, i.e. the selection of the collection. The individual items in such databases still have their own copyright, which may have expired.

Similarly, though scientific data are usually exempt from copyright, the specific figures and styles of presentation used to present that data will in most cases merit copyright protection. Also, in some cases facts that are exempt from copyright may still be protected as a result of patent law.

[[Image:Chimpanzee congo painting.jpg|thumb|This painting was produced by the chimpanzee "[[Congo (chimpanzee)|Congo]]" and is therefore not copyrighted. The photo of the painting is not copyrightable per the ''Bridgeman v. Corel'' ruling.]]
Another class of uncreative works which are unable to claim copyright protection in the U.S. are those resulting from mechanical reproduction. Following ''[[Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.]]'', a simple reproductive photograph of a two-dimensional artwork does not give rise to a new copyright on the photograph. Many other countries (but not all!) recognize a similar ineligibility for copyright for reproductive photographs of two-dimensional public domain works.

Common to all these cases is that only works created by a [[human]] are eligible to copyright.<ref name="human_creativity">U.S. Copyright Office: [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp ''Compendium of Office Practices II,'' section 202.02(b)] and [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0500.asp section 503.03(a)]. URL last accessed [[July 3]], [[2007]].</ref> Works created by animals (such as a painting produced by a [[chimpanzee]]) or machines (such as illegal [[spam]]) are not copyrightable, although in the case of drawings produced by a [[computer program]], the program itself of course may be copyrighted. In certain cases, even graphics produced by computer programs may be copyrightable; see e.g. ''[[Stern Electronics, Inc. v. Kaufman]]''.

Descriptions (including diagrams) in [[patent]] applications in the U.S. are "published into the public domain" by the [[U.S. Patent and Trademark Office]] [http://www.uspto.gov/main/ccpubguide.htm]. Portions may contain the non-obligatory notice of copyright © or [[mask work]] Ⓜ protection, but the patent applicant must state in the text of the description that the owner of the rights in the protected part agrees to allow anyone to make [[facsimile]] reproductions of those portions of the description, but otherwise reserves all rights [http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/documents/appxr_1_71.htm#cfr37s1.71 37 CFR § 1.71(e)].

Photographic reproductions, as a form of derivative work, may inherit the copyright of the original work. If that artwork is in the public domain, then so is the photograph. If, however, the depicted work is copyright protected, then, although there is no independent copyright on the photo itself, it cannot be considered to be in the public domain as the original rights holder still has the authority to control how reproductions of his work, including photographs, are made and distributed. The same applies to digitized images.

It should also be noted that the exemption of reproduction photographs extends only to ''two-dimensional'' artwork in the U.S. A photograph of a three dimensional statue may acquire copyright protection even if the statue itself belongs to the public domain. Such rights derive from the creativity involved in the positioning of camera, lighting, and other variables.

In the U.S., the ''[http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0500.asp Compendium of Office Practices II]'' of the [[U.S. Copyright Office]] gives some concrete examples and hints at under what conditions a work is sufficiently original to be eligible for copyright.

=== Fonts ===
:'''In short: Scalable fonts ''as such'' are copyrighted as computer programs; typefaces ''as such'' may be protected by design patents, and, in a few countries, by copyright; ''actual use'' of the typeface is not restricted, even if the font used was based illegally on a protected typeface.'''

Under U.S. law, [[typefaces]] and the characters they contain are considered to be utilitarian objects whose utility outweighs any merit that may exist in protecting their creative elements. As such, typefaces are exempt from copyright protection in the United States ([[Code of Federal Regulations]], [http://frwebgate3.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/waisgate.cgi?WAISdocID=36964326810+4+0+0&WAISaction=retrieve Ch 37, Sec. 202.1(e)]; ''Eltra Corp. vs. Ringer''). However, this finding was limited in ''Adobe vs. Southern Software, Inc.'', wherein it was held that scalable computer fonts, ie., the instructions necessary to render a typeface, constitute a "computer program" for the purposes of copyright law and hence are subject to protection. Hence the computer file(s) associated with a scalable font will generally be protected even though the specific design of the characters is not. Furthermore, a [[raster graphics|rasterized]] representation (e.g. bitmap) of the characters in a scalable font is not protected by copyright in the United States. According to section [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0500.asp 503.02(a)] of ''[[Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices]]'', [[typography]] and [[calligraphy]] are not copyrightable in themselves in the U.S. This treatment of fonts is not very unusual with respect to international law, and most other jurisdictions do not consider fonts subject to copyright either (with the notable exception of the UK, which however also only covers typefaces as such, as they are for example employed in fonts, and not their actual use<ref>[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1988/Ukpga_19880048_en_3.htm#pt1-ch3-pb7-l1g54 Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (c. 48), section 54]</ref>). However, typefaces as such may be protected by design patents in many countries (either automatically, or by registration, or by some combination thereof). A prominent example is the European Union,<ref>[http://oami.europa.eu/en/design/faq/faq01.htm#200 OAMI-ONLINE - The Community Design in Practice]</ref> where the automatic protection (without registration) expires after three years and can be extended (by registration) up to 25 years.<ref>[http://oami.europa.eu/en/design/faq/faq01.htm#500 OAMI-ONLINE - The Community Design in Practice]</ref>

=== International aspects ===

:'''In short: The [[threshold of originality]] varies between countries.'''

Like the [[#When does copyright expire?|duration of copyright]], eligibility to copyright in the first place is governed by national laws. The [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html#P109_16834 Berne Convention, §5(2)] explicitly states that
:''The enjoyment and the exercise of these rights ''[i.e., copyrights]'' shall not be subject to any formality; such enjoyment and such exercise shall be independent of the existence of ''[copyright]'' protection in the country of origin of the work.''
In other words: a work that is not copyrightable in one country (even if that country is its country of origin) can still be copyrighted in other countries, if the work is copyrightable there. An example of this is [[:Image:Christoph Meili 1997.jpg]]: this image is not copyrightable in its country of origin (Switzerland) by a decision of the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. However, in all likelihood it fulfills the criteria in other countries: it would pass the [[threshold of originality]] in the U.S.; and it would probably also be eligible for copyright in the EU.

Mere ideas, procedures, methods of operation or mathematical concepts as such are not copyrightable as per article 2 of the [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]].<ref name="wct">[http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wct/trtdocs_wo033.html#P51_3806 WIPO Copyright Treaty], article 2: ''Scope of Copyright Protection''. URL last accessed [[June 21]], [[2006]].</ref>

== Publication ==

:'''In short: A work is published when tangible ''copies'' of it are made available to the public at large.'''

In the following, we will frequently refer to the "[[publication]]" of a work. A work is published when copies of the work are made accessible in some non-ephemeral form to the public at large with the consent of its author or copyright holder. Ephemeral forms of making the work accessible do ''not'' constitute publication. To quote the [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html#P98_14701 Berne Convention, §3.3]:
:''The performance of a dramatic, dramatico-musical, cinematographic or musical work, the public recitation of a literary work, the communication by wire or the broadcasting of literary or artistic works, the exhibition of a work of art and the construction of a work of architecture shall not constitute publication.''

The U.S. Copyright law defines "publication" in [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#101 17 USC 101] in basically the same way using different words:

:''"Publication" is the distribution of copies or phonorecords of a work to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending. The offering to distribute copies or phonorecords to a group of persons for purposes of further distribution, public performance, or public display, constitutes publication. A public performance or display of a work does not of itself constitute publication.''

"Public display" includes broadcasts and other transmissions. The U.S. Copyright Office states in its [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ40.html#publication Circular 40]:
:''A work of art that exists in only one copy, such as a painting or statue, is not regarded as published when the single existing copy is sold or offered for sale in the traditional way, for example, through an art dealer, gallery, or auction house. A statue erected in a public place is not necessarily published.''

:''When the work is reproduced in multiple copies, such as reproductions of a painting or castings of a statue, the work is published when the reproductions are publicly distributed or offered to a group for further distribution or public display.''

Thus, a work is ''unpublished'' unless copies (which may be print publications, photos, postcards, lithographs, but also non-print publications such as replicas of a statuette) of it are published. It is of course implied that such a distribution of copies occurred legally, in particular with the consent of the copyright holder. An illegal distribution of copies (for instance one that itself would be a copyright violation) does ''not'' constitute a publication of a work. The right to publish a work is an ''exclusive'' right of the copyright owner ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 1/Sections 105 and 106|17 USC 106]]), and violating this right (e.g. by disseminating copies of the work without the copyright owner's consent) is a [[copyright infringement]] ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 5/Section 501|17 USC 501(a)]]), and the copyright owner can demand (by suing in court) that copies distributed against his or her will be confiscated and destroyed ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 5/Sections 502 and 503|17 USC 502, 17 USC 503]]).

Notwithstanding the quoted paragraph from the Berne Convention, broadcast and public performance of literary or dramatic works may constitute publication in other countries, e.g. in Australia (see [http://www.copyright.org.au/pdf/acc/InfoSheets/G023.pdf Infosheet G-23: Duration of Copyright]).

We will get back to this issue in the sections "[[#Published works|Published works]]" and "[[#Unpublished works|Unpublished works]]" below.

== When does copyright expire? ==

:'''In short: It depends, but always at the end of the year in which it expires.'''

The Berne Convention was designed to ensure that works protected in the country of origin were also protected in all other signatory countries without the rights holder having to register claims in each and every of these countries. Thus the laws of the originating country of a work determine whether something is copyright protected at all, and if so, the Berne Convention ensures that it is automatically copyright protected in all other signatory countries, too, ''under their respective laws'' (§5(1) of the Berne Convention).

(The ''originating country'' or ''country of origin'' is that country where the work was initially published, or in the case of unpublished works, defined by the author's nationality or "habitual domicile". See §3 of the Berne Convention. If a work is published within 30 days in several countries, it can have multiple "countries of origin".)

Copyright protection is granted only for a certain period of time—barring pathological cases where some work is placed under a [[perpetual copyright]] protection. Different countries have different copyright terms: in some countries, copyright expires 50 years after the author's death (also called "50 years p.m.a.", ''post mortem auctoris''; this is the minimum standard required by the Berne Convention), others have a 70-year period (70y p.m.a.), [[Mexico]] even [http://www.ladas.com/BULLETINS/2004/0304Bulletin/Mexico_CopyrightLaw.html 100y p.m.a.] Many countries also have special rules, depending on when a work was first published, whether it was first published in that country or not, whether the author is known or not, and other things. For instance, a work published with a © notice in the U.S. between 1963 and 1977 (inclusive) is copyright protected in the U.S. until 95 years after the date of the initial publication. Peter Hirtle has compiled a [http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm very useful chart] showing when and under what conditions the copyright of a work expires in the U.S. The default rule in the U.S. for works published since 1978 or for unpublished works is 70 years p.m.a. If a work is a "work made for hire", it has [[corporate authorship]] and is protected to the shorter of 95 years from publication or 120 years from creation. Many countries also know or at least knew different copyright terms for text and photographic works.

Basically all countries in the world specify that when a copyright expires, it does so at the ''end of the year''. Thus, works of an author who died on June 27, 1937 did ''not'' become copyright-free on June 28, 2007 but only on January 1, 2008 under a "70 years p.m.a." rule.

=== Rule of the shorter term ===

:'''In short: The "[[rule of the shorter term]]" says that copyright protection in any signatory country of the Berne Convention ends when the copyright expires in the originating country. This rule is ''not'' binding. The U.S. has ''not'' adopted it; the European Union (with exceptions!), Japan, Macao, and Taiwan ''have'' done so.'''

While the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] ''does'' harmonize bringing works under copyright protection in the first place, it does ''not'' similarly harmonize the expiration of copyright. The Berne Convention prescribes a minimum standard for copyright terms any signatory country must adhere to (50y p.m.a.), but any signatory is free to prescribe longer durations in its laws. To be fair, §7(8) of the Berne Convention ''does'' specify a "rule of the shorter term", which says that the copyright term can in no case exceed the copyright term in the originating country of a work. However, signatory countries have the right to "opt out" from this rule, and it depends on individual countries' implementation acts whether they do follow this rule. The copyright on a work may thus expire in one country and enter the public domain there, but the same work ''may still be copyrighted'' in other signatory countries.

The United States does ''not'' recognize this "shorter term" rule while [[s:United_States_Code/Title_17/Chapter_1/Section_104|17 U.S.C. 104]](c) reads: "Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto." Furthermore, [[s:United_States_Code/Title_17/Chapter_1/Section_104A|17 U.S.C. 104A]](a)(1)(B) may restore copyright on a work published outside the USA for the remaining American copyright term even if its copyright may expire sooner in its source country.

The [[European Union]] does, however, adopt such a rule via-a-vis non-EU members (see §7(1) of the [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection|EU directive 93/98/EEC]]). ''Within'' the EU itself, however, the contrary is true: §10(1) states that longer terms already running remained in effect, and §10(2) states that the 70 year p.m.a. applied to all works protected in at least one member country. As a result, there is a transitory phase in which works that already were out of copyright in one EU country suddenly became copyright protected again in that country on July 1, 1995 because they were still protected in some other EU country. See "[[#World-War II images|World-War II images]]" below.

In East Asia, [[Japan]], [[Macao]], and [[Taiwan]] also honor the rule of the shorter term. See [http://www.cric.or.jp/cric_e/clj/cl2_2.html#cl2_2+S4 §58 of the Japanese Copyright Law], Article 51 of [[s:Decree-Law_n.o_43/99/M|Decree-Law n.o 43/99/M]] of Macao, and Article 106bis of the [[s:Copyright Act (Republic of China, 2006)|Copyright Act]] in effect in Taiwan administered by the Republic of China.

However, some countries make exceptions to this rule. A notorious case is Germany, which has had a bilateral treaty with the U.S. governing copyright since [[January 15]], [[1892]]. That treaty, which is still in effect, defined that a U.S. work was copyrighted in Germany according to German law irrespective of the work's copyright status in the U.S, and it did not contain a "rule of the shorter term". In one [http://web2.justiz.hessen.de/migration/rechtsp.nsf/bynoteid/8019B44ABE988A9CC1256E55004A0462?Opendocument case], a German court therefore decided that a U.S. work that had fallen into the public domain in the U.S. was still copyrighted in Germany in 2003 in spite of §7(1) of the EU directive.

See also OpenFlix for a useful [http://www.openflix.com/information/non-US-copyright.php list] of countries and areas that do or do not honor the rule of the shorter term.

== Country-specific rules ==

:'''In short: First publication is important, but difficult to ascertain.'''

:''See also [[:commons:Commons:Licensing|Commons:Licensing]] and [[Wikipedia:Non-US copyrights|Non-US copyrights]].''

Because copyright expiry is governed by local laws, some special noteworthy cases exist, in particular for ''photographs''. These cases are interesting for Wikipedia if a work was not published in the U.S., because then, the law of the originating country must be examined. There is a whole slew of country-specific image copyright tags for precisely that purpose; see the [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags#Other countries' public domain images|list of image copyright tags]]. However, being in the public domain in its home country ''does not'' automatically mean that the work was also in the public domain in the U.S. because the U.S. does ''not'' follow the "[[#Rule of the shorter term|rule of shorter term]]". Wherever these country-specific tags are used, they should be accompanied by a rationale explaining why the image is thought to be in the public domain in the U.S., too. (Remember that Wikipedia is primarily subject to U.S. law!)

Some examples of such country-specific rules are:
*In [[Australia]], the copyright on published photographs taken before [[May 1]], [[1969]] expired 50 years after the creation. (For photographs taken later, it expired 50 years after the first publication.) As a result of the [[Australia-U.S. Free Trade Agreement]] ([[AUSFTA]]), new legislation became effective on [[January 1]], [[2005]], extending the copyright term (also on photographs) generally to 70 years p.m.a, but explicitly ruling out a revival of copyright on works whose copyright had already expired. Any photographs created before [[January 1]], [[1955]] are thus in the public domain in Australia. The same also holds true for other works, which were protected 50 years p.m.a. prior to January 1, 2005: any work published before 2005 of an author who died before January 1, 1955 is in the public domain in Australia. See [http://www.copyright.org.au/pdf/acc/InfoSheets/G023.pdf Infosheet G-23: Duration of Copyright] by the Australian Copyright Council. These rules even apply for works where the government holds the copyright, i.e. that are under [[Crown copyright]]. (There is the template {{tl|PD-Australia}} for tagging such images.) See also [[copyright expiration in Australia]].
*In [[Canada]], any photograph created (not published!) before [[January 1]], [[1949]] and not covered by [[Crown copyright]] is in the public domain. This is a consequence of the Canadian [http://www.parl.gc.ca/bills/government/C-32/C-32_4/C-32TOCE.html Bill C-32: An Act to Amend the Copyright Act], which replaced the old rule for photographs ("copyright expires 50 years after creation of the work") by 50 years p.m.a., but ''not'' retroactively applying the new rule to works that were already in the public domain by the effective date of the bill, [[January 1]], [[1999]] (see [http://www.city.vancouver.bc.ca/ctyclerk/archives/photos/photrepr.htm] at the bottom). Wikipedia has the template {{tl|PD-Canada}} for tagging such images.

For an exhaustive list of the ''current'' situation in many countries, see [[Wikipedia:Copyright situations by country]]. This may help dealing with such cases. [[UNESCO]] also maintains a [http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=14076&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html collection of copyright laws] from many countries around the world. For works (photographs and others alike, but ''excepting [[#Sound recordings|sound recordings]] made prior to [[February 15]], [[1972]]'') not published in the U.S., the following rule applies:

:'''''If the work was in the public domain in the country of origin as of [[January 1]], [[1996]], it is in the public domain in the U.S.''''' (Even if it was published after 1923, but only if no copyright had been registered with the U.S. Copyright Office.)

[[January 1]], [[1996]] is the effective date for the copyright restorations of the U.S. [[Uruguay Round Agreements Act]] (URAA).<ref name="uraa_circ38b">U.S. Copyright Office: ''[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38b.pdf Circular 38b: Highlights of Copyright Amendments Contained in the URAA]'', URL last accessed [[2007-01-30]].</ref> The URAA implemented [[TRIPS]], part of the [[Uruguay Round]] of the [[GATT]] negotiations, in U.S. law. The URAA essentially is codified in U.S. law in [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104a 17 USC 104A]. It had the effect of automatically ''restoring'' copyrights of works that were still copyrighted in their country of origin but whose copyright had lapsed in the U.S. due to non-compliance with technical formalities such as proper registration of the copyright with the U.S. Copyright Office or that were not protected in the U.S. due to a lack of international or bilateral agreements with the country of origin. Since works that have entered the public domain in their country of origin prior to [[January 1]], [[1996]] are not eligible to this copyright restoration, such works remain in the public domain in the U.S. This, however, is valid only in cases where the U.S. federal copyright law (17 USC) applies. There are some specialized cases that are subject to ''state law'', where other rules may apply (see the section on [[#Sound recordings|sound recordings]] below). If the country of origin became a member of the Berne Convention or the two WIPO treaties or the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] only after January 1, 1996, the URAA still applies and that country's earliest adherence date to any of these treaties or organizations must be taken as the URAA copyright restoration date instead of January 1, 1996.

For the above cases, this means:
*Australian photographs taken before [[January 1]], [[1946]], not published in the U.S., and where no copyright was registered in the U.S., are in the public domain in Australia and the U.S.
*Other works first published in Australia whose author has died before January 1, 1946 and where no copyright was registered in the U.S. are also in the public domain in Australia and the U.S.
*Canadian photographs taken before [[January 1]], [[1946]], not subject to [[Crown copyright]], not published in the U.S., and where no copyright was registered in the U.S. are in the public domain in Canada and the U.S.

Additionally, because of the rule of the shorter term, such photographs are likely to be also in the public domain in Europe and in Japan, unless published there. (For the EU, one may probably even apply the 1955 and 1949 cut-off dates.)

The obvious difficulty here is to show that any particular work was indeed ''not'' published in the U.S, especially when considering works by Canadians. Even worse, one has to show that the work was indeed first published in Australia or Canada, respectively. If it ''was'' published in the U.S., the whole deliberation about copyright expiry in other countries does not come to play at all—the work is copyrighted in the U.S. (unless it was published before 1923, or in a few very specific, difficult to verify cases, see "[[#Published works|published works]]" below). If the work was published first in some third country—such as the [[United Kingdom]]—that third country is the country of origin, and consequently, one has to apply ''that'' country's copyright regulations to determine whether the work's copyright had expired by January 1, 1996. There are some other problems, too:
* If a work has multiple countries of origin because it was published in several countries within 30 days, it is unclear what rules would apply. Most probably, the copyright on the work would have to be expired in ''all'' of them by January 1, 1996 for the work to be in the public domain in the U.S.
* It is entirely unclear how retroactive legislation would affect this rule. What if a work had been in the public domain in its country of origin on January 1, 1996, but that country subsequently modified its copyright laws such that the work's copyright was reactivated?

In summary, the rules in the U.S. for works published abroad are as follows:
*If the work was published before 1923, it is in the public domain in the U.S.<ref name="US1909"/> (With a caveat for works published without copyright notice, see the [[#Footnotes|footnote]].)
*If the work was published 1923 to 1995 (inclusive) and not copyrighted in its countries of origin in 1996, it is in the public domain in the U.S.
*Otherwise, if the work was published before 1978, it is copyrighted in the U.S. for 95 years since the original publication (i.e. at least until 1923 + 95 = 2018), and if it was published 1978 or later, the work is copyrighted until 70 years after the (last surviving) author's death.

While the author of a photograph can often be determined quite easily, it may be rather difficult to ascertain where and when a particular image was first published. And strictly speaking one would also have to verify that a non-U.S. work was not covered by copyright in the U.S. by virtue of some [[bilateral]] agreement of the U.S. and the foreign country (see [http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl100.html] and "Circular 38a" in the "[[#External links|external links]]" section below). Country-specific public domain tags must therefore be used with the utmost care only.

=== Crown copyrights ===

:'''In short: UK Crown copyright expires world-wide.'''

[[Crown copyright]] is a special form of copyright on governmental works (including works made by employees of government agencies in the course of their duties) that exists in the [[United Kingdom]] and a number of other [[Commonwealth realms]]. Crown copyright for published works generally lasts for 50 years since the first publication (this is true not only for the UK but also e.g. for [[Canada]] or [[Australia]]). When Crown copyright expires on a work in its country of origin, the work enters the public domain in that country, but ''it may still be copyrighted in other signatory countries of the Berne Convention'' because these other countries apply their own laws, which may have longer copyright terms and not even know the concept of a "Crown copyright". (See e.g. [http://www.lexum.umontreal.ca/conf/dac/en/sterling/sterling.html Sterling 1995] towards the end, section titled "Protection of Crown copyright in other countries".)

An exception to this is ''UK Crown copyright''. Although UK works on which the Crown copyright has expired also could still be copyrighted elsewhere, the British [[Office of Public Sector Information]] (OPSI), which manages all Crown copyrights on behalf of the coypright holder ([[the Crown]]), has explicitly stated in an [http://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2005-May/022055.html e-mail] to Wikipedia that they consider UK Crown copyright expiry to apply ''world-wide''.

There is a [http://www.museumscopyright.org.uk/crown-a.pdf flowchart] explaining the precise rules for UK Crown copyright expiry. For photographs the rules are as follows:
*For photographs taken before [[June 1]], [[1957]], Crown copyright expires 50 years after the ''creation'' of the image. All such photographs are therefore in the public domain.
*For photographs taken after that date and published before [[August 1]], [[1989]], Crown copyright expires 50 years after the first ''publication''. For photographs created between these two dates, but published only on or after the 1989 date, Crown copyright expires on [[December 31]], [[2039]].
*For photographs created on or after [[August 1]], [[1989]], Crown copyright expires 125 years after the creation or 50 years after the first publication of the image, whatever is earlier.

There is the template {{tl|PD-BritishGov}} to tag images which are claimed to be in the public domain under these rules.

Companies House - When downloading accounts for a Company listed, they are free of copyright and may be posted on any website. They are public record and statutory. The situation is the same for birth and death certificates. There is no copyright for this type of public record. Please see www.companieshouse.gov.uk.

=== Works of the United Nations ===

:'''In short: parliamentary documentation (official records, such as resolutions) and documents ''not'' offered for sale are in the public domain; ''other'' UN documents ''are'' copyrighted.'''

Works of the [[United Nations]] or one of its bodies are generally copyrighted.<ref name="us_un"/><ref name="un_st_ai_2001_5">[[United Nations]], administrative instruction ST/AI/2001/5: ''[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UN/UNPAN006342.pdf United Nations Internet publishing, section 5: Copyright policy and disclaimers]'', [[August 22]], [[2001]]. Also see §3.29 ("Use of photos") of that document. URL last accessed [[2006-11-08]].</ref> In the interest of facilitating dissemination, the UN ''explicitly excludes'' some categories of its works from this general copyright and places them into the public domain: UN parliamentary documentation as well as public information material published under the UN document symbol ''and not offered for sale''.<ref name="un_st_ai_2001_5"/> Such documents are in the public domain. UN parliamentary documentation comprises a broad set of official reports prepared by the UN secretariat and the UN official records.<ref name="un_glossary">United Nations: UN OIOS Glossary, entry on ''[http://www.un.org/Depts/oios/mecd/mecd_glossary/documents/set_p.htm#p_documentation Parliamentary documentation]''. URL last accessed [[2006-11-08]].</ref> UN official records are
:"publications relating to proceedings of organs or conferences of the United Nations. They include verbatim or summary records, documents and check-lists of documents, issued in the form of annexes to those records, including periodic supplements, such as the quarterly ones of the Security Council; and the reports of those organs of subordinate or affiliated bodies, compilations of resolutions, certain reports of the Secretary-General, and other selected publications"<ref name="un_pub_guide">United Nations, administrative instruction ''[[:s:Administrative Instruction ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2|ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2]]''. URL last accessed [[2006-11-07]]. This temporary administrative instruction was prolonged indefinitely by ''[[:s:Administrative Instruction ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2/Add.2|ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2/Add.2]]'' in 1992.</ref>
[[UN resolution]]s are therefore in the public domain world-wide. Concerning images one should bear in mind that the UN may include in their publications (in print, on the Internet, or otherwise) images from third parties for which the UN has obtained an appropriate license.<ref name="un_st_ai_2001_5"/> Such third-party images retain their copyright, even if published in an otherwise public domain UN document as mentioned above. Only UN images appearing in such documents may be assumed to be in the public domain.

== Published works ==

:'''In short: Copyright notices are not needed anymore.'''

Under the Berne Convention, copyright is ''automatic'': no registration is needed, and it is not even necessary to display a copyright notice with the work for it to be copyright protected. Prior to the U.S. adopting the Berne Convention (by amending its copyright law through the [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d100:HR04262:@@@L&summ2=m& Berne Convention Implementation Act], effective [[March 1]], [[1989]]), this was not the case in the U.S. A work was only copyrighted if published with a copyright notice, which could be as simple as a line saying "© year copyright holder". For U.S. works there are therefore some special cases that place even works published after 1923 in the public domain. However, the necessary conditions are hard to verify.

*Published in the U.S., ''without'' a copyright notice:
**From 1923 to 1977: in the public domain
**From 1978 to March 1, 1989: only in the public domain if not registered since.
*Published in the U.S., ''with'' a copyright notice:
**From 1923 to 1963: only in the public domain if copyright not renewed. This may be hard to determine, and if renewed, the protection runs until 95 years after the initial publication. See the [[#External links|external links]] below and [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ22.html Circular 22 of the U.S. Copyright Office] for information on how to search the registry of the U.S. Copyright Office for copyright registrations and renewals.
**From 1964 to 1977: not in the public domain for some time to come; copyright expires 95 years after the original publication.
**From 1978 to March 1, 1989: [[#Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law|current standard rules]] apply (see just below).

Even if a work was published in the U.S. between 1923 and 1977 without a copyright notice, there would need to be proof to that effect. The proof must contain a valid resource justifying the claim in order for the U.S. copyright office to accept it.

For works not published in the U.S. but published first in some other country, see "[[#Country-specific rules|country-specific rules]]" above.

=== Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law ===

Works having seen their original U.S. publication on or after March 1, 1989 (with or without copyright notice or registration) are protected until 70 years after the author's death ('''70 years ''p.m.a.'''''); anonymous works, [[works made for hire]], works of unknown authors or where the author's death date is unknown are copyrighted until the shorter of '''95 years since the first publication''' or '''120 years since their creation'''. See [[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 3/Sections 302 and 303|17 USC 302]].

== Unpublished works ==

:'''In short: the 1923 date does ''not'' apply to ''unpublished'' works.'''

So far, we have only considered ''[[#Publication|published]]'' works. To re-iterate from the [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html#P98_14701 Berne Convention, §3.3]:
:''The performance of a dramatic, dramatico-musical, cinematographic or musical work, the public recitation of a literary work, the communication by wire or the broadcasting of literary or artistic works, the exhibition of a work of art and the construction of a work of architecture shall not constitute publication.''
As long as a work is not published, it is ''unpublished''. (Also note that by publication, the work must be made accessible to the general public, not only some closed audience. Furthermore, the publication must have had the consent of the author/creator or copyright holder of the work.)

Why is this important at all for Wikipedians? How could you come across an unpublished work?

Actually, that can happen easily with photographs in archives. Remember that "publication" requires the consent of the rights holder (initially the photographer). Many historic photos may thus actually be unpublished works, unless it can be shown that they ''were'' published in olden times. Especially items like private letters or family photographs, or photos found in some album, may well be unpublished. There are special exemptions in copyright law for libraries and archives that allow them to reproduce (even for the general public) such works for non-commercial uses, but that does not constitute "publication" unless done with the authorization of the rights holder.

The University of Wyoming has a [http://ahc.uwyo.edu/documents/about/publications/handouts/copyright.pdf three-page primer] on the issues involved with unpublished works. Archives often do not hold the copyright to the items in their holdings. Only if the copyright had been assigned in writing to an archive, the archive itself is the copyright holder. In practice, many archive holdings may be so-called [[orphaned work]]s, i.e. works where the current copyright holder, if any, is unknown. For such orphaned works, the U.S. Copyright Office seems to [http://www.copyright.gov/orphan/ push for a change] in U.S. Copyright law (see [http://archiv.twoday.net/stories/1501083/] for a brief summary) and a bill (HR 5439) for the [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.R.5439: Orphan Works Act of 2006] has been introduced in the [[United States House of Representatives]] on [[May 22]], [[2006]], but ''no law has been passed yet.''

Unpublished works are subject to copyright, too. To determine the copyright status of works published by archives that were not published elsewhere before, one will need to consider the rules for unpublished works. Until the [[Copyright Act of 1976|U.S. Copyright Act of 1976]] became effective on [[January 1]], [[1978]], U.S. federal law only covered published works and unpublished works that were registered at the Copyright Office. Unpublished unregistered works were covered by state law. This "[[common law copyright]]" in most states granted unpublished works a ''perpetual'' copyright, valid until an eventual publication of the work.<ref name="oakley">Oakley, R. L.: ''[http://www.clir.org/PUBS/reports/oakley/scheme-a.html Copyright and Preservation – Is the Work Protected?]'', CLIR, 1990. (A good explanation, but note that some dates mentioned there have been superseded by the copyright term extension of the CTEA in 1998.) URL last accessed [[2007-02-16]].</ref><ref name="lii">N.N.: ''[http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/usc_sec_17_00000301----000-notes.html Historical and Revision Notes]'' on 17 USC 301. Legal Information Institute, Cornell University. URL last accessed [[2007-02-16]].</ref> Since 1978, U.S. federal law also covers unpublished works (and preempts state law, see [[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 3/Section 301|17 USC 301]]). This gives the following situation in the U.S.:
*Unpublished works created before 1978:
**If published before 1978, the work is subject to the rules for works published before 1978. Because the common law copyright on unpublished works was perpetual, there were ''no'' unpublished works in the public domain back then, and thus the work was eligible to copyright when published. See [[#Published works|published works]].
**If not published before 1978, the work is copyrighted according to the [[#Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law|standard U.S. rules]].
**''However,'' if the work ''was'' published 1978 to 2002 (inclusive), it is copyrighted at least until the end of 2047. ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 3/Sections 302 and 303|17 USC 303]])
*Unpublished works created in 1978 or later are subject to the [[#Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law|standard U.S. rules]].

=== Artworks ===
:'''In short: Artworks are likely to remain unpublished long after their creation date. A date of publication must be ascertained to establish PD status.'''
Another important class of possible unpublished works are ''artworks'', in particular ''paintings''. Because an artwork is ''not'' published by being exhibited, and also neither by being created or sold, one needs to know when reproductions of the artwork (photos, postcards, lithographs, casts of statues, and so on) were first published. That constitutes publication of the artwork, and from then on, the work is subject to all the rules for published works.

For most artworks, a year is usually given, but this is normally the year the work was made, ''not'' the year it was published. Figuring out whether and if so when a particular painting was published can be difficult.

In the case that an artwork created before 1978 is not published until 2003 or later, it comes into the public domain 70 years after the author's death. However, if it is first published between 1978 and 2002 (inclusive), it will still be copyrighted in the U.S. until the end of 2047.

Proof of publication is mandatory; uploaders making a "public domain" claim on (a reproduction of) an artwork are ''required'' to prove with verifiable details that the work was first published before 1923, or first published after 2003 with an artist who died more than 70 years ago. To show that a work was published, one could look for printed works that contained reproductions of the artwork: art prints, art books, a ''[[catalogue raisonné]]'' of the artist's works, exhibition catalogs, and so on (although it is not clear when publishing a thumbnail constitutes publication of the original work). Reasonable effort should be made to find the earliest publication. If any is found from before 1923, that's good enough and the work is in the public domain. Remember, though, that "publication" means "lawful publication", which implies the consent of the author of the original.

If only a publication after 1922 can be asserted, the work should not be assumed to be in the public domain without evidence. If it was published before 1978 and had no [[#Published works|copyright notice]] or if it was published before 1964 and the copyright was not renewed it should be in the public domain. Works published abroad rarely complied with US formalities but may still be copyrighted if they were copyrighted in their home country on January 1, 1996 when the [[URAA]] restored copyrights in foreign works.

=== Country-specific rules for unpublished works ===

:'''In short: These rules vary greatly.'''

The Berne Convention leaves it to any signatory country to make its own rules regarding unpublished anonymous works (see §15(4)). Unpublished works by a ''known'' author, however, are subject to the same minimum protection (50 years p.m.a) as published works. But this is only a minimum protection. Individual countries can and do make their own rules regarding unpublished works, and often go beyond this minimum. Some cases to illustrate the possible complexities are:

*In Australia, unpublished literary, dramatic and music works are subject to a ''perpetual'' copyright. Furthermore, broadcasting or publicly performing such a work ''does'' constitute publication in Australia. (See [http://www.copyright.org.au/pdf/acc/InfoSheets/G023.pdf Infosheet G-23: Duration of Copyright].)
*In the countries of the [[European Union]], a publisher who publishes a previously unpublished work is granted the [[publication right]] on the work for a period of 25 years beginning with the eventual publication. This publication right is basically a copyright minus the [[moral rights]], which are always granted to the author only.
*In Germany, a work of the [[fine art]]s (such as a painting) is considered "published" if the original or a copy was permanently made available to the general public with the consent of the rights holder. ("Permanently" means "with the intent to be accessible for the normal natural lifetime of the work", c.f. the [[commons:COM:FOP#Permanent vs temporal|explanation at the Commons]].) Hence works of the fine arts can be "published" even if there are no copies.<ref name="urhg6">[http://bundesrecht.juris.de/urhg/__6.html German ''Urherberrechtsgesetz'', article 6(2)]. URL last accessed [[2007-08-13]].</ref>
Such cases may be important when trying to determine whether a non-U.S. work was copyrighted on [[January 1]] [[1996]]. See "[[#Country-specific rules|country-specific rules]]" above.

== Sound recordings ==

:'''In short: The copyright situation in the U.S. depends on ''state law'' for records made prior to [[February 15]], [[1972]]. ''Foreign'' recordings from 1946 or later ''are'' subject to federal copyright (even if made before 1972).'''

"Sound recording" and "phonorecord" are the terms used in the U.S. federal copyright law for records of music and speech alone, i.e. not together with images: videos, for instance, do not fall in this category. A "phonorecord" is the physical medium (LP, tape, CD, or other) on which a sound recording is fixed. Sound recordings, including digital recordings, are a very complex special case in U.S. copyright law. (Note: although "sound recording" encompasses also non-musical sounds, the topic is discussed here in the context of music recordings without loss of generality.)

A sound recording is different from a musical work. A musical work would be a composition (notes and words). Publicly performing a musical work does not constitute "publication" in the sense of the copyright law. (Presumably, a musical work is published when the score sheets are published.) Making a sound recording of a performance of a musical work requires the permission of the performer. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap11.html#1101 17 USC 1101]) Performing a musical work requires the authorization of the copyright holder of that musical work. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#106 17 USC 106(4)]) Distributing phonorecords made from a performance of a musical work also requires the authorization of the copyright holder of the work performed. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#106 17 USC 106(3)]). A sound recording is copyrighted separately from the musical work it records. Publicly distributing phonorecords of the sound recording constitutes publication of the sound recording. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#101 17 USC 101])

So there are four different copyrights to be considered for a sound recording:
*The copyright of the composer
*The copyright of the texter, if any
*The copyright of the performer, and
*The copyright of the producer of the record
In the case of broadcasts, there's also the copyright of the broadcaster on the broadcast to consider. The copyrights of performers/record producers/broadcasters are called the "[[neighbouring rights]]" or "related rights" in many countries. ''All'' of these have to have expired before the work enters the public domain.

Sound recordings made prior to [[February 15]], [[1972]] are ''not'' covered by U.S. federal copyright law.[http://www.clir.org/PUBS/reports/pub135/contents.html] They are, however, subject to U.S. state common or statutory laws until [[February 15]], [[2067]].{{mn|date2067|&dagger;}} On that date, federal copyright law will preempt state law, i.e., federal law will supersede any state laws in matters concerning the copyright of such sound recordings, and such sound recordings will then enter the public domain in the U.S., as federal law explicitly states that no such recordings "shall be subject to copyright under this title before, on, or after" that date. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap3.html#301 17 USC 301(c)]) Sound recordings made on or after [[February 15]], [[1972]] ''are'' covered by 17 USC (that is, the federal copyright law), and state law is irrelevant for such later recordings.

On an international level, sound recordings are ''not'' covered by the Berne Convention. §2(1) of the Berne Convention only lists musical works, but not recordings of performances of such. Internationally, sound recordings are brought under the auspices of copyright protection by the [[Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations|Rome Convention]], the [[WPPT]], and the [[Geneva Phonograms Convention]] (in full: "[http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/phonograms/index.html Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms]"). The U.S. has never signed the Rome Convention, but has signed and ratified the WPPT (entry in force in the U.S. was on [[March 20]], [[2002]]). Additionally, the U.S. has ratified the Phonograms Convention in 1973, it entered in force on [[March 10]], [[1974]].

An illustrative case in the U.S. showing some of the complexities of determining the copyright status of even old recordings is ''[http://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/I05_0027.htm Capitol Records v. Naxos of America]'', decided by the [[New York Court of Appeals]], the highest court of the state of New York, on [[April 5]], [[2005]]. Briefly, that decision about old recordings that were made in the [[United Kingdom]] in the 1930s and that had entered the public domain there in the 1980s (50 years after their creation) stated that these were still eligible for copyright protection under the common law of the state of New York, even though they were in the public domain in the UK prior to [[January 1]], [[1996]] and thus not eligible to copyright restoration under the URAA. The reason given was precisely that records from the 1930s were not covered by federal law and the URAA and its cut-off date did not apply to state law.

Despite sound recordings not being covered by the Berne Convention, and despite the fact that the U.S. in 1996 was a member of neither the Rome Convention nor the WPPT, the [[URAA]] ''does'' cover sound recordings ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 1/Section 104A|17 USC 104A(h)(6)]], in particular sub-points (C)(iii) and (E)). The usual copyright term for performances/records/broadcasts in many non-U.S. countries is 50 years, counted from the creation (performance, fixation of the record, original broadcast), but if the performance or record is published within these 50 years, the term runs until the end of 50 years after that first publication. (The minimum term defined in the Rome Convention is just 20 years, but many countries go further.) As a result, the URAA generally restored ''federal'' copyright on foreign sound recordings made 1946 or later, even though domestic records from 1946–1971 do not benefit from such federal copyright. As far as ''foreign'' records are concerned, common law copyright applies only to pre-1946 records. Later records are covered by federal law. And, as the ''Capitol v. Naxos'' case showed, absence of federal copyright due to non-restoration does not mean the foreign recording were in the public domain in the U.S.<ref name="besek">Besek, June M.: ''[http://www.clir.org/PUBS/abstract/pub135abst.html Copyright Issues Relevant to Digital Preservation and Dissemination of Pre-1972 Commercial Sound Recordings by Libraries and Archives]'', CLIR pub. #135, December 2005, ISBN 1-932326-23-5. URL last accessed [[2007-08-23]]. See in particular p. 18f on restoration of foreign sound recordings, and footnote 88 on p. 31 for evidence that ''all'' four (or five) different copyrights need to have expired.</ref>

:{{mnb2|date2067|†}} That date originally was February 15, 2047 (75 years after 1972), but was extended by 20 years in 1998 by the [[CTEA]].

== Movies and movie stills ==

:'''In short: many movies are ''[[commons:COM:DW|derivative works]]'' of other, pre-existing works. They enter the public domain only when the copyrights on the movie ''and'' those on the underlying base work have expired.'''

Movies are called "motion pictures" in the U.S. Copyright law and belong to the class of "audiovisual works". A movie comprises both the sequence of images and the accompanying sound, if any. (Incidentally, a movie soundtrack is ''not'' a "sound recording", 17 USC 101.) They are subject to the same copyright rules as other works, with a few extras. Among the exclusive rights of the copyright holder on a movie are the rights to display publicly the movie ''or individual images from it''. Therefore, even the display of a single frame from a movie (a so-called "movie still") is subject to the copyright on the film.

The matter of movies is complicated when the movie itself is a derivative work of some earlier work, for instance a previously published novel. As with all derivative works, the copyright on both the derivative and the underlying base work must have expired before the film is truly in the public domain. If only the rights on the film have expired, publication of the movie is still subject to the consent of the rights holder of the underlying work.

:"In ''Russell v. Price'', 612 F.2d 1123,1128 (9th Cir. 1979), the court held that copyright owners of [[George Bernard Shaw]]’s play ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'', which was still covered by copyright, could prevent distribution of the film version of the play, even though the film had fallen into the public domain. Similarly, in ''Filmvideo Releasing Corp. v. Hastings'', 668 F.2d 91,92 (2d Cir. 1981), the court held that even though films based on the ''[[Hopalong Cassidy]]'' stories had fallen into the public domain, a license for television exhibition had to be obtained from the owners of the copyrights in the underlying books, which were still protected by copyright."
::Quoted from Besek, footnote 88 on page 31.<ref name="besek"/>

A similar case occurred with the film ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'', which was thought to be in the public domain when its copyright owner failed to renew its copyright in 1974. However, in 1993, the copyright owner determined that it still held the rights to the underlying story...<ref name="ochoa">Ochoa, T.: ''[http://www3.wcl.american.edu/cni/0202/30327.html Re: Films in Public Domain]'', E-Mail to listserv, February 27, 2002; citing Steven Mitchell Schiffman, ''Movies in the Public Domain: A Threatened Species'' 20 Columbia-VLA J. L. Arts 663, 671-72 (1996) and Debra L. Quentel, ''"Bad Artists Copy. Good Artists Steal": The ugly Conflict between Copyright Law and Appropriationism'', 4 UCLA Ent. L. Rev. 39, 47 n.46 (1996). URL last accessed [[2007-08-28]].</ref>

The situation gets even more confusing if the effects of renewals are taken into account. In particular, what about the status of derivative works created during the base work's initial copyright term, ''i.e.'', created before the renewal of the copyright on base work? In 1990, the U.S. [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled in ''Stewart v. Abend'' (495 U.S. 207 (1990)) that the continued exhibition and distribution of the [[Alfred Hitchcock|Hitchcock]] movie ''[[Rear Window]]'' was a copyright infringement on an underlying short story, on which the copyright had been renewed. On the other hand, this applies only to ''explicit'' copyright renewals, i.e. all pre-1964 renewals and those made voluntarily after 1964. As per [[:s:United_States_Code/Title_17/Chapter_3/Sections_304_and_305|17 USC 304(a)(4)(A)]], it does ''not'' apply to automatic copyright renewals (since 1964).<ref name="gorman_movie_renwal">Gorman, R. A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law, 2nd ed.]'', U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]. Sub-section "Derivative works prepared during the initial term", pp. 60–62. URL last accessed [[2007-08-27]].</ref> See also ''[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ15.html Circular 15: Renewal of Copyright]'' by the U.S. Copyright Office.

Note that in most countries, all this is not an issue at all. As movies are granted the same copyrights with the same terms as the underlying work, the copyright on the underlying work typically expires first. But in the U.S., it is quite possible that the copyright on a movie was not renewed (or the movie was published without copyright notice) while the book on which it is based was properly copyrighted and renewed. In such cases, the movie will be in the public domain only when the book is in the public domain, too.

=== Animated movies (Cartoons) ===

:'''In short: Cartoons (animated movies or comic strips) enter the public domain only when the copyrights on both the movie or strip ''and'' the character have expired.'''

With cartoons, a slightly different issue may arise. Cartoon characters are, themselves, objects of copyright. <ref name="gorman_cartoon">Gorman, R. A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law, 2nd ed.]'', U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]. Section "Pictorial and literary characters", p. 50. URL last accessed [[2007-08-27]].</ref> The most famous example is, most likely, [[Mickey Mouse]]. He appeared in 1928 in the animated movies ''[[Plane Crazy]]'' and ''[[Steamboat Willie]]'', and was copyrighted at that time. The copyright was properly renewed and, because of the terms of the [[Copyright Term Extension Act]], its copyright runs for 95 years since the original publication and is currently set to expire at the end of 2023. The Mickey Mouse case is complicated even more because the character has become a trademark of [[The Walt Disney Company]], which means that even "fair use" of the character must be carefully evaluated to avoid [[trademark infringement]].<ref name="moffat">Moffat, V.: ''[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=972358 Mutant Copyrights and Backdoor Patents: The Problem of Overlapping Intellectual Property Protection]'', Berkeley Technology Law Journal, Vol. 19, 2004, pp. 1474–1532. ([http://btlj.boalt.org/data/articles/19-4_fall-2004_6-moffat.pdf Alternate link to full article])</ref>

Similar to the above, an animated movie enters the public domain only when the copyrights on both the movie ''and'' the character have expired. Even if there were a ''Mickey Mouse'' movie that was not under copyright due to non-renewal or other reasons, that movie would not be in the public domain until the end of 2023, when the copyrights on ''Plane Crazy'', ''Steamboat Willie'' and on ''Mickey Mouse'' will have expired.

The same applies, of course, to other cartoon characters such as [[Donald Duck]], or the [[Warner Bros.]] characters such as [[Daffy Duck]]. It also applies to [[comic strips]] and comics characters, such as [[Superman]].

== Photographs of buildings ==

:'''In short: Photographs of civilian buildings from public places are OK in many, but not all, countries.'''

Buildings are works subject to copyright in the U.S. according to [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#102 17 USC 102(a)(8)] since the [http://www.djc.com/news/ae/11151054.html Architectural Works Copyright Protection Act] was passed in 1990. It applies to all buildings that were completed (not begun) after [[December 1]], [[1990]], or where the plans were published after that date. However, the U.S. federal copyright law explicitly exempts photographs of such copyrighted buildings from the copyright of the building in [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#120 17 USC 120(a)]. Anyone may take photographs of buildings from public places. The photographer holds the exclusive copyright to such an image (the architect or owner of the building has no say whatsoever), and may publish the image in any way. In German copyright law, this is called ''"[[:de:Panoramafreiheit|Panoramafreiheit]]"''. Not all countries recognize this right; in France and Belgium, for instance, there is no such [[freedom of panorama]] and thus the copyright holder of a building has the right to control the distribution of photographs of the building. A famous example is the [[Atomium]] in [[Brussels]], which is copyrighted. The copyright holder in this case is rather litigious about the publication of unauthorized/unlicensed images of the Atomium.<ref name="atomium">See e.g. this [http://www.chillingeffects.org/fairuse/notice.cgi?NoticeID=760 take-down notice].</ref>

17 USC 120 applies only to architectural works, not to other works of visual art, such as statues. In many other countries, this freedom of panorama extends also to works of the visual arts that are permanently located in public places, but that is not the case in the United States. In many countries, taking photographs of military installations is also illegal (but that prohibition is independent of copyright).

:''See also the [[:commons:Commons:Freedom of panorama|list of panorama freedom legislation around the world]] at the Commons.''

== Derived works and restorations of works in the public domain ==

:'''In short: These may give rise to new copyright on the new work, but not on the public domain original.'''

[[Image:Vietnam child soldier.jpg|thumb|This image has been heavily postprocessed by a Wikipedia editor to restore it from a very badly deteriorated original. Although the technical work was intricate and involved many choices to be made, the creator of the digitally restored image does not think he'd have a copyright on the restored version as it is not the result of original, creative input of his. Both the original (as a work of an U.S. Army soldier in service) and the restored image are in the public domain.]]
A work that is derived or adapted from a public domain work can itself be protected by copyright only to the extent that the derived work contains elements of originality contributed by the author of the derived work. For example, an abstract painting of a famous photograph would be protectible, as is the distinctive rendition of the ''[[Star Spangled Banner]]'' performed by [[Jimi Hendrix]]. The protection available to these works does not remove the underlying work from the public domain, and the author of the derivation has no cause of action against another person who makes a derivation of the same public domain work.

A work that is merely a "slavish copy", or even a restoration of an original public domain work is ''not'' subject to copyright protection. In the case of ''Hearn v. Meyer'', 664 F. Supp 832 (S.D.N.Y. 1987), an illustrator attempted unsuccessfully to claim copyright on his restored versions of original ''Wizard of Oz'' illustrations. The illustrations were in the public domain, and the court found that the act of rendering them with bolder and more vibrant colors was not an original contribution sufficient to remove the restored works from the public domain.

The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] has explicitly rejected difficulty of labor or expense as a consideration in copyrightability in ''[[Feist v. Rural]]''. See also "[[#Non-creative works|Non-creative works]]" above.

== Public records ==

:'''In short: being in the public record has no bearing on the copyright status of an item. Works in the public record may be copyrighted.'''

[[Public record]]s are ''not'' necessarily in the public domain. Citizens generally have the right to ''access'' many items in the government's public records, but this right to access does not include a right to republish or redistribute the works so accessed. In general, copyright is neither lost nor waived when a work becomes part of the public record. Being in the public record and copyright are two orthogonal concepts. Uses of works from the public record must comply with copyright law.<ref name="publ_rec">Davis, Karen: ''[http://www.in.gov/pac/informal/2005/Lt.Governor_inquiry_by_Chad_Frahm_re_Tourism_photos.pdf Guidance Regarding the Use of Copyrighted Material Under the Access to Public Records Act]'', Public Access Counselor, U.S. State of [[Indiana]], [[October 31]], [[2005]]. URL last accessed [[2006-12-22]].</ref>

Many items in the U.S. public records are in the public domain as [[#U.S. government works|works of the U.S. federal government]], such as court decisions by federal courts. Laws, statutes, court opinions, but also other official documents such as "tax maps", are not copyrightable in general in the U.S., even if made by a U.S. state.<ref name="gorman_govt">Gorman, R.A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright law, 2nd ed.]'', U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]], section "Government works" on pp. 52–54. URL last accessed [[2007-08-31]].</ref><ref name="perritt">Perritt, H. H.: ''[http://www.courtstuff.com/JCIT/wandm.htm#IVB Sources of rights to access public information, section B.1]'', article presented at "Access Versus Privacy: Approaches to State Information
Policy", a conference held on [[March 17]], [[1995]] at the Marshall-Wythe School of Law, College of William & Mary. URL last accessed [[2007-08-31]].</ref> Other kinds of works in the public record (third-party works, works of state or local governments other than laws, statutes, and so on) may be copyrighted, though;<ref name="state_pubs"/><ref name="contractors"/><ref name="compendium206_01"/> even when they have become part of the public record.

In the [[United Kingdom]], many items in the public records ''are'' copyrighted. Official works in the UK are under [[Crown copyright]], and this copyright subsists if the item was published before it was placed in a public record repository. Only for works that were placed in such repositories without having been published before, the Crown waives its copyright.<ref name="opsi">UK [[Office of Public Sector Information]]: ''[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/advice/crown-copyright/copyright-guidance/copyright-in-public-records.htm Copyright in Public Records]'', [[November 30]], [[2006]]. URL last accessed [[2006-12-22]].</ref>

== Copyright restorations ==

:'''In short: Works that were already out of copyright may sometimes become copyrighted again!'''

Common sense would suggest that once the copyright of a particular work has expired in a country and it had thus entered the public domain in that country, it would always remain in the public domain there. Unfortunately, this is not true. It is entirely possible that the copyright laws of a country are changed such that works already out of copyright under the old law ''become copyrighted again'' under the new law. Such ''copyright restorations'' complicate considerably the matter of deciding whether a work is indeed in the public domain.

There are several examples of such laws restoring copyrights. In the EU, the [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]], which is ''binding'' for all EU members and which became effective on [[July 1]], [[1995]], makes any work that was copyrighted in at least one EU member on January 1, 1995 copyrighted in ''all'' EU members, even if that work's copyright had already expired there (see [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0098:EN:HTML §10(2)] of the directive). Because Spain has had a strict copyright law with a long copyright term of 70 years p.m.a. (or even 80 year for some time) and no rule of the shorter term since 1879, this effectively means that throughout the EU, one has to apply 70 years p.m.a., irrespective of shorter terms that may have existed in historic laws of a particular EU member. For an example of this, see the case of German [[#World War II images|World War II images]] below. In the U.S., the [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38b.pdf Uruguay Round Agreement Act (URAA)] mentioned above is another such copyright restoration to the U.S. copyright law. It suddenly makes works copyrighted in the U.S. that previously were in the public domain there. Examples of such copyright restorations also exist in other countries.

Such copyright restorations typically are ''not'' ''[[ex post facto]]'' laws. (Briefly, an ''ex post facto'' law is one that retroactively criminalizes or punishes more severely acts done before the law was passed.) The EU directive explicitly says in [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0098:EN:HTML §10(3)] that the directive ''"shall be without prejudice to any acts of exploitation performed before the...''[effective date, i.e. [[July 1]], [[1995]]]''. Member States shall adopt the necessary provisions to protect in particular acquired rights of third parties."'' The URAA, to take the other example discussed above, only makes ''continued or new'' unlicensed uses of works whose copyright has been restored a copyright violation. Unlicensed earlier publications of the work (while it was still in the public domain in the U.S.) are ''not'' punished "after the fact", i.e. ''ex post facto''. For continued uses, [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104a 17 USC 104A] requires even that the holder of the restored copyright file a so-called "Notice of Intent to Enforce Restored Copyrights" (in short: NIE) with the U.S. Copyright Office for such continued uses to be considered copyright infringements (see 17 USC 104A(c)). For existing derivative works, 17 USC 104A(d)(3) stipulates that a "reasonable compensation" must be paid for continued use.

Because the URAA became effective only on [[January 1]], [[1996]] (half a year after the EU directive), any copyrights restored in the EU by the directive also became restored in the U.S.

=== Countries without copyright treaties with the U.S. ===

:'''In short: Use such works under a "public domain" claim ''only if'' the copyright in the country of origin has expired.'''

According to [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html Circular 38a] of the U.S. Copyright Office, which gives the state of affairs as of January 2003, [[Afghanistan]], [[Bhutan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Nepal]], [[San Marino]], and possibly [[Yemen]] have no copyright relations whatsoever with the U.S. ([[Eritrea]] is not mentioned at all.) Works originating in one of these countries thus are not copyrighted in the United States, irrespective of the local copyright laws of these countries.

On Wikipedia, such works may be used under a "public domain" claim ''only'' if their copyright in the country of origin has expired, even though legally the work is in the public domain in the U.S. [[Jimbo Wales]] has [http://mail.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikien-l/2005-August/027373.html expressed] a strong desire that such countries' copyrights be respected. Furthermore, it also avoids future problems with images on Wikipedia if some of these countries should enter a copyright treaty with the U.S., because then suddenly such works will become copyrighted in the U.S. by virtue of the URAA (see above) if they are still copyrighted in their country of origin. Previously uploaded images might then have to be reevaluated. As an example, consider [[Iraq]], which is, despite all the political and military confusion, a [[WTO]] [http://www.wto.int/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm observer] and is in the process of [http://www.wto.int/english/thewto_e/acc_e/a1_iraq_e.htm applying for WTO membership]. If and when Iraq does become a WTO member, the URAA suddenly will apply, and Iraqi works that are copyrighted in Iraq at that time will become copyrighted in the U.S.

[[Bhutan]] and [[Nepal]] have instituted copyright relations with the United States since Circular 38a was published, and [[North Korea]] has joined the Berne Convention since then. [[Afghanistan]] is in the process of developing a copyright law.<ref name=afghan">Wick, P.; Klosek, J.: ''[http://www.goodwinprocter.com/getfile.aspx?filepath=/Files/publications/wick_klosek_11_22_03.pdf A clean slate: Drafting Afghanistan's first copyright laws]'', Goodwin Procter, ''Copyright World'', November 2003. URL last accessed [[2007-02-21]].</ref>

== Example cases ==

This section is intended to show the effect the aforementioned rules using a few example images.

=== German World War II images ===

:'''In short: All deemed copyrighted by their authors. In the U.S. and the UK, special exceptions for "seized enemy property" ''may'' apply.'''

The issue of [[Germany|German]] photographs from World War II has created some confusion. Are they still copyrighted? What about governmental images (such as propaganda)? What about images seized by Nazi Germany?

Already the copyright situation in Germany concerning such images is confusing. Originally, these images were subject to the ''[http://www.fotorecht.de/publikationen/kug.html Kunsturhebergesetz (KUG)]'' from 1907, which provided for a copyright term for photographs of 10 years since the publication, or 25 years p.m.a. for unpublished works. In [[1940]], the ''KUG'' was modified to provide a copyright term of 25 years since publication, applicable also to all works that were either still unpublished or still copyright protected (§26). In [[1965]], the first version of the German ''[http://www.urheberrecht.org/law/normen/urhg/1965-09-09/text/bgbl_I_1273_01_07_p64-69.php3 Urheberechtsgesetz (UrhG)]'' became effective, again with a copyright term for photographs of 25 years since publication, or 25 years since creation, if the image was not published in that time (§68). As a result, photographs from the World-War-II era went out of copyright in Germany at the end of 1970.<ref name="seiler">Rechtsanwalt D. Seiler: ''[http://www.fotorecht.de/publikationen/schutzfrist.html Fotografien und urheberrechtliche Schutzfristen]''. URL last accessed [[2008-09-16]]. The distinction in German copyright law between photographic ''works'' (''Lichtbildwerk'', copyrighted for 70 years ''p.m.a.)'', and simple photographs (''Lichtbild'', copyrighted for 50 years since creation or publication) was introduced only in 1985: [http://www.urheberrecht.org/law/normen/urhg/1985-06-24/materialien/bgbl_I_1137.php3#1985_I_1137 Gesetz zur Änderung von Vorschriften auf dem Gebiet des Urheberrechts vom 24. Juni 1985], BGBl. I Nr. 33 vom 27.6.1985, S. 1137. [[Directive 93/98/EEC|EU directive 93/98/EEC]] had the effect of making most photos qualify as photographic ''works''. See Seiler on this.</ref>

However, with the EU [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]] from 1993, which became effective in Germany on [[July 1]], [[1995]] and is implemented in German law in [http://bundesrecht.juris.de/urhg/__137f.html §137f], these works suddenly became copyright protected ''again'', until 70 years p.m.a! This was caused by the interaction of the directive (see [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection#Copyright restoration|section on copyright restoration]]) with Spain's longer copyright term of 80 years ''p.m.a.''<ref name="Spain">See the [http://www.derecho-internet.org/node/365 1879 copyright law of Spain]: the 80-year term remained valid even in the [http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs_new/es/es/es015es.html 1987 copyright law] (transitional provisions, article 1(2)) and in the [http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs_new/en/es/es070en.html 1996 copyright law], which implemented that EU directive (transitional provisions, fourth article).</ref> This suddenly superseded Germany's old "25 years"-rule that had been governing World-War-II-era images. As a result, a image published in 1943 that had been in the public domain in Germany since 1968 became copyrighted again in 1995 with the EU term of 70y p.m.a.<ref name="olg_hh">[http://web.archive.org/web/20070426042905/http://www.pkf-duisburg.de/news/wirtschaft_mehr.php?id=473&limit=50 Oberlandesgericht Hamburg, decision 5 U 159/03, March 3, 2004]: The copyright on a German photograph of a surfacing submarine, taken in 1941 and published in 1943, had expired in Germany at the end of 1968. However, the image was re-copyrighted by [http://bundesrecht.juris.de/urhg/__137f.html §137f] implementing the [[Directive 93/98/EEC|EU directive 93/98/EEC]] because it was still copyrighted in Italy on July 1, 1995.</ref>

As a result, such images were copyright protected on [[January 1]], [[1996]]<ref name="uraa_wwii">See the section explaining the [[#Country-specific rules|URAA]] above.</ref> (which is the critical date as far as U.S. copyright law is concerned), and therefore, they ''are copyrighted even in the U.S.''

The situation of German World-War-II photographs found in U.S. governmental archives is controversial. They might fall (in the US only) under [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/usc_sec_17_00000104---A000-.html#a_2 17 U.S.C. 104A(a)(2)], which exempts from the URAA copyright restorations works on which the copyright was seized and administered by the U.S. Office of the [[Alien Property Custodian]] and on which a restored copyright would be held by a foreign government.<ref name="fr_63_74">United States: ''[http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1998/63fr19287.pdf Federal Register Vol. 63, No. 74 / Friday, April 17, 1998]'', pp. 19289–19290. URL last accessed [[2007-04-16]].</ref> It is unclear to what works exactly this provisio would apply,<ref name="fr_63_74"/> as it can be argued that copyright of hardly any of the WWII works at all were owned by the German government and the Nazi party, but by private people and organizations. Most of these seized copyrights were returned to their foreign owners in 1962 by public law Pub. L. No. 87–846,<ref name="fr_63_74"/><ref name="patry_twte">Patry, W.: ''[http://digital-law-online.info/patry/patry7.html Copyright Law and Practice]'', Chapter 1, part 7: "Trading With the Enemy Act". Bna Books, ISBN 0871798549. URL last accessed [[2007-04-16]].</ref> but on motion pictures, the U.S. retained the right "to reproduce, for its own use, or exhibit any divested copyrighted motion picture films."<ref name="fr_63_74"/> There is also the ''Price vs. United States'' ([[Case citation|69 F.3d 46]]) ruling that at least places serious constraints on the practical enforceability of copyrights on such works in the U.S.<ref>{{cite journal | author = David Culbert | title = [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2584/is_n2_v17/ai_20032587 The Heinrich Hoffmann Photo Archive: Price vs United States (United States Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit, 20 November, 1995)] | journal = Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | year = 1997}} See also [http://web.archive.org/web/20020602021048/http://www.dcd.uscourts.gov/98-857.pdf Civil Action 98-857] before the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, Judge Henry H. Kennedy. Ultimately, the U.S. Supreme Court denied the Hoffmann heirs review of the lower courts' decision in their disfavor. (See the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/briefs/2001/0responses/2001-1111.resp.html opinion of the U.S. Solicitor General] and the [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/orders/journal/jnl04.pdf Journal of the U.S. Supreme Court, October 2004, p. 298].) URLs last accessed [[2007-04-16]].</ref> The [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] even tags some such images as "© USHMM". It is also unclear what the U.S. position on "official" images of the Nazi regime is. It should be noted that even the [http://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/art/key-series-descriptions/key-series-descriptions-15.html NARA acknowledges the presence of copyrights] from the war era on some of its holdings remaining with the institutions and individuals who own the artwork, as oppose to their Nazi plunderers.

Another example are German [[newsreel]]s, a kind of weekly news shown in movie theatres before the advent of [[television]]. Most such ''Wochenschau'' films are still copyrighted; the rights are held by Transit Film GmbH in Germany. In the U.S. the copyright on these films from 1914 until the 1940s had expired due to non-compliance with U.S. formalities; the copyright was then restored in 1996 by the URAA on those published after 1922. The Transit Film company then even [http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1998/63fr19287.pdf filed so-called "notices of intent to enforce" (NIEs)] with the U.S. Copyright Office and can now even enforce its copyrights against parties who used their films (rightfully!) before the URAA became effective. The same is also true for most [[Universum Film AG|UFA]] films; the rights holder in this case is the [[Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau]] Foundation [http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1998/63fr19287.pdf]. The song ''[[Lili Marleen]]'' is another such case; the rights holder is Schott Music International [http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1996/61fr68453.html].

In the United Kingdom, confiscated German works brought into the country between [[September 3]], [[1939]] and [[July 9]], [[1951]] had all German interests, both physical ownership and intellectual property rights such as copyrights or patents, extinguished by the ''Enemy Property Act'' of 1953. This expropriation affected only the status of such works within the UK; the international rights on German works were left untouched. <ref name="iwm">[[Imperial War Museum]]: ''[http://www.iwmcollections.org.uk/common/pdf/FilmTermsConds.pdf Standard Terms and Conditions Governing the Release and Use of Film and Visual Material]''. URL last accessed [[2007-05-30]].</ref> This act was repealed in 1976, but the copyrights on such seized works were not restored in the UK.<ref name="best1">Best, H.: ''[http://www.twobirds.com/English/publications/articles/GermanFilmsandUKEnemyPropertyAct1953pt1.cfm The spoils of war: German Films and UK Enemy Property Act 1953]'', Bird & Bird, [[January 7]], [[2002]]. URL last accessed [[2007-05-30]].</ref><ref name="best2">Best, H: ''[http://www.twobirds.com/english/publications/articles/Booty_in_the_eye_of_the_beholder.cfm Booty in the eye of the beholder]'', Bird & Bird, [[February 10]], [[2005]]. URL last accessed [[2007-05-30]].</ref>

In general, wartime German images cannot be tagged as being in the public domain.

=== Canadian images: [[Yousuf Karsh]] ===

:'''In short: Pre-1949 Karsh images are in the public domain ''only'' in Canada. Later Karsh images are copyrighted anyway anywhere.'''

Many photographs by [[Yousuf Karsh]] ([[1908]] – [[2002]]) can be found at the web site of the [[Library and Archives Canada]] (LAC), who state that the copyright was expired and there were no restrictions on the use and reproduction of these images. In fact, many such images have been uploaded to Wikipedia by several users and tagged as "public domain" based on these claims by the LAC. However, ''this applies only in Canada''. The history of each and every of these images must be closely examined to determine whether they just might be in the public domain elsewhere. As it turns out, this is not the case for most of them. Some examples:

*[[:Image:Albert Einstein by Yousuf Karsh.jpg]], from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=&s1=&s8=571914&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http%3A//www.collectionscanada.ca%2F02%2F02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. This image has generated a lot of discussion at the Commons, with an anon claiming it was copyrighted, and, more recently, another (German) user trying to get the image deleted (again) as a copyvio. The pertinent discussion is in chronological order at [[Commons:Commons:Village pump archive-13#image on wikimedia commons, explicitly labeled as copyrighted?|first deletion discussion]], [[Commons:Image talk:Albert Einstein.jpg|asking the LAC for confirmation]], a [[Commons:Commons:Deletion requests/Archives05#Image:Albert Einstein.jpg|second deletion discussion]], and then at a [[Commons:Commons:Village pump archive-18#Re-discussing a copyright "clarification"|third discussion]]. Finally, on November 16, 2005, the image was tagged both as {{tl|PD-Canada}} ''and'' {{tl|imagevio}} here on the English Wikipedia.
*:The image was definitely published in Karsh, Y.: ''Portraits of Greatness'', University of Toronto Press, Toronto 1959, and Thomas Nelson & Sons, London, 1959, p. 68. (See [http://www.geh.org/ne/mismi3/m198130600048_ful.html].) Whether that is the ''first'' publication of the image is unknown. Following [http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm Peter Hirtle's chart], and even assuming the first publishing occurred in Canada, the image was still copyrighted in Canada on January 1, 1996 (its copyright in Canada expired on December 31, 1998) and thus is ''still copyrighted in the U.S''. The simultaneous publishing of the book also in the UK makes it copyrighted there, and by extension through the [[EU Copyright Directive]] all over the [[European Union]]. Unless the EU would also consider it a Canadian work, in which case the "rule of the shorter term", which the EU ''does'' apply to non-EU countries, might make it copyright-free there—but that's a stretch and would depend on whether the Canadian and UK publishing occurred within 30 days (and hence be "simultaneous") or not. CameraPress in London ''does'' claim copyright on this image. If this image was even published (or should that be "first published"?) in the U.S., it would definitely be copyrighted in the U.S. While one would have to check whether its copyright was renewed to be absolutely sure, it is a fairly safe bet that the Karsh Estate did do so.
*[[:Image:Winston Churchill 1941 photo by Yousuf Karsh.jpg]] (on the Commons), from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=&s1=&s8=44621&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.ca%2F02%2F02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. It turns out that this was first published on the cover of ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'', a U.S. magazine, in 1941 or 1942. (See e.g. [http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp05467&role=art].) There, too, a check whether the copyright was renewed would be needed, but it would be a surprise if it was not. That image is most probably also still copyrighted. However, since that image is so important in Karsh's career and is discussed in detail at [[Yousuf Karsh]], it could be salvaged by re-uploading it to the English Wikipedia and making a fair use claim for its use in the Karsh article.
*[[:Image:VerePonsonby.jpg]] from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=PA-195700&s1=&s8=&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.ca/archivianet/02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. According to [http://www.mfa.org/exhibitions/sub.asp?key=15&subkey=660], this was (first) published in newspapers across Canada and Britain. Its Canadian copyright expired on December 31, 1983, and it is thus likely to be in the public domain in the U.S., too. (Not copyrighted anymore on January 1, 1996.) However, if there is a UK copyright on it, or if it was (simultaneously, first?) published in the U.S., it might nevertheless be copyrighted in the U.S.
*:Note that the book Karsh, Y.: ''Karsh Canadians'', Univ. of Toronto Press, Toronto 1978, ISBN 0-8020-2317-7, ''is'' copyrighted in the U.S. (copyright registered December 6, 1978; registration number TX-385-199).
*[[:Image:PaulRobesonByYousufKarsh.jpg]], from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=PA-209022&s1=&s8=&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.ca/archivianet/02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. Image from 1938, published in Karsh, Y.: ''Faces of Destiny'', Ziff-Davies Publishing, New York 1946, and George G. Harrap, London, 1946. Original copyright registered with the U.S. Copyright Office on December 16, 1946 (Registration Number A9354), renewed December 3, 1974 (Registration Number R592433). See [http://shelf1.library.cmu.edu/Projects/crr/1974/1974-7-5644.tif]. Therefore, copyright on this work (and all the images included therein, assuming that was their original publication) expires in the U.S. only on December 31, 2041.

The whole issue of Karsh images is complicated even more because Yousuf Karsh for years maintained ''two'' offices: one in [[Ottawa]], Canada, and another one in [[New York City]].

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[www.boudhadharma.com]]
*[[Wikipedia:Copyright FAQ]]
*[[Wikipedia:Granting work into the public domain]]
*[[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags]]
*[[Wikipedia:Public domain resources]]
*[[Wikipedia:Public domain image resources]]

== External links ==

General:

*[http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States] by Peter Hirtle.
*[http://www.btinternet.com/~tony.kent/soundrec.htm Sound Recordings and Copyright in the UK]. A guide for those engaged in the restoration of public domain sound recordings.
*[http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=14076&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Collection of National Copyright Laws] by the [[UNESCO]].
*[http://www.wipo.int/clea/en/clea_adv_search.jsp Collection of Laws for Electronic Access (CLEA)] from the [[WIPO]].
*[http://www.ecap-project.org/asean_ip_legislation_international_treaties.html Copyright laws] of [[ASEAN]] countries.
*[http://www.cipr.org/legal_reference/index.htm Copyright laws] of countries that formerly were part of the [[Soviet Union]].
*[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html International Copyright Relations of the U.S.] – Circular 38a of the U.S. Copyright Office.
*[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/copy_and_perms.pdf Copyright guidelines] from the University of Chicago Press.
*[http://english.osu.edu/research/organizations/ijjf/copyrightfaqs.cfm The copyright status] of the works of [[James Joyce]]. Illustrates some of the complications that may arise.
*Gorman, R.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law], 2nd ed''. U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]. URL last accessed [[2006-10-27]].

Copyright renewals in the U.S.:

*[http://www.copyright.gov/records/cohm.html On-line database] for copyright registrations and renewals in the U.S. since 1978
*[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/cce/ TIFF scans] of the registry of the U.S. Copyright Office 1950 - 1977, with a bias towards books.
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11800 digitized versions] of the registry of the U.S. Copyright Office 1950 - 1977, with a bias towards books, hosted by [[Project Gutenberg]].
*[http://collections.stanford.edu/copyrightrenewals/ Searchable database] of the digitized copyright renewal records for books.

[[Category:Wikipedia copyright|Public domain]]

[[is:Wikipedia:Almenningur]]
[[zh-yue:Wikipedia:公有領域]]

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Wikipedia:Public domain

2008-09-22T10:22:02Z

202.79.62.16: Log on www.boudhadharma.com

{{subcat guideline|content guideline|Public domain|WP:PD}}
{{Wikipedia copyright}}

:''See also the encyclopedia article on the [[public domain]].''
:''WP:PD redirects here. You may be looking for [[Wikipedia:Proposed deletion]] (shortcut: [[WP:PROD]]) instead.''
For all practical purposes on Wikipedia, the '''public domain''' comprises copyright-free works: anyone can use them in any way and for any purpose. Proper attribution to the author or source of a work, even if it is in the public domain, is still required to avoid [[plagiarism]].

The public domain is generally defined (e.g. by the [http://www.copyright.gov/help/faq/faq-definitions.html#public_domain U.S. Copyright Office]) as the sum of works that are not [[copyright]]ed, i.e.
* that were not eligible for copyright in the first place, or
* whose copyright has expired.

However, there is no such thing as ''the'' public domain on the Internet. International treaties, like the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]], are not self-executing and do not supersede local law. There is [http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl100.html ''no'' globally valid "International Copyright Law"] that would take precedence over local laws. Instead, signatory countries of the Berne Convention have adapted their laws to comply with the minimum standards set forth by the treaty, often with ''stronger'' provisions than required. Whether or not something is copyright-free in some country depends on the laws of individual countries.

[[Wikipedia]], and the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], its legal body, are based in [[Florida]], [[United States]]. Although legislation is sometimes unclear about which laws are to apply on the Internet, the primary law relevant for Wikipedia is that of the United States. For re-users of Wikipedia content, it is the laws of their respective countries.

In the U.S., any work '''published before [[January 1]], [[1923]]''' ''anywhere in the world''<ref name="US1909">Strictly speaking, only U.S. works published before [[January 1]] [[1923]] and foreign works published in compliance with U.S. formalities (registration, © notice) before that date are in the public domain in the U.S. For non-U.S. works published ''without'' compliance with U.S. formalities (i.e., without © notice), the situation is a bit more complicated:
*If published before 1909, such works are in the public domain in the U.S.
*If published between 1909 and 1922 (inclusive) in a language ''other than English'', the [[United States federal judicial circuits|Ninth Circuit]] has considered them as "unpublished works" according to [http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm#Footnote_11 Peter Hirtle] and following the decision of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]] in the case ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=9th&navby=case&no=9515250 Twin Books v. Disney]'' in 1996. The case was about the book [[Bambi, A Life in the Woods]]; the decision is heavily criticized in ''Nimmer on Copyright'' (ISBN 0-820-51465-9), the standard commentary on U.S. copyright law.
*If published between 1909 and 1922 (inclusive) in English, they are ''highly likely'' to be PD, given that the aforementioned controversial case was only about a work published in a foreign language.
*Additionally, any work first published outside of the United States without copyright notice prior to 1989, when the U.S. joined the Berne Convention, is in the public domain in the U.S. if it was in the public domain in its country of origin on the URAA date (in most cases [[January 1]], [[1996]]). See the section on [[#Country-specific rules|country-specific rules]] for more information.
Also, the 1923 cut-off date applies only to the U.S. This means foreign works first published before 1923 are in the public domain in the U.S., but may still be copyrighted outside the U.S.</ref> is in the '''public domain'''. Other countries are ''not'' bound to that 1923 date, though. Complications arise when special cases are considered, such as trying to determine whether a work published later might be in the public domain in the U.S., or when dealing with unpublished works. When a work has not been published in the U.S. but in some other country, that other country's copyright laws also must be taken into account. Re-users of Wikipedia content also might find the explanations here useful.

== Important documents ==

* The [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] is the primary legislative document governing international copyright. Signatory states agree to amend their legislations to meet the minimum requirements of this convention, but the convention itself is ''not'' law. Signatory countries have the right to "opt out" from a few of its paragraphs (most are mandatory and non-negotiable, though), and how any particular country implements the Berne Convention is a question of local legislation. The [http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs/en/wo/wo001en.htm full text] of the Berne Convention is available at the [[WIPO]] web site.

* The U.S. Copyright Law is [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/ Title 17 of the United States Code (17 USC)], chapters 1 through 8 and 10 through 12. Chapters 9 and 13 contain design protection laws on semiconductor chips and ship hulls that are of no interest or relevance for Wikipedia.

* The EU [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]] is a ''binding'' directive for all member countries of the [[European Union]], harmonizing the term of copyright. It became effective on [[July 1]], [[1995]]. Individual countries have amended their laws to comply with this directive. The EU legislation web site has the [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0098:EN:HTML full text (1993)], plus a [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32001L0029:EN:HTML 2001 amendment] modifying §3(2). See [[#Retroactive changes in copyright legislation|Retroactive changes in copyright legislation]] below for some discussion.

The U.S. Copyright Law explicitly makes clear that the Berne Convention is just a treaty, not some "super-law" that would take precedence over U.S. Law: [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104 17 USC 104(c)] states that
:''"No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto...."''
When discussing copyright issues informally (and ''all'' such discussions on Wikipedia ''are'' informal), one may nevertheless argue in terms of the Berne Convention: writing "according to ''§y'' of the Berne Convention..." is then just a short-hand for writing "according to ''§x'' of ''country's copyright law'', which implements ''§y'' of the Berne Convention, ..." However, one should bear in mind that some paragraphs of the Berne Convention are optional, and that any country may go beyond the minimum standards specified by the Berne Convention for the most part.

=== Other documents ===

There are some other documents related to copyright issues that one occasionally comes across, but they generally are less important for Wikipedia's purposes.

*The [[Universal Copyright Convention]] ([http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/lipa/copyrights/The%20Universal%20Copyright%20Convention%20_Geneva%20Text--September.pdf 1952 Geneva text], [http://www.ifla.org/documents/infopol/copyright/ucc.txt 1971 Paris text]) was an alternate international copyright treaty. It prescribed less stringent protections than the Berne Convention. Since the UCC explicitly said that if a signatory of the UCC was also a signatory of the Berne Convention, the latter should prevail, and most countries have since joined the Berne Convention, the UCC is largely irrelevant today. However, the adherence dates of some states to the UCC may still be of interest.
*The [[Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations|Rome Convention]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/rome/index.html International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations]) from 1961 is a treaty augmenting the Berne Convention by copyright on performances and recordings thereof.
*The [[Geneva Phonograms Convention]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/phonograms/index.html Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms]) is an additional international treaty extending copyright to [[#Sound recordings|sound recordings]].
*The [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wct/index.html WCT]) from 1996, effective 2002, is an extension of the Berne Convention, bringing computer programs and databases under the auspices of copyright. In the U.S., it is implemented by the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act|DMCA]].
*The [[WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wppt/index.html WPPT]) from 1996 entered in force in 2002. It is an update of the [[Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations|Rome Convention]]. In the U.S., it was implemented as [[WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act|part of the DMCA]].

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== Works ineligible for copyright protection ==

:'''In short: U.S. Federal Government works, or no creative content'''

:''See also:'' [[Wikipedia:Copyright on emblems|Copyright on emblems]].

=== U.S. government works ===
For the U.S., federal government works are not eligible for copyright protection ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#105 17 USC 105]). It is not clear whether this applies world-wide, see the [http://www.cendi.gov/publications/04-8copyright.html#317 CENDI Copyright FAQ list, 3.1.7] and a discussion on that at the [http://blog.librarylaw.com/librarylaw/2004/09/copyright_in_go.html LibraryLaw Blog].

In practice, this means that ''much'' material on <tt>*.gov</tt> and <tt>*.mil</tt>, as well as material on some <tt>*.us</tt> web sites (such as the sites of the [[U.S. Forest Service]]), are in the public domain. Please note that not ''all'' such material is in the public domain, though:
* U.S. governmental web sites may use copyrighted works, too; either by having licensed them or under a "fair use" provision. In general, such copyrighted works on web sites of the U.S. federal government and its agencies are indicated by appropriate bylines. An example are "visitor image galleries" on [[National Park Service|U.S. National Park Service]] websites: unless these have some indication that the photographs are placed in the public domain by publishing them on that NPS web site, these images are copyrighted by their photographers, who are visitors of national parks, not employees of the NPS.
* Some U.S. ''state'' governments also have web sites in the <tt>*.gov</tt> domain. '''State and local governments''' usually ''do'' retain a copyright on their works. 17 USC §105 only places ''federal'' documents in the public domain.<ref name="state_pubs">Publications of U.S. ''state'', district, county, or municipal agencies are eligible to coypright. Only works of ''federal'' agencies are exempt from copyright; see [http://library.findlaw.com/1999/Jan/1/241476.html Radcliffe & Brinson: ''Copyright Law''], or the [http://cendi.dtic.mil/publications/04-8copyright.html#30 CENDI Copyright FAQ list, 3.1.3].</ref>
* Works produced under a commission from the U.S. government by a contractor ''are'' most likely copyrighted. This typically includes any documents from research labs. The [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]], for instance, is operated by a contractor for the [[U.S. Department of Energy]], but that does not mean the works it produces are "works of the federal government". ORNL works ''are'' copyrighted, and the U.S. government is granted a non-exclusive license to use, publish, and allow republication of such works. The precise terms vary from one lab to the next, but in general, commercial re-use of their works is prohibited.<ref name="contractors">[http://www.cendi.gov/publications/04-8copyright.html#40 CENDI Copyright FAQ list, section 4.0], and [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#105 17 USC 105].</ref> This also applies to works authored by ''independent contractors'' or ''freelance writers or artists'', even when their works are commissioned by some U.S. government agency.<ref name="Gorman_52ff">Gorman, R. A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law, 2nd ed.]'', [[Federal Judicial Center|U.S. Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]; chapter 2: The Subject Matter of Copyright, section "Government works", pp. 52ff. URL last accessed [[2008-08-13]].</ref>
* Even the U.S. federal government may hold copyrights, if the original copyright holder assigns or transfers the copyright to the U.S. government. A notable example of this is the obverse of the [[Sacagawea dollar]], in which its designer [[Glenna Goodacre]] claimed copyright before she transferred the design and its copyright to the [[United States Mint]].<ref name="sacagawea"> See "Intellectual Property Rights" in the U.S. Mint website's privacy policy [http://www.usmint.gov/policy/index.cfm?action=TermsOfUse#rights]. </ref> Of course, when a U.S. governmental agency holds such a transferred copyright, it is free to declare the work to be in the public domain (or not).<ref name="Gorman_52ff"/>

Under U.S. law, laws themselves and legal rulings also form a special class. All current or formerly binding laws, codes, and regulations produced by government at any level and the public record of any court case are in the public domain. [http://www.baconsrebellion.com/Issues04/08-09/Dale.htm] This applies even to the laws enacted in states and municipalities that ordinarily claim copyright over their work. The US Copyright Office has interpreted this as applying to all "edicts of government" both domestic and foreign.<ref name="compendium206_01">The Compendium of Copyright Office Practices (Compendium II) section 206.01 [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp states], "Edicts of government, such as judicial opinions, administrative rulings, legislative enactments, public ordinances, and similar official legal documents are not copyrightable for reasons of public policy. This applies to such works whether they are Federal, State, or local as well as to those of foreign governments." and 206.03 [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp clarifies] "Works (other than edicts of government) prepared by officers or employees of any government (except the U.S. Government) including State, local, or foreign governments, are subject to registration if they are otherwise copyrightable."</ref>

Note that other countries' governments ''may'' hold copyrights; in fact, most do so and their works are thus copyright protected. At the same time, many countries declare their edicts such as laws and court decisions to be exempt from copyright. Such exemptions are typically narrowly defined and ''cannot'' be construed to mean "any publication by a government office".

The [[United States Copyright Office]], in section 206.02(b), 206.02(c), and 206.02(d) of the [[Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices]], has stated its position that works of the [[U.S. Postal Service]], of the government of the [[District of Columbia]], or of the government of [[Puerto Rico]] are ''not'' "works of the U.S. government" and thus ''are'' subject to copyright.<ref>See 206.02(b), 206.02(c), and 206.02(d) of the [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp Compendium of Copyright Office Practices] of the U.S. Copyright Office</ref> Works of the [[United States Post Office Department]] prior to the formation of the U.S. Postal Service are still considered government works and are in the public domain.{{fact}} Works of the [[United Nations]] or its agencies or of the [[Organization of American States|OAS]] are subject to copyright. <ref name="us_un">See section 206.03 of the [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp Compendium of Copyright Office Practices] of the U.S. Copyright Office, and also [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104 17 USC 104(b)(5)].</ref> On the UN, see [[#Works of the United Nations|Works of the United Nations]] for some important exceptions: some UN documents ''are'' in the public domain.

=== Non-creative works ===

:'''In short: Bare facts are in the public domain. Works must show sufficient ''human'' creativity to be eligible to copyright at all.'''

A second category of works that in general cannot be copyright protected are those that have no (or no significant) creative content: they do not pass the [[threshold of originality]]. In the U.S., the classic example is a telephone directory. The names and numbers therein are, in the doctrine of case law (e.g. ''[[Feist v. Rural]]''), "facts that were discovered", rather than the result of a creative expression or judgment. The U.S. has explicitly rejected the position that the amount of effort involved in the discovery of a fact can justify its protection. As a result of this doctrine, addresses, phone numbers, most scientific data, sports scores, the results of polls, and similar facts are exempt from copyright.

While the facts themselves are exempt, other creative elements in a compilation of facts may warrant copyright protection. For example, ''Eckes v. Card Prices Update'' established that the specific selection of which facts to include in a list, when done as the result of a creative act, merits protection even when the individual elements do not. (See also [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#103 17 USC 103(b)].) The [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]] is an international treaty that follows this concept; it has been adopted also by the [[European Union]] (EU) in its [[EU Database Directive]], a ''[[sui generis]]'' protection that prohibits any significant "extraction" or "re-utilization" of information from a database created by significant effort. In all these cases, the copyright is on the database as a whole, i.e. the selection of the collection. The individual items in such databases still have their own copyright, which may have expired.

Similarly, though scientific data are usually exempt from copyright, the specific figures and styles of presentation used to present that data will in most cases merit copyright protection. Also, in some cases facts that are exempt from copyright may still be protected as a result of patent law.

[[Image:Chimpanzee congo painting.jpg|thumb|This painting was produced by the chimpanzee "[[Congo (chimpanzee)|Congo]]" and is therefore not copyrighted. The photo of the painting is not copyrightable per the ''Bridgeman v. Corel'' ruling.]]
Another class of uncreative works which are unable to claim copyright protection in the U.S. are those resulting from mechanical reproduction. Following ''[[Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.]]'', a simple reproductive photograph of a two-dimensional artwork does not give rise to a new copyright on the photograph. Many other countries (but not all!) recognize a similar ineligibility for copyright for reproductive photographs of two-dimensional public domain works.

Common to all these cases is that only works created by a [[human]] are eligible to copyright.<ref name="human_creativity">U.S. Copyright Office: [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp ''Compendium of Office Practices II,'' section 202.02(b)] and [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0500.asp section 503.03(a)]. URL last accessed [[July 3]], [[2007]].</ref> Works created by animals (such as a painting produced by a [[chimpanzee]]) or machines (such as illegal [[spam]]) are not copyrightable, although in the case of drawings produced by a [[computer program]], the program itself of course may be copyrighted. In certain cases, even graphics produced by computer programs may be copyrightable; see e.g. ''[[Stern Electronics, Inc. v. Kaufman]]''.

Descriptions (including diagrams) in [[patent]] applications in the U.S. are "published into the public domain" by the [[U.S. Patent and Trademark Office]] [http://www.uspto.gov/main/ccpubguide.htm]. Portions may contain the non-obligatory notice of copyright © or [[mask work]] Ⓜ protection, but the patent applicant must state in the text of the description that the owner of the rights in the protected part agrees to allow anyone to make [[facsimile]] reproductions of those portions of the description, but otherwise reserves all rights [http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/documents/appxr_1_71.htm#cfr37s1.71 37 CFR § 1.71(e)].

Photographic reproductions, as a form of derivative work, may inherit the copyright of the original work. If that artwork is in the public domain, then so is the photograph. If, however, the depicted work is copyright protected, then, although there is no independent copyright on the photo itself, it cannot be considered to be in the public domain as the original rights holder still has the authority to control how reproductions of his work, including photographs, are made and distributed. The same applies to digitized images.

It should also be noted that the exemption of reproduction photographs extends only to ''two-dimensional'' artwork in the U.S. A photograph of a three dimensional statue may acquire copyright protection even if the statue itself belongs to the public domain. Such rights derive from the creativity involved in the positioning of camera, lighting, and other variables.

In the U.S., the ''[http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0500.asp Compendium of Office Practices II]'' of the [[U.S. Copyright Office]] gives some concrete examples and hints at under what conditions a work is sufficiently original to be eligible for copyright.

=== Fonts ===
:'''In short: Scalable fonts ''as such'' are copyrighted as computer programs; typefaces ''as such'' may be protected by design patents, and, in a few countries, by copyright; ''actual use'' of the typeface is not restricted, even if the font used was based illegally on a protected typeface.'''

Under U.S. law, [[typefaces]] and the characters they contain are considered to be utilitarian objects whose utility outweighs any merit that may exist in protecting their creative elements. As such, typefaces are exempt from copyright protection in the United States ([[Code of Federal Regulations]], [http://frwebgate3.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/waisgate.cgi?WAISdocID=36964326810+4+0+0&WAISaction=retrieve Ch 37, Sec. 202.1(e)]; ''Eltra Corp. vs. Ringer''). However, this finding was limited in ''Adobe vs. Southern Software, Inc.'', wherein it was held that scalable computer fonts, ie., the instructions necessary to render a typeface, constitute a "computer program" for the purposes of copyright law and hence are subject to protection. Hence the computer file(s) associated with a scalable font will generally be protected even though the specific design of the characters is not. Furthermore, a [[raster graphics|rasterized]] representation (e.g. bitmap) of the characters in a scalable font is not protected by copyright in the United States. According to section [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0500.asp 503.02(a)] of ''[[Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices]]'', [[typography]] and [[calligraphy]] are not copyrightable in themselves in the U.S. This treatment of fonts is not very unusual with respect to international law, and most other jurisdictions do not consider fonts subject to copyright either (with the notable exception of the UK, which however also only covers typefaces as such, as they are for example employed in fonts, and not their actual use<ref>[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1988/Ukpga_19880048_en_3.htm#pt1-ch3-pb7-l1g54 Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (c. 48), section 54]</ref>). However, typefaces as such may be protected by design patents in many countries (either automatically, or by registration, or by some combination thereof). A prominent example is the European Union,<ref>[http://oami.europa.eu/en/design/faq/faq01.htm#200 OAMI-ONLINE - The Community Design in Practice]</ref> where the automatic protection (without registration) expires after three years and can be extended (by registration) up to 25 years.<ref>[http://oami.europa.eu/en/design/faq/faq01.htm#500 OAMI-ONLINE - The Community Design in Practice]</ref>

=== International aspects ===

:'''In short: The [[threshold of originality]] varies between countries.'''

Like the [[#When does copyright expire?|duration of copyright]], eligibility to copyright in the first place is governed by national laws. The [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html#P109_16834 Berne Convention, §5(2)] explicitly states that
:''The enjoyment and the exercise of these rights ''[i.e., copyrights]'' shall not be subject to any formality; such enjoyment and such exercise shall be independent of the existence of ''[copyright]'' protection in the country of origin of the work.''
In other words: a work that is not copyrightable in one country (even if that country is its country of origin) can still be copyrighted in other countries, if the work is copyrightable there. An example of this is [[:Image:Christoph Meili 1997.jpg]]: this image is not copyrightable in its country of origin (Switzerland) by a decision of the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. However, in all likelihood it fulfills the criteria in other countries: it would pass the [[threshold of originality]] in the U.S.; and it would probably also be eligible for copyright in the EU.

Mere ideas, procedures, methods of operation or mathematical concepts as such are not copyrightable as per article 2 of the [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]].<ref name="wct">[http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wct/trtdocs_wo033.html#P51_3806 WIPO Copyright Treaty], article 2: ''Scope of Copyright Protection''. URL last accessed [[June 21]], [[2006]].</ref>

== Publication ==

:'''In short: A work is published when tangible ''copies'' of it are made available to the public at large.'''

In the following, we will frequently refer to the "[[publication]]" of a work. A work is published when copies of the work are made accessible in some non-ephemeral form to the public at large with the consent of its author or copyright holder. Ephemeral forms of making the work accessible do ''not'' constitute publication. To quote the [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html#P98_14701 Berne Convention, §3.3]:
:''The performance of a dramatic, dramatico-musical, cinematographic or musical work, the public recitation of a literary work, the communication by wire or the broadcasting of literary or artistic works, the exhibition of a work of art and the construction of a work of architecture shall not constitute publication.''

The U.S. Copyright law defines "publication" in [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#101 17 USC 101] in basically the same way using different words:

:''"Publication" is the distribution of copies or phonorecords of a work to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending. The offering to distribute copies or phonorecords to a group of persons for purposes of further distribution, public performance, or public display, constitutes publication. A public performance or display of a work does not of itself constitute publication.''

"Public display" includes broadcasts and other transmissions. The U.S. Copyright Office states in its [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ40.html#publication Circular 40]:
:''A work of art that exists in only one copy, such as a painting or statue, is not regarded as published when the single existing copy is sold or offered for sale in the traditional way, for example, through an art dealer, gallery, or auction house. A statue erected in a public place is not necessarily published.''

:''When the work is reproduced in multiple copies, such as reproductions of a painting or castings of a statue, the work is published when the reproductions are publicly distributed or offered to a group for further distribution or public display.''

Thus, a work is ''unpublished'' unless copies (which may be print publications, photos, postcards, lithographs, but also non-print publications such as replicas of a statuette) of it are published. It is of course implied that such a distribution of copies occurred legally, in particular with the consent of the copyright holder. An illegal distribution of copies (for instance one that itself would be a copyright violation) does ''not'' constitute a publication of a work. The right to publish a work is an ''exclusive'' right of the copyright owner ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 1/Sections 105 and 106|17 USC 106]]), and violating this right (e.g. by disseminating copies of the work without the copyright owner's consent) is a [[copyright infringement]] ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 5/Section 501|17 USC 501(a)]]), and the copyright owner can demand (by suing in court) that copies distributed against his or her will be confiscated and destroyed ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 5/Sections 502 and 503|17 USC 502, 17 USC 503]]).

Notwithstanding the quoted paragraph from the Berne Convention, broadcast and public performance of literary or dramatic works may constitute publication in other countries, e.g. in Australia (see [http://www.copyright.org.au/pdf/acc/InfoSheets/G023.pdf Infosheet G-23: Duration of Copyright]).

We will get back to this issue in the sections "[[#Published works|Published works]]" and "[[#Unpublished works|Unpublished works]]" below.

== When does copyright expire? ==

:'''In short: It depends, but always at the end of the year in which it expires.'''

The Berne Convention was designed to ensure that works protected in the country of origin were also protected in all other signatory countries without the rights holder having to register claims in each and every of these countries. Thus the laws of the originating country of a work determine whether something is copyright protected at all, and if so, the Berne Convention ensures that it is automatically copyright protected in all other signatory countries, too, ''under their respective laws'' (§5(1) of the Berne Convention).

(The ''originating country'' or ''country of origin'' is that country where the work was initially published, or in the case of unpublished works, defined by the author's nationality or "habitual domicile". See §3 of the Berne Convention. If a work is published within 30 days in several countries, it can have multiple "countries of origin".)

Copyright protection is granted only for a certain period of time—barring pathological cases where some work is placed under a [[perpetual copyright]] protection. Different countries have different copyright terms: in some countries, copyright expires 50 years after the author's death (also called "50 years p.m.a.", ''post mortem auctoris''; this is the minimum standard required by the Berne Convention), others have a 70-year period (70y p.m.a.), [[Mexico]] even [http://www.ladas.com/BULLETINS/2004/0304Bulletin/Mexico_CopyrightLaw.html 100y p.m.a.] Many countries also have special rules, depending on when a work was first published, whether it was first published in that country or not, whether the author is known or not, and other things. For instance, a work published with a © notice in the U.S. between 1963 and 1977 (inclusive) is copyright protected in the U.S. until 95 years after the date of the initial publication. Peter Hirtle has compiled a [http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm very useful chart] showing when and under what conditions the copyright of a work expires in the U.S. The default rule in the U.S. for works published since 1978 or for unpublished works is 70 years p.m.a. If a work is a "work made for hire", it has [[corporate authorship]] and is protected to the shorter of 95 years from publication or 120 years from creation. Many countries also know or at least knew different copyright terms for text and photographic works.

Basically all countries in the world specify that when a copyright expires, it does so at the ''end of the year''. Thus, works of an author who died on June 27, 1937 did ''not'' become copyright-free on June 28, 2007 but only on January 1, 2008 under a "70 years p.m.a." rule.

=== Rule of the shorter term ===

:'''In short: The "[[rule of the shorter term]]" says that copyright protection in any signatory country of the Berne Convention ends when the copyright expires in the originating country. This rule is ''not'' binding. The U.S. has ''not'' adopted it; the European Union (with exceptions!), Japan, Macao, and Taiwan ''have'' done so.'''

While the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] ''does'' harmonize bringing works under copyright protection in the first place, it does ''not'' similarly harmonize the expiration of copyright. The Berne Convention prescribes a minimum standard for copyright terms any signatory country must adhere to (50y p.m.a.), but any signatory is free to prescribe longer durations in its laws. To be fair, §7(8) of the Berne Convention ''does'' specify a "rule of the shorter term", which says that the copyright term can in no case exceed the copyright term in the originating country of a work. However, signatory countries have the right to "opt out" from this rule, and it depends on individual countries' implementation acts whether they do follow this rule. The copyright on a work may thus expire in one country and enter the public domain there, but the same work ''may still be copyrighted'' in other signatory countries.

The United States does ''not'' recognize this "shorter term" rule while [[s:United_States_Code/Title_17/Chapter_1/Section_104|17 U.S.C. 104]](c) reads: "Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto." Furthermore, [[s:United_States_Code/Title_17/Chapter_1/Section_104A|17 U.S.C. 104A]](a)(1)(B) may restore copyright on a work published outside the USA for the remaining American copyright term even if its copyright may expire sooner in its source country.

The [[European Union]] does, however, adopt such a rule via-a-vis non-EU members (see §7(1) of the [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection|EU directive 93/98/EEC]]). ''Within'' the EU itself, however, the contrary is true: §10(1) states that longer terms already running remained in effect, and §10(2) states that the 70 year p.m.a. applied to all works protected in at least one member country. As a result, there is a transitory phase in which works that already were out of copyright in one EU country suddenly became copyright protected again in that country on July 1, 1995 because they were still protected in some other EU country. See "[[#World-War II images|World-War II images]]" below.

In East Asia, [[Japan]], [[Macao]], and [[Taiwan]] also honor the rule of the shorter term. See [http://www.cric.or.jp/cric_e/clj/cl2_2.html#cl2_2+S4 §58 of the Japanese Copyright Law], Article 51 of [[s:Decree-Law_n.o_43/99/M|Decree-Law n.o 43/99/M]] of Macao, and Article 106bis of the [[s:Copyright Act (Republic of China, 2006)|Copyright Act]] in effect in Taiwan administered by the Republic of China.

However, some countries make exceptions to this rule. A notorious case is Germany, which has had a bilateral treaty with the U.S. governing copyright since [[January 15]], [[1892]]. That treaty, which is still in effect, defined that a U.S. work was copyrighted in Germany according to German law irrespective of the work's copyright status in the U.S, and it did not contain a "rule of the shorter term". In one [http://web2.justiz.hessen.de/migration/rechtsp.nsf/bynoteid/8019B44ABE988A9CC1256E55004A0462?Opendocument case], a German court therefore decided that a U.S. work that had fallen into the public domain in the U.S. was still copyrighted in Germany in 2003 in spite of §7(1) of the EU directive.

See also OpenFlix for a useful [http://www.openflix.com/information/non-US-copyright.php list] of countries and areas that do or do not honor the rule of the shorter term.

== Country-specific rules ==

:'''In short: First publication is important, but difficult to ascertain.'''

:''See also [[:commons:Commons:Licensing|Commons:Licensing]] and [[Wikipedia:Non-US copyrights|Non-US copyrights]].''

Because copyright expiry is governed by local laws, some special noteworthy cases exist, in particular for ''photographs''. These cases are interesting for Wikipedia if a work was not published in the U.S., because then, the law of the originating country must be examined. There is a whole slew of country-specific image copyright tags for precisely that purpose; see the [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags#Other countries' public domain images|list of image copyright tags]]. However, being in the public domain in its home country ''does not'' automatically mean that the work was also in the public domain in the U.S. because the U.S. does ''not'' follow the "[[#Rule of the shorter term|rule of shorter term]]". Wherever these country-specific tags are used, they should be accompanied by a rationale explaining why the image is thought to be in the public domain in the U.S., too. (Remember that Wikipedia is primarily subject to U.S. law!)

Some examples of such country-specific rules are:
*In [[Australia]], the copyright on published photographs taken before [[May 1]], [[1969]] expired 50 years after the creation. (For photographs taken later, it expired 50 years after the first publication.) As a result of the [[Australia-U.S. Free Trade Agreement]] ([[AUSFTA]]), new legislation became effective on [[January 1]], [[2005]], extending the copyright term (also on photographs) generally to 70 years p.m.a, but explicitly ruling out a revival of copyright on works whose copyright had already expired. Any photographs created before [[January 1]], [[1955]] are thus in the public domain in Australia. The same also holds true for other works, which were protected 50 years p.m.a. prior to January 1, 2005: any work published before 2005 of an author who died before January 1, 1955 is in the public domain in Australia. See [http://www.copyright.org.au/pdf/acc/InfoSheets/G023.pdf Infosheet G-23: Duration of Copyright] by the Australian Copyright Council. These rules even apply for works where the government holds the copyright, i.e. that are under [[Crown copyright]]. (There is the template {{tl|PD-Australia}} for tagging such images.) See also [[copyright expiration in Australia]].
*In [[Canada]], any photograph created (not published!) before [[January 1]], [[1949]] and not covered by [[Crown copyright]] is in the public domain. This is a consequence of the Canadian [http://www.parl.gc.ca/bills/government/C-32/C-32_4/C-32TOCE.html Bill C-32: An Act to Amend the Copyright Act], which replaced the old rule for photographs ("copyright expires 50 years after creation of the work") by 50 years p.m.a., but ''not'' retroactively applying the new rule to works that were already in the public domain by the effective date of the bill, [[January 1]], [[1999]] (see [http://www.city.vancouver.bc.ca/ctyclerk/archives/photos/photrepr.htm] at the bottom). Wikipedia has the template {{tl|PD-Canada}} for tagging such images.

For an exhaustive list of the ''current'' situation in many countries, see [[Wikipedia:Copyright situations by country]]. This may help dealing with such cases. [[UNESCO]] also maintains a [http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=14076&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html collection of copyright laws] from many countries around the world. For works (photographs and others alike, but ''excepting [[#Sound recordings|sound recordings]] made prior to [[February 15]], [[1972]]'') not published in the U.S., the following rule applies:

:'''''If the work was in the public domain in the country of origin as of [[January 1]], [[1996]], it is in the public domain in the U.S.''''' (Even if it was published after 1923, but only if no copyright had been registered with the U.S. Copyright Office.)

[[January 1]], [[1996]] is the effective date for the copyright restorations of the U.S. [[Uruguay Round Agreements Act]] (URAA).<ref name="uraa_circ38b">U.S. Copyright Office: ''[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38b.pdf Circular 38b: Highlights of Copyright Amendments Contained in the URAA]'', URL last accessed [[2007-01-30]].</ref> The URAA implemented [[TRIPS]], part of the [[Uruguay Round]] of the [[GATT]] negotiations, in U.S. law. The URAA essentially is codified in U.S. law in [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104a 17 USC 104A]. It had the effect of automatically ''restoring'' copyrights of works that were still copyrighted in their country of origin but whose copyright had lapsed in the U.S. due to non-compliance with technical formalities such as proper registration of the copyright with the U.S. Copyright Office or that were not protected in the U.S. due to a lack of international or bilateral agreements with the country of origin. Since works that have entered the public domain in their country of origin prior to [[January 1]], [[1996]] are not eligible to this copyright restoration, such works remain in the public domain in the U.S. This, however, is valid only in cases where the U.S. federal copyright law (17 USC) applies. There are some specialized cases that are subject to ''state law'', where other rules may apply (see the section on [[#Sound recordings|sound recordings]] below). If the country of origin became a member of the Berne Convention or the two WIPO treaties or the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] only after January 1, 1996, the URAA still applies and that country's earliest adherence date to any of these treaties or organizations must be taken as the URAA copyright restoration date instead of January 1, 1996.

For the above cases, this means:
*Australian photographs taken before [[January 1]], [[1946]], not published in the U.S., and where no copyright was registered in the U.S., are in the public domain in Australia and the U.S.
*Other works first published in Australia whose author has died before January 1, 1946 and where no copyright was registered in the U.S. are also in the public domain in Australia and the U.S.
*Canadian photographs taken before [[January 1]], [[1946]], not subject to [[Crown copyright]], not published in the U.S., and where no copyright was registered in the U.S. are in the public domain in Canada and the U.S.

Additionally, because of the rule of the shorter term, such photographs are likely to be also in the public domain in Europe and in Japan, unless published there. (For the EU, one may probably even apply the 1955 and 1949 cut-off dates.)

The obvious difficulty here is to show that any particular work was indeed ''not'' published in the U.S, especially when considering works by Canadians. Even worse, one has to show that the work was indeed first published in Australia or Canada, respectively. If it ''was'' published in the U.S., the whole deliberation about copyright expiry in other countries does not come to play at all—the work is copyrighted in the U.S. (unless it was published before 1923, or in a few very specific, difficult to verify cases, see "[[#Published works|published works]]" below). If the work was published first in some third country—such as the [[United Kingdom]]—that third country is the country of origin, and consequently, one has to apply ''that'' country's copyright regulations to determine whether the work's copyright had expired by January 1, 1996. There are some other problems, too:
* If a work has multiple countries of origin because it was published in several countries within 30 days, it is unclear what rules would apply. Most probably, the copyright on the work would have to be expired in ''all'' of them by January 1, 1996 for the work to be in the public domain in the U.S.
* It is entirely unclear how retroactive legislation would affect this rule. What if a work had been in the public domain in its country of origin on January 1, 1996, but that country subsequently modified its copyright laws such that the work's copyright was reactivated?

In summary, the rules in the U.S. for works published abroad are as follows:
*If the work was published before 1923, it is in the public domain in the U.S.<ref name="US1909"/> (With a caveat for works published without copyright notice, see the [[#Footnotes|footnote]].)
*If the work was published 1923 to 1995 (inclusive) and not copyrighted in its countries of origin in 1996, it is in the public domain in the U.S.
*Otherwise, if the work was published before 1978, it is copyrighted in the U.S. for 95 years since the original publication (i.e. at least until 1923 + 95 = 2018), and if it was published 1978 or later, the work is copyrighted until 70 years after the (last surviving) author's death.

While the author of a photograph can often be determined quite easily, it may be rather difficult to ascertain where and when a particular image was first published. And strictly speaking one would also have to verify that a non-U.S. work was not covered by copyright in the U.S. by virtue of some [[bilateral]] agreement of the U.S. and the foreign country (see [http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl100.html] and "Circular 38a" in the "[[#External links|external links]]" section below). Country-specific public domain tags must therefore be used with the utmost care only.

=== Crown copyrights ===

:'''In short: UK Crown copyright expires world-wide.'''

[[Crown copyright]] is a special form of copyright on governmental works (including works made by employees of government agencies in the course of their duties) that exists in the [[United Kingdom]] and a number of other [[Commonwealth realms]]. Crown copyright for published works generally lasts for 50 years since the first publication (this is true not only for the UK but also e.g. for [[Canada]] or [[Australia]]). When Crown copyright expires on a work in its country of origin, the work enters the public domain in that country, but ''it may still be copyrighted in other signatory countries of the Berne Convention'' because these other countries apply their own laws, which may have longer copyright terms and not even know the concept of a "Crown copyright". (See e.g. [http://www.lexum.umontreal.ca/conf/dac/en/sterling/sterling.html Sterling 1995] towards the end, section titled "Protection of Crown copyright in other countries".)

An exception to this is ''UK Crown copyright''. Although UK works on which the Crown copyright has expired also could still be copyrighted elsewhere, the British [[Office of Public Sector Information]] (OPSI), which manages all Crown copyrights on behalf of the coypright holder ([[the Crown]]), has explicitly stated in an [http://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2005-May/022055.html e-mail] to Wikipedia that they consider UK Crown copyright expiry to apply ''world-wide''.

There is a [http://www.museumscopyright.org.uk/crown-a.pdf flowchart] explaining the precise rules for UK Crown copyright expiry. For photographs the rules are as follows:
*For photographs taken before [[June 1]], [[1957]], Crown copyright expires 50 years after the ''creation'' of the image. All such photographs are therefore in the public domain.
*For photographs taken after that date and published before [[August 1]], [[1989]], Crown copyright expires 50 years after the first ''publication''. For photographs created between these two dates, but published only on or after the 1989 date, Crown copyright expires on [[December 31]], [[2039]].
*For photographs created on or after [[August 1]], [[1989]], Crown copyright expires 125 years after the creation or 50 years after the first publication of the image, whatever is earlier.

There is the template {{tl|PD-BritishGov}} to tag images which are claimed to be in the public domain under these rules.

Companies House - When downloading accounts for a Company listed, they are free of copyright and may be posted on any website. They are public record and statutory. The situation is the same for birth and death certificates. There is no copyright for this type of public record. Please see www.companieshouse.gov.uk.

=== Works of the United Nations ===

:'''In short: parliamentary documentation (official records, such as resolutions) and documents ''not'' offered for sale are in the public domain; ''other'' UN documents ''are'' copyrighted.'''

Works of the [[United Nations]] or one of its bodies are generally copyrighted.<ref name="us_un"/><ref name="un_st_ai_2001_5">[[United Nations]], administrative instruction ST/AI/2001/5: ''[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UN/UNPAN006342.pdf United Nations Internet publishing, section 5: Copyright policy and disclaimers]'', [[August 22]], [[2001]]. Also see §3.29 ("Use of photos") of that document. URL last accessed [[2006-11-08]].</ref> In the interest of facilitating dissemination, the UN ''explicitly excludes'' some categories of its works from this general copyright and places them into the public domain: UN parliamentary documentation as well as public information material published under the UN document symbol ''and not offered for sale''.<ref name="un_st_ai_2001_5"/> Such documents are in the public domain. UN parliamentary documentation comprises a broad set of official reports prepared by the UN secretariat and the UN official records.<ref name="un_glossary">United Nations: UN OIOS Glossary, entry on ''[http://www.un.org/Depts/oios/mecd/mecd_glossary/documents/set_p.htm#p_documentation Parliamentary documentation]''. URL last accessed [[2006-11-08]].</ref> UN official records are
:"publications relating to proceedings of organs or conferences of the United Nations. They include verbatim or summary records, documents and check-lists of documents, issued in the form of annexes to those records, including periodic supplements, such as the quarterly ones of the Security Council; and the reports of those organs of subordinate or affiliated bodies, compilations of resolutions, certain reports of the Secretary-General, and other selected publications"<ref name="un_pub_guide">United Nations, administrative instruction ''[[:s:Administrative Instruction ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2|ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2]]''. URL last accessed [[2006-11-07]]. This temporary administrative instruction was prolonged indefinitely by ''[[:s:Administrative Instruction ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2/Add.2|ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2/Add.2]]'' in 1992.</ref>
[[UN resolution]]s are therefore in the public domain world-wide. Concerning images one should bear in mind that the UN may include in their publications (in print, on the Internet, or otherwise) images from third parties for which the UN has obtained an appropriate license.<ref name="un_st_ai_2001_5"/> Such third-party images retain their copyright, even if published in an otherwise public domain UN document as mentioned above. Only UN images appearing in such documents may be assumed to be in the public domain.

== Published works ==

:'''In short: Copyright notices are not needed anymore.'''

Under the Berne Convention, copyright is ''automatic'': no registration is needed, and it is not even necessary to display a copyright notice with the work for it to be copyright protected. Prior to the U.S. adopting the Berne Convention (by amending its copyright law through the [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d100:HR04262:@@@L&summ2=m& Berne Convention Implementation Act], effective [[March 1]], [[1989]]), this was not the case in the U.S. A work was only copyrighted if published with a copyright notice, which could be as simple as a line saying "© year copyright holder". For U.S. works there are therefore some special cases that place even works published after 1923 in the public domain. However, the necessary conditions are hard to verify.

*Published in the U.S., ''without'' a copyright notice:
**From 1923 to 1977: in the public domain
**From 1978 to March 1, 1989: only in the public domain if not registered since.
*Published in the U.S., ''with'' a copyright notice:
**From 1923 to 1963: only in the public domain if copyright not renewed. This may be hard to determine, and if renewed, the protection runs until 95 years after the initial publication. See the [[#External links|external links]] below and [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ22.html Circular 22 of the U.S. Copyright Office] for information on how to search the registry of the U.S. Copyright Office for copyright registrations and renewals.
**From 1964 to 1977: not in the public domain for some time to come; copyright expires 95 years after the original publication.
**From 1978 to March 1, 1989: [[#Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law|current standard rules]] apply (see just below).

Even if a work was published in the U.S. between 1923 and 1977 without a copyright notice, there would need to be proof to that effect. The proof must contain a valid resource justifying the claim in order for the U.S. copyright office to accept it.

For works not published in the U.S. but published first in some other country, see "[[#Country-specific rules|country-specific rules]]" above.

=== Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law ===

Works having seen their original U.S. publication on or after March 1, 1989 (with or without copyright notice or registration) are protected until 70 years after the author's death ('''70 years ''p.m.a.'''''); anonymous works, [[works made for hire]], works of unknown authors or where the author's death date is unknown are copyrighted until the shorter of '''95 years since the first publication''' or '''120 years since their creation'''. See [[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 3/Sections 302 and 303|17 USC 302]].

== Unpublished works ==

:'''In short: the 1923 date does ''not'' apply to ''unpublished'' works.'''

So far, we have only considered ''[[#Publication|published]]'' works. To re-iterate from the [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html#P98_14701 Berne Convention, §3.3]:
:''The performance of a dramatic, dramatico-musical, cinematographic or musical work, the public recitation of a literary work, the communication by wire or the broadcasting of literary or artistic works, the exhibition of a work of art and the construction of a work of architecture shall not constitute publication.''
As long as a work is not published, it is ''unpublished''. (Also note that by publication, the work must be made accessible to the general public, not only some closed audience. Furthermore, the publication must have had the consent of the author/creator or copyright holder of the work.)

Why is this important at all for Wikipedians? How could you come across an unpublished work?

Actually, that can happen easily with photographs in archives. Remember that "publication" requires the consent of the rights holder (initially the photographer). Many historic photos may thus actually be unpublished works, unless it can be shown that they ''were'' published in olden times. Especially items like private letters or family photographs, or photos found in some album, may well be unpublished. There are special exemptions in copyright law for libraries and archives that allow them to reproduce (even for the general public) such works for non-commercial uses, but that does not constitute "publication" unless done with the authorization of the rights holder.

The University of Wyoming has a [http://ahc.uwyo.edu/documents/about/publications/handouts/copyright.pdf three-page primer] on the issues involved with unpublished works. Archives often do not hold the copyright to the items in their holdings. Only if the copyright had been assigned in writing to an archive, the archive itself is the copyright holder. In practice, many archive holdings may be so-called [[orphaned work]]s, i.e. works where the current copyright holder, if any, is unknown. For such orphaned works, the U.S. Copyright Office seems to [http://www.copyright.gov/orphan/ push for a change] in U.S. Copyright law (see [http://archiv.twoday.net/stories/1501083/] for a brief summary) and a bill (HR 5439) for the [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.R.5439: Orphan Works Act of 2006] has been introduced in the [[United States House of Representatives]] on [[May 22]], [[2006]], but ''no law has been passed yet.''

Unpublished works are subject to copyright, too. To determine the copyright status of works published by archives that were not published elsewhere before, one will need to consider the rules for unpublished works. Until the [[Copyright Act of 1976|U.S. Copyright Act of 1976]] became effective on [[January 1]], [[1978]], U.S. federal law only covered published works and unpublished works that were registered at the Copyright Office. Unpublished unregistered works were covered by state law. This "[[common law copyright]]" in most states granted unpublished works a ''perpetual'' copyright, valid until an eventual publication of the work.<ref name="oakley">Oakley, R. L.: ''[http://www.clir.org/PUBS/reports/oakley/scheme-a.html Copyright and Preservation – Is the Work Protected?]'', CLIR, 1990. (A good explanation, but note that some dates mentioned there have been superseded by the copyright term extension of the CTEA in 1998.) URL last accessed [[2007-02-16]].</ref><ref name="lii">N.N.: ''[http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/usc_sec_17_00000301----000-notes.html Historical and Revision Notes]'' on 17 USC 301. Legal Information Institute, Cornell University. URL last accessed [[2007-02-16]].</ref> Since 1978, U.S. federal law also covers unpublished works (and preempts state law, see [[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 3/Section 301|17 USC 301]]). This gives the following situation in the U.S.:
*Unpublished works created before 1978:
**If published before 1978, the work is subject to the rules for works published before 1978. Because the common law copyright on unpublished works was perpetual, there were ''no'' unpublished works in the public domain back then, and thus the work was eligible to copyright when published. See [[#Published works|published works]].
**If not published before 1978, the work is copyrighted according to the [[#Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law|standard U.S. rules]].
**''However,'' if the work ''was'' published 1978 to 2002 (inclusive), it is copyrighted at least until the end of 2047. ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 3/Sections 302 and 303|17 USC 303]])
*Unpublished works created in 1978 or later are subject to the [[#Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law|standard U.S. rules]].

=== Artworks ===
:'''In short: Artworks are likely to remain unpublished long after their creation date. A date of publication must be ascertained to establish PD status.'''
Another important class of possible unpublished works are ''artworks'', in particular ''paintings''. Because an artwork is ''not'' published by being exhibited, and also neither by being created or sold, one needs to know when reproductions of the artwork (photos, postcards, lithographs, casts of statues, and so on) were first published. That constitutes publication of the artwork, and from then on, the work is subject to all the rules for published works.

For most artworks, a year is usually given, but this is normally the year the work was made, ''not'' the year it was published. Figuring out whether and if so when a particular painting was published can be difficult.

In the case that an artwork created before 1978 is not published until 2003 or later, it comes into the public domain 70 years after the author's death. However, if it is first published between 1978 and 2002 (inclusive), it will still be copyrighted in the U.S. until the end of 2047.

Proof of publication is mandatory; uploaders making a "public domain" claim on (a reproduction of) an artwork are ''required'' to prove with verifiable details that the work was first published before 1923, or first published after 2003 with an artist who died more than 70 years ago. To show that a work was published, one could look for printed works that contained reproductions of the artwork: art prints, art books, a ''[[catalogue raisonné]]'' of the artist's works, exhibition catalogs, and so on (although it is not clear when publishing a thumbnail constitutes publication of the original work). Reasonable effort should be made to find the earliest publication. If any is found from before 1923, that's good enough and the work is in the public domain. Remember, though, that "publication" means "lawful publication", which implies the consent of the author of the original.

If only a publication after 1922 can be asserted, the work should not be assumed to be in the public domain without evidence. If it was published before 1978 and had no [[#Published works|copyright notice]] or if it was published before 1964 and the copyright was not renewed it should be in the public domain. Works published abroad rarely complied with US formalities but may still be copyrighted if they were copyrighted in their home country on January 1, 1996 when the [[URAA]] restored copyrights in foreign works.

=== Country-specific rules for unpublished works ===

:'''In short: These rules vary greatly.'''

The Berne Convention leaves it to any signatory country to make its own rules regarding unpublished anonymous works (see §15(4)). Unpublished works by a ''known'' author, however, are subject to the same minimum protection (50 years p.m.a) as published works. But this is only a minimum protection. Individual countries can and do make their own rules regarding unpublished works, and often go beyond this minimum. Some cases to illustrate the possible complexities are:

*In Australia, unpublished literary, dramatic and music works are subject to a ''perpetual'' copyright. Furthermore, broadcasting or publicly performing such a work ''does'' constitute publication in Australia. (See [http://www.copyright.org.au/pdf/acc/InfoSheets/G023.pdf Infosheet G-23: Duration of Copyright].)
*In the countries of the [[European Union]], a publisher who publishes a previously unpublished work is granted the [[publication right]] on the work for a period of 25 years beginning with the eventual publication. This publication right is basically a copyright minus the [[moral rights]], which are always granted to the author only.
*In Germany, a work of the [[fine art]]s (such as a painting) is considered "published" if the original or a copy was permanently made available to the general public with the consent of the rights holder. ("Permanently" means "with the intent to be accessible for the normal natural lifetime of the work", c.f. the [[commons:COM:FOP#Permanent vs temporal|explanation at the Commons]].) Hence works of the fine arts can be "published" even if there are no copies.<ref name="urhg6">[http://bundesrecht.juris.de/urhg/__6.html German ''Urherberrechtsgesetz'', article 6(2)]. URL last accessed [[2007-08-13]].</ref>
Such cases may be important when trying to determine whether a non-U.S. work was copyrighted on [[January 1]] [[1996]]. See "[[#Country-specific rules|country-specific rules]]" above.

== Sound recordings ==

:'''In short: The copyright situation in the U.S. depends on ''state law'' for records made prior to [[February 15]], [[1972]]. ''Foreign'' recordings from 1946 or later ''are'' subject to federal copyright (even if made before 1972).'''

"Sound recording" and "phonorecord" are the terms used in the U.S. federal copyright law for records of music and speech alone, i.e. not together with images: videos, for instance, do not fall in this category. A "phonorecord" is the physical medium (LP, tape, CD, or other) on which a sound recording is fixed. Sound recordings, including digital recordings, are a very complex special case in U.S. copyright law. (Note: although "sound recording" encompasses also non-musical sounds, the topic is discussed here in the context of music recordings without loss of generality.)

A sound recording is different from a musical work. A musical work would be a composition (notes and words). Publicly performing a musical work does not constitute "publication" in the sense of the copyright law. (Presumably, a musical work is published when the score sheets are published.) Making a sound recording of a performance of a musical work requires the permission of the performer. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap11.html#1101 17 USC 1101]) Performing a musical work requires the authorization of the copyright holder of that musical work. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#106 17 USC 106(4)]) Distributing phonorecords made from a performance of a musical work also requires the authorization of the copyright holder of the work performed. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#106 17 USC 106(3)]). A sound recording is copyrighted separately from the musical work it records. Publicly distributing phonorecords of the sound recording constitutes publication of the sound recording. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#101 17 USC 101])

So there are four different copyrights to be considered for a sound recording:
*The copyright of the composer
*The copyright of the texter, if any
*The copyright of the performer, and
*The copyright of the producer of the record
In the case of broadcasts, there's also the copyright of the broadcaster on the broadcast to consider. The copyrights of performers/record producers/broadcasters are called the "[[neighbouring rights]]" or "related rights" in many countries. ''All'' of these have to have expired before the work enters the public domain.

Sound recordings made prior to [[February 15]], [[1972]] are ''not'' covered by U.S. federal copyright law.[http://www.clir.org/PUBS/reports/pub135/contents.html] They are, however, subject to U.S. state common or statutory laws until [[February 15]], [[2067]].{{mn|date2067|&dagger;}} On that date, federal copyright law will preempt state law, i.e., federal law will supersede any state laws in matters concerning the copyright of such sound recordings, and such sound recordings will then enter the public domain in the U.S., as federal law explicitly states that no such recordings "shall be subject to copyright under this title before, on, or after" that date. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap3.html#301 17 USC 301(c)]) Sound recordings made on or after [[February 15]], [[1972]] ''are'' covered by 17 USC (that is, the federal copyright law), and state law is irrelevant for such later recordings.

On an international level, sound recordings are ''not'' covered by the Berne Convention. §2(1) of the Berne Convention only lists musical works, but not recordings of performances of such. Internationally, sound recordings are brought under the auspices of copyright protection by the [[Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations|Rome Convention]], the [[WPPT]], and the [[Geneva Phonograms Convention]] (in full: "[http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/phonograms/index.html Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms]"). The U.S. has never signed the Rome Convention, but has signed and ratified the WPPT (entry in force in the U.S. was on [[March 20]], [[2002]]). Additionally, the U.S. has ratified the Phonograms Convention in 1973, it entered in force on [[March 10]], [[1974]].

An illustrative case in the U.S. showing some of the complexities of determining the copyright status of even old recordings is ''[http://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/I05_0027.htm Capitol Records v. Naxos of America]'', decided by the [[New York Court of Appeals]], the highest court of the state of New York, on [[April 5]], [[2005]]. Briefly, that decision about old recordings that were made in the [[United Kingdom]] in the 1930s and that had entered the public domain there in the 1980s (50 years after their creation) stated that these were still eligible for copyright protection under the common law of the state of New York, even though they were in the public domain in the UK prior to [[January 1]], [[1996]] and thus not eligible to copyright restoration under the URAA. The reason given was precisely that records from the 1930s were not covered by federal law and the URAA and its cut-off date did not apply to state law.

Despite sound recordings not being covered by the Berne Convention, and despite the fact that the U.S. in 1996 was a member of neither the Rome Convention nor the WPPT, the [[URAA]] ''does'' cover sound recordings ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 1/Section 104A|17 USC 104A(h)(6)]], in particular sub-points (C)(iii) and (E)). The usual copyright term for performances/records/broadcasts in many non-U.S. countries is 50 years, counted from the creation (performance, fixation of the record, original broadcast), but if the performance or record is published within these 50 years, the term runs until the end of 50 years after that first publication. (The minimum term defined in the Rome Convention is just 20 years, but many countries go further.) As a result, the URAA generally restored ''federal'' copyright on foreign sound recordings made 1946 or later, even though domestic records from 1946–1971 do not benefit from such federal copyright. As far as ''foreign'' records are concerned, common law copyright applies only to pre-1946 records. Later records are covered by federal law. And, as the ''Capitol v. Naxos'' case showed, absence of federal copyright due to non-restoration does not mean the foreign recording were in the public domain in the U.S.<ref name="besek">Besek, June M.: ''[http://www.clir.org/PUBS/abstract/pub135abst.html Copyright Issues Relevant to Digital Preservation and Dissemination of Pre-1972 Commercial Sound Recordings by Libraries and Archives]'', CLIR pub. #135, December 2005, ISBN 1-932326-23-5. URL last accessed [[2007-08-23]]. See in particular p. 18f on restoration of foreign sound recordings, and footnote 88 on p. 31 for evidence that ''all'' four (or five) different copyrights need to have expired.</ref>

:{{mnb2|date2067|†}} That date originally was February 15, 2047 (75 years after 1972), but was extended by 20 years in 1998 by the [[CTEA]].

== Movies and movie stills ==

:'''In short: many movies are ''[[commons:COM:DW|derivative works]]'' of other, pre-existing works. They enter the public domain only when the copyrights on the movie ''and'' those on the underlying base work have expired.'''

Movies are called "motion pictures" in the U.S. Copyright law and belong to the class of "audiovisual works". A movie comprises both the sequence of images and the accompanying sound, if any. (Incidentally, a movie soundtrack is ''not'' a "sound recording", 17 USC 101.) They are subject to the same copyright rules as other works, with a few extras. Among the exclusive rights of the copyright holder on a movie are the rights to display publicly the movie ''or individual images from it''. Therefore, even the display of a single frame from a movie (a so-called "movie still") is subject to the copyright on the film.

The matter of movies is complicated when the movie itself is a derivative work of some earlier work, for instance a previously published novel. As with all derivative works, the copyright on both the derivative and the underlying base work must have expired before the film is truly in the public domain. If only the rights on the film have expired, publication of the movie is still subject to the consent of the rights holder of the underlying work.

:"In ''Russell v. Price'', 612 F.2d 1123,1128 (9th Cir. 1979), the court held that copyright owners of [[George Bernard Shaw]]’s play ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'', which was still covered by copyright, could prevent distribution of the film version of the play, even though the film had fallen into the public domain. Similarly, in ''Filmvideo Releasing Corp. v. Hastings'', 668 F.2d 91,92 (2d Cir. 1981), the court held that even though films based on the ''[[Hopalong Cassidy]]'' stories had fallen into the public domain, a license for television exhibition had to be obtained from the owners of the copyrights in the underlying books, which were still protected by copyright."
::Quoted from Besek, footnote 88 on page 31.<ref name="besek"/>

A similar case occurred with the film ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'', which was thought to be in the public domain when its copyright owner failed to renew its copyright in 1974. However, in 1993, the copyright owner determined that it still held the rights to the underlying story...<ref name="ochoa">Ochoa, T.: ''[http://www3.wcl.american.edu/cni/0202/30327.html Re: Films in Public Domain]'', E-Mail to listserv, February 27, 2002; citing Steven Mitchell Schiffman, ''Movies in the Public Domain: A Threatened Species'' 20 Columbia-VLA J. L. Arts 663, 671-72 (1996) and Debra L. Quentel, ''"Bad Artists Copy. Good Artists Steal": The ugly Conflict between Copyright Law and Appropriationism'', 4 UCLA Ent. L. Rev. 39, 47 n.46 (1996). URL last accessed [[2007-08-28]].</ref>

The situation gets even more confusing if the effects of renewals are taken into account. In particular, what about the status of derivative works created during the base work's initial copyright term, ''i.e.'', created before the renewal of the copyright on base work? In 1990, the U.S. [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled in ''Stewart v. Abend'' (495 U.S. 207 (1990)) that the continued exhibition and distribution of the [[Alfred Hitchcock|Hitchcock]] movie ''[[Rear Window]]'' was a copyright infringement on an underlying short story, on which the copyright had been renewed. On the other hand, this applies only to ''explicit'' copyright renewals, i.e. all pre-1964 renewals and those made voluntarily after 1964. As per [[:s:United_States_Code/Title_17/Chapter_3/Sections_304_and_305|17 USC 304(a)(4)(A)]], it does ''not'' apply to automatic copyright renewals (since 1964).<ref name="gorman_movie_renwal">Gorman, R. A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law, 2nd ed.]'', U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]. Sub-section "Derivative works prepared during the initial term", pp. 60–62. URL last accessed [[2007-08-27]].</ref> See also ''[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ15.html Circular 15: Renewal of Copyright]'' by the U.S. Copyright Office.

Note that in most countries, all this is not an issue at all. As movies are granted the same copyrights with the same terms as the underlying work, the copyright on the underlying work typically expires first. But in the U.S., it is quite possible that the copyright on a movie was not renewed (or the movie was published without copyright notice) while the book on which it is based was properly copyrighted and renewed. In such cases, the movie will be in the public domain only when the book is in the public domain, too.

=== Animated movies (Cartoons) ===

:'''In short: Cartoons (animated movies or comic strips) enter the public domain only when the copyrights on both the movie or strip ''and'' the character have expired.'''

With cartoons, a slightly different issue may arise. Cartoon characters are, themselves, objects of copyright. <ref name="gorman_cartoon">Gorman, R. A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law, 2nd ed.]'', U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]. Section "Pictorial and literary characters", p. 50. URL last accessed [[2007-08-27]].</ref> The most famous example is, most likely, [[Mickey Mouse]]. He appeared in 1928 in the animated movies ''[[Plane Crazy]]'' and ''[[Steamboat Willie]]'', and was copyrighted at that time. The copyright was properly renewed and, because of the terms of the [[Copyright Term Extension Act]], its copyright runs for 95 years since the original publication and is currently set to expire at the end of 2023. The Mickey Mouse case is complicated even more because the character has become a trademark of [[The Walt Disney Company]], which means that even "fair use" of the character must be carefully evaluated to avoid [[trademark infringement]].<ref name="moffat">Moffat, V.: ''[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=972358 Mutant Copyrights and Backdoor Patents: The Problem of Overlapping Intellectual Property Protection]'', Berkeley Technology Law Journal, Vol. 19, 2004, pp. 1474–1532. ([http://btlj.boalt.org/data/articles/19-4_fall-2004_6-moffat.pdf Alternate link to full article])</ref>

Similar to the above, an animated movie enters the public domain only when the copyrights on both the movie ''and'' the character have expired. Even if there were a ''Mickey Mouse'' movie that was not under copyright due to non-renewal or other reasons, that movie would not be in the public domain until the end of 2023, when the copyrights on ''Plane Crazy'', ''Steamboat Willie'' and on ''Mickey Mouse'' will have expired.

The same applies, of course, to other cartoon characters such as [[Donald Duck]], or the [[Warner Bros.]] characters such as [[Daffy Duck]]. It also applies to [[comic strips]] and comics characters, such as [[Superman]].

== Photographs of buildings ==

:'''In short: Photographs of civilian buildings from public places are OK in many, but not all, countries.'''

Buildings are works subject to copyright in the U.S. according to [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#102 17 USC 102(a)(8)] since the [http://www.djc.com/news/ae/11151054.html Architectural Works Copyright Protection Act] was passed in 1990. It applies to all buildings that were completed (not begun) after [[December 1]], [[1990]], or where the plans were published after that date. However, the U.S. federal copyright law explicitly exempts photographs of such copyrighted buildings from the copyright of the building in [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#120 17 USC 120(a)]. Anyone may take photographs of buildings from public places. The photographer holds the exclusive copyright to such an image (the architect or owner of the building has no say whatsoever), and may publish the image in any way. In German copyright law, this is called ''"[[:de:Panoramafreiheit|Panoramafreiheit]]"''. Not all countries recognize this right; in France and Belgium, for instance, there is no such [[freedom of panorama]] and thus the copyright holder of a building has the right to control the distribution of photographs of the building. A famous example is the [[Atomium]] in [[Brussels]], which is copyrighted. The copyright holder in this case is rather litigious about the publication of unauthorized/unlicensed images of the Atomium.<ref name="atomium">See e.g. this [http://www.chillingeffects.org/fairuse/notice.cgi?NoticeID=760 take-down notice].</ref>

17 USC 120 applies only to architectural works, not to other works of visual art, such as statues. In many other countries, this freedom of panorama extends also to works of the visual arts that are permanently located in public places, but that is not the case in the United States. In many countries, taking photographs of military installations is also illegal (but that prohibition is independent of copyright).

:''See also the [[:commons:Commons:Freedom of panorama|list of panorama freedom legislation around the world]] at the Commons.''

== Derived works and restorations of works in the public domain ==

:'''In short: These may give rise to new copyright on the new work, but not on the public domain original.'''

[[Image:Vietnam child soldier.jpg|thumb|This image has been heavily postprocessed by a Wikipedia editor to restore it from a very badly deteriorated original. Although the technical work was intricate and involved many choices to be made, the creator of the digitally restored image does not think he'd have a copyright on the restored version as it is not the result of original, creative input of his. Both the original (as a work of an U.S. Army soldier in service) and the restored image are in the public domain.]]
A work that is derived or adapted from a public domain work can itself be protected by copyright only to the extent that the derived work contains elements of originality contributed by the author of the derived work. For example, an abstract painting of a famous photograph would be protectible, as is the distinctive rendition of the ''[[Star Spangled Banner]]'' performed by [[Jimi Hendrix]]. The protection available to these works does not remove the underlying work from the public domain, and the author of the derivation has no cause of action against another person who makes a derivation of the same public domain work.

A work that is merely a "slavish copy", or even a restoration of an original public domain work is ''not'' subject to copyright protection. In the case of ''Hearn v. Meyer'', 664 F. Supp 832 (S.D.N.Y. 1987), an illustrator attempted unsuccessfully to claim copyright on his restored versions of original ''Wizard of Oz'' illustrations. The illustrations were in the public domain, and the court found that the act of rendering them with bolder and more vibrant colors was not an original contribution sufficient to remove the restored works from the public domain.

The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] has explicitly rejected difficulty of labor or expense as a consideration in copyrightability in ''[[Feist v. Rural]]''. See also "[[#Non-creative works|Non-creative works]]" above.

== Public records ==

:'''In short: being in the public record has no bearing on the copyright status of an item. Works in the public record may be copyrighted.'''

[[Public record]]s are ''not'' necessarily in the public domain. Citizens generally have the right to ''access'' many items in the government's public records, but this right to access does not include a right to republish or redistribute the works so accessed. In general, copyright is neither lost nor waived when a work becomes part of the public record. Being in the public record and copyright are two orthogonal concepts. Uses of works from the public record must comply with copyright law.<ref name="publ_rec">Davis, Karen: ''[http://www.in.gov/pac/informal/2005/Lt.Governor_inquiry_by_Chad_Frahm_re_Tourism_photos.pdf Guidance Regarding the Use of Copyrighted Material Under the Access to Public Records Act]'', Public Access Counselor, U.S. State of [[Indiana]], [[October 31]], [[2005]]. URL last accessed [[2006-12-22]].</ref>

Many items in the U.S. public records are in the public domain as [[#U.S. government works|works of the U.S. federal government]], such as court decisions by federal courts. Laws, statutes, court opinions, but also other official documents such as "tax maps", are not copyrightable in general in the U.S., even if made by a U.S. state.<ref name="gorman_govt">Gorman, R.A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright law, 2nd ed.]'', U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]], section "Government works" on pp. 52–54. URL last accessed [[2007-08-31]].</ref><ref name="perritt">Perritt, H. H.: ''[http://www.courtstuff.com/JCIT/wandm.htm#IVB Sources of rights to access public information, section B.1]'', article presented at "Access Versus Privacy: Approaches to State Information
Policy", a conference held on [[March 17]], [[1995]] at the Marshall-Wythe School of Law, College of William & Mary. URL last accessed [[2007-08-31]].</ref> Other kinds of works in the public record (third-party works, works of state or local governments other than laws, statutes, and so on) may be copyrighted, though;<ref name="state_pubs"/><ref name="contractors"/><ref name="compendium206_01"/> even when they have become part of the public record.

In the [[United Kingdom]], many items in the public records ''are'' copyrighted. Official works in the UK are under [[Crown copyright]], and this copyright subsists if the item was published before it was placed in a public record repository. Only for works that were placed in such repositories without having been published before, the Crown waives its copyright.<ref name="opsi">UK [[Office of Public Sector Information]]: ''[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/advice/crown-copyright/copyright-guidance/copyright-in-public-records.htm Copyright in Public Records]'', [[November 30]], [[2006]]. URL last accessed [[2006-12-22]].</ref>

== Copyright restorations ==

:'''In short: Works that were already out of copyright may sometimes become copyrighted again!'''

Common sense would suggest that once the copyright of a particular work has expired in a country and it had thus entered the public domain in that country, it would always remain in the public domain there. Unfortunately, this is not true. It is entirely possible that the copyright laws of a country are changed such that works already out of copyright under the old law ''become copyrighted again'' under the new law. Such ''copyright restorations'' complicate considerably the matter of deciding whether a work is indeed in the public domain.

There are several examples of such laws restoring copyrights. In the EU, the [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]], which is ''binding'' for all EU members and which became effective on [[July 1]], [[1995]], makes any work that was copyrighted in at least one EU member on January 1, 1995 copyrighted in ''all'' EU members, even if that work's copyright had already expired there (see [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0098:EN:HTML §10(2)] of the directive). Because Spain has had a strict copyright law with a long copyright term of 70 years p.m.a. (or even 80 year for some time) and no rule of the shorter term since 1879, this effectively means that throughout the EU, one has to apply 70 years p.m.a., irrespective of shorter terms that may have existed in historic laws of a particular EU member. For an example of this, see the case of German [[#World War II images|World War II images]] below. In the U.S., the [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38b.pdf Uruguay Round Agreement Act (URAA)] mentioned above is another such copyright restoration to the U.S. copyright law. It suddenly makes works copyrighted in the U.S. that previously were in the public domain there. Examples of such copyright restorations also exist in other countries.

Such copyright restorations typically are ''not'' ''[[ex post facto]]'' laws. (Briefly, an ''ex post facto'' law is one that retroactively criminalizes or punishes more severely acts done before the law was passed.) The EU directive explicitly says in [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0098:EN:HTML §10(3)] that the directive ''"shall be without prejudice to any acts of exploitation performed before the...''[effective date, i.e. [[July 1]], [[1995]]]''. Member States shall adopt the necessary provisions to protect in particular acquired rights of third parties."'' The URAA, to take the other example discussed above, only makes ''continued or new'' unlicensed uses of works whose copyright has been restored a copyright violation. Unlicensed earlier publications of the work (while it was still in the public domain in the U.S.) are ''not'' punished "after the fact", i.e. ''ex post facto''. For continued uses, [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104a 17 USC 104A] requires even that the holder of the restored copyright file a so-called "Notice of Intent to Enforce Restored Copyrights" (in short: NIE) with the U.S. Copyright Office for such continued uses to be considered copyright infringements (see 17 USC 104A(c)). For existing derivative works, 17 USC 104A(d)(3) stipulates that a "reasonable compensation" must be paid for continued use.

Because the URAA became effective only on [[January 1]], [[1996]] (half a year after the EU directive), any copyrights restored in the EU by the directive also became restored in the U.S.

=== Countries without copyright treaties with the U.S. ===

:'''In short: Use such works under a "public domain" claim ''only if'' the copyright in the country of origin has expired.'''

According to [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html Circular 38a] of the U.S. Copyright Office, which gives the state of affairs as of January 2003, [[Afghanistan]], [[Bhutan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Nepal]], [[San Marino]], and possibly [[Yemen]] have no copyright relations whatsoever with the U.S. ([[Eritrea]] is not mentioned at all.) Works originating in one of these countries thus are not copyrighted in the United States, irrespective of the local copyright laws of these countries.

On Wikipedia, such works may be used under a "public domain" claim ''only'' if their copyright in the country of origin has expired, even though legally the work is in the public domain in the U.S. [[Jimbo Wales]] has [http://mail.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikien-l/2005-August/027373.html expressed] a strong desire that such countries' copyrights be respected. Furthermore, it also avoids future problems with images on Wikipedia if some of these countries should enter a copyright treaty with the U.S., because then suddenly such works will become copyrighted in the U.S. by virtue of the URAA (see above) if they are still copyrighted in their country of origin. Previously uploaded images might then have to be reevaluated. As an example, consider [[Iraq]], which is, despite all the political and military confusion, a [[WTO]] [http://www.wto.int/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm observer] and is in the process of [http://www.wto.int/english/thewto_e/acc_e/a1_iraq_e.htm applying for WTO membership]. If and when Iraq does become a WTO member, the URAA suddenly will apply, and Iraqi works that are copyrighted in Iraq at that time will become copyrighted in the U.S.

[[Bhutan]] and [[Nepal]] have instituted copyright relations with the United States since Circular 38a was published, and [[North Korea]] has joined the Berne Convention since then. [[Afghanistan]] is in the process of developing a copyright law.<ref name=afghan">Wick, P.; Klosek, J.: ''[http://www.goodwinprocter.com/getfile.aspx?filepath=/Files/publications/wick_klosek_11_22_03.pdf A clean slate: Drafting Afghanistan's first copyright laws]'', Goodwin Procter, ''Copyright World'', November 2003. URL last accessed [[2007-02-21]].</ref>

== Example cases ==

This section is intended to show the effect the aforementioned rules using a few example images.

=== German World War II images ===

:'''In short: All deemed copyrighted by their authors. In the U.S. and the UK, special exceptions for "seized enemy property" ''may'' apply.'''

The issue of [[Germany|German]] photographs from World War II has created some confusion. Are they still copyrighted? What about governmental images (such as propaganda)? What about images seized by Nazi Germany?

Already the copyright situation in Germany concerning such images is confusing. Originally, these images were subject to the ''[http://www.fotorecht.de/publikationen/kug.html Kunsturhebergesetz (KUG)]'' from 1907, which provided for a copyright term for photographs of 10 years since the publication, or 25 years p.m.a. for unpublished works. In [[1940]], the ''KUG'' was modified to provide a copyright term of 25 years since publication, applicable also to all works that were either still unpublished or still copyright protected (§26). In [[1965]], the first version of the German ''[http://www.urheberrecht.org/law/normen/urhg/1965-09-09/text/bgbl_I_1273_01_07_p64-69.php3 Urheberechtsgesetz (UrhG)]'' became effective, again with a copyright term for photographs of 25 years since publication, or 25 years since creation, if the image was not published in that time (§68). As a result, photographs from the World-War-II era went out of copyright in Germany at the end of 1970.<ref name="seiler">Rechtsanwalt D. Seiler: ''[http://www.fotorecht.de/publikationen/schutzfrist.html Fotografien und urheberrechtliche Schutzfristen]''. URL last accessed [[2008-09-16]]. The distinction in German copyright law between photographic ''works'' (''Lichtbildwerk'', copyrighted for 70 years ''p.m.a.)'', and simple photographs (''Lichtbild'', copyrighted for 50 years since creation or publication) was introduced only in 1985: [http://www.urheberrecht.org/law/normen/urhg/1985-06-24/materialien/bgbl_I_1137.php3#1985_I_1137 Gesetz zur Änderung von Vorschriften auf dem Gebiet des Urheberrechts vom 24. Juni 1985], BGBl. I Nr. 33 vom 27.6.1985, S. 1137. [[Directive 93/98/EEC|EU directive 93/98/EEC]] had the effect of making most photos qualify as photographic ''works''. See Seiler on this.</ref>

However, with the EU [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]] from 1993, which became effective in Germany on [[July 1]], [[1995]] and is implemented in German law in [http://bundesrecht.juris.de/urhg/__137f.html §137f], these works suddenly became copyright protected ''again'', until 70 years p.m.a! This was caused by the interaction of the directive (see [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection#Copyright restoration|section on copyright restoration]]) with Spain's longer copyright term of 80 years ''p.m.a.''<ref name="Spain">See the [http://www.derecho-internet.org/node/365 1879 copyright law of Spain]: the 80-year term remained valid even in the [http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs_new/es/es/es015es.html 1987 copyright law] (transitional provisions, article 1(2)) and in the [http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs_new/en/es/es070en.html 1996 copyright law], which implemented that EU directive (transitional provisions, fourth article).</ref> This suddenly superseded Germany's old "25 years"-rule that had been governing World-War-II-era images. As a result, a image published in 1943 that had been in the public domain in Germany since 1968 became copyrighted again in 1995 with the EU term of 70y p.m.a.<ref name="olg_hh">[http://web.archive.org/web/20070426042905/http://www.pkf-duisburg.de/news/wirtschaft_mehr.php?id=473&limit=50 Oberlandesgericht Hamburg, decision 5 U 159/03, March 3, 2004]: The copyright on a German photograph of a surfacing submarine, taken in 1941 and published in 1943, had expired in Germany at the end of 1968. However, the image was re-copyrighted by [http://bundesrecht.juris.de/urhg/__137f.html §137f] implementing the [[Directive 93/98/EEC|EU directive 93/98/EEC]] because it was still copyrighted in Italy on July 1, 1995.</ref>

As a result, such images were copyright protected on [[January 1]], [[1996]]<ref name="uraa_wwii">See the section explaining the [[#Country-specific rules|URAA]] above.</ref> (which is the critical date as far as U.S. copyright law is concerned), and therefore, they ''are copyrighted even in the U.S.''

The situation of German World-War-II photographs found in U.S. governmental archives is controversial. They might fall (in the US only) under [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/usc_sec_17_00000104---A000-.html#a_2 17 U.S.C. 104A(a)(2)], which exempts from the URAA copyright restorations works on which the copyright was seized and administered by the U.S. Office of the [[Alien Property Custodian]] and on which a restored copyright would be held by a foreign government.<ref name="fr_63_74">United States: ''[http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1998/63fr19287.pdf Federal Register Vol. 63, No. 74 / Friday, April 17, 1998]'', pp. 19289–19290. URL last accessed [[2007-04-16]].</ref> It is unclear to what works exactly this provisio would apply,<ref name="fr_63_74"/> as it can be argued that copyright of hardly any of the WWII works at all were owned by the German government and the Nazi party, but by private people and organizations. Most of these seized copyrights were returned to their foreign owners in 1962 by public law Pub. L. No. 87–846,<ref name="fr_63_74"/><ref name="patry_twte">Patry, W.: ''[http://digital-law-online.info/patry/patry7.html Copyright Law and Practice]'', Chapter 1, part 7: "Trading With the Enemy Act". Bna Books, ISBN 0871798549. URL last accessed [[2007-04-16]].</ref> but on motion pictures, the U.S. retained the right "to reproduce, for its own use, or exhibit any divested copyrighted motion picture films."<ref name="fr_63_74"/> There is also the ''Price vs. United States'' ([[Case citation|69 F.3d 46]]) ruling that at least places serious constraints on the practical enforceability of copyrights on such works in the U.S.<ref>{{cite journal | author = David Culbert | title = [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2584/is_n2_v17/ai_20032587 The Heinrich Hoffmann Photo Archive: Price vs United States (United States Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit, 20 November, 1995)] | journal = Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | year = 1997}} See also [http://web.archive.org/web/20020602021048/http://www.dcd.uscourts.gov/98-857.pdf Civil Action 98-857] before the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, Judge Henry H. Kennedy. Ultimately, the U.S. Supreme Court denied the Hoffmann heirs review of the lower courts' decision in their disfavor. (See the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/briefs/2001/0responses/2001-1111.resp.html opinion of the U.S. Solicitor General] and the [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/orders/journal/jnl04.pdf Journal of the U.S. Supreme Court, October 2004, p. 298].) URLs last accessed [[2007-04-16]].</ref> The [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] even tags some such images as "© USHMM". It is also unclear what the U.S. position on "official" images of the Nazi regime is. It should be noted that even the [http://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/art/key-series-descriptions/key-series-descriptions-15.html NARA acknowledges the presence of copyrights] from the war era on some of its holdings remaining with the institutions and individuals who own the artwork, as oppose to their Nazi plunderers.

Another example are German [[newsreel]]s, a kind of weekly news shown in movie theatres before the advent of [[television]]. Most such ''Wochenschau'' films are still copyrighted; the rights are held by Transit Film GmbH in Germany. In the U.S. the copyright on these films from 1914 until the 1940s had expired due to non-compliance with U.S. formalities; the copyright was then restored in 1996 by the URAA on those published after 1922. The Transit Film company then even [http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1998/63fr19287.pdf filed so-called "notices of intent to enforce" (NIEs)] with the U.S. Copyright Office and can now even enforce its copyrights against parties who used their films (rightfully!) before the URAA became effective. The same is also true for most [[Universum Film AG|UFA]] films; the rights holder in this case is the [[Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau]] Foundation [http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1998/63fr19287.pdf]. The song ''[[Lili Marleen]]'' is another such case; the rights holder is Schott Music International [http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1996/61fr68453.html].

In the United Kingdom, confiscated German works brought into the country between [[September 3]], [[1939]] and [[July 9]], [[1951]] had all German interests, both physical ownership and intellectual property rights such as copyrights or patents, extinguished by the ''Enemy Property Act'' of 1953. This expropriation affected only the status of such works within the UK; the international rights on German works were left untouched. <ref name="iwm">[[Imperial War Museum]]: ''[http://www.iwmcollections.org.uk/common/pdf/FilmTermsConds.pdf Standard Terms and Conditions Governing the Release and Use of Film and Visual Material]''. URL last accessed [[2007-05-30]].</ref> This act was repealed in 1976, but the copyrights on such seized works were not restored in the UK.<ref name="best1">Best, H.: ''[http://www.twobirds.com/English/publications/articles/GermanFilmsandUKEnemyPropertyAct1953pt1.cfm The spoils of war: German Films and UK Enemy Property Act 1953]'', Bird & Bird, [[January 7]], [[2002]]. URL last accessed [[2007-05-30]].</ref><ref name="best2">Best, H: ''[http://www.twobirds.com/english/publications/articles/Booty_in_the_eye_of_the_beholder.cfm Booty in the eye of the beholder]'', Bird & Bird, [[February 10]], [[2005]]. URL last accessed [[2007-05-30]].</ref>

In general, wartime German images cannot be tagged as being in the public domain.

=== Canadian images: [[Yousuf Karsh]] ===

:'''In short: Pre-1949 Karsh images are in the public domain ''only'' in Canada. Later Karsh images are copyrighted anyway anywhere.'''

Many photographs by [[Yousuf Karsh]] ([[1908]] – [[2002]]) can be found at the web site of the [[Library and Archives Canada]] (LAC), who state that the copyright was expired and there were no restrictions on the use and reproduction of these images. In fact, many such images have been uploaded to Wikipedia by several users and tagged as "public domain" based on these claims by the LAC. However, ''this applies only in Canada''. The history of each and every of these images must be closely examined to determine whether they just might be in the public domain elsewhere. As it turns out, this is not the case for most of them. Some examples:

*[[:Image:Albert Einstein by Yousuf Karsh.jpg]], from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=&s1=&s8=571914&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http%3A//www.collectionscanada.ca%2F02%2F02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. This image has generated a lot of discussion at the Commons, with an anon claiming it was copyrighted, and, more recently, another (German) user trying to get the image deleted (again) as a copyvio. The pertinent discussion is in chronological order at [[Commons:Commons:Village pump archive-13#image on wikimedia commons, explicitly labeled as copyrighted?|first deletion discussion]], [[Commons:Image talk:Albert Einstein.jpg|asking the LAC for confirmation]], a [[Commons:Commons:Deletion requests/Archives05#Image:Albert Einstein.jpg|second deletion discussion]], and then at a [[Commons:Commons:Village pump archive-18#Re-discussing a copyright "clarification"|third discussion]]. Finally, on November 16, 2005, the image was tagged both as {{tl|PD-Canada}} ''and'' {{tl|imagevio}} here on the English Wikipedia.
*:The image was definitely published in Karsh, Y.: ''Portraits of Greatness'', University of Toronto Press, Toronto 1959, and Thomas Nelson & Sons, London, 1959, p. 68. (See [http://www.geh.org/ne/mismi3/m198130600048_ful.html].) Whether that is the ''first'' publication of the image is unknown. Following [http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm Peter Hirtle's chart], and even assuming the first publishing occurred in Canada, the image was still copyrighted in Canada on January 1, 1996 (its copyright in Canada expired on December 31, 1998) and thus is ''still copyrighted in the U.S''. The simultaneous publishing of the book also in the UK makes it copyrighted there, and by extension through the [[EU Copyright Directive]] all over the [[European Union]]. Unless the EU would also consider it a Canadian work, in which case the "rule of the shorter term", which the EU ''does'' apply to non-EU countries, might make it copyright-free there—but that's a stretch and would depend on whether the Canadian and UK publishing occurred within 30 days (and hence be "simultaneous") or not. CameraPress in London ''does'' claim copyright on this image. If this image was even published (or should that be "first published"?) in the U.S., it would definitely be copyrighted in the U.S. While one would have to check whether its copyright was renewed to be absolutely sure, it is a fairly safe bet that the Karsh Estate did do so.
*[[:Image:Winston Churchill 1941 photo by Yousuf Karsh.jpg]] (on the Commons), from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=&s1=&s8=44621&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.ca%2F02%2F02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. It turns out that this was first published on the cover of ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'', a U.S. magazine, in 1941 or 1942. (See e.g. [http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp05467&role=art].) There, too, a check whether the copyright was renewed would be needed, but it would be a surprise if it was not. That image is most probably also still copyrighted. However, since that image is so important in Karsh's career and is discussed in detail at [[Yousuf Karsh]], it could be salvaged by re-uploading it to the English Wikipedia and making a fair use claim for its use in the Karsh article.
*[[:Image:VerePonsonby.jpg]] from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=PA-195700&s1=&s8=&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.ca/archivianet/02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. According to [http://www.mfa.org/exhibitions/sub.asp?key=15&subkey=660], this was (first) published in newspapers across Canada and Britain. Its Canadian copyright expired on December 31, 1983, and it is thus likely to be in the public domain in the U.S., too. (Not copyrighted anymore on January 1, 1996.) However, if there is a UK copyright on it, or if it was (simultaneously, first?) published in the U.S., it might nevertheless be copyrighted in the U.S.
*:Note that the book Karsh, Y.: ''Karsh Canadians'', Univ. of Toronto Press, Toronto 1978, ISBN 0-8020-2317-7, ''is'' copyrighted in the U.S. (copyright registered December 6, 1978; registration number TX-385-199).
*[[:Image:PaulRobesonByYousufKarsh.jpg]], from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=PA-209022&s1=&s8=&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.ca/archivianet/02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. Image from 1938, published in Karsh, Y.: ''Faces of Destiny'', Ziff-Davies Publishing, New York 1946, and George G. Harrap, London, 1946. Original copyright registered with the U.S. Copyright Office on December 16, 1946 (Registration Number A9354), renewed December 3, 1974 (Registration Number R592433). See [http://shelf1.library.cmu.edu/Projects/crr/1974/1974-7-5644.tif]. Therefore, copyright on this work (and all the images included therein, assuming that was their original publication) expires in the U.S. only on December 31, 2041.

The whole issue of Karsh images is complicated even more because Yousuf Karsh for years maintained ''two'' offices: one in [[Ottawa]], Canada, and another one in [[New York City]].

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[Wikipedia:Copyright]]
*[[Wikipedia:Copyright FAQ]]
*[[Wikipedia:Granting work into the public domain]]
*[[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags]]
*[[Wikipedia:Public domain resources]]
*[[Wikipedia:Public domain image resources]]

== External links ==

General:

*[http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States] by Peter Hirtle.
*[http://www.btinternet.com/~tony.kent/soundrec.htm Sound Recordings and Copyright in the UK]. A guide for those engaged in the restoration of public domain sound recordings.
*[http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=14076&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Collection of National Copyright Laws] by the [[UNESCO]].
*[http://www.wipo.int/clea/en/clea_adv_search.jsp Collection of Laws for Electronic Access (CLEA)] from the [[WIPO]].
*[http://www.ecap-project.org/asean_ip_legislation_international_treaties.html Copyright laws] of [[ASEAN]] countries.
*[http://www.cipr.org/legal_reference/index.htm Copyright laws] of countries that formerly were part of the [[Soviet Union]].
*[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html International Copyright Relations of the U.S.] – Circular 38a of the U.S. Copyright Office.
*[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/copy_and_perms.pdf Copyright guidelines] from the University of Chicago Press.
*[http://english.osu.edu/research/organizations/ijjf/copyrightfaqs.cfm The copyright status] of the works of [[James Joyce]]. Illustrates some of the complications that may arise.
*Gorman, R.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law], 2nd ed''. U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]. URL last accessed [[2006-10-27]].

Copyright renewals in the U.S.:

*[http://www.copyright.gov/records/cohm.html On-line database] for copyright registrations and renewals in the U.S. since 1978
*[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/cce/ TIFF scans] of the registry of the U.S. Copyright Office 1950 - 1977, with a bias towards books.
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11800 digitized versions] of the registry of the U.S. Copyright Office 1950 - 1977, with a bias towards books, hosted by [[Project Gutenberg]].
*[http://collections.stanford.edu/copyrightrenewals/ Searchable database] of the digitized copyright renewal records for books.

[[Category:Wikipedia copyright|Public domain]]

[[is:Wikipedia:Almenningur]]
[[zh-yue:Wikipedia:公有領域]]

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Wikipedia:Public domain

2008-09-22T10:20:56Z

202.79.62.16: Log on www.boudhadharma.com

{{subcat guideline|content guideline|Public domain|WP:PD}}
{{Wikipedia copyright}}

:''See also the encyclopedia article on the [[public domain]].''
:''WP:PD redirects here. You may be looking for [[Wikipedia:Proposed deletion]] (shortcut: [[WP:PROD]]) instead.''
For all practical purposes on Wikipedia, the '''public domain''' comprises copyright-free works: anyone can use them in any way and for any purpose. Proper attribution to the author or source of a work, even if it is in the public domain, is still required to avoid [[plagiarism]].

The public domain is generally defined (e.g. by the [http://www.copyright.gov/help/faq/faq-definitions.html#public_domain U.S. Copyright Office]) as the sum of works that are not [[copyright]]ed, i.e.
* that were not eligible for copyright in the first place, or
* whose copyright has expired.

However, there is no such thing as ''the'' public domain on the Internet. International treaties, like the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]], are not self-executing and do not supersede local law. There is [http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl100.html ''no'' globally valid "International Copyright Law"] that would take precedence over local laws. Instead, signatory countries of the Berne Convention have adapted their laws to comply with the minimum standards set forth by the treaty, often with ''stronger'' provisions than required. Whether or not something is copyright-free in some country depends on the laws of individual countries.

[[Wikipedia]], and the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], its legal body, are based in [[Florida]], [[United States]]. Although legislation is sometimes unclear about which laws are to apply on the Internet, the primary law relevant for Wikipedia is that of the United States. For re-users of Wikipedia content, it is the laws of their respective countries.

In the U.S., any work '''published before [[January 1]], [[1923]]''' ''anywhere in the world''<ref name="US1909">Strictly speaking, only U.S. works published before [[January 1]] [[1923]] and foreign works published in compliance with U.S. formalities (registration, © notice) before that date are in the public domain in the U.S. For non-U.S. works published ''without'' compliance with U.S. formalities (i.e., without © notice), the situation is a bit more complicated:
*If published before 1909, such works are in the public domain in the U.S.
*If published between 1909 and 1922 (inclusive) in a language ''other than English'', the [[United States federal judicial circuits|Ninth Circuit]] has considered them as "unpublished works" according to [http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm#Footnote_11 Peter Hirtle] and following the decision of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]] in the case ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=9th&navby=case&no=9515250 Twin Books v. Disney]'' in 1996. The case was about the book [[Bambi, A Life in the Woods]]; the decision is heavily criticized in ''Nimmer on Copyright'' (ISBN 0-820-51465-9), the standard commentary on U.S. copyright law.
*If published between 1909 and 1922 (inclusive) in English, they are ''highly likely'' to be PD, given that the aforementioned controversial case was only about a work published in a foreign language.
*Additionally, any work first published outside of the United States without copyright notice prior to 1989, when the U.S. joined the Berne Convention, is in the public domain in the U.S. if it was in the public domain in its country of origin on the URAA date (in most cases [[January 1]], [[1996]]). See the section on [[#Country-specific rules|country-specific rules]] for more information.
Also, the 1923 cut-off date applies only to the U.S. This means foreign works first published before 1923 are in the public domain in the U.S., but may still be copyrighted outside the U.S.</ref> is in the '''public domain'''. Other countries are ''not'' bound to that 1923 date, though. Complications arise when special cases are considered, such as trying to determine whether a work published later might be in the public domain in the U.S., or when dealing with unpublished works. When a work has not been published in the U.S. but in some other country, that other country's copyright laws also must be taken into account. Re-users of Wikipedia content also might find the explanations here useful.

== Important documents ==

* The [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] is the primary legislative document governing international copyright. Signatory states agree to amend their legislations to meet the minimum requirements of this convention, but the convention itself is ''not'' law. Signatory countries have the right to "opt out" from a few of its paragraphs (most are mandatory and non-negotiable, though), and how any particular country implements the Berne Convention is a question of local legislation. The [http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs/en/wo/wo001en.htm full text] of the Berne Convention is available at the [[WIPO]] web site.

* The U.S. Copyright Law is [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/ Title 17 of the United States Code (17 USC)], chapters 1 through 8 and 10 through 12. Chapters 9 and 13 contain design protection laws on semiconductor chips and ship hulls that are of no interest or relevance for Wikipedia.

* The EU [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]] is a ''binding'' directive for all member countries of the [[European Union]], harmonizing the term of copyright. It became effective on [[July 1]], [[1995]]. Individual countries have amended their laws to comply with this directive. The EU legislation web site has the [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0098:EN:HTML full text (1993)], plus a [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32001L0029:EN:HTML 2001 amendment] modifying §3(2). See [[#Retroactive changes in copyright legislation|Retroactive changes in copyright legislation]] below for some discussion.

The U.S. Copyright Law explicitly makes clear that the Berne Convention is just a treaty, not some "super-law" that would take precedence over U.S. Law: [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104 17 USC 104(c)] states that
:''"No right or interest in a work eligible for protection under this title may be claimed by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto...."''
When discussing copyright issues informally (and ''all'' such discussions on Wikipedia ''are'' informal), one may nevertheless argue in terms of the Berne Convention: writing "according to ''§y'' of the Berne Convention..." is then just a short-hand for writing "according to ''§x'' of ''country's copyright law'', which implements ''§y'' of the Berne Convention, ..." However, one should bear in mind that some paragraphs of the Berne Convention are optional, and that any country may go beyond the minimum standards specified by the Berne Convention for the most part.

=== Other documents ===

There are some other documents related to copyright issues that one occasionally comes across, but they generally are less important for Wikipedia's purposes.

*The [[Universal Copyright Convention]] ([http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/lipa/copyrights/The%20Universal%20Copyright%20Convention%20_Geneva%20Text--September.pdf 1952 Geneva text], [http://www.ifla.org/documents/infopol/copyright/ucc.txt 1971 Paris text]) was an alternate international copyright treaty. It prescribed less stringent protections than the Berne Convention. Since the UCC explicitly said that if a signatory of the UCC was also a signatory of the Berne Convention, the latter should prevail, and most countries have since joined the Berne Convention, the UCC is largely irrelevant today. However, the adherence dates of some states to the UCC may still be of interest.
*The [[Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations|Rome Convention]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/rome/index.html International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations]) from 1961 is a treaty augmenting the Berne Convention by copyright on performances and recordings thereof.
*The [[Geneva Phonograms Convention]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/phonograms/index.html Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms]) is an additional international treaty extending copyright to [[#Sound recordings|sound recordings]].
*The [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wct/index.html WCT]) from 1996, effective 2002, is an extension of the Berne Convention, bringing computer programs and databases under the auspices of copyright. In the U.S., it is implemented by the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act|DMCA]].
*The [[WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty]] ([http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wppt/index.html WPPT]) from 1996 entered in force in 2002. It is an update of the [[Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations|Rome Convention]]. In the U.S., it was implemented as [[WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act|part of the DMCA]].

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== Works ineligible for copyright protection ==

:'''In short: U.S. Federal Government works, or no creative content'''

:''See also:'' [[Wikipedia:Copyright on emblems|Copyright on emblems]].

=== U.S. government works ===
For the U.S., federal government works are not eligible for copyright protection ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#105 17 USC 105]). It is not clear whether this applies world-wide, see the [http://www.cendi.gov/publications/04-8copyright.html#317 CENDI Copyright FAQ list, 3.1.7] and a discussion on that at the [http://blog.librarylaw.com/librarylaw/2004/09/copyright_in_go.html LibraryLaw Blog].

In practice, this means that ''much'' material on <tt>*.gov</tt> and <tt>*.mil</tt>, as well as material on some <tt>*.us</tt> web sites (such as the sites of the [[U.S. Forest Service]]), are in the public domain. Please note that not ''all'' such material is in the public domain, though:
* U.S. governmental web sites may use copyrighted works, too; either by having licensed them or under a "fair use" provision. In general, such copyrighted works on web sites of the U.S. federal government and its agencies are indicated by appropriate bylines. An example are "visitor image galleries" on [[National Park Service|U.S. National Park Service]] websites: unless these have some indication that the photographs are placed in the public domain by publishing them on that NPS web site, these images are copyrighted by their photographers, who are visitors of national parks, not employees of the NPS.
* Some U.S. ''state'' governments also have web sites in the <tt>*.gov</tt> domain. '''State and local governments''' usually ''do'' retain a copyright on their works. 17 USC §105 only places ''federal'' documents in the public domain.<ref name="state_pubs">Publications of U.S. ''state'', district, county, or municipal agencies are eligible to coypright. Only works of ''federal'' agencies are exempt from copyright; see [http://library.findlaw.com/1999/Jan/1/241476.html Radcliffe & Brinson: ''Copyright Law''], or the [http://cendi.dtic.mil/publications/04-8copyright.html#30 CENDI Copyright FAQ list, 3.1.3].</ref>
* Works produced under a commission from the U.S. government by a contractor ''are'' most likely copyrighted. This typically includes any documents from research labs. The [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]], for instance, is operated by a contractor for the [[U.S. Department of Energy]], but that does not mean the works it produces are "works of the federal government". ORNL works ''are'' copyrighted, and the U.S. government is granted a non-exclusive license to use, publish, and allow republication of such works. The precise terms vary from one lab to the next, but in general, commercial re-use of their works is prohibited.<ref name="contractors">[http://www.cendi.gov/publications/04-8copyright.html#40 CENDI Copyright FAQ list, section 4.0], and [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#105 17 USC 105].</ref> This also applies to works authored by ''independent contractors'' or ''freelance writers or artists'', even when their works are commissioned by some U.S. government agency.<ref name="Gorman_52ff">Gorman, R. A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law, 2nd ed.]'', [[Federal Judicial Center|U.S. Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]; chapter 2: The Subject Matter of Copyright, section "Government works", pp. 52ff. URL last accessed [[2008-08-13]].</ref>
* Even the U.S. federal government may hold copyrights, if the original copyright holder assigns or transfers the copyright to the U.S. government. A notable example of this is the obverse of the [[Sacagawea dollar]], in which its designer [[Glenna Goodacre]] claimed copyright before she transferred the design and its copyright to the [[United States Mint]].<ref name="sacagawea"> See "Intellectual Property Rights" in the U.S. Mint website's privacy policy [http://www.usmint.gov/policy/index.cfm?action=TermsOfUse#rights]. </ref> Of course, when a U.S. governmental agency holds such a transferred copyright, it is free to declare the work to be in the public domain (or not).<ref name="Gorman_52ff"/>

Under U.S. law, laws themselves and legal rulings also form a special class. All current or formerly binding laws, codes, and regulations produced by government at any level and the public record of any court case are in the public domain. [http://www.baconsrebellion.com/Issues04/08-09/Dale.htm] This applies even to the laws enacted in states and municipalities that ordinarily claim copyright over their work. The US Copyright Office has interpreted this as applying to all "edicts of government" both domestic and foreign.<ref name="compendium206_01">The Compendium of Copyright Office Practices (Compendium II) section 206.01 [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp states], "Edicts of government, such as judicial opinions, administrative rulings, legislative enactments, public ordinances, and similar official legal documents are not copyrightable for reasons of public policy. This applies to such works whether they are Federal, State, or local as well as to those of foreign governments." and 206.03 [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp clarifies] "Works (other than edicts of government) prepared by officers or employees of any government (except the U.S. Government) including State, local, or foreign governments, are subject to registration if they are otherwise copyrightable."</ref>

Note that other countries' governments ''may'' hold copyrights; in fact, most do so and their works are thus copyright protected. At the same time, many countries declare their edicts such as laws and court decisions to be exempt from copyright. Such exemptions are typically narrowly defined and ''cannot'' be construed to mean "any publication by a government office".

The [[United States Copyright Office]], in section 206.02(b), 206.02(c), and 206.02(d) of the [[Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices]], has stated its position that works of the [[U.S. Postal Service]], of the government of the [[District of Columbia]], or of the government of [[Puerto Rico]] are ''not'' "works of the U.S. government" and thus ''are'' subject to copyright.<ref>See 206.02(b), 206.02(c), and 206.02(d) of the [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp Compendium of Copyright Office Practices] of the U.S. Copyright Office</ref> Works of the [[United States Post Office Department]] prior to the formation of the U.S. Postal Service are still considered government works and are in the public domain.{{fact}} Works of the [[United Nations]] or its agencies or of the [[Organization of American States|OAS]] are subject to copyright. <ref name="us_un">See section 206.03 of the [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp Compendium of Copyright Office Practices] of the U.S. Copyright Office, and also [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104 17 USC 104(b)(5)].</ref> On the UN, see [[#Works of the United Nations|Works of the United Nations]] for some important exceptions: some UN documents ''are'' in the public domain.

=== Non-creative works ===

:'''In short: Bare facts are in the public domain. Works must show sufficient ''human'' creativity to be eligible to copyright at all.'''

A second category of works that in general cannot be copyright protected are those that have no (or no significant) creative content: they do not pass the [[threshold of originality]]. In the U.S., the classic example is a telephone directory. The names and numbers therein are, in the doctrine of case law (e.g. ''[[Feist v. Rural]]''), "facts that were discovered", rather than the result of a creative expression or judgment. The U.S. has explicitly rejected the position that the amount of effort involved in the discovery of a fact can justify its protection. As a result of this doctrine, addresses, phone numbers, most scientific data, sports scores, the results of polls, and similar facts are exempt from copyright.

While the facts themselves are exempt, other creative elements in a compilation of facts may warrant copyright protection. For example, ''Eckes v. Card Prices Update'' established that the specific selection of which facts to include in a list, when done as the result of a creative act, merits protection even when the individual elements do not. (See also [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#103 17 USC 103(b)].) The [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]] is an international treaty that follows this concept; it has been adopted also by the [[European Union]] (EU) in its [[EU Database Directive]], a ''[[sui generis]]'' protection that prohibits any significant "extraction" or "re-utilization" of information from a database created by significant effort. In all these cases, the copyright is on the database as a whole, i.e. the selection of the collection. The individual items in such databases still have their own copyright, which may have expired.

Similarly, though scientific data are usually exempt from copyright, the specific figures and styles of presentation used to present that data will in most cases merit copyright protection. Also, in some cases facts that are exempt from copyright may still be protected as a result of patent law.

[[Image:Chimpanzee congo painting.jpg|thumb|This painting was produced by the chimpanzee "[[Congo (chimpanzee)|Congo]]" and is therefore not copyrighted. The photo of the painting is not copyrightable per the ''Bridgeman v. Corel'' ruling.]]
Another class of uncreative works which are unable to claim copyright protection in the U.S. are those resulting from mechanical reproduction. Following ''[[Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.]]'', a simple reproductive photograph of a two-dimensional artwork does not give rise to a new copyright on the photograph. Many other countries (but not all!) recognize a similar ineligibility for copyright for reproductive photographs of two-dimensional public domain works.

Common to all these cases is that only works created by a [[human]] are eligible to copyright.<ref name="human_creativity">U.S. Copyright Office: [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0200.asp ''Compendium of Office Practices II,'' section 202.02(b)] and [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0500.asp section 503.03(a)]. URL last accessed [[July 3]], [[2007]].</ref> Works created by animals (such as a painting produced by a [[chimpanzee]]) or machines (such as illegal [[spam]]) are not copyrightable, although in the case of drawings produced by a [[computer program]], the program itself of course may be copyrighted. In certain cases, even graphics produced by computer programs may be copyrightable; see e.g. ''[[Stern Electronics, Inc. v. Kaufman]]''.

Descriptions (including diagrams) in [[patent]] applications in the U.S. are "published into the public domain" by the [[U.S. Patent and Trademark Office]] [http://www.uspto.gov/main/ccpubguide.htm]. Portions may contain the non-obligatory notice of copyright © or [[mask work]] Ⓜ protection, but the patent applicant must state in the text of the description that the owner of the rights in the protected part agrees to allow anyone to make [[facsimile]] reproductions of those portions of the description, but otherwise reserves all rights [http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/documents/appxr_1_71.htm#cfr37s1.71 37 CFR § 1.71(e)].

Photographic reproductions, as a form of derivative work, may inherit the copyright of the original work. If that artwork is in the public domain, then so is the photograph. If, however, the depicted work is copyright protected, then, although there is no independent copyright on the photo itself, it cannot be considered to be in the public domain as the original rights holder still has the authority to control how reproductions of his work, including photographs, are made and distributed. The same applies to digitized images.

It should also be noted that the exemption of reproduction photographs extends only to ''two-dimensional'' artwork in the U.S. A photograph of a three dimensional statue may acquire copyright protection even if the statue itself belongs to the public domain. Such rights derive from the creativity involved in the positioning of camera, lighting, and other variables.

In the U.S., the ''[http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0500.asp Compendium of Office Practices II]'' of the [[U.S. Copyright Office]] gives some concrete examples and hints at under what conditions a work is sufficiently original to be eligible for copyright.

=== Fonts ===
:'''In short: Scalable fonts ''as such'' are copyrighted as computer programs; typefaces ''as such'' may be protected by design patents, and, in a few countries, by copyright; ''actual use'' of the typeface is not restricted, even if the font used was based illegally on a protected typeface.'''

Under U.S. law, [[typefaces]] and the characters they contain are considered to be utilitarian objects whose utility outweighs any merit that may exist in protecting their creative elements. As such, typefaces are exempt from copyright protection in the United States ([[Code of Federal Regulations]], [http://frwebgate3.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/waisgate.cgi?WAISdocID=36964326810+4+0+0&WAISaction=retrieve Ch 37, Sec. 202.1(e)]; ''Eltra Corp. vs. Ringer''). However, this finding was limited in ''Adobe vs. Southern Software, Inc.'', wherein it was held that scalable computer fonts, ie., the instructions necessary to render a typeface, constitute a "computer program" for the purposes of copyright law and hence are subject to protection. Hence the computer file(s) associated with a scalable font will generally be protected even though the specific design of the characters is not. Furthermore, a [[raster graphics|rasterized]] representation (e.g. bitmap) of the characters in a scalable font is not protected by copyright in the United States. According to section [http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/CopyrightCompendium/chapter_0500.asp 503.02(a)] of ''[[Compendium II: Copyright Office Practices]]'', [[typography]] and [[calligraphy]] are not copyrightable in themselves in the U.S. This treatment of fonts is not very unusual with respect to international law, and most other jurisdictions do not consider fonts subject to copyright either (with the notable exception of the UK, which however also only covers typefaces as such, as they are for example employed in fonts, and not their actual use<ref>[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1988/Ukpga_19880048_en_3.htm#pt1-ch3-pb7-l1g54 Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (c. 48), section 54]</ref>). However, typefaces as such may be protected by design patents in many countries (either automatically, or by registration, or by some combination thereof). A prominent example is the European Union,<ref>[http://oami.europa.eu/en/design/faq/faq01.htm#200 OAMI-ONLINE - The Community Design in Practice]</ref> where the automatic protection (without registration) expires after three years and can be extended (by registration) up to 25 years.<ref>[http://oami.europa.eu/en/design/faq/faq01.htm#500 OAMI-ONLINE - The Community Design in Practice]</ref>

=== International aspects ===

:'''In short: The [[threshold of originality]] varies between countries.'''

Like the [[#When does copyright expire?|duration of copyright]], eligibility to copyright in the first place is governed by national laws. The [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html#P109_16834 Berne Convention, §5(2)] explicitly states that
:''The enjoyment and the exercise of these rights ''[i.e., copyrights]'' shall not be subject to any formality; such enjoyment and such exercise shall be independent of the existence of ''[copyright]'' protection in the country of origin of the work.''
In other words: a work that is not copyrightable in one country (even if that country is its country of origin) can still be copyrighted in other countries, if the work is copyrightable there. An example of this is [[:Image:Christoph Meili 1997.jpg]]: this image is not copyrightable in its country of origin (Switzerland) by a decision of the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. However, in all likelihood it fulfills the criteria in other countries: it would pass the [[threshold of originality]] in the U.S.; and it would probably also be eligible for copyright in the EU.

Mere ideas, procedures, methods of operation or mathematical concepts as such are not copyrightable as per article 2 of the [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]].<ref name="wct">[http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wct/trtdocs_wo033.html#P51_3806 WIPO Copyright Treaty], article 2: ''Scope of Copyright Protection''. URL last accessed [[June 21]], [[2006]].</ref>

== Publication ==

:'''In short: A work is published when tangible ''copies'' of it are made available to the public at large.'''

In the following, we will frequently refer to the "[[publication]]" of a work. A work is published when copies of the work are made accessible in some non-ephemeral form to the public at large with the consent of its author or copyright holder. Ephemeral forms of making the work accessible do ''not'' constitute publication. To quote the [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html#P98_14701 Berne Convention, §3.3]:
:''The performance of a dramatic, dramatico-musical, cinematographic or musical work, the public recitation of a literary work, the communication by wire or the broadcasting of literary or artistic works, the exhibition of a work of art and the construction of a work of architecture shall not constitute publication.''

The U.S. Copyright law defines "publication" in [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#101 17 USC 101] in basically the same way using different words:

:''"Publication" is the distribution of copies or phonorecords of a work to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending. The offering to distribute copies or phonorecords to a group of persons for purposes of further distribution, public performance, or public display, constitutes publication. A public performance or display of a work does not of itself constitute publication.''

"Public display" includes broadcasts and other transmissions. The U.S. Copyright Office states in its [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ40.html#publication Circular 40]:
:''A work of art that exists in only one copy, such as a painting or statue, is not regarded as published when the single existing copy is sold or offered for sale in the traditional way, for example, through an art dealer, gallery, or auction house. A statue erected in a public place is not necessarily published.''

:''When the work is reproduced in multiple copies, such as reproductions of a painting or castings of a statue, the work is published when the reproductions are publicly distributed or offered to a group for further distribution or public display.''

Thus, a work is ''unpublished'' unless copies (which may be print publications, photos, postcards, lithographs, but also non-print publications such as replicas of a statuette) of it are published. It is of course implied that such a distribution of copies occurred legally, in particular with the consent of the copyright holder. An illegal distribution of copies (for instance one that itself would be a copyright violation) does ''not'' constitute a publication of a work. The right to publish a work is an ''exclusive'' right of the copyright owner ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 1/Sections 105 and 106|17 USC 106]]), and violating this right (e.g. by disseminating copies of the work without the copyright owner's consent) is a [[copyright infringement]] ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 5/Section 501|17 USC 501(a)]]), and the copyright owner can demand (by suing in court) that copies distributed against his or her will be confiscated and destroyed ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 5/Sections 502 and 503|17 USC 502, 17 USC 503]]).

Notwithstanding the quoted paragraph from the Berne Convention, broadcast and public performance of literary or dramatic works may constitute publication in other countries, e.g. in Australia (see [http://www.copyright.org.au/pdf/acc/InfoSheets/G023.pdf Infosheet G-23: Duration of Copyright]).

We will get back to this issue in the sections "[[#Published works|Published works]]" and "[[#Unpublished works|Unpublished works]]" below.

== When does copyright expire? ==

:'''In short: It depends, but always at the end of the year in which it expires.'''

The Berne Convention was designed to ensure that works protected in the country of origin were also protected in all other signatory countries without the rights holder having to register claims in each and every of these countries. Thus the laws of the originating country of a work determine whether something is copyright protected at all, and if so, the Berne Convention ensures that it is automatically copyright protected in all other signatory countries, too, ''under their respective laws'' (§5(1) of the Berne Convention).

(The ''originating country'' or ''country of origin'' is that country where the work was initially published, or in the case of unpublished works, defined by the author's nationality or "habitual domicile". See §3 of the Berne Convention. If a work is published within 30 days in several countries, it can have multiple "countries of origin".)

Copyright protection is granted only for a certain period of time—barring pathological cases where some work is placed under a [[perpetual copyright]] protection. Different countries have different copyright terms: in some countries, copyright expires 50 years after the author's death (also called "50 years p.m.a.", ''post mortem auctoris''; this is the minimum standard required by the Berne Convention), others have a 70-year period (70y p.m.a.), [[Mexico]] even [http://www.ladas.com/BULLETINS/2004/0304Bulletin/Mexico_CopyrightLaw.html 100y p.m.a.] Many countries also have special rules, depending on when a work was first published, whether it was first published in that country or not, whether the author is known or not, and other things. For instance, a work published with a © notice in the U.S. between 1963 and 1977 (inclusive) is copyright protected in the U.S. until 95 years after the date of the initial publication. Peter Hirtle has compiled a [http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm very useful chart] showing when and under what conditions the copyright of a work expires in the U.S. The default rule in the U.S. for works published since 1978 or for unpublished works is 70 years p.m.a. If a work is a "work made for hire", it has [[corporate authorship]] and is protected to the shorter of 95 years from publication or 120 years from creation. Many countries also know or at least knew different copyright terms for text and photographic works.

Basically all countries in the world specify that when a copyright expires, it does so at the ''end of the year''. Thus, works of an author who died on June 27, 1937 did ''not'' become copyright-free on June 28, 2007 but only on January 1, 2008 under a "70 years p.m.a." rule.

=== Rule of the shorter term ===

:'''In short: The "[[rule of the shorter term]]" says that copyright protection in any signatory country of the Berne Convention ends when the copyright expires in the originating country. This rule is ''not'' binding. The U.S. has ''not'' adopted it; the European Union (with exceptions!), Japan, Macao, and Taiwan ''have'' done so.'''

While the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] ''does'' harmonize bringing works under copyright protection in the first place, it does ''not'' similarly harmonize the expiration of copyright. The Berne Convention prescribes a minimum standard for copyright terms any signatory country must adhere to (50y p.m.a.), but any signatory is free to prescribe longer durations in its laws. To be fair, §7(8) of the Berne Convention ''does'' specify a "rule of the shorter term", which says that the copyright term can in no case exceed the copyright term in the originating country of a work. However, signatory countries have the right to "opt out" from this rule, and it depends on individual countries' implementation acts whether they do follow this rule. The copyright on a work may thus expire in one country and enter the public domain there, but the same work ''may still be copyrighted'' in other signatory countries.

The United States does ''not'' recognize this "shorter term" rule while [[s:United_States_Code/Title_17/Chapter_1/Section_104|17 U.S.C. 104]](c) reads: "Any rights in a work eligible for protection under this title that derive from this title, other Federal or State statutes, or the common law, shall not be expanded or reduced by virtue of, or in reliance upon, the provisions of the Berne Convention, or the adherence of the United States thereto." Furthermore, [[s:United_States_Code/Title_17/Chapter_1/Section_104A|17 U.S.C. 104A]](a)(1)(B) may restore copyright on a work published outside the USA for the remaining American copyright term even if its copyright may expire sooner in its source country.

The [[European Union]] does, however, adopt such a rule via-a-vis non-EU members (see §7(1) of the [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection|EU directive 93/98/EEC]]). ''Within'' the EU itself, however, the contrary is true: §10(1) states that longer terms already running remained in effect, and §10(2) states that the 70 year p.m.a. applied to all works protected in at least one member country. As a result, there is a transitory phase in which works that already were out of copyright in one EU country suddenly became copyright protected again in that country on July 1, 1995 because they were still protected in some other EU country. See "[[#World-War II images|World-War II images]]" below.

In East Asia, [[Japan]], [[Macao]], and [[Taiwan]] also honor the rule of the shorter term. See [http://www.cric.or.jp/cric_e/clj/cl2_2.html#cl2_2+S4 §58 of the Japanese Copyright Law], Article 51 of [[s:Decree-Law_n.o_43/99/M|Decree-Law n.o 43/99/M]] of Macao, and Article 106bis of the [[s:Copyright Act (Republic of China, 2006)|Copyright Act]] in effect in Taiwan administered by the Republic of China.

However, some countries make exceptions to this rule. A notorious case is Germany, which has had a bilateral treaty with the U.S. governing copyright since [[January 15]], [[1892]]. That treaty, which is still in effect, defined that a U.S. work was copyrighted in Germany according to German law irrespective of the work's copyright status in the U.S, and it did not contain a "rule of the shorter term". In one [http://web2.justiz.hessen.de/migration/rechtsp.nsf/bynoteid/8019B44ABE988A9CC1256E55004A0462?Opendocument case], a German court therefore decided that a U.S. work that had fallen into the public domain in the U.S. was still copyrighted in Germany in 2003 in spite of §7(1) of the EU directive.

See also OpenFlix for a useful [http://www.openflix.com/information/non-US-copyright.php list] of countries and areas that do or do not honor the rule of the shorter term.

== Country-specific rules ==

:'''In short: First publication is important, but difficult to ascertain.'''

:''See also [[:commons:Commons:Licensing|Commons:Licensing]] and [[Wikipedia:Non-US copyrights|Non-US copyrights]].''

Because copyright expiry is governed by local laws, some special noteworthy cases exist, in particular for ''photographs''. These cases are interesting for Wikipedia if a work was not published in the U.S., because then, the law of the originating country must be examined. There is a whole slew of country-specific image copyright tags for precisely that purpose; see the [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags#Other countries' public domain images|list of image copyright tags]]. However, being in the public domain in its home country ''does not'' automatically mean that the work was also in the public domain in the U.S. because the U.S. does ''not'' follow the "[[#Rule of the shorter term|rule of shorter term]]". Wherever these country-specific tags are used, they should be accompanied by a rationale explaining why the image is thought to be in the public domain in the U.S., too. (Remember that Wikipedia is primarily subject to U.S. law!)

Some examples of such country-specific rules are:
*In [[Australia]], the copyright on published photographs taken before [[May 1]], [[1969]] expired 50 years after the creation. (For photographs taken later, it expired 50 years after the first publication.) As a result of the [[Australia-U.S. Free Trade Agreement]] ([[AUSFTA]]), new legislation became effective on [[January 1]], [[2005]], extending the copyright term (also on photographs) generally to 70 years p.m.a, but explicitly ruling out a revival of copyright on works whose copyright had already expired. Any photographs created before [[January 1]], [[1955]] are thus in the public domain in Australia. The same also holds true for other works, which were protected 50 years p.m.a. prior to January 1, 2005: any work published before 2005 of an author who died before January 1, 1955 is in the public domain in Australia. See [http://www.copyright.org.au/pdf/acc/InfoSheets/G023.pdf Infosheet G-23: Duration of Copyright] by the Australian Copyright Council. These rules even apply for works where the government holds the copyright, i.e. that are under [[Crown copyright]]. (There is the template {{tl|PD-Australia}} for tagging such images.) See also [[copyright expiration in Australia]].
*In [[Canada]], any photograph created (not published!) before [[January 1]], [[1949]] and not covered by [[Crown copyright]] is in the public domain. This is a consequence of the Canadian [http://www.parl.gc.ca/bills/government/C-32/C-32_4/C-32TOCE.html Bill C-32: An Act to Amend the Copyright Act], which replaced the old rule for photographs ("copyright expires 50 years after creation of the work") by 50 years p.m.a., but ''not'' retroactively applying the new rule to works that were already in the public domain by the effective date of the bill, [[January 1]], [[1999]] (see [http://www.city.vancouver.bc.ca/ctyclerk/archives/photos/photrepr.htm] at the bottom). Wikipedia has the template {{tl|PD-Canada}} for tagging such images.

For an exhaustive list of the ''current'' situation in many countries, see [[Wikipedia:Copyright situations by country]]. This may help dealing with such cases. [[UNESCO]] also maintains a [http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=14076&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html collection of copyright laws] from many countries around the world. For works (photographs and others alike, but ''excepting [[#Sound recordings|sound recordings]] made prior to [[February 15]], [[1972]]'') not published in the U.S., the following rule applies:

:'''''If the work was in the public domain in the country of origin as of [[January 1]], [[1996]], it is in the public domain in the U.S.''''' (Even if it was published after 1923, but only if no copyright had been registered with the U.S. Copyright Office.)

[[January 1]], [[1996]] is the effective date for the copyright restorations of the U.S. [[Uruguay Round Agreements Act]] (URAA).<ref name="uraa_circ38b">U.S. Copyright Office: ''[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38b.pdf Circular 38b: Highlights of Copyright Amendments Contained in the URAA]'', URL last accessed [[2007-01-30]].</ref> The URAA implemented [[TRIPS]], part of the [[Uruguay Round]] of the [[GATT]] negotiations, in U.S. law. The URAA essentially is codified in U.S. law in [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104a 17 USC 104A]. It had the effect of automatically ''restoring'' copyrights of works that were still copyrighted in their country of origin but whose copyright had lapsed in the U.S. due to non-compliance with technical formalities such as proper registration of the copyright with the U.S. Copyright Office or that were not protected in the U.S. due to a lack of international or bilateral agreements with the country of origin. Since works that have entered the public domain in their country of origin prior to [[January 1]], [[1996]] are not eligible to this copyright restoration, such works remain in the public domain in the U.S. This, however, is valid only in cases where the U.S. federal copyright law (17 USC) applies. There are some specialized cases that are subject to ''state law'', where other rules may apply (see the section on [[#Sound recordings|sound recordings]] below). If the country of origin became a member of the Berne Convention or the two WIPO treaties or the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] only after January 1, 1996, the URAA still applies and that country's earliest adherence date to any of these treaties or organizations must be taken as the URAA copyright restoration date instead of January 1, 1996.

For the above cases, this means:
*Australian photographs taken before [[January 1]], [[1946]], not published in the U.S., and where no copyright was registered in the U.S., are in the public domain in Australia and the U.S.
*Other works first published in Australia whose author has died before January 1, 1946 and where no copyright was registered in the U.S. are also in the public domain in Australia and the U.S.
*Canadian photographs taken before [[January 1]], [[1946]], not subject to [[Crown copyright]], not published in the U.S., and where no copyright was registered in the U.S. are in the public domain in Canada and the U.S.

Additionally, because of the rule of the shorter term, such photographs are likely to be also in the public domain in Europe and in Japan, unless published there. (For the EU, one may probably even apply the 1955 and 1949 cut-off dates.)

The obvious difficulty here is to show that any particular work was indeed ''not'' published in the U.S, especially when considering works by Canadians. Even worse, one has to show that the work was indeed first published in Australia or Canada, respectively. If it ''was'' published in the U.S., the whole deliberation about copyright expiry in other countries does not come to play at all—the work is copyrighted in the U.S. (unless it was published before 1923, or in a few very specific, difficult to verify cases, see "[[#Published works|published works]]" below). If the work was published first in some third country—such as the [[United Kingdom]]—that third country is the country of origin, and consequently, one has to apply ''that'' country's copyright regulations to determine whether the work's copyright had expired by January 1, 1996. There are some other problems, too:
* If a work has multiple countries of origin because it was published in several countries within 30 days, it is unclear what rules would apply. Most probably, the copyright on the work would have to be expired in ''all'' of them by January 1, 1996 for the work to be in the public domain in the U.S.
* It is entirely unclear how retroactive legislation would affect this rule. What if a work had been in the public domain in its country of origin on January 1, 1996, but that country subsequently modified its copyright laws such that the work's copyright was reactivated?

In summary, the rules in the U.S. for works published abroad are as follows:
*If the work was published before 1923, it is in the public domain in the U.S.<ref name="US1909"/> (With a caveat for works published without copyright notice, see the [[#Footnotes|footnote]].)
*If the work was published 1923 to 1995 (inclusive) and not copyrighted in its countries of origin in 1996, it is in the public domain in the U.S.
*Otherwise, if the work was published before 1978, it is copyrighted in the U.S. for 95 years since the original publication (i.e. at least until 1923 + 95 = 2018), and if it was published 1978 or later, the work is copyrighted until 70 years after the (last surviving) author's death.

While the author of a photograph can often be determined quite easily, it may be rather difficult to ascertain where and when a particular image was first published. And strictly speaking one would also have to verify that a non-U.S. work was not covered by copyright in the U.S. by virtue of some [[bilateral]] agreement of the U.S. and the foreign country (see [http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl100.html] and "Circular 38a" in the "[[#External links|external links]]" section below). Country-specific public domain tags must therefore be used with the utmost care only.

=== Crown copyrights ===

:'''In short: UK Crown copyright expires world-wide.'''

[[Crown copyright]] is a special form of copyright on governmental works (including works made by employees of government agencies in the course of their duties) that exists in the [[United Kingdom]] and a number of other [[Commonwealth realms]]. Crown copyright for published works generally lasts for 50 years since the first publication (this is true not only for the UK but also e.g. for [[Canada]] or [[Australia]]). When Crown copyright expires on a work in its country of origin, the work enters the public domain in that country, but ''it may still be copyrighted in other signatory countries of the Berne Convention'' because these other countries apply their own laws, which may have longer copyright terms and not even know the concept of a "Crown copyright". (See e.g. [http://www.lexum.umontreal.ca/conf/dac/en/sterling/sterling.html Sterling 1995] towards the end, section titled "Protection of Crown copyright in other countries".)

An exception to this is ''UK Crown copyright''. Although UK works on which the Crown copyright has expired also could still be copyrighted elsewhere, the British [[Office of Public Sector Information]] (OPSI), which manages all Crown copyrights on behalf of the coypright holder ([[the Crown]]), has explicitly stated in an [http://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2005-May/022055.html e-mail] to Wikipedia that they consider UK Crown copyright expiry to apply ''world-wide''.

There is a [http://www.museumscopyright.org.uk/crown-a.pdf flowchart] explaining the precise rules for UK Crown copyright expiry. For photographs the rules are as follows:
*For photographs taken before [[June 1]], [[1957]], Crown copyright expires 50 years after the ''creation'' of the image. All such photographs are therefore in the public domain.
*For photographs taken after that date and published before [[August 1]], [[1989]], Crown copyright expires 50 years after the first ''publication''. For photographs created between these two dates, but published only on or after the 1989 date, Crown copyright expires on [[December 31]], [[2039]].
*For photographs created on or after [[August 1]], [[1989]], Crown copyright expires 125 years after the creation or 50 years after the first publication of the image, whatever is earlier.

There is the template {{tl|PD-BritishGov}} to tag images which are claimed to be in the public domain under these rules.

Companies House - When downloading accounts for a Company listed, they are free of copyright and may be posted on any website. They are public record and statutory. The situation is the same for birth and death certificates. There is no copyright for this type of public record. Please see www.companieshouse.gov.uk.

=== Works of the United Nations ===

:'''In short: parliamentary documentation (official records, such as resolutions) and documents ''not'' offered for sale are in the public domain; ''other'' UN documents ''are'' copyrighted.'''

Works of the [[United Nations]] or one of its bodies are generally copyrighted.<ref name="us_un"/><ref name="un_st_ai_2001_5">[[United Nations]], administrative instruction ST/AI/2001/5: ''[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UN/UNPAN006342.pdf United Nations Internet publishing, section 5: Copyright policy and disclaimers]'', [[August 22]], [[2001]]. Also see §3.29 ("Use of photos") of that document. URL last accessed [[2006-11-08]].</ref> In the interest of facilitating dissemination, the UN ''explicitly excludes'' some categories of its works from this general copyright and places them into the public domain: UN parliamentary documentation as well as public information material published under the UN document symbol ''and not offered for sale''.<ref name="un_st_ai_2001_5"/> Such documents are in the public domain. UN parliamentary documentation comprises a broad set of official reports prepared by the UN secretariat and the UN official records.<ref name="un_glossary">United Nations: UN OIOS Glossary, entry on ''[http://www.un.org/Depts/oios/mecd/mecd_glossary/documents/set_p.htm#p_documentation Parliamentary documentation]''. URL last accessed [[2006-11-08]].</ref> UN official records are
:"publications relating to proceedings of organs or conferences of the United Nations. They include verbatim or summary records, documents and check-lists of documents, issued in the form of annexes to those records, including periodic supplements, such as the quarterly ones of the Security Council; and the reports of those organs of subordinate or affiliated bodies, compilations of resolutions, certain reports of the Secretary-General, and other selected publications"<ref name="un_pub_guide">United Nations, administrative instruction ''[[:s:Administrative Instruction ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2|ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2]]''. URL last accessed [[2006-11-07]]. This temporary administrative instruction was prolonged indefinitely by ''[[:s:Administrative Instruction ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2/Add.2|ST/AI/189/Add.9/Rev.2/Add.2]]'' in 1992.</ref>
[[UN resolution]]s are therefore in the public domain world-wide. Concerning images one should bear in mind that the UN may include in their publications (in print, on the Internet, or otherwise) images from third parties for which the UN has obtained an appropriate license.<ref name="un_st_ai_2001_5"/> Such third-party images retain their copyright, even if published in an otherwise public domain UN document as mentioned above. Only UN images appearing in such documents may be assumed to be in the public domain.

== Published works ==

:'''In short: Copyright notices are not needed anymore.'''

Under the Berne Convention, copyright is ''automatic'': no registration is needed, and it is not even necessary to display a copyright notice with the work for it to be copyright protected. Prior to the U.S. adopting the Berne Convention (by amending its copyright law through the [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d100:HR04262:@@@L&summ2=m& Berne Convention Implementation Act], effective [[March 1]], [[1989]]), this was not the case in the U.S. A work was only copyrighted if published with a copyright notice, which could be as simple as a line saying "© year copyright holder". For U.S. works there are therefore some special cases that place even works published after 1923 in the public domain. However, the necessary conditions are hard to verify.

*Published in the U.S., ''without'' a copyright notice:
**From 1923 to 1977: in the public domain
**From 1978 to March 1, 1989: only in the public domain if not registered since.
*Published in the U.S., ''with'' a copyright notice:
**From 1923 to 1963: only in the public domain if copyright not renewed. This may be hard to determine, and if renewed, the protection runs until 95 years after the initial publication. See the [[#External links|external links]] below and [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ22.html Circular 22 of the U.S. Copyright Office] for information on how to search the registry of the U.S. Copyright Office for copyright registrations and renewals.
**From 1964 to 1977: not in the public domain for some time to come; copyright expires 95 years after the original publication.
**From 1978 to March 1, 1989: [[#Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law|current standard rules]] apply (see just below).

Even if a work was published in the U.S. between 1923 and 1977 without a copyright notice, there would need to be proof to that effect. The proof must contain a valid resource justifying the claim in order for the U.S. copyright office to accept it.

For works not published in the U.S. but published first in some other country, see "[[#Country-specific rules|country-specific rules]]" above.

=== Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law ===

Works having seen their original U.S. publication on or after March 1, 1989 (with or without copyright notice or registration) are protected until 70 years after the author's death ('''70 years ''p.m.a.'''''); anonymous works, [[works made for hire]], works of unknown authors or where the author's death date is unknown are copyrighted until the shorter of '''95 years since the first publication''' or '''120 years since their creation'''. See [[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 3/Sections 302 and 303|17 USC 302]].

== Unpublished works ==

:'''In short: the 1923 date does ''not'' apply to ''unpublished'' works.'''

So far, we have only considered ''[[#Publication|published]]'' works. To re-iterate from the [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html#P98_14701 Berne Convention, §3.3]:
:''The performance of a dramatic, dramatico-musical, cinematographic or musical work, the public recitation of a literary work, the communication by wire or the broadcasting of literary or artistic works, the exhibition of a work of art and the construction of a work of architecture shall not constitute publication.''
As long as a work is not published, it is ''unpublished''. (Also note that by publication, the work must be made accessible to the general public, not only some closed audience. Furthermore, the publication must have had the consent of the author/creator or copyright holder of the work.)

Why is this important at all for Wikipedians? How could you come across an unpublished work?

Actually, that can happen easily with photographs in archives. Remember that "publication" requires the consent of the rights holder (initially the photographer). Many historic photos may thus actually be unpublished works, unless it can be shown that they ''were'' published in olden times. Especially items like private letters or family photographs, or photos found in some album, may well be unpublished. There are special exemptions in copyright law for libraries and archives that allow them to reproduce (even for the general public) such works for non-commercial uses, but that does not constitute "publication" unless done with the authorization of the rights holder.

The University of Wyoming has a [http://ahc.uwyo.edu/documents/about/publications/handouts/copyright.pdf three-page primer] on the issues involved with unpublished works. Archives often do not hold the copyright to the items in their holdings. Only if the copyright had been assigned in writing to an archive, the archive itself is the copyright holder. In practice, many archive holdings may be so-called [[orphaned work]]s, i.e. works where the current copyright holder, if any, is unknown. For such orphaned works, the U.S. Copyright Office seems to [http://www.copyright.gov/orphan/ push for a change] in U.S. Copyright law (see [http://archiv.twoday.net/stories/1501083/] for a brief summary) and a bill (HR 5439) for the [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.R.5439: Orphan Works Act of 2006] has been introduced in the [[United States House of Representatives]] on [[May 22]], [[2006]], but ''no law has been passed yet.''

Unpublished works are subject to copyright, too. To determine the copyright status of works published by archives that were not published elsewhere before, one will need to consider the rules for unpublished works. Until the [[Copyright Act of 1976|U.S. Copyright Act of 1976]] became effective on [[January 1]], [[1978]], U.S. federal law only covered published works and unpublished works that were registered at the Copyright Office. Unpublished unregistered works were covered by state law. This "[[common law copyright]]" in most states granted unpublished works a ''perpetual'' copyright, valid until an eventual publication of the work.<ref name="oakley">Oakley, R. L.: ''[http://www.clir.org/PUBS/reports/oakley/scheme-a.html Copyright and Preservation – Is the Work Protected?]'', CLIR, 1990. (A good explanation, but note that some dates mentioned there have been superseded by the copyright term extension of the CTEA in 1998.) URL last accessed [[2007-02-16]].</ref><ref name="lii">N.N.: ''[http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/usc_sec_17_00000301----000-notes.html Historical and Revision Notes]'' on 17 USC 301. Legal Information Institute, Cornell University. URL last accessed [[2007-02-16]].</ref> Since 1978, U.S. federal law also covers unpublished works (and preempts state law, see [[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 3/Section 301|17 USC 301]]). This gives the following situation in the U.S.:
*Unpublished works created before 1978:
**If published before 1978, the work is subject to the rules for works published before 1978. Because the common law copyright on unpublished works was perpetual, there were ''no'' unpublished works in the public domain back then, and thus the work was eligible to copyright when published. See [[#Published works|published works]].
**If not published before 1978, the work is copyrighted according to the [[#Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law|standard U.S. rules]].
**''However,'' if the work ''was'' published 1978 to 2002 (inclusive), it is copyrighted at least until the end of 2047. ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 3/Sections 302 and 303|17 USC 303]])
*Unpublished works created in 1978 or later are subject to the [[#Current standard copyright duration in U.S. law|standard U.S. rules]].

=== Artworks ===
:'''In short: Artworks are likely to remain unpublished long after their creation date. A date of publication must be ascertained to establish PD status.'''
Another important class of possible unpublished works are ''artworks'', in particular ''paintings''. Because an artwork is ''not'' published by being exhibited, and also neither by being created or sold, one needs to know when reproductions of the artwork (photos, postcards, lithographs, casts of statues, and so on) were first published. That constitutes publication of the artwork, and from then on, the work is subject to all the rules for published works.

For most artworks, a year is usually given, but this is normally the year the work was made, ''not'' the year it was published. Figuring out whether and if so when a particular painting was published can be difficult.

In the case that an artwork created before 1978 is not published until 2003 or later, it comes into the public domain 70 years after the author's death. However, if it is first published between 1978 and 2002 (inclusive), it will still be copyrighted in the U.S. until the end of 2047.

Proof of publication is mandatory; uploaders making a "public domain" claim on (a reproduction of) an artwork are ''required'' to prove with verifiable details that the work was first published before 1923, or first published after 2003 with an artist who died more than 70 years ago. To show that a work was published, one could look for printed works that contained reproductions of the artwork: art prints, art books, a ''[[catalogue raisonné]]'' of the artist's works, exhibition catalogs, and so on (although it is not clear when publishing a thumbnail constitutes publication of the original work). Reasonable effort should be made to find the earliest publication. If any is found from before 1923, that's good enough and the work is in the public domain. Remember, though, that "publication" means "lawful publication", which implies the consent of the author of the original.

If only a publication after 1922 can be asserted, the work should not be assumed to be in the public domain without evidence. If it was published before 1978 and had no [[#Published works|copyright notice]] or if it was published before 1964 and the copyright was not renewed it should be in the public domain. Works published abroad rarely complied with US formalities but may still be copyrighted if they were copyrighted in their home country on January 1, 1996 when the [[URAA]] restored copyrights in foreign works.

=== Country-specific rules for unpublished works ===

:'''In short: These rules vary greatly.'''

The Berne Convention leaves it to any signatory country to make its own rules regarding unpublished anonymous works (see §15(4)). Unpublished works by a ''known'' author, however, are subject to the same minimum protection (50 years p.m.a) as published works. But this is only a minimum protection. Individual countries can and do make their own rules regarding unpublished works, and often go beyond this minimum. Some cases to illustrate the possible complexities are:

*In Australia, unpublished literary, dramatic and music works are subject to a ''perpetual'' copyright. Furthermore, broadcasting or publicly performing such a work ''does'' constitute publication in Australia. (See [http://www.copyright.org.au/pdf/acc/InfoSheets/G023.pdf Infosheet G-23: Duration of Copyright].)
*In the countries of the [[European Union]], a publisher who publishes a previously unpublished work is granted the [[publication right]] on the work for a period of 25 years beginning with the eventual publication. This publication right is basically a copyright minus the [[moral rights]], which are always granted to the author only.
*In Germany, a work of the [[fine art]]s (such as a painting) is considered "published" if the original or a copy was permanently made available to the general public with the consent of the rights holder. ("Permanently" means "with the intent to be accessible for the normal natural lifetime of the work", c.f. the [[commons:COM:FOP#Permanent vs temporal|explanation at the Commons]].) Hence works of the fine arts can be "published" even if there are no copies.<ref name="urhg6">[http://bundesrecht.juris.de/urhg/__6.html German ''Urherberrechtsgesetz'', article 6(2)]. URL last accessed [[2007-08-13]].</ref>
Such cases may be important when trying to determine whether a non-U.S. work was copyrighted on [[January 1]] [[1996]]. See "[[#Country-specific rules|country-specific rules]]" above.

== Sound recordings ==

:'''In short: The copyright situation in the U.S. depends on ''state law'' for records made prior to [[February 15]], [[1972]]. ''Foreign'' recordings from 1946 or later ''are'' subject to federal copyright (even if made before 1972).'''

"Sound recording" and "phonorecord" are the terms used in the U.S. federal copyright law for records of music and speech alone, i.e. not together with images: videos, for instance, do not fall in this category. A "phonorecord" is the physical medium (LP, tape, CD, or other) on which a sound recording is fixed. Sound recordings, including digital recordings, are a very complex special case in U.S. copyright law. (Note: although "sound recording" encompasses also non-musical sounds, the topic is discussed here in the context of music recordings without loss of generality.)

A sound recording is different from a musical work. A musical work would be a composition (notes and words). Publicly performing a musical work does not constitute "publication" in the sense of the copyright law. (Presumably, a musical work is published when the score sheets are published.) Making a sound recording of a performance of a musical work requires the permission of the performer. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap11.html#1101 17 USC 1101]) Performing a musical work requires the authorization of the copyright holder of that musical work. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#106 17 USC 106(4)]) Distributing phonorecords made from a performance of a musical work also requires the authorization of the copyright holder of the work performed. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#106 17 USC 106(3)]). A sound recording is copyrighted separately from the musical work it records. Publicly distributing phonorecords of the sound recording constitutes publication of the sound recording. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#101 17 USC 101])

So there are four different copyrights to be considered for a sound recording:
*The copyright of the composer
*The copyright of the texter, if any
*The copyright of the performer, and
*The copyright of the producer of the record
In the case of broadcasts, there's also the copyright of the broadcaster on the broadcast to consider. The copyrights of performers/record producers/broadcasters are called the "[[neighbouring rights]]" or "related rights" in many countries. ''All'' of these have to have expired before the work enters the public domain.

Sound recordings made prior to [[February 15]], [[1972]] are ''not'' covered by U.S. federal copyright law.[http://www.clir.org/PUBS/reports/pub135/contents.html] They are, however, subject to U.S. state common or statutory laws until [[February 15]], [[2067]].{{mn|date2067|&dagger;}} On that date, federal copyright law will preempt state law, i.e., federal law will supersede any state laws in matters concerning the copyright of such sound recordings, and such sound recordings will then enter the public domain in the U.S., as federal law explicitly states that no such recordings "shall be subject to copyright under this title before, on, or after" that date. ([http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap3.html#301 17 USC 301(c)]) Sound recordings made on or after [[February 15]], [[1972]] ''are'' covered by 17 USC (that is, the federal copyright law), and state law is irrelevant for such later recordings.

On an international level, sound recordings are ''not'' covered by the Berne Convention. §2(1) of the Berne Convention only lists musical works, but not recordings of performances of such. Internationally, sound recordings are brought under the auspices of copyright protection by the [[Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations|Rome Convention]], the [[WPPT]], and the [[Geneva Phonograms Convention]] (in full: "[http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/phonograms/index.html Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms]"). The U.S. has never signed the Rome Convention, but has signed and ratified the WPPT (entry in force in the U.S. was on [[March 20]], [[2002]]). Additionally, the U.S. has ratified the Phonograms Convention in 1973, it entered in force on [[March 10]], [[1974]].

An illustrative case in the U.S. showing some of the complexities of determining the copyright status of even old recordings is ''[http://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/I05_0027.htm Capitol Records v. Naxos of America]'', decided by the [[New York Court of Appeals]], the highest court of the state of New York, on [[April 5]], [[2005]]. Briefly, that decision about old recordings that were made in the [[United Kingdom]] in the 1930s and that had entered the public domain there in the 1980s (50 years after their creation) stated that these were still eligible for copyright protection under the common law of the state of New York, even though they were in the public domain in the UK prior to [[January 1]], [[1996]] and thus not eligible to copyright restoration under the URAA. The reason given was precisely that records from the 1930s were not covered by federal law and the URAA and its cut-off date did not apply to state law.

Despite sound recordings not being covered by the Berne Convention, and despite the fact that the U.S. in 1996 was a member of neither the Rome Convention nor the WPPT, the [[URAA]] ''does'' cover sound recordings ([[:s:United States Code/Title 17/Chapter 1/Section 104A|17 USC 104A(h)(6)]], in particular sub-points (C)(iii) and (E)). The usual copyright term for performances/records/broadcasts in many non-U.S. countries is 50 years, counted from the creation (performance, fixation of the record, original broadcast), but if the performance or record is published within these 50 years, the term runs until the end of 50 years after that first publication. (The minimum term defined in the Rome Convention is just 20 years, but many countries go further.) As a result, the URAA generally restored ''federal'' copyright on foreign sound recordings made 1946 or later, even though domestic records from 1946–1971 do not benefit from such federal copyright. As far as ''foreign'' records are concerned, common law copyright applies only to pre-1946 records. Later records are covered by federal law. And, as the ''Capitol v. Naxos'' case showed, absence of federal copyright due to non-restoration does not mean the foreign recording were in the public domain in the U.S.<ref name="besek">Besek, June M.: ''[http://www.clir.org/PUBS/abstract/pub135abst.html Copyright Issues Relevant to Digital Preservation and Dissemination of Pre-1972 Commercial Sound Recordings by Libraries and Archives]'', CLIR pub. #135, December 2005, ISBN 1-932326-23-5. URL last accessed [[2007-08-23]]. See in particular p. 18f on restoration of foreign sound recordings, and footnote 88 on p. 31 for evidence that ''all'' four (or five) different copyrights need to have expired.</ref>

:{{mnb2|date2067|†}} That date originally was February 15, 2047 (75 years after 1972), but was extended by 20 years in 1998 by the [[CTEA]].

== Movies and movie stills ==

:'''In short: many movies are ''[[commons:COM:DW|derivative works]]'' of other, pre-existing works. They enter the public domain only when the copyrights on the movie ''and'' those on the underlying base work have expired.'''

Movies are called "motion pictures" in the U.S. Copyright law and belong to the class of "audiovisual works". A movie comprises both the sequence of images and the accompanying sound, if any. (Incidentally, a movie soundtrack is ''not'' a "sound recording", 17 USC 101.) They are subject to the same copyright rules as other works, with a few extras. Among the exclusive rights of the copyright holder on a movie are the rights to display publicly the movie ''or individual images from it''. Therefore, even the display of a single frame from a movie (a so-called "movie still") is subject to the copyright on the film.

The matter of movies is complicated when the movie itself is a derivative work of some earlier work, for instance a previously published novel. As with all derivative works, the copyright on both the derivative and the underlying base work must have expired before the film is truly in the public domain. If only the rights on the film have expired, publication of the movie is still subject to the consent of the rights holder of the underlying work.

:"In ''Russell v. Price'', 612 F.2d 1123,1128 (9th Cir. 1979), the court held that copyright owners of [[George Bernard Shaw]]’s play ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'', which was still covered by copyright, could prevent distribution of the film version of the play, even though the film had fallen into the public domain. Similarly, in ''Filmvideo Releasing Corp. v. Hastings'', 668 F.2d 91,92 (2d Cir. 1981), the court held that even though films based on the ''[[Hopalong Cassidy]]'' stories had fallen into the public domain, a license for television exhibition had to be obtained from the owners of the copyrights in the underlying books, which were still protected by copyright."
::Quoted from Besek, footnote 88 on page 31.<ref name="besek"/>

A similar case occurred with the film ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'', which was thought to be in the public domain when its copyright owner failed to renew its copyright in 1974. However, in 1993, the copyright owner determined that it still held the rights to the underlying story...<ref name="ochoa">Ochoa, T.: ''[http://www3.wcl.american.edu/cni/0202/30327.html Re: Films in Public Domain]'', E-Mail to listserv, February 27, 2002; citing Steven Mitchell Schiffman, ''Movies in the Public Domain: A Threatened Species'' 20 Columbia-VLA J. L. Arts 663, 671-72 (1996) and Debra L. Quentel, ''"Bad Artists Copy. Good Artists Steal": The ugly Conflict between Copyright Law and Appropriationism'', 4 UCLA Ent. L. Rev. 39, 47 n.46 (1996). URL last accessed [[2007-08-28]].</ref>

The situation gets even more confusing if the effects of renewals are taken into account. In particular, what about the status of derivative works created during the base work's initial copyright term, ''i.e.'', created before the renewal of the copyright on base work? In 1990, the U.S. [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled in ''Stewart v. Abend'' (495 U.S. 207 (1990)) that the continued exhibition and distribution of the [[Alfred Hitchcock|Hitchcock]] movie ''[[Rear Window]]'' was a copyright infringement on an underlying short story, on which the copyright had been renewed. On the other hand, this applies only to ''explicit'' copyright renewals, i.e. all pre-1964 renewals and those made voluntarily after 1964. As per [[:s:United_States_Code/Title_17/Chapter_3/Sections_304_and_305|17 USC 304(a)(4)(A)]], it does ''not'' apply to automatic copyright renewals (since 1964).<ref name="gorman_movie_renwal">Gorman, R. A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law, 2nd ed.]'', U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]. Sub-section "Derivative works prepared during the initial term", pp. 60–62. URL last accessed [[2007-08-27]].</ref> See also ''[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ15.html Circular 15: Renewal of Copyright]'' by the U.S. Copyright Office.

Note that in most countries, all this is not an issue at all. As movies are granted the same copyrights with the same terms as the underlying work, the copyright on the underlying work typically expires first. But in the U.S., it is quite possible that the copyright on a movie was not renewed (or the movie was published without copyright notice) while the book on which it is based was properly copyrighted and renewed. In such cases, the movie will be in the public domain only when the book is in the public domain, too.

=== Animated movies (Cartoons) ===

:'''In short: Cartoons (animated movies or comic strips) enter the public domain only when the copyrights on both the movie or strip ''and'' the character have expired.'''

With cartoons, a slightly different issue may arise. Cartoon characters are, themselves, objects of copyright. <ref name="gorman_cartoon">Gorman, R. A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law, 2nd ed.]'', U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]. Section "Pictorial and literary characters", p. 50. URL last accessed [[2007-08-27]].</ref> The most famous example is, most likely, [[Mickey Mouse]]. He appeared in 1928 in the animated movies ''[[Plane Crazy]]'' and ''[[Steamboat Willie]]'', and was copyrighted at that time. The copyright was properly renewed and, because of the terms of the [[Copyright Term Extension Act]], its copyright runs for 95 years since the original publication and is currently set to expire at the end of 2023. The Mickey Mouse case is complicated even more because the character has become a trademark of [[The Walt Disney Company]], which means that even "fair use" of the character must be carefully evaluated to avoid [[trademark infringement]].<ref name="moffat">Moffat, V.: ''[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=972358 Mutant Copyrights and Backdoor Patents: The Problem of Overlapping Intellectual Property Protection]'', Berkeley Technology Law Journal, Vol. 19, 2004, pp. 1474–1532. ([http://btlj.boalt.org/data/articles/19-4_fall-2004_6-moffat.pdf Alternate link to full article])</ref>

Similar to the above, an animated movie enters the public domain only when the copyrights on both the movie ''and'' the character have expired. Even if there were a ''Mickey Mouse'' movie that was not under copyright due to non-renewal or other reasons, that movie would not be in the public domain until the end of 2023, when the copyrights on ''Plane Crazy'', ''Steamboat Willie'' and on ''Mickey Mouse'' will have expired.

The same applies, of course, to other cartoon characters such as [[Donald Duck]], or the [[Warner Bros.]] characters such as [[Daffy Duck]]. It also applies to [[comic strips]] and comics characters, such as [[Superman]].

== Photographs of buildings ==

:'''In short: Photographs of civilian buildings from public places are OK in many, but not all, countries.'''

Buildings are works subject to copyright in the U.S. according to [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#102 17 USC 102(a)(8)] since the [http://www.djc.com/news/ae/11151054.html Architectural Works Copyright Protection Act] was passed in 1990. It applies to all buildings that were completed (not begun) after [[December 1]], [[1990]], or where the plans were published after that date. However, the U.S. federal copyright law explicitly exempts photographs of such copyrighted buildings from the copyright of the building in [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#120 17 USC 120(a)]. Anyone may take photographs of buildings from public places. The photographer holds the exclusive copyright to such an image (the architect or owner of the building has no say whatsoever), and may publish the image in any way. In German copyright law, this is called ''"[[:de:Panoramafreiheit|Panoramafreiheit]]"''. Not all countries recognize this right; in France and Belgium, for instance, there is no such [[freedom of panorama]] and thus the copyright holder of a building has the right to control the distribution of photographs of the building. A famous example is the [[Atomium]] in [[Brussels]], which is copyrighted. The copyright holder in this case is rather litigious about the publication of unauthorized/unlicensed images of the Atomium.<ref name="atomium">See e.g. this [http://www.chillingeffects.org/fairuse/notice.cgi?NoticeID=760 take-down notice].</ref>

17 USC 120 applies only to architectural works, not to other works of visual art, such as statues. In many other countries, this freedom of panorama extends also to works of the visual arts that are permanently located in public places, but that is not the case in the United States. In many countries, taking photographs of military installations is also illegal (but that prohibition is independent of copyright).

:''See also the [[:commons:Commons:Freedom of panorama|list of panorama freedom legislation around the world]] at the Commons.''

== Derived works and restorations of works in the public domain ==

:'''In short: These may give rise to new copyright on the new work, but not on the public domain original.'''

[[Image:Vietnam child soldier.jpg|thumb|This image has been heavily postprocessed by a Wikipedia editor to restore it from a very badly deteriorated original. Although the technical work was intricate and involved many choices to be made, the creator of the digitally restored image does not think he'd have a copyright on the restored version as it is not the result of original, creative input of his. Both the original (as a work of an U.S. Army soldier in service) and the restored image are in the public domain.]]
A work that is derived or adapted from a public domain work can itself be protected by copyright only to the extent that the derived work contains elements of originality contributed by the author of the derived work. For example, an abstract painting of a famous photograph would be protectible, as is the distinctive rendition of the ''[[Star Spangled Banner]]'' performed by [[Jimi Hendrix]]. The protection available to these works does not remove the underlying work from the public domain, and the author of the derivation has no cause of action against another person who makes a derivation of the same public domain work.

A work that is merely a "slavish copy", or even a restoration of an original public domain work is ''not'' subject to copyright protection. In the case of ''Hearn v. Meyer'', 664 F. Supp 832 (S.D.N.Y. 1987), an illustrator attempted unsuccessfully to claim copyright on his restored versions of original ''Wizard of Oz'' illustrations. The illustrations were in the public domain, and the court found that the act of rendering them with bolder and more vibrant colors was not an original contribution sufficient to remove the restored works from the public domain.

The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] has explicitly rejected difficulty of labor or expense as a consideration in copyrightability in ''[[Feist v. Rural]]''. See also "[[#Non-creative works|Non-creative works]]" above.

== Public records ==

:'''In short: being in the public record has no bearing on the copyright status of an item. Works in the public record may be copyrighted.'''

[[Public record]]s are ''not'' necessarily in the public domain. Citizens generally have the right to ''access'' many items in the government's public records, but this right to access does not include a right to republish or redistribute the works so accessed. In general, copyright is neither lost nor waived when a work becomes part of the public record. Being in the public record and copyright are two orthogonal concepts. Uses of works from the public record must comply with copyright law.<ref name="publ_rec">Davis, Karen: ''[http://www.in.gov/pac/informal/2005/Lt.Governor_inquiry_by_Chad_Frahm_re_Tourism_photos.pdf Guidance Regarding the Use of Copyrighted Material Under the Access to Public Records Act]'', Public Access Counselor, U.S. State of [[Indiana]], [[October 31]], [[2005]]. URL last accessed [[2006-12-22]].</ref>

Many items in the U.S. public records are in the public domain as [[#U.S. government works|works of the U.S. federal government]], such as court decisions by federal courts. Laws, statutes, court opinions, but also other official documents such as "tax maps", are not copyrightable in general in the U.S., even if made by a U.S. state.<ref name="gorman_govt">Gorman, R.A.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright law, 2nd ed.]'', U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]], section "Government works" on pp. 52–54. URL last accessed [[2007-08-31]].</ref><ref name="perritt">Perritt, H. H.: ''[http://www.courtstuff.com/JCIT/wandm.htm#IVB Sources of rights to access public information, section B.1]'', article presented at "Access Versus Privacy: Approaches to State Information
Policy", a conference held on [[March 17]], [[1995]] at the Marshall-Wythe School of Law, College of William & Mary. URL last accessed [[2007-08-31]].</ref> Other kinds of works in the public record (third-party works, works of state or local governments other than laws, statutes, and so on) may be copyrighted, though;<ref name="state_pubs"/><ref name="contractors"/><ref name="compendium206_01"/> even when they have become part of the public record.

In the [[United Kingdom]], many items in the public records ''are'' copyrighted. Official works in the UK are under [[Crown copyright]], and this copyright subsists if the item was published before it was placed in a public record repository. Only for works that were placed in such repositories without having been published before, the Crown waives its copyright.<ref name="opsi">UK [[Office of Public Sector Information]]: ''[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/advice/crown-copyright/copyright-guidance/copyright-in-public-records.htm Copyright in Public Records]'', [[November 30]], [[2006]]. URL last accessed [[2006-12-22]].</ref>

== Copyright restorations ==

:'''In short: Works that were already out of copyright may sometimes become copyrighted again!'''

Common sense would suggest that once the copyright of a particular work has expired in a country and it had thus entered the public domain in that country, it would always remain in the public domain there. Unfortunately, this is not true. It is entirely possible that the copyright laws of a country are changed such that works already out of copyright under the old law ''become copyrighted again'' under the new law. Such ''copyright restorations'' complicate considerably the matter of deciding whether a work is indeed in the public domain.

There are several examples of such laws restoring copyrights. In the EU, the [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]], which is ''binding'' for all EU members and which became effective on [[July 1]], [[1995]], makes any work that was copyrighted in at least one EU member on January 1, 1995 copyrighted in ''all'' EU members, even if that work's copyright had already expired there (see [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0098:EN:HTML §10(2)] of the directive). Because Spain has had a strict copyright law with a long copyright term of 70 years p.m.a. (or even 80 year for some time) and no rule of the shorter term since 1879, this effectively means that throughout the EU, one has to apply 70 years p.m.a., irrespective of shorter terms that may have existed in historic laws of a particular EU member. For an example of this, see the case of German [[#World War II images|World War II images]] below. In the U.S., the [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38b.pdf Uruguay Round Agreement Act (URAA)] mentioned above is another such copyright restoration to the U.S. copyright law. It suddenly makes works copyrighted in the U.S. that previously were in the public domain there. Examples of such copyright restorations also exist in other countries.

Such copyright restorations typically are ''not'' ''[[ex post facto]]'' laws. (Briefly, an ''ex post facto'' law is one that retroactively criminalizes or punishes more severely acts done before the law was passed.) The EU directive explicitly says in [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993L0098:EN:HTML §10(3)] that the directive ''"shall be without prejudice to any acts of exploitation performed before the...''[effective date, i.e. [[July 1]], [[1995]]]''. Member States shall adopt the necessary provisions to protect in particular acquired rights of third parties."'' The URAA, to take the other example discussed above, only makes ''continued or new'' unlicensed uses of works whose copyright has been restored a copyright violation. Unlicensed earlier publications of the work (while it was still in the public domain in the U.S.) are ''not'' punished "after the fact", i.e. ''ex post facto''. For continued uses, [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#104a 17 USC 104A] requires even that the holder of the restored copyright file a so-called "Notice of Intent to Enforce Restored Copyrights" (in short: NIE) with the U.S. Copyright Office for such continued uses to be considered copyright infringements (see 17 USC 104A(c)). For existing derivative works, 17 USC 104A(d)(3) stipulates that a "reasonable compensation" must be paid for continued use.

Because the URAA became effective only on [[January 1]], [[1996]] (half a year after the EU directive), any copyrights restored in the EU by the directive also became restored in the U.S.

=== Countries without copyright treaties with the U.S. ===

:'''In short: Use such works under a "public domain" claim ''only if'' the copyright in the country of origin has expired.'''

According to [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html Circular 38a] of the U.S. Copyright Office, which gives the state of affairs as of January 2003, [[Afghanistan]], [[Bhutan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Nepal]], [[San Marino]], and possibly [[Yemen]] have no copyright relations whatsoever with the U.S. ([[Eritrea]] is not mentioned at all.) Works originating in one of these countries thus are not copyrighted in the United States, irrespective of the local copyright laws of these countries.

On Wikipedia, such works may be used under a "public domain" claim ''only'' if their copyright in the country of origin has expired, even though legally the work is in the public domain in the U.S. [[Jimbo Wales]] has [http://mail.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikien-l/2005-August/027373.html expressed] a strong desire that such countries' copyrights be respected. Furthermore, it also avoids future problems with images on Wikipedia if some of these countries should enter a copyright treaty with the U.S., because then suddenly such works will become copyrighted in the U.S. by virtue of the URAA (see above) if they are still copyrighted in their country of origin. Previously uploaded images might then have to be reevaluated. As an example, consider [[Iraq]], which is, despite all the political and military confusion, a [[WTO]] [http://www.wto.int/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm observer] and is in the process of [http://www.wto.int/english/thewto_e/acc_e/a1_iraq_e.htm applying for WTO membership]. If and when Iraq does become a WTO member, the URAA suddenly will apply, and Iraqi works that are copyrighted in Iraq at that time will become copyrighted in the U.S.

[[Bhutan]] and [[Nepal]] have instituted copyright relations with the United States since Circular 38a was published, and [[North Korea]] has joined the Berne Convention since then. [[Afghanistan]] is in the process of developing a copyright law.<ref name=afghan">Wick, P.; Klosek, J.: ''[http://www.goodwinprocter.com/getfile.aspx?filepath=/Files/publications/wick_klosek_11_22_03.pdf A clean slate: Drafting Afghanistan's first copyright laws]'', Goodwin Procter, ''Copyright World'', November 2003. URL last accessed [[2007-02-21]].</ref>

== Example cases ==

This section is intended to show the effect the aforementioned rules using a few example images.

=== German World War II images ===

:'''In short: All deemed copyrighted by their authors. In the U.S. and the UK, special exceptions for "seized enemy property" ''may'' apply.'''

The issue of [[Germany|German]] photographs from World War II has created some confusion. Are they still copyrighted? What about governmental images (such as propaganda)? What about images seized by Nazi Germany?

Already the copyright situation in Germany concerning such images is confusing. Originally, these images were subject to the ''[http://www.fotorecht.de/publikationen/kug.html Kunsturhebergesetz (KUG)]'' from 1907, which provided for a copyright term for photographs of 10 years since the publication, or 25 years p.m.a. for unpublished works. In [[1940]], the ''KUG'' was modified to provide a copyright term of 25 years since publication, applicable also to all works that were either still unpublished or still copyright protected (§26). In [[1965]], the first version of the German ''[http://www.urheberrecht.org/law/normen/urhg/1965-09-09/text/bgbl_I_1273_01_07_p64-69.php3 Urheberechtsgesetz (UrhG)]'' became effective, again with a copyright term for photographs of 25 years since publication, or 25 years since creation, if the image was not published in that time (§68). As a result, photographs from the World-War-II era went out of copyright in Germany at the end of 1970.<ref name="seiler">Rechtsanwalt D. Seiler: ''[http://www.fotorecht.de/publikationen/schutzfrist.html Fotografien und urheberrechtliche Schutzfristen]''. URL last accessed [[2008-09-16]]. The distinction in German copyright law between photographic ''works'' (''Lichtbildwerk'', copyrighted for 70 years ''p.m.a.)'', and simple photographs (''Lichtbild'', copyrighted for 50 years since creation or publication) was introduced only in 1985: [http://www.urheberrecht.org/law/normen/urhg/1985-06-24/materialien/bgbl_I_1137.php3#1985_I_1137 Gesetz zur Änderung von Vorschriften auf dem Gebiet des Urheberrechts vom 24. Juni 1985], BGBl. I Nr. 33 vom 27.6.1985, S. 1137. [[Directive 93/98/EEC|EU directive 93/98/EEC]] had the effect of making most photos qualify as photographic ''works''. See Seiler on this.</ref>

However, with the EU [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]] from 1993, which became effective in Germany on [[July 1]], [[1995]] and is implemented in German law in [http://bundesrecht.juris.de/urhg/__137f.html §137f], these works suddenly became copyright protected ''again'', until 70 years p.m.a! This was caused by the interaction of the directive (see [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection#Copyright restoration|section on copyright restoration]]) with Spain's longer copyright term of 80 years ''p.m.a.''<ref name="Spain">See the [http://www.derecho-internet.org/node/365 1879 copyright law of Spain]: the 80-year term remained valid even in the [http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs_new/es/es/es015es.html 1987 copyright law] (transitional provisions, article 1(2)) and in the [http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs_new/en/es/es070en.html 1996 copyright law], which implemented that EU directive (transitional provisions, fourth article).</ref> This suddenly superseded Germany's old "25 years"-rule that had been governing World-War-II-era images. As a result, a image published in 1943 that had been in the public domain in Germany since 1968 became copyrighted again in 1995 with the EU term of 70y p.m.a.<ref name="olg_hh">[http://web.archive.org/web/20070426042905/http://www.pkf-duisburg.de/news/wirtschaft_mehr.php?id=473&limit=50 Oberlandesgericht Hamburg, decision 5 U 159/03, March 3, 2004]: The copyright on a German photograph of a surfacing submarine, taken in 1941 and published in 1943, had expired in Germany at the end of 1968. However, the image was re-copyrighted by [http://bundesrecht.juris.de/urhg/__137f.html §137f] implementing the [[Directive 93/98/EEC|EU directive 93/98/EEC]] because it was still copyrighted in Italy on July 1, 1995.</ref>

As a result, such images were copyright protected on [[January 1]], [[1996]]<ref name="uraa_wwii">See the section explaining the [[#Country-specific rules|URAA]] above.</ref> (which is the critical date as far as U.S. copyright law is concerned), and therefore, they ''are copyrighted even in the U.S.''

The situation of German World-War-II photographs found in U.S. governmental archives is controversial. They might fall (in the US only) under [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/usc_sec_17_00000104---A000-.html#a_2 17 U.S.C. 104A(a)(2)], which exempts from the URAA copyright restorations works on which the copyright was seized and administered by the U.S. Office of the [[Alien Property Custodian]] and on which a restored copyright would be held by a foreign government.<ref name="fr_63_74">United States: ''[http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1998/63fr19287.pdf Federal Register Vol. 63, No. 74 / Friday, April 17, 1998]'', pp. 19289–19290. URL last accessed [[2007-04-16]].</ref> It is unclear to what works exactly this provisio would apply,<ref name="fr_63_74"/> as it can be argued that copyright of hardly any of the WWII works at all were owned by the German government and the Nazi party, but by private people and organizations. Most of these seized copyrights were returned to their foreign owners in 1962 by public law Pub. L. No. 87–846,<ref name="fr_63_74"/><ref name="patry_twte">Patry, W.: ''[http://digital-law-online.info/patry/patry7.html Copyright Law and Practice]'', Chapter 1, part 7: "Trading With the Enemy Act". Bna Books, ISBN 0871798549. URL last accessed [[2007-04-16]].</ref> but on motion pictures, the U.S. retained the right "to reproduce, for its own use, or exhibit any divested copyrighted motion picture films."<ref name="fr_63_74"/> There is also the ''Price vs. United States'' ([[Case citation|69 F.3d 46]]) ruling that at least places serious constraints on the practical enforceability of copyrights on such works in the U.S.<ref>{{cite journal | author = David Culbert | title = [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2584/is_n2_v17/ai_20032587 The Heinrich Hoffmann Photo Archive: Price vs United States (United States Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit, 20 November, 1995)] | journal = Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | year = 1997}} See also [http://web.archive.org/web/20020602021048/http://www.dcd.uscourts.gov/98-857.pdf Civil Action 98-857] before the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, Judge Henry H. Kennedy. Ultimately, the U.S. Supreme Court denied the Hoffmann heirs review of the lower courts' decision in their disfavor. (See the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/briefs/2001/0responses/2001-1111.resp.html opinion of the U.S. Solicitor General] and the [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/orders/journal/jnl04.pdf Journal of the U.S. Supreme Court, October 2004, p. 298].) URLs last accessed [[2007-04-16]].</ref> The [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] even tags some such images as "© USHMM". It is also unclear what the U.S. position on "official" images of the Nazi regime is. It should be noted that even the [http://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/art/key-series-descriptions/key-series-descriptions-15.html NARA acknowledges the presence of copyrights] from the war era on some of its holdings remaining with the institutions and individuals who own the artwork, as oppose to their Nazi plunderers.

Another example are German [[newsreel]]s, a kind of weekly news shown in movie theatres before the advent of [[television]]. Most such ''Wochenschau'' films are still copyrighted; the rights are held by Transit Film GmbH in Germany. In the U.S. the copyright on these films from 1914 until the 1940s had expired due to non-compliance with U.S. formalities; the copyright was then restored in 1996 by the URAA on those published after 1922. The Transit Film company then even [http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1998/63fr19287.pdf filed so-called "notices of intent to enforce" (NIEs)] with the U.S. Copyright Office and can now even enforce its copyrights against parties who used their films (rightfully!) before the URAA became effective. The same is also true for most [[Universum Film AG|UFA]] films; the rights holder in this case is the [[Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau]] Foundation [http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1998/63fr19287.pdf]. The song ''[[Lili Marleen]]'' is another such case; the rights holder is Schott Music International [http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/1996/61fr68453.html].

In the United Kingdom, confiscated German works brought into the country between [[September 3]], [[1939]] and [[July 9]], [[1951]] had all German interests, both physical ownership and intellectual property rights such as copyrights or patents, extinguished by the ''Enemy Property Act'' of 1953. This expropriation affected only the status of such works within the UK; the international rights on German works were left untouched. <ref name="iwm">[[Imperial War Museum]]: ''[http://www.iwmcollections.org.uk/common/pdf/FilmTermsConds.pdf Standard Terms and Conditions Governing the Release and Use of Film and Visual Material]''. URL last accessed [[2007-05-30]].</ref> This act was repealed in 1976, but the copyrights on such seized works were not restored in the UK.<ref name="best1">Best, H.: ''[http://www.twobirds.com/English/publications/articles/GermanFilmsandUKEnemyPropertyAct1953pt1.cfm The spoils of war: German Films and UK Enemy Property Act 1953]'', Bird & Bird, [[January 7]], [[2002]]. URL last accessed [[2007-05-30]].</ref><ref name="best2">Best, H: ''[http://www.twobirds.com/english/publications/articles/Booty_in_the_eye_of_the_beholder.cfm Booty in the eye of the beholder]'', Bird & Bird, [[February 10]], [[2005]]. URL last accessed [[2007-05-30]].</ref>

In general, wartime German images cannot be tagged as being in the public domain.

=== Canadian images: [[Yousuf Karsh]] ===

:'''In short: Pre-1949 Karsh images are in the public domain ''only'' in Canada. Later Karsh images are copyrighted anyway anywhere.'''

Many photographs by [[Yousuf Karsh]] ([[1908]] – [[2002]]) can be found at the web site of the [[Library and Archives Canada]] (LAC), who state that the copyright was expired and there were no restrictions on the use and reproduction of these images. In fact, many such images have been uploaded to Wikipedia by several users and tagged as "public domain" based on these claims by the LAC. However, ''this applies only in Canada''. The history of each and every of these images must be closely examined to determine whether they just might be in the public domain elsewhere. As it turns out, this is not the case for most of them. Some examples:

*[[:Image:Albert Einstein by Yousuf Karsh.jpg]], from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=&s1=&s8=571914&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http%3A//www.collectionscanada.ca%2F02%2F02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. This image has generated a lot of discussion at the Commons, with an anon claiming it was copyrighted, and, more recently, another (German) user trying to get the image deleted (again) as a copyvio. The pertinent discussion is in chronological order at [[Commons:Commons:Village pump archive-13#image on wikimedia commons, explicitly labeled as copyrighted?|first deletion discussion]], [[Commons:Image talk:Albert Einstein.jpg|asking the LAC for confirmation]], a [[Commons:Commons:Deletion requests/Archives05#Image:Albert Einstein.jpg|second deletion discussion]], and then at a [[Commons:Commons:Village pump archive-18#Re-discussing a copyright "clarification"|third discussion]]. Finally, on November 16, 2005, the image was tagged both as {{tl|PD-Canada}} ''and'' {{tl|imagevio}} here on the English Wikipedia.
*:The image was definitely published in Karsh, Y.: ''Portraits of Greatness'', University of Toronto Press, Toronto 1959, and Thomas Nelson & Sons, London, 1959, p. 68. (See [http://www.geh.org/ne/mismi3/m198130600048_ful.html].) Whether that is the ''first'' publication of the image is unknown. Following [http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm Peter Hirtle's chart], and even assuming the first publishing occurred in Canada, the image was still copyrighted in Canada on January 1, 1996 (its copyright in Canada expired on December 31, 1998) and thus is ''still copyrighted in the U.S''. The simultaneous publishing of the book also in the UK makes it copyrighted there, and by extension through the [[EU Copyright Directive]] all over the [[European Union]]. Unless the EU would also consider it a Canadian work, in which case the "rule of the shorter term", which the EU ''does'' apply to non-EU countries, might make it copyright-free there—but that's a stretch and would depend on whether the Canadian and UK publishing occurred within 30 days (and hence be "simultaneous") or not. CameraPress in London ''does'' claim copyright on this image. If this image was even published (or should that be "first published"?) in the U.S., it would definitely be copyrighted in the U.S. While one would have to check whether its copyright was renewed to be absolutely sure, it is a fairly safe bet that the Karsh Estate did do so.
*[[:Image:Winston Churchill 1941 photo by Yousuf Karsh.jpg]] (on the Commons), from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=&s1=&s8=44621&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.ca%2F02%2F02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. It turns out that this was first published on the cover of ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'', a U.S. magazine, in 1941 or 1942. (See e.g. [http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp05467&role=art].) There, too, a check whether the copyright was renewed would be needed, but it would be a surprise if it was not. That image is most probably also still copyrighted. However, since that image is so important in Karsh's career and is discussed in detail at [[Yousuf Karsh]], it could be salvaged by re-uploading it to the English Wikipedia and making a fair use claim for its use in the Karsh article.
*[[:Image:VerePonsonby.jpg]] from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=PA-195700&s1=&s8=&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.ca/archivianet/02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. According to [http://www.mfa.org/exhibitions/sub.asp?key=15&subkey=660], this was (first) published in newspapers across Canada and Britain. Its Canadian copyright expired on December 31, 1983, and it is thus likely to be in the public domain in the U.S., too. (Not copyrighted anymore on January 1, 1996.) However, if there is a UK copyright on it, or if it was (simultaneously, first?) published in the U.S., it might nevertheless be copyrighted in the U.S.
*:Note that the book Karsh, Y.: ''Karsh Canadians'', Univ. of Toronto Press, Toronto 1978, ISBN 0-8020-2317-7, ''is'' copyrighted in the U.S. (copyright registered December 6, 1978; registration number TX-385-199).
*[[:Image:PaulRobesonByYousufKarsh.jpg]], from [http://data4.collectionscanada.ca/netacgi/nph-brs?s2=&s4=&s3=PA-209022&s1=&s8=&Sect4=AND&l=20&Sect1=IMAGE&Sect2=THESOFF&Sect4=AND&Sect5=FOTOPEN&Sect6=HITOFF&d=FOTO&p=1&u=http://www.collectionscanada.ca/archivianet/02011503_e.html&r=1&f=G]. Image from 1938, published in Karsh, Y.: ''Faces of Destiny'', Ziff-Davies Publishing, New York 1946, and George G. Harrap, London, 1946. Original copyright registered with the U.S. Copyright Office on December 16, 1946 (Registration Number A9354), renewed December 3, 1974 (Registration Number R592433). See [http://shelf1.library.cmu.edu/Projects/crr/1974/1974-7-5644.tif]. Therefore, copyright on this work (and all the images included therein, assuming that was their original publication) expires in the U.S. only on December 31, 2041.

The whole issue of Karsh images is complicated even more because Yousuf Karsh for years maintained ''two'' offices: one in [[Ottawa]], Canada, and another one in [[New York City]].

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[Wikipedia:Copyright]]
*[[Wikipedia:Copyright FAQ]]
*[[Wikipedia:Granting work into the public domain]]
*[[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags]]
*[[Wikipedia:Public domain resources]]
*[[Wikipedia:Public domain image resources]]

== External links ==

General:

*[http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States] by Peter Hirtle.
*[http://www.btinternet.com/~tony.kent/soundrec.htm Sound Recordings and Copyright in the UK]. A guide for those engaged in the restoration of public domain sound recordings.
*[http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=14076&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Collection of National Copyright Laws] by the [[UNESCO]].
*[http://www.wipo.int/clea/en/clea_adv_search.jsp Collection of Laws for Electronic Access (CLEA)] from the [[WIPO]].
*[http://www.ecap-project.org/asean_ip_legislation_international_treaties.html Copyright laws] of [[ASEAN]] countries.
*[http://www.cipr.org/legal_reference/index.htm Copyright laws] of countries that formerly were part of the [[Soviet Union]].
*[http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.html International Copyright Relations of the U.S.] – Circular 38a of the U.S. Copyright Office.
*[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/copy_and_perms.pdf Copyright guidelines] from the University of Chicago Press.
*[http://english.osu.edu/research/organizations/ijjf/copyrightfaqs.cfm The copyright status] of the works of [[James Joyce]]. Illustrates some of the complications that may arise.
*Gorman, R.: ''[http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/copyright.pdf/$file/copyright.pdf Copyright Law], 2nd ed''. U.S. [[Federal Judicial Center]], [[June 19]], [[2006]]. URL last accessed [[2006-10-27]].

Copyright renewals in the U.S.:

*[http://www.copyright.gov/records/cohm.html On-line database] for copyright registrations and renewals in the U.S. since 1978
*[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/cce/ TIFF scans] of the registry of the U.S. Copyright Office 1950 - 1977, with a bias towards books.
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11800 digitized versions] of the registry of the U.S. Copyright Office 1950 - 1977, with a bias towards books, hosted by [[Project Gutenberg]].
*[http://collections.stanford.edu/copyrightrenewals/ Searchable database] of the digitized copyright renewal records for books.

[[Category:Wikipedia copyright|Public domain]]

[[is:Wikipedia:Almenningur]]
[[zh-yue:Wikipedia:公有領域]]

The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

2008-09-22T10:18:46Z

202.79.62.16: /* Episode 1: The Prelude to the Birth of Buddha. (Panels 1-15) */

{{Cleanup|date=December 2006}}
{{Mergeto|Lalitavistara_Sutra|date=August 2008}}
'''''Lalitavistara''''' is a biography of [[Gautama Buddha]]. On [[Borobudur]]'s reliefs, the story starts from the glorious descent of the Buddha from the [[Tushita]] heaven, and ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near [[Benares]].[13] The relief shows the birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhārtha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in present-day [[Nepal]]). The life of the Buddha reliefs cover the upper half of the main wall around the first gallery of the monument. There are a total of 120 panels. The reliefs were carved to illustrate the text known as "Lalitavistara" (The Unfolding of the Play). This title refers to the idea that the Buddha’s last incarnation was a performance intentionally given to enlighten mankind. The panels on the first gallery are some of the best-preserved reliefs on the monument.

==Episode 1: The Prelude to the Birth of Buddha. (Panels 1-15)==
The Buddha lives among the clouds above Indra’s palace on the peak of Mt. Sumeru. The future Buddha tells the gods he has decided to be reborn on earth. Around his waist there is wrapped a cord that supports his right knee. This is a convention used in Borobudur to denote people of high status. In honor of his upcoming birth, a few gods go to earth to teach brahmans. The Buddha teaches the “Introduction of the Law” to the gods, and gives his crown to a bodhisattva named Maitreya, who is his successor-designate. The Buddha then asks the gods what form he should take in his mother’s womb. Some recommend the figure of a human, but others tell him that in the brahmans’ books, the Buddha is described as an elephant with six tusks, brightly shining, with head red that oozes with sap. Queen Maya and King Suddodana live in a palace in the city of Kapilavastu. The king grants her request to undertake a vow of self-denial. Queen Maya is seated in her quarters awaiting the Buddha’s descent. During the “Great Descent”, the Buddha sits on a throne in a pavilion, accompanied by an uncountable number of gods, [[nymph]]s, and other supernatural beings. While Queen Maya sleeps, the Buddha enters her womb in the shape of the elephant. That night a lotus grows from the oceans to Brahma’s heaven. The lotus contains the essence of all creation. Brahma collects the essence in a bowl, and gives the Buddha the essence to drink as a mark of honor. This is one of the most popular scenes in ancient Buddhist art. Queen Maya decides to go to a forest of asoka trees. She arrives and sends a servant to ask the king to meet her there.
Log on www.boudhadharma.com

==Episode 2: The Birth and Early Life of Buddha. (Panels 16-45)==
The king arrives at the edge of the forest but is not allowed to go any further. The queen tells him of her dream, in which an elephant enters her womb. She asks him to get brahmans to interpret the dream. The brahmans tell the couple that the queen will bear a son who will become either an universal ruler or a buddha. Indra and other gods offer for the queen to stay in their palace during her pregnancy. The unborn Buddha creates the illusion that the queen is in all palaces to prevent any of the gods or kings to be disappointed. During her pregnancy, the queen acquires certain powers, such as the ability to restore people possessed by supernatural beings to their normal state by letting them view her, and also the power to heal diseases. The king lives as a hermit during her pregnancy. Queen Maya asks the king to be allowed to give birth in the Lumbini Pleasure Garden. The queen sets out for the garden in a carriage. When she arrives, she walks until she comes to a tree which magically bends down for her. She grasps the limb, and the Buddha emerges from her right side. The baby takes seven steps in each of the four compass directions, and at each step a lotus springs up. After Sakyamuni’s birth, Indra and Brahma disguise themselves as brahmans to congratulate King Suddhodhana along with many other gods. A week after the Buddha is born, Queen Maya dies and becomes a goddess. Her sister, Gautami, becomes the baby prince’s guardian. Some members of the Sakya tribe suggest the child should be taken to the temple. When the prince arrives, the statues in the temple come to life and kneel before him.

Later on, when Sakyamuni comes of the proper age, he is sent to school. The schoolmaster is Visvamitra, and a god named Subhangga is also there. The story skips a few years and then describes a visit to a rural village. This is where the scene of the first meditation takes place. The prince sits down under a guava tree to meditate.

The king wishes Sakyamuni to marry because he remembers the prophecy that his son is to become a buddha or a great ruler. The prince tells him he will give his answer in seven days. The prince consents and chooses Gopa as his wife. Only she can bear to look at him without being blinded by his radiance. Gopa’s father is not certain the prince is suitable for his daughter, so he requires the prince undergo some tests to prove his mental and physical abilities.

==Episode 3: Buddha’s Marriage and Renunciation of His Earlier Life. (Panels 46-75)==
Sakyamuni and 500 other princes go out to the city to demonstrate his powers. He sets a problem that only he can solve. The next test is an archery competition. Sakyamuni used an ancient bow which had been preserved in a temple since his grandfather’s time. He shot an arrow through seven trees, and through other various targets including an iron boar. Gopa’s father agrees to the marriage. Various gods including Indra and Brahma congratulate him on his marriage and ask when he will begin his quest for enlightenment.

The king dreams of the prince’s departure and tries to attract him to remain by building three more palaces to amuse him. The king posts guards around the prince’s palace and sends young women to entertain him. This is one of the most successful compositions on the monument.
One day the prince decides to go to a royal pleasure garden. Suddenly an old man appears to him, and the prince goes back to the palace. This is the first of the Four Encounters which motivate the prince to begin his quest for enlightenment. The second encounter the prince again sets out for the pleasure garden, but sees a sick man. Another occasion occurs where the prince sees a dead man surrounded by grieving relatives. The last encounter is again created by the gods, and involves a monk. He is at peace compared to the grief and suffering felt by the others. The princes meditates based on the example of the monk and on the path of salvation from suffering.
Sakyamuni comforts Gopa that night who had a bad dream, then the next day went to the king and asked permission to leave. After the prince says goodbye to gods and other supernatural beings, cuts off his hair. Then he discards his royal robes and puts on orange robes of a passing hunter. The prince goes to two places where brahman female hermits offer him food. Sakyamuni embarks on a life as a wandering monk.

Eventually he reaches a kingdom called Vaisali where he asks permission to become a pupil of a brahman named Arada Kalapa. After some time Arada acknowledges the prince as his equal, and Sakyamuni also becomes a teacher. Later Sakyamuni decides to resume his travels, and comes to the city of Rajagrha to beg. The people are in awe of his appearance and think Brahma himself has come to beg. The next day a bright shining light comes from Mount Pandava where Sakyamuni is staying. The king asks him to stay and take half the kingdom. Sakyamuni later visits a teacher in Rajagrha named Rudraka and is invited to join him.

==Episode 4: Buddha’s Enlightenment. (Panels 76-105)==
After a while the prince goes to Magadha. Five men from Rudraka’s group decide to follow him, and they meditate on Gayasirsa Mountain. Then the prince and his new disciples go to meditate beside the [[river Nairanjana]]. This is where Sakyamuni practices such harshness that he nearly starves himself. Because he is near death, Queen Maya comes to see him and begins to cry. The gods offer to provide him with magical strength so he will not have to eat, but he is scared the people will believe he can live without food. He abandoned his fast, and the five disappointed disciples leave him.

The prince then goes to a place called Uruvila. Sakyamuni decides to put on a new robe, and takes a shroud from a dead woman named Radha. He washes it on a stone by a pond. When Sakyamuni tries to leave the pond, the demon Mara makes the banks rise enormously high. The goddess of a tree beside the pond bends her branch and saves Sakyamuni. Another god gives the prince a reddish robe.
The village chief’s daughter, Sujata, invites the prince to her house and feeds him. Sakyamuni returns to the Nairanjana River to bathe, and takes a golden bowl which Sujata gave him. Gods come to him and attend him. The prince sits down and finishes the food Sujata gave him. When he is finished, Sakyamuni throws the bowl into the river. Indra desired it, and turned into a garuda to take it from the naga king who saved the bowl. The prince then sets out for the enlightenment tree.
Brahma and a group of gods go to pay homage to the prince. It is now time for Sakyamuni to seek a tree to meditate under. The demon Mara attacks the prince in a final effort of preventing him to seek enlightenment. Mara failed to defeat Sakyamuni by force, so he sends his beautiful daughters to try to arouse him, but this fails also.
Sakyamuni reaches Supreme Enlightenment, and becomes Buddha, the “Enlightened One.” Buddha remained in the same position for seven days, but arises to walk twice to far distances. Both times however, he returned to the sacred Bodhimanda.

Four weeks after enlightenment, Buddha goes to stay with a naga king named Mucilinda. The weather was poor so the naga king protects Buddha while he meditates. After five weeks, Buddha leaves Mucilinda’s palace to walk to a banyan tree. On the way he meets frugals who ask him how he has borne such a week of bad weather. Buddha goes to meditate under another tree, and merchants pass by who are frightened by the portents, but a goddess reassures them. The merchants offer Buddha food. He would like a bowl to put it in, and the four gods, “Great Kings,” each offer him bowls. He takes them all and combines them into afraid to offend one of them.

==Episode 5: The Preaching of the First Sermon. (Panels 106-120)==
That same night, the gods including Brahma and Indra, ask Buddha to preach the Law. By morning he agrees to preach, and asks to whom he should first preach the Law. He asks for Rudraka, but he has been dead for a week. Next he asks for Arada Kalapa, but he is also dead. Buddha then asks for the five disciples he had earlier, and he sees they are in the Deer Park at Benares. Buddha sets off for Benares, and on the way he meets a monk who asks where he is going. He goes through several cities, and is honored in each of them. Buddha comes to the River Ganges, and the ferryman refuses to row him across without payment. Buddha flies across the river, and the boatman faints.

Buddha arrives in Benares, and begs for food. He finds the five former disciples, and they are awed by his radiance and arise to serve him. The disciples ceremonially bathe Buddha. Then Buddha preaches his first sermon, which sets the “Wheel of the Law” in motion.<ref>Miksic, J. (1990). Borobudur: Golden Tales of the Buddhas. Singapore: Periplus Editions Ltd.</ref>

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Buddhas]]

Helambu

2008-09-10T08:43:17Z

202.79.62.16: /* Helambu Trek */

'''Helambu''' is the name given to a popular [[hiking|trek]] in the [[Nepal]]ese mountains, close to [[Kathmandu]].

==Route==
The trek takes place in the Sherpa Helambu region, around 72 kilometers Northeast of Kathmandu.
A roundabout circuit is used, most often starting at [[Sundarijal]], although other starting positions include [[Nagarkot]], [[Kakani]] or [[Sankhu]].
Pati Bhanjyan, Tharepati and Khutumsang are amongst the first villages to be passed, followed by [[Tarke Gyang]].
Two possible routes are available from Tarke Gyang, one to complete the trek and another that leads to the [[Arniko Highway]], the main thoroughfare out of Kathmandu leading to [[Tibet]].
To complete the trek one would proceed to [[Taramarang]] following on to [[Pati Bhanjyan]].
From Pati Bhanjyan the trek returns to the starting point of Sundarijal, a route that takes around seven days.[http://www.vegetarian-restaurants.net/Nepal/Nepal-Treks/Helambu-Trek-Nepal.htm]

==Helambu region==

Helambu is a region of highland villages, such as Melamchighyang and Tarkeyghyang, situated in alpine meadow scenery considered to be of considerable beauty. It is home to two main peoples, the [[Hyolmo or Yolmo]] and the [[Tamang]]. The Helambu region begins at the Lauribina La [[mountain pass|pass]] and descends to the Melamchi valley. Helambu is also famous for its sweet apples and artistic [[Buddhism|Buddha]] monasteries.[http://www.access-himalaya.com/holidaysnepal.php?holiday_id=HLS&submit=View+Details]

== Helambu Trek ==

This is a good trek for people who don't have much time in Nepal. Its a 8 day long trek which starts in kathmandu itself, but can be completed in as little as 5-6 days. The normal trailhead starts off at sundarijal and goes past chisopani, khutumsang, magin goth, tharepati, melamchigyang and tarke gyang. After which you have the option of two roads one is the footpath via sermathang or the bus routh via kiul. both ways ultimately meet at melemchi where you can take a bus back to katmandu. another variation is the reverse of this trek. The maximum height reached during the trek is about 3650m.

[[Category:Mountain passes of Nepal]]
[[Category:Mountain passes of the Himalaya]]
[[Category:Hiking trails in Asia]]
[[Category:Areas of Nepal]]

{{Nepal-geo-stub}}

[[de:Helambu]]

Talk:Strategic management

2008-09-09T07:16:25Z

202.79.62.16: /* Page move */

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== Headline text ==

In writing this article, I have tried to give a survey of the major themes in Strategic management. It is intended as an "umbrella article" or "root article" for all the strategic management articles, of which there are a couple of dozen now. Because of this, it is broad in scope but shallow in depth. Most of the theorists or concepts would be better given separate articles where they can grow without causing this article to become too long and scattered.

The most difficult decisions in writing this was deciding what not to include. There are hundreds of strategic management theories that I skipped, each with apostles that fervently believe they should be included in an article like this one. The inclusion criteria I used was the theory had to either have a substantial presence in academic business journals, or it had to have permiated the popular business culture (with a best-selling book for example). The overall mix is about 50 : 50. I hope this standard will be maintained by future contributors.

In the future, we will have to be vigilent monitoring for consultants that try to use the article for free advertising. Getting your name between Peter Drucker and Michael Porter in an encyclopedia article is impressive publicity for a consultant or business speaker.

I hope you enjoy the article and find it useful. Any comments are welcome. [[User:Mydogategodshat|mydogategodshat]] 16:16, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)

== Strategic management vs strategy ==

Upon my first cursory reading of this article, it doesn't seem to say much about the relation between strategic management and ''strategy'' in the game theoretic sense. Should it? Do the strategic management theorists think in these terms?[[User:CSTAR|CSTAR]] 04:59, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

: P.S. I know next to nothing about strategic management, so consider me as a (reasonably intelligent) outside observer.[[User:CSTAR|CSTAR]] 05:03, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

That is a good point. Game theory is not frequently used in strategic management and I'm not sure why. My best guess is that game theory is appropriate in situations where the actors, events, and outcomes are limited in number and clearly defined. This is seldom the case in strategic management, infact it is often quite the opposite. But that should not prevent us from mentioning it in this article. Can I leave that to you (because what I remember from my game theory classes would not put me in the best position to write it). [[User:Mydogategodshat|mydogategodshat]] 18:43, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I have looked through my bookshelves and found a dissussion of the relationship between game theory and strategic management. Mintzberg ''etal'' (1998: page 108) says that game theory "may help to order some strategic thinking, particularly under conditions of competitive maneuvering, rather than provide any answers to strategic issues." Then on page 111 he says "Unfortunately most real world strategic issues give rise to large numbers of possibilities. There is rarely what game theorists call a dominant strategy. So the approach should not be though of as one to resolve strategic issues so much as to help order the strategists thinking, providing especially a set of concepts to help understand dynamic strategic maneuvering against competitors." I hope that helps. [[User:Mydogategodshat|mydogategodshat]] 14:17, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

:A book called [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0071400206/ref=sib_dp_pop_toc/102-7997923-3390563?%5Fencoding=UTF8&p=S00A#reader-link ''Game Theory at Work''] has just been released. I have not read it yet, but it seems to claim that game theory is useful in a wide range of practical business situations. [[User:Mydogategodshat|mydogategodshat]] 00:22, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Great article...One of the best I have seen on wikedia...
Czar

: That is a useful response, although my question was more concerned with determining what a strategy actually is from the point if view of the firm's management.

: What does management of a widget factory do? Naive answer: Produce widgets and market them. This means finding suppliers of raw materials, finding distributors etc. My real question is why do we need to introduce a new word ''strategy'' into the discussion of management theory?

: ''There is rarely what game theorists call a dominant strategy.'' This is clear. However, I'm not talking of a dominant strategy but any strategy. I would like to know what kind of beast are we talking about here? Not knowing any better, I would say a ''management strategy is some kind "algorithm" for temporal behaviour of the firm'', i.e. rules for determining capital expansion, securing suppliers, setting inventory levels, choosing markets, choosing ad-campaigns and so on based on current conditions and flexible enough to accomodate to possible ''reasonable'' changes in the environment. And choosing one strategy over another strategy should have some objective justification, i.e. maximization of the numerical value of some real-valued function (e.g. discounted stream of something).[[User:CSTAR|CSTAR]] 20:35, 19 Dec 2004 (UTC)

::It sounds like you are interested in the difference between strategic management and other forms of management. You might want to look at the [[strategic planning]] article for a description of what strategy is all about and how it differs from more tactical issues. Strategic planning is about having a vision about where you want to be in the future. It is about having a mission, a set of objectives. It is the creation of a broad plan that will define the business that you are in, the type of [[business model]] you will use, and how you will create [[value chain|customer value]] and attain a [[sustainable competitive advantage]]. It is about leadership more than management (see [[leadership#Leadership and management]].) It can be contrasted with more tactical and specific issues like the administration and management of the financial or human resource function. [[User:Mydogategodshat|mydogategodshat]] 07:27, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)

==

== Publisher ==
==

I completely agree that this is a very well written article. I have to ask though, does anyone else feel that recommending McGraw Hill textbooks is odd. I have never come across a book published by McGraw Hill that i would recommend to anyone. They seem very superficial, like a bunch of people who just sat down and slapped together a book while most of the other publishers mostly have authors who are very intimate with the material.

Superfluous and off-topic comment, recommend ^^^ post for deletion.
[[Special:Contributions/71.79.248.195|71.79.248.195]] ([[User talk:71.79.248.195|talk]]) 01:54, 13 June 2008 (UTC)JMB

== Proposing an Additional Topic ==

I think this is an excellent article. Just about the only thing missing is a discussion of strategic alignment. Once a strategic direction is adopted by an organization, three things should be aligned with it: each of the layers of management, down to the front line, each of the functional business units that contribute to the success of the organization, and all external partners of the organization. There is a different literature on each of these aspects of alignment.

I Think this is an excellent article. 
Agrees - a mention of strategic alignment is a good idea. —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:156.34.76.188|156.34.76.188]] ([[User talk:156.34.76.188|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/156.34.76.188|contribs]]){{#if:07:58, 1 June 2007| 07:58, 1 June 2007|}}.

I just wrote an article on [[Strategic lenses]] but can't find the right place to include it on this page. Any suggestions? [[User:Ptanham|Ptanham]] 21:11, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

Strategic vs. Tactical Management seems to be a topic that is poorly represented in the literature. Good definitions of what is Strategic and what is Tactical could assist in alleviating some extensive management debate. --[[User:Scheffel|Scheffel]] 10:37, 22 April 2007 (UTC)

== Copyright violation ==

I have discovered that large sections of this article are a copyright violation. I hope the editors here will do something about this ASAP. Thanks.--[[User:Alabamaboy|Alabamaboy]] 20:04, 13 April 2006 (UTC)
:For the record, these sections are total copyright violations (and before someone asks, the source document is not a mirror site but a European Union quasi-governmental organization):

<blockquote>
Strategy formulation involves:

Doing a situation analysis: both internal and external; both micro-environmental and macro-environmental.
Concurrent with this assessment, objectives are set. This involves crafting vision statements (long term view of a possible future), mission statements (the role that the organization gives itself in society), overall corporate objectives (both financial and strategic), strategic business unit objectives (both financial and strategic), and tactical objectives.
These objectives should, in the light of the situation analysis, suggest a strategic plan. The plan provides the details of how to achieve these objectives.
This three-step strategy formation process is sometimes referred to as determining where you are now, determining where you want to go, and then determining how to get there. These three questions are the essence of strategic planning. SWOT Analysis: I/O Economics for the external factors and RBV for the internal factors.

Strategy implementation involves:

Allocation of sufficient resources (financial, personnel, time, computer system support)
Establishing a chain of command or some alternative structure (such as cross functional teams)
Assigning responsibility of specific tasks or processes to specific individuals or groups
It also involves managing the process. This includes monitoring results, comparing to benchmarks and best practices, evaluating the efficacy and efficiency of the process, controlling for variances, and making adjustments to the process as necessary.
When implementing specific programs, this involves acquiring the requisite resources, developing the process, training, process testing, documentation, and integration with (and/or conversion from) legacy processes.
</blockquote>

I should add that this info is the only copyright violation I have found. However, this informaton is in all article versions going back to late 2004, when the article was first promoted to featured article status. If this info is removed the article can be unblanked but, since the violation is so integral to the article, I leave it to the article's editors to decide how this can be best accomplished. Best,--[[User:Alabamaboy|Alabamaboy]] 20:17, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

:I have reverted the copyvio notice. The PDF you cited at [[WP:FARC]] cites Wikipedia as one of its sources. It borrowed wholescale from here, not vice versa. [[User:Ihcoyc|Smerdis of Tlön]] 20:21, 13 April 2006 (UTC)
::Thanks. I didn't expect an European Union agency to plagiarize the article so blatently (even with the acknowledgement, its still plagiarism). Thanks for reverting the article so quickly. My apologies for this.--[[User:Alabamaboy|Alabamaboy]] 20:23, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

== Proposal to remove this from list of featured articles. ==

I have proposed removing this from the list of featured articles. My basic problem is with the prose style. I think that if this is to remain as a featured article, it has to be rewritten from top to bottom in plain English, free from empty abstractions, and with [[tautology (rhetoric)|tautologies]] and [[buzzwords]] entirely extirpated. Too much of it seems to redundantly state the obvious. There is a great deal of what I feel are bogus attempts to create the appearance of rigour by creating nebulous but overspecified categories involving decision making.

Just as a couple of examples, I'm not sure that "Strategic management is the process of specifying an organization's objectives, developing policies and plans to achieve these objectives, and allocating resources so as to implement the plans" says anything more than "Strategic management is deciding what an organization should do, and how to do it" does.

I also feel no wiser upon being told that "An organization's strategy must be appropriate for its resources, circumstances, and objectives":

:'''BILL GATES''': I think we should get out of the computer software market and attempt to corner the market in [[Pog]]s.
:'''FLUNKY 1''': But Sir, we're already mostly set up with the computer and programming things.
:'''FLUNKY 2''': Yeah, that wouldn't be appropriate for our resources, circumstances, and objectives.
:'''BILL GATES''': Oh. OK. Well, maybe we could start distributing software in Pog form? . . . .

This sort of un-concrete and wishy-washy writing makes a bad impression on me, largely because it seems so obviously padded and easy to see through. I'm not even sure I'm equal to the task of reworking this. I do think that the entire article needs to be recast in plain English in order to remain as a FA. Thanks. [[User:Ihcoyc|Smerdis of Tlön]] 16:53, 15 April 2006 (UTC)
===Additional Featured Article status issues===
*jargon-filled prose
*questionable or awkward grammar
*poor use of punctuation
*overuse of wiki markup '''bold text'''
*subheads are not parallel in structure
*possible original research; lack of any useful citations
: - [[User:Davodd|Davodd]] 10:21, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

::Yeah. The description of Porter's 5 forces model is wrong, for example. It's not "like a SWOT analysis with structure and purpose". Since the five forces are a way of modeling the competition in a whole industry, they don't have anything to do with the internal characteristics of individual firms (strengths and weaknesses). Five forces analysis is industry-centric; SWOT analysis is specific to a firm. And who said SWOT analysis is structureless and purposeless? [[User:Rhobite|Rhobite]] 23:15, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

:::Although I still think this should not be a featured article, please note that it has been vandalized for literally months. Probably half of this article, including a huge number of references, were blanked. [[User:Rhobite|Rhobite]] 23:23, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

:::Not just rewritten - needs to be started again - its a mess - let me know if anyone agrees [[User:Boatearth|Boatearth]] 15:29, 22 May 2007 (UTC)

== First Sentence of Overview ==

What in the world is this? "Although strategy has been variously defined by management scholars based on their practical experiences in the field, but for the purpose of this study" You should not have both "although" and "but." —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[Special:Contributions/24.147.145.194|24.147.145.194]] ([[User talk:24.147.145.194|talk]]) 15:47, 19 January 2007 (UTC).

== Merge from [[International strategic management]] ==

International issues seem minor enough (content-wise) that [[International strategic management]] doesn't seem to deserve its own page. [[User:Saligron|Saligron]] 05:21, 31 January 2007 (UTC)
International strategic management should be merged to Strategic Management as a sub-theme.

Negative. International strategic management is terminologically a misunderstanding. It should be termed as Internationalization Strategies etc. [JiE]

==Deleting Mike Cline Contributions==
I am deleting or reverting most contributions I have previously made to this article for the following reason. I work for a company that practices and teaches Strategic Planning methodologies thus making my contribution to any article related to Strategy topics a conflict of interest an in violation of Wikipedia Conflict of Interest guidelines [[WP:COI]] I did not text the reference to the Winning In FastTime text in the references since it seems to fits the lists that already there. However, if the fact that I work for the company that published the text, although I had no hand in its writing, is a [[WP:COI]] then I will delete it as well.--[[User:Mike Cline|Mike Cline]] 13:35, 4 February 2007 (UTC)

== 'Hip' Text ==

"Most theories of strategic management seem to have a lifespan less than that of the popularity of the latest teen music idol." Probably shouldn't be like that... —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:SueHay|SueHay]] ([[User talk:SueHay|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/SueHay|contribs]]) 14:26, 9 March 2007 (UTC).
:Actually, I didn't add that comment. I made a mistake, thinking it was in the actual article, and reverted then restored it. Sorry about that. --[[User:SueHay|SueHay]] 14:41, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

==Once a great article==

When this article was up for Featured Article in status in 2004, it was very thorough and well-documented. Since then it's obviously been seriously damaged -- but the list of references is still here, suggesting that it's authoritative. Would you check the older versions in the Feature Article archive and see if you think that the article from 2004 should be restored? --[[User:SueHay|SueHay]] 14:41, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

On July 8, 2006 at 12:08 a vandal [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strategic_management&diff=62713459&oldid=60833537 wiped out most of this article], including categories, languages and much of the text. Please see the article as it existed before that vandalism. I'd like to restore that article, link the references to the text, remove the various lists that were attracting commercial links and peripheral topics, and get that article back here where Wiki readers can see it. If I don't get any feedback against this within the next week, I'm simply going to try to restore that article and modify it. If anyone is watching this page, please speak now if you have a problem with this. Thank you. --[[User:SueHay|SueHay]] 03:13, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

: Ouch. How on earth did that edit go unnoticed. Restore it at once – then go about integrating any useful changes made since. Thanks for spotting it – [[User talk:Qxz|Qxz]] 04:10, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

: I've restored it, re-added the mergefrom tag and updated the interwiki section. I'll see what else I can do – [[User talk:Qxz|Qxz]] 04:19, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

::Thank you, Oxz! Truthfully, I don't know HOW to restore it, but I thought it ought to be restored. I'll try to link the references to the text over the next few days, and also remove those vandal-attracting lists. --[[User:SueHay|SueHay]] 04:54, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

==Jargon==
This article is about strategic management theory, a field full of jargon and tautologies. Read most reputable textbooks on the subject and you will find the same sort of tortured writing. It is better that Wikipedia uses the customs of the field, rather than those of "strategic management for dummies" —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:81.178.225.162|81.178.225.162]] ([[User talk:81.178.225.162|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/81.178.225.162|contribs]]){{#if:13:17 25 March 2007| 13:17 25 March 2007|}}.
:See [[WP:Jargon]]. No harm in using jargon as long as it's clearly defined. As for writing style in Wikipedia, this encyclopedia is intended to convey information to a general audience. The writing here should not be "tortured." Where you find it is, please help Wikipedia by fixing it. --[[User:SueHay|SueHay]] 23:00, 25 March 2007 (UTC)

I've deleted the following text from the introduction in this article. If anyone feels it should be restored, please explain why (in plain English).

::To achieve the core [[objective]]s, an organization’s strategy must take its resources and environmental circumstances into consideration. The process involves matching the company's [[sustainable competitive advantage|strategic advantages]] to the [[environmental scanning|business environment]] the organization faces. One objective of an overall corporate strategy is to put the organization into a position to carry out its mission effectively and efficiently. A good corporate strategy should integrate an organization’s goals, policies, and action sequences (tactics) into a cohesive whole, and must be based on business realities. Business enterprises can fail despite 'excellent' strategy because the world changes in a way they failed to understand. Strategy must connect with vision, purpose and likely future trends. To see how strategic management relates to other issues, see [[management]] and [[futures studies]].

--[[User:SueHay|SueHay]] 02:26, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

I've deleted the following text from the introduction in this article. If anyone feels it should be restored, please explain why.

::Strategy formulation and implementation is an on-going, never-ending, integrated process requiring continuous reassessment and reformation. Strategic management is [[dynamic]]. See [[Strategy dynamics]]. It involves a complex pattern of actions and reactions. It is partially planned and partially unplanned. Strategy is both planned and emergent, dynamic, and interactive. Some people (such as [[Andy Grove]] at Intel) feel that there are critical points at which a strategy must take a new direction in order to be in step with a changing business environment. These critical points of change are called '''strategic inflection points'''.

::Strategic management operates on several time scales. Short term strategies involve planning and managing for the present. Long term strategies involve preparing for and preempting the future. Marketing strategist [[Derek Abell]] has suggested that understanding this dual nature of strategic management is the least understood part of the process. He claims that balancing the temporal aspects of strategic planning requires the use of dual strategies simultaneously.<ref>Abell, Derek ''Managing with dual strategies'', The Free Press (Macmillan Inc.), New York, 1993, ISBN 0-02-900145-5</ref>

--[[User:SueHay|SueHay]] 02:36, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

I don't completly agree with this article about the concept of strategic management. This article should still have some re-writtening. Article should be more academically written and outlined. This version is much better than ealier ones. One problem is that this article tries to cover all different views at the same time: economic, sociologist,,, etc. These views could be separated as own chapters.

--[[User:JiE|JiE]] 5 April 2007

==Deleted references==
I've deleted the following references from this article because they are not clearly linked with the content of the article. If you are able to link any of these references with the article's content, please do this. Thank you. --[[User:SueHay|SueHay]] 02:43, 2 April 2007 (UTC)
<div class="references-small">
# Igor Ansoff|Ansoff, I. (1957) Strategies for diversification, ''Harvard Business Review'', Boston, 1957
# Igor Ansoff|Ansoff, I. Declerck, R. and Hayes, R. (1976) ''From Strategic Planning to Strategic Management'', John Wiley, New York, 1976
# Collins, J. and Porras, J. (1996) “Building Your Company's Vision”, ''Harvard Business Review'', September/October 1996.
# Patrick Dixon|Dixon, P. (2003) ''Futurewise - Six Faces of Global Change'', Profile Books, London, 2003
# Peter Drucker|Drucker, P. (1973) ''Management'', Harper and Row, New York, 1983-paperback
# Garratt, B. (1987) ''The Learning Organization'', Fontana Books, London, 1987.
# Heskett, J. Jones, T. Loveman, G. Sasser, E. and Schlesinger, L. (1994) “Putting the service profit chain to work”, ''Harvard Business Review'', March/April 1994.
# Heskett, J. Sasser, E. and Schlesinger, L. (1997) ''The Service Profit Chain'', Free Press, New York, 1997.
# Jarillo, J.-C. (2003) ''Strategic Logic'', Palgrave McMillan, New York, 2003 (Exist also in other languages)
# Kaplan, R. S. and Norton, D. P. (1992) “The balanced scorecard: measures that drive performance”, ''Harvard Business Review'', Jan–Feb, 1992, pp71–80.
# {{cite book
| last = Katsioloudes
| first = Marios
| authorlink =
| year = 2006
| title = Strategic Management
| url = http://books.elsevier.com/management/?isbn=0750679662
| publisher = Butterworth-Heineman, an imprint of Elsevier
| id = ISBN 0750679662
}}
# Leibold, M. Probst, G. and Gibbert, M. (2001) ''Strategic Management in the Knowledge Economy'', Wiley, Erlangen 2001
# Levy, D. (1994) “Chaos Theory and Strategy: Theory, Application, and Managerial Implications”, ''Strategic Managemnt Journal'', vol 15, 1994.
# Lovelock, C. (1994), ''Product Plus: How Product + Service = Competitive Advantage'', McGraw Hill, New York, 1994.
# Markides, C. (1997). “Strategic innovation” ''Sloan Management Review'', vol 38, spring 1997, pp31–42.
# Patrick Mc Namee|Mc Namee, P.(2004) ''The Strategy Compass: Timeless Strategic Direction for all Businesses'', www.lulu.com.
# Henry Mintzberg|Mintzberg, H. (1994), “The Fall and Rise of Strategic Planning”, Harvard Business Review, Jan/Feb 1994.
# LINKED Mintzberg, H. Ahlstrand, B. and Lampel, J. ''Stragegy Safari : A Guided Tour Through the Wilds of Strategic Management'', The Free Press, New York, 1998.
# Geoffrey Moore|Moore, G. (1991), ''Crossing the Chasm'', Harper Collins, New York, 2nd ed 1999.
# Naisbitt, J. (1982) ''Megatrends'', Warner Books, New York, 1982 ISBN 0-466-51251-6
# Parasuraman, A. Zeithaml, V. and Berry, L. (1988) “SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality”, ''Journal of Retailing'', Spring 1988, pp 12–40.
# Pine, J. and Gilmore, J. (1998) “Welcome to the Experience Economy”, ''Harvard Business Review'', July–August 1998.
# Michael Porter|Porter, M. (1979) “How competitive forces shape strategy”, ''Harvard business Review'', March/April 1979.
# Michael Porter|Porter, M. (1980) ''Competitive Strategy'', Free Press, New York, 1980.
# Michael Porter|Porter, M. (1987) “From Competitive Advantage to Corporate Strategy”, ''Harvard Business Review'', May/June 1987, pp 43–59.
# Michael Porter|Porter, M. (1996) “What is Strategy”, ''Harvard Business Review'', Nov/Dec 1996.
# Michael Porter|Porter, M. (2001) “Strategy and the Internet”, ''Harvard Business Review'', March 2001.
# Michael Porter|Porter, M. and Millar, V. (1985) “How Information Technology gives you Competitive Advantage”, ''Harvard Business Review'', July/August 1985
# Schmitt, B. (2003) ''Customer Experience Management'', The Free Press, New York, 2003.
# Schmitt, B. and Simonson, A. (1997) In ''Marketing Aesthetics:The strategic management of brands, identity, and image'' The Free Press, New York, 1997.
# Smith, W. (1966) “Product Differentiation and Market Segmentation as Alternative Marketing Strategies”, ''Journal of Marketing'', July 1966.
# Steiner, G. (1979) ''Strategic Planning: What every manager must know'', The Free Press, New York, 1979.
# Gerard J Tellis|Tellis, G. and Golder, P. (2002) ''[http://www.willandvision.com/ Will and Vision: How late comers grow to dominate markets]'', McGraw Hill, New York, 2002.
# Treacy, M. and Wiesema, F. (1993) “Customer intimacy and other Value Disciplines”, ''Harvard Business Review'' Jan/Feb 1993.
# Tregoe, B. and Zimmerman, J. (1980) ''Top Management Strategy'', Simon and Schuster, 1980, New York, ISBN 0-671-25401-4
# Wickens, P.D. (1995) ''The Ascendant Organization'', MacMillan Press, 1995, London, ISBN 0-333-73580-3
</div>

== Mintzberg - Strategy Safari ==

This phrase seems to be a misapprehension: <blockquote>In 1998, Mintzberg developed these five types of management strategy into 10 “schools of thought”.</blockquote>
The 10 schools of thought that Mintzberg, Ahlstrand and Lampel outline in Strategy Safari are not derived from the discussion of how the word strategy is used, but from a survey of the field. Mintzberg et al explain the 5 usages of the word in the first chapter of Strategy Safari, but at no point do they suggest that they have developed the 10 schools from the five usages. —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:MartinTurner|MartinTurner]] ([[User talk:MartinTurner|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/MartinTurner|contribs]]) 22:17, 6 April 2007 (UTC).
::Many thanks for this comment. I've put a reference link to ''Strategy Safari'' at the end of that paragraph, but obviously the paragraph needs some re-writing. Would you do that? --[[User:SueHay|SueHay]] 00:51, 7 April 2007 (UTC)

you say "In [1985], E. Chaffee summarized what he thought were the main "
It should be "she" (namely, Ellen Earl Chaffee).
David Brock
[[User:194.90.167.52|194.90.167.52]] 18:36, 14 April 2007 (UTC)
::Thank you, I've corrected this now. Her [http://community.vcsu.edu/staffpages/ellen.chaffee/My_Webpage/resume.pdf. resume] gives her formal name as Ellen-Earle Chaffee, so I've used that. --[[User:SueHay|SueHay]] 16:09, 22 April 2007 (UTC)

== Moving forward ==
As I often do when I am studyig for an exam, I came to wikipedia to contribute to the subject I am researching on. I was particularly looking for strategy evaluation, which redirects to this article. I couple of points (IMHO):

* The article is way, WAY too ambitious. To cover all these aspects of strategy management in one single wikipedia article is way too much. Johnson, Scholes and Whittington (renowed names in the field of corporate strategy) tend to separate strategy in 3 main branches in their textbooks: Strategic position, strategic choices and strategy in action.

Of course I am by no means suggesting we follow the same logic, but only illustrating that it might be better if we fork the subject into separate articles. Perhaps keeping this article as a general overview, which points to the other articles for more information. --[[User:Pinnecco|Pinnecco]] ([[User talk:Pinnecco|talk]]) 20:28, 21 May 2008 (UTC)

Swimming at the Summer Olympics

2008-09-08T15:22:00Z

202.79.62.16: /* Notable changes to the sport */

[[Image:Swimming pictogram.svg|100px|thumb|Swimming]]
'''[[Swimming]]''' has been a sport at every modern [[Summer Olympics]]. It has been open to women since [[1912 Summer Olympics|1912]]. Along with track & field [[Athletics at the Summer Olympics|athletics]] it is one of the most popular spectator sports at the Games and the one with the largest number of events.

==Men's events==

{| class="wikitable"
! Event || [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics|08]] || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics|12]] || [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics|20]] || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics|24]] || [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics|28]] || [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics|32]] || [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics|36]] || [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics|48]] || [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics|52]] || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics|56]] || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics|60]] || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics|64]] || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics|68]] || [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|72]] || [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics|76]] || [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics|80]] || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics|84]] || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics|88]] || [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics|92]] || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics|08]] || Years
|-align=center
|align=center colspan=28| '''Current program'''
|- align=center
|align=left|50 metre freestyle
|
|
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games>Distances at the 1904 Olympics were measured in yards rather than metres. The 50 yard freestyle was 45.72 metres and the 100 yard freestyle and backstroke races were 91.44 metres. The 220, 440, and 880 yard freestyle races were 201.168, 402.336, and 804.672 metres, respectively. Instead of a 1500 metre race, there was a 1 mile race which made for 1609.344 metres. The 440 yard breaststroke, like the freestyle, was 402.336 metres. The relay, 4 × 50 yards, was 4 × 45.72 metres.</ref>
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| 7
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre freestyle
| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
|
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| 25
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre freestyle
|
| [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 220 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || || || || || || || || || || ||
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre freestyle
|
|
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 440 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| 24
|- align=center
|align=left|1500 metre freestyle
| ||
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 1 mile freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| 24
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre backstroke|| ||
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 yard backstroke|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| 23
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre backstroke|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre breaststroke|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre breaststroke|| || || || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 23
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| 14
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| || || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| 9
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| 12
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre freestyle relay|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| || || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 10
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 200 metre freestyle relay|| || || || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 23
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre medley relay|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|Marathon 10 km|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 10 kilometre|X]]|| 1
|-align=center
|align=center colspan=28| '''Past events'''
|- align=center
|align=left| 500 metre freestyle|| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's 500 metre freestyle|X]]
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| 1
|- align=center
|align=left| 880 yard freestyle|| || || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 880 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left| 1000 metre freestyle || || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 1000 metre freestyle|X]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left| 1200 metre freestyle|| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's 1200 metre freestyle|X]]
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| 1
|- align=center
|align=left|4000 metre freestyle|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 4000 metre freestyle|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre breaststroke
| ||
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 440 yard breaststroke|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre breaststroke|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 3
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 50 yard freestyle relay|| || || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 50 yard freestyle relay|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre team swimming|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre team swimming|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre obstacle event|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre obstacle event|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|Underwater swimming|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's underwater swimming|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre freestyle for sailors|| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's sailors 100 metre freestyle|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|Events||4||7||9||6||7||7||6||6||6||6||6||6||7||8||10||15||15||13||13||15||16||16||16||16||16||17||
|}

==Women's events==

{| class="wikitable"
! Event || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics|12]] || [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics|20]] || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics|24]] || [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics|28]] || [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics|32]] || [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics|36]] || [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics|48]] || [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics|52]] || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics|56]] || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics|60]] || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics|64]] || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics|68]] || [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|72]] || [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics|76]] || [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics|80]] || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics|84]] || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics|88]] || [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics|92]] || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics|08]] || Years
|- align=center
|align=left|50 metre freestyle|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| 6
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre freestyle
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| 22
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre freestyle
| || || || || || || || || || ||
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre freestyle
|
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Women's 300 metre freestyle|X]]<ref name=W300>In 1920, the women's event was 300 metres.</ref>
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| 21
|- align=center
|align=left|800 metre freestyle|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre backstroke|| || || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| 20
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre backstroke|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre breaststroke|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre breaststroke|| || || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 20
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| 14
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| || || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| 9
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| 12
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre freestyle relay|| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 22
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 200 metre freestyle relay|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 4
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre medley relay|| || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|Marathon 10 km|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 10 kilometre|X]]|| 1
|- align=center
|align=left|Events||2||3||5||5||5||5||5||5||6||7||8||14||14||13||13||14||15||15||16||16||16||17||
|}

== Olympic records ==

{{main|List of Olympic records in swimming}}
The [[International Olympic Committee]] recognise the best performances in all 32 current pool-based swimming events at the Games as [[Olympic record]]s.

==Nations==

{| class="wikitable"
! Nation || [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics|08]] || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics|12]] || [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics|20]] || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics|24]] || [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics|28]] || [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics|32]] || [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics|36]] || [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics|48]] || [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics|52]] || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics|56]] || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics|60]] || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics|64]] || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics|68]] || [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|72]] || [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics|76]] || [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics|80]] || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics|84]] || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics|88]] || [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics|92]] || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics|08]] || Years
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|ANZ}} || - || - || - || 5 || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || || 2
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|AUS}} || - || 1 || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|AUT}} || 2 || 3 || 1 || 1 || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 24
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|BEL}} || - || 1 || - || 7 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|BRA}} || - || - || - || - || - || X || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 18
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|CAN}} || - || - || - || 1 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 20
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|CHN}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 6
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|DEN}} || - || 1 || - || 5 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|EST}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 5
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|EUA}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || || 3
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|FIN}} || - || - || - || 3 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 21
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|FRA}} || - || 47 || - || 4 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|FRG}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || - || - || - || X || X || X || - || X || X || - || - || - || - || || 5
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GDR}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || - || X || - || - || - || - || || 5
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GER}} || - || 6 || 4 || 5 || X || - || X || X || X || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 12
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GBR}} || - || 7 || - || 28 || 22 || 18 || 25 || 24 || 15 || 22 || 32 || 26 || 22 || 32 || 33 || 27 || 36 || 40 || 32 || 36 || 44 || 31 || 28 || 39 || 32 || 37 || 24
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GRE}} || 15 || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 20
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|HUN}} || 1 || 1 || 2 || 10 || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || || 23
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|ITA}} || - || 2 || - || 4 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|JPN}} || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 16
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|KOR}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 12
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|NED}} || - || 4 || - || 7 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|NZL}} || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 19
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|RSA}} || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 15
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|RUS}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 4
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|SWE}} || - || 1 || - || 12 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|URS}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || - || - || - || - || || 9
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|UKR}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 4
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|USA}} || 1 || 2 || 25 || 8 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 24
|- align=center
! No. of nations || 4 || 12 || 4 || 14 || ||colspan=24|
|- align=center
! No. of swimmers || 19 || 76 || 32 || 100 || ||colspan=24|
|}

==Notable changes to the sport==
Times have consistently dropped over the years due to better training techniques and to new developments in the sport.

In the first four Olympics, competitions were not held in pools, but rather in open water (1896, the [[Mediterranean Sea]]; 1900, the [[Seine]]; 1904, an artificial lake; 1906, the Mediterranean). The [[1904 Olympics]]' races were the only ones ever measured at yards, instead of the usual metres. A 100 metre pool was built for the [[1908 Olympics]] and sat in the centre of the main stadium's track and field oval. The [[1912 Olympics]], held in the Stockholm harbour, marked the beginning of electrical timing.

Male swimmers wore full body swimsuits up until the 1940s, which caused more drag in the water than their modern swim-wear counterparts. Also, over the years, pool designs have lessened the drag. Some design considerations allow for the reduction of swimming [[Drag (physics)|resistance]] making the pool faster. Namely, proper pool depth, elimination of waves, elimination of currents, increased lane width, energy absorbing racing lane lines and gutters, and the use of other innovative hydraulic, acoustic, illumination, and swimwear designs.

The [[1924 Olympics]] were the first to use the standard 50 metre pool with marked lanes. In the freestyle, swimmers originally dove from the pool walls, but diving blocks were incorporated starting at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]]. The flip-turn was developed by the 1950s. Swimming goggles were first allowed in [[1976 Summer Olympics|1976]].

The [[butterfly stroke]] events were not held until 1956. According to the rules before then, the butterfly stroke was allowed in the [[breaststroke]] races - but then the contest rules were changed, abolishing the use of the butterfly stroke in the breaststroke races.

Women were first allowed the longer distance of 800 metres freestyle in 1968, which remains the longest distance for women. Up until then, women were considered to be too "delicate" to swim a race this long, even though the men had had the 1,500 metre [[freestyle]] from the very early years. With the new distance available for the first time [[Debbie Meyer]] of the [[United States]] won three individual free-style gold medals in 1968 - 200, 400, and 800 metres.

Both men and women were granted the 200 metre freestyle race in 1968, giving swimmers an intermediate distance race between 100 metres and 400 metres.

Women's teams were first granted the 800 metre freestyle relay race in 1996 - even though there had been a men's relay race at that distance since 1912. At six Olympiads, the men had two freestyle relay races, but the women only had one. Now, both sexes have two.

The medley relay races (4×100 metres) were not held for men or for women until 1960, but they have continued in every Olympiad since then.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)]]
*[[List of Olympic medalists in swimming (women)]]

==References==
* [http://www.olympic.org/uk/athletes/results/search_r_uk.asp International Olympic Committee results database]

==External links==
* Swim Rankings [http://www.swimrankings.net/index.php?page=meetSelect&selectPage=BYTYPE&meetType=1 results]

{{OlympicSports}}
{{Olympic Games Swimming}}
{{fb start}}
{{International swimming}}
{{fb end}}

[[Category:Swimming at the Olympics| ]]
[[Category:Swimming competitions|Olympics]]

[[et:Ujumise olümpiarekordid]]
[[el:Κολύμβηση στους Ολυμπιακούς Αγώνες]]
[[fr:Natation aux Jeux olympiques]]
[[it:Nuoto ai Giochi olimpici]]
[[mr:ऑलिंपिक खेळ जलतरण]]
[[nl:Zwemmen op de Olympische Zomerspelen]]
[[ja:競泳競技 (夏季オリンピック)]]
[[pt:Natação nos Jogos Olímpicos]]
[[sr:Пливање на олимпијским играма]]
[[sv:Simning vid olympiska sommarspelen]]
[[th:กีฬาว่ายน้ำในโอลิมปิก]]
[[zh:奥林匹克运动会游泳比赛]]

Swimming at the Summer Olympics

2008-09-08T15:21:17Z

202.79.62.16: /* Notable changes to the sport */

[[Image:Swimming pictogram.svg|100px|thumb|Swimming]]
'''[[Swimming]]''' has been a sport at every modern [[Summer Olympics]]. It has been open to women since [[1912 Summer Olympics|1912]]. Along with track & field [[Athletics at the Summer Olympics|athletics]] it is one of the most popular spectator sports at the Games and the one with the largest number of events.

==Men's events==

{| class="wikitable"
! Event || [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics|08]] || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics|12]] || [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics|20]] || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics|24]] || [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics|28]] || [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics|32]] || [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics|36]] || [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics|48]] || [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics|52]] || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics|56]] || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics|60]] || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics|64]] || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics|68]] || [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|72]] || [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics|76]] || [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics|80]] || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics|84]] || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics|88]] || [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics|92]] || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics|08]] || Years
|-align=center
|align=center colspan=28| '''Current program'''
|- align=center
|align=left|50 metre freestyle
|
|
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games>Distances at the 1904 Olympics were measured in yards rather than metres. The 50 yard freestyle was 45.72 metres and the 100 yard freestyle and backstroke races were 91.44 metres. The 220, 440, and 880 yard freestyle races were 201.168, 402.336, and 804.672 metres, respectively. Instead of a 1500 metre race, there was a 1 mile race which made for 1609.344 metres. The 440 yard breaststroke, like the freestyle, was 402.336 metres. The relay, 4 × 50 yards, was 4 × 45.72 metres.</ref>
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| 7
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre freestyle
| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
|
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| 25
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre freestyle
|
| [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 220 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || || || || || || || || || || ||
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre freestyle
|
|
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 440 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| 24
|- align=center
|align=left|1500 metre freestyle
| ||
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 1 mile freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| 24
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre backstroke|| ||
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 yard backstroke|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| 23
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre backstroke|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre breaststroke|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre breaststroke|| || || || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 23
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| 14
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| || || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| 9
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| 12
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre freestyle relay|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| || || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 10
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 200 metre freestyle relay|| || || || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 23
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre medley relay|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|Marathon 10 km|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 10 kilometre|X]]|| 1
|-align=center
|align=center colspan=28| '''Past events'''
|- align=center
|align=left| 500 metre freestyle|| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's 500 metre freestyle|X]]
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| 1
|- align=center
|align=left| 880 yard freestyle|| || || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 880 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left| 1000 metre freestyle || || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 1000 metre freestyle|X]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left| 1200 metre freestyle|| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's 1200 metre freestyle|X]]
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| 1
|- align=center
|align=left|4000 metre freestyle|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 4000 metre freestyle|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre breaststroke
| ||
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 440 yard breaststroke|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre breaststroke|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 3
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 50 yard freestyle relay|| || || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 50 yard freestyle relay|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre team swimming|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre team swimming|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre obstacle event|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre obstacle event|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|Underwater swimming|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's underwater swimming|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre freestyle for sailors|| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's sailors 100 metre freestyle|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|Events||4||7||9||6||7||7||6||6||6||6||6||6||7||8||10||15||15||13||13||15||16||16||16||16||16||17||
|}

==Women's events==

{| class="wikitable"
! Event || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics|12]] || [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics|20]] || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics|24]] || [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics|28]] || [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics|32]] || [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics|36]] || [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics|48]] || [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics|52]] || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics|56]] || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics|60]] || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics|64]] || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics|68]] || [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|72]] || [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics|76]] || [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics|80]] || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics|84]] || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics|88]] || [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics|92]] || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics|08]] || Years
|- align=center
|align=left|50 metre freestyle|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| 6
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre freestyle
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| 22
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre freestyle
| || || || || || || || || || ||
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre freestyle
|
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Women's 300 metre freestyle|X]]<ref name=W300>In 1920, the women's event was 300 metres.</ref>
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| 21
|- align=center
|align=left|800 metre freestyle|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre backstroke|| || || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| 20
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre backstroke|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre breaststroke|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre breaststroke|| || || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 20
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| 14
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| || || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| 9
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| 12
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre freestyle relay|| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 22
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 200 metre freestyle relay|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 4
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre medley relay|| || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|Marathon 10 km|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 10 kilometre|X]]|| 1
|- align=center
|align=left|Events||2||3||5||5||5||5||5||5||6||7||8||14||14||13||13||14||15||15||16||16||16||17||
|}

== Olympic records ==

{{main|List of Olympic records in swimming}}
The [[International Olympic Committee]] recognise the best performances in all 32 current pool-based swimming events at the Games as [[Olympic record]]s.

==Nations==

{| class="wikitable"
! Nation || [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics|08]] || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics|12]] || [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics|20]] || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics|24]] || [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics|28]] || [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics|32]] || [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics|36]] || [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics|48]] || [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics|52]] || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics|56]] || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics|60]] || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics|64]] || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics|68]] || [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|72]] || [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics|76]] || [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics|80]] || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics|84]] || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics|88]] || [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics|92]] || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics|08]] || Years
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|ANZ}} || - || - || - || 5 || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || || 2
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|AUS}} || - || 1 || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|AUT}} || 2 || 3 || 1 || 1 || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 24
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|BEL}} || - || 1 || - || 7 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|BRA}} || - || - || - || - || - || X || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 18
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|CAN}} || - || - || - || 1 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 20
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|CHN}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 6
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|DEN}} || - || 1 || - || 5 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|EST}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 5
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|EUA}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || || 3
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|FIN}} || - || - || - || 3 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 21
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|FRA}} || - || 47 || - || 4 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|FRG}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || - || - || - || X || X || X || - || X || X || - || - || - || - || || 5
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GDR}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || - || X || - || - || - || - || || 5
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GER}} || - || 6 || 4 || 5 || X || - || X || X || X || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 12
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GBR}} || - || 7 || - || 28 || 22 || 18 || 25 || 24 || 15 || 22 || 32 || 26 || 22 || 32 || 33 || 27 || 36 || 40 || 32 || 36 || 44 || 31 || 28 || 39 || 32 || 37 || 24
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GRE}} || 15 || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 20
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|HUN}} || 1 || 1 || 2 || 10 || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || || 23
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|ITA}} || - || 2 || - || 4 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|JPN}} || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 16
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|KOR}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 12
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|NED}} || - || 4 || - || 7 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|NZL}} || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 19
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|RSA}} || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 15
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|RUS}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 4
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|SWE}} || - || 1 || - || 12 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|URS}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || - || - || - || - || || 9
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|UKR}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 4
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|USA}} || 1 || 2 || 25 || 8 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 24
|- align=center
! No. of nations || 4 || 12 || 4 || 14 || ||colspan=24|
|- align=center
! No. of swimmers || 19 || 76 || 32 || 100 || ||colspan=24|
|}

==Notable changes to the sport==
Times have consistently dropped over the years due to better training techniques and to new developments in the sport.

In the first four Olympics, competitions were not held in pools, but rather in open water (1896, the [[Mediterranean Sea]]; 1900, the [[Seine]]; 1904, an artificial lake; 1906, the Mediterranean). The [[1904 Olympics]]' races were the only ones ever measured at yards, instead of the usual metres. A 100 metre pool was built for the [[1908 Olympics]] and sat in the centre of the main stadium's track and field oval. The [[1912 Olympics]], held in the Stockholm harbour, marked the beginning of electrical timing.

Male swimmers wore full body swimsuits up until the 1940s, which caused more drag in the water than their modern swim-wear counterparts. Also, over the years, pool designs have lessened the drag. Some design considerations allow for the reduction of swimming [[Drag (physics)|resistance]] making the pool faster. Namely, proper pool depth, elimination of waves, elimination of currents, increased lane width, energy absorbing racing lane lines and gutters, and the use of other innovative hydraulic, acoustic, illumination, and swimwear designs.

The [[1924 Olympics]] were the first to use the standard 50 metre pool with marked lanes. In the freestyle, swimmers originally dove from the pool walls, but diving blocks were incorporated starting at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]]. The flip-turn was developed by the 1950s. Swimming goggles were first allowed in [[1976 Summer Olympics|1976]].

The [[butterfly stroke]] events were not held until 1956. According to the rules before then, the butterfly stroke was allowed in the [[breaststroke]] races - but then the contest rules were changed, abolishing the use of the butterfly stroke in the breaststroke races.

Women were first allowed the longer distance of 800 metres freestyle in 1968, which remains the longest distance for women. Up until then, women were considered to be too "delicate" to swim a race this long, even though the men had had the 1,500 metre [[freestyle]] from the very early years. With the new distance available for the first time [[Debbie Meyer]] of the [[United States]] won three individual free-style gold medals in 1968 - 200, 400, and 800 metres.

Both men and women were granted the 200 metre freestyle race in 1968, giving swimmers an intermediate distance race between 100 metres and 400 metres.
SITA JI
Women's teams were first granted the 800 metre freestyle relay race in 1996 - even though there had been a men's relay race at that distance since 1912. At six Olympiads, the men had two freestyle relay races, but the women only had one. Now, both sexes have two.

The medley relay races (4×100 metres) were not held for men or for women until 1960, but they have continued in every Olympiad since then.SITA

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)]]
*[[List of Olympic medalists in swimming (women)]]

==References==
* [http://www.olympic.org/uk/athletes/results/search_r_uk.asp International Olympic Committee results database]

==External links==
* Swim Rankings [http://www.swimrankings.net/index.php?page=meetSelect&selectPage=BYTYPE&meetType=1 results]

{{OlympicSports}}
{{Olympic Games Swimming}}
{{fb start}}
{{International swimming}}
{{fb end}}

[[Category:Swimming at the Olympics| ]]
[[Category:Swimming competitions|Olympics]]

[[et:Ujumise olümpiarekordid]]
[[el:Κολύμβηση στους Ολυμπιακούς Αγώνες]]
[[fr:Natation aux Jeux olympiques]]
[[it:Nuoto ai Giochi olimpici]]
[[mr:ऑलिंपिक खेळ जलतरण]]
[[nl:Zwemmen op de Olympische Zomerspelen]]
[[ja:競泳競技 (夏季オリンピック)]]
[[pt:Natação nos Jogos Olímpicos]]
[[sr:Пливање на олимпијским играма]]
[[sv:Simning vid olympiska sommarspelen]]
[[th:กีฬาว่ายน้ำในโอลิมปิก]]
[[zh:奥林匹克运动会游泳比赛]]

Swimming at the Summer Olympics

2008-09-08T15:20:22Z

202.79.62.16: /* Notable changes to the sport */

[[Image:Swimming pictogram.svg|100px|thumb|Swimming]]
'''[[Swimming]]''' has been a sport at every modern [[Summer Olympics]]. It has been open to women since [[1912 Summer Olympics|1912]]. Along with track & field [[Athletics at the Summer Olympics|athletics]] it is one of the most popular spectator sports at the Games and the one with the largest number of events.

==Men's events==

{| class="wikitable"
! Event || [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics|08]] || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics|12]] || [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics|20]] || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics|24]] || [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics|28]] || [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics|32]] || [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics|36]] || [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics|48]] || [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics|52]] || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics|56]] || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics|60]] || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics|64]] || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics|68]] || [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|72]] || [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics|76]] || [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics|80]] || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics|84]] || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics|88]] || [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics|92]] || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics|08]] || Years
|-align=center
|align=center colspan=28| '''Current program'''
|- align=center
|align=left|50 metre freestyle
|
|
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games>Distances at the 1904 Olympics were measured in yards rather than metres. The 50 yard freestyle was 45.72 metres and the 100 yard freestyle and backstroke races were 91.44 metres. The 220, 440, and 880 yard freestyle races were 201.168, 402.336, and 804.672 metres, respectively. Instead of a 1500 metre race, there was a 1 mile race which made for 1609.344 metres. The 440 yard breaststroke, like the freestyle, was 402.336 metres. The relay, 4 × 50 yards, was 4 × 45.72 metres.</ref>
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 50 metre freestyle|X]]
| 7
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre freestyle
| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
|
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| 25
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre freestyle
|
| [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 220 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || || || || || || || || || || ||
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre freestyle
|
|
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 440 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| 24
|- align=center
|align=left|1500 metre freestyle
| ||
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 1 mile freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 1500 metre freestyle|X]]
| 24
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre backstroke|| ||
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 yard backstroke|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| 23
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre backstroke|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre breaststroke|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre breaststroke|| || || || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 23
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| 14
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| || || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| 9
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| 12
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre freestyle relay|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| || || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 10
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 200 metre freestyle relay|| || || || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 23
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre medley relay|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|Marathon 10 km|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's 10 kilometre|X]]|| 1
|-align=center
|align=center colspan=28| '''Past events'''
|- align=center
|align=left| 500 metre freestyle|| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's 500 metre freestyle|X]]
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| 1
|- align=center
|align=left| 880 yard freestyle|| || || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 880 yard freestyle|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left| 1000 metre freestyle || || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 1000 metre freestyle|X]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left| 1200 metre freestyle|| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's 1200 metre freestyle|X]]
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| 1
|- align=center
|align=left|4000 metre freestyle|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 4000 metre freestyle|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre breaststroke
| ||
| [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 440 yard breaststroke|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Men's 400 metre breaststroke|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 3
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 50 yard freestyle relay|| || || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 50 yard freestyle relay|X]]<ref name=1904Games/>
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre team swimming|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre team swimming|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre obstacle event|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre obstacle event|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|Underwater swimming|| || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics - Men's underwater swimming|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre freestyle for sailors|| [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics - Men's sailors 100 metre freestyle|X]]|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1
|- align=center
|align=left|Events||4||7||9||6||7||7||6||6||6||6||6||6||7||8||10||15||15||13||13||15||16||16||16||16||16||17||
|}

==Women's events==

{| class="wikitable"
! Event || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics|12]] || [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics|20]] || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics|24]] || [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics|28]] || [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics|32]] || [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics|36]] || [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics|48]] || [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics|52]] || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics|56]] || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics|60]] || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics|64]] || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics|68]] || [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|72]] || [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics|76]] || [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics|80]] || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics|84]] || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics|88]] || [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics|92]] || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics|08]] || Years
|- align=center
|align=left|50 metre freestyle|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 50 metre freestyle|X]]|| 6
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre freestyle
| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre freestyle|X]]
| 22
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre freestyle
| || || || || || || || || || ||
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre freestyle|X]]
| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre freestyle
|
| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Women's 300 metre freestyle|X]]<ref name=W300>In 1920, the women's event was 300 metres.</ref>
| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre freestyle|X]]
| 21
|- align=center
|align=left|800 metre freestyle|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 800 metre freestyle|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre backstroke|| || || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre backstroke|X]]|| 20
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre backstroke|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre backstroke|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre breaststroke|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre breaststroke|| || || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre breaststroke|X]]|| 20
|- align=center
|align=left|100 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 100 metre butterfly|X]]|| 14
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre butterfly|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre butterfly|X]]|| 11
|- align=center
|align=left|200 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| || || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 200 metre individual medley|X]]|| 9
|- align=center
|align=left|400 metre individual medley|| || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 400 metre individual medley|X]]|| 12
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre freestyle relay|| [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 22
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 200 metre freestyle relay|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|X]]|| 4
|- align=center
|align=left|4 × 100 metre medley relay|| || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|X]]|| 13
|- align=center
|align=left|Marathon 10 km|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Women's 10 kilometre|X]]|| 1
|- align=center
|align=left|Events||2||3||5||5||5||5||5||5||6||7||8||14||14||13||13||14||15||15||16||16||16||17||
|}

== Olympic records ==

{{main|List of Olympic records in swimming}}
The [[International Olympic Committee]] recognise the best performances in all 32 current pool-based swimming events at the Games as [[Olympic record]]s.

==Nations==

{| class="wikitable"
! Nation || [[Swimming at the 1896 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 1908 Summer Olympics|08]] || [[Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics|12]] || [[Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics|20]] || [[Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics|24]] || [[Swimming at the 1928 Summer Olympics|28]] || [[Swimming at the 1932 Summer Olympics|32]] || [[Swimming at the 1936 Summer Olympics|36]] || [[Swimming at the 1948 Summer Olympics|48]] || [[Swimming at the 1952 Summer Olympics|52]] || [[Swimming at the 1956 Summer Olympics|56]] || [[Swimming at the 1960 Summer Olympics|60]] || [[Swimming at the 1964 Summer Olympics|64]] || [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics|68]] || [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|72]] || [[Swimming at the 1976 Summer Olympics|76]] || [[Swimming at the 1980 Summer Olympics|80]] || [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics|84]] || [[Swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics|88]] || [[Swimming at the 1992 Summer Olympics|92]] || [[Swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics|96]] || [[Swimming at the 2000 Summer Olympics|00]] || [[Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics|04]] || [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics|08]] || Years
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|ANZ}} || - || - || - || 5 || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || || 2
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|AUS}} || - || 1 || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|AUT}} || 2 || 3 || 1 || 1 || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 24
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|BEL}} || - || 1 || - || 7 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|BRA}} || - || - || - || - || - || X || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 18
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|CAN}} || - || - || - || 1 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 20
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|CHN}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 6
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|DEN}} || - || 1 || - || 5 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|EST}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 5
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|EUA}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || || 3
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|FIN}} || - || - || - || 3 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 21
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|FRA}} || - || 47 || - || 4 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|FRG}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || - || - || - || X || X || X || - || X || X || - || - || - || - || || 5
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GDR}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || - || X || - || - || - || - || || 5
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GER}} || - || 6 || 4 || 5 || X || - || X || X || X || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 12
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GBR}} || - || 7 || - || 28 || 22 || 18 || 25 || 24 || 15 || 22 || 32 || 26 || 22 || 32 || 33 || 27 || 36 || 40 || 32 || 36 || 44 || 31 || 28 || 39 || 32 || 37 || 24
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|GRE}} || 15 || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 20
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|HUN}} || 1 || 1 || 2 || 10 || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || || 23
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|ITA}} || - || 2 || - || 4 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|JPN}} || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 16
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|KOR}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 12
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|NED}} || - || 4 || - || 7 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|NZL}} || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 19
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|RSA}} || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 15
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|RUS}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 4
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|SWE}} || - || 1 || - || 12 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 22
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|URS}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || - || - || - || - || || 9
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|UKR}} || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || X || X || X || X || || 4
|-align=center
|align=left| {{flagIOCteam|USA}} || 1 || 2 || 25 || 8 || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || X || - || X || X || X || X || X || X || || 24
|- align=center
! No. of nations || 4 || 12 || 4 || 14 || ||colspan=24|
|- align=center
! No. of swimmers || 19 || 76 || 32 || 100 || ||colspan=24|
|}

==Notable changes to the sport==
Times have consistently dropped over the years due to better training techniques and to new developments in the sport.

In the first four Olympics, competitions were not held in pools, but rather in open water (1896, the [[Mediterranean Sea]]; 1900, the [[Seine]]; 1904, an artificial lake; 1906, the Mediterranean). The [[1904 Olympics]]' races were the only ones ever measured at yards, instead of the usual metres. A 100 metre pool was built for the [[1908 Olympics]] and sat in the centre of the main stadium's track and field oval. The [[1912 Olympics]], held in the Stockholm harbour, marked the beginning of electrical timing.

Male swimmers wore full body swimsuits up until the 1940s, which caused more drag in the water than their modern swim-wear counterparts. Also, over the years, pool designs have lessened the drag. Some design considerations allow for the reduction of swimming [[Drag (physics)|resistance]] making the pool faster. Namely, proper pool depth, elimination of waves, elimination of currents, increased lane width, energy absorbing racing lane lines and gutters, and the use of other innovative hydraulic, acoustic, illumination, and swimwear designs.

The [[1924 Olympics]] were the first to use the standard 50 metre pool with marked lanes. In the freestyle, swimmers originally dove from the pool walls, but diving blocks were incorporated starting at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]]. The flip-turn was developed by the 1950s. Swimming goggles were first allowed in [[1976 Summer Olympics|1976]].

The [[butterfly stroke]] events were not held until 1956. According to the rules before then, the butterfly stroke was allowed in the [[breaststroke]] races - but then the contest rules were changed, abolishing the use of the butterfly stroke in the breaststroke races.

Women were first allowed the longer distance of 800 metres freestyle in 1968, which remains the longest distance for women. Up until then, women were considered to be too "delicate" to swim a race this long, even though the men had had the 1,500 metre [[freestyle]] from the very early years. With the new distance available for the first time [[Debbie Meyer]] of the [[United States]] won three individual free-style gold medals in 1968 - 200, 400, and 800 metres.

Both men and women were granted the 200 metre freestyle race in 1968, giving swimmers an intermediate distance race between 100 metres and 400 metres.

Women's teams were first granted the 800 metre freestyle relay race in 1996 - even though there had been a men's relay race at that distance since 1912. At six Olympiads, the men had two freestyle relay races, but the women only had one. Now, both sexes have two.

The medley relay races (4×100 metres) were not held for men or for women until 1960, but they have continued in every Olympiad since then.SITA

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)]]
*[[List of Olympic medalists in swimming (women)]]

==References==
* [http://www.olympic.org/uk/athletes/results/search_r_uk.asp International Olympic Committee results database]

==External links==
* Swim Rankings [http://www.swimrankings.net/index.php?page=meetSelect&selectPage=BYTYPE&meetType=1 results]

{{OlympicSports}}
{{Olympic Games Swimming}}
{{fb start}}
{{International swimming}}
{{fb end}}

[[Category:Swimming at the Olympics| ]]
[[Category:Swimming competitions|Olympics]]

[[et:Ujumise olümpiarekordid]]
[[el:Κολύμβηση στους Ολυμπιακούς Αγώνες]]
[[fr:Natation aux Jeux olympiques]]
[[it:Nuoto ai Giochi olimpici]]
[[mr:ऑलिंपिक खेळ जलतरण]]
[[nl:Zwemmen op de Olympische Zomerspelen]]
[[ja:競泳競技 (夏季オリンピック)]]
[[pt:Natação nos Jogos Olímpicos]]
[[sr:Пливање на олимпијским играма]]
[[sv:Simning vid olympiska sommarspelen]]
[[th:กีฬาว่ายน้ำในโอลิมปิก]]
[[zh:奥林匹克运动会游泳比赛]]

Talk:Love

2008-09-04T06:42:32Z

202.79.62.16: /* Love and Spirituality */

{{WikiProjectBannerShell|1=
{{philosophy|ethics=yes|class=B|importance=high|nested=yes}}
{{WikiProject Psychology|class=B|importance=high|nested=yes}}
{{WikiProject Sociology|class=B|importance=High|nested=yes}}
}}
{{WP1.0|v0.5=pass|core=yes|class=B|category=Everydaylife}}
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----
me+4
== '''''==POV==''''' ==
Leighann is the love of my life and I am marrying her! —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/97.65.38.194|97.65.38.194]] ([[User talk:97.65.38.194|talk]]) 16:23, 20 August 2008 (UTC) 

[["...It includes, sex,humping, and blow jobs.amazing jakes is cool!! waz up?!? (patriotism..."]]
I find this quite POV. Willingness to die for patriotism isn't objective at all. Unless you can find some good sources that say that a majority of the people in the world would die for patriotism, I think that the mention of patriotism should be removed in that first sentence. To me, dying for patriotism sounds extremely dreamy-USA-oriented.When I dated my casual friends on a site called onenightcupid,I encountered a man dying for patriotism [[User:Ran4|Ran4]] 17:44, 2 November 2007 (UTC)

==Philosophy of Love==
As far as I can tell, there is no proper definition of love presented here (in a philosophical (theoretical) sense). I will allow for the following, poorly written theory devotion that I wrote in undergraduate school to aid (probably will not be helpful) and based on Aristotle's theory of ethics, which I do not agree with (I was very young when I wrote this), but I don't think all is lost. (I apologize: I am a law student now, and I feed my use of "negligence" may create false impressions)

In this essay, an examination of Aristotle’s definition of virtue is given. Then, devotion is considered as a virtue. Devotion is found to be concerned primarily with belief. Belief has rational and irrational elements. Reason guides the irrational element of belief to a mean which seeks the greatest good. Objections to devotion as a virtue are considered and refuted.

A virtue is a stable, self-reinforcing, active condition which seeks the mean between some deficiency and excess of the movements of the irrational parts of the soul through right reason. This right reason leads to a choice of the right where right is the greatest good, happiness. One who does not possess virtue aims for a good, but only an apparent good. The virtuous individual also aims for a good, but his good is the greatest good. Virtue is born of habit, so the more experienced one is at acting virtuously (bullshit adverb), the more likely he is to act virtuously and the better he is at doing so (28). Virtue, when developed, guides the irrational part of the soul to the aforementioned mean. The mean is sought out through right reason and is, according to Aristotle, the opposite of the excess as well as the deficiency. The excess and deficiency, however, lie on a continuum together and are each others’ opposites (the geometry of this is a little hard to imagine). This mean actively seeks the greatest good. So, because a virtue seeks the mean, and the mean seeks the good, virtue seeks the good (30).

Devotion is concerned with belief in a cause. Belief in a cause is a product of the elements, faith and reason. Define cause as anything warranting any amount of devotion,
meaning not only abstract ideas or goals, but individuals and institutions as well. The amount of devotion given to a cause is positively related to how much belief one has in a cause. Belief in a cause ought to be proportionate to the amount of devotion that the cause warrants. When one has excessive belief in a cause, he is said to be attached to it. When he has a deficiency in belief to a cause, he is said to be neglecting it.

Belief is an element of the irrational part of the soul inasmuch as it is governed by faith. Faith, at least regarding its elements with which this reasoning is concerned, is an element of the irrational part of the soul. There are two possible ways in which one comes to believe any statement to be true or false. If one comes to such a conclusion hypothetically, through examination of all concerned elements, then he has come to the conclusion rationally; hence, reasoning is the basis for his belief in the truth value of the statement. This belief is thus a product of the rational part of the soul. The other way one may come to believe a statement to be true is through faith. Any belief on faith is not deduced hypothetically, so it is not come to through reason. Any part of a belief that is accepted under some lack of knowledge of the elements in question is accepted under faith. Because faith is apart from reason, and is clearly not an element of the appetitive part of the soul, it must be an element of the irrational part of the soul. Faith is a product of the irrational soul inasmuch as intuition and is the means for belief in any axiomatic principle, because such belief can not be deduced rationally. An axiomatic principle should be thought of as any principle that cannot be proved through reason, either because it is truly a first principle which exists beyond provability, or that, because of a lack of knowledge, it cannot be proved to be true or false.*

Devotion seeks the mean between the vices of negligence and attachment. Negligence should be defined as the vice of under devotion to a cause. Attachment should be defined as the
vice of over devotion to a cause. Because a virtue seeks the greatest good, or happiness, it seeks to allocate the appropriate amount of belief to a cause, and because the appropriate amount of belief is proportionate to how much devotion the cause warrants, and devotion is directly related to belief in a cause, then having the appropriate amount belief should seek the greatest good.

If devotion is a virtue, then it actively seeks the greatest good through choice of right reason. In this case, reason serves to increase the likelihood that an appropriate amount of belief is allocated to a cause. This can occur in two ways and in combination. When one has knowledge about elements with which the cause is concerned, one can correct his belief in the cause because he uses reason to make hypothetical determinations about the elements of which he has knowledge. This way decreases the amount of faith needed to have an equal belief value by replacing it with reason. The second way would use reason to guide faith. One might use reason to justify faith (just as Mill and Kant attempt to justify their improvable first principles) where, although principles that must be taken on faith cannot be proved with knowledge at hand, determinations might be made more accurate by using reason as a guide. This improvement in accurate allocation of belief seeks the greatest good by preventing excess and deficiency in belief in a cause. If an attachment or negligence exists, the greatest good is not attained because it is not “living well and doing good” to have excess belief in a lost cause, or give up on a cause that warrants belief.

An objection to this model of devotion might be that faith alone, in the long run, might seek the greatest good without the need for reason if belief based on faith were randomly distributed over all causes concerning devotion. If this were the case, no virtue would exists in the long run, or either the virtue would be an innate part of the irrational part of the soul, meaning it would be an innate inclination.

Assuming a random distribution of belief based on faith, completely aside from reason, faith would seek the mean in the long run alone. This can only occur if either there is no predisposition of the irrational soul or if the predisposition is centered on the mean, the latter meaning that the virtue has already been perfectly implemented. Either of these could be said for any of Aristotle’s virtues, but, as with the virtues Aristotle mentioned, the predisposition likely does exists. Devotion seems closer to attachment, which means that people likely have a predisposition to negligence. So in the case of devotion, faith alone will likely cause negligence. In some cases, however, the opposite will occur. The predisposition is completely dependent on the circumstance because of how generally cause is defined.

Another objection might be that the second way reason guides the rational soul, where reason aids in the justification of first principles without proof, but allowing a better allocation of faith to them, would be too complex or inaccurate to truly guide the irrational part of the soul to the mean.

If justification through reason of first principles is too complex or not accurate enough to truly guide belief to the mean, then the greatest good might not be reached by this method alone. In these cases, reliance reason based on knowledge should be primary. However, with adequate reasoning, such a circumstance should never exists where justification of axiomatic principles could not be relatively effective.

Devotion is concerned with belief. Because belief is determined by an irrational element, so is devotion. This justifies that devotion guides a part of the irrational soul. The virtue of devotion, through reason, actively seeks out the mean between the excess of attachment, and the deficiency of negligence. This mean seeks the greatest good. Because of the likelihood of a predisposition of faith which is different from the mean, a virtue is necessary to guide the irrational part of the soul. Also, although axiomatic principles are not provable, they can be made plausible, so the guiding of faith by reason can only lead towards the greatest good. Devotion is also clearly active because of the pains and pleasures the soul experiences from having excesses and deficiencies to causes. These qualifications justify devotion as a virtue according to the guidelines in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics.

== Biology of love ==
The first and greatest commandment is this: "And you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind, and with all your strength. And the second commandment, like it is this: You shall love your neighbor as your self. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/67.160.76.137|67.160.76.137]] ([[User talk:67.160.76.137|talk]]) 00:51, 11 February 2008 (UTC) 

Loving someone is stepping out of your own box, and into theirs. 

Love from the center of who you are, don't fake it. Make friends with nobodies; don't be the great somebody. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/67.160.76.137|67.160.76.137]] ([[User talk:67.160.76.137|talk]]) 00:48, 11 February 2008 (UTC) 

I definitely think somewhere in there it should mention pheromones, the smell given off that like makes people feel attracted. 
I would put it in myself but for some reason I can't because the "edit" button just doesnt show up for me. ??Hating someone is love not the other way around!!!

:I think something about pheromones should be mentioned. There has got to be some research on this topic. The question is: Where do we find it? ([[User:Patricia Op|Patricia Op]] 21:28, 2 September 2007 (UTC))

If love is such a contraversial issue, how in the world can there be a "...leading expert in the topic of love..." ??? I think that should be changed to something like, "an anylist specializing in love" or something wierd like that[[User:68.98.201.19|68.98.201.19]] 04:18, 11 September 2007 (UTC)Aaron.

I believe love is magical and when you find that person who can fill that whole in you then you know that he/she is the one! —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Rilez-Risso|Rilez-Risso]] ([[User talk:Rilez-Risso|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rilez-Risso|contribs]]) 08:00, 22 May 2008 (UTC) 

In my opinion, love evolved from our need to proceate, our intelligence molded our need into love. When someone willingly talks to the opposite sex, they, in at least some very small way, even one they may not be aware of, is looking for proceation. The dates, gifts, etc., are to encourage companionship, but ultimately proceation.[[User:24.118.227.213|24.118.227.213]] 07:29, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

In my opinion, love is not an emotion at all, and did not evolve. Sexual desire did arise through evolution, and impels adults of many species to procreate, but that ain't love. It is not the case that men who talk to women (or vice versa) invariably have some sexual desire, even small and unnoticed, as a motive. It is often there, indeed, and should be watched for. (In the logical sense) is a sufficient but not a necessary condition.
IMHO, love is actually a driving force ''of'' evolution, and a concept lying deep at the heart of the mechanisms of creation and order. [[User:Ojl|Oliver Low]] 17:20, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

It is true that love is not ''really'' an emotion, but rather the combination of several emotions that conflict as well as concentrate together to form what we call love. It is difficult, (sometimes impossible) to describe an emotion to someone that has not experienced it themselves. I also realize the desire to proceate is a ''part'' of love, and in many cases is a starting point to a relationship that ultimately becomes love. The desires of companionship, family etc. also contribute to this effect. I suppose that love can be a driving force for evolution unto itself, but I also believe that evolution had a hand in creating love; this, of course, creates a cycle of sorts.[[User:24.118.227.213|24.118.227.213]] 07:02, 29 October 2007 (UTC)

== Lovelessness? ==

Is there any definition for "loveless" people or unability to "fall in love"? And what to do about people who don't know how is it to "fall in love"?

Loveless people are people who have never experiences God's love. you can't be loveless if you've felt His prescence! :)

^^^That's way too subjective to take into account. And it's just not true - There are obviously ''some'' people out there who may be very pious and god-loving, who still feel lonely due to a lack of physical companionship. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/99.235.121.189|99.235.121.189]] ([[User talk:99.235.121.189|talk]]) 04:29, 27 December 2007 (UTC) 
i love sandeep very much tonei —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/210.56.121.187|210.56.121.187]] ([[User talk:210.56.121.187|talk]]) 09:43, 5 May 2008 (UTC) 

==First Line==

Love is a constellation? How about range or variety, or something else so long as it's not constellation. [[User:Unusual Cheese|Unusual Cheese]] 14:44, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

:Give us a few more ideas. ([[User:Patricia Op|Patricia Op]] 23:15, 31 August 2007 (UTC))

>>>Love is when you feel surrounded by that person all the time, even if they're not anywhere near you. You notice that the smallest things, such as a song or ring, remind you of your 'love' with that person. It's NOT some wordly, one-night stand sort of thing that people now claim is 'love.' Love is pure, Godly, and wonderful. It's not something to be destroyed.<<< **StEf**

::"Love is a constellation of emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong affection or profound oneness"? I thought this was vandalism and I was about to revert it. [[User:A.Z.|A.Z.]] 04:51, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

I like constellation, it makes sense as a metaphor for the meaning of love, there experiences are like stars that create only together create. I can perfectly understand that someone does not agree with this, what I would not understand is a definition of love without at least some basic use of universal poetry.[[User:Elmedio|Elmedio]] 05:28, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

:But... we're not a poem, we're an encyclopedia. What is universal poetry? [[User:A.Z.|A.Z.]] 01:07, 22 September 2007 (UTC)

:: I agree completely. Unless someone can give a good reason to keep it as it is, which may or may not be appropriate, I'll change it to something that everyone can understand. The problem with using constellation is that we want to keep Wikipedia as accessible to everyone as is possible, and using the words constellation may confuse any non-English readers, who may or may not appreciate the metaphor. Also, I think that using the word constellation falls into [[WP:POV]].----JamesSugrono[[User:Jamessugrono|U]]|[[Special:Contributions/Jamessugrono|C]] 00:17, 1 October 2007 (UTC)

== Surrendered Wives ==

Perhaps this "see also" was deleted too hastily by Icarus3. I looked it up and it looked legitimate to me.
[[User:Taquito1|Taquito1]] 01:34, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

==Opening Paragraph==
Hey Guys: I am a relatively new user to Wikipedia, I was going through this article which opens with such a beautiful line. Based upon what I understand of karma, I could not make sense of the use of this term in the following sentence which is in first paragraph:
"Though often linked to personal relations, love is often given a broader signification, a love of humanity, of nature, with life itself, or a oneness with the Universe, a universal love '''or karma'''."
Does anyone has any idea? I think "or karma" should be taken out of this sentence.

After reading up the entire article, I never knew there were so many types of love :). My understanding of this word has been changing or evolving as well. I would like to put those here if its ok, but perhaps at a different time, as its way too late now. [[User:Duty2love|Duty2love]] 05:29, 22 September 2007 (UTC)

== "Love" is overworked and needs help ==

“Love” Is Overworked And Needs Help

English, with more words than any other language, is a treasure beyond measure but the word “love” is used for concepts that are seemingly related but can be very different. This shortcoming leads many to confuse what some consider the loftiest of concepts, with some of our most mundane feeling and actions. “Love” is used to express both pleasurable feelings and conscious, thoughtful rational decision-based acceptance.

It is a truism to say that we are never, as humans, without feeling some emotion and equally true that we seldom function with out the use of our intellect. This “Love” word can express our mood when we are have a passion for a person, cause or thing, or when we are charmed, amused or simply enjoying. However this type of “Love” is far from consciously thinking about, deciding and adopting a personal policy or worldview that we understand, appreciate, laud and honor. “Love” of God, country, a philosophy, a worldview, or of beauty, order, science or art, can, and I think should, be based on rational thought.

Compare the kind of love felt for a potential spouse during courtship and the kind of love one feels after fifty years of marriage. I suspect that in most cases the former is highly emotionally charged and the latter devotion is more likely to be based on appreciation and commitment. Another example might be the found in the recently published personal papers of Mother Teresa where she described her lifetime relationship with God. She tells of her passion when first becoming a bride of Christ and then how she felt abandoned by God during her lifetime of doing charitable works. The point is she kept on doing what she was committed to do despite the loss of emotional joy. Both are based on “love” but one is more emotion and the other more a decision of the will.

Other languages may have different words for our different uses of “Love.” I don’t know. I do know that the ancient Greeks made a distinction between Eros (sexual desires and passion), Philia (friendship) and Agape (general attraction). Early Christian writers used agape to mean self sacrificing, Christ-like love. I suppose if we all used “I like” and “I love” to make the distinction in question, it might solve the problem of the overworked “love” word. However, considering the widespread practice of using “I love” for everything from a new hairstyle to an acceptance of a religious or political creed makes this a hard sell. My suggestion would be to continue using ”love” for positive emotion induced views and adopt a new word such as “crace” (an anagram representing conscious, rational, acceptance, commitment and ethics, that flow from the viewpoint) for one’s religion, philosophy, belief system, or ideology.

What is your opinion on this matter? If you agree that we need a new word, what do you suggest?

[[User:Dantagliere|Dantagliere]] 20:54, 24 September 2007 (UTC)Dan Tagliere
September 24, 2007 dantagliere@aol.com

:Was all of this necessary? I will tackle each of your issues, one by one, if at all possible. Upon closer inspection, I don't beleive I will. But I don't believe that the word love is overworked - the meaning can be inferred from the context in which it is used. When someone says that they love my new hair, I realise that its either sarcastic, or simply a compliment. I don't think that anyone would confuse it with actual passion for my hair. And also, in response to your indication of those Greek terms, do we not have words for "friendship", "attraction", and "sexual desires"? To reiterate - we have words for different types of love, and the verb 'love' must always be taken within the context in which it is said. By the way, Wikipedia, [[WP:NOT#Wikipedia_is_not_a_soapbox|is not a soapbox!]] This extends to [[WP:TALK|talk pages]].----JamesSugrono[[User:Jamessugrono|U]]|[[Special:Contributions/Jamessugrono|C]] 02:05, 29 September 2007 (UTC)

=="trimming" see also==

I think we have some trimming on autopilot. I may agree with some of the deletions from the list as less relevant. However, only very few of them. I notice [[reverence]] makes it, but [[romanticism]] doesn't. So I think we need to re-evaluate here! It's only the "see also" section so it's not very important to do trimming there. It is understood that these articles may be relevant enough to be of interest, but not enough to be mentioned in the article. However, some of these "see also" deletions are perfectly suitable for future inclusion in the article if good context can be drafted. [[User:Gregbard|Greg Bard]] 07:02, 25 September 2007 (UTC)

==Opening Para (contd.)==
I saw no response on [[Talk:Love#Opening_Paragraph|this question]] about removing the words "or karma". I assuming no one has any objection taking it out. I will give a day or two and then take it out. [[User:Duty2love|Duty2love]] 00:14, 27 September 2007 (UTC)

==Talkheader==
Please do not remove the <nowiki> {{talkheader}} </nowiki> template from the top of the page. This article talk page has the potential to, and [[Talk:Love#"Love" is overworked and needs help|has in]] [[Talk:Love#love principles|the past]], veered off-topic, or into non-contributing rants about how people feel about love. I accept that people will have strong feelings about this topic, however, this is not the place to talk about them. '''This is a talk page for discussing improvements to the article, not general talk about the article's subject.''' This talkheader template is the first step to improving this high-importance article.----JamesSugrono[[User:Jamessugrono|U]]|[[Special:Contributions/Jamessugrono|C]] 07:37, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

=="Lovebot"==

Somebody needs to make a bot that scans just this article for revisions that add text of the format "<surname> loves <surname>," and then automatically reverts it. Seriously, I think it might actually work! Now if only I knew anything about writing Wiki bots... --21:03, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

:But doing that is so cute (if it is meant as a declaration of love, I mean). [[User:A.Z.|a.z.]] 04:28, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

== Semi-Protection ==

I'd recently requested protection - apparently, it had been un-protected on the 2nd, by [[User:Royalguard11|Royalguard11]] (apparently, this protection needs to stay), so it was really re-protection. This was granted, as on the [[WP:RPP#Love_.28edit.7Ctalk.7Chistory.7Clinks.7Cwatch.7Clogs.29|request]] for protection, because in the few days following, over 50 vandalism-related edits were made, which really is unacceptable. I would very much like it, therefore, that any discussion related to unprotection be started here first. This is not for my personal satisfaction, but rather to centralise any discussion. In addition, it would be best for people actually editing the article to reach a consensus on any unprotection action that would be taken. I probably wouldn't support unprotection, just from the heavy vandalism that occurred in the brief unprotected period of time. But if circumstances change, we can discuss unprotection. It's completely fine if you don't wish to discuss it here first, you can go straight to the [[WP:RPP|requests]] for page protection if you want to. Thank you in advance.[[User:Jamessugrono|James]] [[User talk:Jamessugrono|Sugrono]][[Special:Contributions/Jamessugrono|Contributions]] 11:46, 5 October 2007 (UTC)

societyoflove

I agree that semi-protection should remain indefinitely. This is perhaps one of the most important articles in relation to it's potential effect on people's lives and thought. Precisley because love is such a central matter to pretty much all religions, this article is not the place for soap-box preaching. It's of great importance that the article present the various understandings of 'love' from various religious and philosophical traditions in as clear and scholarly manner as possible. [[User:Ojl|Oliver Low]] 17:12, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

I ask that all requests made by practitioners of these religions have the love and universal principle are rediredionados to enhance the society of love.
Largest religions or belief systems by number of adherents
This listing[a] includes both organized religions, which have unified belief codes and religious hierarchies, and informal religions, such as Chinese folk religions. For completeness, it also contains a category for the non-religious, although their views would not ordinarily be considered a religion.
1. Christianity: 2.1 billion (Began: ca. 27 AD/CE), with major branches as follows:
• See also the List of Christian denominations by number of members and List of Christian denominations pages (Non-denominational statistics are not shown.)
2. Roman Catholic Church: 1.05 billion
3. Eastern Orthodox Church: 240 million
4. African Initiated Church: 110 million
5. Pentecostalism: 105 million
6. Reformed/Presbyterian/Congregational/United: 75 million
7. Anglicanism/Episcopal Church: 73 million
8. Baptist: 70 million
9. Methodism: 70 million
10. Lutheran: 64 million
11. Jehovah's Witnesses: 14.8 million
12. Latter-day Saints: 13.5 million
13. Adventists: 12 million
14. Apostolic/New Apostolic: 10 million
15. Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement: 5.4 million
16. New Thought (Unity, Christian Science, etc.): 1.5 million
17. Brethren (incl. Plymouth): 1.5 million
18. Mennonite: 1.25 million
19. Friends/Quakers: 300,000
20. Islam: 1.5 billion (Began: ca. 610 AD/CE), with major branches as follows:[d]
• Sunni: 940 million
21. Shia: 120 million
22. Ahmadi: 10 million
23. Druze: 450,000
24. Secular/irreligious/agnostic/atheist/antitheistic/antireligious: 1.1 billion (Began: Prehistory)
• Category includes a wide range of beliefs, without specifically adhering to a religion or sometimes specifically against dogmatic religions. The category includes humanism, deism, pantheism, rationalism, freethought, agnosticism, and atheism. Broadly labeled humanism, this group of non religious people are third largest in the world. For more information, see the Adherents.com discussion of this category and the note below. [c]
25. Hinduism: 900 million (Began: approximately 1500 BC/BCE or 15th century BC/BCE however some aspects of it trace its history to 2600 BC/BCE or 26th century BC/BCE), with major branches as follows:
• Vaishnavism: 580 million
26. Shaivism: 220 million
27. Neo-Hindus and Reform Hindus: 22 million
28. Veerashaivas/Lingayats: 10 million
29. Chinese folk religion: 394 million
• Not a single organized religion, includes elements of Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism and traditional nonscriptural religious observance (also called "Chinese traditional religion").
30. Buddhism: 376 million (Began: 6th century BC/BCE), with major branches as follows:
• Mahayana: 185 million
31. Theravada: 124 million
32. Vajrayana/Tibetan: 20 million
33. Primal indigenous (tribal religions): 300 million
• Not a single organized religion, includes a wide range of traditional or tribal religions, including animism, shamanism and paganism. Since African traditional and diasporic religions are counted separately in this list, most of the remaining people counted in this group are in Asia.
34. African traditional and diasporic: 100 million
• Not a single organized religion, this includes several traditional African beliefs and philosophies such as those of the Yoruba, Ewe (vodun) and the Bakongo. These three religious traditions (especially that of the Yoruba) have been very influential to the diasporic beliefs of the Americas such as condomble, santeria and voodoo. The religious capital of the Yoruba religion is at Ile Ife.
35. Sikhism: 23 million (Began: 1500s AD/CE)
36. Spiritism: 15 million (Began: mid-19th century AD/CE)
• Not a single organized religion, includes a variety of beliefs including some forms of Umbanda.
37. Judaism: 14 million (Began: 13th century BC/BCE), with major branches as follows:
• Conservative: 4.5 million
38. Unaffiliated and Secular: 4.5 million
39. Reform: 3.75 million
40. Orthodox: 2 million
41. Reconstructionist: 150,000
42. Bahá'í Faith: 7 million (Began: 19th century AD/CE)
43. Jainism: 4.2 million (Began: 6th century BC/BCE), with major branches as follows:
• Svetambara: 4 million
44. Sthanakvasi: 750,000
45. Digambar: 155,000
46. Shinto: 4 million (Began: 300 BC/BCE)
• This number states the number of actual self-identifying practising primary followers of Shinto; if everyone were included who is considered Shinto by some people due to ethnic or historical categorizations, the number would be considerably higher — as high as 100 million (according to the adherents.com source used for the statistics in this section).
47. Cao Dai: 4 million (Began: 1926 AD/CE)
48. Falun Gong: official post-crackdown figure as stated by Chinese Communist Party: 2.1 million; Chinese government pre-crackdown figure as reported by New York Times: 70-100 million; practitioners and founder of Falun Gong, Li Hongzhi, often refer to 100 million[b] (Founded: 1992 AD/CE)
• Not necessarily considered a religion by adherents or outside observers. No membership or rosters, thus the actual figure of practitioners is impossible to confirm.
49. Tenrikyo: 2 million (Began: 1838 AD/CE)
50. Neopaganism: 1 million (Began: 20th century AD/CE)
• A blanket term for several religions like Wicca, Asatru, Neo-druidism, and polytheistic reconstructionist religions
51. Unitarian Universalism: 800,000 (Began: 1961 AD/CE, however, prior to the merger the separate doctrines of Unitarianism and Universalism trace their roots to the 16th and 1st centuries AD/CE respectively)
52. Rastafari: 600,000 (Began: early 1930s AD/CE)
53. Scientology: 500,000 (Began: 1952 AD/CE)
54. Zoroastrianism: "at most 200,000"[9][10][e] with major communities as follows:
• In India (the Parsis): est. 65,000 (2001 India Census: 69,601); Estimate of Zoroastrians of Indian origin: 100,000-110,000.
55. In Iran: est. 20,000 (1974 Iran Census: 21,400) —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/189.25.92.88|189.25.92.88]] ([[User talk:189.25.92.88|talk]]) 19:52, 24 October 2007 (UTC) 

==excision of Religious Love section near the top==
I excised this:
<blockquote>
Whether religious love can be expressed in similar terms to [[interpersonal love]] is a matter for philosophical debate. Religious 'love' may be considered a euphemistic term, more closely describing feelings of [[deference]] or [[acquiescence]]. Most religions use the term love to express the [[devotion]] the follower has to their deity, who may be a living [[guru]] or religious teacher. This love can be expressed by [[prayer]], service, good deeds, and personal [[sacrifice]]. Reciprocally, the followers may believe that the deity loves the followers and all of creation. Some traditions encourage the development of passionate love in the believer for the deity.</blockquote>
The reason is because I thought it liable to give the wrong impression to the student.

"Whether religious love can be expressed in similar terms to [[interpersonal love]]" is not a matter of philosophical debate. IT has been done, and that it can be is not in doubt. How it may been done rightly, ''is'' a matter of debate.

"Most religions use the term love to express the [[devotion]] the follower has to their deity" is simply false, since it's not true at least of Christianity and Islam.

The paragpraph all in all is vague and non-committal and doesn't say much, so I thought it better to leave the heading as a reminder to the casual student of the imporatance of love to religion, but leave the details to the section dealing with them.

My own belief is that love is love, whether we're talking about my love for my wife, or my country, or my friends, or God, it's the same thing, with various other emotions variously involved, however wikipedia is not a soap box for personal views (except talk pages) :-)
[[User:Ojl|Oliver Low]] 17:03, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

== More info? ==

I think this should be one of the more worked articles! It lacks pictures, possibly a painting or two might help? And is there a section on love for a family? I didn't read all of it, but I only saw "Love for a friend". Maybe someone should put in a few more internal links, too.

== Needs a better image ==

The image at the top is too hard to understand. You have to click on it even to see the couple kissing. Somebody should find a better one. [[User:Lou Sander|Lou Sander]] 15:47, 2 December 2007 (UTC)

:Why, that's a good painting. Maybe it needs resizing. [[User:Gantuya eng|Gantuya eng]] ([[User talk:Gantuya eng|talk]]) 10:53, 22 December 2007 (UTC)

== Introduction ==

"According to philosophers, the only goal of life is to be happy. And there is only one happiness in life: to love and be loved. Love is essentially an abstract concept, much easier to experience than to explain."

Which philosophers? What authority are they on life? And finally who says that love is the only happiness in life? —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/195.215.114.140|195.215.114.140]] ([[User talk:195.215.114.140|talk]]) 18:01, 25 December 2007 (UTC) 

== Diagnostics of Karma ==

I removed this sentence that expresses a minority POV from the lede, intending to reinsert it somewhere else in the article:
*<nowiki>Some parapsychologists have claimed that love is the true basis of all existence, originating time, space and matter.<ref>[[Diagnostics of Karma]]</ref></nowiki>
However, I couldn't find anywhere appropriate to put it, so I'm leaving it here for now.  —[[User:Smalljim|SMALL]][[User talk:Smalljim#top|JIM]]  16:41, 13 January 2008 (UTC)

== Missing 'Desire' on "EMOTIONS - BASIC" right sidebar ==

There is a righthand sidebar labeled "EMOTIONS"
Under the "BASIC" category is "DISGUST", but lacking the opposite emotion.
I suggest using "DESIRE" as basic term.
Then under the "OTHER" category, perhaps "LUST"?
[[Special:Contributions/60.234.240.242|60.234.240.242]] ([[User talk:60.234.240.242|talk]]) 20:20, 19 January 2008 (UTC)

== I Removed the God and Patriotism ==

The sentence in the opening paragraph read: "One definition attempting to be universally applicable is Thomas Jay Oord's: to love is to act intentionally, in sympathetic response to others(including God), to promote overall well-being. This definition applies to the positive connotations of love."

I don't think it's necessary for the opening paragraph of this article to say that people are attempting to make loving God universally applicable. It really has no business being in the article, as it seems to be vandalism.

Also, the opening sentence read:

"The word love has many different meanings in English, from something that gives a little pleasure ("I loved that meal") to something one would die for (patriotism, family)."

I changed the word patriotism to ideals, because I feel it's more appropriate/neutral. I suspect it was probably the same vandal who put in the "God" remarks. [[User:Jiminezwaldorf|Jiminezwaldorf]] ([[User talk:Jiminezwaldorf|talk]]) 08:31, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

WHy TAKE MY STUFF OFF GOD! —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Jackoneal|Jackoneal]] ([[User talk:Jackoneal|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jackoneal|contribs]]) 18:13, 13 February 2008 (UTC) 

== There is NO "scientific love" ==

Love is something that can't be put in a microscope. It is purely a spiritual thing. It is the thing God is made of, and God is something that is beyond the understanding of science.

It's like the human soul, like angels and Heaven and God Himself: something purely spiritual, that can't be undesrtood with scientific means.

When my mom sees birds tweeting in a garden full of flowers, she fells the hand of God. She feels love. THAT cannot be explained in a scientific manner.

In fact, trying to rationalize the ways of the Lord drives you away from Him. You should be thinking less about how good the internet page looks, and more about what will happen to your soul once you die and you pass judgement in front of Saint Peter and/or God.

God is judging you, and he cars about how much love you profess to others, NOT how neat or "accurate" a webpage looks.

~~agustinaldo~~ —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Agustinaldo|Agustinaldo]] ([[User talk:Agustinaldo|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Agustinaldo|contribs]]) 12:17, 14 February 2008 (UTC) 

Um.

ok? [[Special:Contributions/72.236.173.22|72.236.173.22]] ([[User talk:72.236.173.22|talk]]) 13:55, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

I think the article's not trying to explain love from a scientific POV, it merely describes the chemical and psychological effects of love in a human being. Therefore I believe the scientific section of the article is quite valuable. Please excuse my English... [[User:CRJoe|CRJoe]] ...

The Scientific Love section describes only erotic love. What about all the others? Platonic, brotherly, parental, etc. When I first read this article, I was confused as anything by this section. --[[User:Timsabin|Tim Sabin]] ([[User talk:Timsabin|talk]]) 16:06, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

:That's untrue. Sternberg's theory is a scientific one mentioned in the psychology subsection which explains all the forms of love that you mentioned, and even others such as love of country, love of sport, and so on. -- [[User:Derek Ross|Derek Ross]] | [[User talk:Derek Ross|Talk]] 16:41, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

== Buddhist view ==

I would like to see something similar to the following added to the last paragraph of the Buddhist section.

''In Tibetan Buddhism the terms love and compassion are often used together but are distinct. Compassion is defined as the wish to relieve another of suffering, while love is the wish for another to be happy.''

[[User:Pestopasta|Pestopasta]] ([[User talk:Pestopasta|talk]]) 21:26, 14 February 2008 (Valentine's Day!)

:Do you have a reference of Buddhist literature that supports this? If so, then I don't think it would be a problem. [[User:StephenBuxton|StephenBuxton]] ([[User talk:StephenBuxton|talk]]) 10:18, 15 February 2008 (UTC)

Yes, here's one. Lama Thubten Yeshe, ''Ego, Attachment and Liberation'' 2006, Lama Yeshe Wisdom Archive, 119 (compassion), 121 (love).

Excerpts from the text:
:'''compassion''' - The sincere wish that others be separated from their mental and physical suffering and the feeling that their freedom from suffering is more important than one's own.
and
:'''love''' - The sincere wish that others be happy and the feeling that their happiness is more important than one's own; the opposite in nature from attachment. [[User:Pestopasta|Pestopasta]] ([[User talk:Pestopasta|talk]]) 20:33, 26 February 2008 (UTC)

What about [[metta]]?
:Austerlitz -- [[Special:Contributions/88.75.78.104|88.75.78.104]] ([[User talk:88.75.78.104|talk]]) 11:18, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

== The Kiss ==

The inclusion of Gustav Klimt's The Kiss is questionable here, as when examined further, the woman in the painting is clearly trying to pull away from the man. She has turned her head, and her hands are clearly grasping him as a means to wriggle free. In fact, the only thing stopping her from making a dash in the opposite direction, is that she is kneeling with her back to a cliff. This is not love, in any of the definitions explored in the article. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/66.177.44.200|66.177.44.200]] ([[User talk:66.177.44.200|talk]]) 02:21, 16 February 2008 (UTC) 

good this is isabella gg —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/86.137.205.238|86.137.205.238]] ([[User talk:86.137.205.238|talk]]) 11:21, 22 February 2008 (UTC) 

Yup, the picture is real bad for this article, also is kinda hard to see —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/200.86.45.72|200.86.45.72]] ([[User talk:200.86.45.72|talk]]) 17:43, 23 February 2008 (UTC) 

amanda utopa\ia —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/71.37.31.57|71.37.31.57]] ([[User talk:71.37.31.57|talk]]) 01:01, 28 February 2008 (UTC) 

I also agree that the picture is unsuitable for this topic. Truly it represents a very narrow and superficial aspect of the sacred thing called "Love", which has a much wider and deeper scope, which is more to be felt than understood. --[[User:Duty2love|Duty2love]] ([[User talk:Duty2love|talk]]) 18:42, 4 March 2008 (UTC)

== Quote ==
Love is our true essence. Love has no limitations of caste, religion, race or nationality. We are all [[beads]] strung together on the same thread of love.
[[Amritanandamayi]]
Where to add?
:Austerlitz -- [[Special:Contributions/88.75.95.140|88.75.95.140]] ([[User talk:88.75.95.140|talk]]) 08:13, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

Don't add - not a notable enough quote [[User:ObamaGirlMachine|ObamaGirlMachine]] ([[User talk:ObamaGirlMachine|talk]]) 18:00, 11 May 2008 (UTC)

::I think you'd want to add that to [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Love Wikiquotes] - it's not that it isn't notable, really, it's that we don't load up articles with quotes when there's a better place for them which is linked on the page. [[User:Tvoz|Tvoz]]/[[User talk:Tvoz|talk]] 19:02, 11 May 2008 (UTC)

== Sex & love go together ==

The main aspect of love should be mutual trust.

It is possible to have a love relationship without sex, but a sex relationship is advised on basis of love & trust. To me is love monogamous affection, a form of intimate communication which shouldn't be generalised.

"Respect" is family, friendship & communication orientated.

Enthusiasm (optimism, passion) is generally related to all aspects of life which fascinate us, such as music, good food, holidays, birthdays etc. .

[[User:phalanxpursos|Phalanx Pursos]] 01:03, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

I don't think there's any documentation that supports that love is strictly monogamous affection, furthermore I think this isn't even an universally accepted thought... Please excuse my English... [[User:CRJoe|CRJoe]] —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|comment]] was added at 08:04, 23 June 2008 (UTC) 

I agree. There is definitely love without sex (platonic, brotherly, etc.) and there is sex without love (one-night stands, etc.). Of course, many (but not all!) sexual liasons are the result of marriage or other commited relationship. The original comment was an opinion stating the way that person thought things should be, and does not reflect reality. --[[User:Timsabin|Tim Sabin]] ([[User talk:Timsabin|talk]]) 16:13, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

== Unconditional love towards everyone is an overwhelming exception ==

''Unconditional friendship is based on forgiveness''.

In order to become a friend, must one be trusted. Once someone is your friend, they receive unconditional friendship. Unconditional friendship means there are no conditions to friendship, unconditional love means there are no conditions to love.

Unconditional love towards everyone is an overwhelming exception.

[[User:phalanxpursos|Phalanx Pursos]] 01:19, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

False, false, false. A "friend" doesn't have to be trusted, although this is usually the case. This all depends on the psychology of the individual persons involved. There are very few friendships I've seen that are unconditional.

Now I'm going to give my opinion. I believe that love should always be unconditional. But, I'm realistic enough to know that this not always - nay, I should say, not '''usually''' the case.

The last statement: "Unconditional love towards everyone is an overwhelming exception" - exception to '''what'''? --[[User:Timsabin|Tim Sabin]] ([[User talk:Timsabin|talk]]) 16:21, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

== No Greater Love ==

It should be noted in the article that Jesus said in John 15:13 of the Holy Bible, "Greater love has no one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends." —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/68.255.74.126|68.255.74.126]] ([[User talk:68.255.74.126|talk]]) 15:35, 17 June 2008 (UTC) 

I think it shouldn't, that's a statement that applies only to those that follow your religion, and can result controversial for people with different beliefs. Myself beign agnostic, find that sentence offensive. [[User:CRJoe|CRJoe]]

== Delete section 4 ==

The section "scientific models" contains only some babbling of the ideas exposed on section 3 "Scientific views". Also it lacks any quoting and refers to some of the same thoughts on section 3. I think it should be deleted. [[User:CRJoe|CRJoe]] —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|comment]] was added at 07:59, 23 June 2008 (UTC) 
who cares if u find it offensive? the world isnt fair. someone will always offend you somewhere. whether it be online or in person. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:BrianlovesMelissa|BrianlovesMelissa]] ([[User talk:BrianlovesMelissa|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/BrianlovesMelissa|contribs]]) 03:38, 15 August 2008 (UTC) 

== Interpretations of Love ==

When you love someone it means you never want to lose that person or thing. For example, when someone loves another person very much they usually get married and if they don't then they love each other so much that they want to get married. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/71.238.96.225|71.238.96.225]] ([[User talk:71.238.96.225|talk]]) 15:03, 26 June 2008 (UTC) 

This is a greedy interpretation of love. I like the interpretation that love means that you want what is best for the other person - even if it's to your own detriment. There's an age-old adage in relation to this: "Sometimes love means letting go." --[[User:Timsabin|Tim Sabin]] ([[User talk:Timsabin|talk]]) 16:25, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

== Love and [[Spirituality]] ==
*[http://www.experiencefestival.com/love_and_spirituality A Wisdom Archive on Love and spirituality]
Is somebody willing to add this to weblinks please?
:Austerlitz -- [[Special:Contributions/88.75.82.3|88.75.82.3]] ([[User talk:88.75.82.3|talk]]) 12:57, 2 July 2008 (UTC)

no 1 has ever correctly defined love 1 man's defination ca only support his own case tat is because psycologically we all r different to oneanother and love is completely dependent one one's psycology

== Love as an attitude ==
[[Ivan G. Burnell]]: Die Kraft des positiven Handelns
[http://ecx.images-amazon.com/images/I/2117NXM5ZHL._SL500_AA140_.jpg]
:Austerlitz -- [[Special:Contributions/88.72.8.87|88.72.8.87]] ([[User talk:88.72.8.87|talk]]) 09:14, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

engl.: The Power of Positive Doing: 12 Strategies for Taking Control of Your Life
:Austerlitz -- [[Special:Contributions/88.72.8.87|88.72.8.87]] ([[User talk:88.72.8.87|talk]]) 10:11, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

== Suggestion ==

For after the quote on section 5.1 on Paul the Apostle this should be added.

{{tlx|editsemiprotected}} "Right now three things remain: faith, hope, and love. But the greatest of these is love." 1 Corinthians 13:13[[User:Watsonjc|Watsonjc]] ([[User talk:Watsonjc|talk]]) 02:28, 8 August 2008 (UTC)

{{not done}} We need some [[WP:V|verifiable sources]] [[User:Legoktm|Lego]][[Special:Contributions/Legoktm|Kontribs]][[user talk:Legoktm|Talk]][[Special:Random|M]] 04:56, 4 September 2008 (UTC)

== Dont be stupid. ==

You can't "define" love. Mankind does not yet realize the true meaning of love. It may never find the true meaning of love. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:BrianlovesMelissa|BrianlovesMelissa]] ([[User talk:BrianlovesMelissa|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/BrianlovesMelissa|contribs]]) 03:35, 15 August 2008 (UTC)

Kosi River

2008-09-02T10:59:03Z

202.79.62.16: /* River rafting */

{{Reflist}}
{{Copyedit|date=August 2008}}

The '''Kosi River''', called Koshi in Nepal ([[Nepali]]: कोशी नदी), is a transboundary river between [[Nepal]] and [[India]], and is one of the largest tributaries of the [[Ganges|Ganga]]. The river, along with its tributaries, drains a total area of {{convert|69300|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} up to its confluence with the Ganga in India ({{convert|29400|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in [[China]], {{convert|30700|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in Nepal and {{convert|9200|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in India). The watershed also includes part of [[Tibet]], such as the [[Mount Everest]] region, and the eastern third of Nepal. The river basin is surrounded by the ridges separating it from the [[Brahmaputra]] in the north, the [[Gandaki River|Gandaki]] in the west, the [[Mahananda River|Mahananda]] in the east, and by the Ganga in the south. The river is joined by major tributaries, approximately {{convert|48|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of the Indo-Nepal border, breaking into more than twelve distinct channels with shifting courses due to flooding.<ref>India's Water Wealth (1975, Dr. K.L.Rao, Orient Longman Ltd, Hyderabad, New Delhi.</ref><ref>"Waters of Hope" (1993), B.G.Vargehese, New Delhi</ref> Kamlā, Bāghmati (Kareh) and [[Budhi Gandak]] are major tributaries of Koshi in India, besides minor tributaries like [[Bhutahi Balān]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9046108/Koshi-River
|title=Koshi River
|publisher=Encyclopedia
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://ponce.sdsu.edu/kosi_river_india.html
|title=Koshi River, Bihar, India
|publisher=The Geospacial Research Portal - Natural Hazard Management
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref>
Over the last 250 years, the Kosi River has shifted its course over {{convert|120|km}} from east to west.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nepalnews.com.np/contents/englishweekly/spotlight/2004/jun/jun04/opinion.htm
|title=The Sorrow Of Bihar: Koshi River
|publisher=Nepalnews.com
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref> and the unstable nature of the river is attributed to the heavy silt which it carries during the [[monsoon]] season. Flooding in India has extreme effects. India is second in the world after [[Bangladesh]] in deaths due to flooding, accounting for one fifth of global flooding deaths. The Kosi River (The Sorrow of Bihar) is one of two major tributaries, the other river being [[Gandak]], draining the plains of north [[Bihar]], the most flood-prone area of India<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/floods/floods001.htm
|title=GIS in Flood Hazard Mapping: a case study of Koshi River Basin, India
|publisher=
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref>

==Legend==
Formerly '''Kauśiki''' (named after sage [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] because [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] is said to have attained the status of Vedic {{IAST|ṛṣi}} or [[Rishi]] on its banks; [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] was descendant of sage Kuśika and was called Kauśika in Rgveda), in [[Nepal]] and Bihar in northern India is a major tributary of the [[Ganges]] River (one major tributary of Koshi is Arun which has major part of its journey in [[Tibet]] ). This river is mentioned in the epic [[Mahabharata]] as Kauśiki. Seven Koshis join together to form the [[Saptakoshi River]] which is popularly known as the Koshi.

It is also the lifeline of the [[Mithila]] region, today spread over more than half of Bihar state of India, and parts of adjoining Nepal and forms the basis of legend and folklore of the region; legend of Mithila extends over many centuries. Mithila is also the name of a style of [[Hindu art]] created in the Mithila area.

==Access to the basin==
[[Image:Namche Bazaar els big.jpg|411 × 600 pixels|thumb|left|Namche Bazar - A company of the Nepal army is stationed here to protect the Sagarmatha National Park]]

From [[Katmandu]], there is a road for some distance followed by trekking paths to [[Mt Everest]], which crosses four major tributaries of Koshi. [[Namche Bazar]] near [[Tibet]] border in Nepal (near southern base camp of Mt Everest) is the major tourist centre in the mountainous part of Koshi belt. [[Birātnagar]] in Nepal, and [[Purnia]] and [[Katihār]] in India are major cities in Koshi Plains. [[Kamlā]], [[Bāghmati]] (Kareh) and [[Budhi Gandak]] are major tributaries of Koshi in India, besides minor tributaries like [[Bhutahi Balān]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Kangchenjunga South Face.jpg|thumb|240px|Kangchenjunga south face from Nepal]]
In Nepal the Koshi lies to the west of [[Kanchenjunga]]. It has seven major tributaries: [[Sun Koshi]], [[Tama Koshi]] or Tamba Koshi, [[Dudh Koshi]], [[Indravati]], [[Likhu]], [[Arun River (Nepal)|Arun]] and [[Tamore]] or Tamar. [[Dudh Koshi]] joins the [[Sun Koshi]] at the Nepalese village of [[Harkapur]]. At Triveni Sun Koshi is joined by Arun and Tamar, after which the river is called Sapta Koshi. At {{IAST|Barāhkṣetra}} in Nepal, it descends from the mountains and it is then called simply Koshi. These tributaries encircle Mt Everest from all sides and are fed by the world's highest glaciers. Further down the Triveni, the river cuts a deep gorge across the lesser Himalayan range of [[Mahabharat Lekh]] in a length of {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} and debouches into the plains near [[Chatra]]. After flowing for another {{convert|58|km|mi|abbr=on}}, it enters the north Bihar plains near [[Bhimnagar]] and after another {{convert|260|km|mi|abbr=on}}, flows into the Ganges near [[Kursela]](1). The river travels a distance of {{convert|729|km|mi|abbr=on}} from its source to the confluence with the Ganga.

[[Image:Kosi river shifting courses.JPG|thumb|left|Koshi river shifting courses]]

The Kosi river fan located in the northern part of India (in north east [[Bihar]] or eastern [[Mithila]]) is one of the largest [[alluvial fan|alluvial cones]] built by any river in the world. This {{convert|180|km|mi|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|150|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide alluvial cone shows evidence of lateral channel shifting exceeding {{convert|120|km|mi|abbr=on}} during the past 250 years through more than 12 distinct channels. The river, which used to flow near [[Purnea]] in the 18th century, now flows west of [[Saharsa]] (1). The Kosi alluvial cone and its adjoining area has been studied in detail by remote sensing techniques. The data have been integrated with the available geological and geophysical information to decipher the causes responsible for the lateral shift of such a high magnitude fan. A satellite image shows the old palaeo-channels of the Koshi river with its former (prior to 1731) confluence with the [[Mahananda River]] north of [[Lava (town)|Lava]].<ref>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=5426777 Abstract Agarwal, R. P. and Bhoj R. (1992) "Evolution of Koshi river fan, India: structural implications and geomorphic significance" ''International journal of remote sensing'' 13(10): pp. 1891-1901];</ref>

==National parks and fauna==

There are two famous national parks in the Koshi river basin: the Sagarmatha National Park, located in eastern Nepal, containing parts of the Himalayas and the southern half of Mount Everest and the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve situated on the flood plains of the Sapta-Koshi River in Eastern Nepal.

'''Sagarmatha National park'''
[[Image:Thamserku-Kantaiga-from-Thame.jpg|764 × 600 pixels|thumb|right|Thamaserku mountain]]

[[Sagarmatha National park]] is located in eastern Nepal, including parts of the Himalayas and the southern half of Mount Everest. The park, which is also included as a UNESCO world heritage site, was created on July 19, 1976. Sagarmatha in Sanskrit means "Forhead of Universe" (Sagar: Sky or Heavens; Matha: Forhead) and is the modern Nepali name for Mount Everest. The park covers an area of {{convert|1148|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and ranges in elevation from its lowest point of {{convert|2845|m|ft|abbr=on}} at Jorsalle to {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the summit of Mount Everest (highest peak in the world).<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/Sagarmatha%20national%20Park/sagindex.html Sagarmatha National park - Background]</ref> Other peaks above {{convert|6000|m|ft|abbr=on}} are Lhotse, Cho-Oyu, [[Thamserku]], Nuptse, Amadablam, and Pumori. The upper watershed of the [[Dudh Koshi]] river basin system lies in the park. The types of plants and animals that are found in the park depend on the altitude.

The forests provide habitat to at least 118 species of birds, including Danphe, Blood pheasant, Red-billed chough, and yellow-billed chough. Sagarmatha National Park is also home to a number of rare species, including musk deer, wild yak, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear and red panda. Besides, many other animals such as Himalayan thars, deer, langur monkeys, hares, mountain foxes, martens, and Himalayan wolves are found in the park.

In the lower forested zone, birch, juniper, blue pines, firs, bamboo and rhododendron grow. Above this zone, all vegetation are found to be dwarf or shrubs. As the altitude increases, plant life is restricted to lichens and mosses. Plants cease to grow at about {{convert|5750|m|ft|abbr=on}}, in the permanent snow line in the Himalayas.

The park's visitor centre is located at the top of a hill in Namche Bazaar, also where a company of the Nepal Royal Army is stationed for protecting the park. The park's southern entrance is a few hundred metres north of Mondzo at 2,835 m (9,300 ft), a one day hike from Lukla.

The presence of the Sherpas, with their unique culture, adds further interest to this park.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/120 Sagarmatha National Park - UNESCO World Heritage Centre]</ref> UNESCO listed the park as a World Heritage Site in 1979 for its unique natural, cultural and landscape characteristics.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

'''Koshi Tappu Wildlife reserve'''

[[Koshi Tappu Wildlife reserve]] is a wetland situated in the flood plains of the Sapta-Koshi River in Eastern Terai of Nepal. Gazette notified as a wild life reserve in 1976, it covers a reserve area {{convert|175|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and is one of the Outstanding Important Bird Areas in the Indo-Gangetic grasslands. The park has large population of Swamp Francolin, breeding Bristled Grass-warbler, records of White-throated Bushchat and Finn’s Weaver.<ref>http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/asia_strategy/pdf_downloads/grasslandsGO2.pdf.</ref> The Koshi river forms the major landmark of the reserve and is home to 80 fish species, around 441 species of birds, 30 shore birds, 114 water birds, 20 ducks and 2 ibises. The endangered swamp partridge and Bengal florican are also found here. The Koshi Barrage is an extremely important resting-place for migratory birds (87 nos winter visitors). In view of its rich biodiversity it has been declared a Ramsar site of international significance in 1987.<ref>http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/other-national-parks/koshi-tappu.htm and Gangetic River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica)- Rapidly diminishing</ref> The endangered Gharial crocodile and Gangetic dolphin locally known as sons in Bihar, endangered specie (fresh water dolphin) have been recorded in the river.

The last surviving population of wild buffalo or arna in Nepal is found in the reserve (number at present is estimated to be 150. The reserve is a habitat of 20 other animal species such as hog deer, spotted deer, wild boar, blue bull and rock python.

The vegetation mainly includes tall khar-pater grasslands with a few patches of khair-sissoo scrub forest and deciduous mixed riverine forest.

During the monsoon, the reserve is flooded with depths ranging from {{convert|10|to|300|cm|in|abbr=on}}.
Bird watching along the eastern embankment at dusk and dawn is one of the most exciting tourist attractions in the reserve.<ref>[http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/other-national-parks/koshi-tappu.htm Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve]</ref> Gangetic River Dolphin, locally known as ''sons'' in Bihar, is an endangered specie (fresh water dolphin).<ref>[[Gangetic River Dolphin]] (Platanista gangetica)- Rapidly diminishing [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/41756/all]</ref>

==Floods of Kosi River — The Sorrow of Bihar==
Kosi is known as the “'''Sorrow of [[Bihar]]'''”{{Fact|date=August 2008}} when it flows from [[Nepal]] to [[India]], as it has caused widespread human suffering in the past due to flooding and very frequent changes in course [http://ponce.sdsu.edu/koshi_river_india.html] [http://ndrd.gsfc.nasa.gov/ndrdres/flooding/Study_of_koshi_River_Charac.html] [http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/3/204].

Koshi has an average water flow (discharge) of 1,564 m³/s (cubic metres per second) or 55,000 cubic feet per second (cu ft/s). During floods, it increases as much as 18 times the average. The greatest recorded flood was {{convert|24200|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} on [[August 24]], [[1954]]. The Kosi Barrage has been designed for a peak flood of {{convert|27014|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}(2).

Due to extensive soil erosion and land slides in its upper catchment by factors both natural and human, the silt yield of Kosi is about 19 m³/ha/year (10 [[cubic yard|cu yd]]/acre/yr), one of the highest in the world. (2). The Arun, with its origins in Tibet, brings the greatest amount of coarse silt in proportion to its total sediment load. The river is able to transport its heavy sediment load down the steep gradients and narrow gorges in the mountains and foothills, but on the plains beyond Chatra where slopes are flatter the sediment load is deposited in an immense [[alluvial fan]] that has grown to an area of about 15,000 sq. km. This fan extends some 180 km. from its apex where it leaves the foothills, across the international border into Bihar state and on to the [[Ganges]]. Instead of a single well-defined channel, the river has numerous interlacing channels that shift laterally over the fan from time to time. Without sufficient channelisation, floods spread out very widely. The record flow of 24,200 m3/sec is equivalent to water a meter deep and more than 24 kilometers wide, flowing down the slight slope of the alluvial fan at one meter per second.

The Kosi's alluvial fan has fertile soil and abundant groundwater in a part of the world where agricultural land is in acutely limited supply in relation to population. Subsistence farmers must balance the threat of starvation with that of floods. As a result, the flood-prone area is densely populated and subject to heavy loss of life. Floods have caused the Kosi to be called the “River of Sorrow”{3). It contributes disproportionately to India having more deaths in floods than any other country except [[Bangladesh]].

===2008 flood in Bihar===
On [[August 18]] [[2008]], the Kosi river picked up an old channel it had abandoned over 100 years ago near the border of [[Nepal]] and [[India]]. Approximately 2.7 million people were reported affected as the river broke its embankment at Kusaha in [[Nepal]], thus submerging several districts of Nepal and India. 95% of total flow of Koshi was reported flowing through the new course. <ref name="Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help">{{cite news|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/bihar-flood-catastrophe-cm-seeks-govts-help/72143-3.html?from=rssfeed|title=Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help|date=08/26/2008|publisher=CNN IBN|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref> <ref name=" Flood devastation in Bihar state">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7580587.stm|title= Flood devastation in Bihar state|first=Amarnath Tewary |date=25 August 2008|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref> The worst affected districts included [[Supaul]], [[Araria]], [[Saharsa]],[[Madhepura]], [[Purnia]], [[Katihar]], parts of [[Khagaria]] and northern parts of [[Bhagalpur]], besides adjoing regions of [[Nepal]]. Relief work was carried with [[Indian Air Force]] [[helicopters]] by dropping relief materials from Purnia in the worst hit districts where nearly two million persons are entrapped.<ref name="Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help" />
It has not been possible to assess the magnitude of deaths or destruction, because the affected areas are totally inaccessible. 150 persons are reported to have been washed away in a single incident (Dainik Hindustan, Darbhanga edition). Another news item states that 42 people have died in the flood in Bihar.<ref name="Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives">{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080062979&ch=8/26/2008%2012:36:00%20PM|title=Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives|date=August 26, 2008,|work=Press Trust of India|publisher=NDTV|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref>

The [[Government of Bihar]] has constituted a technical committee, headed by a retired engineer-in-chief of the water resource department to supervise the restoration work and closure of the breach in the East Kosi afflux embankment.<ref name="Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives" /> Indian authorities were working to prevent further widening of the breach and channels would be dug to direct the water back to the main river bed.<ref name="Bihar floods: 47 die; thousands marooned">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Bihar_floods_47_die_thousands_hit/articleshow/3405430.cms|title=Bihar floods: 47 die; thousands marooned|date=26 Aug 2008|work=IST,AGENCIES|publisher=Times of India|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref>

The fury of the Kosi river has left at least 2.5 million people marooned in eight districts of Bihar and has inundated 65,000 hectares.The prime Minister of India has declared it a national calamity. The Indian army and non-government organizations are operating the biggest flood rescue operation in India in more than 50 years.<ref>http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Editorial/After_the_Deluge/articleshow/3429471.cmsAfter the Deluge</ref>. It is reported as the worst flood in the area in 50 years.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/30/world/asia/30india.html?ref=world nytimes.com, Floods in India May Displace Millions]</ref>.

==Glaciers, glacier lakes and GLOF==
At present, in the Himalayan region, glaciers are melting and retreating resulting in formation of lakes insecurely dammed by ice or moraines. These dams are at risk of failing, causing a [[Glacial Lake Outburst Flood]] (GLOF) with flows as great as 10,000 cubic meters/second. Such floods are likely to destroy communication systems and various infrastructures like bridges roads, hydropower projects (directly or indirectly), foot trails, villages, fields and terraces, irrigation canals, and can cost hundreds or even thousands of lives. Such floods also transport huge amount of sediment.

In the past two decades GLOF has become a topic of intense discussion within the development community in Nepal. Studies of the glaciers and glacier lakes were carried out in 1988 by a joint Sino-Nepalese team. In Arun Koshi river basin, there are 737 glaciers in Tibet and 229 glacier lakes, out of which 24 glacier lakes are potentially dangerous. Similarly, there are 45 glacier lakes in the Sun-Koshi basin, out of which 10 are potentially dangerous.

The Dig Tsho GLOF on [[August 4]], [[1985]], completely destroyed the nearly completed Namche hydropower plant and also all the bridges, trails, cultivation fields, houses, livestock along its path to the confluence of the Dudh-Koshi and the Sun-Koshi rivers at a distance of {{convert|90|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Dig Tsho glacier. The Dig Tsho glacier is on the terminus of the Langmoche Glacier. This event brought into focus the seriousness of such events and the studies to assess the glaciers, glacier lakes and GLOF followed.

According to a Sino-Nepal study, since the nineteen forties, there have been at least 10 cases of glacier lake outbursts within the basins investigated. Among them there have been five bursts in three glacier lakes of the Arun River Basin, and four in three glacier lakes of the Sun Koshi River Basin.

==Development scenario==

'''Multipurpose projects'''

After India attained independence in August, 1947 development scenario in India has been resolute on technological development. In keeping with this approach, the National Flood Control Policy in 1954 (following the disastrous floods of 1954 in large part of the Koshi river basin) stated that floods could be controlled through a series of flood protection works like dams, embankments and river training works. One such work which drew the immediate attention of the policy planners after independence was a solution to the recurring flood menace faced by people of North Bihar due to the Kosi and other rivers, flowing from Nepal to India. The Kosi project was thus conceptualized (based on investigations between 1946 to 1955), in three continuous inter-linked stages – the first was a barrage to anchor this wayward river that had migrated about {{convert|120|km|mi|abbr=on}} westward in the last 250 years laying waste to a huge tract in north Bihar and to provide irrigation and power benefits to Nepal and India. The second part was to build embankments both below and above the barrage so as to jacket the river within the defined channel. The third part envisaged a high multipurpose dam within Nepal at Barakshetra to provide substantial flood cushion along with large irrigation and power benefits to both countries. This was followed up by signing of the Kosi Agreement between Nepal and India on [[25 April]] [[1954]] and which was revised on [[19 December]] [[1966]] to address the concerns of Nepal. Further letters of Exchange to the Agreement between the two countries provided for additional schemes for providing benefits of irrigation. While the first two parts of the concept plan have been implemented at the cost of the Government of India, the third part, viz., the Koshi High dam, the kingpin of the whole concept, for various political reasons precluded any action for several years but has since been revived under a fresh agreement, in a modified form for further investigations and studies(1,2,3,4 & 5).

Details of the above projects are elaborated below.

'''''Kosi barrage and irrigation'''''(4&5)

Kosi Barrage, also called Bhimnagar Barrage after the name of the place where it was built between the years 1959 and 1963 straddles the Indo-Nepal border, in Nepal. It is Irrigation, Flood control and Hydropower generation project on the Kosi river built under a bilateral agreement between Nepal and India: the entire cost of the project was borne by India. The catchment area of the river is {{convert|61788|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in Nepal at the Barrage site. The highest peaks – the Mount Everest and the Mount Kanchenjunga — lie in its catchment. About 10% of this catchment is snow fed. The Eastern Canal and the Western Canal taking off from the barrage have been designed for a discharge capacity of {{convert|455|m3/s}} to irrigate {{convert|612500|ha|acre}} and {{convert|210|m3/s}} to irrigate {{convert|356610|ha|acre}} respectively. A Hydropower plant has been built on the Eastern Canal, at a canal drop ({{convert|3.6|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Koshi Barrage), to generate 20 MW. The Western Kosi Canal provides irrigation to {{convert|25000|ha|acre}} in Nepal. A valuable bridge over the barrage opened up the East-West highway in the eastern sector of Nepal

An Inundation Canal taking off at Chatra, where the Kosi debauches into the plains, has been built to irrigate a gross area of 86,000 ha in Nepal. The project has been renovated with IDA assistance after Nepal took over the project in 1976.

'''''Kosi embankment system''''' (4&5)

The Kosi barrage with earth dams across river, afflux bunds and embankments above and below the river confines the river to flow within embankments.Embankments on both sides downstream of the Barrage with a length of {{convert|246|km|mi|abbr=on}} has been constructed to check the westward movement of the river.The embankments have been kept wide apart, about 12 to {{convert|16|km|mi|abbr=on}}, to serve as a silt trap

'''''Sapta Kosi High Multipurpose Project (Indo-Nepal)'''''

Government of India (GOI) and His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMGN), have agreed to conduct joint investigations and other studies for the preparation of Detailed Project Report (DPR) of Sapta Kosi High Dam Multipurpose Project and Sun Kosi Storage-cum-Diversion Scheme to meet the objectives of both the countries for Development of a) Hydro Power Generation, b) Irrigation, c) Flood Control/ management and d) Navigation.

A {{convert|269|m|ft|sing=on|spell=us}} high concrete/Rock fill dam on the Sapta Koshi River with a dam toe underground power house with an installed capacity of 3000 MW at 50% load factor, a barrage on river Sapta Kosi about {{convert|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} downstream of Sapta Kosi High Dam to re-regulate the water being released from the Sapta Koshi dam with two canals, Eastern Chhatra Canal and Western Chhatra Canal, off-taking from the either bank from barrage site to provide water for irrigation both in Nepal and India and Navigation through Koshi up to Kursela and also in the reservoir of Sapta Koshi dam are envisaged.

A Power Canal off-taking from the Eastern Chatra Canal is proposed for conveying the water required for irrigation at existing Kosi barrage at Hanuman Nagar and also the water which may be required downstream of Hanuman Nagar Barrage for the purpose of navigation. To utilize the head available between Chatra and Hanuman Nagar barrages for power generation, three canal Power Houses, each of 100 MW installed capacity are also proposed on power canal.

Necessary cushion in storage capacity of Sapta Kosi High Dam would be provided to moderate the flood downstream of dam.

Chatra Canal System would provide irrigation to large areas in Nepal and India (particularly in Bihar).

A Joint Project Office (JPO) has been set up in Nepal for investigation of the project.

'''Hydropower'''

Nepal has a total estimated potential of 83,290 MW out of which economically exploitable potential is 42,140 MW. The Koshi river basin contributes 22,350 MW of this potential.(360 MW from small schemes and 1875 MW from major schemes) and the economically exploitable potential is assessd as 10,860 MW (includes the Sapta Koshi Multipurpose Project [3300MW] mentioned above).<ref>[http://www.nepalnews.com.np/archive/2006/others/feature/sep/news_feature01.php Nepalnews.com Mercantile Connumications Pvt. Ltd]</ref>

==Adventure sports==
===River rafting===
River rafting, also known as White Water Rafting, is an adventure sport that challenges one’s ability to row against the current of rivers. This is usually done on whitewater or different degrees of rough water, in order to thrill and excite the passengers riding on an inflatable rubber raft. It became popular as as sport during the mid 1970s and is now the third most popular adventure sport in Nepal; after mountaineering and trekking. The Sun Koshi river (The Golden River) presents the longest river trip in Nepal, traversing {{convert|270|km|mi|abbr=on}} and meandering its way through the picturesque Mahabharata range of mountains. The river rafting trip in the Sun Koshi is listed as one of the world’s top ten classic river journeys. Other rivers where this adventure sport is a popular tourist attraction in Nepal are the Kali Gandaki, the Trisuli, the Bhote Koshi, the Marsyangdi and the Karnali.<ref>http://www.infohub.com/vacation_packages/11199.html.</ref> and <ref>[http://www.nepalvista.com/travel/rafting.html Rafting Activity in Nepal from nepalvista.com]</ref>

A classic multi-day River trip (9 days) with around 40 rapids of grade 2-5 (Rivers are graded on a scale from one to six based on rapids and difficulties in rafting through the river) is recommended for advance Rafters and Kayakers.<ref>[http://www.nepaltourism.info/rafting_in_nepal/sunkoshi_river.html Sunkoshi River Rafting, Nepal Sunkoshi River, Sunkoshi River, Sunkoshi River Rafting in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Agents, Rafting Association in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Association, Rafting in Nepal, Nepal Raft, Nepal Raft Agents, Raft Agents in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Agencies,Nepal Rafting, Adventure Rafting Nepal, Nepal Adventure Rafting, Seti River Rafting, Trishuli River Rafting, Kali Gandaki Rafting, Sun Koshi Rafting, Karnali, Bheri, Tamur and Arun Rivers, White Water Rafting in Nepal, Marshangdi River Rafting]</ref>

===Sport Fishing===
The Koshi and other rivers draining the [[Himalayas]] have populations of [[Mahseer]] which are esteemed as gamefish and known as '''Indian Salmon'''. Mahseer can weigh up to 50 kg. and are said to put up a greater battle than any other type of fish of equivalent weight. They will take tied [[artificial fly|streamer flies]] as well as bait.

==Notes==

<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/floods/floods001.htm GIS in Flood Hazard Mapping: a case study of koshi River Basin, India]

==Reference books==
3. Floods, Flood plains and Environmental Myths – State of Art of India’s Environment – A Citizens’ Report, Centre for Science and Environment, 807, Vishal Bhavavn, 95, Nehru Place, New Delhi - 110019.

4. A Framework for Sustainable Development of the Ganges- Brahmaputra- Meghna (GBM Region), Proceedings of Conference held in Dhaka, 4-5 December 1999–Nepal Water Vision in the GBM Regional Framework, Institute for Integrated Studies, Kathmandu).

4. Water Conflicts in South Asia, Managing Water Resources Disputes Within and Between Countries of the Region (2004), Published by GEE-21Honolulu Hi 96825-0517,USA.

5. Barrages in India (1981), Publication number 148, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.

6. Design and Construction of selected Barrages in India (1981), Publication number 149, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.

{{Waters of South Asia}}

[[Category:Rivers of Nepal]]
[[Category:Rivers of India]]
[[Category:Mithila]]

[[cs:Kosi]]
[[hi:कोसी नदी]]
[[ta:கோசி ஆறு]]
[[te:కోసీ నది]]

Kosi River

2008-09-02T09:24:44Z

202.79.62.16: /* National parks and fauna */

{{Reflist}}
{{Copyedit|date=August 2008}}

The '''Kosi River''', called Koshi in Nepal ([[Nepali]]: कोशी नदी), is a transboundary river between [[Nepal]] and [[India]], and is one of the largest tributaries of the [[Ganges|Ganga]]. The river, along with its tributaries, drains a total area of {{convert|69300|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} up to its confluence with the Ganga in India ({{convert|29400|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in [[China]], {{convert|30700|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in Nepal and {{convert|9200|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in India). The watershed also includes part of [[Tibet]], such as the [[Mount Everest]] region, and the eastern third of Nepal. The river basin is surrounded by the ridges separating it from the [[Brahmaputra]] in the north, the [[Gandaki River|Gandaki]] in the west, the [[Mahananda River|Mahananda]] in the east, and by the Ganga in the south. The river is joined by major tributaries, approximately {{convert|48|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of the Indo-Nepal border, breaking into more than twelve distinct channels with shifting courses due to flooding.<ref>India's Water Wealth (1975, Dr. K.L.Rao, Orient Longman Ltd, Hyderabad, New Delhi.</ref><ref>"Waters of Hope" (1993), B.G.Vargehese, New Delhi</ref> Kamlā, Bāghmati (Kareh) and [[Budhi Gandak]] are major tributaries of Koshi in India, besides minor tributaries like [[Bhutahi Balān]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9046108/Koshi-River
|title=Koshi River
|publisher=Encyclopedia
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://ponce.sdsu.edu/kosi_river_india.html
|title=Koshi River, Bihar, India
|publisher=The Geospacial Research Portal - Natural Hazard Management
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref>
Over the last 250 years, the Kosi River has shifted its course over {{convert|120|km}} from east to west.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nepalnews.com.np/contents/englishweekly/spotlight/2004/jun/jun04/opinion.htm
|title=The Sorrow Of Bihar: Koshi River
|publisher=Nepalnews.com
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref> and the unstable nature of the river is attributed to the heavy silt which it carries during the [[monsoon]] season. Flooding in India has extreme effects. India is second in the world after [[Bangladesh]] in deaths due to flooding, accounting for one fifth of global flooding deaths. The Kosi River (The Sorrow of Bihar) is one of two major tributaries, the other river being [[Gandak]], draining the plains of north [[Bihar]], the most flood-prone area of India<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/floods/floods001.htm
|title=GIS in Flood Hazard Mapping: a case study of Koshi River Basin, India
|publisher=
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref>

==Legend==
Formerly '''Kauśiki''' (named after sage [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] because [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] is said to have attained the status of Vedic {{IAST|ṛṣi}} or [[Rishi]] on its banks; [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] was descendant of sage Kuśika and was called Kauśika in Rgveda), in [[Nepal]] and Bihar in northern India is a major tributary of the [[Ganges]] River (one major tributary of Koshi is Arun which has major part of its journey in [[Tibet]] ). This river is mentioned in the epic [[Mahabharata]] as Kauśiki. Seven Koshis join together to form the [[Saptakoshi River]] which is popularly known as the Koshi.

It is also the lifeline of the [[Mithila]] region, today spread over more than half of Bihar state of India, and parts of adjoining Nepal and forms the basis of legend and folklore of the region; legend of Mithila extends over many centuries. Mithila is also the name of a style of [[Hindu art]] created in the Mithila area.

==Access to the basin==
[[Image:Namche Bazaar els big.jpg|411 × 600 pixels|thumb|left|Namche Bazar - A company of the Nepal army is stationed here to protect the Sagarmatha National Park]]

From [[Katmandu]], there is a road for some distance followed by trekking paths to [[Mt Everest]], which crosses four major tributaries of Koshi. [[Namche Bazar]] near [[Tibet]] border in Nepal (near southern base camp of Mt Everest) is the major tourist centre in the mountainous part of Koshi belt. [[Birātnagar]] in Nepal, and [[Purnia]] and [[Katihār]] in India are major cities in Koshi Plains. [[Kamlā]], [[Bāghmati]] (Kareh) and [[Budhi Gandak]] are major tributaries of Koshi in India, besides minor tributaries like [[Bhutahi Balān]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Kangchenjunga South Face.jpg|thumb|240px|Kangchenjunga south face from Nepal]]
In Nepal the Koshi lies to the west of [[Kanchenjunga]]. It has seven major tributaries: [[Sun Koshi]], [[Tama Koshi]] or Tamba Koshi, [[Dudh Koshi]], [[Indravati]], [[Likhu]], [[Arun River (Nepal)|Arun]] and [[Tamore]] or Tamar. [[Dudh Koshi]] joins the [[Sun Koshi]] at the Nepalese village of [[Harkapur]]. At Triveni Sun Koshi is joined by Arun and Tamar, after which the river is called Sapta Koshi. At {{IAST|Barāhkṣetra}} in Nepal, it descends from the mountains and it is then called simply Koshi. These tributaries encircle Mt Everest from all sides and are fed by the world's highest glaciers. Further down the Triveni, the river cuts a deep gorge across the lesser Himalayan range of [[Mahabharat Lekh]] in a length of {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} and debouches into the plains near [[Chatra]]. After flowing for another {{convert|58|km|mi|abbr=on}}, it enters the north Bihar plains near [[Bhimnagar]] and after another {{convert|260|km|mi|abbr=on}}, flows into the Ganges near [[Kursela]](1). The river travels a distance of {{convert|729|km|mi|abbr=on}} from its source to the confluence with the Ganga.

[[Image:Kosi river shifting courses.JPG|thumb|left|Koshi river shifting courses]]

The Kosi river fan located in the northern part of India (in north east [[Bihar]] or eastern [[Mithila]]) is one of the largest [[alluvial fan|alluvial cones]] built by any river in the world. This {{convert|180|km|mi|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|150|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide alluvial cone shows evidence of lateral channel shifting exceeding {{convert|120|km|mi|abbr=on}} during the past 250 years through more than 12 distinct channels. The river, which used to flow near [[Purnea]] in the 18th century, now flows west of [[Saharsa]] (1). The Kosi alluvial cone and its adjoining area has been studied in detail by remote sensing techniques. The data have been integrated with the available geological and geophysical information to decipher the causes responsible for the lateral shift of such a high magnitude fan. A satellite image shows the old palaeo-channels of the Koshi river with its former (prior to 1731) confluence with the [[Mahananda River]] north of [[Lava (town)|Lava]].<ref>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=5426777 Abstract Agarwal, R. P. and Bhoj R. (1992) "Evolution of Koshi river fan, India: structural implications and geomorphic significance" ''International journal of remote sensing'' 13(10): pp. 1891-1901];</ref>

==National parks and fauna==

There are two famous national parks in the Koshi river basin: the Sagarmatha National Park, located in eastern Nepal, containing parts of the Himalayas and the southern half of Mount Everest and the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve situated on the flood plains of the Sapta-Koshi River in Eastern Nepal.

'''Sagarmatha National park'''
[[Image:Thamserku-Kantaiga-from-Thame.jpg|764 × 600 pixels|thumb|right|Thamaserku mountain]]

[[Sagarmatha National park]] is located in eastern Nepal, including parts of the Himalayas and the southern half of Mount Everest. The park, which is also included as a UNESCO world heritage site, was created on July 19, 1976. Sagarmatha in Sanskrit means "Forhead of Universe" (Sagar: Sky or Heavens; Matha: Forhead) and is the modern Nepali name for Mount Everest. The park covers an area of {{convert|1148|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and ranges in elevation from its lowest point of {{convert|2845|m|ft|abbr=on}} at Jorsalle to {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the summit of Mount Everest (highest peak in the world).<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/Sagarmatha%20national%20Park/sagindex.html Sagarmatha National park - Background]</ref> Other peaks above {{convert|6000|m|ft|abbr=on}} are Lhotse, Cho-Oyu, [[Thamserku]], Nuptse, Amadablam, and Pumori. The upper watershed of the [[Dudh Koshi]] river basin system lies in the park. The types of plants and animals that are found in the park depend on the altitude.

The forests provide habitat to at least 118 species of birds, including Danphe, Blood pheasant, Red-billed chough, and yellow-billed chough. Sagarmatha National Park is also home to a number of rare species, including musk deer, wild yak, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear and red panda. Besides, many other animals such as Himalayan thars, deer, langur monkeys, hares, mountain foxes, martens, and Himalayan wolves are found in the park.

In the lower forested zone, birch, juniper, blue pines, firs, bamboo and rhododendron grow. Above this zone, all vegetation are found to be dwarf or shrubs. As the altitude increases, plant life is restricted to lichens and mosses. Plants cease to grow at about {{convert|5750|m|ft|abbr=on}}, in the permanent snow line in the Himalayas.

The park's visitor centre is located at the top of a hill in Namche Bazaar, also where a company of the Nepal Royal Army is stationed for protecting the park. The park's southern entrance is a few hundred metres north of Mondzo at 2,835 m (9,300 ft), a one day hike from Lukla.

The presence of the Sherpas, with their unique culture, adds further interest to this park.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/120 Sagarmatha National Park - UNESCO World Heritage Centre]</ref> UNESCO listed the park as a World Heritage Site in 1979 for its unique natural, cultural and landscape characteristics.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

'''Koshi Tappu Wildlife reserve'''

[[Koshi Tappu Wildlife reserve]] is a wetland situated in the flood plains of the Sapta-Koshi River in Eastern Terai of Nepal. Gazette notified as a wild life reserve in 1976, it covers a reserve area {{convert|175|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and is one of the Outstanding Important Bird Areas in the Indo-Gangetic grasslands. The park has large population of Swamp Francolin, breeding Bristled Grass-warbler, records of White-throated Bushchat and Finn’s Weaver.<ref>http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/asia_strategy/pdf_downloads/grasslandsGO2.pdf.</ref> The Koshi river forms the major landmark of the reserve and is home to 80 fish species, around 441 species of birds, 30 shore birds, 114 water birds, 20 ducks and 2 ibises. The endangered swamp partridge and Bengal florican are also found here. The Koshi Barrage is an extremely important resting-place for migratory birds (87 nos winter visitors). In view of its rich biodiversity it has been declared a Ramsar site of international significance in 1987.<ref>http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/other-national-parks/koshi-tappu.htm and Gangetic River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica)- Rapidly diminishing</ref> The endangered Gharial crocodile and Gangetic dolphin locally known as sons in Bihar, endangered specie (fresh water dolphin) have been recorded in the river.

The last surviving population of wild buffalo or arna in Nepal is found in the reserve (number at present is estimated to be 150. The reserve is a habitat of 20 other animal species such as hog deer, spotted deer, wild boar, blue bull and rock python.

The vegetation mainly includes tall khar-pater grasslands with a few patches of khair-sissoo scrub forest and deciduous mixed riverine forest.

During the monsoon, the reserve is flooded with depths ranging from {{convert|10|to|300|cm|in|abbr=on}}.
Bird watching along the eastern embankment at dusk and dawn is one of the most exciting tourist attractions in the reserve.<ref>[http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/other-national-parks/koshi-tappu.htm Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve]</ref> Gangetic River Dolphin, locally known as ''sons'' in Bihar, is an endangered specie (fresh water dolphin).<ref>[[Gangetic River Dolphin]] (Platanista gangetica)- Rapidly diminishing [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/41756/all]</ref>

==Floods of Kosi River — The Sorrow of Bihar==
Kosi is known as the “'''Sorrow of [[Bihar]]'''”{{Fact|date=August 2008}} when it flows from [[Nepal]] to [[India]], as it has caused widespread human suffering in the past due to flooding and very frequent changes in course [http://ponce.sdsu.edu/koshi_river_india.html] [http://ndrd.gsfc.nasa.gov/ndrdres/flooding/Study_of_koshi_River_Charac.html] [http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/3/204].

Koshi has an average water flow (discharge) of 1,564 m³/s (cubic metres per second) or 55,000 cubic feet per second (cu ft/s). During floods, it increases as much as 18 times the average. The greatest recorded flood was {{convert|24200|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} on [[August 24]], [[1954]]. The Kosi Barrage has been designed for a peak flood of {{convert|27014|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}(2).

Due to extensive soil erosion and land slides in its upper catchment by factors both natural and human, the silt yield of Kosi is about 19 m³/ha/year (10 [[cubic yard|cu yd]]/acre/yr), one of the highest in the world. (2). The Arun, with its origins in Tibet, brings the greatest amount of coarse silt in proportion to its total sediment load. The river is able to transport its heavy sediment load down the steep gradients and narrow gorges in the mountains and foothills, but on the plains beyond Chatra where slopes are flatter the sediment load is deposited in an immense [[alluvial fan]] that has grown to an area of about 15,000 sq. km. This fan extends some 180 km. from its apex where it leaves the foothills, across the international border into Bihar state and on to the [[Ganges]]. Instead of a single well-defined channel, the river has numerous interlacing channels that shift laterally over the fan from time to time. Without sufficient channelisation, floods spread out very widely. The record flow of 24,200 m3/sec is equivalent to water a meter deep and more than 24 kilometers wide, flowing down the slight slope of the alluvial fan at one meter per second.

The Kosi's alluvial fan has fertile soil and abundant groundwater in a part of the world where agricultural land is in acutely limited supply in relation to population. Subsistence farmers must balance the threat of starvation with that of floods. As a result, the flood-prone area is densely populated and subject to heavy loss of life. Floods have caused the Kosi to be called the “River of Sorrow”{3). It contributes disproportionately to India having more deaths in floods than any other country except [[Bangladesh]].

===2008 flood in Bihar===
On [[August 18]] [[2008]], the Kosi river picked up an old channel it had abandoned over 100 years ago near the border of [[Nepal]] and [[India]]. Approximately 2.7 million people were reported affected as the river broke its embankment at Kusaha in [[Nepal]], thus submerging several districts of Nepal and India. 95% of total flow of Koshi was reported flowing through the new course. <ref name="Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help">{{cite news|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/bihar-flood-catastrophe-cm-seeks-govts-help/72143-3.html?from=rssfeed|title=Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help|date=08/26/2008|publisher=CNN IBN|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref> <ref name=" Flood devastation in Bihar state">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7580587.stm|title= Flood devastation in Bihar state|first=Amarnath Tewary |date=25 August 2008|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref> The worst affected districts included [[Supaul]], [[Araria]], [[Saharsa]],[[Madhepura]], [[Purnia]], [[Katihar]], parts of [[Khagaria]] and northern parts of [[Bhagalpur]], besides adjoing regions of [[Nepal]]. Relief work was carried with [[Indian Air Force]] [[helicopters]] by dropping relief materials from Purnia in the worst hit districts where nearly two million persons are entrapped.<ref name="Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help" />
It has not been possible to assess the magnitude of deaths or destruction, because the affected areas are totally inaccessible. 150 persons are reported to have been washed away in a single incident (Dainik Hindustan, Darbhanga edition). Another news item states that 42 people have died in the flood in Bihar.<ref name="Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives">{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080062979&ch=8/26/2008%2012:36:00%20PM|title=Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives|date=August 26, 2008,|work=Press Trust of India|publisher=NDTV|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref>

The [[Government of Bihar]] has constituted a technical committee, headed by a retired engineer-in-chief of the water resource department to supervise the restoration work and closure of the breach in the East Kosi afflux embankment.<ref name="Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives" /> Indian authorities were working to prevent further widening of the breach and channels would be dug to direct the water back to the main river bed.<ref name="Bihar floods: 47 die; thousands marooned">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Bihar_floods_47_die_thousands_hit/articleshow/3405430.cms|title=Bihar floods: 47 die; thousands marooned|date=26 Aug 2008|work=IST,AGENCIES|publisher=Times of India|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref>

The fury of the Kosi river has left at least 2.5 million people marooned in eight districts of Bihar and has inundated 65,000 hectares.The prime Minister of India has declared it a national calamity. The Indian army and non-government organizations are operating the biggest flood rescue operation in India in more than 50 years.<ref>http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Editorial/After_the_Deluge/articleshow/3429471.cmsAfter the Deluge</ref>. It is reported as the worst flood in the area in 50 years.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/30/world/asia/30india.html?ref=world nytimes.com, Floods in India May Displace Millions]</ref>.

==Glaciers, glacier lakes and GLOF==
At present, in the Himalayan region, glaciers are melting and retreating resulting in formation of lakes insecurely dammed by ice or moraines. These dams are at risk of failing, causing a [[Glacial Lake Outburst Flood]] (GLOF) with flows as great as 10,000 cubic meters/second. Such floods are likely to destroy communication systems and various infrastructures like bridges roads, hydropower projects (directly or indirectly), foot trails, villages, fields and terraces, irrigation canals, and can cost hundreds or even thousands of lives. Such floods also transport huge amount of sediment.

In the past two decades GLOF has become a topic of intense discussion within the development community in Nepal. Studies of the glaciers and glacier lakes were carried out in 1988 by a joint Sino-Nepalese team. In Arun Koshi river basin, there are 737 glaciers in Tibet and 229 glacier lakes, out of which 24 glacier lakes are potentially dangerous. Similarly, there are 45 glacier lakes in the Sun-Koshi basin, out of which 10 are potentially dangerous.

The Dig Tsho GLOF on [[August 4]], [[1985]], completely destroyed the nearly completed Namche hydropower plant and also all the bridges, trails, cultivation fields, houses, livestock along its path to the confluence of the Dudh-Koshi and the Sun-Koshi rivers at a distance of {{convert|90|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Dig Tsho glacier. The Dig Tsho glacier is on the terminus of the Langmoche Glacier. This event brought into focus the seriousness of such events and the studies to assess the glaciers, glacier lakes and GLOF followed.

According to a Sino-Nepal study, since the nineteen forties, there have been at least 10 cases of glacier lake outbursts within the basins investigated. Among them there have been five bursts in three glacier lakes of the Arun River Basin, and four in three glacier lakes of the Sun Koshi River Basin.

==Development scenario==

'''Multipurpose projects'''

After India attained independence in August, 1947 development scenario in India has been resolute on technological development. In keeping with this approach, the National Flood Control Policy in 1954 (following the disastrous floods of 1954 in large part of the Koshi river basin) stated that floods could be controlled through a series of flood protection works like dams, embankments and river training works. One such work which drew the immediate attention of the policy planners after independence was a solution to the recurring flood menace faced by people of North Bihar due to the Kosi and other rivers, flowing from Nepal to India. The Kosi project was thus conceptualized (based on investigations between 1946 to 1955), in three continuous inter-linked stages – the first was a barrage to anchor this wayward river that had migrated about {{convert|120|km|mi|abbr=on}} westward in the last 250 years laying waste to a huge tract in north Bihar and to provide irrigation and power benefits to Nepal and India. The second part was to build embankments both below and above the barrage so as to jacket the river within the defined channel. The third part envisaged a high multipurpose dam within Nepal at Barakshetra to provide substantial flood cushion along with large irrigation and power benefits to both countries. This was followed up by signing of the Kosi Agreement between Nepal and India on [[25 April]] [[1954]] and which was revised on [[19 December]] [[1966]] to address the concerns of Nepal. Further letters of Exchange to the Agreement between the two countries provided for additional schemes for providing benefits of irrigation. While the first two parts of the concept plan have been implemented at the cost of the Government of India, the third part, viz., the Koshi High dam, the kingpin of the whole concept, for various political reasons precluded any action for several years but has since been revived under a fresh agreement, in a modified form for further investigations and studies(1,2,3,4 & 5).

Details of the above projects are elaborated below.

'''''Kosi barrage and irrigation'''''(4&5)

Kosi Barrage, also called Bhimnagar Barrage after the name of the place where it was built between the years 1959 and 1963 straddles the Indo-Nepal border, in Nepal. It is Irrigation, Flood control and Hydropower generation project on the Kosi river built under a bilateral agreement between Nepal and India: the entire cost of the project was borne by India. The catchment area of the river is {{convert|61788|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in Nepal at the Barrage site. The highest peaks – the Mount Everest and the Mount Kanchenjunga — lie in its catchment. About 10% of this catchment is snow fed. The Eastern Canal and the Western Canal taking off from the barrage have been designed for a discharge capacity of {{convert|455|m3/s}} to irrigate {{convert|612500|ha|acre}} and {{convert|210|m3/s}} to irrigate {{convert|356610|ha|acre}} respectively. A Hydropower plant has been built on the Eastern Canal, at a canal drop ({{convert|3.6|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Koshi Barrage), to generate 20 MW. The Western Kosi Canal provides irrigation to {{convert|25000|ha|acre}} in Nepal. A valuable bridge over the barrage opened up the East-West highway in the eastern sector of Nepal

An Inundation Canal taking off at Chatra, where the Kosi debauches into the plains, has been built to irrigate a gross area of 86,000 ha in Nepal. The project has been renovated with IDA assistance after Nepal took over the project in 1976.

'''''Kosi embankment system''''' (4&5)

The Kosi barrage with earth dams across river, afflux bunds and embankments above and below the river confines the river to flow within embankments.Embankments on both sides downstream of the Barrage with a length of {{convert|246|km|mi|abbr=on}} has been constructed to check the westward movement of the river.The embankments have been kept wide apart, about 12 to {{convert|16|km|mi|abbr=on}}, to serve as a silt trap

'''''Sapta Kosi High Multipurpose Project (Indo-Nepal)'''''

Government of India (GOI) and His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMGN), have agreed to conduct joint investigations and other studies for the preparation of Detailed Project Report (DPR) of Sapta Kosi High Dam Multipurpose Project and Sun Kosi Storage-cum-Diversion Scheme to meet the objectives of both the countries for Development of a) Hydro Power Generation, b) Irrigation, c) Flood Control/ management and d) Navigation.

A {{convert|269|m|ft|sing=on|spell=us}} high concrete/Rock fill dam on the Sapta Koshi River with a dam toe underground power house with an installed capacity of 3000 MW at 50% load factor, a barrage on river Sapta Kosi about {{convert|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} downstream of Sapta Kosi High Dam to re-regulate the water being released from the Sapta Koshi dam with two canals, Eastern Chhatra Canal and Western Chhatra Canal, off-taking from the either bank from barrage site to provide water for irrigation both in Nepal and India and Navigation through Koshi up to Kursela and also in the reservoir of Sapta Koshi dam are envisaged.

A Power Canal off-taking from the Eastern Chatra Canal is proposed for conveying the water required for irrigation at existing Kosi barrage at Hanuman Nagar and also the water which may be required downstream of Hanuman Nagar Barrage for the purpose of navigation. To utilize the head available between Chatra and Hanuman Nagar barrages for power generation, three canal Power Houses, each of 100 MW installed capacity are also proposed on power canal.

Necessary cushion in storage capacity of Sapta Kosi High Dam would be provided to moderate the flood downstream of dam.

Chatra Canal System would provide irrigation to large areas in Nepal and India (particularly in Bihar).

A Joint Project Office (JPO) has been set up in Nepal for investigation of the project.

'''Hydropower'''

Nepal has a total estimated potential of 83,290 MW out of which economically exploitable potential is 42,140 MW. The Koshi river basin contributes 22,350 MW of this potential.(360 MW from small schemes and 1875 MW from major schemes) and the economically exploitable potential is assessd as 10,860 MW (includes the Sapta Koshi Multipurpose Project [3300MW] mentioned above).<ref>[http://www.nepalnews.com.np/archive/2006/others/feature/sep/news_feature01.php Nepalnews.com Mercantile Connumications Pvt. Ltd]</ref>

==Adventure sports==
===River rafting===
River rafting, also known as White Water Rafting, is a sport that challenges one’s ability to row against the current of rivers. This is usually done on whitewater or different degrees of rough water, in order to thrill and excite the raft passengers. It became popular during the mid 1970s and is now the third most popular adventure sport in Nepal; the first is mountaineering, and second is trekking. The Sun Koshi river (also called river of gold) presents the longest river trip in Nepal, traversing {{convert|270|km|mi|abbr=on}} and meandering its way through the picturesque Mahabharata range of mountains. The river rafting trip in the Sun Koshi is listed as one of the world’s top ten classic river journeys. Other rivers where this adventure sport is a popular tourist attraction in Nepal are the Kali Gandaki, the Trisuli, the Bhote Koshi, the Marsyangdi and the Karnali.<ref>http://www.infohub.com/vacation_packages/11199.html.</ref> and <ref>[http://www.nepalvista.com/travel/rafting.html Rafting Activity in Nepal from nepalvista.com]</ref>

A classic multi-day River trip (9 days) with around 40 rapids of grade 2-5 (Rivers are graded on a scale from one to six based on rapids and difficulties in rafting through the river) is recommended for advance Rafters and Kayakers.<ref>[http://www.nepaltourism.info/rafting_in_nepal/sunkoshi_river.html Sunkoshi River Rafting, Nepal Sunkoshi River, Sunkoshi River, Sunkoshi River Rafting in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Agents, Rafting Association in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Association, Rafting in Nepal, Nepal Raft, Nepal Raft Agents, Raft Agents in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Agencies,Nepal Rafting, Adventure Rafting Nepal, Nepal Adventure Rafting, Seti River Rafting, Trishuli River Rafting, Kali Gandaki Rafting, Sun Koshi Rafting, Karnali, Bheri, Tamur and Arun Rivers, White Water Rafting in Nepal, Marshangdi River Rafting]</ref>

===Sport Fishing===
The Koshi and other rivers draining the [[Himalayas]] have populations of [[Mahseer]] which are esteemed as gamefish and known as '''Indian Salmon'''. Mahseer can weigh up to 50 kg. and are said to put up a greater battle than any other type of fish of equivalent weight. They will take tied [[artificial fly|streamer flies]] as well as bait.

==Notes==

<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/floods/floods001.htm GIS in Flood Hazard Mapping: a case study of koshi River Basin, India]

==Reference books==
3. Floods, Flood plains and Environmental Myths – State of Art of India’s Environment – A Citizens’ Report, Centre for Science and Environment, 807, Vishal Bhavavn, 95, Nehru Place, New Delhi - 110019.

4. A Framework for Sustainable Development of the Ganges- Brahmaputra- Meghna (GBM Region), Proceedings of Conference held in Dhaka, 4-5 December 1999–Nepal Water Vision in the GBM Regional Framework, Institute for Integrated Studies, Kathmandu).

4. Water Conflicts in South Asia, Managing Water Resources Disputes Within and Between Countries of the Region (2004), Published by GEE-21Honolulu Hi 96825-0517,USA.

5. Barrages in India (1981), Publication number 148, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.

6. Design and Construction of selected Barrages in India (1981), Publication number 149, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.

{{Waters of South Asia}}

[[Category:Rivers of Nepal]]
[[Category:Rivers of India]]
[[Category:Mithila]]

[[cs:Kosi]]
[[hi:कोसी नदी]]
[[ta:கோசி ஆறு]]
[[te:కోసీ నది]]

Kosi River

2008-09-02T09:23:57Z

202.79.62.16: /* National parks and fauna */

{{Reflist}}
{{Copyedit|date=August 2008}}

The '''Kosi River''', called Koshi in Nepal ([[Nepali]]: कोशी नदी), is a transboundary river between [[Nepal]] and [[India]], and is one of the largest tributaries of the [[Ganges|Ganga]]. The river, along with its tributaries, drains a total area of {{convert|69300|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} up to its confluence with the Ganga in India ({{convert|29400|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in [[China]], {{convert|30700|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in Nepal and {{convert|9200|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in India). The watershed also includes part of [[Tibet]], such as the [[Mount Everest]] region, and the eastern third of Nepal. The river basin is surrounded by the ridges separating it from the [[Brahmaputra]] in the north, the [[Gandaki River|Gandaki]] in the west, the [[Mahananda River|Mahananda]] in the east, and by the Ganga in the south. The river is joined by major tributaries, approximately {{convert|48|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of the Indo-Nepal border, breaking into more than twelve distinct channels with shifting courses due to flooding.<ref>India's Water Wealth (1975, Dr. K.L.Rao, Orient Longman Ltd, Hyderabad, New Delhi.</ref><ref>"Waters of Hope" (1993), B.G.Vargehese, New Delhi</ref> Kamlā, Bāghmati (Kareh) and [[Budhi Gandak]] are major tributaries of Koshi in India, besides minor tributaries like [[Bhutahi Balān]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9046108/Koshi-River
|title=Koshi River
|publisher=Encyclopedia
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://ponce.sdsu.edu/kosi_river_india.html
|title=Koshi River, Bihar, India
|publisher=The Geospacial Research Portal - Natural Hazard Management
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref>
Over the last 250 years, the Kosi River has shifted its course over {{convert|120|km}} from east to west.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nepalnews.com.np/contents/englishweekly/spotlight/2004/jun/jun04/opinion.htm
|title=The Sorrow Of Bihar: Koshi River
|publisher=Nepalnews.com
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref> and the unstable nature of the river is attributed to the heavy silt which it carries during the [[monsoon]] season. Flooding in India has extreme effects. India is second in the world after [[Bangladesh]] in deaths due to flooding, accounting for one fifth of global flooding deaths. The Kosi River (The Sorrow of Bihar) is one of two major tributaries, the other river being [[Gandak]], draining the plains of north [[Bihar]], the most flood-prone area of India<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/floods/floods001.htm
|title=GIS in Flood Hazard Mapping: a case study of Koshi River Basin, India
|publisher=
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref>

==Legend==
Formerly '''Kauśiki''' (named after sage [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] because [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] is said to have attained the status of Vedic {{IAST|ṛṣi}} or [[Rishi]] on its banks; [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] was descendant of sage Kuśika and was called Kauśika in Rgveda), in [[Nepal]] and Bihar in northern India is a major tributary of the [[Ganges]] River (one major tributary of Koshi is Arun which has major part of its journey in [[Tibet]] ). This river is mentioned in the epic [[Mahabharata]] as Kauśiki. Seven Koshis join together to form the [[Saptakoshi River]] which is popularly known as the Koshi.

It is also the lifeline of the [[Mithila]] region, today spread over more than half of Bihar state of India, and parts of adjoining Nepal and forms the basis of legend and folklore of the region; legend of Mithila extends over many centuries. Mithila is also the name of a style of [[Hindu art]] created in the Mithila area.

==Access to the basin==
[[Image:Namche Bazaar els big.jpg|411 × 600 pixels|thumb|left|Namche Bazar - A company of the Nepal army is stationed here to protect the Sagarmatha National Park]]

From [[Katmandu]], there is a road for some distance followed by trekking paths to [[Mt Everest]], which crosses four major tributaries of Koshi. [[Namche Bazar]] near [[Tibet]] border in Nepal (near southern base camp of Mt Everest) is the major tourist centre in the mountainous part of Koshi belt. [[Birātnagar]] in Nepal, and [[Purnia]] and [[Katihār]] in India are major cities in Koshi Plains. [[Kamlā]], [[Bāghmati]] (Kareh) and [[Budhi Gandak]] are major tributaries of Koshi in India, besides minor tributaries like [[Bhutahi Balān]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Kangchenjunga South Face.jpg|thumb|240px|Kangchenjunga south face from Nepal]]
In Nepal the Koshi lies to the west of [[Kanchenjunga]]. It has seven major tributaries: [[Sun Koshi]], [[Tama Koshi]] or Tamba Koshi, [[Dudh Koshi]], [[Indravati]], [[Likhu]], [[Arun River (Nepal)|Arun]] and [[Tamore]] or Tamar. [[Dudh Koshi]] joins the [[Sun Koshi]] at the Nepalese village of [[Harkapur]]. At Triveni Sun Koshi is joined by Arun and Tamar, after which the river is called Sapta Koshi. At {{IAST|Barāhkṣetra}} in Nepal, it descends from the mountains and it is then called simply Koshi. These tributaries encircle Mt Everest from all sides and are fed by the world's highest glaciers. Further down the Triveni, the river cuts a deep gorge across the lesser Himalayan range of [[Mahabharat Lekh]] in a length of {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} and debouches into the plains near [[Chatra]]. After flowing for another {{convert|58|km|mi|abbr=on}}, it enters the north Bihar plains near [[Bhimnagar]] and after another {{convert|260|km|mi|abbr=on}}, flows into the Ganges near [[Kursela]](1). The river travels a distance of {{convert|729|km|mi|abbr=on}} from its source to the confluence with the Ganga.

[[Image:Kosi river shifting courses.JPG|thumb|left|Koshi river shifting courses]]

The Kosi river fan located in the northern part of India (in north east [[Bihar]] or eastern [[Mithila]]) is one of the largest [[alluvial fan|alluvial cones]] built by any river in the world. This {{convert|180|km|mi|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|150|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide alluvial cone shows evidence of lateral channel shifting exceeding {{convert|120|km|mi|abbr=on}} during the past 250 years through more than 12 distinct channels. The river, which used to flow near [[Purnea]] in the 18th century, now flows west of [[Saharsa]] (1). The Kosi alluvial cone and its adjoining area has been studied in detail by remote sensing techniques. The data have been integrated with the available geological and geophysical information to decipher the causes responsible for the lateral shift of such a high magnitude fan. A satellite image shows the old palaeo-channels of the Koshi river with its former (prior to 1731) confluence with the [[Mahananda River]] north of [[Lava (town)|Lava]].<ref>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=5426777 Abstract Agarwal, R. P. and Bhoj R. (1992) "Evolution of Koshi river fan, India: structural implications and geomorphic significance" ''International journal of remote sensing'' 13(10): pp. 1891-1901];</ref>

==National parks and fauna==

There are two famous national parks in the Koshi river basin: the Sagarmatha National Park, located in eastern Nepal, containing parts of the Himalayas and the southern half of Mount Everest and the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve situated on the flood plains of the Sapta-Koshi River in Eastern Nepal.

'''Sagarmatha National park'''
[[Image:Thamserku-Kantaiga-from-Thame.jpg|764 × 600 pixels|thumb|right|Thamaserku mountain]]

[[Sagarmatha National park]] is located in eastern Nepal, including parts of the Himalayas and the southern half of Mount Everest. The park, which is also included as a UNESCO world heritage site, was created on July 19, 1976. Sagarmatha in Sanskrit means "Forhead of Universe, Sagar: Sky or Heavens; Matha: Forhead" and is the modern Nepali name for Mount Everest. The park covers an area of {{convert|1148|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and ranges in elevation from its lowest point of {{convert|2845|m|ft|abbr=on}} at Jorsalle to {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the summit of Mount Everest (highest peak in the world).<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/Sagarmatha%20national%20Park/sagindex.html Sagarmatha National park - Background]</ref> Other peaks above {{convert|6000|m|ft|abbr=on}} are Lhotse, Cho-Oyu, [[Thamserku]], Nuptse, Amadablam, and Pumori. The upper watershed of the [[Dudh Koshi]] river basin system lies in the park. The types of plants and animals that are found in the park depend on the altitude.

The forests provide habitat to at least 118 species of birds, including Danphe, Blood pheasant, Red-billed chough, and yellow-billed chough. Sagarmatha National Park is also home to a number of rare species, including musk deer, wild yak, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear and red panda. Besides, many other animals such as Himalayan thars, deer, langur monkeys, hares, mountain foxes, martens, and Himalayan wolves are found in the park.

In the lower forested zone, birch, juniper, blue pines, firs, bamboo and rhododendron grow. Above this zone, all vegetation are found to be dwarf or shrubs. As the altitude increases, plant life is restricted to lichens and mosses. Plants cease to grow at about {{convert|5750|m|ft|abbr=on}}, in the permanent snow line in the Himalayas.

The park's visitor centre is located at the top of a hill in Namche Bazaar, also where a company of the Nepal Royal Army is stationed for protecting the park. The park's southern entrance is a few hundred metres north of Mondzo at 2,835 m (9,300 ft), a one day hike from Lukla.

The presence of the Sherpas, with their unique culture, adds further interest to this park.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/120 Sagarmatha National Park - UNESCO World Heritage Centre]</ref> UNESCO listed the park as a World Heritage Site in 1979 for its unique natural, cultural and landscape characteristics.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

'''Koshi Tappu Wildlife reserve'''

[[Koshi Tappu Wildlife reserve]] is a wetland situated in the flood plains of the Sapta-Koshi River in Eastern Terai of Nepal. Gazette notified as a wild life reserve in 1976, it covers a reserve area {{convert|175|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and is one of the Outstanding Important Bird Areas in the Indo-Gangetic grasslands. The park has large population of Swamp Francolin, breeding Bristled Grass-warbler, records of White-throated Bushchat and Finn’s Weaver.<ref>http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/asia_strategy/pdf_downloads/grasslandsGO2.pdf.</ref> The Koshi river forms the major landmark of the reserve and is home to 80 fish species, around 441 species of birds, 30 shore birds, 114 water birds, 20 ducks and 2 ibises. The endangered swamp partridge and Bengal florican are also found here. The Koshi Barrage is an extremely important resting-place for migratory birds (87 nos winter visitors). In view of its rich biodiversity it has been declared a Ramsar site of international significance in 1987.<ref>http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/other-national-parks/koshi-tappu.htm and Gangetic River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica)- Rapidly diminishing</ref> The endangered Gharial crocodile and Gangetic dolphin locally known as sons in Bihar, endangered specie (fresh water dolphin) have been recorded in the river.

The last surviving population of wild buffalo or arna in Nepal is found in the reserve (number at present is estimated to be 150. The reserve is a habitat of 20 other animal species such as hog deer, spotted deer, wild boar, blue bull and rock python.

The vegetation mainly includes tall khar-pater grasslands with a few patches of khair-sissoo scrub forest and deciduous mixed riverine forest.

During the monsoon, the reserve is flooded with depths ranging from {{convert|10|to|300|cm|in|abbr=on}}.
Bird watching along the eastern embankment at dusk and dawn is one of the most exciting tourist attractions in the reserve.<ref>[http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/other-national-parks/koshi-tappu.htm Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve]</ref> Gangetic River Dolphin, locally known as ''sons'' in Bihar, is an endangered specie (fresh water dolphin).<ref>[[Gangetic River Dolphin]] (Platanista gangetica)- Rapidly diminishing [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/41756/all]</ref>

==Floods of Kosi River — The Sorrow of Bihar==
Kosi is known as the “'''Sorrow of [[Bihar]]'''”{{Fact|date=August 2008}} when it flows from [[Nepal]] to [[India]], as it has caused widespread human suffering in the past due to flooding and very frequent changes in course [http://ponce.sdsu.edu/koshi_river_india.html] [http://ndrd.gsfc.nasa.gov/ndrdres/flooding/Study_of_koshi_River_Charac.html] [http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/3/204].

Koshi has an average water flow (discharge) of 1,564 m³/s (cubic metres per second) or 55,000 cubic feet per second (cu ft/s). During floods, it increases as much as 18 times the average. The greatest recorded flood was {{convert|24200|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} on [[August 24]], [[1954]]. The Kosi Barrage has been designed for a peak flood of {{convert|27014|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}(2).

Due to extensive soil erosion and land slides in its upper catchment by factors both natural and human, the silt yield of Kosi is about 19 m³/ha/year (10 [[cubic yard|cu yd]]/acre/yr), one of the highest in the world. (2). The Arun, with its origins in Tibet, brings the greatest amount of coarse silt in proportion to its total sediment load. The river is able to transport its heavy sediment load down the steep gradients and narrow gorges in the mountains and foothills, but on the plains beyond Chatra where slopes are flatter the sediment load is deposited in an immense [[alluvial fan]] that has grown to an area of about 15,000 sq. km. This fan extends some 180 km. from its apex where it leaves the foothills, across the international border into Bihar state and on to the [[Ganges]]. Instead of a single well-defined channel, the river has numerous interlacing channels that shift laterally over the fan from time to time. Without sufficient channelisation, floods spread out very widely. The record flow of 24,200 m3/sec is equivalent to water a meter deep and more than 24 kilometers wide, flowing down the slight slope of the alluvial fan at one meter per second.

The Kosi's alluvial fan has fertile soil and abundant groundwater in a part of the world where agricultural land is in acutely limited supply in relation to population. Subsistence farmers must balance the threat of starvation with that of floods. As a result, the flood-prone area is densely populated and subject to heavy loss of life. Floods have caused the Kosi to be called the “River of Sorrow”{3). It contributes disproportionately to India having more deaths in floods than any other country except [[Bangladesh]].

===2008 flood in Bihar===
On [[August 18]] [[2008]], the Kosi river picked up an old channel it had abandoned over 100 years ago near the border of [[Nepal]] and [[India]]. Approximately 2.7 million people were reported affected as the river broke its embankment at Kusaha in [[Nepal]], thus submerging several districts of Nepal and India. 95% of total flow of Koshi was reported flowing through the new course. <ref name="Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help">{{cite news|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/bihar-flood-catastrophe-cm-seeks-govts-help/72143-3.html?from=rssfeed|title=Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help|date=08/26/2008|publisher=CNN IBN|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref> <ref name=" Flood devastation in Bihar state">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7580587.stm|title= Flood devastation in Bihar state|first=Amarnath Tewary |date=25 August 2008|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref> The worst affected districts included [[Supaul]], [[Araria]], [[Saharsa]],[[Madhepura]], [[Purnia]], [[Katihar]], parts of [[Khagaria]] and northern parts of [[Bhagalpur]], besides adjoing regions of [[Nepal]]. Relief work was carried with [[Indian Air Force]] [[helicopters]] by dropping relief materials from Purnia in the worst hit districts where nearly two million persons are entrapped.<ref name="Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help" />
It has not been possible to assess the magnitude of deaths or destruction, because the affected areas are totally inaccessible. 150 persons are reported to have been washed away in a single incident (Dainik Hindustan, Darbhanga edition). Another news item states that 42 people have died in the flood in Bihar.<ref name="Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives">{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080062979&ch=8/26/2008%2012:36:00%20PM|title=Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives|date=August 26, 2008,|work=Press Trust of India|publisher=NDTV|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref>

The [[Government of Bihar]] has constituted a technical committee, headed by a retired engineer-in-chief of the water resource department to supervise the restoration work and closure of the breach in the East Kosi afflux embankment.<ref name="Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives" /> Indian authorities were working to prevent further widening of the breach and channels would be dug to direct the water back to the main river bed.<ref name="Bihar floods: 47 die; thousands marooned">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Bihar_floods_47_die_thousands_hit/articleshow/3405430.cms|title=Bihar floods: 47 die; thousands marooned|date=26 Aug 2008|work=IST,AGENCIES|publisher=Times of India|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref>

The fury of the Kosi river has left at least 2.5 million people marooned in eight districts of Bihar and has inundated 65,000 hectares.The prime Minister of India has declared it a national calamity. The Indian army and non-government organizations are operating the biggest flood rescue operation in India in more than 50 years.<ref>http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Editorial/After_the_Deluge/articleshow/3429471.cmsAfter the Deluge</ref>. It is reported as the worst flood in the area in 50 years.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/30/world/asia/30india.html?ref=world nytimes.com, Floods in India May Displace Millions]</ref>.

==Glaciers, glacier lakes and GLOF==
At present, in the Himalayan region, glaciers are melting and retreating resulting in formation of lakes insecurely dammed by ice or moraines. These dams are at risk of failing, causing a [[Glacial Lake Outburst Flood]] (GLOF) with flows as great as 10,000 cubic meters/second. Such floods are likely to destroy communication systems and various infrastructures like bridges roads, hydropower projects (directly or indirectly), foot trails, villages, fields and terraces, irrigation canals, and can cost hundreds or even thousands of lives. Such floods also transport huge amount of sediment.

In the past two decades GLOF has become a topic of intense discussion within the development community in Nepal. Studies of the glaciers and glacier lakes were carried out in 1988 by a joint Sino-Nepalese team. In Arun Koshi river basin, there are 737 glaciers in Tibet and 229 glacier lakes, out of which 24 glacier lakes are potentially dangerous. Similarly, there are 45 glacier lakes in the Sun-Koshi basin, out of which 10 are potentially dangerous.

The Dig Tsho GLOF on [[August 4]], [[1985]], completely destroyed the nearly completed Namche hydropower plant and also all the bridges, trails, cultivation fields, houses, livestock along its path to the confluence of the Dudh-Koshi and the Sun-Koshi rivers at a distance of {{convert|90|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Dig Tsho glacier. The Dig Tsho glacier is on the terminus of the Langmoche Glacier. This event brought into focus the seriousness of such events and the studies to assess the glaciers, glacier lakes and GLOF followed.

According to a Sino-Nepal study, since the nineteen forties, there have been at least 10 cases of glacier lake outbursts within the basins investigated. Among them there have been five bursts in three glacier lakes of the Arun River Basin, and four in three glacier lakes of the Sun Koshi River Basin.

==Development scenario==

'''Multipurpose projects'''

After India attained independence in August, 1947 development scenario in India has been resolute on technological development. In keeping with this approach, the National Flood Control Policy in 1954 (following the disastrous floods of 1954 in large part of the Koshi river basin) stated that floods could be controlled through a series of flood protection works like dams, embankments and river training works. One such work which drew the immediate attention of the policy planners after independence was a solution to the recurring flood menace faced by people of North Bihar due to the Kosi and other rivers, flowing from Nepal to India. The Kosi project was thus conceptualized (based on investigations between 1946 to 1955), in three continuous inter-linked stages – the first was a barrage to anchor this wayward river that had migrated about {{convert|120|km|mi|abbr=on}} westward in the last 250 years laying waste to a huge tract in north Bihar and to provide irrigation and power benefits to Nepal and India. The second part was to build embankments both below and above the barrage so as to jacket the river within the defined channel. The third part envisaged a high multipurpose dam within Nepal at Barakshetra to provide substantial flood cushion along with large irrigation and power benefits to both countries. This was followed up by signing of the Kosi Agreement between Nepal and India on [[25 April]] [[1954]] and which was revised on [[19 December]] [[1966]] to address the concerns of Nepal. Further letters of Exchange to the Agreement between the two countries provided for additional schemes for providing benefits of irrigation. While the first two parts of the concept plan have been implemented at the cost of the Government of India, the third part, viz., the Koshi High dam, the kingpin of the whole concept, for various political reasons precluded any action for several years but has since been revived under a fresh agreement, in a modified form for further investigations and studies(1,2,3,4 & 5).

Details of the above projects are elaborated below.

'''''Kosi barrage and irrigation'''''(4&5)

Kosi Barrage, also called Bhimnagar Barrage after the name of the place where it was built between the years 1959 and 1963 straddles the Indo-Nepal border, in Nepal. It is Irrigation, Flood control and Hydropower generation project on the Kosi river built under a bilateral agreement between Nepal and India: the entire cost of the project was borne by India. The catchment area of the river is {{convert|61788|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in Nepal at the Barrage site. The highest peaks – the Mount Everest and the Mount Kanchenjunga — lie in its catchment. About 10% of this catchment is snow fed. The Eastern Canal and the Western Canal taking off from the barrage have been designed for a discharge capacity of {{convert|455|m3/s}} to irrigate {{convert|612500|ha|acre}} and {{convert|210|m3/s}} to irrigate {{convert|356610|ha|acre}} respectively. A Hydropower plant has been built on the Eastern Canal, at a canal drop ({{convert|3.6|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Koshi Barrage), to generate 20 MW. The Western Kosi Canal provides irrigation to {{convert|25000|ha|acre}} in Nepal. A valuable bridge over the barrage opened up the East-West highway in the eastern sector of Nepal

An Inundation Canal taking off at Chatra, where the Kosi debauches into the plains, has been built to irrigate a gross area of 86,000 ha in Nepal. The project has been renovated with IDA assistance after Nepal took over the project in 1976.

'''''Kosi embankment system''''' (4&5)

The Kosi barrage with earth dams across river, afflux bunds and embankments above and below the river confines the river to flow within embankments.Embankments on both sides downstream of the Barrage with a length of {{convert|246|km|mi|abbr=on}} has been constructed to check the westward movement of the river.The embankments have been kept wide apart, about 12 to {{convert|16|km|mi|abbr=on}}, to serve as a silt trap

'''''Sapta Kosi High Multipurpose Project (Indo-Nepal)'''''

Government of India (GOI) and His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMGN), have agreed to conduct joint investigations and other studies for the preparation of Detailed Project Report (DPR) of Sapta Kosi High Dam Multipurpose Project and Sun Kosi Storage-cum-Diversion Scheme to meet the objectives of both the countries for Development of a) Hydro Power Generation, b) Irrigation, c) Flood Control/ management and d) Navigation.

A {{convert|269|m|ft|sing=on|spell=us}} high concrete/Rock fill dam on the Sapta Koshi River with a dam toe underground power house with an installed capacity of 3000 MW at 50% load factor, a barrage on river Sapta Kosi about {{convert|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} downstream of Sapta Kosi High Dam to re-regulate the water being released from the Sapta Koshi dam with two canals, Eastern Chhatra Canal and Western Chhatra Canal, off-taking from the either bank from barrage site to provide water for irrigation both in Nepal and India and Navigation through Koshi up to Kursela and also in the reservoir of Sapta Koshi dam are envisaged.

A Power Canal off-taking from the Eastern Chatra Canal is proposed for conveying the water required for irrigation at existing Kosi barrage at Hanuman Nagar and also the water which may be required downstream of Hanuman Nagar Barrage for the purpose of navigation. To utilize the head available between Chatra and Hanuman Nagar barrages for power generation, three canal Power Houses, each of 100 MW installed capacity are also proposed on power canal.

Necessary cushion in storage capacity of Sapta Kosi High Dam would be provided to moderate the flood downstream of dam.

Chatra Canal System would provide irrigation to large areas in Nepal and India (particularly in Bihar).

A Joint Project Office (JPO) has been set up in Nepal for investigation of the project.

'''Hydropower'''

Nepal has a total estimated potential of 83,290 MW out of which economically exploitable potential is 42,140 MW. The Koshi river basin contributes 22,350 MW of this potential.(360 MW from small schemes and 1875 MW from major schemes) and the economically exploitable potential is assessd as 10,860 MW (includes the Sapta Koshi Multipurpose Project [3300MW] mentioned above).<ref>[http://www.nepalnews.com.np/archive/2006/others/feature/sep/news_feature01.php Nepalnews.com Mercantile Connumications Pvt. Ltd]</ref>

==Adventure sports==
===River rafting===
River rafting, also known as White Water Rafting, is a sport that challenges one’s ability to row against the current of rivers. This is usually done on whitewater or different degrees of rough water, in order to thrill and excite the raft passengers. It became popular during the mid 1970s and is now the third most popular adventure sport in Nepal; the first is mountaineering, and second is trekking. The Sun Koshi river (also called river of gold) presents the longest river trip in Nepal, traversing {{convert|270|km|mi|abbr=on}} and meandering its way through the picturesque Mahabharata range of mountains. The river rafting trip in the Sun Koshi is listed as one of the world’s top ten classic river journeys. Other rivers where this adventure sport is a popular tourist attraction in Nepal are the Kali Gandaki, the Trisuli, the Bhote Koshi, the Marsyangdi and the Karnali.<ref>http://www.infohub.com/vacation_packages/11199.html.</ref> and <ref>[http://www.nepalvista.com/travel/rafting.html Rafting Activity in Nepal from nepalvista.com]</ref>

A classic multi-day River trip (9 days) with around 40 rapids of grade 2-5 (Rivers are graded on a scale from one to six based on rapids and difficulties in rafting through the river) is recommended for advance Rafters and Kayakers.<ref>[http://www.nepaltourism.info/rafting_in_nepal/sunkoshi_river.html Sunkoshi River Rafting, Nepal Sunkoshi River, Sunkoshi River, Sunkoshi River Rafting in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Agents, Rafting Association in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Association, Rafting in Nepal, Nepal Raft, Nepal Raft Agents, Raft Agents in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Agencies,Nepal Rafting, Adventure Rafting Nepal, Nepal Adventure Rafting, Seti River Rafting, Trishuli River Rafting, Kali Gandaki Rafting, Sun Koshi Rafting, Karnali, Bheri, Tamur and Arun Rivers, White Water Rafting in Nepal, Marshangdi River Rafting]</ref>

===Sport Fishing===
The Koshi and other rivers draining the [[Himalayas]] have populations of [[Mahseer]] which are esteemed as gamefish and known as '''Indian Salmon'''. Mahseer can weigh up to 50 kg. and are said to put up a greater battle than any other type of fish of equivalent weight. They will take tied [[artificial fly|streamer flies]] as well as bait.

==Notes==

<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/floods/floods001.htm GIS in Flood Hazard Mapping: a case study of koshi River Basin, India]

==Reference books==
3. Floods, Flood plains and Environmental Myths – State of Art of India’s Environment – A Citizens’ Report, Centre for Science and Environment, 807, Vishal Bhavavn, 95, Nehru Place, New Delhi - 110019.

4. A Framework for Sustainable Development of the Ganges- Brahmaputra- Meghna (GBM Region), Proceedings of Conference held in Dhaka, 4-5 December 1999–Nepal Water Vision in the GBM Regional Framework, Institute for Integrated Studies, Kathmandu).

4. Water Conflicts in South Asia, Managing Water Resources Disputes Within and Between Countries of the Region (2004), Published by GEE-21Honolulu Hi 96825-0517,USA.

5. Barrages in India (1981), Publication number 148, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.

6. Design and Construction of selected Barrages in India (1981), Publication number 149, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.

{{Waters of South Asia}}

[[Category:Rivers of Nepal]]
[[Category:Rivers of India]]
[[Category:Mithila]]

[[cs:Kosi]]
[[hi:कोसी नदी]]
[[ta:கோசி ஆறு]]
[[te:కోసీ నది]]

Kosi River

2008-09-02T08:58:36Z

202.79.62.16: /* National parks and fauna */

{{Reflist}}
{{Copyedit|date=August 2008}}

The '''Kosi River''', called Koshi in Nepal ([[Nepali]]: कोशी नदी), is a transboundary river between [[Nepal]] and [[India]], and is one of the largest tributaries of the [[Ganges|Ganga]]. The river, along with its tributaries, drains a total area of {{convert|69300|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} up to its confluence with the Ganga in India ({{convert|29400|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in [[China]], {{convert|30700|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in Nepal and {{convert|9200|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=s}} in India). The watershed also includes part of [[Tibet]], such as the [[Mount Everest]] region, and the eastern third of Nepal. The river basin is surrounded by the ridges separating it from the [[Brahmaputra]] in the north, the [[Gandaki River|Gandaki]] in the west, the [[Mahananda River|Mahananda]] in the east, and by the Ganga in the south. The river is joined by major tributaries, approximately {{convert|48|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of the Indo-Nepal border, breaking into more than twelve distinct channels with shifting courses due to flooding.<ref>India's Water Wealth (1975, Dr. K.L.Rao, Orient Longman Ltd, Hyderabad, New Delhi.</ref><ref>"Waters of Hope" (1993), B.G.Vargehese, New Delhi</ref> Kamlā, Bāghmati (Kareh) and [[Budhi Gandak]] are major tributaries of Koshi in India, besides minor tributaries like [[Bhutahi Balān]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9046108/Koshi-River
|title=Koshi River
|publisher=Encyclopedia
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://ponce.sdsu.edu/kosi_river_india.html
|title=Koshi River, Bihar, India
|publisher=The Geospacial Research Portal - Natural Hazard Management
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref>
Over the last 250 years, the Kosi River has shifted its course over {{convert|120|km}} from east to west.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nepalnews.com.np/contents/englishweekly/spotlight/2004/jun/jun04/opinion.htm
|title=The Sorrow Of Bihar: Koshi River
|publisher=Nepalnews.com
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref> and the unstable nature of the river is attributed to the heavy silt which it carries during the [[monsoon]] season. Flooding in India has extreme effects. India is second in the world after [[Bangladesh]] in deaths due to flooding, accounting for one fifth of global flooding deaths. The Kosi River (The Sorrow of Bihar) is one of two major tributaries, the other river being [[Gandak]], draining the plains of north [[Bihar]], the most flood-prone area of India<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/floods/floods001.htm
|title=GIS in Flood Hazard Mapping: a case study of Koshi River Basin, India
|publisher=
|accessdate=2007-08-24
}}
</ref>

==Legend==
Formerly '''Kauśiki''' (named after sage [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] because [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] is said to have attained the status of Vedic {{IAST|ṛṣi}} or [[Rishi]] on its banks; [[Viswamitra| Viśvāmitra]] was descendant of sage Kuśika and was called Kauśika in Rgveda), in [[Nepal]] and Bihar in northern India is a major tributary of the [[Ganges]] River (one major tributary of Koshi is Arun which has major part of its journey in [[Tibet]] ). This river is mentioned in the epic [[Mahabharata]] as Kauśiki. Seven Koshis join together to form the [[Saptakoshi River]] which is popularly known as the Koshi.

It is also the lifeline of the [[Mithila]] region, today spread over more than half of Bihar state of India, and parts of adjoining Nepal and forms the basis of legend and folklore of the region; legend of Mithila extends over many centuries. Mithila is also the name of a style of [[Hindu art]] created in the Mithila area.

==Access to the basin==
[[Image:Namche Bazaar els big.jpg|411 × 600 pixels|thumb|left|Namche Bazar - A company of the Nepal army is stationed here to protect the Sagarmatha National Park]]

From [[Katmandu]], there is a road for some distance followed by trekking paths to [[Mt Everest]], which crosses four major tributaries of Koshi. [[Namche Bazar]] near [[Tibet]] border in Nepal (near southern base camp of Mt Everest) is the major tourist centre in the mountainous part of Koshi belt. [[Birātnagar]] in Nepal, and [[Purnia]] and [[Katihār]] in India are major cities in Koshi Plains. [[Kamlā]], [[Bāghmati]] (Kareh) and [[Budhi Gandak]] are major tributaries of Koshi in India, besides minor tributaries like [[Bhutahi Balān]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Kangchenjunga South Face.jpg|thumb|240px|Kangchenjunga south face from Nepal]]
In Nepal the Koshi lies to the west of [[Kanchenjunga]]. It has seven major tributaries: [[Sun Koshi]], [[Tama Koshi]] or Tamba Koshi, [[Dudh Koshi]], [[Indravati]], [[Likhu]], [[Arun River (Nepal)|Arun]] and [[Tamore]] or Tamar. [[Dudh Koshi]] joins the [[Sun Koshi]] at the Nepalese village of [[Harkapur]]. At Triveni Sun Koshi is joined by Arun and Tamar, after which the river is called Sapta Koshi. At {{IAST|Barāhkṣetra}} in Nepal, it descends from the mountains and it is then called simply Koshi. These tributaries encircle Mt Everest from all sides and are fed by the world's highest glaciers. Further down the Triveni, the river cuts a deep gorge across the lesser Himalayan range of [[Mahabharat Lekh]] in a length of {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} and debouches into the plains near [[Chatra]]. After flowing for another {{convert|58|km|mi|abbr=on}}, it enters the north Bihar plains near [[Bhimnagar]] and after another {{convert|260|km|mi|abbr=on}}, flows into the Ganges near [[Kursela]](1). The river travels a distance of {{convert|729|km|mi|abbr=on}} from its source to the confluence with the Ganga.

[[Image:Kosi river shifting courses.JPG|thumb|left|Koshi river shifting courses]]

The Kosi river fan located in the northern part of India (in north east [[Bihar]] or eastern [[Mithila]]) is one of the largest [[alluvial fan|alluvial cones]] built by any river in the world. This {{convert|180|km|mi|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|150|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide alluvial cone shows evidence of lateral channel shifting exceeding {{convert|120|km|mi|abbr=on}} during the past 250 years through more than 12 distinct channels. The river, which used to flow near [[Purnea]] in the 18th century, now flows west of [[Saharsa]] (1). The Kosi alluvial cone and its adjoining area has been studied in detail by remote sensing techniques. The data have been integrated with the available geological and geophysical information to decipher the causes responsible for the lateral shift of such a high magnitude fan. A satellite image shows the old palaeo-channels of the Koshi river with its former (prior to 1731) confluence with the [[Mahananda River]] north of [[Lava (town)|Lava]].<ref>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=5426777 Abstract Agarwal, R. P. and Bhoj R. (1992) "Evolution of Koshi river fan, India: structural implications and geomorphic significance" ''International journal of remote sensing'' 13(10): pp. 1891-1901];</ref>

==National parks and fauna==

There are two famous national parks in the Koshi river basin: the Sagarmatha National Park, located in eastern Nepal, containing parts of the Himalayas and the southern half of Mount Everest and the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve situated on the flood plains of the Sapta-Koshi River in Eastern Nepal.

'''Sagarmatha National park'''
[[Image:Thamserku-Kantaiga-from-Thame.jpg|764 × 600 pixels|thumb|right|Thamaserku mountain]]

[[Sagarmatha National park]] is located in eastern Nepal, including parts of the Himalayas and the southern half of Mount Everest. The park was created on July 19, 1976. Sagarmatha in Sanskrit means "Forhead of Universe, Sagar: Sky or Heavens; Matha: Forhead" and is the modern Nepali name for Mount Everest. The park covers an area of {{convert|1148|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and ranges in elevation from its lowest point of {{convert|2845|m|ft|abbr=on}} at Jorsalle to {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the summit of Mount Everest (highest peak in the world).<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/Sagarmatha%20national%20Park/sagindex.html Sagarmatha National park - Background]</ref> Other peaks above {{convert|6000|m|ft|abbr=on}} are Lhotse, Cho-Oyu, [[Thamserku]], Nuptse, Amadablam, and Pumori. The upper watershed of the [[Dudh Koshi]] river basin system lies in the park. The types of plants and animals that are found in the park depend on the altitude.

The forests provide habitat to at least 118 species of birds, including Danphe, Blood pheasant, Red-billed chough, and yellow-billed chough. Sagarmatha National Park is also home to a number of rare species, including musk deer, wild yak, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear and red panda. Besides, many other animals such as Himalayan thars, deer, langur monkeys, hares, mountain foxes, martens, and Himalayan wolves are found in the park.

In the lower forested zone, birch, juniper, blue pines, firs, bamboo and rhododendron grow. Above this zone, all vegetation are found to be dwarf or shrubs. As the altitude increases, plant life is restricted to lichens and mosses. Plants cease to grow at about {{convert|5750|m|ft|abbr=on}}, in the permanent snow line in the Himalayas.

The park's visitor centre is located at the top of a hill in Namche Bazaar, also where a company of the Nepal Royal Army is stationed for protecting the park. The park's southern entrance is a few hundred metres north of Mondzo at 2,835 m (9,300 ft), a one day hike from Lukla.

The presence of the Sherpas, with their unique culture, adds further interest to this park.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/120 Sagarmatha National Park - UNESCO World Heritage Centre]</ref> UNESCO listed the park as a World Heritage Site in 1979 for its unique natural, cultural and landscape characteristics.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

'''Koshi Tappu Wildlife reserve'''

[[Koshi Tappu Wildlife reserve]] is a wetland situated in the flood plains of the Sapta-Koshi River in Eastern Terai of Nepal. Gazette notified as a wild life reserve in 1976, it covers a reserve area {{convert|175|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and is one of the Outstanding Important Bird Areas in the Indo-Gangetic grasslands. The park has large population of Swamp Francolin, breeding Bristled Grass-warbler, records of White-throated Bushchat and Finn’s Weaver.<ref>http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/asia_strategy/pdf_downloads/grasslandsGO2.pdf.</ref> The Koshi river forms the major landmark of the reserve and is home to 80 fish species, around 441 species of birds, 30 shore birds, 114 water birds, 20 ducks and 2 ibises. The endangered swamp partridge and Bengal florican are also found here. The Koshi Barrage is an extremely important resting-place for migratory birds (87 nos winter visitors). In view of its rich biodiversity it has been declared a Ramsar site of international significance in 1987.<ref>http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/other-national-parks/koshi-tappu.htm and Gangetic River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica)- Rapidly diminishing</ref> The endangered Gharial crocodile and Gangetic dolphin locally known as sons in Bihar, endangered specie (fresh water dolphin) have been recorded in the river.

The last surviving population of wild buffalo or arna in Nepal is found in the reserve (number at present is estimated to be 150. The reserve is a habitat of 20 other animal species such as hog deer, spotted deer, wild boar, blue bull and rock python.

The vegetation mainly includes tall khar-pater grasslands with a few patches of khair-sissoo scrub forest and deciduous mixed riverine forest.

During the monsoon, the reserve is flooded with depths ranging from {{convert|10|to|300|cm|in|abbr=on}}.
Bird watching along the eastern embankment at dusk and dawn is one of the most exciting tourist attractions in the reserve.<ref>[http://www.south-asia.com/dnpwc/other-national-parks/koshi-tappu.htm Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve]</ref> Gangetic River Dolphin, locally known as ''sons'' in Bihar, is an endangered specie (fresh water dolphin).<ref>[[Gangetic River Dolphin]] (Platanista gangetica)- Rapidly diminishing [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/41756/all]</ref>

==Floods of Kosi River — The Sorrow of Bihar==
Kosi is known as the “'''Sorrow of [[Bihar]]'''”{{Fact|date=August 2008}} when it flows from [[Nepal]] to [[India]], as it has caused widespread human suffering in the past due to flooding and very frequent changes in course [http://ponce.sdsu.edu/koshi_river_india.html] [http://ndrd.gsfc.nasa.gov/ndrdres/flooding/Study_of_koshi_River_Charac.html] [http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/3/204].

Koshi has an average water flow (discharge) of 1,564 m³/s (cubic metres per second) or 55,000 cubic feet per second (cu ft/s). During floods, it increases as much as 18 times the average. The greatest recorded flood was {{convert|24200|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} on [[August 24]], [[1954]]. The Kosi Barrage has been designed for a peak flood of {{convert|27014|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}(2).

Due to extensive soil erosion and land slides in its upper catchment by factors both natural and human, the silt yield of Kosi is about 19 m³/ha/year (10 [[cubic yard|cu yd]]/acre/yr), one of the highest in the world. (2). The Arun, with its origins in Tibet, brings the greatest amount of coarse silt in proportion to its total sediment load. The river is able to transport its heavy sediment load down the steep gradients and narrow gorges in the mountains and foothills, but on the plains beyond Chatra where slopes are flatter the sediment load is deposited in an immense [[alluvial fan]] that has grown to an area of about 15,000 sq. km. This fan extends some 180 km. from its apex where it leaves the foothills, across the international border into Bihar state and on to the [[Ganges]]. Instead of a single well-defined channel, the river has numerous interlacing channels that shift laterally over the fan from time to time. Without sufficient channelisation, floods spread out very widely. The record flow of 24,200 m3/sec is equivalent to water a meter deep and more than 24 kilometers wide, flowing down the slight slope of the alluvial fan at one meter per second.

The Kosi's alluvial fan has fertile soil and abundant groundwater in a part of the world where agricultural land is in acutely limited supply in relation to population. Subsistence farmers must balance the threat of starvation with that of floods. As a result, the flood-prone area is densely populated and subject to heavy loss of life. Floods have caused the Kosi to be called the “River of Sorrow”{3). It contributes disproportionately to India having more deaths in floods than any other country except [[Bangladesh]].

===2008 flood in Bihar===
On [[August 18]] [[2008]], the Kosi river picked up an old channel it had abandoned over 100 years ago near the border of [[Nepal]] and [[India]]. Approximately 2.7 million people were reported affected as the river broke its embankment at Kusaha in [[Nepal]], thus submerging several districts of Nepal and India. 95% of total flow of Koshi was reported flowing through the new course. <ref name="Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help">{{cite news|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/bihar-flood-catastrophe-cm-seeks-govts-help/72143-3.html?from=rssfeed|title=Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help|date=08/26/2008|publisher=CNN IBN|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref> <ref name=" Flood devastation in Bihar state">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7580587.stm|title= Flood devastation in Bihar state|first=Amarnath Tewary |date=25 August 2008|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref> The worst affected districts included [[Supaul]], [[Araria]], [[Saharsa]],[[Madhepura]], [[Purnia]], [[Katihar]], parts of [[Khagaria]] and northern parts of [[Bhagalpur]], besides adjoing regions of [[Nepal]]. Relief work was carried with [[Indian Air Force]] [[helicopters]] by dropping relief materials from Purnia in the worst hit districts where nearly two million persons are entrapped.<ref name="Bihar flood 'catastrophe'; CM seeks Govt's help" />
It has not been possible to assess the magnitude of deaths or destruction, because the affected areas are totally inaccessible. 150 persons are reported to have been washed away in a single incident (Dainik Hindustan, Darbhanga edition). Another news item states that 42 people have died in the flood in Bihar.<ref name="Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives">{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080062979&ch=8/26/2008%2012:36:00%20PM|title=Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives|date=August 26, 2008,|work=Press Trust of India|publisher=NDTV|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref>

The [[Government of Bihar]] has constituted a technical committee, headed by a retired engineer-in-chief of the water resource department to supervise the restoration work and closure of the breach in the East Kosi afflux embankment.<ref name="Koshi wreaks havoc in Bihar, claims 42 lives" /> Indian authorities were working to prevent further widening of the breach and channels would be dug to direct the water back to the main river bed.<ref name="Bihar floods: 47 die; thousands marooned">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Bihar_floods_47_die_thousands_hit/articleshow/3405430.cms|title=Bihar floods: 47 die; thousands marooned|date=26 Aug 2008|work=IST,AGENCIES|publisher=Times of India|accessdate=2008-08-26}}</ref>

The fury of the Kosi river has left at least 2.5 million people marooned in eight districts of Bihar and has inundated 65,000 hectares.The prime Minister of India has declared it a national calamity. The Indian army and non-government organizations are operating the biggest flood rescue operation in India in more than 50 years.<ref>http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Editorial/After_the_Deluge/articleshow/3429471.cmsAfter the Deluge</ref>. It is reported as the worst flood in the area in 50 years.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/30/world/asia/30india.html?ref=world nytimes.com, Floods in India May Displace Millions]</ref>.

==Glaciers, glacier lakes and GLOF==
At present, in the Himalayan region, glaciers are melting and retreating resulting in formation of lakes insecurely dammed by ice or moraines. These dams are at risk of failing, causing a [[Glacial Lake Outburst Flood]] (GLOF) with flows as great as 10,000 cubic meters/second. Such floods are likely to destroy communication systems and various infrastructures like bridges roads, hydropower projects (directly or indirectly), foot trails, villages, fields and terraces, irrigation canals, and can cost hundreds or even thousands of lives. Such floods also transport huge amount of sediment.

In the past two decades GLOF has become a topic of intense discussion within the development community in Nepal. Studies of the glaciers and glacier lakes were carried out in 1988 by a joint Sino-Nepalese team. In Arun Koshi river basin, there are 737 glaciers in Tibet and 229 glacier lakes, out of which 24 glacier lakes are potentially dangerous. Similarly, there are 45 glacier lakes in the Sun-Koshi basin, out of which 10 are potentially dangerous.

The Dig Tsho GLOF on [[August 4]], [[1985]], completely destroyed the nearly completed Namche hydropower plant and also all the bridges, trails, cultivation fields, houses, livestock along its path to the confluence of the Dudh-Koshi and the Sun-Koshi rivers at a distance of {{convert|90|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Dig Tsho glacier. The Dig Tsho glacier is on the terminus of the Langmoche Glacier. This event brought into focus the seriousness of such events and the studies to assess the glaciers, glacier lakes and GLOF followed.

According to a Sino-Nepal study, since the nineteen forties, there have been at least 10 cases of glacier lake outbursts within the basins investigated. Among them there have been five bursts in three glacier lakes of the Arun River Basin, and four in three glacier lakes of the Sun Koshi River Basin.

==Development scenario==

'''Multipurpose projects'''

After India attained independence in August, 1947 development scenario in India has been resolute on technological development. In keeping with this approach, the National Flood Control Policy in 1954 (following the disastrous floods of 1954 in large part of the Koshi river basin) stated that floods could be controlled through a series of flood protection works like dams, embankments and river training works. One such work which drew the immediate attention of the policy planners after independence was a solution to the recurring flood menace faced by people of North Bihar due to the Kosi and other rivers, flowing from Nepal to India. The Kosi project was thus conceptualized (based on investigations between 1946 to 1955), in three continuous inter-linked stages – the first was a barrage to anchor this wayward river that had migrated about {{convert|120|km|mi|abbr=on}} westward in the last 250 years laying waste to a huge tract in north Bihar and to provide irrigation and power benefits to Nepal and India. The second part was to build embankments both below and above the barrage so as to jacket the river within the defined channel. The third part envisaged a high multipurpose dam within Nepal at Barakshetra to provide substantial flood cushion along with large irrigation and power benefits to both countries. This was followed up by signing of the Kosi Agreement between Nepal and India on [[25 April]] [[1954]] and which was revised on [[19 December]] [[1966]] to address the concerns of Nepal. Further letters of Exchange to the Agreement between the two countries provided for additional schemes for providing benefits of irrigation. While the first two parts of the concept plan have been implemented at the cost of the Government of India, the third part, viz., the Koshi High dam, the kingpin of the whole concept, for various political reasons precluded any action for several years but has since been revived under a fresh agreement, in a modified form for further investigations and studies(1,2,3,4 & 5).

Details of the above projects are elaborated below.

'''''Kosi barrage and irrigation'''''(4&5)

Kosi Barrage, also called Bhimnagar Barrage after the name of the place where it was built between the years 1959 and 1963 straddles the Indo-Nepal border, in Nepal. It is Irrigation, Flood control and Hydropower generation project on the Kosi river built under a bilateral agreement between Nepal and India: the entire cost of the project was borne by India. The catchment area of the river is {{convert|61788|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in Nepal at the Barrage site. The highest peaks – the Mount Everest and the Mount Kanchenjunga — lie in its catchment. About 10% of this catchment is snow fed. The Eastern Canal and the Western Canal taking off from the barrage have been designed for a discharge capacity of {{convert|455|m3/s}} to irrigate {{convert|612500|ha|acre}} and {{convert|210|m3/s}} to irrigate {{convert|356610|ha|acre}} respectively. A Hydropower plant has been built on the Eastern Canal, at a canal drop ({{convert|3.6|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Koshi Barrage), to generate 20 MW. The Western Kosi Canal provides irrigation to {{convert|25000|ha|acre}} in Nepal. A valuable bridge over the barrage opened up the East-West highway in the eastern sector of Nepal

An Inundation Canal taking off at Chatra, where the Kosi debauches into the plains, has been built to irrigate a gross area of 86,000 ha in Nepal. The project has been renovated with IDA assistance after Nepal took over the project in 1976.

'''''Kosi embankment system''''' (4&5)

The Kosi barrage with earth dams across river, afflux bunds and embankments above and below the river confines the river to flow within embankments.Embankments on both sides downstream of the Barrage with a length of {{convert|246|km|mi|abbr=on}} has been constructed to check the westward movement of the river.The embankments have been kept wide apart, about 12 to {{convert|16|km|mi|abbr=on}}, to serve as a silt trap

'''''Sapta Kosi High Multipurpose Project (Indo-Nepal)'''''

Government of India (GOI) and His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMGN), have agreed to conduct joint investigations and other studies for the preparation of Detailed Project Report (DPR) of Sapta Kosi High Dam Multipurpose Project and Sun Kosi Storage-cum-Diversion Scheme to meet the objectives of both the countries for Development of a) Hydro Power Generation, b) Irrigation, c) Flood Control/ management and d) Navigation.

A {{convert|269|m|ft|sing=on|spell=us}} high concrete/Rock fill dam on the Sapta Koshi River with a dam toe underground power house with an installed capacity of 3000 MW at 50% load factor, a barrage on river Sapta Kosi about {{convert|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} downstream of Sapta Kosi High Dam to re-regulate the water being released from the Sapta Koshi dam with two canals, Eastern Chhatra Canal and Western Chhatra Canal, off-taking from the either bank from barrage site to provide water for irrigation both in Nepal and India and Navigation through Koshi up to Kursela and also in the reservoir of Sapta Koshi dam are envisaged.

A Power Canal off-taking from the Eastern Chatra Canal is proposed for conveying the water required for irrigation at existing Kosi barrage at Hanuman Nagar and also the water which may be required downstream of Hanuman Nagar Barrage for the purpose of navigation. To utilize the head available between Chatra and Hanuman Nagar barrages for power generation, three canal Power Houses, each of 100 MW installed capacity are also proposed on power canal.

Necessary cushion in storage capacity of Sapta Kosi High Dam would be provided to moderate the flood downstream of dam.

Chatra Canal System would provide irrigation to large areas in Nepal and India (particularly in Bihar).

A Joint Project Office (JPO) has been set up in Nepal for investigation of the project.

'''Hydropower'''

Nepal has a total estimated potential of 83,290 MW out of which economically exploitable potential is 42,140 MW. The Koshi river basin contributes 22,350 MW of this potential.(360 MW from small schemes and 1875 MW from major schemes) and the economically exploitable potential is assessd as 10,860 MW (includes the Sapta Koshi Multipurpose Project [3300MW] mentioned above).<ref>[http://www.nepalnews.com.np/archive/2006/others/feature/sep/news_feature01.php Nepalnews.com Mercantile Connumications Pvt. Ltd]</ref>

==Adventure sports==
===River rafting===
River rafting, also known as White Water Rafting, is a sport that challenges one’s ability to row against the current of rivers. This is usually done on whitewater or different degrees of rough water, in order to thrill and excite the raft passengers. It became popular during the mid 1970s and is now the third most popular adventure sport in Nepal; the first is mountaineering, and second is trekking. The Sun Koshi river (also called river of gold) presents the longest river trip in Nepal, traversing {{convert|270|km|mi|abbr=on}} and meandering its way through the picturesque Mahabharata range of mountains. The river rafting trip in the Sun Koshi is listed as one of the world’s top ten classic river journeys. Other rivers where this adventure sport is a popular tourist attraction in Nepal are the Kali Gandaki, the Trisuli, the Bhote Koshi, the Marsyangdi and the Karnali.<ref>http://www.infohub.com/vacation_packages/11199.html.</ref> and <ref>[http://www.nepalvista.com/travel/rafting.html Rafting Activity in Nepal from nepalvista.com]</ref>

A classic multi-day River trip (9 days) with around 40 rapids of grade 2-5 (Rivers are graded on a scale from one to six based on rapids and difficulties in rafting through the river) is recommended for advance Rafters and Kayakers.<ref>[http://www.nepaltourism.info/rafting_in_nepal/sunkoshi_river.html Sunkoshi River Rafting, Nepal Sunkoshi River, Sunkoshi River, Sunkoshi River Rafting in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Agents, Rafting Association in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Association, Rafting in Nepal, Nepal Raft, Nepal Raft Agents, Raft Agents in Nepal, Nepal Rafting Agencies,Nepal Rafting, Adventure Rafting Nepal, Nepal Adventure Rafting, Seti River Rafting, Trishuli River Rafting, Kali Gandaki Rafting, Sun Koshi Rafting, Karnali, Bheri, Tamur and Arun Rivers, White Water Rafting in Nepal, Marshangdi River Rafting]</ref>

===Sport Fishing===
The Koshi and other rivers draining the [[Himalayas]] have populations of [[Mahseer]] which are esteemed as gamefish and known as '''Indian Salmon'''. Mahseer can weigh up to 50 kg. and are said to put up a greater battle than any other type of fish of equivalent weight. They will take tied [[artificial fly|streamer flies]] as well as bait.

==Notes==

<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/floods/floods001.htm GIS in Flood Hazard Mapping: a case study of koshi River Basin, India]

==Reference books==
3. Floods, Flood plains and Environmental Myths – State of Art of India’s Environment – A Citizens’ Report, Centre for Science and Environment, 807, Vishal Bhavavn, 95, Nehru Place, New Delhi - 110019.

4. A Framework for Sustainable Development of the Ganges- Brahmaputra- Meghna (GBM Region), Proceedings of Conference held in Dhaka, 4-5 December 1999–Nepal Water Vision in the GBM Regional Framework, Institute for Integrated Studies, Kathmandu).

4. Water Conflicts in South Asia, Managing Water Resources Disputes Within and Between Countries of the Region (2004), Published by GEE-21Honolulu Hi 96825-0517,USA.

5. Barrages in India (1981), Publication number 148, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.

6. Design and Construction of selected Barrages in India (1981), Publication number 149, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.

{{Waters of South Asia}}

[[Category:Rivers of Nepal]]
[[Category:Rivers of India]]
[[Category:Mithila]]

[[cs:Kosi]]
[[hi:कोसी नदी]]
[[ta:கோசி ஆறு]]
[[te:కోసీ నది]]

Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

2008-08-17T07:10:54Z

202.79.62.16: /* Caltech rivalry */

[[Image:Lobby 7 hack in progress.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A hack in progress in Lobby 7.]]
{{see also|Hack (technology slang)|Roof and tunnel hacking}}
An '''MIT hack''' is defined as a clever, benign, and ethical prank or practical joke at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. The MIT hack is rarely harmful and is usually set out to demonstrate a physical challenge for the MIT [[undergraduate]]. Rather, these pranks become the center of attention and establish the jovial character of the college's students. Hacks may be fiendishly clever, but they are not malicious or destructive.

The most famous hacks have been the weather balloon saying "MIT", which popped up out of the ground on the 50 yard line at the [[Harvard-Yale football games (The Game)|Harvard/Yale football game]], and The Great Dome Police Car Hack, where the body shell of a campus-police car mysteriously appeared on the top of the almost inaccessible Great Dome one morning, complete with a dummy cop and a dozen donuts.<ref>[http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_year/1994/cp_car/ Hacks by Year].</ref> The Dome served as a range for life-sized model cows, borrowed from the Hilltop Steak House in Saugus, MA, in the 70s. The Great Dome was also "dressed" as [[R2-D2]] to celebrate the release of ''[[Star Wars Episode I]].'' In 2001, to celebrate the release of [[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring|the first ''Lord of the Rings'' film]], a yellow banner complete with Elvish script, representing the inscription on the "one ring," was found surrounding the Dome on the morning of the opening. More recently, the MIT Dome was the site of another famous hack—when a replica of the 1903 Wright Brothers' Plane appeared there, celebrating 100 years since the Brothers' famous flight.

==Famous hacks==
Though hacks are fairly common on the campus, a few hacks have stood the test of time.

One hack involved a police car with its warning lights running. The unusual aspect of this hack was its position—on top of MIT's Great Dome. The car was found to be a gutted, junked, heavy Chevrolet, painted meticulously to match the MIT Campus Police patrol cars. The car's number was [[pi]]. Its license plate read "[[MIT_hack#IHTFP|IHTFP]]", the acronym for MIT's unofficial slogan. A dummy dressed as a campus patrolman was seated inside with his box of donuts.

Due to MIT's proximity to Harvard, many hacks involve the annual Harvard-Yale [[American football|football]] game. Because of the Cambridge rivalry between MIT and Harvard, hackers often are found at the games and have come up with some of the most famous hacks in the Institute's history.

One notable hack attempt targeting the 1948 Harvard-Yale football game involved the use of [[primer cord]]. One night shortly before the game MIT students snuck into the Harvard stadium and buried primer cord just under the field. The plan was to burn the letters MIT into the middle of the field during the game. However, their work was uncovered by groundskeepers and disabled. During the game the hackers were apprehended while wearing heavy coats on a fair-weather day. The coats were lined with batteries, obviously intended to be used to detonate the primer cord. An apocryphal story is that an MIT dean came to their defense, opening his own battery-lined coat and claiming that "all Tech men carry batteries"; an MIT dean did show up, but he was not wearing batteries. This phrase has since become common among MIT students.

The Harvard-Yale football game was again the target of MIT hacks in 1982 when a weather balloon painted with "MIT" all around it was inflated seemingly from nowhere in the middle of the field. In 1990 an MIT banner was successfully launched from an end zone using a model rocket engine shortly before Yale attempted a field goal kick. The next day the [[Boston Herald]] ran the headline "''MIT 1--Harvard-Yale 0: Tech Pranksters Steal the Show.''"

The cleverness of many MIT hacks has even resulted in urban legends about supposed hacks. One rumored hack involved a certain student's adherence to [[classical conditioning]] behavior response. Throughout the off-season this supposed student visited the Harvard football stadium during his lunch break. He dressed in a black and white striped shirt and trousers, filled his pockets with bird-seed, then went on the field, blew a whistle, and spread his birdseed on the field. The result of all of this effort, the story goes, is that on opening day as the Harvard football team took the field to face their opponent, the referee blew his whistle to signal the start of the game, and the field was suddenly inundated by a flock of birds looking for their lunch. Despite sounding like a classic MIT hack, this particular prank has never been verified. The author of a 1990 book about pranks pulled by MIT students stated that he had not come across this tale during his years of research.

When MIT [http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2007/domelit-0612.html installed new lighting] to illuminate the Great Dome, hackers started [http://www.ericschmiedl.com/hacks/index11.html changing the color] of the lights to reflect various occasions--Earth Day, the Fourth of July, etc. [http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_year/2007/purple_dome/][http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_year/2007/redwhiteblue_dome/][http://hacks.mit.edu/by_year/2007/green_dome/]

==Caltech rivalry==
MIT and [[Caltech]] have been going at each other with pranks for several years now. Recently, a group of Caltech students, during the admitted students program at MIT in 2005, pulled a string of pranks, including covering up the word Massachusetts in the "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" engraving on the main building façade with a banner so that it read "That Other Institute of Technology". A group of MIT hackers responded by altering the banner so that the inscription read "The Only Institute of Technology".

MIT retaliated in April 2006, when students posing as the Howe & Ser Moving Company stole the 130 year old, 1.7 ton Fleming House cannon and moved it to their campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts, repeating a similar prank performed by [[Harvey Mudd College]] in 1986. It should be noted that the name "Howe & Ser", if said rapidly, and if read recognizing that the & symbol is a ligature of the Latin word "et", sounds like howitzer; it could also mean "how we answer", since the latest prank was an answer to the 2005 prank on MIT. To add to that, a replica of the famed "brass rat" (MIT's graduation ring) was machined to fit onto the cannon which was also cleverly pointed towards Caltech. Thirty members of Fleming House traveled to MIT and reclaimed their cannon on April 10, 2006. They were greeted by a group of MIT students, offering them a farewell party.

During MIT's Campus Preview Weekend in 2007, Caltech distributed a complete fake edition of "The Tech" with the headline article reading "MIT invents the Interweb". This edition included a mock weather forecast, often referring to how sunny Pasadena (where Caltech is located) is compared to Boston, as well as other tongue-in-cheek articles.

In 2008, Caltech students changed the answer to MIT's "mystery hunt" to "CALL 1-626-848-3780 ASAP." When MIT students dialed the number, they heard, "Thank you for calling the Caltech Admissions Office. If you are another MIT student wishing to transfer to Caltech, please download our transfer application form from www.caltech.edu. If you are an MIT student not wishing to transfer to Caltech, we wish you the best of luck, and hope you find happiness someday.... "<ref>{{cite news |first=Steve |last=Harvey |title=Rub a dub dub, a suspect in a tub; Battle of the brains |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/columnists/la-me-only8-2008jun08,0,6914716.column |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |publisher=[[Tribune Company]] |date=2008-06-08 |accessdate=2008-07-12 }}</ref>

==IHTFP==
{{main|IHTFP}}
'''IHTFP''' is an abbreviation which makes up part of the folklore at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. It originally stood for "I Hate This Fucking Place" but, due to use of profanity, is often [[euphemism|euphemized]] with other [[backronyms]]. Some of the more popular meanings include "I Help Tutor Freshman Physics", "It's Hard to Fondle Penguins", and "Interesting [[hack (technology)|Hacks]] To Fascinate People", as well as "I Have Truly Found Paradise" and "Institute Has The Finest Professors." The precise time of origin is unknown, though the term was already widely used at MIT by 1960.

A common motif in the MIT [[Brass Rat]] is the inclusion of the letters IHTFP hidden somewhere in the bezel.

This slang phrase is believed to have begun at the [[United States Naval Academy]] in the 1960s and spread throughout the universities of the east.

==Timeline of well-known hacks==

===2007===
;October 2007: MIT students strung a "GO SOX!" banner across the 1,000+ foot span between MacGregor Dormitory and Tang Graduate Dormitory to cheer on the [[Red Sox]] during the [[2007 World Series]].[http://www.ericschmiedl.com/hacks/index12.html]
[[Image: MIT 2007 GO SOX.jpg|thumb|200px|"GO SOX!" strung between Tang Graduate Dormitory and MacGregor Dormitory, 1000+ feet]]

;September 2007: MIT Students adorned the John P. Harvard statue in [[Harvard Yard]] with a [[SPARTAN-II Project|Halo MJOLNIR armor]] helmet and assault rifle to commemorate the release of ''[[Halo 3]]''. [http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_year/2007/halo3_john_harvard/]

;July 2007: MIT students put a [[Dark Mark]] over MIT's Student Center to celebrate the release of ''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows]]''. [http://www.ericschmiedl.com/hacks/index11.html]

===2006===
[[Image: MIT_firetruck_hack_2006.JPG|thumb|150px|A fire truck on top of the Great Dome, September 11, 2006]]
[[Image:MIT Flemming Cannon Brass Rat 1.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Giant [[Brass Rat]] on Fleming House cannon at [[MIT]].]]
;November 2006: MIT Hackers put a huge [[Triforce]] on the Great Dome. It was in commemoration of the release of the video game ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess]]''.[http://www.ericschmiedl.com/hacks/index7.html]
;September 2006: In Mid-September, part of the side of Simmons Hall was turned into a giant blue [http://dheera.net/projects/simdisplay.php LED display].
;11 September 2006: An "MIT Fire Department" fire truck was placed on the Great Dome, presumably to commemorate the fifth anniversary of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].[http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_year/2006/firetruck/]
;August 2006: A welcome back poster and a few dozen rubber ducks in the name of [[List of MIT undergraduate dormitories|Simmons Hall]] at MIT appeared on the Caltech campus in mid-August. They were accompanied by posters that presented proposed renovations to add Simmons-like architectural elements (particularly the ones often regarded as useless by MIT students) to Caltech dormitories, which were undergoing renovation.
;06 April 2006: A 130 year-old, 3+ ton cannon was moved from [[California Institute of Technology]] to MIT via a fake moving company "Howe & Ser Moving Co."[http://www.howeandser.com/] This marked the 20th anniversary when 11 students from [[Harvey Mudd College]] removed the cannon from the front of the Fleming House. The cannon was situated in a prominent place on campus and was adorned with a unique [[Brass Rat]]. It was symbolically pointed at its previous owner, Caltech. Thirty members of Fleming House traveled to MIT and reclaimed their cannon on April 10, 2006. They left a toy cannon with the note, "Here's something more your size."[http://www.flemingcannon.com/]
;28 February 2006: Giant Model Torino [[2006 Olympics]] Medal on the Great Dome.[http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_year/2006/olympic_medal/]

===2004===
;15 September 2004: A small alcove in the Infinite Corridor was covered by a painted plank of wood with a door. The "room" inside was named and labeled the Vannevar Shrubbery Room, a parody of the larger Vannevar Bush Room, whose entrance location had changed due to renovations.

===2003===
;17 December 2003: A mock-up of the first Wright Brothers airplane was placed on the Great Dome, in honor of the 100th anniversary of their first powered flight.

;23 April 2003: Hundreds of gnomes of various shapes and sizes appeared in and around the W20 Student Center Athena cluster.

===Older well-known hacks===
;09 May 1994: A carefully assembled outer frame of a car painted as an MIT Campus Police car appeared on top of the Great Dome. This hack quickly gained recognition on many local news sources and on national television.

;October 1958: [[Oliver R. Smoot]], a pledge of MIT's Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity in 1958, was used to measure the length of the Harvard Bridge. As he lay on the bridge (that carries Massachusetts Avenue across the Charles River), markers were made at each distance between his head and feet. The bridge was determined to be 364.4 [[Smoots]] (and one ear) in length, and the markers remain to this day.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*T. F. Peterson, ''[[Nightwork: A History of Hacks and Pranks at MIT]]'', MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 2003. ISBN 0-262-66137-3
*Leibowitz, Brian, ''The Journal of the Institute for Hacks, TomFoolery, and Pranks at MIT'', MIT Museum, Cambridge, MA 1990. 
*Haverson, Ira, & Fulton-Pearson, Tiffany, editors, ''Is This The Way To Baker House?, A Compendium of MIT Hacking Lore'', MIT Museum, Cambridge, MA. 1996. 
*Steinberg, Neil,''If At All Possible, Involve a Cow, The Book of College Pranks'', St. Martin's Press, New York, NY. 1992. 


==External links==
*[http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/Gallery.html IHTFP Hack Gallery]
*[http://www.howeandser.com/ Howe & Ser Moving Company]
*[http://web.mit.edu/burton1/www/stories/breast.html The Great Breast of Knowledge by Phil Kesten]
* [http://www.ihtfp.com/ihtfp.html What is IHTFP?] - a short overview
* [http://www.mit.edu/people/mjbauer/ihtfp.html A list of numerous possible meanings for IHTFP]
* [http://ericschmiedl.com/hacks Gallery of recent hacks by a Cambridge editorial photographer]
* [http://www-tech.mit.edu/V110/N52/hack.52n.html A summary of Harvard-Yale Football game hacks]
* [http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_year/1990/H-Y/H-Y.html Details of the MIT banner launched at the 1990 Harvard-Yale game]
* [http://www.snopes.com/college/pranks/birdseed.asp Information on the legend of the Pavlovian "birdseed" hack]
* [http://practicaljokeinstitute.com/FamousPranks/MITCampusCruiserontheDome.htm: MIT Campus Cruiser Hack Summary]

{{MITtemplate}}

[[Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[Category:MIT student life]]
[[Category:Practical jokes]]

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

2008-08-17T07:08:31Z

202.79.62.16: /* Research activity */

{{redirect|MIT}}
{{Infobox University
|name = Massachusetts Institute of Technology
|image = [[Image:MIT Seal.png|200px]]
|motto = ''Mens et Manus''
|mottoeng = Mind and Hand<ref name="seal">{{cite web | title = Symbols: Seal | work = MIT Graphic Identity | publisher = MIT | url = http://web.mit.edu/graphicidentity/symbols/seal.html | accessdate = 2008-06-18}}</ref>
|established = 1861 (opened 1865)
|type = [[Private university|Private]]
|calendar = 4-1-4
|president = [[Susan Hockfield]]
|chancellor = Phillip Clay
|provost = [[L. Rafael Reif]]
|city = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]
|state = [[Massachusetts|Mass.]]
|country = [[United States|U.S.]]
|undergrad = 4,172<ref name="Enrollments">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/enrollment.html |title=MIT Facts 2008: Enrollments 2007-2008 |accessdate=2008-07-22 |publisher=MIT}}</ref>
|postgrad = 6,048<ref name="Enrollments"/>
|faculty = 1008<ref name="Faculty and Staff">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/faculty.html |title=MIT Facts 2008: Faculty and Staff |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>
|campus = [[urban area|Urban]], {{convert|168|acre|km2|1}}<ref name="Campus">{{Cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/campus.html |title=MIT Facts 2008: The Campus |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>
|mascot = [[Beaver]]<ref>{{cite web | title = Symbols: Mascot | work = MIT Graphic Identity | publisher = MIT | url =http://web.mit.edu/graphicidentity/symbols/mascot.html | accessdate = 2008-06-18}}</ref>
|athletics = [[Division III]] 41 [[varsity team]]s
|free_label = Nobel Laureates
|free = 72<ref name="Faculty Awards">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/ |title=Awards and Honors |publisher=Institutional Research, Office of the Provost |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>
|website = [http://web.mit.edu web.mit.edu]
|colors = [[Cardinal (color)|Cardinal Red]] and [[Grey|Steel Gray]]{{ref_label|a|a|none}} {{color box|#993333}}{{color box|#666666}}
|endowment = [[United States dollar|US $]]9.98 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]]<ref name="Financial">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/financial.html |title=MIT Facts 2008: Financial Data |accessdate=2008-07-22 |publisher=MIT}}</ref>
|logo = [[Image:MIT logo.svg|center|85px|MIT Logo]]
|affiliations = [[New England Association of Schools and Colleges|NEASC]], [[Association of American Universities|AAU]], [[The Consortium on Financing Higher Education|COFHE]], [[National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges|NASULGC]]}}
{{Portal|University|Platopainting.jpg}}
The '''Massachusetts Institute of Technology''' ('''MIT''') is a [[private university|private]], [[coeducation]]al, [[research university]] located in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States]]. MIT has five schools and one college, containing a total of 32 academic departments, with a strong emphasis on scientific and technological research. MIT is one of two private [[land-grant university|land-grant universities]]{{ref_label|b|b|none}} and is also a [[sea grant colleges|sea grant]] and [[space grant colleges|space grant university]].

Founded by [[William Barton Rogers]] in 1861 in response to the increasing [[Technological and industrial history of the United States|industrialization of the United States]], the university adopted the [[History of European research universities|German university model]] and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1911 |encyclopedia= Britannica |volume=4 |pages=292 |quote=[MIT] was a pioneer in introducing as a feature of its original plans laboratory instruction in physics, mechanics, and mining.}}</ref> Its current {{convert|168|acre|km2|1|adj=on}} campus opened in 1916 and extends over {{convert|1|mi|km|1}} along the northern bank of the [[Charles River|Charles River basin]].<ref name="Campus"/> MIT researchers led efforts to develop [[whirlwind (computer)|computers]], [[radar]], and [[inertial navigation system|inertial guidance]] in connection with [[Technology in World War II|defense research]] during [[World War II]] and the [[Cold War]]. In the past 60 years, MIT's educational programs and reputation have expanded beyond the physical sciences and engineering into social sciences like [[economics]], [[linguistics]], [[political science]], and [[management]].<ref name="1995 NRC">{{cite web|url=http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/researchdoc/ |title=Research-Doctorate Programs in the United States: Continuity and Change |publisher=National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences |year=1995 |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>

MIT enrolled 4,172 undergraduates, 6,048 postgraduate students, and employed 1,008 faculty members in the 2007–2008 school year. Its endowment and annual research expenditures are among the largest of any American university.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mup.asu.edu/research_data.html|title=American Research University Data|publisher= The Center for Measuring University Performance |date=2007 |accessdate=2008-07-21}}</ref> 72 [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Laureates]], 47 [[National Medal of Science]] recipients, and 31 [[MacArthur Fellow]]s are currently or have previously been affiliated with the university.<ref name="Faculty and Staff"/><ref name="Faculty Awards"/>

The Engineers compete in the [[NCAA]] [[Division III]]'s [[New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference]] and sponsor 41 sports, the largest varsity program in the United States. While students' irreverence is widely acknowledged due to the traditions of [[MIT hacks|constructing elaborate pranks]] and engaging in esoteric activities, the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT affiliates would make it the twenty-fourth largest economy in the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=MIT: The Impact of Innovation |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/founders/Founders2.pdf |date=March 1997 |publisher=Bank of Boston |accessdate=2006-10-04}}</ref>

==History==
{{main|History of MIT}}
===Foundation and early years (1861–1915)===
[[Image:MIT Dome night1.jpg|left|thumb|250px|MIT's Great Dome]]
{{rquote|right|...a school of industrial science [aiding] the advancement, development and practical application of science in connection with arts, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/corporation/charter.html |title=Charter of the MIT Corporation |accessdate=2007-03-22}}</ref>|Act to Incorporate the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, ''Acts of 1861, Chapter 183''}}
As early as 1859, the Massachusetts State Legislature was given a proposal for use of newly opened lands in [[Back Bay, Boston, Massachusetts|Back Bay]] in Boston for a museum and Conservatory of Art and Science.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kneeland |first=Samuel |url=http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/pdf/house260.pdf |title=Committee Report:Conservatory of Art and Science |publisher=Massachusetts House of Representatives, House No. 260 |date=March 1859}}</ref> In 1861, The Commonwealth of Massachusetts approved a charter for the incorporation of the "Massachusetts Institute of Technology and [[Boston Society of Natural History]]" submitted by [[William Barton Rogers]]. Rogers sought to establish a new form of higher education to address the challenges posed by rapid advances in science and technology during the mid-19th century with which [[liberal arts college|classic institutions]] were ill-prepared to deal.<ref>{{cite web |title=MIT Facts 2008: Mission and Origins |url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/mission.shtml |accessdate=2008-08-14 |publisher=MIT}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Rogers |first=William |publisher=The Committee of Associated Institutions of Science and Arts |url=http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/pdf/objects-plan.pdf |title=Objects and Plan of an Institute of Technology: including a Society of Arts, a Museum of Arts, and a School of Industrial Science; proposed to be established in Boston |date=1861}}</ref>
The Rogers Plan, as it came to be known, reflected the German research university model emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research as well as instruction oriented around seminars and laboratories. Rogers proposed that this new form of education be rooted in three principles: the educational value of useful knowledge, the necessity of “learning by doing”, and integrating a professional and liberal arts education at the undergraduate level.<ref name="Lewis Report">{{cite book |title=Report of the Committee on Educational Survey (Lewis Report) |year=1949
|url=http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/pdf/lewis.pdf |pages=p. 8 |last=Lewis |first=Warren K. |coauthors=Ronald H. Rornett, C. Richard Soderberg, Julius A. Stratton, John R. Loofbourow, et al |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, MA |accessdate =2006-10-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/MIT-birthday/index1.html |title=The Founding of MIT |publisher=MIT Archives |accessdate=2008-08-12 |quote=Barton's philosophy for the institute was for 'the teaching, not of the manipulations done only in the workshop, but the inculcation of all the scientific principles which form the basis and explanation of them;'}}</ref>

Because open conflict in the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] broke out only weeks after receiving the charter, MIT's first classes were held in rented space at the Mercantile Building in downtown [[Boston]] in 1865.<ref>{{cite web |last=Andrews |first=Elizabeth |coauthors=Nora Murphy and Tom Rosko |date=2000 |url=http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/wbr-visionary/ |publisher=MIT Archives |title=William Barton Rogers: MIT's Visionary Founder}}</ref> Though it was to be located in the middle of Boston, the mission of the new institute matched the intent of the 1862 [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]] to fund institutions "to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes." Although the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded what was to become the [[University of Massachusetts]] under this act,{{ref_label|d|d|none}} MIT was also named a designee and became one of only two privately-chartered institutions to be designated to receive land grants.{{ref_label|b|b|none}} Proceeds from these grants facilitated construction of the first buildings in Boston's [[Back Bay (Boston)|Back Bay]] in 1866 causing MIT to be known as "Boston Tech." During the next half-century, the focus of the science and engineering curriculum drifted towards vocational concerns instead of theoretical programs. [[Charles William Eliot]], the president of [[Harvard University]], repeatedly attempted to merge MIT with Harvard's Lawrence Scientific School over his 30-year tenure: overtures were made as early as 1869 with other proposals in 1900 and 1914 ultimately being defeated.<ref>{{cite news |title=Harvard-Tech Merger. Duplication of Work to be Avoided in Future. Instructors Who Will Hereafter be Members of Both Faculties |publisher=Boston Daily Globe |date=1914-01-25 |page=47}}</ref>{{ref_label|c|c|none}}

===Development (1916–1965)===
[[Image:MIT-eastman.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A plaque of [[George Eastman]], founder of [[Eastman Kodak]], in Building 6. His nose is rubbed by students for good luck.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/eastman-0522.html |title="Students hope 'Eastman moment' proves lucky as they head into final exams" |date=2002-05-22 |accessdate=2008-03-12 |publisher=MIT News Office}}</ref>]]
The attempted mergers occurred in parallel with MIT's continued expansion beyond the classroom and laboratory space permitted by its Boston campus. President [[Richard Maclaurin]] sought to move the campus to a new location when he took office in 1909.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.technologyreview.com/read_article.aspx?id=17435 |title=The "New Tech" |date=September 8, 2006 |accessdate=2006-12-01 |publisher=Technology Review}}</ref> An anonymous donor, later revealed to be [[George Eastman]], donated the funds to build a new campus along a mile-long tract of swamp and industrial land on the Cambridge side of the Charles River. In 1916, MIT moved into the handsome new [[Neoclassical architecture|neoclassical campus]] designed by [[William W. Bosworth]].

The new campus triggered some changes in the stagnating undergraduate curriculum, but in the 1930s President [[Karl Taylor Compton]] and Vice-President (effectively [[Provost (education)|Provost]]) [[Vannevar Bush]] drastically reformed the curriculum by re-emphasizing the importance of "pure" sciences like physics and chemistry and reducing the work required in shops and drafting. Despite the difficulties of the [[Great Depression]], the reforms "renewed confidence in the ability of the Institute to develop leadership in science as well as in engineering."<ref name="Lewis Report"/> The expansion and reforms cemented MIT's academic reputation and it was admitted to the [[Association of American Universities]] in 1934.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aau.edu/aau/members.html |title=Member Institutions and Years of Admission |publisher=Association of American Universities |accessdate=2008-08-14}}</ref>

MIT was substantially changed by its involvement in military research during World War II. Bush was appointed head of the enormous [[Office of Scientific Research and Development]] and directed funding to only a select group of universities, including MIT.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Stuart |title = The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2004-04-15 |id=ISBN 0-231-07959-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Zachary|first=Gregg |title=Endless Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer of the American Century |publisher= Free Press |date=1997-09-03 |id = ISBN 0-684-82821-9 }}</ref> MIT's [[Radiation Laboratory]] was established in 1940 to assist the [[Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II|British]] in developing a [[cavity magnetron|microwave]] [[radar]] and the first mass-produced units were installed within months. Other defense projects included [[gyroscope]]-based and other complex [[control system]]s for [[gun sight|gun]] and [[bombsight]]s and [[inertial navigation]] under [[Charles Stark Draper]]'s [[Instrumentation Laboratory]], the development of a [[digital computer]] for flight simulations under [[Project Whirlwind]], and [[high-speed photography|high-speed]] and [[Espionage balloon|high-altitude]] photography under [[Harold Edgerton]]. By the end of the war, MIT employed a staff of over 4,000 (including more than a fifth of the nation's physicists) and was the nation's single largest wartime R&D contractor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/collection/event.php?id=3456978&lid=1 |title=MIT's Rad Lab |publisher= IEEE Virtual Museum |accessdate=2008-07-25}}</ref> In the post-war years, [[Research funding|government-sponsored research]] such as [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] and guidance systems for [[ballistic missile]]s and [[Project Apollo]] combined with surging student enrollments under the [[G.I. Bill]] contributed to a rapid growth in the size of the Institute's research staff and physical plant as well as placing an increased emphasis on graduate education.<ref name="Lewis Report"/>

Following a comprehensive review of the undergraduate curriculum in 1949 and the successive appointments of more [[Humanities|humanistically oriented]] Presidents [[Howard W. Johnson]] and [[Jerome Wiesner]] between 1966 and 1980, MIT greatly expanded its programs in the humanities, arts, and social sciences.<ref name="Lewis Report"/> Previously marginalized faculties in the areas of economics, management, political science, and linguistics emerged into cohesive and assertive departments by attracting respected professors, launching competitive graduate programs, and forming into the School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences and Sloan School of Management to compete administratively with the powerful Schools of Science and Engineering.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/histories-offices/sch-hum.html |title=History: School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences |publisher=MIT Archives |accessdate=2008-07-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/histories-offices/sch-sloan.html |title=History: Sloan School of Management |accessdate=2008-07-25 |publisher=MIT Archives}}</ref> As the Cold War and Space Race intensified and concerns about the [[Sputnik crisis|technology gap]] between the U.S. and the Soviet Union grew more pervasive throughout the 1950s and 1960s, MIT's involvement in the [[military-industrial complex]] was a source of pride on campus.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www-tech.mit.edu/archives/VOL_078/TECH_V078_S0008_P001.pdf |title=More Emphasis on Science Vitally Needed to Educate Man for A Confused Civilization |date=February 14, 1958 |publisher=The Tech |accessdate=2006-11-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www-tech.mit.edu/archives/VOL_078/TECH_V078_S0030_P001.pdf |title=Iron Birds Caged in Building 7 Lobby: Missiles on Display Here |publisher=The Tech |date=February 25, 1958|accessdate=2006-11-05}}</ref>

===Recent history (1966–present)===
In late 1960s and early 1970s, student and faculty activists protested against the [[Vietnam War]] and MIT's [[Military funding of science|defense research]].<ref name="Ins and outs">{{cite news|title=The 'Ins' and 'Outs' at M.I.T. |publisher=The New York Times |date=May 18, 1969 |last=Todd |first=Richard}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900700,00.html |title=A Policy of Protest |date=February 28, 1969 |accessdate=2008-08-13 |publisher=TIME Magazine}}</ref> The [[Union of Concerned Scientists]] was founded on [[March 4]], [[1969]] during a meeting of faculty members and students seeking to shift the emphasis on military research towards environmental and social problems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucsusa.org/ucs/about/founding-document-1968-mit-faculty-statement.html |title=Founding Document: 1968 MIT Faculty Statement |accessdate=2008-08-12 |publisher=Union of Concerned Scientists, USA}}</ref> Although the MIT administration ultimately divested itself from the [[Charles Stark Draper Laboratory|Instrumentation Laboratory]] and moved all classified research off-campus to the [[Lincoln Laboratory]] facility in 1973 in response to the protests,<ref>{{cite news|title=Tension Over Issue Of Defense Research |first=Fred |last=Hechinger |date=November 9, 1969 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=MIT Curb on Secret Projects Reflects Growing Antimilitary Feeling Among Universities' Researchers |first=William |last=Stevens |date=May 5, 1969 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> the student body, faculty, and administration remained comparatively unpolarized during the tumultuous era.<ref name="Ins and outs"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1999/johnson-0609.html |title=A tribute to MIT's Howard Johnson |first=David |last=Warsh |publisher=Boston Globe |date=June 1, 1999 |accessdate=2007-04-04 |quote=At a critical time in the late 1960s, [[Howard Wesley Johnson|Johnson]] stood up to the forces of campus rebellion at MIT. Many university presidents were destroyed by the troubles. Only [[Edward Levi]], [[University of Chicago]] president, had comparable success guiding his institution to a position of greater strength and unity after the turmoil.}}</ref>

In addition to developing the predecessors to modern computing and [[computer network|networking]] technologies,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel4/85/3898/00145317.pdf |title=The beginnings at MIT |publisher=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |coauthors=Lee, J; McCarthy, J; Licklider, J |accessdate=2008-08-13 |volume=14 |issue=1 |year=1992}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/internet_history/ |title=Internet History |publisher=Computer History Museum |accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> students, staff, and faculty members at the [[Project MAC]], [[MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory|Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]], and [[Tech Model Railroad Club]] wrote some of the earliest interactive [[computer game]]s like ''[[Spacewar!]]'' and created much of modern [[hacker (computing)|hacker]] [[Jargon File|slang]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/hacker-history/ar01s02.html |title=A Brief History of Hackerdom |first=Eric S. |last=Raymond |accessdate=2008-08-11}}</ref> Several major computer-related organizations have originated at MIT since the 1980s; [[Richard Stallman]]'s [[GNU Project]] and the subsequent [[Free Software Foundation]] were founded in the mid-1980s at the AI Lab, the [[MIT Media Lab]] was founded in 1985 by [[Nicholas Negroponte]] and Jerome Wiesner to promote research into novel uses of computer technology,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.media.mit.edu/?page_id=16 |title=The Media Lab - Retropective |publisher=MIT Media Lab |accessdate=2008-08-12}}</ref> the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] [[standards organization]] was founded at the [[MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory|Laboratory for Computer Science]] in 1994 by [[Tim Berners-Lee]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.w3.org/Consortium/history |title=About W3C: History |accessdate=2008-08-11 |publisher=World Wide Web Consortium}}</ref> the [[MIT OpenCourseWare|OpenCourseWare]] project has made course materials for over 1,800 MIT classes available online free of charge since 2002,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/web/home/home/index.htm |title=MIT OpenCourseWare |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=MIT}}</ref> and the [[One Laptop per Child]] initiative to expand computer education and connectivity to children worldwide was launched in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laptop.org/en/vision/mission/ |title=Mission - One Laptop Per Child |publisher=One Laptop Per Child |accessdate=2008-08-11}}</ref> Upon taking office in 2004, President Hockfield launched an Energy Research Council to investigate how MIT can respond to the interdisciplinary challenges of increasing global [[energy consumption]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/erc/ |title=Energy Research Council homepage |accessdate=2006-10-24 |publisher=MIT}}</ref>

MIT was named a [[sea-grant college]] in 1966 to support its programs in oceanography and marine sciences and was named a [[space-grant college]] in 1989 to support its aeronautics and astronautics programs. Despite diminishing government financial support over the past quarter century, MIT launched several development campaigns to significantly expand the campus: new dormitories and athletics buildings on west campus, the [[Campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology#Tang Center for Management Education|Tang Center for Management Education]], several building in the northeast corner of campus supporting research into [[Campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology#Koch Biology Building|biology]], [[Campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology#Brain and Cognitive Sciences complex|brain and cognitive sciences]], [[Broad Institute|genomics]], [[Whitehead Institute|biotechnology]], and [[Campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology#Kock Center for Integrative Cancer Research|cancer research]], and a number of new "backlot" buildings on Vassar Street including the [[Stata Center]].<ref name="Campus">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/campus.html |title=MIT Facts 2008: The Campus |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first=O. Robert| last=Simha| title=MIT Campus Planning,: An Annotated Chronology| year=2003 | publisher=[[The MIT Press]] | id=ISBN 978-0-262-69294-6}}</ref> Construction on campus continues to expand the Media Lab, Sloan's eastern campus, and graduate residences in the northwest.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facilities/construction/ki/index.html |title=MIT Facilities: In Development & Construction |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2006/09/14/mit_will_accelerate_its_building_boom/ |title=MIT will accelerate its building boom: $750m expansion to add 4 facilities |last=Bombardieri |first=Marcella |date=September 14, 2006 |publisher=Boston Globe |accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref>

==Organization==
[[Image:Building 7 entrance.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Building 7 (also 77 Massachusetts Avenue) is regarded as the entrance to campus]]
MIT is "a university polarized around science, engineering, and the arts."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/inaugurations/killian.html |author=James R. Killian |title=The Inaugural Address |date=1949-04-02 |accessdate=2006-06-02}}</ref> It has five schools ([[MIT School of Science|Science]], [[MIT School of Engineering|Engineering]], [[MIT School of Architecture and Planning|Architecture and Planning]], [[MIT Sloan School of Management|Management]], and [[MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences|Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences]]) and one college ([[Whitaker College of Health Sciences and Technology]]), but no schools of law or medicine.<ref name="Schools">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/academic.shtml |title=MIT Facts 2008: Academic Schools and Departments, Divisions & Sections |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>{{ref_label|e|e|none}}

MIT is governed by a 78-member [[board of trustees]] known as the MIT Corporation<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/corporation/ |title=MIT Corporation |accessdate=2007-03-18 |publisher=MIT Corporation}}</ref> which approve the budget, degrees, and faculty appointments as well as electing the President.<ref> {{cite web |title=A Brief History and Workings of the Corporation |url=http://web.mit.edu/fnl/volume/185/mead.html |accessdate=2006-11-02 |publisher=MIT Faculty Newsletter}}</ref><ref name="BO">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/catalogue/overv.chap1.shtml |title=MIT Course Catalogue: Overview |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-07-16}}</ref> MIT's [[financial endowment|endowment]] and [[pension|other financial assets]] are managed through a subsidiary MIT Investment Management Company (MITIMCo).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mitimco.org/ |title=MIT Investment Management Company |accessdate=2007-01-08 |publisher=MIT Investment Management Company}}</ref> The chair of each of MIT's 32 academic departments reports to the dean of that department's school, who in turn reports to the Provost under the President. However, faculty committees assert substantial control over many areas of MIT's curriculum, research, student life, and administrative affairs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/annualreports/pres05/17.00.pdf |author=Rafael L. Bras |title=Reports to the President, Report of the Chair of the Faculty |date=2004-2005 |accessdate=2006-12-01 |publisher=MIT}}</ref> The university is [[educational accreditation|accredited]] by the [[New England Association of Schools and Colleges]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/accreditation.html |title=MIT Facts 2008: Accreditation |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-08-14}}</ref>

MIT students refer to both their majors and classes using numbers or acronyms alone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mitadmissions.org/topics/learning/majors_minors/index.shtml |title=Majors & Minors |publisher=MIT Admissions Office |accessdate=2008-08-13 |quote=MIT is organized into academic departments, or Courses, which you will often hear referred to by their Course number or acronym.}}</ref> Majors are numbered in the approximate order of when the department was founded; for example, Civil and Environmental Engineering is Course I, while Nuclear Science & Engineering is Course XXII.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mit.edu/education/ |title=MIT Education |publisher=MIT Office of the Registrar |accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> Students majoring in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, the most popular department, collectively identify themselves as "Course VI." MIT students use a combination of the department's course number and the number assigned to the class to identify their subjects; the course which many American universities would designate as "Physics 101" is, at MIT, simply "8.01."{{ref_label|f|f|none}}

===Collaborations===
[[Image:Kresge Auditorium, MIT (view with Green Building).JPG|thumb|left|200pm|[[Eero Saarinen]]'s [[Kresge Auditorium]] is a classic example of the [[Mid-Century modern|post-war architecture]]]]
The university historically pioneered research collaborations between industry and government.<ref>{{cite journal |title = A Survey of New England: A Concentration of Talent |journal=The Economist |date=August 8, 1987 |quote=MIT for a long time… stood virtually alone as a university that embraced rather than shunned industry.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=MIT: Shaping the Future |first=Edward B. |last=Roberts |chapter=An Environment for Entrepreneurs |publisher=The MIT Press |year=1991 |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0262631451 |quote=The war made necessary the formation of new working coalitions… between these technologists and government officials. These changes were especially noteworthy at MIT.}}</ref> Fruitful collaborations with industrialists like [[Alfred P. Sloan]] and [[Thomas Alva Edison]] led President Compton to establish an Office of Corporate Relations and an Industrial Liaison Program in the 1930s and 1940s that now allows over 600 companies to [[technology transfer|license research]] and consult with MIT faculty and researchers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ilp-www.mit.edu/display_page.a4d?key=P2a |title=MIT ILP - About the ILP |accessdate=2007-03-17}}</ref> Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, American politicians and business leaders accused MIT and other universities of contributing to a [[Late 1980s recession|declining economy]] by [[technology transfer|transferring]] taxpayer-funded research and technology to international —especially [[Economy of Japan|Japanese]]— firms that were competing with [[Business cycle|struggling]] American businesses.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-tech.mit.edu/V109/N62/corporate.00n.html |title=MIT corporate ties raise concern |publisher=The Tech |year=1990 |accessdate=2007-03-04}}</ref><ref name="MIT Deal">{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CEEDB153FF93AA25751C1A966958260&scp=1&sq=M.I.T.+Deal+with+Japan+Stirs+Fear+on+Competition&st=nyt |title=MIT Deal with Japan Stirs Fear on Competition |last=Kolata |first=Gina |date=December 19, 1990 |accessdate=2008-06-09 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news||title=MIT Criticized for Selling Research to Japanese Firms |publisher=The Washington Post |Date=June 14, 1989 |first=William |last=Booth |accessdate=2008-07-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=How Japan Picks America's Brains|url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1987/12/21/69996/index.htm |publisher=FORTUNE Magazine |first=Joel |last=Dreyfuss |date=December 21, 1987 |accessdate=2008-07-16}}</ref>

MIT's extensive collaboration with the federal government on research projects has also lead to several MIT leaders serving as [[President's Science Advisory Committee|Presidential scientific advisers]] since 1940.{{ref_label|j|j|none}} MIT established a Washington Office in 1991 to continue to [[lobbying|lobby]] for research funding and national [[science policy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/dc/ |title=MIT Washington Office |accessdate=2007-03-18 |publisher=MIT Washington Office}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=Worcester Telegram & Gazette |date=February 11, 2001 |title=Hunt Intense for Federal Research Funds: Universities Station Lobbyists in Washington}}</ref> In response to MIT and the eight [[Ivy League]] colleges holding "Overlap Meetings" to prevent bidding wars over promising students from consuming funds for need-based scholarships, in 1991 the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] filed an [[Sherman Antitrust Act|antitrust suit]] against these universities. While the Ivy League institutions [[consent decree|settled]], MIT contested the charges on the grounds that the practice was not anticompetitive because it ensured the availability of aid for the greatest number of students.<ref name="Overlap">{{cite news|title=MIT Ruled Guilty in Anti-Trust Case |publisher=The New York Times |date=September 2, 1992 |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE1DC1439F930A3575AC0A964958260 |last=DePalma |first=Anthony |accessdate=2008-07-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE0DE1E38F935A15755C0A964958260 |title= Price-Fixing or Charity? Trial of M.I.T. Begins |last=DePalma |first=Anthony |date=June 26, 1992 |accessdate=2008-08-13 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> MIT ultimately prevailed when the Justice Department dropped the case in 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1994/settlement-0105.html |title=Settlement allows cooperation on awarding financial-aid |publisher=MIT Tech Talk |year=1994 |accessdate=2007-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE5DC113BF932A15751C1A965958260 |title=MIT Suit Over Aid May Be Settled |first=William |last=Honan |date=December 21, 1993 |accessdate=2008-07-16 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref>

MIT's proximity to [[Harvard University]]{{ref_label|i|i|none}} has created both a quasi-friendly rivalry ("the other school up the [[Charles River|river]]") as well as a substantial number of research collaborations such as the [[Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology]], [[Broad Institute]], [[Center for Ultracold Atoms]], and Harvard-MIT Data Center.<ref>{{cite web |quote=The US has the world’s top two universities by our reckoning — Harvard and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, neighbours on the Charles River. |url=http://www.thes.co.uk/worldrankings/ |title=Times Higher Education Supplement World Rankings 2005 |accessdate=2006-10-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hmdc.harvard.edu/ |title=Harvard-MIT Data Center |accessdate=2007-01-08}}</ref><ref name="EdPart"/> In addition, students at the two schools can [[cross-registration|cross-register]] without any additional fees, for credits toward their own school's degrees.<ref name="EdPart"/>

A cross-registration program with [[Wellesley College]] has existed since 1969 and a significant undergraduate exchange program with the [[University of Cambridge]] known as the [[Cambridge-MIT Institute]] was also launched in 2002.<ref name="EdPart">{{Cite web |title=MIT Facts 2008: Educational Partnerships |url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/partnerships.shtml |accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> MIT has limited cross-registration programs with [[Boston University]], [[Brandeis University]], [[Tufts University]], [[Massachusetts College of Art]], and the [[School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]].<ref name="EdPart"/>

MIT maintains substantial research and faculty ties with independent research organizations in the Boston-area like the [[Charles Stark Draper Laboratory]], [[Whitehead Institute|Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research]], and [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]] as well as international research and educational collaborations through the [[Singapore-MIT Alliance]], MIT-[[University of Zaragoza|Zaragoza]] International Logistics Program,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/zlc/ |title=MIT-Zaragoza International Logistics Program |accessdate=2007-03-17 |publisher=MIT}}</ref> and other countries through the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives (MISTI) program.<ref name="EdPart"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/misti/ |title=MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives |accessdate=2007-03-17 |publisher=MIT}}</ref>

Students, faculty, and staff are involved in over 50 educational outreach and public service programs through the [[MIT Museum]], Edgerton Center,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/edgerton/ |title=MIT Edgerton Center |accessdate=2007-03-17 |publisher=MIT}}</ref> and MIT Public Service Center.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/mitpsc/ |title=MIT Public Service Center |accessdate=2007-03-18 |publisher=MIT}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=MIT Outreach Database |url=http://ideas.mit.edu/~pscadmin/browsehome.php |accessdate=2006-10-07 |publisher=MIT}}</ref> Summer programs like [[MITES]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/mites/www/ |title=Minority Introduction to Engineering and Science Program |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-08-11}}</ref> and the Research Science Institute<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cee.org/rsi/ |title=Research Science Institute |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-08-11}}</ref> encourage minority and high school students to pursue science and engineering in college. Project Interphase accelerates incoming freshman whose educational backgrounds did not fully prepare them for MIT coursework.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/ome/programs-services/interphase/ |title=Project Interphase |accessdate=2007-07-23 |publisher=MIT}}</ref>

The mass-market magazine ''[[Technology Review]]'' is published by MIT through a subsidiary company, as is a special edition that also serves as the Institute's official alumni magazine. The MIT Press is a major university press, publishing over 200 books and 40 journals annually emphasizing science and technology as well as arts, architecture, new media, current events, and social issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mitpress.mit.edu/mitpress/history/default.asp |title=History - The MIT Press |accessdate=2007-03-18 |publisher=MIT}}</ref>

==Campus==
{{main article|Campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology}}
MIT's {{convert|168|acre|km2|1|sing=on}} Cambridge campus spans approximately a mile of the north side of the [[Charles River]] basin. The campus is divided roughly in half by [[Massachusetts Avenue (Cambridge)|Massachusetts Avenue]], with most dormitories and student life facilities to the west and most academic buildings to the east. The bridge closest to MIT is the [[Harvard Bridge]], which is marked off in a non-standard unit of length – the [[Smoot|smoot]] (named for [[Oliver R. Smoot]], the length of a Smoot is five feet and seven inches, equal to Oliver's height).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.technologyreview.com/article/20983/ |title=Smoot's Legacy: 50th anniversary of famous feat nears |accessdate=2008-08-13 |publisher=MIT Technology review |last=Durant |first=Elizabeth}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The Measure of This Man Is in the Smoot; MIT's Human Yardstick Honored for Work |publisher=The Washington Post |date=December 8, 2005 |last=Fahrenthold |first=David}}</ref> The [[Kendall/MIT Station (MBTA)|Kendall]] [[Red Line (MBTA)|MBTA Red Line]] station is located on the far northeastern edge of the campus in [[Kendall Square]]. The Cambridge neighborhoods surrounding MIT are a mixture of high tech companies occupying both modern office and rehabilitated industrial buildings as well as socio-economically diverse residential neighborhoods.<ref name="BO"/>

MIT buildings all have a number (or a number and a letter) designation and most have a name as well.<ref name="Numbering system">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/mindandhandbook/history/numbering_system.html |title=Building History and Numbering System |publisher=Mind and Hand Book, MIT |accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> Typically, academic and office buildings are referred to only by number while residence halls are referred to by name. The organization of building numbers roughly corresponds to the order in which the buildings were built and their location relative (north, west, and east) to the original, center cluster of Maclaurin buildings.<ref name="Numbering system"/> Many are connected above ground as well as through an extensive network of underground tunnels, providing protection from the Cambridge weather as well as a venue for [[roof and tunnel hacking]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mit.edu/facilities/maps/tunnelMap.pdf |title=MIT Campus Subterranean Map |publisher=MIT Department of Facilities |accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title='Hackers' Skirt Security in Late-Night MIT Treks |publisher=Boston Globe |last=Abel |first=David |date=March 30, 2000}}</ref>

[[MIT Nuclear Research Reactor|MIT's on-campus nuclear reactor]] is one of the largest university-based [[nuclear reactor]] in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/catalogue/overv.chap6-nrl.shtml |title=MIT Course Catalog |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-07-14}}</ref> The high visibility of the reactor's containment building in a densely populated area has occasionally caused controversy,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www-tech.mit.edu/V105/N59/nucle.59n.html |title=Cambridge evaluates MIT's nuclear reactor |publisher=The Tech |date=January 29, 1986 |accessdate=2008-07-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/LooseNukes/ |title=Loose Nukes: A Special Report |publisher=ABC News |accessdate=2007-04-14}}</ref> but MIT maintains that it is well-secured.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2005/reactor.html |title=MIT Assures Community of Research Reactor Safety |publisher=MIT News Office |date=October 13, 2005
|accessdate=2006-10-05}}</ref> Other notable campus facilities include a pressurized [[wind tunnel]] and a [[ship model basin|towing tank]] for testing ship and ocean structure designs.<ref>{{cite news|title=Supersonic Tunnel Open; Naval Laboratory for Aircraft Dedicated at M.I.T. |publisher=The New York Times |date=December 2, 1949}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Ship Test Tank for M.I.T.; Dr. Killian Announces Plant to Cost $500,000 |publisher=The New York Times |date=February 6, 1949}}</ref> MIT's campus-wide wireless network was completed in the fall of 2005 and consists of nearly 3,000 access points covering {{convert|9400000|sqft|m2|0.1|lk=on}} of campus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://senseable.mit.edu/news/on_us/CNN4November2005.htm |title=MIT maps wireless users across campus |date=2005-11-04 |accessdate=2007-03-03 |publisher=MIT}}</ref>

In 2001, the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] sued MIT for violating [[Clean Water Act]] and [[Clean Air Act]] with regard to its [[hazardous waste]] storage and disposal procedures.<ref name="EPA">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/EPA-WATER/2001/May/Day-03/w11123.htm |title=Notice of Lodging of Consent Decree Pursuant to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, the Clean Air Act, and the Clean Water Act |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency |date=May 3, 2001 |accessdate=2008-07-16}}</ref> MIT settled the suit by paying a $155,000 fine and launching three environmental projects.<ref>{{cite news|title=MIT to create three new environmental projects as part of agreement with EPA |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/epa-0425.html |publisher=MIT News Office |date=April 21, 2001 |first=Robert |last=Sales |accessdate=2008-07-16}}</ref> In connection with capital campaigns to expand the campus, the university has also extensively renovated existing buildings to improve their energy efficiency. MIT has also taken steps to reduce its environmental impact by running alternative fuel campus shuttles, subsidizing [[CharlieCard|public transportation passes]], and a low-emission [[cogeneration]] plant that serves most of the campus electricity and heating requirements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/environment/commitment/conservation.html |title=The Environment at MIT: Conservation |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-08-11}}</ref>

===Architecture===
[[Image:Wfm stata center.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[Stata Center]] houses [[CSAIL]], [[MIT Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems|LIDS]], and the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy]]
As MIT's school of architecture was the first in the United States,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://architecture.mit.edu/welcome.html |title=MIT Architecture: Welcome |accessdate=2007-04-04 |publisher=MIT Department of Architecture}}</ref> it has a history of commissioning progressive buildings.<ref name="Starchitecture">{{cite web |title=Starchitecture on Campus |url=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2004/02/22/starchitecture_on_campus/ |date=2004-02-22 |accessdate=2006-10-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=At MIT, Going Boldly Where No Architect Has Gone Before |last=Flint |first=Anthony |date=October 13, 2002 |Publisher=Boston Globe}}</ref> The first buildings constructed on the Cambridge campus, completed in 1916, are known officially as the ''Maclaurin buildings'' after Institute president [[Richard Maclaurin]] who oversaw their construction. Designed by [[William Welles Bosworth]], these imposing buildings were built of concrete, a first for a non-industrial — much less university — building in the U.S.<ref>{{Harvard reference|last=Jarzombek |first=Mark |authorlink=Mark Jarzombek |title=Designing MIT: Bosworth's New Tech |place=Boston |year=2004 |publisher=Northeastern University Press |p=50-51}}</ref> The utopian [[City Beautiful movement]] greatly influenced Bosworth's design which features the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]]-esque Great Dome, housing the Barker Engineering Library, which overlooks Killian Court, where annual Commencement exercises are held. The friezes of the limestone-clad buildings around Killian Court are engraved with the names of important scientists and philosophers.{{ref_label|k|k|none}} The imposing Building 7 atrium along [[Massachusetts Avenue (Cambridge)|Massachusetts Avenue]] is regarded as the entrance to the [[Infinite Corridor]] and the rest of the campus.

[[Alvar Aalto]]'s Baker House (1947), [[Eero Saarinen]]'s Chapel and Auditorium (1955), and [[I.M. Pei]]'s Green, Dreyfus, Landau, and Wiesner buildings represent high forms of post-war [[modern architecture]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Colleges: More Than Ivy-Covered Halls |date=March 2, 1986 |last=Campbell |first=Robert |publisher=Boston Globe}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,889750,00.html |title=Challenge to the Rectangle |publisher=TIME Magazine |accessdate=2008-08-13 |date=June 29, 1953}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,869832,00.html |title=Flagpole in the Square |publisher=TIME Magazine |date=August 22, 1960 |accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> More recent buildings like [[Frank Gehry]]'s [[Stata Center]] (2004), [[Steven Holl]]'s [[Simmons Hall]] (2002), and [[Charles Correa]]'s Building 46 (2005) are distinctive amongst the Boston area's staid architecture<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2007/02/11/stained_glass/ |title=Stained Glass? |date=February 11, 2007 |accessdate=2007-04-04 |first=Rachel |last=Strutt |quote=Boston isn’t yet fully embracing contemporary architecture… it’s far riskier to put an unapologetically modern building in the historic Back Bay, not far from the neighborhood’s Victorian town houses and Gothic Revival columns.}}</ref> and serve as examples of contemporary campus "starchitecture."<ref name="Starchitecture"/><ref>{{Cite news|title=Architecture's Brand Names Come to Town |publisher=Boston Globe |date=May 20, 2001 |last=Campbell |first=Robert}}</ref> These buildings have not always been popularly accepted;<ref>{{cite news|title=The Campuses of Cambridge, A City Unto Themselves |last=Paul |first=James |publisher=The Washington Post |date=April 9, 1989}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/23/AR2007112300679_pf.html |title=The Hubris of a Great Artist Can Be a Gift or a Curse |publisher=The Washington Post |last=Lewis |first=Roger K. |date=November 24, 2007 |accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> the Princeton Review includes MIT in a list of twenty schools whose campuses are "tiny, unsightly, or both."<ref>{{cite web|title=2007 361 Best College Rankings: Quality of Life: Campus Is Tiny, Unsightly, or Both|url=http://www.princetonreview.com/college/research/rankings/rankingDetails.asp?CategoryID=6&TopicID=50"|publisher=Princeton Review|year=2006|accessdate=2006-10-09}} It should be noted in this regard that the size of the campus is considerable.</ref>

===Housing===
{{main article|Housing at MIT}}
Undergraduates are guaranteed four-year, [[List of MIT dormitories|dormitory]] housing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/housing/undergrad/faqs.html#Eligibility |title=MIT Undergraduate Housing FAQ: 19 Frequently Asked Questions |author=MIT Housing Office |accessdate=2006-10-04 |date=August 25, 2005}}</ref> On-campus housing provides live-in graduate student tutors and faculty housemasters who have the dual role of both helping students and monitoring them for medical or mental health problems. Students are permitted to select their dorm and floor upon arrival on campus, and as a result diverse communities arise in living groups; the dorms on and east of Massachusetts Avenue are stereotypically more involved in [[counterculture|countercultural]] activities. MIT also has five dormitories for single graduate students, and two apartment buildings on campus for families.<ref>{{cite web |title=Graduate Housing Guide - Quick Facts |url=http://web.mit.edu/housing/grad/ghg/quick.html |accessdate=2008-10-10 |publisher=MIT}}</ref>
MIT has a very active Greek and co-op system. Approximately one-half of MIT male undergraduates and one-third of female undergraduates<ref>{{cite web|url=http://people.csail.mit.edu/phw/fsilg/jelke.pdf |title=Consultation Report to Dean Rogers |date=2003-05-23 |accessdate=2006-12-01}}</ref> are affiliated with one of MIT's 36 fraternities, sororities, and independent living groups (FSILGs).<ref>{{cite web
|title=MIT Facts 2008: Housing |url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/housing.html |accessdate=2008-08-12}}</ref> Most FSILGs are located across the river in the [[Back Bay]] owing to MIT's historic location there, but eight fraternities are located on MIT's West Campus and in Cambridge. After the death of Scott Krueger, a new member at the [[Phi Gamma Delta]] fraternity, MIT required all freshmen to live in the dormitory system.<ref>{{Cite news|title=MIT Changes Housing Rules |publisher=The Washington Post |date=August 26, 2002}}</ref> Because the fraternities and independent living groups had previously housed as many as 300 freshmen off-campus, the new policy did not take effect until 2002 after [[Simmons Hall]] opened.<ref>{{cite news|title=For First Time, MIT Assigns Freshmen to Campus Dorms |publisher=Boston Globe |last=Russell |first=Jenna |date=August 25, 2002}}</ref>

==Academics and research==
===Classes===
Undergraduates are required to complete an extensive core curriculum called the General Institute Requirements (GIRs). The science requirement, generally completed during freshman year as prerequisites for classes in science and engineering majors, comprises two semesters of physics classes covering [[Classical Mechanics|classical mechanics]] and [[electricity and magnetism]], two semesters of math covering [[calculus|single variable calculus]] and [[multivariable calculus]], one semester of chemistry, and one semester of biology. Undergraduates are required to take a laboratory class in their major, eight [[Humanities]], [[Arts]], and [[Social Sciences]] (HASS) classes (at least three in a concentration and another four unrelated subjects), and non-varsity athletes must also take four [[physical education]] classes. In May 2006, a faculty task force recommended that the current GIR system be simplified with changes to the science, HASS, and Institute Lab requirements.<ref>{{cite web | title=Proposed Revisions to GIRs Are Unveiled | url=http://www-tech.mit.edu/V126/N25/25gir.html |accessdate=2006-06-28}}</ref>

[[Image:Infinitecorridor.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The [[Infinite Corridor]] is the primary passageway through campus]]
Although the difficulty of MIT coursework has been characterized as "drinking from a fire hose,"<ref>{{cite book|title=Leadership and Organizational Culture: New Perspectives on Administrative Theory and Practice |editors=Thomas J. Sergiovanni, John Edward Corbally |chapter=Leadership as Reflection-in-Action |last=Schön |first=Donald A. |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=1986 |ISBN=0-252-01347-6 |url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0252013476&id=wfjpFezRhuYC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&sig=wQV34XQrsLxQh-qzkwXtFTud3Hs |pages=59 |quote=[In the sixties] Students spoke of their undergraduate experience as "drinking from a fire hose." |accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> the failure rate and freshmen retention rate at MIT are similar to other large research universities.<ref>{{cite web | title=Common Data Set, Enrollment and Persistence | url=http://web.mit.edu/ir/cds/2006/b.html| accessdate=2006-10-06 }}</ref> Some of the pressure for first-year undergraduates is lessened by the existence of the "pass/no-record" grading system. In the first (fall) term, freshmen transcripts only report if a class was passed while no external record exists if a class was not passed. In the second (spring) term, passing grades (ABC) appear on the transcript while non-passing grades are again rendered "no-record".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mitadmissions.org/topics/learning/freshman_year_pass_no_record/ |title=Freshman Year Pass / No Record |publisher=MIT Admissions Office |accessdate=2008-07-16}}</ref>

Most classes rely upon a combination of faculty led lectures, graduate student led recitations, weekly problem sets (p-sets), and tests to teach material, though alternative curricula exist, e.g. [[Experimental Study Group]], Concourse, and Terrascope.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/concourse/www/ |title=Concourse Program at MIT |accessdate=2007-02-01 |publisher=MIT}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/terrascope/www/ |title=Terrascope home page |accessdate=2007-01-08 |publisher=MIT}}</ref> Over time, students compile "bibles", collections of problem set and examination questions and answers used as references for later students. In 1970, the then-Dean of Institute Relations, Benson R. Snyder, published ''[[The Hidden Curriculum]],'' arguing that unwritten regulations, like the implicit curricula of the bibles, are often counterproductive; they fool professors into believing that their teaching is effective and students into believing they have learned the material.

In 1969, MIT began the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP) to enable undergraduates to collaborate directly with faculty members and researchers. The program, founded by [[Margaret MacVicar]], builds upon the MIT philosophy of "learning by doing". Students obtain research projects, colloquially called "UROPs", through postings on the UROP website or by contacting faculty members directly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/UROP/ |title=UROP homepage |accessdate=2007-08-05}}</ref> Over 2,800 undergraduates, 70% of the student body, participate every year for academic credit, pay, or on a volunteer basis.<ref>{{cite web|title=MIT Research and Teaching Firsts |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/special/firsts.html |accessdate=2006-10-06 |publisher=MIT News Office}}</ref> Students often become [[scientific journal|published]], file [[patent application]]s, and/or launch [[startup company|start-up companies]] based upon their experience in UROPs.<ref>{{cite news|title=Use of Undergraduates in Research Is Hailed by M.I.T.; Inventions by Students |publisher=The New York Times |last=Maeroff |first=Gene I. |date=January 11, 1976}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www-tech.mit.edu/V119/N47/UROP_turns_30.47f.html |title=An MIT Original, the Oft Replicated UROP Program Reaches 30 Years |last=Palmer |first=Matthew |date=October 5, 1999 |publisher=The MIT Tech}}</ref>

===Rankings===

[[Image:MIT-barker.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Barker Library, inside the Great Dome]]
In the 2008 [[US News and World Report]] (USNWR) rankings of national universities, MIT's undergraduate program was #7.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t1natudoc_brief.php |title=America's Best Colleges 2008: National Universities |publisher=U.S. News & World Report |accessdate=2008-08-11}}</ref> The [[MIT Sloan School of Management]] is ranked #2 in the nation at the undergraduate level and #4 among MBA programs by USNWR's 2008 rankings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/topprogs_brief.php |title=America's Best Colleges 2008: Best Undergraduate Business Programs |publisher=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/grad/rankings/mba/brief/mbarank_brief.php |title=America's Best Graduate Schools 2008: Top Business Schools |accessdate=2008-08-11 |publisher=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref> In the sciences, MIT has been consistently ranked #1 and #2, with fluctuations depending on the year. MIT has more top-ranked graduate programs than any other university in the 2008 USNWR survey and the School of Engineering has been ranked first among graduate and undergraduate programs since the magazine first released the results of its survey in 1988.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/grad/rankings/phdsci/phdsciindex_brief.php |title=USNWR's Best Graduate Programs in the Sciences |accessdate=2006-12-21 |publisher=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/grad/rankings/eng/engindex.php |title=USNWR's Best Graduate Programs in Engineering |accessdate=2006-12-06 |publisher=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=MIT grad programs rank highly |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2003/usnews.html |date=July 30, 2006 |publisher=MIT News Office}}</ref>

Among other outlets in the world university rankings, MIT is ranked #1 in the Globe by [[Webometrics]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webometrics.info/top4000.asp |title=Top 4000 World Universities |accessdate=2007-05-18 |publisher=Webometrics}}</ref> #1 in technology, #2 in citation, #4 overall, #5 in natural science, and #11 in social science among world universities by the ''[[THES - QS World University Rankings]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/ |title=2006 ''The Times'' Higher Educational Supplement ranking of world’s research universities |accessdate=2007-08-05 |publisher=The Times}}</ref> in the top tier of national research universities by The Center for Measuring University Performance,<ref>{{cite web | title=The Top American Research Universities: 2006 Annual Report |publisher=TheCenter for Measuring University Performance |url=http://mup.asu.edu/research2006.pdf |accessdate=2007-05-18}}</ref> #5 among world universities by [[Shanghai Jiao Tong University]]'s 2006 ''Annual Rankings of World Universities'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2006/ARWU2006_Top100.htm |title=Academic Ranking of World Universities 2006 |accessdate=2007-05-18 |Shanghai Jiao Tong University}}</ref> and #1 by [[The Washington Monthly]]'s rankings of social mobility and national service in 2005 and 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2006/0609.national.html |title=The Washington Monthly College Rankings: National Universities |accessdate=2007-05-18 |publisher=The Washington Monthly}}</ref> A 1995 [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] study of US research universities ranked MIT #1 in "reputation" and #4 in "citations and faculty awards."<ref name="1995 NRC"/><ref>{{Cite web|last=Diamond |first=Nancy |coauthors=Hugh Davis Graham |year=1995 |url=http://www.physics.northwestern.edu/graduate/Graham_Diamond.html |title=How should we rate research universities? |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>

===Research activity===
For fiscal year 2007, MIT spent $598.3 million on on-campus research.<ref name="Research">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/research.html |title=MIT Facts 2008: Research at MIT |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref> The federal government was the largest source of sponsored research, with the [[Department of Health and Human Services]] granting $201.6 million, [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] $90.6 million, [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]] $64.9 million, [[National Science Foundation]] $65.1 million, and [[NASA]] $27.9 million.<ref name="Research"/> MIT employs approximately 3,500 researchers in addition to faculty. In the 2006 academic year, MIT faculty and researchers disclosed 487 inventions, filed 314 patent applications, received 149 patents, and earned $129.2 million in royalties and other income.<ref>{{cite web |title= TLO Statistics for Fiscal Year 2007 |url=http://web.mit.edu/tlo/www/about/office_statistics.html |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref>

[[Image:Shockwave.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Strobe photograph taken by an MIT undergraduate in Edgerton's laboratory]]
In electronics, [[magnetic core memory]], [[radar]], [[single electron transistor]]s, and [[inertial guidance]] controls were invented or substantially developed by MIT researchers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/history_center/rad_lab.html |title=IEEE History Center: MIT Radiation Laboratory |publisher=IEEE |accessdate=2008-06-09}}</ref><ref name="RLE History"/> [[Harold Eugene Edgerton]] was a pioneer in [[high speed photography]]. [[Claude E. Shannon]] developed much of modern [[information theory]] and discovered the application of Boolean logic to [[digital circuit]] design theory.

[[Image:Heckert GNU white.svg|right|thumb|150px|The [[GNU project]] and [[free software movement]] originated at MIT]]
In the domain of computer science, MIT faculty and researchers made fundamental contributions to [[Norbert Wiener|cybernetics]], [[Marvin Minsky|artificial intelligence]], [[Joseph Weizenbaum|computer language]]s, [[Patrick Winston|machine learning]], [[Rodney Brooks|robotics]], and [[Ronald Rivest|public-key cryptography]].<ref name="RLE History">{{cite web|url=http://www.rle.mit.edu/about/about_history.html |title=Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT: History |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Guttag |first=John |title=The Electron and the Bit, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, 1902-2002 |year=2003}}</ref> Professors [[Hal Abelson]] and [[Gerald Jay Sussman]] wrote the popular ''[[Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs]]'' textbook and co-founded the [[Free Software Foundation]] with Richard Stallman. [[David D. Clark]] made fundamental contributions in developing the [[Internet]]. Popular technologies like [[X Window System]], [[Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos]], [[Zephyr protocol|Zephyr]], and [[Hesiod (name service)|Hesiod]] were created for [[Project Athena]] in the 1980s. MIT was one of the original collaborators in the development of the [[Multics]] operating system, a highly secure predecessor of [[UNIX]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.multicians.org/history.html |title=Multics History |publisher=Multics |accessdate=2008-06-09}}</ref>

The physics faculty have described subatomic and quantum phenomena like [[Samuel C. C. Ting|elementary particles]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1976/ |title=1976 Nobel Prize in Physics |publisher=Nobel Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Steven Weinberg|electroweak force]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1979/ |title=1979 Nobel Prize in Physics |publisher=Nobel Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Wolfgang Ketterle|Bose-Einstein condensate]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2001/ |title=2001 Nobel Prize in Physics |publisher=Nobel Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Martin Deutsch|positronium]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/deutsch.html |title=Martin Deutsch, MIT physicist who discovered positronium, dies at 85 |date=August 20, 2002 |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Clifford Shull|neutron scattering]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1994/ |title=1994 Nobel Prize in Physics |publisher=Nobel Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Frank Wilczek|asymptotic freedom]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2004/ |title=2004 Nobel Prize in Physics |publisher=Nobel Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Patrick A. Lee|weak localization]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://users.ictp.it/~sci_info/awards/Dirac/DiracMedallists/DiracMedal05.html |title=Dirac Medallists 2005 |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Abdus Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics}}</ref> [[Roman Jackiw|quantum field theory]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://users.ictp.it/~sci_info/awards/Dirac/DiracMedallists/DiracMedal98.html |title=Dirac Medallists 1998 |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Abdus Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics}}</ref> [[Daniel Z. Freedman|super gravity]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://users.ictp.it/~sci_info/awards/Dirac/DiracMedallists/DiracMedal93.html |title=Dirac Medallists 1993 |publisher=Abdus Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Henry Way Kendall|quark model]],<ref name="Physics Nobel 1990">{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1990/ |title=1990 Nobel Prize in Physics |publisher=Nobel Foundation |accessdate=2008-08-12}}</ref> [[Jerome Isaac Friedman|nucleus structure]],<ref name="Physics Nobel 1990"/> [[Goldstone boson]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://users.ictp.it/~sci_info/awards/Dirac/DiracMedallists/DiracMedal91.html |title=Dirac Medallists 1991 |publisher=Abdus Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Daniel Kleppner|quantum optics]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wolffund.org.il/full.asp?id=14 |title=The 2005 Wolf Foundation Prize in Physics |publisher=Wolf Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> as well as cosmological phenomena like [[Alan Guth|cosmic inflation]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://users.ictp.it/~sci_info/awards/Dirac/DiracMedallists/DiracMedal02.html |title=Dirac Medallists 2002 |publisher=Abdus Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> and [[Bruno Rossi|X-ray astronomy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wolffund.org.il/full.asp?id=111 |title=The 1987 Wolf Foundation Prize in Physics |publisher=Wolf Foundation |accessdate=2008-08-12}}</ref>[[Victor Weisskopf]], in addition to his contributions to [[quantum field theory]], worked as a researcher on the [[Manhattan Project]] and co-founded the [[Union of Concerned Scientists]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/vweisskopf.html |title=Victor Weisskopf Biographical Memoir |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref>

Members of the chemistry department have discovered number syntheses like [[Richard R. Schrock|metathesis]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2005/ |title=2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry |publisher=Nobel Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[K. Barry Sharpless|stereoselective oxidation reactions]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2001/ |title=2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry |publisher=Nobel Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Julius Rebek|synthetic self-replicating molecules]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://w3.mit.edu/newsoffice/tt/1990/may09/23124.html |title=Self-Reproducing Molecules Reported by MIT Researchers |publisher=MIT News Office |date=May 9, 1990 |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Mario J. Molina|CFC-ozone reactions]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1995 |title=1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry |publisher=Nobel Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> and [[John Waugh|nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wolffund.org.il/full.asp?id=47 |title=The 1983/4 Wolf Foundation Prize in Chemistry |publisher=Wolf Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Penicillin]] was also first synthesized at MIT.<ref>{{cite news|title=Professor John C. Sheehan Dies at 76 |date=April 1, 1992 |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1992/sheehan-0401.html |publisher=MIT News Office |accessdate=2008-06-09}}</ref>

MIT biologists have been recognized for their discoveries and advances in [[RNA]], [[Har Gobind Khorana|protein synthesis]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1968/ |title=1968 Nobel Prize in Medicine |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref> [[H. Robert Horvitz|apoptosis]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2002/ |title=2002 Nobel Prize in Medicine |publisher=Nobel Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Phillip Allen Sharp|gene splicing and introns]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1993/ |title=1993 Nobel Prize in Medicine |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref> [[Susumu Tonegawa|antibody diversity]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1987/ |title=1987 Nobel Prize in Medicine |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref> [[David Baltimore|reverse transcriptase]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1975/ |title=1975 Nobel Prize in Medicine |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref> [[Robert Weinberg|oncogenes]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wolffund.org.il/full.asp?id=20 |title=The 2004 Wolf Foundation Prize in Medicine |publisher=Wolf Foundation |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Salvador Luria|phage resistance]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1969/ |title=1969 Nobel Prize in Medicine |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref> and [[Jerome Lettvin|neurophysiology]].<ref name="RLE timeline">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1996/timeline-1030.html |title=An RLE timeline |publisher=MIT News Office |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> MIT researchers discovered the genetic bases for [[Lou Gehrig's disease]] and [[Huntington's disease]].<ref name="MIT Firsts">{{cite web|title=MIT Research and Teaching Firsts |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/special/firsts.html |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-06-09}}</ref> [[Eric Lander]] was one of the principal leaders of the [[Human Genome Project]].<ref>{{citation |last=Lander |first=Eric |title=Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome |publication=Nature |year=2001 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11237011 |doi=10.1038/35057062 |journal=Nature |volume=409 |pages=860}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Eric S. Lander |url=http://www.broad.mit.edu/about/bios/bio-lander.html |publisher=Broad Institute |accessdate=2008-06-09}}</ref>

Faculty and researchers belonging to the economics and management departments have contributed to the fields of [[Jay W. Forrester|system dynamics]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/btforr.html |title=A Science Odyessy |publisher=PBS |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Robert C. Merton|financial engineering]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1997/ |title=Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1997 |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref> [[Robert Solow|neo-classical growth model]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1987/ |title=Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1987 |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref> and [[Paul Samuelson|welfare economics]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1970/ |title=Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1970 |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref> and developed fundamental financial models like the [[Franco Modigliani|Modigliani-Miller theorem]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1985/ |title=Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1985 |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref> and [[Myron Scholes|Black-Scholes]] equation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1997/ |title=Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1997 |accessdate=2008-06-12 |publisher=Nobel Foundation}}</ref>

In the domain of humanities, arts, and social sciences, linguists [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[Morris Halle]] authored seminal texts on [[generative grammar]] and [[phonology]],<ref>{{cite news|title=A Changed Noam Chomsky Simplifies |last=Fox |first=Margalit |date=December 5, 1998 |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D01EEDB113BF936A35751C1A96E958260 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4120040,00.html |title=Conscience of a nation |publisher=The Guardian |date=January 20, 2001 |accessdate=2008-08-12 |last=Jaggi |first=Maya}}</ref> [[Henry Jenkins]] is a prominent [[media studies|scholar]] of [[participatory culture]],<ref>{{cite news|publisher=Forbes |url=http://www.forbes.com/2005/10/19/jenkins-henry-internet-culture-comm05-cx_de_1024jenkins.html |title=Henry Jenkins On The Acceleration of Change |date=October 24, 2005 |accessdate=2008-08-12 |last=Ewalt |first=David M.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/blogs/sfgate/detail?blogid=19&entry_id=14554 |title=SXSW: Henry Jenkins is God |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle, The Tech Chronicles |date=March 20, 2007 |accessdate=2008-08-12 |last=Fost |first=Dan}}</ref> [[Sherry Turkle]] published influential books on [[online identity]],<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive//4.04/turkle.html?person=sherry_turkle&topic_set=wiredpeople |title=Sex, Lies and Avatars |last=McCorduck |first=Pamela |publisher=WIRED |date=April 1996 |accessdate=2008-08-12}}</ref> [[John Harbison]] won the [[Pulitzer Prize for Music]] and [[MacArthur Fellowship]] for his operatic scores,<ref>{{cite news|title=Courting the Muse in the 20th Century Despite a Pulitzer and a MacArthur grant, contemporary composer John Harbison still has to fight the good fight |publisher=Los Angeles Times |date=April 22, 1990 |last=Isenberg |first=Barbara}}</ref> [[History of Japan|Japanese historian]] [[John W. Dower]] won the [[Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction]] and [[National Book Award]] for ''[[Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II]]'',<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/entertainment/july-dec99/dower_nba_11-23.html |title=National Book Award |date=November 23, 1999 |accessdate=2008-08-12 |last=Fransworth |first=Elizabeth |publisher=PBS NewsHour}}</ref> and [[Dominican-American]] author [[Junot Díaz]] won the [[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction]] for his ''[[The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2188494/ |title=Questions for Junot Díaz |last=O'Rourke |first=Meghan |date=April 8, 2008 |accessdate=2008-08-12 |publisher=Slate.com}}</ref> The [[MIT Media Lab]], founded in 1985 and known for its unconventional research,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.forbes.com/2002/01/08/0108medialab.html |title=MIT Media Lab Tightens Its Belt |last=Herper |first=Matthew |date=January 8, 2002 |accessdate=2008-08-12 |publisher=Forbes}}</ref> has been home to [[Constructivism (learning theory)|constructivist]] educator and [[Logo (programming language)|Logo]] creator [[Seymour Papert]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.boston.com/lifestyle/articles/2008/07/12/in_search_of_a_beautiful_mind/ |title=In Search of A Beautiful Mind |last=Matchan |first=Linda |date=July 12, 2008 |accessdate=2008-08-12}}</ref> [[Lego Mindstorms]] and [[Scratch programming language|Scratch]] creator [[Mitchel Resnick]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/digicult/shenk2.htm |title=Behold the toys of tomorrow: "Thinking" Toys |last=Shenk |first=David |date=January 7, 1999 |publisher=The Atlantic}}</ref> [[Kismet (robot)|Kismet]] creator [[Cynthia Breazeal]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9806E0DE1239F933A25755C0A9659C8B63 |title=A Conversation With: Cynthia Breazeal; A Passion to Build a Better Robot, One With Social Skills and a Smile |date=June 10, 2003 |accessdate=2008-08-12 |publisher=The New York Times |last=Dreifus |First=Claudia}}</ref> [[affective computing]] pioneer [[Rosalind Picard]],<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/digicult/dc980429.htm |title=Are we ready for computers that know how we feel? |last=Blume |first=Harvey |date=April 29, 1998 |accessdate=2008-08-12 |publisher=The Atlantic}}</ref> and [[electronic music|hyperinstrumentalist]] [[Tod Machover]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Tod Machover: Looking at 1999 and beyond with influential figures in the world of arts and entertainment; This Does Compute; Music is in the air, and the furniture, for the leader of MIT's Opera of the Future lab. |publisher=Los Angeles Times |date=December 26, 1999 |last=Swed |first=Mark}}</ref>

Given the scale and reputation of MIT's accomplishments, allegations of [[research misconduct]] or improprieties have received substantial press coverage. Professor [[David Baltimore]], a [[Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Laureate]], became embroiled in an misconduct investigation starting in 1986 that led to Congressional hearings in 1991.<ref name="Baltimore">{{cite news|title=Journal Cites New Evidence ex-MIT Scientist Faked Data |last=Saltus |first=Richard |publisher=The Boston Globe |date=September 28, 1990}}</ref><ref name="Nobel Winner">{{cite news|title=Nobel Winner Is Caught Up in a Dispute Over Study |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7D8133FF931A25757C0A96E948260&scp=22&sq=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology+misconduct&st=nyt |publisher=The New York Times |date=April 12, 1988 |last=Boffey |first=Philip}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Weiss |first=Philip |url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/20/specials/baltimore-mag.html |title=Conduct Unbecoming |publisher=The New York Times |date=October 29, 1989 |accessdate=2008-01-27}}</ref> Professor [[Ted Postol]] has accused the MIT administration since 2000 of attempting to [[Whitewash (censorship)|whitewash]] potential research misconduct at the Lincoln Lab facility involving a [[ballistic missile defense]] test, though a final investigation into the matter has not been completed.<ref>{{cite news|title=MIT Faces Charges of Fraud, Cover-up on Missile Test Study |publisher=Boston Globe |date=November 29, 2002 |last=Abel |first=David}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Pierce |first=Charles P. |title=Going Postol |publisher=The Boston Globe |date=October 23, 2005 |url=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2005/10/23/going_postol/ |accessdate=2008-01-27}}</ref>

==Traditions and student activities==
{{main article|Traditions and student activities at MIT|MIT class ring}}
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The faculty and students body highly value [[meritocracy]] and technical proficiency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/admissions/pdf/MITinstructions.pdf |title=MIT freshman application & financial aid information |first=Marilee |last=Jones |accessdate=2007-01-02 |publisher=MIT Admissions Office |quote=We are a meritocracy. We judge each other by our ideas, our creativity and our accomplishments, not by who our families are.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/boardDocs/speeches/2006/20060609/default.htm |title=2006 Commencement Speech at MIT |first=Ben S. |last=Bernanke |date=2006-06-09 |accessdate=2007-01-02 |quote=Mathematical approaches to economics have at times been criticized as lacking in practical value. Yet the MIT Economics Department has trained many economists who have played leading roles in government and in the private sector, including the current heads of four central banks: those of [[Central Bank of Chile|Chile]], [[Bank of Israel|Israel]], [[Banca d'Italia|Italy]], and, I might add, the [[Federal Reserve System|United States]].}}</ref> MIT has never awarded an [[honorary degree]] nor does it award athletic scholarships, [[ad eundem degree]]s, or [[Latin honors]] upon graduation.<ref>{{cite web|year= 2001 |url = http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/commdegrees.html |title = No honorary degrees is an MIT tradition going back to… Thomas Jefferson |publisher = MIT News Office |date = June 8, 2001 |accessdate =2006-05-07 |quote=MIT's founder, [[William Barton Rogers]], regarded the practice of giving honorary degrees as 'literary almsgiving …of spurious merit and noisy popularity…'}}</ref> However, MIT has twice awarded honorary professorships; to [[Winston Churchill]] in 1949 and [[Salman Rushdie]] in 1993.<ref>{{cite news|first=Daniel C.|last=Stevenson |url=http://www-tech.mit.edu/V113/N61/rushdie.61n.html |title=Rushdie Stuns Audience 26-100 |publisher=The Tech}}</ref>

[[Image:Brass Rat 2007 Finger.jpg|thumb|right|A "[[Brass Rat]]" for the Class of 2007]]
Students' passion for their subjects is balanced by the perception that their classes are more rigorous than their "grade inflated" peer institutions{{ref_label|h|h|none}} — a love-hate relationship embodied by the school's informal motto/[[initialism]] IHTFP ("I hate this fucking place," jocularly euphemized as "I have truly found paradise," "Institute has the finest professors," etc.).<ref>{{cite web |last=Bauer |first=M.J. |title=IHTFP |url=http://www.mit.edu/people/mjbauer/ihtfp.html |accessdate=2005-11-23}}</ref>

Current students and alumni wear a large, heavy, distinctive class ring known as the "[[Brass Rat]]."<ref name="Brass Rat">{{cite book|title=Massachusetts Curiosities: Quirky Characters, Roadside Oddities, & Other Offbeat Stuff |publisher=Globe Pequot |date=2004 |isbn=0762730706 |last=Gellerman |first=Bruce |coauthors=Erik Sherman |pages=65-66}}</ref> Originally created in 1929, the ring's official name is the "Standard Technology Ring."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alumweb.mit.edu/classes/1993/brassrat.html |title=Ring History ('93 class webpage) |accessdate=2006-12-26}}</ref> The undergraduate ring design (a separate graduate student version exists, as well) varies slightly from year to year to reflect the unique character of the MIT experience for that class, but always features a three-piece design, with the MIT seal and the class year each appearing on a separate face, flanking a large rectangular bezel bearing an image of a [[American Beaver|beaver]].<ref name="Brass Rat"/>

===Activities===
{{main article|Student activities at MIT}}
{{see also|MIT hacks}}
[[Image:MIT firetruck hack.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A fire truck was placed on the Great Dome by students on September 11, 2006]]
MIT has over 380 recognized student activity groups,<ref>{{cite web|title=MIT Association of Student Activities |url=http://web.mit.edu/asa/resources/group-list.html |accessdate=2006-11-01}}</ref> including a [[WMBR|campus radio station]], ''[[The Tech (newspaper)|The Tech]]'' student newspaper, an annual [[MIT $100K Entrepreneurship Competition|entrepreneurship competition]], and weekly screenings of popular films by the [[Student life and culture at MIT#Lecture Series Committee|Lecture Series Committee]]. Less traditional activities include the "world's largest open-shelf [[MIT Science Fiction Society|collection of science fiction]]" in English, [[TMRC|model railroad club]], and a vibrant [[Tech Squares|folk dance]] scene.

The [[Student life and culture at MIT#Independent Activities Period|Independent Activities Period]] is a four-week long "term" offering hundreds of optional classes, lectures, demonstrations, and other activities throughout the month of January between the Fall and Spring semesters. Some of the most popular recurring IAP activities are the 6.270, [[6.370 (MIT)|6.370]], and MasLab [[Student life and culture at MIT#Robotics competitions|competitions]],<ref name="Discover">{{cite news|url=http://discovermagazine.com/2005/jun/mit-nerds/ |first=Claudia Glenn |last=Dowling |title=MIT Nerds |date=June 5, 2005 |accessdate=2007-08-17 |work=Discover Magazine}}</ref> the annual [[MIT Mystery Hunt|"mystery hunt"]],<ref name="Globe">{{cite news |url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2005/01/23/her_mystery_achievement_to_boldly_scavenge_at_mit/ |last=Bridges
|first=Mary |publisher=Boston Globe |title=Her Mystery achievement: to boldly scavenge at MIT |date=January 23, 2005 |accessdate=2007-01-16}}</ref> and [[Student life and culture at MIT#Charm School|Charm School]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F04E7D8113EF935A35751C0A9679C8B63 |title=What, Geeks at M.I.T.? Not With This Class |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=February 6, 2001 |accessdate=2008-08-12 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref>
Many MIT students also engage in "hacking," which encompasses both the [[Roof and tunnel hacking|physical exploration of areas]] that are generally off-limits (such as rooftops and steam tunnels), as well as [[hack (practical joke)|elaborate practical jokes]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Peterson |first=T.F. |title=Nightwork: A History of Hacks and Pranks at MIT |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0262661379 |year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=These Are Not Your Ordinary College Pranks |publisher=The Boston Globe |date=April 1, 2003 |last=Biskup |first=Agnieska}}</ref> Recent hacks have included the theft of [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]]'s cannon,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mitcannon.com/ |title=Howe & Ser Moving Co. |accessdate=2007-04-04}}</ref> reconstructing a [[Wright Flyer]] atop the Great Dome,<ref>{{cite news|title=MIT Pranksters Wing It For Wright Celebration |publisher=Boston Globe |date=December 18, 2003 |first=Marcella |last=Bombadieri |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/cgi-bin/ngate/BG?ext_docid=0FF8A4DEBA245CA5&ext_hed=MIT%20PRANKSTERS%20WING%20IT%20FOR%20WRIGHT%20CELEBRATION&ext_theme=bg&pubcode=BG}}</ref> and adorning the [[John Harvard (clergyman)|John Harvard]] statue with the [[Master Chief (Halo)|Master Chief's Spartan Helmet]].<ref>{{cite web|title=MIT Hackers & Halo 3 |publisher=The Tech |url=http://www-tech.mit.edu/V127/N41/graphics/halo3.html |accessdate=2007-09-25}}</ref>

===Athletics===
The student athletics program offers 41 varsity-level sports, the largest program in the nation.<ref name="Athletics">{{Cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/athletics.html |title=MIT Facts 2008:Athletics and Recreation |publisher=MIT |accessdate-2008-07-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/fofdaper/docs/Varsity-sports-facts.html |title=MIT Varsity Sports fact sheet |accessdate=2007-01-06}}</ref> MIT participates in the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]]'s [[Division III]], the [[New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference]], the [[New England Football Conference]], and [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]]'s Division I and [[College rowing (United States)#Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges|Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges (EARC)]] for crew.

The Institute's sports teams are called the Engineers, their [[mascot]] since 1914 being a [[American Beaver|beaver]], "nature's engineer." Lester Gardner, a member of the Class of 1898, provided the following justification: {{cquote|The beaver not only typifies the Tech, but his habits are particularly our own. The beaver is noted for his engineering and mechanical skills and habits of industry. His habits are nocturnal. He does his best work in the dark.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alumweb.mit.edu/classes/1993/brassrat.html |title=MIT '93 Brass Rat |accessdate=2007-03-23}}</ref> }}

[[Image:MITengineerslogo.PNG|left|200px|thumb|Official logo of MIT Athletics]]
MIT fielded several dominant intercollegiate [[Tiddlywinks]] teams through 1980, winning national and world championships.<ref>{{cite news|title=MIT's World Champions
|url=http://www-tech.mit.edu/archives/VOL_092/TECH_V092_S0210_P007.pdf |date=April 25, 1975 |pages=7 |volume=92 |first=Fred |last=Shapiro |publisher=The Tech |accessdate=2006-10-04}}</ref> The Engineers have won or placed highly in national championships in pistol, taekwondo, track and field, swimming and diving, cross country, crew, fencing, and water polo. MIT has produced 128 [[All-America|Academic All-Americans]], the third largest membership in the country for any division and the highest number of members for Division III.<ref name="Athletics"/>

The [[Zesiger sports and fitness center]] (Z-Center) which opened in 2002, significantly expanded the capacity and quality of MIT's athletics, physical education, and recreation offerings to 10 buildings and 26 acres of playing fields. The {{convert|124000|sqft|m2|-2|sing=on}} facility features an Olympic-class swimming pool, international-scale squash courts, and a two-story fitness center.<ref name="Athletics"/>

==People==
===Students===
{| style="text-align:center; float: right; margin-left: 2em;" align="center" class="wikitable"
|+ ''Minority representation in MIT student body''<ref name="Enrollments"/><ref name="International Students">{{cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/international.shtml |title=MIT Facts 2008: International Students and Scholars |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>
! !! Undergraduate !! Graduate!!U.S. Census<ref>See [[Demographics of the United States]] for references.</ref>
|-
! [[African American]]
| 6.3% || 1.8% || 12.1%
|-
! [[Asian American]]
| 26.4% || 11.7% || 4.3%
|-
! [[Hispanics in the United States|Hispanic American]]
| 11.6% || 2.9% || 14.5%
|-
! [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
| 1.3% || 0.3% || 0.9%
|-
! [[International student]]
| 9.2% || 39.3% || (N/A)
|}

MIT enrolled 4,172 undergraduates and 6,048 postgraduate students in the 2007–2008 school year.<ref name="Enrollments"/> In 2007, women constituted 44.5 percent of all undergraduates and 30 percent of graduate students. The same year, MIT students represented all 50 states, the [[District of Columbia]], three [[Incorporated territory#Classification of current U.S. territories|U.S. Territories]], and 113 foreign countries.<ref name="Enrollments"/>

The admissions rate for freshmen in 2007 was 11.9% with over 69% of admitted freshmen choosing to enroll. Although graduate admissions are less centralized, they are similarly selective: 19.7% of 16,153 applications were admitted with 61.2% of admitted candidates enrolling.<ref name="Admission">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/admission.shtml |title=MIT Facts 2008: Admission to MIT |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>

Tuition is $37,750 for nine months, although 64% of undergraduates receive need-based financial aid and 87% of graduate students are supported by MIT fellowships, research assistantships, or teaching assistantships.<ref name="Graduate Education">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/graduate.html |title=MIT Facts 2008: Graduate Education |accessdate=2008-07-22 |publisher=MIT}}</ref><ref name="Tuition">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/facts/tuition.html |title=MIT Facts 2008: Tuition and Financial Aid |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>

MIT has been nominally [[coeducation]]al since admitting [[Ellen Swallow Richards]] in 1870. Richards also became the first female member of MIT's faculty, specializing in [[environmental health|sanitary chemistry]].<ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/environment/richards.html |author= Chemical Heritage Foundation |title= Ellen Swallow Richards |date= 2005 |work= Chemical Achievers, The Human Face of Chemical Sciences |accessdate= 2006-11-04}}</ref> Female students remained a very small minority (numbered in dozens) prior to the completion of the first wing of a women's dormitory, [[Katherine Dexter McCormick|McCormick Hall]], in 1963.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ldq-ZgxszzMC&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=%22the+woman+at+mit%22&source=web&ots=K4UDoqD3GR&sig=Xr8xe1_uCGW5-YgbkyVM-vRr3u0 |title=MIT Campus Planning 1960-2000 |author=O. Robert Simha |date=2001 |page=32 |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2007-04-09 |quote=In 1959, 158 women were enrolled at MIT.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://alum.mit.edu/ne/noteworthy/news-features/alumnae-ages.html |title=MIT Panel "Alumnae Through the Ages" Reflects on Changes for Women |first=Lauren |last=Clark |accessdate=2007-04-09 |quote=When Drake arrived on campus 50 years ago, she was one of only 16 women in a class of 1,000.}}</ref> Between 1993 and 2006, the number of women undergraduates increased from 34 percent to 47.5% percent, women graduate students increased from 20 percent to 29 percent, and women currently outnumber men in 10 undergraduate majors.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2003/cmv.html |title=Charles Vest to step down from MIT presidency |date=December 5, 2003 |accessdate=2006-06-28 |publisher=MIT News Office}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www-swiss.ai.mit.edu/~hal/women-enrollment-comm/final-report-ch1.html |title= Chapter 1: Male/Female enrollment patterns in EECS at MIT and other schools |date= [[January 3]] 1995 |accessdate= 2006-12-08 |author= EECS Women Undergraduate Enrollment Committee |work = Women Undergraduate Enrollment in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT}}</ref>

A number of student deaths in the late 1990s and early 2000s resulted in considerable media attention to MIT's culture and student life.<ref name="Krueger">{{cite news|url=http://chronicle.com/free/v45/i11/11a05701.htm |title= MIT's Inaction Blamed for Contributing to Death of a Freshman |publisher= Chronicle of Higher Education |date=October 6, 1998 |accessdate=2006-10-07}}</ref><ref name="Shin">{{cite web|url= http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00EED7113FF93BA15757C0A9649C8B63&sec=health&pagewanted=4 |publisher= New York Times |title= Who Was Responsible for Elizabeth Shin? |date=April 28, 2002 |accessdate= 2006-10-07}}</ref> After the alcohol-related death of Scott Krueger in September 1997 as a new member at the [[Phi Gamma Delta]] fraternity, MIT began requiring all freshmen to live in the dormitory system.<ref>{{cite news|title= Institute Will Pay Kruegers $6M for Role in Death |url=http://www-tech.mit.edu/V120/N42/42krueger.42n.html |accessdate= 2006-10-04 |date=September 15, 2000 |last= Levine |first= Dana |publisher= The Tech}}</ref> The 2000 suicide of MIT undergraduate [[Elizabeth Shin]] drew attention to suicides at MIT and created a controversy over whether MIT had an unusually high suicide rate.<ref>{{cite news |last=Healy |first=Patrick |title=11 years, 11 suicides—Critics Say Spate of MIT Jumping Deaths Show a 'Contagion' |publisher=The Boston Globe |date=February 5, 2001 |pages=A1}}</ref><ref> {{cite news|url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/p021001a.html |title= Prevention on Campus |author= Elizabeth Fried Ellen, LICSW |publisher= Psychiatric Times |year= 2002 |accessdate= 2006-06-26}}</ref> In late 2001 a task force's recommended improvements in student [[mental health]] services<ref>{{cite news|year= 2001 |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/mhtf-facts.html |publisher= MIT New Office |title= MIT Mental Health Task Force Fact Sheet |date=November 14, 2001 |accessdate= 2006-06-25}}</ref> were implemented, including expanding staff and operating hours at the mental health center.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/mhtf-1128.html
|publisher= MIT News Office |title= Clay endorses Mental Health Task Force Recommendations |date= November 28, 2001 |accessdate= 2006-06-25}}</ref> These and later cases were significant as well because they sought to prove the negligence and liability of university administrators ''[[in loco parentis]]''.<ref name="Shin"/>

===Faculty===
{{main article|List of Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty}}
MIT has 1008 faculty members, of whom 195 are women and 172 are minorities.<ref name="Faculty and Staff"/> Faculty are responsible for lecturing classes, advising both graduate and undergraduate students, and sitting on academic committees, as well as conducting original research. 25 [[Nobel Prize laureates by university affiliation|MIT faculty members]] have won the [[Nobel Prize]].<ref name="Faculty and Staff"/><ref name="Faculty Awards"/> Among current and former faculty members, there are 51 [[National Medal of Science]] and [[National Medal of Technology|Technology]] recipients, 80 [[Guggenheim Fellow]]s, 6 [[Fulbright Scholar]]s, 29 [[MacArthur Fellow]]s, 5 [[Dirac Medal]] winners, 5 [[Wolf Prize]] winners, and 4 [[Kyoto Prize]] winners.<ref name="Faculty Awards"/> Faculty members who have made extraordinary contributions to their research field as well as the MIT community are granted appointments as [[Institute Professor]]s for the remainder of their tenures.

A 1998 MIT study concluded that a systemic bias against female faculty existed in its college of science,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/fnl/women/women.html |title=A Study on the Status of Women Faculty in Science at MIT |publisher=MIT Faculty News Letter |date=1999}}</ref> although the study's methods were controversial.{{ref_label|g|g|none}} Since the study, women have headed departments within the Schools of Science and Engineering, and MIT has appointed five female vice presidents,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2003/cmv.html |title=Charles Vest to step down from MIT presidency |date=December 5, 2003 |accessdate=2006-06-28 |publisher=MIT News Office}}</ref> although allegations of sexism continue to be made.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2007/12/06/tenure_at_mit_still_largely_a_male_domain/ |title=Tenure at MIT Still Largely a Male Domain |last=Wertheimer |first=Linda |publisher=Boston Globe |date=December 6, 2007 |accessdate=2008-07-25}}</ref> [[Susan Hockfield]], a molecular [[neurobiology|neurobiologist]], became MIT's 16th president in [[2004]] and is the first woman to hold the post.

Tenure outcomes have vaulted MIT into the national spotlight on several occasions. The 1984 dismissal of [[David F. Noble]], a historian of technology, became a ''[[cause celebre]]'' about the extent to which academics are granted [[freedom of speech]] after he published several books and papers critical of MIT's and other research universities' reliance upon financial support from corporations and the military.<ref name="Noble">{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE7DF1130F933A2575AC0A960948260&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fOrganizations%2fM%2fMassachusetts%20Institute%20of%20Technology
|title=Professor Sues M.I.T. Over Refusal of Tenure |publisher= The New York Times |year=September 10, 1986 |accessdate=2006-10-03}}</ref> Former materials science professor Gretchen Kalonji sued MIT in 1994 alleging that she was denied tenure because of sexual discrimination.<ref name="Kalonji">{{cite news|title=Ex-MIT professor who was denied tenure files sex bias suit |publisher=The Boston Globe |last=Vaznis |first=James |date=January 15, 1994}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2007/12/06/tenure_at_mit_still_largely_a_male_domain/ |title=Tenure at MIT Still Largely a Male Domain |last=Wertheimer |first=Linda |publisher=Boston Globe |date=December 6, 2007 |accessdate=2008-07-25}}</ref> In 1997, the [[Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination]] issued a probable cause finding supporting James Jennings' allegations of racial discrimination after a senior faculty search committee in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning did not offer him reciprocal tenure.<ref name="Jennings">{{cite news|title=MCAD supports scholar's claim of bias by MIT; University Offered job, but no tenure |date=October 22, 1997 |publisher=The Boston Globe |last=Dowdy |first=Zachary}}</ref> In 2006-2007, MIT's denial of tenure to African-American biological engineering professor [[James Sherley]] reignited accusations of racism in the tenure process, eventually leading to a protracted public dispute with the administration, a brief [[hunger strike]], and the resignation of Professor [[Frank L. Douglas]] in protest.<ref name="Sherley">{{cite web|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/02/06/professor_accuses_mit_of_racism/|title=Professor accuses MIT of racism |publisher=The Boston Globe |accessdate=2007-12-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/06/04/mit_center_director_resigns_in_protest_of_tenure_decision/|title=MIT center director resigns in protest of tenure decision |publisher=The Boston Globe |accessdate=2007-12-19}}</ref>

===Alumni===
{{main article|List of Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni}}
Many of MIT's over 110,000 alumni and alumnae have had considerable success in scientific research, public service, education, and business. Twenty-six MIT alumni have [[List of Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni#Alumni Nobel laureates|won the Nobel Prize]] and 37 have been selected as [[Rhodes Scholar]]s.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/ir/pop/awards/index.html |title=Awards and Honors |author=MIT Office of Institutional Research |accessdate=2006-11-05}}</ref>

Alumni currently in American politics and public service include [[Chairman of the Federal Reserve]] [[Ben Bernanke]], [[List of United States Senators from New Hampshire|New Hampshire Senator]] [[John E. Sununu]], U.S. [[Secretary of Energy]] [[Samuel Bodman]], [[Massachusetts's 1st congressional district|MA-1]] Representative [[John Olver]], [[California's 13th congressional district|CA-13]] Representative [[Pete Stark]]. MIT alumni in international politics include [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|British Foreign Minister]] [[David Miliband]], former [[U.N. Secretary General]] [[Kofi Annan]], former [[Iraq]]i Deputy Prime Minister [[Ahmed Chalabi]], and former [[Prime Minister of Israel]] [[Benjamin Netanyahu]].

MIT alumni founded or co-founded many notable companies, such as [[Robert Noyce|Intel]], [[James Smith McDonnell|McDonnell]] [[Donald Wills Douglas, Sr.|Douglas]], [[Cecil Howard Green|Texas Instruments]], [[Robert Metcalfe|3Com]], [[Andrew Viterbi|Qualcomm]], [[Amar Bose|Bose]], [[Vannevar Bush|Raytheon]], [[Fred C. Koch|Koch Industries]], [[Willard Rockwell|Rockwell International]], [[Robert A. Swanson|Genentech]], and [[John Thompson Dorrance|Campbell Soup]]. The annual Entrepreneurship Competition has lead to the creation of over 85 companies that have, in aggregate, generated 2,500 jobs, received $600 million in [[venture capital]] funding, and have a [[market capitalization]] of over $10 billion.<ref name="MIT 100K">{{cite web|title=MIT 100K: About |url=http://www.mit100k.org/about.php |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-06-09}}</ref> A 1997 study claimed that the combined revenues of companies founded by MIT affiliates would make it the twenty-fourth largest economy in the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=MIT: The Impact of Innovation |url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/founders/Founders2.pdf |date=March 1997 |author=[[Bank of Boston]] Economics Department |accessdate=2006-10-04}}</ref>

Prominent institutions of higher education have been lead by MIT alumni, including the [[David S. Saxon|University of California]] system, [[Lawrence H. Summers|Harvard University]], [[William R. Brody|Johns Hopkins University]], [[Jared Cohon|Carnegie Mellon University]], [[Larry Bacow|Tufts University]], [[Albert J. Simone|Rochester Institute of Technology]], [[Joseph Aoun|Northeastern University]], [[Shirley Jackson (physicist)|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]], [[Eugenio Garza Sada|Tecnológico de Monterrey]], and [[Martin C. Jischke|Purdue University]]. Although not alumni, former Provost [[Robert A. Brown]] is President of [[Boston University]], former Provost [[Mark S. Wrighton|Mark Wrighton]] is Chancellor of [[Washington University in St. Louis]], former Associate Provost [[Alice Gast]] is president of [[Lehigh University]], and former Professor [[David Baltimore]] was President of [[Caltech]].

More than one third of the [[List of NASA missions#Human spaceflight|United States' manned spaceflights]] have included [[List of Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni#Alumni astronauts|MIT-educated astronauts]], among them [[Apollo 11]] [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] Pilot [[Buzz Aldrin]], more than any university excluding the [[United States service academies]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mitadmissions.org/topics/pulse/notable_alumni/ |title=Notable Alumni |accessdate=2006-11-04}} </ref>

Noted alumni in non-scientific fields include [[Doctor Dolittle]] author [[Hugh Lofting]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Children's Books and Their Creators|first=Anita |last=Silvey|ISBN=0395653800|year=1995|publisher=Houghton Mifflin |page=415 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DzV5M07MZigC&pg=RA4-PA415&as_brr=3&ei=a8qLSL6mBqeSjgGmhKDlAQ&sig=ACfU3U3XwE_cy_yetpkalpvM1pxnXQpJTw}}</ref> [[Boston (band)|Boston]] guitarist [[Tom Scholz]], ''[[The New York Times]]'' columnist [[Paul Krugman]], ''[[The Bell Curve]]'' author [[Charles Murray]], [[United States Supreme Court building]] architect [[Cass Gilbert]], and [[Pritzker Prize]]-winning architect [[I.M. Pei]].

<center><gallery>
Image:Aldrin.jpg|[[Apollo 11]] astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]], ScD '63 (Course XVI)
Image:Kofi Annan.jpg|Former UN Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]], SM '72 (Course XV)
Image:Ben Bernanke.jpg|Federal Reserve Bank Chairman [[Ben Bernanke]], PhD '79 (Course XIV)
Image:Benjamin Netanyahu.jpg|Former Israeli Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]], SB '76 (Course IV), SM '78 (Course XV)
</gallery></center>

==Footnotes and references==
===Notes===
<div class=references-small>

:a. {{note_label|a|a|none}} "We examined and discussed many colors. We all desired cardinal red; it has stood for a thousand years on land and sea in England's emblem; it makes one-half of the stripes on America's flag; it has always stirred the heart and mind of man; it stands for 'red blood' and all that 'red blood' stands for in life. But we were not unanimous for the gray; some wanted blue, I recall. But it (the gray) seemed to me to stand for those quiet virtues of modesty and persistency and gentleness, which appealed to my mind as powerful; and I have come to believe, from observation and experience, to really be the most lasting influences in life and history....We recommended 'cardinal and steel gray.'" (Alfred T. Waite, Chairman of School Color Committee, Class of 1879) <ref>{{cite web | title = Symbols: Colors |publisher= MIT Graphic Identity | url = http://web.mit.edu/graphicidentity/symbols/colors.html | accessdate = 2008-06-18}}</ref>
:b. {{note_label|b|b|none}} The other privately-owned Land Grant institution is [[Cornell University]].
:c. {{note_label|c|c|none}} Maclaurin quoted: "in future Harvard agrees to carry out all its work in engineering and mining in the buildings of Technology under the executive control of the president of Technology, and, what is of the first importance, to commit all instruction and the laying down of all courses to the faculty of Technology, after that faculty has been enlarged and strengthened by the addition to its existing members of men of eminence from Harvard's Graduate School of Applied Science."<ref>{{cite news |title=Tech Alumni Holds Reunion. Record attendance, novel features. Cooperative plan with Harvard announced by Pres. Maclaurin. |publisher=Boston Daily Globe |date=January 11, 1914 |page=117}}</ref>
:d. {{note_label|d|d|none}} The University of Massachusetts was founded as the [[University of Massachusetts Amherst#History|Massachusetts Agricultural College]] in 1863.
:e. {{note_label|e|e|none}} The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology (HST) offers joint MD, MD-PhD, or Medical Engineering degrees in collaboration with [[Harvard Medical School]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hst.mit.edu/servlet/ControllerServlet?handler=PublicHandler&action=browse&pageid=231 |title=Harvard-MIT HST Academics Overview |accessdate=2007-08-05}}</ref>
:f. {{note_label|f|f|none}} Course numbers are traditionally presented in Roman numerals, e.g. Course XVIII for mathematics. Starting in 2002, the Bulletin (MIT's course catalog) started to use [[Arabic numerals]]. Usage outside of the Bulletin varies, both [[Roman numerals|Roman]] and Arabic numerals being used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/catalogue/degre.intro.shtml |title=MIT Course Catalogue: Degree Programs |publisher=MIT |accessdate=2008-07-16}}</ref>
:g. {{note_label|g|g|none}} In 1995, faculty member [[Nancy Hopkins]] accused MIT of bias against herself and several of her female colleagues. Hopkins, rather than a third party, investigated her own charges and concluded in 1999 concluded there was "subtle yet pervasive" bias against women at MIT, although no instance of intentional discrimination was found. Despite the study's sealed evidence and its lack of peer review, Vest approved "targeted actions" like the creation of 11 committees and 20% salary increases for women faculty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uaf.edu/northern/mitstudy/ |first=Judith |last=Kleinfeld |title=MIT Tarnishes Its Reputation with Gender Junk Science |accessdate=2007-04-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/nr_comment/nr_comment041001b.shtml |title=Feminist Mythology |first=Kathryn Jean |last=Lopez |date=April 10, 2001 |publisher=National Review |accessdate=2007-04-10}}</ref>
:h. {{note_label|h|h|none}} Although some statistics suggest that MIT pre-medical or pre-law students have lower average [[grade point average]]s than graduates from peer schools with the same [[standardized test]] scores,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/career/www/infostats/preprof.html |title=Preprofessional Stats |publisher=MIT Careers Office |accessdate=2008-07-28}}</ref> a Princeton University study cites MIT granting as many "A"s as [[Ivy League]]-level colleges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5626583/site/newsweek/ |title=Grade Deflation |date=August 2004 |accessdate=2007-01-02 |publisher=Newsweek}}</ref>
:i. {{note_label|i|i|none}} MIT's Building 7 and Harvard's Johnston Gate, the traditional entrances to each school, are {{convert|1.72|mi|km|2}} apart along [[Massachusetts Avenue (Boston)|Massachusetts Avenue]].
:j. {{note_label|j|j|none}} [[Vannevar Bush]] was the director of the [[Office of Scientific Research and Development]] and general advisor to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Harry Truman]], [[James Rhyne Killian]] was Special Assistant for Science and Technology for [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], and [[Jerome Wiesner]] advised [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon Johnson]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/ostpside-0502.html |title=Nearly half of all US Presidential science advisers have had ties to the Institute |publisher=MIT News Office |date=May 2, 2001 |accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref>
:k. {{note_label|k|k|none}} The friezes of the marble-clad buildings surrounding Killian Court are carved in large Roman letters with the names of [[Aristotle]], [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], [[Benjamin Franklin|Franklin]], [[Louis Pasteur|Pasteur]], [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]], [[Michael Faraday|Faraday]], [[Archimedes]], [[Leonardo da Vinci|da Vinci]], [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], and [[Copernicus]]; each of these names is surmounted by a cluster of appropriately related names in smaller letters. Lavoisier, for example, is placed in the company of [[Robert Boyle|Boyle]], [[Henry Cavendish|Cavendish]], [[Joseph Priestley|Priestley]], [[John Dalton|Dalton]], [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac|Gay Lussac]], [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius|Berzelius]], [[Friedrich Wöhler|Woehler]], [[Justus von Liebig|Liebig]], [[Robert Bunsen|Bunsen]], [[Dmitri Mendeleev|Mendelejeff]] [sic], [[Sir William Henry Perkin|Perkin]], and [[Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff|van't Hoff]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/names/index.html |title=Names of MIT Buildings |publisher=MIT Archives |accessdate=2007-04-10}}</ref>
</div>

===Footnotes===
{{reflist|3}}

===References===
:''See the [http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/bibliographies/mithistory-sources/index.html bibliography] maintained by MIT's [http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/ Institute Archives & Special Collections]

*{{cite book | first=Stuart W.| last=Leslie| title=The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford | year=1994| publisher=Columbia University Press | id=ISBN 0-231-07959-1}}
*{{cite book | first=William J.| last=Mitchell| title=Imagining MIT: Designing a Campus for the Twenty-First Century | year=2007 | publisher=[[The MIT Press]] | id=ISBN 978-0-262-13479-8}}
*{{cite book | first=Benson R. | last=Snyder| title=The Hidden Curriculum | year=1973 | publisher=[[The MIT Press]] | id=ISBN 978-0-262-69043-0}}
*{{cite book | first=T. F. | last=Peterson| title=Nightwork: A History of Hacks and Pranks at MIT | year=2003 | publisher=[[The MIT Press]] | id=ISBN 978-0-262-66137-9}}
*{{cite book | first=Julius Adams|last=Stratton| authorlink=Julius Adams Stratton|coauthors=Loretta H. Mannix|title=Mind and Hand: The Birth of MIT | year=2005| publisher=[[The MIT Press]] | id=ISBN 978-0-262-19524-9}}
*{{cite book | first=Samuel C.|last=Prescott| authorlink=Samuel Cate Prescott|title=When M.I.T. Was "Boston Tech", 1861-1916 | year=1954| publisher=Technology Press | id=ISBN 978-0-262-66139-3}}
*{{cite book | first=Mark | last=Jarzombek| authorlink=Mark Jarzombek|title=Designing MIT: Bosworth's New Tech | year=2003 | publisher=Northeastern University Press | id=ISBN 1-55553-619-0}}
*{{cite book | first=O. Robert| last=Simha| title=MIT Campus Planning,: An Annotated Chronology| year=2003 | publisher=[[The MIT Press]] | id=ISBN 978-0-262-69294-6}}

==External links==
{{commons|Massachusetts Institute of Technology}}
* [http://web.mit.edu/ Official MIT Website]
* [http://mitadmissions.org/ Undergraduate Admissions Website]
* [http://alum.mit.edu/ MIT Alumni Association]

===Publications===
*[http://www.mit.edu:8001/activities/media.html Official List of Campus Media at MIT]
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/ MIT OpenCourseWare] - Free online publication of nearly all MIT course materials
*[http://www-tech.mit.edu/ The Tech] - student newspaper, the world's first newspaper on the web
*[http://web.mit.edu/technique/ Technique] - the Yearbook and Photography Club of MIT
*[http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/techtalk-info.html Tech Talk] - MIT's official newspaper
*[http://www.technologyreview.com/ Technology Review] - mass market technology and alumni magazine
*[http://mitpress.mit.edu/ MIT Press] - university press & publisher
*[http://mitworld.mit.edu/ MIT World] - video streams of public lectures and symposia
*[http://www.mit.edu:8001/activities/voodoo/voodoo.html VooDoo] - MIT's Journal of Humour since March 1919 ([http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/voodoo/index.html first issue at MIT Libraries])
*[http://counterpoint.mit.edu/ Counterpoint] - MIT/[[Wellesley College|Wellesley]] journal

===Maps===
*[http://whereis.mit.edu/map-jpg MIT Maps]
*[http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/exhibits/maps/ Early Maps of both the Boston and Cambridge Campuses]

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[[et:Massachusettsi Tehnoloogiainstituut]]
[[el:Τεχνολογικό Ινστιτούτο Μασαχουσέτης]]
[[es:Instituto Tecnológico de Massachusetts]]
[[eo:Masaĉuseca Instituto de Teknologio]]
[[eu:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[fa:انستیتوی تکنولوژی ماساچوست]]
[[fr:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[ga:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[gl:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[ko:매사추세츠 공과대학교]]
[[hi:मसाचुसेट्स तकनीकी संस्थान]]
[[hr:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[id:Institut Teknologi Massachusetts]]
[[is:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[it:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[he:המכון הטכנולוגי של מסצ'וסטס]]
[[ka:მასაჩუსეტსის ტექნოლოგიის ინსტიტუტი]]
[[la:Massachusettense Institutum Technologiae]]
[[lv:Masačūsetsas Tehnoloģiskais institūts]]
[[lt:Masačusetso Technologijos institutas]]
[[hu:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[nl:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[ja:マサチューセッツ工科大学]]
[[no:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[nn:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[pl:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[pt:Instituto Tecnológico de Massachusetts]]
[[ro:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[ru:Массачусетсский технологический институт]]
[[simple:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[sk:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[sl:Tehnološki inštitut Massachusettsa]]
[[sr:МИТ]]
[[fi:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[sv:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[ta:மாசசூசெட்ஸ் தொழில்நுட்பப் பல்கலைக்கழகம்]]
[[te:మసాచుసెట్స్ ఇన్సిట్యూట్ ఆఫ్ టెక్నాలజీ]]
[[th:สถาบันเทคโนโลยีแมสซาชูเซตส์]]
[[vi:MIT]]
[[tr:Massachusetts Teknoloji Enstitüsü]]
[[uk:Массачусетський технологічний інститут]]
[[diq:Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
[[zh:麻省理工学院]]

Kailali District

2008-08-07T07:13:09Z

202.79.62.16:

{{Infobox Nepal district
|district = Kailali District
|area = 3,235
|population = 616,697
|pop_year = 2001
|density =
|caption =
|region =
|established =
|languages =
|website =
|map=Kailali district location.png
}}
'''Kailali District''', a part of [[Seti Zone]], is one of the seventy-five [[Districts of Nepal|districts]] of [[Nepal]], a [[landlocked]] country of [[South Asia]]. The district, with [[Dhangadhi]] as its district headquarters, covers an area of 3,235km² and has a population ([[2001]]) of 616,697. Dhangadhi is a center of attraction of not only Kailali district but of whoel seti zone. The place is facilited with all kind of necessay needs. The main locations of Dhangadhi are Buspark, Chauraha, Hasanpur .The district has two municipalities, namely: Dhandhadi and Tikapur. The district also contains Tikapur Park, one of the biggest parks in Nepal, and Godha-Ghodi Tal lake.

==See also==
*[[Zones of Nepal]]

==References==
* {{statoids|id=ynp|title=Districts of Nepal}}

{{Districts of Nepal}}

[[Category:Kailali District|*]]

{{Nepal-geo-stub}}



[[da:Kailali District]]
[[fr:District de Kailali]]
[[bpy:কৈলালী]]
[[no:Kailali distrikt]]

Kempegowda International Airport

2008-06-24T18:07:48Z

202.79.62.16: /* International */

{{Refimprove|date=May 2008}}

{{Infobox Airport
| name = Bengaluru International Airport
| nativename =
| nativename-a = ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು ಅಂತಾರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ವಿಮಾನ ನಿಲ್ದಾಣ
| nativename-r =
| image = BIA_logo.jpg
| image-width =
| caption =
| image2 = Bangalore Airport terminal building_2063.JPG
| image2-width = 250
| caption2 = Bangalore Airport terminal building
| IATA = BLR
| ICAO = VOBL
| type = Public
| owner-oper = Bengaluru International Airport Ltd. (BIAL)
| city-served = [[Bengaluru]], [[India]]
| location = [[Devanahalli]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]]
| elevation-f =
| elevation-m =
| coordinates = {{Coord|13|11|52.4|N|77|42|22.8|E|type:airport}}
| website = [http://www.bengaluruairport.com/ www.bengaluruairport.com]
| metric-elev =
| metric-rwy =
| r1-number = 09/27
| r1-length-f = 13,517
| r1-length-m = 4,120<ref>[http://www.bengaluruairport.com/bial_docs/images/graphics/Master_Plan.jpg Revised Master Plan]</ref>
| r1-surface = [[Asphalt]]
|
}}

'''Bengaluru International Airport''' {{airport codes|BLR|VOBL}} is a {{convert|4050|acre|km2|abbr=on}} [[international airport]] serving the city of [[Bangalore]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]]. The airport is located in [[Devanahalli]], which is {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the city. It replaced the old [[HAL Bangalore International Airport]]. Construction of the airport began in July 2005, after a decade long postponement. It was expected to be inaugurated on [[March 30]] [[2008]] but due to delays in [[air traffic control]] (ATC) services, it started its operations on the night of [[23 May]] [[2008]], just before midnight.

Future plans for the airport site envisage expansion of the [[airport terminal|terminal]] and [[runway]]s and generous commercial development, including business centers, [[Duty-free shop|tax-free shops]], entertainment centers, malls and office space.

==Construction==
[[Image:BLR.jpg|thumb|left|BLR Airport under construction]]
The new airport was originally planned to accommodate 3.5 million passengers a year, but this has now been redesigned to handle 12 million passengers. The redesign resulted in an increase in the size of the terminal, number of aircraft stands, new taxiway layouts and supporting infrastructure.

A plan is also being processed for a direct rail service from [[Bangalore Cantonment]] Railway Station to the Basement Rail terminal at the airport. Access on the [[National Highway 7 (India)|National Highway 7]] is being widened to a six lane [[expressway]], with a {{convert|3|ft|m}} boundary wall, as construction moves ahead.

A new expressway was planned to connect the airport to the city's Ring Road. The expressway, expected to be a tolled road, would begin at Hennur on the [[Outer Ring Road (Bangalore)|Outer Ring Road]].Howeverthe State government, citing a study report of the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI), has told the Karnataka High Court that the proposed super expressway connecting the Outer Ring Road and Bangalore International Airport (BIA) is not feasible.

==Airport specifications==
===Terminal===
[[Image:Bangalore Airport control tower 2061.JPG|thumb|Control tower]]
[[Image:Bangalore Airport.jpg|thumb|Outside the main terminal]]
[[Image:BIAL checkin counters.jpg|thumb|right|Check in counters at the Bangalore International Airport]]
[[Image:BIAL domestic security check_area.jpg|thumb|right|Domestic security check area]]
[[Image:BIAL waiting area (swing).jpg|thumb|right|Waiting area]]
[[Image:BIAL arrival luggage_belt 3.jpg|thumb|right|Luggage belt]]
[[Image:BIAL signs and departure information screen.jpg|thumb|right|Departure information screen and signs]]
The passenger terminal is a single, fully [[Air conditioning|air-conditioned]], two-level building capable of accommodating international and domestic operations. The basement houses the retail storage, rest areas and services. The arrival and departure areas are separated vertically with a modern, simple, straight-ahead flow system. The domestic and international departure lounges, and the majority of the retail outlets are located on level 2 (first floor). The [[check-in]] facilities and baggage reclaim are located on level 1 (ground floor). The terminal is designed for ease of operation and minimum maintenance.

The total floor area is approximately {{convert|71000|m2|sqft|abbr=on}}. The terminal building is designed to accommodate 2,733 passengers at peak hour. The design reflects the best industry practice and caters for 24-hour-operations, under all weather conditions. All facilities provided will meet IATA standards.

The airport can handle 12 million people per annum with 30 aircraft movement per hour and an estimated 440 movement in May 2008.

CUTE{{unclear}} enabled check-in counters: 53 and 18 self check in counters.

The airport has 20 [[Gate (airport)|gates]], 8 [[jet bridge|aero-bridges]], including one double arm and 9 remote bus bays. There are a total of 42 aircraft stands, all of which have a fueling pit. This is the first time in Indian airports that the parking stands have the fueling pits. The underground pits helps the aircraft to fuel from the stand itself.

In the first phase of development, a car park for 2,000 cars in front of the terminal building at the ground level has been developed for the convenience of passengers and visitors to the airport.

===Runway===
The airport has one [[runway]] as of now. The runway can accommodate all types of aircraft including the [[Airbus A380]]. There are plans to build a second runway when the annual traffic of the airport reaches 18 million passengers per year which is currently estimated to reach around 2013-2014.

The runway, orientated 09/27, is {{convert|4120|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=5}} by {{convert|45|m|ft|abbr=on}} with light light paved shoulders making it {{convert|60|m|ft|abbr=on}}.

===ATC frequencies in use===
The frequencies in use at BLR are:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ ATC Frequencies at BLR
!
! Call Sign
! Used for
! Frequency
|-
! 1
| Bangalore Tower
| Runway to {{convert|6000|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| 123.45 [[Hertz|MHz]]
|-
! 2
| Bangalore Approach
| {{convert|6000|ft|m|abbr=on}} feet to {{convert|12000|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| 121.25 MHz and 121.75 MHz
|-
! 3
| Bangalore Ground
| Ground movement - off runway
| 121.65 MHz
|-
! 4
| Clearance delivery position
| All departures to contact 15min prior to pushback giving the departures/ flight details
| 121.825 MHz
|-
! 5
| Bangalore ASR/TAR
| Information
| 119.45 MHz
|}

Most aircraft move to [[Chennai]] ATC airspace immediately before or after Bangalore. Chennai ATC is operated on 119.5 MHz.

===Miscellaneous===

Cost: Rs 2,470 [[crore]] (approx. $600 Million USD)

A User Development Fee of Rs. 1070 will be collected from all outbound international passengers using the Bengaluru International Airport. The User Development Fee is towards the cost for construction and operation of the airport and has been approved by the Ministry of Civil Aviation of India.<ref>http://www.bengaluruairport.com/portal/page/portal/BIAL_PageGroup/BIAL_DEP_HOME</ref>

==Airport service providers==
===Retail and duty free===
The international departure section would eventually house one of the largest duty free outlets in India, selling the best of international liquor, tobacco, luxury and premium perfumes, cosmetics, souvenirs, gifts, arts and crafts from local artisans, exclusive electronics outlets, books, music, local and international fashion, apparel, jewellery and accessories.

The arrival duty free outlet would offer liquor and tobacco, perfumes and cosmetics, electronics outlets and accessories. The arrival duty free has been designed keeping in mind increasing security regulations.

The domestic departures would include a [[Shoppers' Stop]] department store, a Crossword book store, electronics outlets, a confectionery store that sells sweets and chocolates from India and abroad, as well as shops for books, music, fashion, apparel, jewelery and accessories.

====Food====
*Curbside Retail and [[Food and Beverage]] (F&B): Radha Krishna Hospitality Services (RKHS) - [[South Indian cuisine]]
*[[Subway (restaurant)|Subway]] and [[Baskin-Robbins]]: Continental food
*[[KaatiZone]] and Gangotree Chats: [[North Indian cuisine]]
*Odyssey: magazines, gifts, flowers

====Domestic Retail and F&B====
*Retail: Shoppers' Stop, La Moda, Life’s Spirit, Crossword, Carbon jewelry, Mithaas
*F&B: Taste of India, Time out bar, Barista bar, Cookieman

====International Retail and F&B====
*Retail and Duty Free: Spirit of India, Crossword, Sound & Vision, Deepika Govind and Ethos watches
*F&B: Kingfisher Sports Bar with [[Pizza Hut]] and Illy Café.

====Foreign Exchange====
*[[Thomas Cook Group|Thomas Cook]]
*TT Forex

====Main F&B operators====
*HMS Host
*Café Coffee Day

===Ground handling===
*GlobeGround India
*Consortium of [[Air India]] and Singapore Air Terminal Services (SATS)

===Flight catering===
*[[LSG Sky Chefs]]
*[[Tata Group|Taj SATS]]

===Cargo handling===
*Consortium of Air India and Singapore Air Terminal Services (SATS)
*Consortium of Bobba Group and Menzies Aviation

===Aviation fuel facility===
*Consortium of Skytanking and [[Indian Oil Corporation]]

===Into plane fueling services===
*Consortium of [[Bharat Petroleum]] (BPCL) and ST Airport Services Pvt Ltd (STARS)
*Consortium of Skytanking and Indian Oil Corporation

==Hospitality==
A 321 room [[Star (classification)|five star hotel]] has been proposed as part of the airport complex, opposite the main terminal building. This hotel, owned and operated jointly by [[Oberoi Hotels]] and [[Larsen & Toubro]] under the Trident Hilton brand, is scheduled for opening in November 2008. It will comprise extensive business facilities in addition to three restaurants, a lounge bar, banquet room and health spa. Oberoi Hotels is the second largest hospitality operator in India, while Larsen & Toubro is India's largest private sector construction major. The hotel has been designed by architects RSP India, while interiors and landscaping has been designed by P Associates of [[Bangkok]]. The project is currently under construction.

==Transport to the airport==
As the new airport is {{Convert|40|km|m|abbr=on}} outside the city, a new [[high-speed rail]] link is being planned to connect the city to the airport. [[Namma Metro]] is expected to launch commercial operations from March 2010.<ref>{{cite web | title= BMRC's smart plans for Metro Project |work=|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2007/07/14/stories/2007071452890500.htm}}</ref>

[[Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation]] runs nine bus routes from as many locations in the city to connect to the new airport.More costly than usual buses <ref>{{cite web | title= BMTC bus services for Bengaluru Airport |work=|url=http://www.bmtcinfo.com/english/bial.html}}</ref>
By Road, you can reach BIAL through Hebbal via Bellary Road, through NH-Yelahanka people can also reach BIAL throgh Yelahanka via Vidyaranyapura where Traffic is quite less

Official transportation by BIAL.
*MeruCabs and Easycabs for taxi services
*Hertz and Akbar Travels for luxury transport services
*BMTC Vayu Vajra A/C Volvo buses
*BMTC Suvarna and Vahini non A/C buses

Lack of conectivity to the new airport is a major issue , it can take upto three hours from city centre to the airport at peak hours.

==Airlines and destinations==
===Domestic===
*[[Air India]] (Ahmedabad, Delhi, Goa, Hyderabad, Kochi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Pune)
*[[Deccan (airline)|Deccan]] (Ahmedabad, Belgaum, Bellary, Bhubaneswar, Chennai, Coimbatore, Delhi, Hyderabad, Indore, Kochi, Kolkata, Madurai, Mangalore, Mumbai, Nagpur, Pune, Trichy, Tirupati, Vijaywada, Visakhapatnam)
*[[GoAir]] (Delhi, Mumbai,Hyderabad,Ahmedabad)
*[[IndiGo Airlines]] (Bhubaneswar, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Kochi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Nagpur, Pune, Vadodra)
*[[Jet Airways]] (Kochi, Kolkata, Mangalore, Mumbai, Pune, Thiruvananthapuram, Delhi, Chennai, Goa, Coimbatore)
**[[Jet Lite]] (Chennai, Coimbatore, Delhi, Jaipur, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Bhubaneswar, Ahmedabad, Kolkata)
*[[Kingfisher Airlines]] (Agatti, Ahmedabad, Chennai, Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Hubli, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Kochi, Kolkata, Mangalore, Mumbai, Pune, Thiruvananthapuram, Vadodara)
*[[Paramount Airways]] (Chennai, Madurai)
*[[SpiceJet]] (Ahmedabad, Chennai, Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Kolkata, Mumbai, Pune)

===International===
*[[Air Arabia]] (Sharjah)
*[[Air France]] (Paris-Charles de Gaulle)
*[[Air India]] ( Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi, Dubai, Muscat, Sharjah, Singapore)
*[[Air Mauritius]] (Mauritius)
*[[British Airways]] (London-Heathrow)
*[[Dragonair]] (Hong Kong) (Start at 2nd July 2008)
*[[Emirates Airline]] (Dubai)
*[[Gulf Air]] (Bahrain)
*[[Indian Airlines]] (Bangkok, Dubai, Male, Muscat, Sharjah, Singapore,)
*[[Kingfisher Airlines]] (New York (begins 1st September 2008), San Francisco (begins 27th August 2008))
*[[Lufthansa]] (Frankfurt)
*[[Malaysia Airlines]] (Kuala Lumpur)
*[[Nepal Airlines]] (Kathmandu)
*[[Oman Air]] (Muscat)
*[[Singapore Airlines]] (Singapore)
*[[SriLankan Airlines]] (Colombo)
*[[Thai Airways International]] (Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi)
*[[Tiger Airways]] (Singapore)

===Cargo===
[[Image:BIAL Singapore Airlines cargo B 747.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Singapore Airlines Cargo]] [[Boeing 747]] at Bengaluru International Airport]]
*[[Air France|Air France Cargo]] (Paris-Charles de Gaulle)
*[[Air India#Cargo operations|Air India Cargo]] (Frankfurt, Paris-Charles de Gaulle)
*[[Alitalia|Alitalia Cargo]] (Rome)
*[[Blue Dart Aviation]] (Chennai, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Delhi)
*[[Emirates SkyCargo]] (Dubai)
*[[Etihad Airways#Cargo|Etihad Crystal Cargo]] (Abu Dhabi)
*[[Gulf Air|Gulf Cargo]] (Bahrain)
*[[Jet Airways]] (Delhi)
*[[Lufthansa Cargo]] (Frankfurt)
*[[MASkargo]] (Kuala Lumpur)
*[[Qatar Airways#Cargo|Qatar Airways Cargo]] (Doha)
*[[Singapore Airlines Cargo]] (Singapore)
*[[SriLankan Airlines|SriLankan Cargo]] (Colombo)
*[[Thai Airways International#Cargo|Thai Airways Cargo]] (Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi)
*[[Transmile Air Services]] (Kuala Lumpur)

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{commonscat|Bengaluru International Airport}}
{{Airports in India}}
{{Bangalore related topics}}

[[Category:Transport in Bangalore]]
[[Category:Airports in Karnataka]]

[[da:New Bangalore International Airport]]
[[nl:Bengaluru International Airport]]
[[ja:ベンガルール国際空港]]
[[sv:Bangalore International Airport]]

Phuket International Airport

2008-06-24T18:04:50Z

202.79.62.16: /* International Airlines */

{{Infobox Airport
| name = Phuket International Airport
| nativename = ท่าอากาศยานนานาชาติภูเก็ต 
| image = Phuket International Airport3.jpg
| IATA = HKT
| ICAO = VTSP
| type = Public
| owner =
| operator = [[Airports of Thailand]] (A.O.T.)
| city-served =
| location = [[Phuket Province|Phuket]], [[Thailand]]
| elevation-f = 82
| elevation-m = 25
| coordinates = {{coor at dms|08|06|48|N|098|19|01|E|type:airport_region:TH}}
| website = [http://www.airportthai.co.th/airportnew/phuket/ www.airportthai.co.th/...]
| metric-elev = yes
| metric-rwy = yes
| r1-number = 09/27
| r1-length-f = 9,843
| r1-length-m = 3,000
| r1-surface = [[Asphalt]]
| footnotes = Sources: Airport web site<ref>[http://www.airportthai.co.th/airportnew/phuket/ Phuket International Airport], official web site</ref> and [[DAFIF]]<ref name=WAD>{{WAD|VTSP|source=[[DAFIF]]}}</ref><ref name=GCM>{{GCM|HKT|source=[[DAFIF]]}}</ref>
}}

'''Phuket International Airport''' {{airport codes|HKT|VTSP}} is an [[airport]] serving the [[Phuket Province]] of [[Thailand]]. It is located in the north of [[Phuket Island]], 32 [[kilometres]] from the centre of [[Phuket City]]. The airport plays a major role in Thailand's tourism industry, as Phuket Island is a popular resort destination. It is the second busiest airport in Thailand in terms of passengers but not cargo, after [[Suvarnabhumi Airport]] in the [[Bangkok]] [[metropolitan area]].

== Past incidents and accidents ==
*[[15 April]] [[1985]]: A Thai Airways [[Boeing 737]]-2P5 crashed, killing all 11 people on board. The crew had issued a radio call informing air traffic control that both engines had flamed out. No cause could be determined for the engine shutdown.<ref>{{Cite news | title = AirDisaster.Com Accident Database | url = http://www.airdisaster.com/cgi-bin/view_details.cgi?date=04151985&reg=HS-TBB&airline=Thai+Airways | accessdate = 2007-09-18}}</ref>
*[[31 August]] [[1987]]: [[Thai Airways Flight 365]] crashed into the ocean on final approach, killing all 83 people on board. The investigation determined pilot error as the primary cause.<ref>{{Cite news | title = AirDisaster.Com Accident Database | url = http://www.airdisaster.com/cgi-bin/view_details.cgi?date=08311987&reg=HS-TBC&airline=Thai+Airways | accessdate = 2007-09-18}}</ref>

*[[16 September]] [[2007]]: [[One-Two-GO Airlines Flight 269]] arriving on a scheduled flight from Bangkok's [[Don Mueang Airport]] crashed after hitting the runway heavily while attempting to land in driving rain and severe wind shear. The [[McDonnell Douglas MD-80/MD-90|McDonnell Douglas MD-82]] slid off the runway, split into two, and exploded into flames after an apparent attempt to execute a go-around moments before touchdown. There were 123 passengers and 7 crew on board. 89 died and 41 were injured.

{{Wikinews|At least 89 dead in Phuket, Thailand air crash}}

==Airlines and destinations==
===International Airlines===
[[Image:Phuketinternationalentrance2.png|thumb|right|Welcome sign at the Phuket International Airport]]
*[[AirAsia]] (Kuala Lumpur)
** [[Thai AirAsia]] (Singapore)
*[[Air China]] (Beijing)
*[[Air India Express]] (Delhi, Kolkata, Port Blair) [starting end 2008]
*[[Asiana Airlines]] (Seoul-Incheon) ''seasonal''
*[[China Airlines]] (Taipei-Taoyuan)
*[[China Southern Airlines]] (Guangzhou)
*[[Condor Airlines]] (Frankfurt)
*[[Dragonair]] (Hong Kong)
*[[Far Eastern Air Transport]] (Kaohsiung)
*[[Jetstar Airways]] (Sydney)
*[[Korean Air]] (Seoul-Incheon)
*[[LTU International]] (Dusseldorf, Munich)
*[[Malaysia Airlines]] (Kuala Lumpur)
**[[Firefly (airline)|Firefly]] (Penang)
*[[Martinair]] (Amsterdam, Muscat)
*[[Orient Thai Airlines]] (Hong Kong, Karachi,Kathmandu)
*(Phuket Air) (Kathmandu)
*[[Shanghai Airlines]] (Shanghai-Pudong)
*[[Bangkok Airways]]
**[[Siem Reap Airways]] (Siem Reap)
*[[SilkAir]] (Singapore)
*[[Tiger Airways]] (Singapore)
*[[Thai Airways International]] (Hong Kong, Perth, Taipei-Taoyuan, Seoul-Incheon)
*[[Transaero]] (Moscow-Domodedovo)<ref name="airportsint"> {{ru icon}} Federal State Unitary Enterprise "State Air Traffic Management Corporation", ''Summer Air Traffic Schedule 25.03.2007 - 27.10.2007 (Airports - Russian international)'', [[29 May]] 2007, p. 53</ref>
*[[Uni Air]] (Kaohsiung)

===International Airlines - Charter===
[[Image:Phuket internation from air.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of Phuket International Airport]]
*[[Belair (airline)|Belair]] (Zurich)
*[[Finnair]] (Helsinki, Oulu)
*[[Hong Kong Airlines]] (Hong Kong)
*[[Livingston Airlines]] (Milan- departure only, Phnom Penh- arrival only)
*[[Novair]] (Stockholm-Arlanda, Copenhagen, Gothenburg)
*[[Thomas Cook Airlines Scandinavia]] (Billund, Copenhagen, Malmö, Oslo, Stockholm-Arlanda)
*[[TransAsia Airways]] (Taipei-Taoyuan)
*[[Travel Service (Czech Republic)]] (Prague)
*[[TUIfly Nordic]] (Copenhagen, Malmö, Oslo, Stockholm-Arlanda)
*[[Zoom Airlines]] (Billund, Copenhagen)

===Domestic Airlines===
*[[AirAsia]]
**[[Thai AirAsia]] (Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi)
*[[Bangkok Airways]] (Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi, Chiang Mai , Pattaya-Utapao, Samui)
*[[Orient Thai Airlines]] (Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi<ref>http://www.bangkokpost.com/Business/03Sep2007_biz33.php</ref>)
**[[One-Two-GO Airlines]] (Bangkok-Don Mueang)
*[[Thai Airways International]] (Bangkok-Don Mueang, Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi, Chiang Mai [Arrival only])
**[[Nok Air]] (Bangkok-Don Mueang, Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi)

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:One-Two-GO Airlines HS-UTK.jpg|One-Two-GO Airlines HS-UTK
Image:Phuket international airport runway.jpg|Phuket International Airport runway
Image:Aerial view phuket international airport.jpg|Phuket International Airport aerial view
Image:Phuket international airport tower.jpg|Phuket International Airport control tower
Image:Plane takeoff at phuket international airport.jpg|Plane Landing at Phuket International Airport.
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[List of airports in Thailand]]

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* {{NWS-current|VTSP}}
* {{ASN|HKT}}
* {{WAD|VTSP}}

{{Airports in Thailand}}

[[Category:Airports in Thailand]]
[[Category:Phuket Province]]

[[de:Flughafen Phuket]]
[[es:Aeropuerto Internacional de Phuket]]
[[fr:Aéroport international de Phuket]]
[[ko:푸껫 국제공항]]
[[id:Bandar Udara Internasional Phuket]]
[[ms:Lapangan Terbang Antarabangsa Phuket]]
[[nl:Internationale Luchthaven Phuket]]
[[ja:プーケット国際空港]]
[[no:Phuket internasjonale lufthavn]]
[[pl:Port lotniczy Phuket]]
[[sr:Аеродром Пукет]]
[[fi:Phuketin kansainvälinen lentoasema]]
[[sv:Phuket International Airport]]
[[th:ท่าอากาศยานนานาชาติภูเก็ต]]
[[vi:Sân bay quốc tế Phuket]]
[[tr:Phuket Uluslararası Havaalanı]]
[[zh:布吉國際機場]]

Muji

2008-06-08T08:56:11Z

202.79.62.16:

[[Image:Muji Store Paris.jpg|right|thumb|250px|MUJI store in [[Paris]]]]

{{Nihongo|'''Ryohin Keikaku Co.,Ltd.'''|株式会社良品計画|Kabushiki-gaisha Ryōhin Keikaku}} ({{tyo|7453}}), or {{Nihongo|'''MUJI'''|無印良品|Mujirushi Ryōhin}} is a [[Japan]]ese retail company which sells a wide variety of household goods. MUJI is distinguished by its design [[minimalism]], emphasis on [[recycling]], avoidance of waste in production and packaging, and no-logo or "no-[[brand]]" policy.

Products range from stationary, and clothing for men and women, to food items and major kitchen appliances. Its primary business includes Café MUJI, Meal MUJI, MUJI Campsite, florist and home furnishing; the company has recently taken steps into housing construction.

The name MUJI is derived from the first part of ''Mujirushi Ryōhin'', translated as ''No Brand Quality Goods'' on MUJI's European website [http://www.mujionline.co.uk/home/Corporate.asp].

== Countries of operations ==
In addition to its large and small retail outlets in [[Japan]], MUJI has 3 factory outlets at [[Osaka]], [[Gotenba]] and [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]]. International retail outlets can be found in the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Ireland]], [[Spain]], [[South Korea]], [[China]], [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Thailand]] and the [[United States]]. The U.S. shops are all in [[Manhattan]]: the [[Museum of Modern Art]] Design Store, [[SoHo]] (opened November 16, 2007), and a flagship store in the [[New York Times Building]] that will open in spring 2008.<ref>http://www.slate.com/id/2174251/. See also http://www.muji.com/news_soho.html.</ref> The store chain has 285 stores in Japan, employing around 3400 employees.<ref>According to the company website.</ref>

== No-Brand Brand ==
Although the company styles itself as a brandless [[brand]], some of its most popular designs are by well known and established product designers. For example, the "Wall Mounted CD player" is designed by [[Naoto Fukasawa]] of [[Plus Minus Zero]], the "2nd Phone", MUJI [[playing cards]] and [[dominos]] are designed by [[Sam Hecht]] of [[Industrial Facility]] and a teapot/crockery set designed by the [[Azumis]].

This no-brand strategy means that the little is spent on advertisement or classical marketing and Muji's success is attributed to the word of mouth, a simple shopping experience and the anti-brand movement.<ref>http://www.venturerepublic.com/resources/Muji_The_Japanese_No-Brand.asp</ref> <ref>Matt Heig, Brand Royalty: How the World's Top 100 Brands Thrive and Survive, pg.216</ref> <ref>http://www.trendmatter.com/2007/05/24/no-brand-brand/</ref>

The protagonist of [[William Gibson]]'s 2003 novel ''[[Pattern Recognition (novel)|Pattern Recognition]]'', being allergic to brands and corporate logos, wears clothing from MUJI.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.muji.eu |title=MUJI WEB |accessdate=2007-09-24 |year=2006 |work=MUJI.eu |publisher=Ryohin Keikaku Europe Ltd}}

==External links==
* [http://ryohin-keikaku.jp/eng/ Ryohin Keikaku Co., Ltd.]
** [http://flower.muji.net/ MUJI Florist]
** [http://www.mujioutdoor.net/ MUJI Campsite]
** [http://www.muji.net/infill/ MUJI Living Spaces]
** [http://www.muji.net/shop/h_shop.html MUJI Café & Meal MUJI]
** [http://www.muji.net/eng/ MUJI English website]
** [http://www.muji.co.uk/ MUJI UK/Europe website]
* [http://www.usefulandagreeable.com/muji.shtml "useful + agreeable"'s MUJI overview]
* [[William Gibson]]'s essay on MUJI, [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/life/story/0,6903,466391,00.html "Modern boys and mobile girls"],
* [https://www.momastore.org/museum/moma/CategoryDisplay?catalogId=10451&storeId=10001&parent_category_rn=11627&categoryId=11627&langId=-1&src=shop MoMA Design Store MUJI section]
* [http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/002141.html A look at the MUJI house]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/09/magazine/09CONSUMED.html "Museum Quality"] -(''New York Times'' article on Muji in MoMa)
* [http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/10/25/the-inside-joke-behind-the-muji-brand/index.html?ex=1351051200&en=56f26624b4bcef27&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss "The Inside Joke Behind the Muji ‘Brand’"]

[[Category:Retailers of Japan]]

{{retail-stub}}
{{japan-company-stub}}

[[de:Muji]]
[[fr:Muji]]
[[ja:良品計画]]
[[sv:Muji]]
[[zh:無印良品]]
Muji: This is slang Noun word used in Nepal which means " vagina".

Zayed International Airport

2008-06-05T17:55:28Z

202.79.62.16: /* Airlines and destinations */

{{Infobox Airport
| name = Abu Dhabi International Airport
| nativename-a = مطار أبوظبي الدولي
| nativename-r =
| image = AbuDhabiIntlAirport.JPG
| image-width =
| caption =
| IATA = AUH
| ICAO = OMAA
| type = Public
| owner =
| operator = Abu Dhabi Airport Services
| city-served = Abu Dhabi
| location =
| elevation-f = 88
| elevation-m = 27
| coordinates = {{Coor at dms|24|25|41.30|N|54|38|49.32|E|type:airport}}
| website =
| metric-elev = yes
| metric-rwy = yes
| r1-number = 13/31
| r1-length-f = 13,452
| r1-length-m = 4,100
| r1-surface = [[Asphalt]]
| stat-year =
| stat1-header =
| stat1-data =
| stat2-header =
| stat2-data =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Abu Dhabi International Airport''' ({{lang-ar|'''مطار أبو ظبي الدولي'''}}) {{Airport codes|AUH|OMAA}} is an [[airport]] located in [[Abu Dhabi]], [[United Arab Emirates]]. The airport is an important hub for [[Etihad Airways]], and is currently going through a major expansion. It will see the development of Terminal 3, with the cost of the project estimated at about $6.9 Billion Dollars. The terminal is expected to open in 2009. It will increase the total capacity of the airport from the current 8 million to 20 million passengers by 2010, and eventually 50 million by 2015. The project will also see the development of a new parallel runway, capable of handling the Airbus A380, and the expansion of Terminal 1.

It has a three star rating from [[Skytrax]].<ref>{{cite web|title = Airport Star Ranking - 3 Star Airports|publisher = Skytrax|date= 2007|url = http://www.airlinequality.com/AirportRanking/3-Star.htm|accessdate = 2007-03-30}}</ref>

==Airlines and destinations==
*[[Aero Asia International]] (Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, Pakistan)
*[[Air India]] (Delhi, Mumbai, Muscat)
*[[Air India Express]] (Mangalore, Muscat, Calicut, Cochin, Trivandrum)
*[[Biman Bangladesh Airlines]] (Dhaka, Chittagong)
*[[British Airways]] (London-Heathrow, Muscat)
*[[China Airlines]] (Taipei-Taiwan Taoyuan, Vienna)
*[[EgyptAir]] (Cairo)
*[[Etihad Airways]] (Algiers [begins 2008], Amman, Bahrain, Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi, Beijing, Beirut, Brisbane, Brussels, Cairo, Casablanca, Chennai, Cochin, Damascus, Dammam, Delhi, Dhaka, Doha, Dublin, Frankfurt, Geneva, Islamabad, Jakarta, Jeddah, Johannesburg,Kathmandu, Karachi, Khartoum, Kuala Lumpur, Kuwait, Lahore, London-Heathrow, Manchester, Manila, Milan-Malpensa, Mumbai, Munich, Muscat, New York-JFK, Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Peshawar, Riyadh, Singapore, Sydney, Tehran-Imam Khomeini, Toronto-Pearson, Trivandrum)
*[[Ethiopian Airlines]] (Addis Ababa)
[[Image:P1000090.JPG|thumb|right|A forward view of an Etihad A380-800 on the tarmac at Abu Dhabi International Airport.]]
[[Image:Abu Dhabi International Airport.JPG|thumb|right|Interior of Abu Dhabi International Airport, in the international terminal.]]
[[Image:Abudabhi-airport-oct06.JPG|thumb|right|The airport's interior]]
*[[Garuda Indonesia]] (Jakarta)
*[[GMG Airlines]] (Dhaka) [begins December 2008]
*[[Gulf Air]] (Bahrain,Kathmandu)
*[[Iran Aseman Airlines]] (Lar)
*[[Jet Airways]] (Delhi, Mumbai)
*[[Kam Air]] (Kabul)
*[[KLM]] (Amsterdam, Bahrain)
*[[Kuwait Airways]] (Kuwait, Muscat)
*[[Lufthansa]] (Frankfurt)
*[[Martinair]] (Amsterdam)
*[[Middle East Airlines]] (Beirut)
*[[Pakistan International Airlines]] (Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar)
*[[Royal Jordanian]] (Amman)
*[[Qatar Airways]] (Doha)
*[[Saudi Arabian Airlines]] (Jeddah, Medinah, Riyadh)
*[[Shaheen Air International]] (Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar)
*[[Singapore Airlines]] (Jeddah, Singapore)
*[[SriLankan Airlines]] (Bahrain, Colombo, Doha)
*[[Sudan Airways]] (Khartoum)
*[[Syrian Arab Airlines]] (Aleppo, Damascus)
*[[TAROM]] (Bucharest-Otopeni)
*[[Transaero]] (Moscow-Domodedovo)
*[[Turkish Airlines]] (Istanbul-Atatürk)
*[[Turkmenistan Airlines]] (Ashgabat)
*[[Yemenia]] (Riyan, Sanaa)

===Cargo airlines===
*[[Air France Cargo]]
*[[Cargolux]]
*[[China Airlines Cargo]]
*[[Dolphin Air]]
*[[Etihad Airways Crystal Cargo]]
*[[Lufthansa Cargo]]
*[[Martinair Cargo]]
*[[Turkmenistan Airlines]]

==Statistics==
{| border="1"
|+ Statistics for Abu Dhabi International Airport
! Year !! Total Passengers !! Total Cargo (tons) !! Total Aircraft Movements
|-
! 1998
| 3,131,283 || 79,847 || 45,927
|-
! 1999
| 3,522,306 || 92,267 || 50,694
|-
! 2000
| 3,684,307 || 318,632 || 57,111
|-
! 2001
| 3,588,015 || 385,055 || 65,134
|-
! 2002
| 3,986,665 || 391,079 || 35,987
|}
*[http://www.azworldairports.com/cfm/frame.cfm?src=http://www.azworldairports.com/airports/p2720mme.htm]

==Future==
The Airport opened Terminal 2 in August 2005. The new terminal has a baggage handling system with online security screening, Flight Information Display System, security surveillance and access control, 1000 square metres of duty free and cafeterias, business classlounge, e-gate and iris scan.

===Expansion===

Terminal 2 cost [[UAE]] [[Dirhams]] 21 billion (US $ 6.8 billion) and is capable of handling up to two million passengers per year. It was built as a solution to air traffic volumes which have outgrown the existing terminal.

Ten [[airport]] terminal design consultants are being interviewed for the job of designing a major new midfield passenger terminal. From these ten four to five will be short-listed to enter a design competition for the new
terminal complex. The expansion project will double the existing airport land area in [[Abu Dhabi]] to 34 km².

Another short list of consultants is being developed for the new 110 metre [[Air Traffic Control]] tower. The design competition for this will begin shortly. The airport master plan involves the construction of a second runway at a distance of 2,000 metres from the existing runway, cargo and maintenance facilities, and other commercial developments on land immediately adjacent to and north of the existing airport. The first phase is due to be completed by 2010.

The project will provide a home base for the UAE's national carrier, [[Etihad Airways]], which will be a major user of new cargo facilities with an ultimate handling capacity of around two million tonnes of freight a year. Etihad has identified air freight, in particular transit cargo, as one of its key growth areas. Other airlines serving Abu Dhabi International Airport will also benefit from the expansion. Close to the new cargo facilities land has been allocated for related commercial activities, including a free trade zone. Aircraft maintenance facilities will continue to be concentrated on the south side of the existing airport. The plan also sets aside land for the growth of other operators such as Royal Jet and Abu Dhabi Aviation. One of the first phases of the project will be the construction of a second , 4,100 metre runway which will cater for the latest generation of aircraft, including the new [[Airbus A380]], the world’s largest passenger aircraft.

Since appointing Skidmore, Owings & Merrill as the master planners in late November 2005, SCADIA has assembled a team of consultants - including planners, programme managers, aviation specialists, and designers - and contractors to deliver the master plan.

Among other aspects of the project completed in the last six months are the design of remote aircraft stands complete with airfield ground lighting and hydrant fuel.

==Notes and references==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.abudhabiairport.ae/ Abu Dhabi International Airport] Official website
* {{WAD|OMAA}}

{{Airports in the United Arab Emirates}}
[[Category:Airports in the United Arab Emirates]]

[[ar:مطار أبوظبي الدولي]]
[[ca:Aeroport Internacional d'Abu Dhabi]]
[[de:Flughafen Abu Dhabi]]
[[fr:Aéroport international d'Abu Dhabi]]
[[it:Aeroporto internazionale di Abu Dhabi]]
[[ja:アブダビ国際空港]]
[[pl:Port lotniczy Abu Zabi]]
[[sr:Аеродром Абу Даби]]
[[th:ท่าอากาศยานนานาชาติอาบูดาบี]]

Dubai International Airport

2008-06-05T17:45:14Z

202.79.62.16: /* Airlines and destinations */

{{Refimprove|date=December 2007}}
{{Cleanup|date=November 2007}}

{{Infobox Airport
| name = Dubai International Airport
| nativename =
| nativename-a = مطار دبي الدولي
| nativename-r =
| image = Dubai_logo.png
| image2 =DXB.jpg
| image-width = 158
| caption =
| IATA = DXB
| ICAO = OMDB
| type = Public
| owner =
| operator = Department of Civil Aviation
| city-served = [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates]]
| location =
| elevation-f = 62
| elevation-m = 19
| coordinates = {{Coord|25|15|10|N|055|21|52|E|type:airport}}
| website = [http://www.dubaiairport.com/ www.dubaiairport.com]
| metric-rwy = YEs
| r1-number = 12L/30R
| r1-length-f = 13,124
| r1-length-m = 4,000
| r1-surface = [[Asphalt]]
| r2-number = 12R/30L Closed
| r2-length-f = <s>13,124</s>
| r2-length-m = <s>4,000</s>
| r2-surface = <s>Asphalt</s>
| stat-year = 2007
| stat1-header = Aircraft Movements
| stat1-data = 260,530
| stat2-header = Passengers
| stat2-data = 34,340,000
| footnotes = Statistics from Dubai International Airport<ref name="stats"/>
}}

'''Dubai International Airport''' {{Airport codes|DXB|OMDB}} ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: مطار دبي الدولي) is an international [[airport]] serving [[Dubai]], the largest city of the [[United Arab Emirates]]. It is a major aviation [[airline hub|hub]] in the [[Middle East]], and is the main airport in Dubai.

== Overview ==
The airport is a hub to Dubai's international airline, [[Emirates Airline|Emirates]], as well as serving as a secondary hub for the Kuwait-based [[Jazeera Airways]]. Other smaller passenger and cargo airlines use the airport as a hub and these include [[Dolphin Air]] and [[Falcon Express Cargo Airlines]]. Airlines with secondary hubs at the airport include [[British Gulf International Airlines]], [[Iran Aseman Airlines]], [[DAS Air Cargo]], [[Aero Asia]], [[Air Blue]], [[Iran Air]] and [[African Express Airways]]. It is a focus city for a number of airlines including; [[Biman Bangladesh Airlines]], [[Air India]], [[Pakistan International Airlines]], and [[Jubba Airways]].

The airport operates flights from Dubai to [[North America]], [[Europe]], [[South America]], [[East Asia]], [[Southwest Asia]], [[South Asia]], [[Australasia]], and [[Africa]]. Dubai International Airport will be complemented by [[Dubai World Central International Airport]], a new 140 km² airport that will help handle the influx of travelers well into the future.

Operated by the Civil Aviation Authority of Dubai, it was the [[World's busiest airports by passenger traffic|27th busiest airport in the world]] in 2007, handling 34.34 million passengers. The airport targets 40 million for the year 2008.<ref name="AME">{{Cite news |title=Dubai International - world's fastest growing airport in 2007 |url=http://www.ameinfo.com/143493.html |publisher=''[[AMEInfo]]'' |date=2008-01-09 |accessdate=2007-01-09}}</ref> As of January 2008, the airport served 95,000 passengers per day, and 120 airlines to over 205 destinations.<ref name="AME"/> An important contributor to the Dubai economy, 13,000 people are employed at the airport.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} The airport accounts for over S$5.5 billion in output.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

== Statistics ==
Dubai International Airport has experienced extreme growth in the number of passengers, total freight, and total aircraft movements over the past decade. From 1997 to 2007, the number of annual passengers increased by 316%.<ref name="stats">[http://www.dubaiairport.com/DIA/English/TopMenu/About+DIA/Facts+and+Figures/ Facts and Figures]</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Statistics for '''Dubai International Airport'''
! Year !! Total Passengers !! % Increase !! Freight (tons) !! Total Aircraft Movements
|-
! 1997
| 9,108,766 || 13.7% || 414,468 || 112,816
|-
! 1998
| 9,732,202 || 6.8% || 431,777 || 123,352
|-
! 1999
| 10,754,824 || 10.5% || 474,779 || 132,708
|-
! 2000
| 12,320,660 || 14.6% || 562,591 || 141,281
|-
! 2001
| 13,508,073 || 9.6% || 610,867 || 134,165
|-
! 2002
| 15,973,391 || 18.3% || 764,193 || 148,334
|-
! 2003
| 18,062,344 || 13.1% || 928,758 || 168,511
|-
! 2004
| 21,711,883 || 13.7% || 1,111,647 || 195,820
|-
! 2005
| 24,782,288 || 14.1% || 1,333,014 || 217,165
|-
! 2006
| 28,788,726 || 16.2% || 1,410,963 || 237,258
|-
! 2007
| 34,340,000 || 19.3% || || 260,530
|-
! 2008 (January - March)<ref>http://www.uaeinteract.com/docs/Dubai_outshines_Changi_airport_/29750.htm</ref>
| 9, 340,000 || 15.11% (same period last year) || 399,718 || N/A
|}

== History ==
[[Image:Dubai Airport Circa 1959 Model Pict 3.jpg|thumb|Model of Dubai Airport c.1959]]
{{Expand|section|date=December 2007}}
{{Histinfo}}
Construction of the airport was originally ordered by Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum in 1959, who was the ruler of [[Dubai]] at that time. It officially opened in 1960, at which time it was able to manage aircraft the size of a [[Douglas DC-3]].
The airport was originally constructed by [[Costain]].<ref>[http://www.costain.com/externaldocs/aboutus/didyouknow.pdf Costain: Did you know? - item 27]</ref> 

== Expansion ==
[[Image:Dubai airport new terminal.jpg|thumb|right|A new terminal under construction]]
The airport is currently undergoing a major expansion with the construction of [[Airport terminal|Terminal]] 3 and new 60 meter (197 foot) wide and longer runway. This expansion will make the airport fully [[Airbus A380]] compatible.

The airport will also undergo an expansion to allow two stations of the Red Line of the [[Dubai Metro]] to be built within the complex. One station will be constructed in Terminal 1 and the other in Terminal 3. The Metro system is not expected to be fully operational until 2012.

Dubai's government has announced the construction of a new airport in [[Jebel Ali]] termed [[Dubai World Central International Airport]]. It is expected upon completion to be the fourth largest airport in the world by physical size, though not by passenger metrics. Construction is expected to finish by the year 2017. On completion, Dubai International Airport is expected to be able to accommodate up to 70 million passengers.

==Airlines and destinations==
[[Image:Dubai International airport interior.jpg|thumb|Dubai International Airport interior]]
===Terminal 1===
{{Incompletelist}}
*[[Aeroflot-Don]] (Rostov, Sochi)
*[[Aerosvit Airlines]] (Kiev-Boryspil)
*[[Air Algérie]] (Algiers)
*[[Air Astana]] (Almaty, Astana)
*[[Air China]] (Athens, Beijing)
*[[Air France]] (Paris-Charles de Gaulle)
*[[Air India]] (Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Chennai, Kochi, Kolkata, Mumbai, New Delhi, Thiruvananthapuram)
**[[Air-India Express]] (Amritsar, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Indore, Kochi, Kozhikode, Mangalore, Mumbai, Nagpur, Pune, Thiruvananthapuram)
**[[Indian Airlines]] (Hyderabad, Chennai, Mumbai, New Delhi, Jaipur, Kolkata)
*[[Air Zimbabwe]] (Harare, Lilongwe, Lusaka)
*[[Alitalia]] (Rome-Fiumicino)
*[[Aria Air]] (Bandar Abbas)
*[[Ariana Afghan Airlines]] (Kabul)
*[[Armavia]] (Yerevan)
*[[Austrian Airlines]] (Vienna)
*[[AVE.com]] (Baghdad, Basra, Djibouti, Kandahar, Sharjah, Yerevan)
*[[Azerbaijan Airlines]] (Baku)
*[[Bahrain Air]] (Bahrain)
*[[Biman Bangladesh Airlines]] (Chittagong, Dhaka, London-Heathrow, Rome-Fiumicino)
*[[British Airways]] (London-Heathrow)
*[[Bulgaria Air]] (Sofia)
*[[Cameroon Airlines]] (Douala)
*[[Caspian Airlines]] (Abadan, Ahwaz)
*[[Cathay Pacific]] (Bahrain, Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi, Hong Kong, Mumbai)
*[[China Southern Airlines]] (Beijing, Guangzhou, Lagos)
*[[Cyprus Airways]] (Bahrain, Larnaca)
*[[Daallo Airlines]] (Djibouti)
*[[Dagestan Airlines]] (Makhachkala)
*[[Delta Air Lines]] (Atlanta)
*[[Donbassaero]] (Donetsk, Odessa)
*[[EgyptAir]] (Alexandria-Nozha, Cairo)
*[[Emirates Airline]] (Abidjan, Accra, Addis Ababa, Ahmedabad, Alexandria-Borg, Amman, Athens, Auckland, Bahrain, Bangalore, Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi, Beijing, Beirut, Birmingham, Brisbane, Cairo, Cape Town, Casablanca, Chennai, Christchurch, Colombo, Damascus, Damman, Dar es Salaam, Delhi, Dhaka, Doha, Durban [begins [[1 December]] [[2008]]],<ref name=DUR>{{Cite web |title=Emirates to fly to Durban from December |url=http://archive.gulfnews.com/articles/08/05/05/10210892.html |publisher=''[[Gulf News]]'' |date=2008-05-05 |accessdate=2008-05-12}}</ref> Düsseldorf, Entebbe, Frankfurt, Glasgow-International, Guangzhou [begins [[1 July]] 2008],<ref name=EAG>{{Cite news |title=Emirates will fly to Guangzhou |url=http://archive.gulfnews.com/articles/08/03/04/10194569.html |publisher=''[[Gulf News]]'' |date=2008-03-04 |accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref> Hamburg, Hong Kong, Houston-Intercontinental, Hyderabad, Islamabad, Istanbul-Atatürk, Jakarta, Jeddah, Johannesburg, Karachi, Khartoum, Kochi, Kolkata, Kozhikode [begins 1 July 2008],<ref name=EAC>{{Cite web |title=Emirates to Fly to Calicut Expands India Network to 10 Cities |url=http://www.emirates.com/english/about/news/2008/2008_02_25_EMIRATES_TO_FLY_TO_CALICUT_EXPANDS_INDIA_NETWORK_TO_10_CITIES.aspx |publisher=Emirates |date=2008-02-25 |accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref> Kuala Lumpur, Kuwait City, Lagos, Lahore, Larnaca, London-Gatwick, London-Heathrow, Los Angeles [begins [[1 September]] 2008],<ref name=EALA>{{Cite web |title=Emirates announces flights to Los Angeles |url=http://www.ameinfo.com/149905.html |publisher=''[[AMEInfo]]'' |date=2008-03-13 |accessdate=2008-03-13}}</ref> Luqa, Male, Manchester, Manila, Melbourne, Milan-Malpensa, Moscow-Domodedovo, Mumbai, Munich, Muscat, Nagoya-Centrair, Nairobi, New York-JFK, Newcastle, Nice, Osaka-Kansai, Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Perth, Peshawar, Port Louis, Rome-Fiumicino, Riyadh, Sanaa, San Francisco [begins [[26 October]] 2008]<ref name=SFUS>{{Cite web |title=Emirates to begin San Francisco service |url=http://www.gulfnews.com/business/Aviation/10204217.html |publisher=''[[Gulf News]]'' |date=2008-04-09 |accessdate=2008-04-12}}</ref>, São Paulo-Guarulhos, Seoul-Incheon, Seychelles, Shanghai-Pudong, Singapore, Sydney, Tehran-Imam Khomeini, Thiruvanthapuram, Toronto-Pearson, Tripoli, Tunis, Venice, Vienna, Zürich)
:''Emirates Airline is moving operations to Terminal 3 in August 2008''
*[[Ethiopian Airlines]] (Addis Ababa, Mumbai)
*[[Eritrean Airlines]] (Asmara)
*[[Georgian Airways]] (Tbilisi)
*[[Gulf Air]] (Bahrain)
*[[GMG Airlines]] (Dhaka)
*[[Garuda Indonesia]] (Denpasar/Bali, Jakarta)
*[[Hainan Airlines]] (Beijing, Luanda)
*[[Iran Air]] (Bandar Abbas, Isfahan, Shiraz, Tehran-Imam Khomeini)
*[[Jat Airways]] (Belgrade, Larnaca)
*[[Jazeera Airways]] (Bahrain, Male, Delhi, Kochi, Kuwait, Mumbai, Muscat, Salalah, Larnaca)
*[[Jordan Aviation]] (Aqaba)
*[[Jubba Airways]] (Aden, Bosaso, Djibouti, Hargesia, Mogadishu, Sana'a)
*[[Kenya Airways]] (Guangzhou, Nairobi)
*[[KLM]] (Amsterdam)
*[[Korean Air]] (Seoul-Incheon)
*[[Kuwait Airways]] (Kuwait)
*[[Libyan Airlines]] (Benghazi, Tripoli)
*[[Lufthansa]] (Frankfurt, Munich [seasonal])
*[[Malaysia Airlines]] (Beirut, Karachi, Kuala Lumpur)
*[[Malev Hungarian Airlines]] (Budapest)
*[[Middle East Airlines]] (Beirut)
*[[Nepal Airlines]] (Kathmandu,Frankfut,London)
*[[Norwegian Air Shuttle]] (Oslo-Gardermoen [begins [[October 26]] 2008], Stockholm-Arlanda [begins [[October 27]] 2008])<ref>[http://www.norwegian.no/sw32340.asp Norwegian Air Shuttle - Norwegian direkte til Dubai]</ref>
*[[Olympic Airlines]] (Athens, Kuwait)
*[[Oman Air]] (Beirut, Kuwait, Muscat, Salalah)
*[[Pakistan International Airlines]] (Faisalabad, Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Moscow-Sheremetyevo, Multan, Peshawar, Quetta)
*[[Qatar Airways]] (Doha)
*[[Royal Brunei Airlines]] (Bandar Seri Begawan, London-Heathrow)
*[[Royal Jordanian]] (Amman)
*[[Royal Air Maroc]] (Casablanca)
*[[Saudi Arabian Airlines]] (Dammam, Jeddah, Medinah, Riyadh)
*[[Scandinavian Airlines System]] (Copenhagen) ''seasonal''
*[[Shaheen Air International]] (Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar)
*[[S7 Airlines]] (Moscow-Domodedovo, Novosibirsk, Samara)
*[[Singapore Airlines]] (Istanbul-Atatürk, Moscow-Domodedovo, Singapore)
*[[Somon Air]] (Dushanbe)
*[[SriLankan Airlines]] (Colombo, Kuwait)
*[[Sudan Airways]] (Doha, Khartoum)
*[[Swiss International Air Lines]] (Muscat, Zürich)
*[[Syrian Arab Airlines]] (Damascus, Aleppo)
*[[TAROM]] (Bucharest-Otopeni)
*[[Thai Airways International]] (Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi, Chennai, Kuwait)
*[[Transaero]] (Moscow-Domodedovo)
*[[Tunisair]] (Beirut, Tunis)
*[[Turkish Airlines]] (Istanbul-Atatürk)
*[[Ukraine International Airlines]] (Kiev-Borpsil)
*[[United Airlines]] (Washington-Dulles) [Begins [[October 26]] 2008]<ref>{{Cite web |title=United Airlines Announces Plans to Launch Nonstop Service to Dubai and Moscow |url=http://www.united.com/press/detail/0,6862,59224,00.html |publisher=United Airlines |date=2008-05-06 |accessdate=2008-05-12}}</ref>
*[[Ural Airlines]] (Ekaterinburg)
*[[VIM Airlines]] (Moscow-Domodedovo)
*[[Virgin Atlantic Airways|Virgin Atlantic]] (London-Heathrow)
*[[Yemenia]] (Aden, Bahrain, Dhaka, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Kuwait, Riyan, Sana'a)

===Terminal 2===
*[[Airblue]] (Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar)
*[[Air India]]
**[[Air-India Express]] ''See Terminal 1''
*[[Ariana Afghan Airlines]] (Kabul, Kuwait)
*[[ATMA]] (Baghdad)
*[[Bexair]] (Bahrain)
*[[British Gulf International]] (Baghdad)
*[[Caspian Airlines]] (Ahwaz, Tabriz, Tehran-Imam Khomeini)
*[[Condor Airlines|Condor]] (Frankfurt) [seasonal]
*[[Donbassaero]] (Donetsk)
*[[Eastline Airlines]] (Kabul)
*[[Eastern SkyJets]] ''charter service only''
*[[Expo Aviation]] (Trivandrum)
*[[Falcon Express]] (Bahrain, Doha, Riyadh, Kuwait)
*[[Fars Air Qeshm]] (Qeshm, Tbilisi)
*[[Finnair]] (Helsinki) ''charter service only''
*[[Great Wall Airlines]] (Manchester, Shanghai)
*[[Hainan Airlines]] (Beijing, Luanda)
*[[Iran Aseman Airlines]] (Bahrain, Bushehr, Gheshm, Lar, Shiraz, Tehran)
*[[Iraqi Airways]] (Baghdad, Basra)
*[[Jubba Airways]] (Mogadishu)
*[[Jupiter Airlines]] (Baghdad, Basrah, Erbil)
*[[Kam Air]] (Jeddah, Kabul, Kandahar)
*[[Kish Air]] (Gheshm, Kish)
*[[LatCharter]] (Riga)
*[[Mahan Air]] (Tehran-Imam Khomeini)
*[[Mihin Lanka]] (Colombo)
*[[Nasair]] (Asmara)
*[[Pamir Airways]] (Kabul)
*[[Pars Air]] (Tehran)
*[[Royal Jet]] (Almaty)
*[[Safi Airways]] (Kabul)
*[[Silk Way Airlines]] (Baku)
*[[South Airlines]] (Baghdad)
*[[Tenir Air]] (Kabul)
*[[Turkmenistan Airlines]] (Ashgabat)

===Terminal 3===
Terminal 3 is completely dedicated to Emirates Airline. The terminal was meant to open in May 2008 but, due to project delays, will open in August 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dubai Terminal 3 Opening |url=http://www.business24-7.ae/cs/article_show_mainh1_story.aspx?HeadlineID=3720 |publisher=Emirates Business 24/7 |date=2008-03-12 |accessdate=2008-04-06}}</ref>
:''Emirates Airline is moving operations from Terminal 1 in August 2008''

==Cargo airlines==
*[[Air France|Air France Cargo]]
*[[Cathay Pacific]]
*[[DAS Air Cargo]]
*[[Emirates SkyCargo]]
*[[Euro Air Cargo]] [future airline]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Euro Cargo Air - Destinations - Planned |url=http://www.eurocargoair.eu/e_destination.htm |publisher=Euro Cargo Air |accessdate=2008-04-12}}</ref>
*[[EVA Air Cargo]]
*[[Falcon Express Cargo Airlines]]
*[[FedEx Express]]
*[[Jett8 Airlines Cargo]]
*[[KLM|KLM Cargo]]
*[[Malaysia Airlines Kargo]] (MASkargo)
*[[MK Airlines]]
*[[Polar Air Cargo]]
*[[Qatar Airways|Qatar Airways Cargo]]
*[[Royal Airlines]]
*[[Royal Jordanian]] Cargo
*[[SAS Cargo Group|Scandinavian Airlines System]]
*[[Shaheen Air International]]
*[[Singapore Airlines Cargo]]
*[[Star Air]]
*[[TAROM|TAROM Cargo]]
*[[Thai Airways International]] (operated by [[Focus Air Cargo]])
*[[United Parcel Service]]

==Incidents==
*On [[3 July]], [[1988]], [[Iran Air Flight 655]], which was on a [[Tehran]]-[[Bandar Abbas]]-Dubai route, was shot down by [[USS Vincennes (CG-49)|USS ''Vincennes'']] between Bandar Abbas and Dubai. 290 people were killed in this incident.
*On [[28 July]] [[2001]], a man named Djamel Beghal was arrested at Dubai International Airport while transferring from a flight from [[Pakistan]] to a flight to [[Europe]]. Beghal admitted to being part of the [[Paris embassy attack plot]] to UAE interrogators. The [[Al-Qaeda]] suspect was taken to [[France]], where he recanted parts of his statement. The plot was dismantled by French, [[Belgium|Belgian]], and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] authorities.
*Part of the airport's Terminal 3 collapsed on [[September 28]], [[2004]] during the construction phase.
*On [[17 February]] [[2007]], a [[Novair]] A330-200 made an emergency landing in an airport in the United Arab Emirates. The plane was flying from [[Phuket (city)|Phuket]], [[Thailand]] to [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]] with mainly Danish passengers. After takeoff from a scheduled intermediate landing in Dubai, the captain felt some strange vibrations in one of the engines and decided to shut it down. The landing went smoothly and no one was injured.
*[[12 March]] [[2007]]: [[Biman Bangladesh Airlines]] Flight BG006 (LHR-DXB-DAC), carrying 236 passengers and crew, the nose gear of the [[Airbus A310|Airbus A310-300]] collapsed while accelerating down the runway<ref name=AviationSafetyNet070312>{{cite web| url=http://www.aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20070312-0|| title=Aviation Safety Network Report | publisher=Aviation Safety Network | date=[[2007-03-12]]|}}</ref>. Fourteen people suffered minor injuries in the accident at Dubai International Airport<ref name=CNN070312>{{cite web| url=http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/meast/03/12/dubai.airport/index.html|| title=Dubai Jet Accident Injures 14 | publisher=CNN | date=[[2007-03-12]]|}}</ref>. The aircraft came to rest at the end of the runway and was evacuated, but crippled the only active runway and forced the airport to close for eight hours, affecting 71 flights<ref>[[Flight International]] 20-26 March 2007</ref>.
*Hijackings: 2 with a total of 1 fatality.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}

==See also==
{{commons|Category:Dubai International Airport|Dubai International Airport}}
*[[Developments in Dubai]]
*[[Dubai World Central International Airport]]
*[[Tourism in Dubai]]
*[[Transportation in Dubai]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.dubaiairport.com/ Official Site]
*{{WAD|OMDB}}
*[http://www.airport-technology.com/projects/dubai/ Project Information from Airport Technology]

{{Neighborhoods in Dubai}}
{{Airports in the United Arab Emirates}}

[[Category:Airports in the United Arab Emirates]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Dubai]]

[[ar:مطار دبي الدولي]]
[[ca:Aeroport Internacional de Dubai]]
[[de:Flughafen Dubai]]
[[es:Aeropuerto Internacional de Dubai]]
[[eo:Dubaja Internacia Flughaveno]]
[[fr:Aéroport international de Dubaï]]
[[gl:Aeroporto Internacional de Dubai]]
[[id:Bandar Udara Internasional Dubai]]
[[hu:Dubaji nemzetközi repülőtér]]
[[ja:ドバイ国際空港]]
[[pl:Port lotniczy Dubaj]]
[[pt:Aeroporto Internacional de Dubai]]
[[sr:Аеродром Дубаи]]
[[fi:Dubain kansainvälinen lentoasema]]
[[th:ท่าอากาศยานนานาชาติดูไบ]]
[[vi:Sân bay quốc tế Dubai]]
[[zh:迪拜国际机场]]

Kansai International Airport

2008-06-05T17:42:53Z

202.79.62.16: /* North Wing */

{{Redirect|KIX|the barcode|RM4SCC}}{{Infobox Airport
| name = Kansai International Airport
| nativename =
| nativename-a = 関西国際空港
| nativename-r = Kansai Kokusai Kūkō
| image = Kix aerial photo.jpg
| image-width =
| caption =
| IATA = KIX
| ICAO = RJBB
| type = Public
| owner =
| operator = [http://www.kiac.co.jp/en/ Kansai International Airport Co., Ltd.]
| city-served = [[Osaka, Japan|Osaka]]
| location = [[Osaka Prefecture]], [[Japan]]
| elevation-f = 49
| elevation-m = 15
| coordinates = {{coord|34|26|05|N|135|14|39|E|type:airport_region:JP}}
| website = [http://www.kiac.co.jp/en/ www.kiac.co.jp]
| metric-rwy =
| r1-number = 6R/24L
| r1-length-f = 11,400
| r1-length-m = 3,500
| r1-surface = Paved
| r2-number = 6L/24R
| r2-length-f = 13,123
| r2-length-m = 4,000
| r2-surface = Paved
| stat-year = FY2006
| stat1-header = Aircraft Movements
| stat1-data = 116,475<ref name="kiac-stats"/>
| stat2-header = Passenger Movements
| stat2-data = 16,689,658<ref name="kiac-stats"/>
| stat3-header = Freight Volume
| stat3-data = 802,162 t<ref name="kiac-stats"/>
| footnotes =
}}

{{nihongo|'''Kansai International Airport'''|関西国際空港|Kansai Kokusai Kūkō}} {{Airport codes|KIX|RJBB}} is an international [[airport]] located on an [[artificial island]] in the middle of [[Osaka Bay]], off the shore of the cities of [[Sennan, Osaka|Sennan]] and [[Izumisano, Osaka|Izumisano]] and the town of [[Tajiri, Osaka|Tajiri]] in [[Osaka Prefecture]], [[Japan]]. (It should not be confused with [[Osaka International Airport]], which is closer to the city and now handles only domestic flights.) It was ranked 4th overall in the Airport of the Year 2006 awards named by [[Skytrax]], next to [[Singapore Changi Airport]], [[Hong Kong International Airport]] and [[Munich International Airport]].

It is colloquially known as {{nihongo|関空|Kankū}} in [[Japanese language|Japanese]].
During [[Financial year|FY]] 2006, KIX, which serves the city of [[Osaka]], had 116,475 aircraft movements, of which 73,860 were international (31 countries, 71 cities), and 42,615 were domestic (19 cities). The total number of passengers was 16,689,658 of which 11,229,444 were international, and 5,460,214 were domestic. Freight volume was at 802,162 [[tonnes]] total, of which 757,414 t were international (18th in the world), and 44,748 t were domestic.<ref name="kiac-stats">[http://www.kiac.co.jp/en/data/index.html Kansai International Airport Statistics] – Kansai International Airport Co., Ltd.</ref> The 4,000 meter runway 2 was opened on [[August 2]], [[2007]]. Kansai Airport has become an Asian hub, with 499 weekly flights to [[Asia]], 66 weekly flights to [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]], and 35 weekly flights to North America.

== Flights data ==
*Weekly international passenger flights: 614
*Weekly international freighter flights: 200
*Weekly domestic (passenger and freighter) flights: 493

(Summer 2008 schedule)<ref>[http://www.kiac.co.jp/news/2007/709/08summerHP.pdf Flight plan on summer '08]</ref>

== History ==
In the 1960s, when the [[Kansai]] region was rapidly losing trade to [[Tokyo]], planners proposed a new airport near [[Kobe]] and Osaka. [[Osaka International Airport]], located in the densely-populated suburbs of [[Itami, Hyōgo|Itami]] and [[Toyonaka, Osaka|Toyonaka]], was surrounded by buildings; it could not be expanded, and many of its neighbors had filed complaints because of [[noise pollution]] problems.

After the protests surrounding New Tokyo International Airport (now [[Narita International Airport]]), which was built with [[expropriation|expropriated]] land in a rural part of [[Chiba Prefecture]], planners decided to build the airport offshore. The new airport was part of a number of new developments to revitalize Osaka, which had been losing economic and cultural ground to Tokyo for most of the century.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE5DC143DF93AA35751C1A96F948260 Osaka Journal; Impatient City's Mission: Steal Tokyo's Thunder], ''New York Times'', December 9, 1989.</ref>

Initially, the airport was planned to be built near Kobe, but the city of Kobe refused the plan, so the airport was moved to a more southerly location on Osaka Bay. There, it could be open 24 hours per day, unlike its predecessor in the city. Local fishermen were the only group to protest, but they were silenced by hefty compensation packages.

===Construction===
[[Image:Wfm kansai overview.jpg|right|thumb|Satellite photo of Kansai Airport (''lower-right island'') in Osaka Bay. [[Kobe Airport]] is being built on the unfinished island near the middle of the photo. Central Osaka is in the upper-right corner.]]
[[Image:Kansai_closeup.jpg|thumb|Closeup of the artificial island]]

A [[man-made island]], 4 km long and 2.5 km wide, was proposed. Engineers needed to overcome the extremely high risks of [[earthquake]]s and typhoons (with [[storm surge]]s of up to 3 meters).
Construction started in [[1987]]. The sea wall was finished in [[1989]] (made of rocks and 48,000 tetrahedral concrete blocks). Three mountains were excavated for 21 million cubic meters of landfill. 10,000 workers and 10 million work hours over 3 years, using 80 ships, were needed to complete the thirty-meter layer of earth over the sea floor and inside the sea wall. In [[1990]], a three-kilometer bridge was completed to connect the island to the mainland at [[Rinku-Town]], at a cost of $1 billion. Completion of the artificial island increased the area of [[Osaka Prefecture]] just enough to move it past [[Kagawa Prefecture]] in size (leaving Kagawa as the smallest by area in Japan).

The bidding and construction of the airport was a source of international trade friction during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Prime Minister [[Yasuhiro Nakasone]] responded to American concerns, particularly from Senator [[Frank Murkowski]], that bids would be rigged in Japanese companies' favor by providing special offices for prospective international contractors,<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE7DD143DF931A35756C0A961948260 Some Minor Gains on Trade Conflicts], ''New York Times'', May 2, 1987.</ref> which ultimately did little to facilitate the participation of foreign contractors in the bidding process.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CEFD71631F934A15753C1A965958260 US Cancels A Plan To Begin Sanctions After Japan Acts], ''New York Times'', October 27, 1993.</ref> Later, foreign airlines complained that two-thirds of the departure hall counter space had been allocated to Japanese carriers, disproportionately to the actual carriage of passengers through the airport.<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/1992/08/24/nobo.php Osaka Notebook], ''International Herald Tribune'', August 24, 1992.</ref>

The island had been predicted to gradually sink as the weight of the material used to construct the island would cause it to compress downwards. However, by this time, the island had sunk 8 meters, much more than predicted. The project then became the most expensive civil works project in modern history after 20 years of planning, 3 years of construction and several billion dollars of investment. However, much of what was learned went into the successful [[artificial islands]] in silt deposits for [[New Kitakyushu Airport]], [[Kobe Airport]], and [[Chubu International Airport]]. The lessons of Kansai Airport were also applied in the construction of [[Hong Kong International Airport]].<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/1992/01/22/hang.php Sinking Feeling at Hong Kong Airport], ''International Herald Tribune'', January 22, 1982.</ref>

In 1991, the terminal construction commenced. To compensate for the sinking of the island, adjustable columns were designed to support the terminal building. These could be extended by inserting thick metal plates at their base. Government officials proposed reducing the length of the terminal in order to cut costs, but architect [[Renzo Piano]] insisted on keeping the terminal at its full planned length.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CEEDA1F39F930A35754C0A967958260 Osaka Journal; Huge Airport Has Its Wings Clipped], ''New York Times'', July 3, 1991.</ref> The airport opened in [[1994]].

On [[January 17]], [[1995]], Japan was struck by the [[Kobe earthquake]], whose [[epicenter]] was approximately 20 km away from KIX and killed 6,434 people on Japan's main island of [[Honshū]]. The airport, however, emerged unscathed, mostly due to the use of [[sliding joint]]s in its construction. Even the glass in the windows stayed intact. Later, in 1998, the airport survived a typhoon with wind speeds of up to 200 km/h.

On [[April 19]], [[2001]], the airport was one of ten structures given the "Civil Engineering Monument of the Millennium" award by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]. <ref>[http://www.asce.org/pressroom/news/pr041901_kansai.cfm U.S. Engineering Society names Kansai International Airport a Civil Engineering Monument of the Millennium] – Press release from American Society of Civil Engineers</ref>

The total cost of Kansai Airport so far is $20 billion. This includes the land reclamation, 2 runways, and terminal and facilities. The additional costs were mostly borne initially due to the island sinking, expected due to the soft soils of Osaka Bay, but after construction the rate of sinking was considered so severe that the airport was widely criticized as a notorious structural engineering disaster. The rate of sinking has since fallen from 50 cm during 1994 to 9 cm in 2006.<ref>[http://www.kiac.co.jp/en/tech/sink/sink3/index.html Kansai International Airport Co., Ltd. – Condition of Settlement]</ref>

===Operation===
[[Image:Finair MD-11.JPG|thumb|Aircraft in front of the terminal building]]
[[Image:Kansai_International_Airport_3.JPG|thumb|Air traffic [[Control tower]]]]

Opened on [[September 4]], [[1994]], the airport serves as a hub for several airlines such as [[All Nippon Airways]], [[Japan Airlines]], and [[Nippon Cargo Airlines]]. It is the international gateway for Japan's [[Kansai region]], which contains the major cities of [[Kyoto]], [[Kobe]], and [[Osaka]]. Other Kansai domestic flights fly from the older but more conveniently located [[Osaka International Airport]] in [[Itami, Hyogo|Itami]], or from the newer [[Kobe Airport]].

The airport had been deeply in debt, losing $560 million in interest every year. Airlines had been kept away by high landing fees (approximately $7500 for a [[Boeing 747]]), the second most expensive in the world after [[Narita International Airport|Narita]]'s. In the early years of the airport's operation, excessive terminal rent and utility bills for on-site concessions also drove up operating costs: some estimates before opening held that a cup of coffee would have to cost US$10.<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/1994/08/05/airport.php Will Fees Sink New Osaka Airport?], ''International Herald Tribune'', August 5, 1994.</ref> Osaka business owners pressed the government to take a greater burden of the construction cost in order to keep the airport attractive to passengers and airlines.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE1D71039F935A25751C1A965958260 Pride and (Ouch!) Price: The $14 Billion Airport], ''New York Times'', December 16, 1993.</ref> Nowadays, after deep discounts, the number of flights is increasing.

On [[February 17]], [[2005]], [[Chubu Centrair International Airport]] opened in Nagoya, just east of Osaka. The opening of the airport is expected to increase competition between Japan's international airports. Despite this, passenger totals were up 11% in 2005 over 2004, and international passengers increased to 3.06 million in 2006, up 10% over 2005. The opening of [[Kobe Airport]], less than 25 km away, in [[2006]] is expected to further give KIX competition on domestic flights, as well as nearby [[Tokushima Airport]] in [[Shikoku]] will have its runway lengthened in 2007 enough to accommodate some jumbo jets.

The main rationale behind the expansions is to compete with [[Incheon International Airport]] and [[Hong Kong International Airport]] as a gateway to Asia, as [[Tokyo]] area airports are severely congested. However, with the regional trend in [[open skies]] agreements being signed, it is possible that all airports can see increases in traffic.

Kansai has been marketed as an alternative to Narita Airport for international travellers from the [[Greater Tokyo Area]]. By flying to Kansai from [[Tokyo International Airport|Haneda Airport]] and connecting to international flights there, travelers can save the additional time required to get to Narita: up to one and a half hours for many residents of [[Kanagawa Prefecture]] and southern Tokyo.

===Expansion===
[[Image:Kansaiviewfromplane.JPG|thumb|Second phase of Kansai International Airport under construction]]

The airport was at its limit during peak times, owing especially to freight flights, so a portion of Phase II expansion—the second runway—was made a priority.<ref>[http://www.kiac.co.jp/2nd/target/index.html The reason for construction of The 2nd runway]– Kansai International Airport Co., Ltd.</ref> Thus, in 2003, believing that the sinking problem was almost over, the airport operators started the construction of a 4,000 m second runway and terminal.

The second runway opened on [[August 2]], [[2007]], but without the originally planned terminal portion, now postponed to a later date. This lowered the project cost to ¥910 billion (approx. US$8 billion), saving ¥650 billion from the initial estimate.<ref>[http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/20070729TDY02002.htm - Daily Yomiuri Online - Opening of new KIX runway celebrated]</ref> The additional runway development, which was opened in time for the [[IAAF World Championships in Athletics|IAAF world athletics championships]] in [[Osaka]], has expanded the airport size to 10.5 km².

Further into the future, the airport is planning to construct a new terminal building, several aprons, runway 6C/24C with a length of 3500 meters, a new cargo terminal and expanding the airport size to 13 km². However these plans are being postponed by the Japanese Government due to economic reasons. The new runway is only used for landings unless there are incidents prohibiting take off use of runway A.

The airport now expects to handle 129,000 flights during the year 2007, an increase of 11% compared to 2006 figures of 116, 475 flights. The new runway allowed the airport to start 24 hour operations in September 2007.<ref>"Kansai opens its Second Runway", Airports - September/October 2007 (Key Publishing), P7</ref><ref>"24 hours operation from 1st September 2007" from Sankei Newspaper (Japanese) on [[August 24]], [[2007]].</ref>

==Terminal==
KIX has a single four-story terminal designed by [[Renzo Piano Building Workshop]] ([[Renzo Piano]] and [[Noriaki Okabe]]). It is the longest airport terminal in the world, at a total length of 1.7 km from end to end: a sophisticated [[people mover]] system called [[Wing Shuttle]] moves passengers from one end of the pier to the other.
[[Image:Kansai International Airport Terminal Interior.jpg|thumb|The ground level of the terminal looking north from the center]]
[[Image:Kansai International Airport Boarding Lobby.jpg|thumb|3rd floor boarding lobby, part of the longest airport concourse in the world.]]
[[Image:Kansai International Airport Departures.JPG|thumb|4th floor ticketing hall, illustrating the terminal's airfoil roof.]]
The terminal's roof is shaped like an [[airfoil]]. This shape is used to promote air circulation through the building: giant [[air conditioning]] ducts blow air upwards at one side of the terminal, circulate the air across the curvature of the ceiling, and collect the air through intakes at the other side. [[Mobile (sculpture)|Mobile]]s are suspended in the ticketing hall to take advantage of the flowing air.

The ticketing hall overlooks the international departures concourse, and the two are separated by a glass partition. During Kansai's early days, visitors were known to throw objects over the partition to friends in the corridor below. The partition was eventually modified to halt this practice.

===International carriers===
International arrivals go to immigration and baggage claim on the first floor. International departures are ticketed on the fourth floor and board from the third floor.

==== North Wing ====
(Gates 1–16, 101–103)
* [[Air Canada]] (Vancouver) [ends October 25]
* [[Air Tahiti Nui]] (Papeete)
* [[Alitalia]] (Rome-Fiumicino)
* [[All Nippon Airways]] (Beijing, Dalian, Guam, Hangzhou, Hong Kong, Seoul-Incheon, Shanghai-Pudong, Shenyang, Qingdao, Xiamen)
* [[Asiana Airlines]] (Busan, Seoul-Incheon)
* [[Cathay Pacific]] (Hong Kong, Taipei-Taiwan Taoyuan)
* [[China Southern Airlines]] (Dalian, Guangzhou, Harbin, Shenyang)
* [[EVA Air]] (Los Angeles, Taipei-Taiwan Taoyuan)
* [[Finnair]] (Helsinki)
* [[Garuda Indonesia]] (Denpasar/Bali, Jakarta)
* [[KLM]] (Amsterdam)
* [[Korean Air]] (Busan, Jeju, Seoul-Incheon)
* [[Lufthansa]] (Frankfurt)
* [[Malaysia Airlines]] (Kota Kinabalu, Kuala Lumpur)
* [[MIAT Mongolian]] (Ulaanbaatar)
* [[Nepal Airlines]] (Kathmandu,Shanghai)
* [[Northwest Airlines]] (Detroit, Guam, Honolulu, Saipan, Taipei-Taiwan Taoyuan)
* [[Qatar Airways]] (Doha, Seoul-Incheon)
* [[Qantas]]
** [[Jetstar Airways]] (Brisbane [ends 30 September 2008] <ref>http://www.etravelblackboard.com/showarticle.asp?id=77814&nav=2</ref>, Cairns [ends December 2008 <ref>http://www.qantas.com.au/regions/dyn/au/publicaffairs/details?ArticleID=2008/jun08/3771</ref>], Gold Coast [starts 1 October 2008] <ref>http://www.etravelblackboard.com/showarticle.asp?id=77814&nav=2</ref>, Sydney)
* [[Shanghai Airlines]] (Shanghai-Pudong)
* [[Thai Airways International]] (Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi, Manila, Phuket)
* [[Turkish Airlines]] (Istanbul-Atatürk)
* [[United Airlines]] (San Francisco)
* [[Uzbekistan Airways]] (Tashkent)

==== South Wing ====
(Gates 26–41, 111–113)
*[[Aircalin|Air Caledonie International]] (Noumea)
* [[Air China]] (Beijing, Dalian, Shanghai-Pudong)
* [[Air France]] (Paris-Charles de Gaulle)
* [[Air India]] (Delhi, Hong Kong, Mumbai)
* [[Air New Zealand]] (Auckland, Christchurch)
* [[China Airlines]] (Taipei-Taiwan Taoyuan)
* [[China Eastern Airlines]] (Beijing, Nanjing, Kunming, Qingdao, Shanghai-Pudong, Yantai)
* [[EgyptAir]] (Cairo)
* [[Emirates Airline|Emirates]] (Dubai)
* [[Hainan Airlines]] (Beijing, Haikou)
* [[Japan Airlines]] (Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi, Beijing, Busan, Dalian, Denpasar/Bali, Guangzhou, Hangzhou, Hanoi, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, London-Heathrow, Qingdao, Seoul-Incheon, Shanghai-Pudong, Singapore, Taipei-Taiwan Taoyuan)
** [[JALways]] (Guam, Honolulu)
* [[Philippine Airlines]] (Manila)
* [[Shenzhen Airlines]] (Fuzhou, Shenzhen)
* [[Singapore Airlines]] (Singapore)
* [[Vietnam Airlines]] (Ho Chi Minh City)
* [[Vladivostok Air]] (Vladivostok) [seasonal]
* [[Xiamen Airlines]] (Hangzhou, Xiamen)

=== Domestic carriers ===
Arrivals, departures, ticketing, and [[baggage claim]] are all on the second floor.

(Gates 16–20, 201–202)
* [[All Nippon Airways]] (Fukuoka, Goto Fukue, Hakodate, Ishigaki, Kagoshima, Memanbetsu, Miyazaki, Okinawa, Sapporo Chitose, Tokyo-Haneda, Wakkanai)

(Gates 20–26, 211–212)
* [[All Nippon Airways]] (Matsuyama, Miyakojima, Tokyo-Haneda)
* [[Japan Airlines]] (Akita, Aomori, Asahikawa, Fukuoka, Fukushima, Hakodate, Kushiro, Memambetsu, Obihiro, Okinawa, Sapporo Chitose, Tokyo-Haneda)
** [[Japan Transocean Air]] (Ishigaki, Okinawa)

*[[StarFlyer]](Tokyo-Haneda)

=== Cargo carriers ===
(Airlines that operate only cargo flights into the airport)
* [[Air Hong Kong]]
* [[Dragonair (airline)|Dragonair]]
* [[FedEx Express (airline)|Federal Express]]
* [[Korean Air Cargo]]
* [[Nippon Cargo Airlines]]
* [[SAS Cargo Group|Scandinavian Airlines System]]
* [[United Parcel Service]]
* [[China Postal Airlines]]
* [[Jade Cargo International]]
* [[Yangtze River Express Airlines]]
* [[Cargoitalia]]
* [[Galaxy Airlines]]
* [[Cathay Pacific Cargo]]
* Polar Air Cargo

== Ground transportation ==
=== Rail ===
[[Image:Jrwest 281.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Haruka (train)|Haruka]]'', [[West Japan Railway Company|JR West]]'s Kansai Airport Limited Express to [[Osaka Station|Osaka]], [[Kyoto Station|Kyoto]].]]
[[Image:KansaiAirport Rapit.JPG|thumb|right|''[[rapi:t]]'', Nankai Railway's limited express train to [[Namba Station]]. One way (for adult) 1,390 yen.]]
Kansai International Airport is connected only by the Sky Gate Bridge R, a road / railroad bridge to [[Rinku Town]] and the mainland. The lower railroad level of the bridge is used by two railroad operators: [[West Japan Railway Company|West Japan Railway]] (JR West) and [[Nankai Electric Railway]].

[[West Japan Railway Company|JR West]] operates ''[[Haruka (train)|Haruka]]'', the limited express train services for Kansai Airport Station from [[Tennoji Station|Tennoji]], [[Shin-Osaka Station|Shin-Osaka]] and [[Kyoto Station]]. JR West also offers "Kansai Airport Rapid" services for [[Kansai Airport Station]] from [[Osaka Station|Osaka]] and [[Kyobashi Station (Osaka)|Kyobashi Station]], as well as several stations on the way. Various connections, such as buses, subways, trams, and other railroads, are available at each station.

Nankai operates ''[[rapi:t]]'', a limited express train service to [[Namba Station]] on the southern edge of downtown Osaka. Subway connections are available at Namba and [[Tengachaya Station]].

Railroad plans were drawn up in the late 1980s for an underwater railway connecting Kansai Airport to downtown [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]] and [[Kobe Airport]], although the extremely high cost of the project led to its indefinite postponement.

===Bus===
[http://www.kate.co.jp/pc/english/english.html Kansai Airport Transportation Enterprise] and other code-sharing bus operators offer scheduled express bus services, called "Airport Limousines", for Kansai International Airport. The followings are estimated travel time and fare for each destination:
* Wakayama: 40 min., ¥1,100
* Osaka Station: 60 min., ¥1,300
* Sannomiya Station: 65 min., ¥1,800
* Universal Studios Japan: 70 min., ¥1,300
* Itami Airport: 70 min., ¥1,700
* Nara: 85 min., ¥1,800
* Kyoto: 100 min., ¥2,300
* Himeji: 130 min., ¥3,000

There are other destinations.
* [[Marugame]], [[Takamatsu]] and [[Naruto, Tokushima|Naruto]]
* [[Tokushima]]
* [[Okayama]]
* [[Takatsuki]]
* [[Nishinomiya]]
* [[Amagasaki]]
* [[Keihanna Science City]]
* [[Hirakata]] and [[Uji]]
* [[Moriguchi]]

=== Parking ===
[[Image:Sky_gate_bridge01s3200.jpg|thumb|Sky Gate Bridge to the mainland]]
Two six-story parking structures, called P1 and P2, are above a railroad terminal station, while the other two level parking facilities, called P3 and P4, are adjacent to "Aeroplaza", a hotel complex.

The airport is only accessible from the Sky Gate Bridge R, a part of Kansai Airport Expressway. The expressway immediately connects to [[Hanshin Expressway]]s Route 5, "Wangan Route", and [[Hanwa Expressway]].

=== Ferry Service ===

In July 2007 a high-speed ferry service (run by Kaijo Access Co.) began operating between Kobe Airport and KIX. It takes 30 minutes and costs 1500 yen for adults and 700 yen for children. From KIX the ferry service runs from first departure at 7:15 am to final departure at 22:30 pm, and from Kobe Airport it runs from 6:30 am to 21:45 pm.

Previous services to Sumoto on Awaji Island and to Tokushima have been discontinued.

== Other facilities ==
*[[Thermal power station|Central power station]] ([[Kansai Electric Power Company|KEPCO]] energy center. 40,000kW)
*Central heating and cooling plant
*Sewage disposal plant (disposing 20,000 m³ per a day)
*Incineration plant
*[[Japan Coast Guard]] Kansai airport Coast Guard air base
*Japan Coast Guard [[Special Security Team]] Base
*Osaka international post office (treating international postal matters about 19,000 tonne per a year)
*Oil tanker berths (3 berths) and Fuel Supply center
*Airport access bridge ("The Sky Gate Bridge R")
:The longest [[truss bridge]] in the world at 3,750 m. The double decker bridge consists of a lower deck devoted to rail, with the upper for road.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons|Kansai International Airport}}
*[http://www.kansai-airport.or.jp/en/index.asp KIX operations website in English]
*[http://www.kiac.co.jp/en/ KIX corporate website]
*[http://www.kald.co.jp/english/eindexframe.html KIX development website]
*[http://www.kiac.co.jp/en/company/history.html History of KIX]
*{{wikitravelpar|Kansai International Airport}}
*[http://www.worldairportguide.com/airports/kix/kix.asp World Airport Guide: Kansai International Airport]
*[http://www.focchi.it/projects/kansai-international-airport/ About the project of Kansai International Airport]
*[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/ed20070810a1.html Kansai airport faces competition] - Japan Times editorial, August 10, 2007

[[Category:1994 architecture]]
[[Category:Transport in Osaka Prefecture]]
[[Category:Artificial island airports]]
[[Category:Kansai region]]
[[Category:Airports in Japan]]

[[ar:مطار كانساي الدولي]]
[[de:Flughafen Kansai]]
[[es:Aeropuerto Internacional de Kansai]]
[[fr:Aéroport international du Kansai]]
[[ko:간사이 국제공항]]
[[id:Bandar Udara Internasional Kansai]]
[[is:Alþjóðaflugvöllurinn í Kansai]]
[[it:Aeroporto internazionale di Kansai]]
[[hu:Kanszai nemzetközi repülőtér]]
[[ms:Lapangan Terbang Antarabangsa Kansai]]
[[nl:Internationale Luchthaven Kansai]]
[[ja:関西国際空港]]
[[pl:Port lotniczy Kansai]]
[[pt:Aeroporto Internacional de Kansai]]
[[ru:Международный аэропорт Кансай]]
[[fi:Kansain kansainvälinen lentoasema]]
[[sv:Kansai internationella flygplats]]
[[th:ท่าอากาศยานนานาชาติคันไซ]]
[[vi:Sân bay quốc tế Kansai]]
[[uk:Міжнародний аеропорт Кансай]]
[[zh:关西国际机场]]

Tribhuvan International Airport

2008-06-05T14:04:28Z

202.79.62.16: /* Airlines and destinations */

{{coord|27|41|47|N|085|21|32|E|type:airport_region:NP|display=title}}
{{Infobox Airport
| name = Tribhuvan International Airport
| nativename =
| image =
| IATA = KTM
| ICAO = VNKT
| type = Public
| owner =
| operator = Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal (CAAN)
| city-served = [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]]
| location =
| elevation-f = 4,390
| elevation-m = 1,338
| website = [http://www.tiairport.com.np/ www.tiairport.com.np]
| metric-rwy = y
| r1-number = 02/20
| r1-length-f = 10,007
| r1-length-m = 3,050
| r1-surface = [[Asphalt]]
| footnotes = Sources: [[Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal|CAAN]] <ref name=CAAN>[http://www.caanepal.org.np/tia.htm Tribhuvan International Airport] at Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal</ref> and [[DAFIF]] <ref name=WAD>{{WAD|VNKT|source=[[DAFIF]]}}</ref><ref name=GCM>{{GCM|KTM|source=[[DAFIF]]}}</ref>
}}
[[Image:Kathmandu Airport.jpg|thumb]]

'''Tribhuvan International Airport''' {{airport codes|KTM|VNKT}} is an [[international airport]] situated in [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]].

Tribhuvan is the sole international airport in [[Nepal]]. There are two terminals, one domestic and one international. Facilities include a few shops and cafes. In the international terminal there are several duty free shops. Radisson Hotel Kathmandu operates an executive lounge for First and Business class passengers for different airlines and Thai Airways operates a business lounge for its Business class passengers as well as Star Alliance Gold card holders. A recent extension to the international terminal has made the distance to the airplanes shorter. At the present, about 22 international airlines connect Nepal to various other destinations in Asia, the Middle east and Europe. The airport is about six kilometres from the city center in the Kathmandu valley.

==Airlines and destinations==

'''Domestic'''<ref>[http://www.farecompare.com/flights/Kathmandu-KTM/city.html Destinations from Kathmandu]</ref>
*[[Agni Air]] (Bhairahawa, Bharatpur, Biratnagar, Jumla, Nepalgunj)
*[[Buddha Air]] (Bhadrapur, Bhairahawa, Bharatpur, Janakpur, Pokhara, Simara)
*[[Cosmic Air]] (Bhairawa, Bharatpur, Biratnagar, Nepalganj, Pokhara, Simara, Tumlingtar)
*[[Gorkha Airlines]] (Bhairahawa, Bharatpur, Biratnagar, Jumla, Nepalgunj)
*[[Nepal Airlines]] (Bhadrapur, Bharatpur, Bhojpur, Biratnagar, Dhangadi, Lukla, Nepalgunj, Phaplu, Pokhara, Ramechhap, Rumjatar, Simara, Surkhet, Tumlingtar)
*[[Yeti Airlines]] (Bhadrapur, Bhairawa, Bharatpur, Birantnagar, Lamidanda, Lukla, Meghauli, Nepalganj, Phaplu, Pokhara, Rumjatar, Simara)

Charter flights are available from Yeti Airlines.
Buddha Air, Cosmic Air, Nepal Airlines and Yeti Airlins fly mountain flights.

'''International'''
<ref>[http://caanepal.org.np/flight_sch_intl.htm International Flight Schedule (Summer)]. ''Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal''. Retrieved [[2008-04-17]].</ref>
*[[Air Arabia]] (Sharjah)
**[[Fly Yeti]] (Kuala Lumpur, Sharjah, Abu Dhabi, (starting soon are Doha, Riydah, Singapore, Seoul, New Delhi, Bangkok and Hong Kong)
*[[Air China]] (Chengdu, Lhasa)
*[[Biman Bangladesh Airlines]] (Dhaka)
*[[China Southern Airlines]] (Guangzhou)
*[[Dragonair]] (Hong Kong)
*[[Druk Air]] (Delhi, Kolkata, Paro)
*[[GMG Airlines]] (Dhaka)
*[[Gulf Air]] (Bahrain, Riyadh, Dammam)
*[[Indian (airline)|Indian Airlines]] (Delhi, Kolkata, Varanasi)
*[[Jet Airways]] (Delhi)
*[[Jetlite]] (Delhi, Hyderabad)
*[[Korean Air]] (Seoul-Incheon)
*[[Nepal Airlines]] (Bangalore, Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi, Delhi, Dubai, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Osaka-Kansai, Shanghai-Pudong)
*[[Orient Thai Airlines]] (Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi) <ref>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/3_new_airlines_enters_Nepalese_mkt/articleshow/2275568.cms 3 new international airlines enters Nepalese mkt]. ''The Economic Times''. [[2007-08-12]]. Retrieved [[2008-04-17]].</ref>
*[[Pakistan International Airlines]] (Karachi, Lahore)
*[[Qatar Airways]] (Doha)
*[[SilkAir]] (Singapore)
*[[Thai Airways International]] (Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi)
*[[RAK Airways]] (Nasir Al Jaham) (coming soon)
* Air Berlin (Singapore,Berlin) (coming soon)

==Past operators==
*[[Aeroflot]] (Moscow, New Delhi)
*[[Air Nepal International]] (defunct 2006) (Bangkok, Doha, Dubai, Kuala Lumpur)
*[[Austrian Airlines]] (Vienna, April 2007)
*[[Lufthansa]] (Frankfurt,Munich, Karachi)
*[[Necon Air]] (defunct 2003) (Patna, Varanasi)
*[[Singapore Airlines]] (Dhaka, Singapore, May 2002)
*[[Transavia]] (Amsterdam, Sharjah)
*[[Martinair]] (Amsterdam, February 2006)

== Airport Contact ==
#0097714477161

==Incidents and accidents==
*[[Thai Airways International Flight 311]] - [[July 31]], [[1992]] [[Airbus 310]]-304 crashes in Langtang National Park killing all 113 on board.
*[[PIA Flight 268]] - [[September 28]], [[1992]], a [[Airbus A300]]B4-203 crashed landed at the airport killing all 167 on board.

*[[17 January]] [[1995]] - [[Nepal Airlines|Royal Nepal Airlines]] [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter 300]] (9N-ABI), flight RA133 from Kathmandu to [[Rumjatar]], had problems getting airborne at Tribhuvan International Airport, struck the airfield perimeter fence and plunged into fields. Of three crew and 21 passengers, one crew member and one passenger were killed. <ref>[http://aviation-safety.net/database/dblist.php?sorteer=datekey_desc&kind=%&cat=%&page=1&field=Operatorkey&var=5478 Aviation Safety Network] retrieved 18 November 2006</ref>

*[[5 September]] [[1999]] - [[Necon Air]] Flight 128 from [[Pokhara]] to Kathmandu, an [[Avro 748|BAe 748-501 Super 2B]] (9N-AEG), collided with a communication tower of Nepal Telecommunication Corporation and crashed in a wooded area 25km west of Kathmandu, while approaching Tribhuvan International Airport. All 10 passengers and 5 crew were killed. <ref>[http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19990905-0 Aviation Safety Network] retrieved 18 November 2006</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* [http://www.tiairport.com.np/ Tribhuvan International Airport], official site
* {{NWS-current|VNKT}}
* {{ASN|KTM}}

[[Category:Airports in Nepal]]

[[de:Flughafen Kathmandu]]
[[hi:त्रिभुवन विमानस्थल]]
[[hu:Tribhuvan nemzetközi repülőtér]]
[[ja:トリブバン国際空港]]
[[pl:Port lotniczy Katmandu]]
[[vi:Sân bay quốc tế Tribhuvan]]
[[zh:加德滿都國際機場]]

Baskin-Robbins

2008-06-04T15:56:11Z

202.79.62.16: /* Global Locations */

{{Infobox_Company
| company_name = Baskin-Robbins Inc.
| company_logo = [[Image:Baskin Robbins.svg|250px|center|Baskin-Robbins' current logo]]
| company_type = Private
| foundation = [[1945]] in [[Glendale, California]]
| location = [[Glendale, California]]
| parent = [[Dunkin' Brands]]
| slogan = 31 Flavors (company slogan) Yay! (advertising slogan)
| homepage = [http://www.baskin-robbins.com www.baskin-robbins.com]
}}

'''Baskin-Robbins''' is a global chain of [[ice cream parlors]] founded by [[Burt Baskin]] and [[Irv Robbins]] in [[1945]] in [[Glendale, California]]. It claims to be the world's largest ice cream franchise<ref>[http://www.baskinrobbins.com/About/ Baskin-Robbins About Us]</ref>, with more than 5,800 locations, 2,800 of which are located in the United States. Baskin-Robbins sells ice cream in over 30 countries, including [[Japan]], [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], [[Bahrain]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[the United Arab Emirates]], [[Egypt]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Australia]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Iran]], [[Bangladesh]], [[ Pakistan]], [[Korea]], [[India]], and [[Taiwan]].

Baskin-Robbins is known for its "31 flavors" slogan. When the first Baskin-Robbins store opened, it offered 21 flavors, an innovative concept at the time. The idea for having 31 flavors came from the Carson-Roberts advertising agency (which later became [[Ogilvy & Mather]]) in 1953, along with the slogan "Count the Flavors. Where flavor counts." 31 was also more than the 28 flavors then famously offered at [[Howard Johnson's]] restaurants. Burt and Irv also believed that people should be able to sample flavors until they found one they wanted to buy ― hence the iconic small pink spoon.

==Corporate history==
[[Image:BaskinRobbinsMelrose.jpg‎|thumb|right|Baskin-Robbins restaurant on [[Melrose Avenue]] in [[Los Angeles, California]]]][[Image:Baskin-Robins's first flat faced sign.jpg|thumb|left|This Baskin-Robbins flat-faced sign stands in the [[Great Smokies]]' tourist mecca of Pigeon Forge.]]By [[1948]], Burt & Irv opened six stores, the first franchise covering the sale of ice cream was executed [[May 20]], [[1948]], for the store at 1130 South Adams in Glendale (Store #1). Burt and Irv were brothers-in-law. In [[1949]], the company’s own production facility opened in Burbank. They made the decision to sell the stores to the managers, thus becoming one of the first franchised food service businesses{{fact|date=October 2007}}. In [[1953]], Baskin-Robbins hired Carson-Roberts Advertising who recommended adoption of the 31 as well as the pink (cherry) and brown (chocolate) polka dots and typeface that were reminiscent of the circus. The first store that adopted the new 31 look was 804 North Glendale Ave. in [[Glendale, California]] in March of [[1953]]. Between [[1949]] and [[1962]], the corporate firm was Huntington Ice Cream Company. The name succeeded The Baskin-Robbins Partnership and was eventually changed back to '''Baskin-Robbins, Inc.''' on [[November 26]], [[1962]]. The Baskin Robbins company was also the first to introduce [[ice cream cake]]s to the public.

Baskin-Robbins was owned by the founders until purchased in [[1967]] (just prior to [[Burt Baskin]]'s death) by the [[United Brands Company]] (United Fruit). In [[1972]], the company went public for the only time in its history when United Brands sold 17% in an IPO. A year later ([[1973]]), the British food company [[J. Lyons and Co.]] purchased Baskin-Robbins from United Brands and all the public stock. J. Lyons then merged with [[Allied Breweries]], becoming Allied-Lyons in [[1978]]. Allied-Lyons then merged with Pedro Domecq S.A. in [[1994]] and became [[Allied Domecq]]. Baskin-Robbins, [[Togo's]], and [[Dunkin' Donuts]] now comprise [[Dunkin' Brands, Inc.]] Dunkin' Brands was part of Allied Domecq until its purchase in [[2006]] by a group of private equity firms - [[Bain Capital]], Thomas Lee and [[The Carlyle Group]].<ref>This page, http://www.dunkinbrands.com/aboutus/history.html , at the Dunkin' Brands site (last updated in 2004), confirms the Baskin Robbins founding date, the J. Lyons purchase (and date), the Allied Breweries merger (and date), and the Pedro Domecq merger (and date). Quotes: "1946: Baskin-Robbins is founded by Burt Baskins and Irv Robbins."; "1973: London-based J. Lyons & Co., Ltd., purchased Baskin-Robbins."; "1978: J. Lyons is purchased by Allied Breweries, creating Allied Lyons."; "1994: Allied Lyons partners with Pedro Domecq, the leading spirits marketer in Spain and Mexico, to form Allied Domecq."</ref>

In 1999, Baskin-Robbins terminated approximately 200 domestic franchisee agreements in Southern markets they deemed "nonstrategic."<ref name="Spector">Spector, Amy. "Ex-Baskin-Robbins franchisees sue chain, open scoop shops." [[Nation's Restaurant News]], [[2001-06-18]], p. 4.</ref>The terminated shop owners were all notified of the agreement cancellation via a conference call.<ref name="Spector"/> Over forty of the former franchisees united to form a new company, [[KaleidoScoops]], which operates as a [[cooperative]] and is based in Aurora, Illinois.<ref name="Spector"/> Other former Baskin-Robbins franchisees converted their stores to franchises of [[McConnell's of Santa Barbara]] and [[The Ice Cream Club]].<ref name="Spector"/>

Baskin-Robbins has maintained solid, controlled growth over the last several years through development of stores that combine [[Dunkin' Donuts]] and [[Togo's]]. Recently the company announced plans to aggressively grow their standalone locations again and is currently actively seeking franchises{{fact|date=October 2007}}.

Irv Robbins died at [[Eisenhower Medical Center]] in [[Rancho Mirage, California]] on [[May 5]], [[2008]], at age 90.<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080506/ap_on_re_us/obit_robbins Co-founder of Baskin-Robbins ice cream stores dies at 90</ref>

==Original 31 Flavors==
The original flavors when baskin-Robbins first opened in 1945 were:<ref>{{cite news | title = Baskin-Robbins' 31 original flavors | work = [[Los Angeles Times]] | publisher = [[Los Angeles Times]] | date = 05-07-2008 | url = http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-robbins_flavors,0,5080199,full.story | accessdate = 05-07-2008}}</ref>{{col-begin}}

{{col-3}}
* Banana Nut Fudge
* Black Walnut
* Burgundy Cherry
* Butterscotch Ribbon
* Cherry Macaroon
* Chocolate
* Chocolate Almond
* Chocolate Chip
* Chocolate Fudge
* Chocolate Mint
{{col-3}}
* Chocolate Ribbon
* Coffee
* Coffee Candy
* Date Nut
* Egg Nog
* French Vanilla
* Green Mint Stick
* Lemon Crisp
* Lemon Custard
* Lemon Sherbet
{{col-3}}
* Maple Nut
* Orange Sherbet
* Peach
* Peppermint Fudge Ribbon
* Peppermint Stick
* Pineapple Sherbet
* Raspberry Sherbet
* Rocky Road
* Strawberry
* Vanilla
* Vanilla Burnt Almond
{{col-end}}

==Global Locations==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
''[[Asia]]''
* {{BAN}}
* {{CHN}}
* {{HKG}}
* {{INA}}
* {{JPN}}
* {{KOR}}
* {{IND}}
Nepal
* {{MYS}}
* {{PAK}}
* {{PHI}}
* {{RUS}}
* {{SIN}}
* {{TWN}}
* {{THA}}

''[[Australasia]]''
* {{AUS}}
* {{NZ}}

{{col-3}}
''[[Europe]]''
* {{GRE}}
* {{POR}}
* {{UK}}

{{col-3}}
''[[Middle East]]''
* {{BHR}}
* {{EGY}}
* {{IRI}}
* {{KUW}}
* {{OMA}}
* {{SAU}}
* {{UAE}}
* {{YEM}}

''[[North America]]''
* {{CAN}}
* {{HON}}
* {{MEX}}
* {{PAN}}
* {{USA}}

''[[South America]]''
* {{COL}}
* {{ECU}}

''[[Caribbean]]''
* {{ARU}}
* {{CUR}}
* {{DOM}}
* {{CAY}}
* {{JAM}}

{{col-end}}

== See also ==
* [[Ice cream]]
* [[Ben & Jerry's]]
* [[Carvel]]
* [[Dairy Queen]]
* [[Coldstone Creamery]]
* [[MaggieMoo's|MaggieMoo's]]
* [[Swensen's]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.baskinrobbins.com Baskin-Robbins official website]
*[http://www.dunkinbrands.com/ Dunkin' Brands official website]
*[http://my.att.net/s/editorial.dll?eeid=5859908&eetype=article&render=y&ck=&ch=ne

[[Category:Dunkin' Brands]]
[[Category:Ice cream brands]]
[[Category:Ice cream parlors]]
[[Category:Food companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Fast-food franchises]]
[[Category:Fast-food chains of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1945]]
[[Category:Companies based in Los Angeles County]]
{{UK Food}}
[[de:Baskin-Robbins]]
[[ja:バスキン・ロビンス]]
[[ko:베스킨 라빈스]]
[[nl:Baskin Robbins]]
[[es:Baskin Robbins]]
[[zh:31冰淇淋]]

Standing bell

2008-06-03T12:02:50Z

202.79.62.16:

{{Nofootnotes|date=February 2008}}
[[Image:Rin gong at Kiyomizu-dera, Kyoto.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Rin gong at [[Kiyomizu-dera]], [[Kyoto]]]]
'''Singing bowls''' (also known as 'Himalayan bowls' or 'rin' or [[suzu]] gongs in Japan) are a type of [[bell (instrument)|bell]], specifically classified as a standing bell. Rather than hanging inverted or attached to a handle, standing bells sit with the bottom surface resting. The sides and rim of singing bowls vibrate to produce sound. Singing bowls were traditionally used throughout Asia as part of [[Bön]] and [[Tantric]] [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[sadhana]]. Today they are employed worldwide both within and without these spiritual traditions, for meditation, relaxation, healthcare, personal well-being and religious practice.

Singing bowls were historically made in [[Tibet]], [[Nepal]], [[India]]<ref name=fairtrade>[http://www.fairtrade.dk/sw4231.asp {{da icon}} Fremstilling af syngeskåle og cymbler]</ref>, [[Bhutan]], [[China]], [[Japan]] and [[Korea]]. Today they are made in Nepal, India, Japan and Korea. The best known type are from the Himalayan region and are often called "Tibetan singing bowls."

===Origins, history and usage===
In Buddhist practice, singing bowls are used as a support for meditation, trance induction and prayer. For example, [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhists]] use the singing bowl to accompany the [[wooden fish]] during chanting, striking it when a particular phrase in a [[sutra]], [[mantra]] or [[hymn]] is sung. In [[Japan]] and [[Vietnam]], singing bowls are similarly used during chanting and may also mark the passage of time or signal a change in activity.

The use of singing bowls in Tibet is the subject of much debate and many stories. Some people say they were used for meditation while others say they were magical tools for transformation of self and of matter.

As Perry (1996) and Jansen (1992) state, little is known in western scholarship regarding Himalayan singing bowls. It is likely they were used in rituals, having a specific function like other instruments (such as the [[bell (instrument)|ghanta]], [[tingsha]] and [[shang]]). The oral and written traditions from the Himalayan region are vast and largely unknown in the west. To date, no specific texts have been found discussing the use of singing bowls in depth, but according to Joseph Feinstein of Himalayan Bowls (2006), paintings and statues dating from several centuries ago depict singing bowls in detail. Singing bowls from at least the 10th-12th century are found in private collections. The tradition may date significantly earlier since bronze has been used to construct musical instruments since ancient times. Bronze bells from Asia have been discovered since as early as the 8th-10th century BCE (Feinstein, 2006).

Singing bowls are played by the [[friction]] of rubbing a wooden, plastic, or leather wrapped mallet around the rim of the bowl to produce [[overtones]] and a continuous 'singing' sound. {{Audio|SingingBowl2.ogg|Audio Sample}} Genuine antique singing bowls produce a complex chord of harmonic overtones. Singing bowls may also be played by striking with a soft mallet to produce a warm bell tone. {{Audio|SingingBowl1.ogg|Audio Sample}}

Antique singing bowls are unique because they are [[multiphonic]] instruments, producing multiple harmonic overtones at the same time. Antique singing bowls are the fruit of sophisticated [[metallurgy]], techniques currently deemed lost and provide a unique study in the [[Timeline of materials technology]] as do high quality [[Bell (instrument)|bells]] and other instruments. The overtones are a result of their [[metalworking]] and fabrication which consists of multiple metals and were produced by a sophisticated hammered or beaten technique with . The majority of new bowls are cast metal and not hammered and beaten with [[Metalworking hand tool]]s, and produce only one tone.

Both Antique and New Bowls are widely used as an aid to meditation (see the "Meditation and the brain" section in [[Meditation]]) and as a tool for [[trance]] induction. They are also used in [[yoga]], [[music therapy]], sound healing, religious services, performance and for personal enjoyment.

== Antique singing bowls ==
[[Image:Picsingingbowls.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Antique Himalayan bowls]]
Traditionally, antique singing bowls were made of [[Panchaloga]] (literally meaning "five metals" in Sanskrit): a [[bronze]] [[alloy]] of [[copper]], [[tin]], [[zinc]] and [[iron]] and other metals. Antiques often include [[silver]], [[gold]] and [[nickel]].

Antique singing bowls produce [[multiphonic]] and polyharmonic [[overtones]] which are unique to the antique instruments. The subtle yet complex multiple [[harmonic]] frequencies are a special quality of the high quality bronze alloy. The art of making singing bowls in the traditional way is considered a lost art.

Antique singing bowls may display abstract decorations like lines, rings and circles engraved into the surface. Decoration may appear outside the rim, inside the bottom, around the top of the rim and sometimes on the outside bottom.

Antique singing bowls are highly prized and collected worldwide. Their popularity is due to their fine craftsmanship and remarkable sound. The aging process seems to improve the tone and centuries old antiques produce an incredibly rich and beautiful sound.

== New singing bowls ==
[[Image:Klangschale.jpg|thumb|right|small singing bowl]]

New bowls may be plain or decorated. They sometimes feature religious [[iconography]] and [[Spirituality|spiritual]] [[motifs]] and [[symbols]], such as the Tibetan [[mantra]] ''[[Om mani padme hum]],'' images of Buddhas, and [[Ashtamangala]].

New singing bowls are made from industrial quality metal, mainly [[copper]]. They are exported widely from [[Nepal]] and [[India]].

High quality new singing bowls are made in [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] but are not widely exported.

New singing bowls and crystal bowls do not produce the warm and complex tone of fine antiques. They sound like clear and simple bells, without the warm undertones and bright harmonic overtones for which antiques are famous.

== See also ==
* [[Brainwave synchronization]]
* [[Gong]]
* [[Harmonic series (music)]]
* [[Sound symbolism]]
* [[Tulpa]]

==Notes==
<references/>

== References ==
* Jansen, Eva Rudy (1992). ''Singing bowls: a practical handbook of instruction and use''. Holland: Binkey Kok Publications. ISBN 9074597017
* [[Claudia Müller-Ebeling|Müller-Ebeling, Claudia]], [[Christian Rätsch]], Surendra Bahadur Shahi (2002). ''Shamanism and Tantra in the Himalayas''. Trans. by Annabel Lee. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions.
* Perry, Frank (1996). ''The Singing Bowls Of Tibet'' (Audio CD).
* Pillai, R.M., S.G.K. Pillai, A.D. Damodaran. [http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0210/Pillai-0210.html The Lost-Wax Casting of Icons, Utensils, Bells, and Other Items in South India] in ''[[JOM]]'', October 2002.

[[Category:Idiophones]]
[[Category:Buddhist meditation]]
[[Category:Music therapy]]

[[da:Syngeskål]]
[[de:Klangschale]]
[[fr:Bol chantant]]
[[ja:鈴]]
[[nl:Klankschaal]]

Kathmandu

2008-06-03T05:32:15Z

202.79.62.16: /* External links */

{{other uses|Kathmandu (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox Settlement


|official_name = Kathmandu Metropolitan City
|other_name = ñē̆ dēy (ञेँ देय्) Kantipur 
|native_name = येँ महानगरपालिका 
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'''Kathmandu''' ({{lang-ne|काठमांडौ}}, {{lang-new|येँ}}) is the [[capital]] and the largest city of [[Nepal]]. The city is situated in Kathmandu Valley that also contains two other cities - [[Patan, Nepal|Patan]] and [[Bhaktapur]]. [[Nepali language|Nepali]] is the [[lingua franca]] of the valley and is the most widely spoken language. The city stands at an elevation of approximately {{convert|4500|ft|m|abbr=on}} and is inhabited by about 700,000 people. Kathmandu is the most developed city in Nepal.

== History==
The ''earliest'' known inscription in the [[Kathmandu Valley]] is dated 185 AD. The oldest firmly dated building in the earthquake-prone valley is almost 1,992 years old. Four [[stupa]]s around the city of [[Patan]] said to have been erected by Charumati, attest to the ancient history present within the valley. The [[Kirant|Kirat]]s are the first documented rulers of Kathmandu Valley, the remains of their palace are in Patan near kendra Hiranyavarna Mahavihara (called "Patukodon"). The [[Licchavi|Licchavi Dynasty]] whose earliest inscriptions date back to 464 AD were the next rulers of the valley. The [[Malla (Nepal)|Malla Dynasty]] consisted of [[Newar]] rulers, who ruled Kathmandu Valley and the surrounding area from the [[12th century|12th century]] till the [[17th century|17th century]] when the [[Nepalese monarchy|Shah Dynasty]] founder [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] conquered the valley as he created present-day Nepal. Most of ancient [[Nepali architecture]] present in [[Nepal]] today is from the [[Malla]]/[[Newar]] era.

The city of Kathmandu is named after a structure in [[Durbar Square]] called Kaasthamandap. In [[Sanskrit]], ''Kaasth'' ({{lang-sa2|काष्ठ}}) = "wood" and ''Mandap'' ({{lang-sa2|मंडप/मण्डप}}) = "covered shelter." This unique temple, also known as [[Maru Sattal]], was built in 1596 A.D. by King [[Laxmi Narsingh Malla.]] The entire structure contains no iron nails or supports and is made entirely from wood. Legend has it that the timber used for this two story pagoda was obtained from a single tree.

Kathmandu is also sometimes called "Kantipur". [[Newars]], the native people of the Kathmandu valley use the original term from [[Nepal Bhasa]], Yne.

== Present ==
[[Image:Pashupatinath temple.JPG|thumb|right|[[Pashupatinath temple]]]]
Kathmandu is home to most of the government offices, embassies, corporate houses, and the palace. The King's Palace stands right next to [[Thamel]] - the tourist hub of the country. Thamel consists of two parallel streets just to the west of the palace. It is home to different hotels, ranging from different stars. The palace is at the head of Durbar Marg, a street lined with various shops. Most of the streets in Kathmandu are named from [[Nepal Bhasa]], owing its origin to the rich Newari Culture and heritage.

The "old" city is noted for its many [[Buddhist]] and [[Hindu]] temples and palaces, most dating to the 17th century. Many of these landmarks have been damaged by [[earthquake]]s and pollution. This valley hosts an [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s composed by seven different Monument Zones: The centers of the three primary cities, Kathmandu Hanuman Dhoka, Patan and Bhaktapur, the two most important Buddhist stupas, [[Swayambhunath]] and [[Boudhanath]] and two famous Hindu shrines, [[Pashupatinath temple]] and [[Changu Narayan]]. Since 2003 the site has been inscribed in the [[World Heritage List]] as being "in danger" out of concern for the ongoing loss of authenticity and the outstanding universal value of the cultural property.

Kathmandu has been popular with western tourists since the 1960s when it became a key stop on the [[hippie trail]], when Jho: Chhee (Nepal Bhasa, continuous house)(Freak Street) was the one of the main location. It is also the subject of a popular [[Bob Seger]] song for the same reason.

[[Tribhuvan International Airport]] is located about 6 km from the city center, offering domestic and international flights.

== Geography ==
The city is located in the northwestern part of Kathmandu valley. The Kathmandu Valley covers an area of 218 sq. miles. It is situated at 1336 m above the sea level. ''Bagmati'', ''Bishnumati'', ''Dhobikhola'', and ''Tukucha'' rivers wind through the city.

== Administrative divisions ==
[[Image:Kathmandu street.jpg|thumb|right|A crowded street in Kathmandu.]]
The metropolitan has been divided into around 5 sectors by metropolitan authorities as follows<ref> Ward Profiles, Kathmandu Metropolitan City </ref>

=== Central sector ===
The central sector consists of wards 1, 5, 11, 31, 32 and 33.

=== East sector ===
The east sector consists of wards 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 34 and 35.

=== North sector ===
The north sector consists of wards 2, 3, 4, 16, 29.

=== City core ===
The city core consists of wards 17, 18, 19, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 12, 20, 21, 22 and 23. This is the most densely populated part of the city. This part consists of most of the historical and cultural monuments of the city.

=== West sector ===
The west sector consists of wards 13, 14 and 15.

== Demographics ==
According to 2001 census, there are 235,387 households in the metropolitan city<ref name="census">{{cite web accessdate = July 13 | accessyear = 2007 | url = http://www.cbs.gov.np/Population/National%20Report%202001/VDC.pdf | title = Census Nepal 2001}}</ref>. Kathmandu metropolitan authorities estimate the number of people living in the city to be around 1,081,845 people <ref>[http://www.cbs.gov.np/Population/National%20Report%202001/default.htm National Report 2001]</ref> The largest ethnic groups are Newars, Brahmins and Kshetris. The major languages are [[Nepali]] and [[Nepal Bhasa]]. The major religions are [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]].

== Government ==
The city is looked after by Kathmandu metropolitan office located at Bagdarbar. The city hosts Singhadarbar, the government seat of Nepal (with office of Prime Minister, Supreme Court and Senate). Most of the ministries are present in the Singha Darbar premises. The Royal Palace is located in central part of city in ward number 1.

== Economy ==
Kathmandu houses most of the banks, business houses, offices, organizations and share market of Nepal. The busiest economic centers are [[New Road of Kathmandu]], Ason, Putalisadak and Darbar Marg.

[[Freak Street]] and [[Thamel]] are main tourist areas important for tourism.

== Cultural impact ==

The city has been referenced in numerous songs, including works by [[Cat Stevens]] ("Katmandu", ''[[Mona Bone Jakon]]'' (1970)), [[Bob Seger]] ("Katmandu", ''[[Beautiful Loser]]'' (1975)), [[Krematorij]] ("Kathmandu", ''Three Springs'' (2000)), [[Fito Páez]] ("Tráfico por Katmandú" -- "Traffic through Kathmandu"); [[Will Ackerman]] ("A Happy Home in Kathmandu", ''The Opening of Doors'' (1993)); Tantra ("The Hills of Katmandu", early 1980s); and [[Godiego]] ("Coming Together in Kathmandu" (1980).

Numerous works of literature have been set in Kathmandu, including [[Kim Stanley Robinson]]'s 1989 work, ''[[Escape from Kathmandu]]''.

In some travelogues, the Kathmandu valley has been referred to as the "Emerald Valley".

== Gallery ==
<center><gallery>
Image:Basantapurpalace.JPG|The palace in the Kathmandu Durbar Square.
Image:Bhairava_Kathmandu_1972.jpg|[[Bhairava]] sculpture, Durbar Square market place 1972.
Image:KatmanduMarket1920.jpg|A view of Kathmandu Durbar Square from 1920. [[Bhairava]] in the background.
Image:KatmanduDurbarMarket2007.jpg| Same as the picture to the left but from 2007, shot for comparison.
Image:Small stupa in Kathmandu.jpg|Small stupa in Kathmandu
Image:Stone carving in Kathmandu.jpg|Stone carving in Kathmandu street
Image:DSCI0441.JPG|View over Kathmandu
Image:Durbar-seller.jpg|A seller warming himself up in [[Durbar Square]], Kathmandu, Nepal (pre-[[prohibition]])
Image:IMG 0361 Kathmandu Bodnath.jpg|[[Boudnanath Stupa]] in Kathmandu, Nepal
Image:IMG 0469 Kathmandu Pashupatinath.jpg|[[Pashupatinath Temple]] in Kathmandu, Nepal
Image:IMG 0483 Kathmandu Pashupatinath.jpg|Pashupatinath temple in Kathmandu, Nepal
Image:Pashupatinathskc.JPG|The temple of Pashupatinath temple|Pashupatinath
Image:Kathmandu Pedicab 2001.jpg|Pedicab driver in Kathmandu near Durbar Square
</gallery></center>

==Kathmandu in Popular Music==
Kathmandu, mostly due to its popularity among [[Hippie]]s, has been represented in various albums and songs including:

*''Katmandu'', a song by [[Bob Seger]].
*"[[Dum Maro Dum]]", a song in the movie, [[Hare Rama Hare Krishna]] by [[Asha Bhosle]].
*"Our Shangrila", a song by [[Mark Knopfler]].
*"[[Shangrila]]", a song by [[The Kinks]].
*''Kathmandu'', a song by [[Cat Stevens]].
*''Tráfico por Katmandú'' by [[Fito Páez]].
*''Katmandu'', an American heavy metal band featuring [[Dave King (musician)|Dave King]] and Mandy Meyer.
*''Nobody Told Me'', a 1964 song by [[John Lennon]] with the line "There's a little yellow idol to the north of Khatmandu". This is a quotation from the 1911 poem "[[The Green Eye of the Yellow God]]" by [[John Milton Hayes]].
*"[[A Passage to Bangkok]]", a song by [[Rush]] from the album 2112. "...Pulling into Katmandu, smoke rings fill the air. Perfumed by a Nepal night, the Express gets you there..."
* "Charlie såg djävulen i Katmandu" by Swedish artist Jari Levedahl ( the title translates Charlie saw the devil in Kathmandu)

== Sister cities ==

*{{flagicon|USA}} [[Eugene, Oregon]], [[USA]]
*{{flagicon|Japan}} [[Matsumoto, Nagano]], [[Japan]]
*{{flagicon|China}} [[Xi'an]], [[People's Republic of China]]
*{{flagicon|Myanmar}} [[Yangon]], [[Myanmar]]
*{{flagicon|Belarus}} [[Minsk]], [[Belarus]]
*{{flagicon|North Korea}} [[Pyongyang|P'yŏngyang]], [[North Korea]]

== See also ==
*[[Tribhuvan International Airport]]
*[[Kathmandu Valley]]

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Kathmandu}}
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/ghintang/ Scenes and sights of Kathmandu]
* [http://www.nepalphotogallery.com/kathmandu.htm Images from Kathmandu]
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/akkermans/tags/kathmandu/ Kathmandu images on Flickr]
* [http://www.mapmandu.com Explore and discover Kathmandu on a digital Map]
* [http://www.nepalshotel.com Best deals and information on hotels in Nepal]
{{coor title dm|27|43|N|85|22|E}}
{{Asian capitals}}
{{Newar}}

[[Category:Cities, towns and villages in Nepal]]
[[Category:Kathmandu]]
[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Newar]]

[[am:ካትማንዱ]]
[[ar:كاثماندو]]
[[bn:কাঠমান্ডু]]
[[bh:काठमाडौं]]
[[bo:ཀཋ་མན་གྲུ]]
[[bs:Katmandu]]
[[bg:Катманду]]
[[ca:Katmandú]]
[[cs:Káthmándú]]
[[cy:Kathmandu]]
[[da:Katmandu]]
[[de:Kathmandu]]
[[et:Katmandu]]
[[es:Katmandú]]
[[eo:Katmanduo]]
[[eu:Katmandu]]
[[fa:کاتماندو]]
[[fr:Katmandou]]
[[gd:Kathmandu]]
[[gl:Katmandu]]
[[gu:કાઠમંડુ]]
[[ko:카트만두]]
[[hy:Կատմանդու]]
[[hi:काठमांडू]]
[[hr:Katmandu]]
[[io:Katmandu]]
[[id:Kathmandu]]
[[is:Katmandú]]
[[it:Kathmandu]]
[[he:קטמנדו]]
[[ka:კატმანდუ]]
[[sw:Kathmandu]]
[[ht:Katmandou]]
[[la:Kathmandu]]
[[lv:Katmandu]]
[[lb:Katmandu]]
[[lt:Katmandu]]
[[lij:Katmandu]]
[[hu:Katmandu]]
[[mr:काठमांडू]]
[[ms:Kathmandu]]
[[mn:Катманду]]
[[nl:Kathmandu]]
[[ne:काठमाडौँ]]
[[new:येँ]]
[[ja:カトマンズ]]
[[no:Katmandu]]
[[nn:Katmandu]]
[[nov:Katmandu]]
[[oc:Katmandó]]
[[pms:Kathmandu]]
[[pl:Katmandu]]
[[pt:Catmandu]]
[[ro:Kathmandu]]
[[ru:Катманду]]
[[simple:Kathmandu]]
[[sk:Káthmandu]]
[[sr:Катманду]]
[[fi:Kathmandu]]
[[sv:Katmandu]]
[[tl:Kathmandu]]
[[ta:கத்மந்து]]
[[th:กาฐมาณฑุ]]
[[vi:Kathmandu]]
[[tg:Катманду]]
[[tr:Katmandu]]
[[uk:Катманду]]
[[ur:کھٹمنڈو]]
[[vo:Kathmandau]]
[[bat-smg:Katmandū]]
[[zh:加德滿都]]

Template talk:Pittsburgh Pirates roster

2008-05-11T02:27:22Z

202.79.62.16:

{{Baseball-WikiProject|class=NA}}
==Ryan Doumit==
I added Ryan Doumit to the list of active catchers because he wasn't there. {{Unsigned|4.139.126.38|17:14, 6 July 2007}}

:We have been using the positions listed on the team roster pages at mlb.com. They list Doumit as an outfielder. --[[User:Sanfranman59|Sanfranman59]] 20:00, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

== Flags ==
Why have the national flags been removed from beside the player's name? It was better when they were there... now there is less information. Bring the flags back!

Template talk:Houston Astros roster

2008-05-11T02:16:12Z

202.79.62.16:

{{Baseball-WikiProject|class=NA}}

== Kaz ==

Matsui is wearing #3. [[User:Dshibshm|Dshibshm]] ([[User talk:Dshibshm|talk]]) 21:52, 12 January 2008 (UTC)

A source would be useful - I have yet to see a photo of him holding a jersey - there was no jersey at his press conference. [[User:JustSomeRandomGuy32|JustSomeRandomGuy32]] ([[User talk:JustSomeRandomGuy32|talk]]) 22:19, 12 January 2008 (UTC)

I did see a picture of him in that uni[[User:Dshibshm|Dshibshm]] ([[User talk:Dshibshm|talk]]) 22:46, 13 January 2008 (UTC)

:Then prove it.►'''[[User:Chrisjnelson|Chris Nelson]]'''''[[User talk:Chrisjnelson|Holla!]]'' 05:46, 14 January 2008 (UTC)

== Shawn Chacon ==

How could he be wearing #32? It is a retired number. Did the Astros un-retire it? --[[User:Street20|Street20]] ([[User talk:Street20|talk]]) 06:51, 23 March 2008 (UTC)

:Seems like mlb.com has messed up. Photo here [http://sports.yahoo.com/mlb/photo?slug=aa03ddb319304dc9944d3f3fc8c32a58.braves_astros_spring_baseball_fltd108&prov=ap] from a few days ago - looks like a single digit to me... And 32 IS retired... [[User:JustSomeRandomGuy32|JustSomeRandomGuy32]] ([[User talk:JustSomeRandomGuy32|talk]]) 07:29, 23 March 2008 (UTC)

== Flags ==
Why were national flags removed from beside the player's names? They need to be there.

Template talk:Boston Red Sox roster

2008-05-11T02:12:41Z

202.79.62.16: /* Ramirez's Country */

{{Baseball-WikiProject|class=NA}}
{{WikiProject Boston Red Sox
|class=Template
|importance=NA
|needs-infobox=
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== Ramirez's Country ==

I've never seen a roster listing that refers to citizenship over place of birth. Roster listings always list a player's country of birth since a player's citizenship is generally not public information. The only reason we know about Manny's is because he changed it in a very public way; a lower profile player could change theirs without the public ever knowing, rendering lists such as this inaccurate. - [[User:Pal|Pal]] 15:59, August 26, 2005 (UTC)

You're right. What about Cuban defectors playing in MLB?, such as [[José Contreras]], [[Liván Hernández]] and [[Orlando Hernández]], not to mention Cuban-Americans such as [[Tony Pérez]], [[José Canseco]] and [[Rafael Palmeiro]], between others. [[User:MusiCitizen|MusiCitizen]] 18:03, August 26, 2005 (UTC)

== Flags ==
What happened to the flags? It used to be nice to use this section as a resource to quickly scan and see nationalities... what happened to the flags? What was the thinking behind removing them? If Baseball is expanding internationally with the new Baseball World Cup -- then all the more reason to keep the flags here.

Talk:Detroit Red Wings

2008-05-10T14:07:01Z

202.79.62.16: /* octopi */ screwy syntax

{{Ice hockey|class=B}}
{{WikiProject Michigan|class=B|importance=Mid}}

==Place of Birth==
Some of the players on this team have places of birth which no longer exist. Can it please be verified whether this is a mistake, or whether this is intentional as the countries did exist when the player was born? I'd like to pint out that the current convention is to list the current REAL country in which the town lies where the player was born.

==Ed Belfour ==
Belfour hasnt even signed yet with the Wings? Why did anyone add him to the roster? --[[User:68.248.15.198|68.248.15.198]] 03:19, 10 July 2006 (UTC)

:: Mr. Belfour just signed with the [[Florida Panthers]] for one year so it looks like the Wings will have to stick with Legace. That is a better choice anyway. I think Manny is the best in the league. He has been consistent. Other goalies such as Giguere and Khabibulan have hot streaks that propell them into 15 minutes of fame but Legace is steady. [[User:O-TOWN'S AT|O-TOWN'S AT]] 22:06, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

==octopi==
made seperate section to deal with the tradition of the octopus mascot. help wanted on the spelling of Al Sobatka's name, I'm pretty sure I got it wrong, though that is the correct origin of the "Al" nickname for the octopus.

thanks,

[[User:Random Hero 313|random hero 313]]

Sure didn't waste any time getting that 2002 championship on there, did you, Boleslav? :-) -- Zoe

::The piece states "In April 2008, prior to the start of the Detroit Red Wings vs. Colorado Avalanche Western Conference Semi-Finals playoff series, NHL commissioner Gary Bettman stated that a $10,000 fine would be imposed against the franchise, if Al retrieves the octopus, due to 'matter' that flies onto the ice when Al twirls it above his head." Being a non-hockey fan I am only vaguely familiar with the tradition of the octopus. I came here looking for more information. However, the syntax of that sentence is so convoluted that it makes no sense. I have no idea what the original contributor was attempting to communicate. What does it mean?

== List of Detroit Red Wings players ==

I have started a [[List of Detroit Red Wings players]]. It would be a great help if when adding a player to the main Red Wings article, that you could also add it to the list. Thanks! [[user:Masterhatch|Masterhatch]] 13 August 2005

Removed Pavel Datsyuk from list of current players.

===Current Squad===
moved to article [[User:Ccwaters|ccwaters]] 01:33, 20 October 2005 (UTC)

i don't know much about the players but one of the players is listed as beiong from czechoslovakia... that country no longer exists he's either czech or slovak..

: And where he was born was Czechoslovakia. This is a standard form of reference universally used in encyclopedias with biographical entries, and the NHL Media Guide routinely refers to players being born there and in the USSR. [[User:RGTraynor|RGTraynor]] 19:07, 21 November 2005 (UTC)
:: NHL has Branislav Mezei listed as being born in Nitra, Slovakia. Encycolpedias with biographical entries generally only use no longer existing countries if the person died before the country broke up and add in 'currently known as X'. For entries that were still alive when the country broke up they'll generally use the new name for the country and add 'then known as X'.
:::Further, please see the WikiProject on Ice hockey at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Ice_Hockey#Place_of_Birth_Questions_and_Issues to see that we ARE using birth locations at time of birth. [[User:Scsgoal31|scsgoal31]] 20:40, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

== Not to be forgotten ==

Following current practice, I struck players otherwise listed in the main article. I also deleted Martin Lapointe; I can think of a couple dozen players from the eighty years of Red Wing history I'd sooner include than a third-liner who had a single good season in his career. [[User:RGTraynor|RGTraynor]] 13:17, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

== Hall of Famers ==

Following the Team Pages Format, HHOF members who don't follow the criteria of having played several impact seasons for the cited team that meaningfully contributed to their election were deleted: Boivin, Conacher and Harvey. In Bowman's case, he was elected before he was associated with Detroit. [[User:RGTraynor|RGTraynor]] 19:52, 10 December 2005 (UTC)

== Howe or Yzerman? ==
Now here is a question, who had the better career as a Red Wing? Or to rephrase, who contributed the most to the Red Wings organization. Howe or Yzerman? Its an interesting problem in that they played in two entirely different eras, yet both were the heart and souls of the team for over 20 years. As Yzerman approaches Howe's career point mark (which he might or might not break), and retires and has his #19 retired by the Red Wings, we should be careful that statements saying that Yzerman or Howe was the greatest Red Wing of all-time seep into the article when that is not entirely clear, especially with the problems we've had with the Wayne Gretzky article recently with that kind of statement. But it is a curious question, Howe or Yzerman? [[Image:Flag of Croatia.svg|20px]] [[User:Croat Canuck|Croat Canuck]] [[Image:Flag of Canada.svg|20px]] [[User talk:Croat Canuck|Go Leafs Go]] 15:59, 4 April 2006 (UTC)
: Unequivocally Howe. Use the Bill James test in discussing each player -- was the player generally regarded as the best player in hockey during his career? Was he generally regarded as the best player in his position? Was he '''ever''' regarded as the best player at his position? Yzerman generally fails those tests. Howe overwhelmingly passes them. I wouldn't think there'd possibly be a question about it. [[User:RGTraynor|RGTraynor]] 16:04, 4 April 2006 (UTC)

: Yes, but Yzerman did return the Red Wings to their glory days of the 40s and 50s. Plus other than Richard (who might have been better than Howe in the first half of his career, and then Hull after Richard declined), I don't think Howe had the burden of having to play in the same era as Lemieux and Gretzky... Now I agree, Howe was the greater player, but perhaps they are quite even in what they accomplished for the Red Wings organization. And plus, I'm sure if Yzerman had the supporting cast of HHOFers Abel, Lindsay and Delvecchio earlier in his career, he might have been considered higher. [[Image:Flag of Croatia.svg|20px]] [[User:Croat Canuck|Croat Canuck]] [[Image:Flag of Canada.svg|20px]] [[User talk:Croat Canuck|Go Leafs Go]] 02:52, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

:: Well ... if we're judging who made the greater contribution to the Red Wings, Howe spearheaded those glory days in the first place, and might well have been happy to have the likes of Lidstrom, Fedorov, Larionov and Co. on '''his''' side. Comes down to who is one's more favorite player, possibly, which is a bit too subjective and debatable for an article. [[User:RGTraynor|RGTraynor]] 13:43, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

::: Oh, no RGTraynor, I'm saying earlier in his career, the 80's and early 90's. Yzerman had Gerard Gallant, maybe Oates before his prime (but he was a second-line centre to Yzerman), Reed Larson perhaps. We aren't talking elite Hall-of-Fame players here (although in my opinion Larson should be in it, although that's a different topic entirely). If you'd like to continue this debate further we should probably move it to ''our'' talk pages and stop wasting space here. Feel free to drop a line on mine. [[Image:Flag of Croatia.svg|20px]] [[User:Croat Canuck|Croat Canuck]] [[Image:Flag of Canada.svg|20px]] [[User talk:Croat Canuck|Go Leafs Go]] 03:59, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

:::YZERMAN DEFINITELY, HE HELPED BRING THE WINGS OUT OF THE PITS, EARNED THREE CUPS WITH THE HELP OF SHANNY WHO SADLY HAS DEPARTED FOR NEW YORK. PLUS, DON'T YOU REMEMBER THAT BONE CHILLING FACE SHOT HE TOOK VS. THE PREDS LAST PLAYOFFS. COME ON, YZERMAN--STEVIE Y CAN'T BE DENIED THE HONOR OF BEING THE BEST RED WING THERE EVER WAS. [[User:O-TOWN'S AT|O-TOWN'S AT]] 22:13, 25 July 2006 (UTC)

::::First off to O-TOWN'S, Yzerman took the shot to the face against Calgary, not Nashville. And two you cannot debate who is better because of the fact that they both played in 2 different eras, in totally different styles. They both are awesome, and they both deserve the same amount of recognition.--[[User:Wikirockz!|Wikirockz!]] 06:31, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

== Season-by-season record ==

As far as I can tell, this is the only team that doesn't have a season-by-season record. Are we that lazy? =) I could start working on it here and then have it transferred over to the article once completed. I'd need some help though..any volunteers? We could even start with a base such as the blackhawks, since the seasons and links and table would already be filled in, just have to change the records. [[User:Scsgoal31|scsgoal31]] 20:24, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

OK here I am 2 months later ready to get started on this. If you're bored, fill in some seasons, and move the hiding characters so that we know how far you have gotten. I've finished the cougars years (26-30). Next would be the three years as the Falcons, and then the Wings.

[http://hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/teamseasons.php?tid=743] Detroit Falcons

[http://hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/teamseasons.php?tid=34] Detroit Red Wings

Clicking on the Season year, and then on the following page clicking on the season year again will give you divisional standings.

I'm not currently worried about keeping track of playoff series outcomes in terms of games or who they lost to like they have on this Blackhawks template I'm using..so I just deleted all that for the years I've done and just put the outcome (Lost in Round 1/2/3/Finals or '''Won [[Stanley Cup]]''')

'''''Note:''' GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime Losses Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes''
{|class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| '''Season''' ||'''League''' ||'''GP''' || '''W''' || '''L''' || '''T'''||'''OTL'''||'''Pts''' || '''GF''' || '''GA''' ||'''PIM''' || '''Finish''' || '''Playoffs'''
|-
| [[1926-27 NHL season|1926-27]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 44 || 12 || 28 || 4 ||--|| 28 || 76 || 105 || 409 || 5th, American || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1927-28 NHL season|1927-28]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 44 || 19 || 19 || 6 ||--|| 44 || 88 || 79 || 395 || 4th, American || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1928-29 NHL season|1928-29]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 44 || 19 || 16 || 9 ||--|| 47 || 72 || 63 || 381 || 3rd, American || Lost in Round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1929-30 NHL season|1929-30]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 44 || 14 || 12 || 6 ||--|| 34 || 117 || 133 || 474 || 4th, American || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1930-31 NHL season|1930-31]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 44 || 16 || 21 || 7 ||--|| 39 || 102 || 105 || 429 || 4th, American || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1931-32 NHL season|1931-32]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 48 || 18 || 20 || 10 ||--|| 46 || 95 || 108 || 415 || 3rd, American || Lost in Round 1
|-
| [[1932-33 NHL season|1932-33]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 48 || 25 || 15 || 8 ||--|| 58 || 111 || 93 || 462 || 2nd, American || Lost in Round 2
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1933-34 NHL season|1933-34]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 48 || 24 || 14 || 10 ||--|| 58 || 113 || 98 || 368 || 1st, American || Lost in Finals
|-
| [[1934-35 NHL season|1934-35]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 48 || 19 || 22 || 7 ||--|| 57 || 118 || 88 || 375 || 4th, American || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| '''[[1935-36 NHL season|1935-36]]''' ||'''[[National Hockey League|NHL]]''' || '''48''' || '''24''' || '''16''' || '''8''' ||'''--'''|| '''56''' || '''124''' || '''103''' || '''384''' || '''1st, American''' || '''[[Stanley Cup]] Champions'''
|-
| '''[[1936-37 NHL season|1936-37]]''' ||'''[[National Hockey League|NHL]]''' || '''48''' || '''25''' || '''14''' || '''9''' ||'''--'''|| '''59''' || '''128''' || '''102''' || '''244''' || '''1st, American''' || '''[[Stanley Cup]] Champions'''
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee
| [[1937-38 NHL season|1937-38]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 48 || 12 || 25 || 11 ||--|| 35 || 99 || 133 || 258 || 4th, American || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1938-39 NHL season|1938-39]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 48 || 18 || 24 || 6 ||--|| 42 || 107 || 128 || 240 || 5th, NHL || Lost in Round 2
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1939-40 NHL season|1939-40]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 48 || 16 || 26 || 6 ||--|| 38 || 90 || 126 || 250 || 5th, NHL || Lost in Round 2
|-
| [[1940-41 NHL season|1940-41]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 48 || 21 || 16 || 11 ||--|| 53 || 112 || 102 || 337 || 3rd, NHL || Lost in Finals
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1941-42 NHL season|1941-42]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 48 || 19 || 25 || 4 ||--|| 42 || 140 || 147 || 440 || 5th, NHL || Lost in Finals
|-
| '''[[1942-43 NHL season|1942-43]]''' ||'''[[National Hockey League|NHL]]''' || '''50''' || '''25''' || '''14''' || '''11''' ||'''--'''|| '''61''' || '''169''' || '''124''' || '''371''' || '''1st, NHL''' || '''[[Stanley Cup]] Champions'''
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1943-44 NHL season|1943-44]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 50 || 26 || 18 || 6 ||--|| 58 || 214 || 177 || 374 || 2nd, NHL || Lost in Round 1
|-
| [[1944-45 NHL season|1944-45]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 50 || 31 || 14 || 5 ||--|| 67 || 218 || 161 || 260 || 2nd, NHL || Lost in Finals
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1945-46 NHL season|1945-46]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 50 || 20 || 20 || 10 ||--|| 50 || 146 || 159 || 298 || 4th, NHL || Lost in Round 1
|-
| [[1946-47 NHL season|1946-47]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 60 || 22 || 27 || 11 ||--|| 55 || 190 || 193 || 535 || 4th, NHL || Lost in Round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1947-48 NHL season|1947-48]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 60 || 30 || 18 || 12 ||--|| 72 || 187 || 148 || 593 || 2nd, NHL || Lost in Finals
|-
| [[1948-49 NHL season|1948-49]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 60 || 34 || 19 || 7 ||--|| 75 || 195 || 145 || 621 || 1st, NHL || Lost in Finals
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| '''[[1949-50 NHL season|1949-50]]''' ||'''[[National Hockey League|NHL]]''' || '''70''' || '''37''' || '''19''' || '''14''' ||'''--'''|| '''88''' || '''229''' || '''164''' || '''736''' || '''1st, NHL''' || '''[[Stanley Cup]] Champions'''
|-
| [[1950-51 NHL season|1950-51]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 44 || 13 || 13 ||--|| 101 || 236 || 139 || 566 || 1st, NHL || Lost in Round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| '''[[1951-52 NHL season|1951-52]]''' ||'''[[National Hockey League|NHL]]''' || '''70''' || '''44''' || '''14''' || '''12''' ||'''--'''|| '''100''' || '''215''' || '''133''' || '''694''' || '''1st, NHL''' || '''[[Stanley Cup]] Champions'''
|-
| [[1952-53 NHL season|1952-53]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 36 || 16 || 18 ||--|| 90 || 222 || 133 || 645 || 1st, NHL || Lost in Round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| '''[[1953-54 NHL season|1953-54]]''' ||'''[[National Hockey League|NHL]]''' || '''70''' || '''37''' || '''19''' || '''14''' ||'''--'''|| '''88''' || '''191''' || '''132''' || '''814''' || '''1st, NHL''' || '''[[Stanley Cup]] Champions'''
|-
| '''[[1954-55 NHL season|1954-55]]''' ||'''[[National Hockey League|NHL]]''' || '''70''' || '''42''' || '''17''' || '''11''' ||'''--'''|| '''95''' || '''204''' || '''134''' || '''827''' || '''1st, NHL''' || '''[[Stanley Cup]] Champions'''
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1955-56 NHL season|1955-56]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 30 || 24 || 16 ||--|| 76 || 183 || 148 || 794 || 2nd, NHL || Lost in Finals
|-
| [[1956-57 NHL season|1956-57]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 38 || 20 || 12 ||--|| 88 || 198 || 157 || 656 || 1st, NHL || Lost in Round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1957-58 NHL season|1957-58]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 29 || 29 || 12 ||--|| 70 || 176 || 207 || 758 || 3rd, NHL || Lost in Round 1
|-
| [[1958-59 NHL season|1958-59]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 25 || 37 || 8 ||--|| 58 || 167 || 218 || 613 || 6th, NHL || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1959-60 NHL season|1959-60]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 26 || 29 || 15 ||--|| 67 || 186 || 197 || 538 || 4th, NHL || Lost in Round 1
|-
| [[1960-61 NHL season|1960-61]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 25 || 29 || 16 ||--|| 66 || 195 || 215 || 655 || 4th, NHL || Lost in Finals
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1961-62 NHL season|1961-62]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 23 || 33 || 14 ||--|| 60 || 184 || 219 || 684 || 5th, NHL || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1962-63 NHL season|1962-63]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 32 || 25 || 13 ||--|| 77 || 200 || 194 || 964 || 4th, NHL || Lost in Finals
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1963-64 NHL season|1963-64]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 30 || 29 || 11 ||--|| 71 || 191 || 204 || 771 || 4th, NHL || Lost in Finals
|-
| [[1964-65 NHL season|1964-65]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 40 || 23 || 7 ||--|| 87 || 224 || 175 || 1121 || 1st, NHL || Lost in Round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1965-66 NHL season|1965-66]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 31 || 27 || 12 ||--|| 74 || 221 || 194 || 804 || 4th, NHL || Lost in Finals
|-
| [[1966-67 NHL season|1966-67]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 70 || 27 || 39 || 4 ||--|| 58 || 212 || 241 || || 5th, NHL || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1967-68 NHL season|1967-68]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 74 || 27 || 35 || 12 ||--|| 66 || 245 || 257 || 759 || 6th, East || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1968-69 NHL season|1968-69]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 76 || 33 || 31 || 12 ||--|| 78 || 239 || 221 || 885 || 5th, East || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1969-70 NHL season|1969-70]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 76 || 40 || 21 || 15 ||--|| 95 || 246 || 199 || 907 || 3rd, East || Lost in Round 1
|-
| [[1970-71 NHL season|1970-71]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 78 || 22 || 45 || 11 ||--|| 55 || 209 || 308 || 988 || 7th, East || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1971-72 NHL season|1971-72]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 78 || 33 || 35 || 10 ||--|| 76 || 261 || 262 || 850 || 5th, East || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1972-73 NHL season|1972-73]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 78 || 37 || 29 || 12 ||--|| 86 || 265 || 243 || 893 || 5th, East || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1973-74 NHL season|1973-74]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 78 || 29 || 39 || 10 ||--|| 68 || 255 || 319 || 917 || 6th, East || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1974-75 NHL season|1974-75]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 23 || 45 || 12 ||--|| 58 || 259 || 335 || 1078 || 4th, Norris || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1975-76 NHL season|1975-76]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 26 || 44 || 10 ||--|| 62 || 226 || 300 || 1922 || 4th, Norris || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1976-77 NHL season|1976-77]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 16 || 55 || 9 ||--|| 41 || 183 || 309 || 1332 || 5th, Norris || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1977-78 NHL season|1977-78]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 32 || 34 || 14 ||--|| 78 || 252 || 266 || 1534 || 2nd, Norris || Lost in Round 2
|-
| [[1978-79 NHL season|1978-79]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 23 || 41 || 16 ||--|| 62 || 252 || 295 || 1359 || 5th, Norris || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1979-80 NHL season|1979-80]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 26 || 43 || 11 ||--|| 63 || 268 || 306 || 1114 || 5th, Norris || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1980-81 NHL season|1980-81]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 19 || 43 || 18 ||--|| 56 || 252 || 339 || 1687 || 6th, Norris || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1981-82 NHL season|1981-82]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 21 || 47 || 12 ||--|| 54 || 270 || 351 || 1250 || 6th, Norris || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1982-83 NHL season|1982-83]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 21 || 44 || 15 ||--|| 57 || 263 || 344 || 1064 || 5th, Norris || Out of Playoffs
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1983-84 NHL season|1983-84]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 31 || 42 || 7 ||--|| 69 || 298 || 323 || 1546 || 3rd, Norris || Lost in Round 1
|-
| [[1984-85 NHL season|1984-85]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 27 || 41 || 12 ||--|| 66 || 313 || 357 || 1741 || 3rd, Norris || Lost in Round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1985-86 NHL season|1985-86]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 17 || 57 || 6 ||--|| 40 || 266 || 415 || 2393 || 5th, Norris || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1986-87 NHL season|1986-87]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 34 || 36 || 10 ||--|| 78 || 260 || 274 || 2209 || 2nd, Norris || Lost in Round 3
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1987-88 NHL season|1987-88]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 41 || 28 || 11 ||--|| 93 || 322 || 269 || 2391 || 1st, Norris || Lost in Round 3
|-
| [[1988-89 NHL season|1988-89]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 34 || 34 || 12 ||--|| 80 || 313 || 316 || 2245 || 1st, Norris || Lost in Round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1989-90 NHL season|1989-90]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 28 || 38 || 14 ||--|| 70 || 288 || 323 || 2140 || 5th, Norris || Out of Playoffs
|-
| [[1990-91 NHL season|1990-91]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 34 || 38 || 8 ||--|| 76 || 273 || 298 || 1940 || 3rd, Norris || Lost in Round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1991-92 NHL season|1991-92]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 80 || 43 || 25 || 12 ||--|| 98 || 320 || 256 || 2078 || 1st, Norris || Lost in Round 2
|-
| [[1992-93 NHL season|1992-93]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 84 || 47 || 28 || 9 ||--|| 103 || 369 || 280 || 1832 || 2nd, Norris || Lost in Round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1993-94 NHL season|1993-94]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 84 || 46 || 30 || 8 ||--|| 100 || 356 || 275 || 1775 || 1st, Central || Lost in Round 1
|-
| [[1994-95 NHL season|1994-95]]1 ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 48 || 33 || 11 || 4 ||--|| 70 || 180 || 117 || 932 || 1st, Central || Lost in Finals
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1995-96 NHL season|1995-96]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 82 || 62 || 13 || 7 ||--|| 131 || 325 || 181 || 1551 || 1st, Central || Lost in Round 3
|-
| '''[[1996-97 NHL season|1996-97]]''' ||'''[[National Hockey League|NHL]]''' || '''82''' || '''38''' || '''26''' || '''18''' ||'''--'''|| '''94''' || '''253''' || '''197''' || '''1582''' || '''2nd, Central''' || '''[[Stanley Cup]] Champions'''
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| '''[[1997-98 NHL season|1997-98]]''' ||'''[[National Hockey League|NHL]]''' || '''82''' || '''44''' || '''23''' || '''15''' ||'''--'''|| '''103''' || '''250''' || '''196''' || '''1346''' || '''2nd, Central''' || '''[[Stanley Cup]] Champions'''
|-
| [[1998-99 NHL season|1998-99]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 82 || 43 || 32 || 7 ||--|| 93 || 245 || 202 || 1202 || 1st, Central || Lost in Round 2
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[1999-00 NHL season|1999-00]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 82 || 48 || 22 || 10 || 2 || 108 || 278 || 210 || 1014 || 2nd, Central || Lost in Round 2
|-
| [[2000-01 NHL season|2000-01]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 82 || 49 || 20 || 9 || 4 || 111 || 253 || 202 || 1082 || 1st, Central || Lost in round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| '''[[2001-02 NHL season|2001-02]]''' ||'''[[National Hockey League|NHL]]''' || '''82''' || '''51''' || '''17''' || '''10''' ||'''4'''|| '''116''' || '''251''' || '''187''' || '''1053''' || '''1st, Central''' || '''[[Stanley Cup]] Champions'''
|-
| [[2002-03 NHL season|2002-03]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 82 || 48 || 20 || 10 || 4 || 110 || 269 || 203 || 1214 || 1st, Central || Lost in Round 1
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[2003-04 NHL season|2003-04]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 82 || 48 || 21 || 11 || 2 || 109 || 255 || 189 || 966 || 1st, Central || Lost in Round 2
|-
| [[2004-05 NHL season|2004-05]]2 ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || -- || --
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
| [[2005-06 NHL season|2005-06]] ||[[National Hockey League|NHL]] || 82 || 58 || 16 || -- || 8 || 124 || 305 || 209 || 1127 || 1st, Central || Lost in Round 1
|}

:1 Season was shortened due to the [[1994-95 NHL lockout]].
:2 Season was cancelled due to the [[2004-05 NHL lockout]].

[[User:Scsgoal31|scsgoal31]] 19:10, 7 June 2006 (UTC)

== Current Squad ==
A few players are missing from this section (Where's Steve Yzerman?). Someone has edited out some Red Wings players, would someone restore these players, please? [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 17:57, 8 May 2006 (UTC)
:The players that are shown are currently the only Wings officialy under contract. The others are RFA or UFA. They are still there, just hidden. If and when any of them re-sign, they can easily be shown again.[[User:Scsgoal31|scsgoal31]] 15:09, 18 May 2006 (UTC)
::However, they don't become RFA or UFA until July 1st, 2006. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 22:05, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

== Current Squad II ==

The current squad is a list of players who have NHL contracts with the Wings...many of whom must either make the squad or be put on waivers to be sent down...surely being taken (in the case of Hudler, for example). Also have some players who may play end up in Grand Rapids in the end (Bootland, Kolanos, Hussey), but they are being given a chance at training camp to compete for a spot at the big club. Please don't assume the Detroit Red Wings official site is the all knowing version of the roster. Cross and Woolley have not and will not be offered new contracts. ([[User:Scsgoal31|scsgoal31]] 22:29, 17 July 2006 (UTC))
:Also, RFA's who have been offered a contract but have not yet accepted have been hidden (Franzen and Williams). [[User:Scsgoal31|scsgoal31]] 22:38, 17 July 2006 (UTC)
Will Hasek wear 39 this season? If he does Franzen will have to change numbers. He is still an RFA.--[[User:Tigersfan1992|Tigersfan1992]] 22:54, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

== [[Vladimir Konstantinov]] ==

I want to get a consensus before readding #16 from [[Vladimir Konstantinov]] back to the retired jerseys section after it was deleted from the list a couple days ago. It is indeed out of circulation on the Wings, as [[Brett Hull]] was required to choose another number when he came here. However, unlike #6 for [[Larry Aurie]], I don't believe the organization has ever made an official statement on the non-use of the number. Do we think it belongs here? [[User:Scsgoal31|scsgoal31]] 00:51, 29 July 2006 (UTC)
: I am all for listing "unofficial" numbers when the citation is properly sourced from the organization. It just strikes me that these unofficial retirements (cf LeClair) are far more often wishful thinking than any actual intent on the organization's part. [[User:RGTraynor|RGTraynor]] 06:32, 29 July 2006 (UTC)

== Captain ==

Is there any word on who might be a captain for the 2006-07 season?[[User:Ohyeh|Ohyeh]] 20:36, 7 August 2006 (UTC)
: The Red Wings website and the Detroit media will know before we will. As of last week, the former wasn't talking and the latter was only speculating. Such things are almost never announced before well into training camp anyway. [[User:RGTraynor|RGTraynor]] 00:51, 8 August 2006 (UTC)

Will the Red Wings need a captian before the season starts?[[User:ohyeh|ohyeh]]
: The only legal role of a captain in hockey is the privilege to approach the referee to discuss his calls during a game. Captains are (usually) locker room leaders as well, but "C"s aren't required in order to lead teams. The short answer is "no." [[User:RGTraynor|RGTraynor]] 16:20, 9 August 2006 (UTC)
::I strongly disagree. A captain is indeed required. NHL Rule 14 (Captain of Team): " One Captain shall be appointed by each Team...(NOTE) Only when the captain is not in uniform, the Coach shall have the right to designate three Alternate Captains." -[[User:Scsgoal31|scsgoal31]] 22:15, 9 August 2006 (UTC)
::: You're strongly incorrect. Numerous teams elect, and have on many occasions in the past, not to choose a captain; "shall" does not equate to "must." Atlanta and the Panthers didn't have one in 2003, the Bruins went without one in 2002, Buffalo didn't in 2001, etc etc etc. In any event, since the legal powers of a captain don't pertain off the ice, Detroit still doesn't need to pick one in the preseason ... or at all, come to that. They may feel, as did the Rangers this last season with Messier's retirement, that doing so would be disrespectful to Yzerman. [[User:RGTraynor|RGTraynor]] 00:36, 10 August 2006 (UTC)

::::Added Lidstrom as Captain, Based on reports on WDIV and the Detroit Free Press. —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:Redwings1914|Redwings1914]] ([[User talk:Redwings1914|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Redwings1914|contribs]]) 23:50, 22 August, 2006 (UTC).
:::::I reverted your edit. Information on Wikipedia needs to be verifiable. Feel free to add this information once a source can be provided. --[[User:Muéro|Muéro]] 04:03, 23 August 2006 (UTC)
*(reset indent) I reverted an IP edit. Still no official captain yet per this Detroit News article http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060824/SPORTS0103/608240430/1128

==A few comments==
*Why is there a heading titled "''1949-80: "Longtimer" Gordie Howe''"? Howe played for the Red Wings from 1946 to 1971, not 1949 to 1980.
*Why is there a heading titled "''1980-92: The Captain''"? Yzerman played from 1983 to 2006, not 1980 to 1992. The headings seem to contradict themselves.
*Also, there should be a separate section (maybe 1967 to 1983?) for the "Dead Wings" era. Considering how many times I've seen the term used, I think it should be in this article.
*Why is there so much detail as to player transactions in recent years, especially non-key players like Mathieu Dandenault and Boyd Devereaux? It seems to me that people think that anything recent must be more important than older years. For an encyclopedia, how important is it that Boyd Devereaux left the team?
*There seem to be a lot of run-on and otherwise awkward sentences. I will try to work on this, but I encourage others to help.
I apologize for this semi-ranting, but I really want this article to be better. I look forward to discussion on how to improve this article. --[[User:Muéro|Muéro]] 02:42, 23 August 2006 (UTC)
: Mm, feel free to make whatever edits you think will improve the article. That being said, the reason why this article obsesses over recent player transactions and history is that most (if not all) of the team articles do. Worship of the last year or three is endemic in the hockey areas, as it probably is elsewhere on Wikipedia as well. For example, more detail has been given to the Oilers' and Islanders' respective 2006 seasons than to all of their Stanley Cup wins combined, which is positively perverse. [[User:RGTraynor|RGTraynor]] 05:38, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

==Red links==

I'm trying to get rid of all the red links in the Wings article and was wondering if there are any other site except legendsofhockey.com and hockeydb.com that you guys know of that has good player info. I can find alot, but not everything I need as I'm mostly working on our first round draft picks and sometimes they don't have the best info. Thanks. And if anyone wants to help out with making all the red links blue, that would be great! --[[User:Schmackity|Schmackity]] 15:04, 31 August 2006 (UTC)

==Missing Player?==
My memory, sometimes eludes me. Where's ''Greg Johnson''?, isn't he a member of the Red Wings this season? I know he's on injured reserve, but shouldn't he be listed on the 'current roster' section? [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 23:59, 8 October 2006 (UTC)

:I removed him from the list because he's not on the DetroitRedWings.com roster. Babcock said something about Johnson not being in his plans for the season, because he never even practiced with the team. I'm pretty sure his contract isn't official because he did not pass his physical. --[[User:Muéro|Muéro]]([[User_talk:Muéro|talk]]/[[Special:Contributions/Muéro|c]]) 00:09, 9 October 2006 (UTC)
::Oh, I see. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 17:15, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

==Red Wings captains==
I've added 'Rotating captains' to 'team captains' section. Also I've added in (where needed) 'co-captains'. If anyone, disagrees with these edits, then revert them; I won't complain. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 23:58, 6 December 2006 (UTC)

:I like the edits. Clears a few things up for "non-hockey" viewers. --[[User:Schmackity|Schmackity]] 16:38, 7 December 2006 (UTC)
::Though the Red Wings official website doesn't list him (therefore I can't add him). Does anyone remember [[Gerard Gallant]] serving as Red Wings (interim) captain? during later-half of the 1987-88 NHL season? While Yzerman was out with knee injury? [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 17:22, 9 December 2006 (UTC)
:::I don't remember that, I also don't remember [[Sergei Fedorov]] having that distinction but people swear it happened. I'd imagine that with all the commerations since his retirement, either of them would have come up if they were true. [[User:DetroitHockey|DetroitHockey]] 21:47, 21 December 2006 (UTC)
::::Fedorov, was an alternate captain, from 1994 to 1997. Succeeded 'Bob Probert', succeeded by 'Niclaus Lidstrom'. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 23:50, 11 January 2007 (UTC)
Any reason why the pre-1932 team captains aren't listed? [[User:DetroitHockey|DetroitHockey]] 12:06, 26 January 2007 (UTC)
:I haven't a clue as to who were the Cougars & Falcons captains. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 01:13, 3 February 2007 (UTC)
::I've got them, I'll add them. [[User:DetroitHockey|DetroitHockey]] 18:15, 24 February 2007 (UTC)

==External Links==
Looking for some clarification on this since I just looked through all the NHL teams and there doesn't appear to be a standard. Some team pages list the official team site, fan sites, news sites, etc. Some just list the official site. It looks like we've been limiting it to the official site for awhile now but that wasn't always the case. Is there any reason for this? I know it could get messy, 'cause if one fan site/news site/whatever is included then why not include another and you have to draw the line somewhere. I'd love to get my site listed, of course, but I'm more worried about knowing why the current policy is in place so I know what to look out for. [[User:DetroitHockey|DetroitHockey]] 21:53, 21 December 2006 (UTC)

== Roster players ==

on the current roster, I recommend taking out players like Hussey and Matt Ellis beause despite the injuries to starters, these guys never play on the roster from my knowledge so they should be moved down to Grand Rapids (AHL). [[User:Hasek is the best|Hasek is the best]] 04:13, 3 March 2007 (UTC)
:The Red Wings official website lists them. That's the only reason (I know of) for keeping them. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 00:39, 4 March 2007 (UTC)

::Oh, well even if they are on the roster, they don't play, so I'm not saying to take them off now, but why the Wings' site didn't take them off. However the players above could just be on the road with the Wings in case of further injuries. [[User:Hasek is the best|Hasek is the best]] 01:04, 4 March 2007 (UTC)
:::Yeah, that seems correct. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 18:17, 4 March 2007 (UTC)
::::Hussey, Ellis, Langfeld, Bootland, etc. are mostly on the Wings because of the injuries to Samuelsson, Kopecky, Holmstrom, Zetterberg, etc. And they play almost every game. Once an injured player returns, another player will be sent to the minors, and the Wings will remove that player from their roster. For example, Jimmy Howard is listed on the roster because of the injury to Hasek. Once Hasek is deemed healthy, then Howard is sent back to Grand Rapids and his name is removed from the roster. So what I'm trying to say is that the "Current Roster" section should be checked daily alongside the roster listed at detroitredwings.com. The same goes for the alternate captains. If Zetterberg is out, that means the Wings will appoint another skater to wear the "A". Datsyuk had been wearing it, but Chelios wore it against the Avs on 3-4-07. Does this mean the "A" should be removed from Datsyuk and applied to Chelios? Do you remove it from next to Zetterberg's name? Or do you just add the "A" next to each player who has worn it most recently? I like the idea of keeping the "A" next to the originals (Zetterberg, Draper) and making a note about it under the current roster. What do you think? [[User:TheKuLeR|TheKuLeR]] 21:50, 6 March 2007 (UTC)
:::::My mistake, Chelios and Datsyuk are indeed taking turns wearing an '''A''' (while Alternate Captain Henrik Zetterburg, is side-lined). One guy wears the '''A''' at home games, the other guy at road games. Therefore the unwiki-linked '''A's''' next to Chelios and Datsyuk, are correct. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 23:19, 6 March 2007 (UTC)
::::::I've added the (home) & (road) discriptions to interim alternates Chelios & Datsyuk. Perhaps similiar discriptions could be added to the other NHL team pages. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 00:02, 7 March 2007 (UTC)
:::::::Removed the (home) & (away) discriptions (made section too cluttered). Just having the '''A's''' next to Chelios & Datsyuk is good enough (until Zetterburg returns). [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 20:18, 7 March 2007 (UTC)
::::::::Oh whoops, I left watching this page. Anyway, yeah, sure. [[User:Hasek is the best|Hasek is the best]] 02:34, 24 March 2007 (UTC)
:::Is there any reason that the Wings' official site is used as the standard even when common knowledge proves it to be wrong? The Wings are notoriously bad at keeping their site updated, why should the info here be based on bad info there? Example: Right now they've got a handful of players listed who have just about no chance of making their final lineup this fall, and have them listed with the wrong sweater numbers. Meanwhile, Igor Grigorenko (who is signed and virtually assured a spot in the lineup) is unlisted. Just wondering. [[User:DetroitHockey|DetroitHockey]] 18:19, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

==Franchise orgin==
The page fails to mention the franchise's actually founding date. The date, when the Victoria Aristocrats (later the Victoria Cougars) came into existants. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 18:09, 7 March 2007 (UTC)
: Which it would, if this was the actual Victoria team. Which it isn't. This is a persistent legend that has no factual basis. [[User:RGTraynor|RGTraynor]] 20:55, 7 March 2007 (UTC)
:: Ah yes, I should have read the opening paragraph in the 'Early history' section. Sorry 'bout' that, I'm having a mixed-up kinda day. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 22:43, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

==March 26, 1997==
I did not even see that date mentioned. Wasn't that brawl with the Avalanche significant enough to have a section of the article? Maybe it was there and I just didn't see it, but if it wasn't, it needs to be added. [[User:Mattbash|Mattbash]] 03:25, 18 March 2007 (UTC)

==Jiri Fischler==
Has Fischler retired? He's no longer listed on the 'Current Roster' section. I don't recall hearing of his retirement. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] 23:07, 4 April 2007 (UTC)

:No, he has not. He is still with the organization who is conditioning if he comes back. Otherwise I would have heard sometime he retired. --[[User:Hasek is the best|Hasek is the best]] 04:04, 7 April 2007 (UTC)

==Jersey Section and more==
NO Jersey section. For an Original Six team that has one of the NHL's best Uniforms, this is a bad leave-out. There should be a section entitled to the uniforms; their colors and history. Also, team mascot needs to be mentioned. I think Octupi are described throughout, so maybe Al the Octopus can be added somewhere in there...unless he already is, which in that case I apologize for in advance. [[User:Apostle Tau|Love each other, or perish. ~Auden]] 00:44, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

==Owner Nationality==
Would someone PLEASE make a final decision on the nationality of the team's owner? It's been changed back and for for a week+[[User:Dp76764|Dp76764]] 03:16, 19 October 2007 (UTC)

==Number of Stanley Cups==
I would greatly appreciate assistance in telling Ottawa Senators fans that their team did not win 11 stanley cups. If someone would help clarify this on their page (the original era Ottawa Senators) that would be very helpful. Unfortunately due to the team winning championship games in those seasons but not retaining the title at seasons ends counts as a stanley cup victory. The detroit Redwings are clearly the team with the third most chamionships, and these fans of a deceased team will not allow any changes to this number on that page. If people would like to help and look intoi this matter and clarify it it would be greatly appreciated and we could remove that addition i have made. I am terribly confused as to what that number should be for the number of stanley cup chamionships the original ottawa senators i had. I believe this number should be 9 not 11.[[User:Jgale061|Jgale061]] 01:41, 2 November 2007 (UTC)

I would argue that this citation should be completely removed from this article. It has been strongly debated as to whether the original Ottawa Senators even won 2 of those Stanley Cups, but there's more to it. The paragraph describes that the Detroit Red Wings have won the most championships for any US team in the '''NHL'''; thus, its context is directly relating to how many Stanley Cups have been won while a part of the National Hockey League. The problem is that the "Original" Ottawa Senators weren't even in the NHL until it was formed in 1917, after which they only won 4 times. The statement, as it is currently, is deceptive at the very least, or just plain inaccurate at its most. I am going to remove it and reference this discussion. [[User:Buzzfledderjohn|Buzzfledderjohn]] 02:34, 13 November 2007 (UTC)

Brattleboro, Vermont

2008-05-08T15:59:13Z

202.79.62.16: /* Literary */ edit:upper case b in Bible

{{Infobox Settlement
|official_name = Brattleboro, Vermont
|settlement_type = [[New England town|Town]]
|nickname =
|motto =


|image_skyline = Brattleboro, Vermont.jpg
|imagesize = 250px
|image_caption = View of downtown Brattleboro from [[Mount Wantastiquet]] in [[New Hampshire]].
|image_flag =
|image_seal =


|image_map = brattleboro vt highlight.png
|mapsize = 250px
|map_caption = Brattleboro, Vermont
|image_map1 =
|mapsize1 =
|map_caption1 =


|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Vermont]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Vermont|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Windham County, Vermont|Windham]]


|government_footnotes =
|government_type =
|leader_title =
|leader_name =
|leader_title1 =
|leader_name1 =
|established_title =
|established_date =


|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes =

|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 84.0
|area_land_km2 = 82.9
|area_water_km2 = 1.2
|area_total_sq_mi = 32.4
|area_land_sq_mi = 32.0
|area_water_sq_mi = 0.5


|population_as_of = [[United States Census, 2000|2000]]
|population_footnotes =
|population_total = 12005
|population_density_km2 = 144.9
|population_density_sq_mi = 375.3


|timezone = [[North American Eastern Time Zone|Eastern (EST)]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = EDT
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m = 193
|elevation_ft = 633
|latd = 42 |latm = 51 |lats = 0 |latNS = N
|longd = 72 |longm = 34 |longs = 56 |longEW = W


|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]s
|postal_code = 05301-05304
|area_code = [[Area code 802|802]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 50-07900{{GR|2}}
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 1462049{{GR|3}}
|website =
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}}
'''Brattleboro''' is a town in [[Windham County, Vermont|Windham County]], [[Vermont]], [[United States]], located in the southeast corner of the state, along the state line with [[New Hampshire]]. The population was 12,005 at the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 census]]. It is situated along the [[Connecticut River]], at the mouth of the [[West River (Vermont)|West River]].<ref>[[DeLorme]] (1996). ''Vermont Atlas & Gazetteer''. Yarmouth, Maine: DeLorme. ISBN 0-89933-016-9.</ref>

The town was chartered on [[26 December]], [[1753]].

== History ==
Brattleboro originated with the founding of Fort Dummer in 1724. The town was chartered in 1753.

Brattleboro was the home of [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s wife. Kipling himself lived for a time in the town.

In 1950, Brattleboro had a population of 11,522.
{{Sectstub}}

== Geography ==
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 32.5 [[square mile]]s (84.0 [[km²]]), of which, 32.0 square miles (82.9 km²) is land and 0.5 square miles (1.2 km², 1.42%) is water. Brattleboro is located at {{coor dms|42|51|15|N|72|33|31|W|}}.

=== Topography ===
The town largely rests in what is known as the [[Connecticut River Valley]]. Along the eastern edge is the [[Connecticut River]]. An extensive network of hills and mountains surrounds the town in all directions.

===Development===
The town's most densely populated area is downtown, at the very bottom of the valley. Because of the area's very hilly terrain, and relatively little flat land, many buildings are on steep grades, bunched closely together. This topography has helped to create an urban atmosphere.

[[Image:BrattleboroFall.jpg|thumb|left|Downtown Brattleboro, as seen looking across the [[Connecticut River]] from [[New Hampshire]].]]
Since the 1950s, suburban development occurred outside of the traditional downtown and in the west, south, and north of the township. The southern section of the town is predominantly one or two family houses with a mix of [[triple deckers]]. Commercial and industrial operations play a relatively minor role in this section of town, with heavy concentration on the [[U.S. Route 5]]/Canal Street artery that cuts through the area. The town's high school and the Regional Career Center are also located in this section.

The western section of town, which formally became a village in 2005, is also mostly residential, with the state's largest mobile home park and several large planned developments.

The northern section of Brattleboro developed in the 1960s and 1970s. The area has almost no residential development and is dominated by large commercial and industrial establishments along Putney Road, including roughly seven major hotels located within a short distance of each other. [[C&S Wholesale Grocers]] made its headquarters in this section until moving to [[Keene, New Hampshire|Keene]], [[New Hampshire]] in 2005; because of close proximity to [[Interstate 91]], C&S has kept a major portion of its shipping operations in Brattleboro.

The outskirts of Brattleboro have a decidedly rural feel, with very little housing development and boasting the last few farms left in Brattleboro after the collapse of the dairy industry in the 1970s. At its peak, the area had over 170 farms; there are now only nine left.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Brattleboro is also the headquarters of the [[Holstein (cattle)|Holstein]] Association.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 12,005 people, 5,364 households, and 2,880 families residing in the town. The [[population density]] was 375.3 people per square mile (144.9/km²). There were 5,686 housing units at an average density of 177.7/sq mi (68.6/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 94.06% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.13% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (United States Census)|African American]], 0.26% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.67% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.55% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 2.28% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 1.67% of the population.

There were 5,364 households out of which 27.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.8% were couples living together and joined in either [[marriage]] or [[Civil Union|civil union]], 12.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.3% were non-families. 37.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.84.

In the town the population was spread out with 22.3% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 29.2% from 25 to 44, 25.3% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 84.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.9 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $31,997, and the median income for a family was $44,267. Males had a median income of $31,001 versus $25,329 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the town was $19,554. About 9.2% of families and 13.1% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 18.0% of those under age 18 and 9.2% of those age 65 or over.

The ethnic population (non-white and single race, with Hispanic included) comprises 3.4% of the population, according to the 2000 U.S. Census. While this percentage is by comparison small to that of any major U.S. city, it is considered high for a traditionally white state and puts Brattleboro second to Vermont's largest city [[Burlington, Vermont|Burlington]] in this respect. This large ethnic influence has given Brattleboro the most diverse establishments and institutions of any city in the state.

== Government ==
Brattleboro's citizens are represented by a Select Board and Town Manager. Five members are elected to fill three one year seats and two three year seats. The Select Board, in cooperation with the Town Manager, are in charge of addressing all general public issues brought to them, concerning the town. The Town Manager form of government is unique in that, unlike a mayor who is elected for a term, the Town Manager is appointed by the Selectboard.<ref>{{cite web | author =Brattleboro Town Charter | url =http://www.brattleboro.org | title = Town Charter | accessdate =June 29 | accessyear =2007}}</ref>

The town has three districts and representatives from those districts gather on Town Meeting Day to discuss and vote on issues.

=== Petition against Bush and Cheney ===
On [[January 25]], [[2008]], the town council by a 3-2 vote approved a petition to be placed on a [[March 4]] ballot, calling for the indictment of [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]] and [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Dick Cheney]] for crimes against the [[United States Constitution]]. The petition reads: "Shall the Selectboard instruct the Town Attorney to draft indictments against President Bush and Vice President Cheney for crimes against our Constitution, and publish said indictments for consideration by other authorities and shall it be the law of the Town of Brattleboro that the Brattleboro Police, pursuant to the above-mentioned indictments, arrest and detain George Bush and Richard Cheney in Brattleboro if they are not duly impeached, and prosecute or extradite them to other authorities that may reasonably contend to prosecute them?"<ref>[http://news.lp.findlaw.com/ap/o/1110//01-30-2008/20080130015018_05.html ''Vermont Anti-Bush Petition Sparks Anger''], Associated Press, [[January 30]], [[2008]].</ref>

The town council issued a statement on the petition:

{{cquote|On January 25 the Town Clerk’s office received a petition from Brattleboro resident Kurt Daims. Per Town Charter, a petition containing signatures from 5% of Brattleboro voters can be placed on the ballot for a Town-wide vote. Mr. Daims’ petition did contain the required number of signatures. At a meeting on January 25, the Brattleboro Selectboard voted 3-2 to place the petition on the ballot. Reasons given by Board members voting in the affirmative centered on the belief that if a petition contained the required signatures, the voters should have the opportunity to vote on the matter. Reasons given by Board members voting on the dissent centered on the belief that articles outside the scope and authority of the Town should not go before the voters of the Town. The Brattleboro Town Attorney has stated that the petition has no legal standing, as the Town Attorney has no authority to write an indictment and the Town Police Department has no authority to attempt an arrest of the President of the United States.}}

The town voted on the article on March 4, and passed it.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.reuters.com/article/oddlyEnoughNews/idUSN0551104720080305?feedType=RSS&feedName=oddlyEnoughNews&rpc=92&sp=true | author = Reuters |title = Vermont Towns vote to arrest Bush and Cheney| accessdate =March 06 | accessyear =2008}}</ref>

== Shopping and dining ==
[[Image:Tjbuckleys.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''T.J. Buckley's'' restaurant in uptown Brattleboro.]]
Vermont is a popular weekend getaway among wealthy [[New York]] and [[Connecticut]] tourists.{{Facts|date=February 2007}} Brattleboro, being the first major town over the Vermont border on Interstate 91, offers a mix of a rural atmosphere and urban amenities such as a large number of hotels. Celebrities who have visited Brattleboro{{Fact|date=February 2007}} include [[Bill Cosby]], [[Johnny Depp]], [[Whoopi Goldberg]], [[Robin Williams]], [[Eminem]] and [[Nicole Kidman]].

Brattleboro is a host to a number of art galleries and stores including Vermont Artisan Design, the largest store of original artworks in the area.

The Brattleboro Food Cooperative, a natural foods store and deli holds the claim of being the state's first certified organic retailer.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} In 2007, Brattleboro passed the Fairtrade town resolution, clearing the way to become the second [[Fairtrade certification|Fairtrade certified]] town in the nation, joining [[Media, Pennsylvania|Media]], [[Pennsylvania]].

== Transportation ==
[[Image:Main St Bridge Brattleboro VT.JPG|thumb|right|Main Street Bridge over the Hill Brook.]]
{{seealso|Brattleboro (Amtrak station)}}
=== Rail ===
[[Amtrak]], the national passenger rail system, operates its [[Vermonter]] service daily through Brattleboro, between [[Washington, D.C.]] and [[St. Albans, Vermont|St. Albans]], [[Vermont]].

=== Bus ===
The Brattleboro BeeLine operates throughout the town between 6:00 a.m. and 6:30 p.m., and is comprised of the Red Line and Blue Line buses which work in conjunction with each other to move residents throughout the ''T'' shaped layout of town. Bus services also run daily between Brattleboro and [[Bellows Falls, Vermont|Bellows Falls]], and between Brattleboro and [[Whitingham, Vermont|Whitingham]].

In addition, Brattleboro is serviced daily by the national bus service [[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound]], which operates out of its terminal just south of the exit three interchange.

=== Highway ===
Brattleboro is serviced by two major routes and one Interstate route. [[New England Interstate Route 9]] begins at the New York border just west of [[Bennington, Vermont|Bennington]], traveling east to Brattleboro and continuing to the heart of downtown, then traveling slightly to the north where it reaches the New Hampshire border. Route 9's local names within Brattleboro include Molly Stark Trail, Western Avenue, High Street, Main Street, and Putney Road.

[[U.S. Route 5]] enters Brattleboro at its border with the town of [[Guilford, Vermont|Guilford]] and runs northerly, through downtown, and eventually exits Brattleboro at its border with [[Putney, Vermont|Putney]], [[Vermont]]. Route 5's local names are as follows (from beginning to end in Brattleboro) Canal Street, Main Street, Putney Road.

[[Interstate 91]], originating in Connecticut and terminating at the Canadian border, runs through the middle of the town in a north-south direction. The interstate was built in this area starting in the early 1960s, and because of the town's layout it was built in a semi-circumferential manner. Exit one serves the southern section of town; exit two serves the western section of town with convenient connection to local ski areas via State Route 9; lastly exit three serves the northern section of town with connection to New Hampshire.

== Culture ==
=== Media ===
The town is home to the ''[[Brattleboro Reformer]]'', a daily newspaper with a circulation of approximately 11,000, and the ''Commons'', a nonprofit community monthly newspaper with a circulation of 5,000.

Another community-based newspaper, the ''Parent Express'', is also circulated in Brattleboro, being published in [[Windham County, Vermont|Windham]] and [[Cheshire County, New Hampshire|Cheshire]] counties.<ref>[http://www.parentexpress.net/ Parent Express]</ref>

=== Arts ===
Brattleboro has a thriving arts community. The town is listed in John Villani’s book ''The 100 Best Small Art Towns in America'', in which it ranks number nine among towns with a population of 30,000 or under.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

On the first Friday of every month, an event known as the ''Gallery Walk''<ref>http://www.gallerywalk.org/</ref> is held, in which galleries, artists, and arts organizations open their doors to the public to display new work or hold performances. Included in the organizations that participate are the Brattleboro Museum and Art Center,<ref>http://www.brattleboromuseum.org</ref> the Hooker-Dunham Theater and Gallery,<ref>http://www.hookerdunham.org</ref> the In-Sight Photography Project,<ref>http://www.insight-photography.org</ref> River Gallery School,<ref>http://rivergalleryschool.org</ref> Through the Music,<ref>http://www.throughthemusic.com</ref> and the Windham Art Gallery.<ref>http://windhamartgallery.com</ref>

Other notable arts organizations in Brattleboro include the Brattleboro Music Center,<ref>http://www.bmcvt.org/</ref> the Vermont Theatre Company,<ref>http://www.vermonttheatrecompany.com/</ref> the New England Youth Theater,<ref>http://www.neyt.org/</ref> the Brattleboro Women's Chorus,<ref>http://brattleborowomenschorus.org/</ref> and the Nimble Arts Trapeze & Circus School.<ref>http://www.nimblearts.org</ref>

Annual events in Brattleboro include:
* The Winter Carnival in February.
* Harris Hill ski-jumping competition in February.<ref>http://www.harrishillskijump.org/</ref>
* Women's Film Festival in March.<ref>http://www.womensfilmfestival.org/</ref>
* [[Easter Egg Hunt]] in April (for residents only).
* Maple Open House Weekend in March.<ref>http://www.vermontmaple.org/open-house.html#windham</ref>
* River Gallery School benefit auction in March.<ref>http://www.rivergalleryschool.org/auction.html</ref>
* ''Taste of the Town'' in May.<ref>http://winstonprouty.org/</ref>
* ''Strolling of the Heifers'' in June.<ref>http://www.strollingoftheheifers.com</ref>
* Brattleboro Fest music festival in mid-June.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
* Vermont Theatre Company's ''Shakespeare-in-the-Park'' in June and July.<ref>http://vermonttheatrecompany.com/index.php/shakespeare/</ref>
* Brattleboro Animation Festival on the first Friday in July.
* [[Brattleboro Free Folk Festival]], begun in 2003.
* Brattleboro Literary Festival in September.<ref>http://www.brattleboroliteraryfestival.org/</ref>
* World Solstice Celebration in December.

Dates are subject to change from year to year.

=== Literary ===
Brattleboro's first bookstore opened in 1795. The first Bible to be printed in [[Vermont]] was printed in the town, in 1812.

The Brattleboro Literary Festival has been held every fall since 2001.

The first American edition of ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone|Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone]]'' was printed in Brattleboro.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

=== Cultural references ===
* Brattleboro is the setting for much of [[H. P. Lovecraft]]'s story ''[[The Whisperer in Darkness]]''.

* Brattleboro is mentioned repeatedly in [[David Foster Wallace]]'s novel ''[[Infinite Jest]]''.<ref>''[[Infinite Jest]]'', pp.901: “C.T. was the infant son she’d brought to the new union, his father a ne’er-do-well killed in a freak accident playing competitive darts in a Brattleboro tavern just as they were trying to adjust the obstetric stirrups for the [[achondroplastic]] Mrs. Tavis’s labor and delivery.”</ref>

* The popular [[Joe Gunther]] mystery series written by [[Archer Mayor]] is largely set in Brattleboro.

== Trivia ==
{{Trivia|date=March 2008}}
* The Brattleboro postmaster issued the first [[postal stamp]]s in the United States in 1846.

* Brattleboro was the home of the first person ever to receive a [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] benefit checque, issued on [[January 31]], [[1940]] to [[Ida Fuller]]. Her cheque number was 00-000-001 and it was for $22.54.<ref>{{cite web | author =Social Security Online | url =http://www.ssa.gov/history/imf.html | title =The First Social Security Beneficiary | publisher =Social Security Administration | accessdate =June 28 | accessyear =2007}}</ref>

=== Public nudity ===
[[Public nudity]], although not always welcomed by the denizens of the town, was not forbidden by any Vermont statute or Brattleboro ordinance until [[July 17]], [[2007]]. The town has drawn national attention when nudists make a visit to take advantage of the situation.<ref>{{cite web | author =Associated Press | url =http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,273216,00.html | title =Spring Thaw Brings Out Nudity in Small Vermont Town | publisher =Fox News| accessdate =May 17 | accessyear =2007}}</ref><ref>[[Daily Telegraph]] newspaper, pp.15, 07-16-07.</ref> On [[July 17]], [[2007]], Brattleboro town officials passed an emergency rule by a 3–2 margin, temporarily "banning nudity on the main roads and within 250 feet of any school or place of worship, among other places" due to a number of complaints.<ref>{{cite web | author =Reuters | url =http://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSN1823185120070718?feedType=RSS&rpc=22&sp=true | title =Vermont town bans public nudity after brash displays | publisher =Reuters | accessdate = 2007-07-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author =BOB AUDETTE | url =http://www.reformer.com/headlines/ci_6401076 | title =Cover up: Anti-nudity rule passes | publisher =Brattleboro Reformer | accessdate = 2007-07-18}}</ref>

On [[August 22]], [[2007]], the Brattleboro Selectboard decided not to make the ban on nudity permanent, once again allowing nudity in the town when the temporary statute ran out in September.<ref>{{cite web |author =Associated Press | url=http://customwire.ap.org/dynamic/stories/O/ODD_NAKED_TOWN?SITE=MABOC&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT | title =Go Ahead, Drop Those Drawers | accessdate =22 August | accessyear =2007}}</ref> However, on [[4 December]], 2007 the Selectboard made the ban permanent. Nudity is now banned, and one faces a $100 charge if cited.<ref>http://www.reformer.com/ci_7831292</ref>

Nudity around Brattleboro's downtown area, particularly that of local teenagers, brought the issue into the spotlight. This briefly came under the national eye when an [[Associated Press]] article was published on [[Yahoo! News]], and even drew the attention of [[Phil McGraw|Dr. Phil McGraw]] who sent a crew to Brattleboro to investigate, however it was never presented on the day-time show.

== Notable natives and residents ==

* [[Will Ackerman]]; music producer, guitarist.
* [[William Bullock Clark]]; geologist.
* [[Chris Duffy]]; baseball player for the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]].
* [[Ida May Fuller]]; first recipient of a monthly benefit [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] cheque.
* [[Frederick Holbrook]]; former governor of Vermont.
* [[Richard Morris Hunt]]; architect.
* [[William Morris Hunt]]; painter.
* [[JoJo (singer)|Joanna Noëlle Levesque]]; also known as ''JoJo'', American singer and actor, born in Brattleboro.
* [[Wolf Kahn]]; painter.
* [[Rudyard Kipling]]; author.
* [[Bill Koch (skier)|Bill Koch]]; first world-class cross-country skier from the United States.
* [[Marcel Moyse]]; famous French flute player, died in Brattleboro.
* [[William Rutherford Mead]]; architect, member of [[McKim, Mead, and White]].
* [[Karen Hesse]]; [[Newbery Medal]]-winning children's author.
* [[Royall Tyler]]; revolutionary-era playwright.

== See also ==
* [[School for International Training]], an accredited college located in Brattleboro.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|42.86194|-72.61917}}
* [http://www.brattleboro.org/ Brattleboro Vermont Town Web Site]
* [http://www.brattleborochamber.org/ Brattleboro Area Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.commonsnews.org Brattleboro Commons newspaper]
* [http://www.brattlebororeformer.com Brattleboro Reformer newspaper]
* [http://www.ibrattleboro.com iBrattleboro citizen news]
* [http://www.buhs.k12.vt.us Brattleboro Union High School]
* [http://www.bams.k12.vt.us Brattleboro Area Middle School]
* [http://www.vcdhh.org Vermont Center for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing]
* [http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2006/08/23/law_of_nature_prevails_in_vermont/ Law of nature... in Brattleboro] ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', August 23, 2006.
* [http://www.tiedyetravels.com/2008/02/village-in-snow.html Article on Brattleboro]

{{Windham County, Vermont}}

[[Category:Towns in Vermont]]
[[Category:Windham County, Vermont]]
[[Category:Brattleboro, Vermont| ]]

[[de:Brattleboro]]
[[eo:Brattleboro (Vermonto)]]
[[fr:Brattleboro]]
[[it:Brattleboro]]
[[sv:Brattleboro]]
[[vo:Brattleboro]]

List of Nepal-related topics

2008-05-07T05:42:51Z

202.79.62.16: /* Newspapers published in Nepal */

This is a '''list of topics related to [[Nepal]]'''. Those interested in the subject can monitor changes to the pages by clicking on ''Related changes'' in the sidebar.

==Nepal==
* [[Nepal]]
* [[Portal:Newar]]
* [[Nepal Bhasa]]
* [[Institute of Medicine, Nepal]]
* [[Nepal citizenship law]]
* [[Paudel]]
* [[Portal:Himalaya region]]
* [[Thadia]]

==Buildings and structures in Nepal==
* [[Bhimfedi]]
* [[Bhote Koshi Project]]
* [[Boudnanath Stupa]]
* [[Chabahil]]
* [[Kopan Monastery]]

===Airports in Nepal===
* [[Dipayal Airport]]
* [[Biratnagar Airport]]
* [[Bharatpur Airport]]
* [[Gautam Buddha Airport Sidarthanagar]]
* [[Lukla Airport]]
* [[Mahendranagar Airport]]
* [[Pokhara Airport]]
* [[Rajah Airport]]
* [[Surkhet Airport]]
* [[Tribhuvan International Airport]]

===Health Services in Nepal===
*[[CIWEC Travel medicine clinic, Kathmandu]]
[http://www.nepalscience.co.cc Nepal Health, Science and technology] 
[http://www.dent-inn.com Dent Inn - The Dental Clinic, Kathmandu]

===Places of worship in Nepal===
====Buddhist temples in Nepal====
* [[Boudnanath Stupa]]
* [[Swayambhunath]]
* [[Mayadevi Temple]]

====Hindu temples in Nepal====
* [[Guhyeshwari Temple]]
* [[Pashupatinath temple]]
* [[Shree Pashupatinath]]
* [[Suryavinayak Temple]]
* [[Dakshinkali Temple]]
* [[Kamalvinayak Temple]]
* [[Mahankal Temple]]
* [[Sankata Temple]]
* [[Batuk Bhairav Temple]]
* [[Jalvinayak Temple]]
* [[Bhadrakali Temple]]
* [[shorgadowri Temple]]

==Communications in Nepal==
* [[Communications in Nepal]]
* [[Kantipur Publications]]
* [[Nepal Internet Exchange]]
* [[Network Service Providers in Nepal]]
* [[.np]]
* [[Radio Stations heard in Kathmandu]]
* [[Radio Nepal]]

==Economy of Nepal==
* [[Economy of Nepal]]
* [[Bhote Koshi Project]]
* [[Five-year plans of Nepal]]
* [[Foreign aid to Nepal]]
* [[List of South Asian stock exchanges]]
* [[Nepal Rastra Bank]]
* [[Nepal Stock Exchange]]
* [[Paisa]]
* [[Nepalese rupee]]
* [[Tourism in Nepal]]

===Companies of Nepal===
* [[Himalayan Bank Limited]]
* [[Nabil Bank]]
* [[Nepal Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Investment Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Rastra Bank]]
* [[Nepal Stock Exchange]]
* [[Nepal Telecom]]
* [[Rastriya Banijya Bank]]
* [[Yomari]]
:''See also: [[#Airlines of Nepal|Airlines of Nepal]]''

====Banks of Nepal====
* [[Himalayan Bank Limited]]
* [[Nabil Bank]]
* [[Nepal Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Industrial and Commercial Bank]]
* [[Nepal Investment Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Rastra Bank]]
* [[Rastriya Banijya Bank]]
* [[Kumari Bank Limited]]
* [[Global Bank Limited]]
* [[Rajan bank Limited]]
*[[Bank of kathmandu Limited]]

===Trade unions of Nepal===
* [[All Nepal Trade Union Congress]]
* [[All Nepal Trade Union Federation (Revolutionary)]]
* [[Democratic Confederation of Nepalese Trade Unions]]
* [[General Federation of Nepalese Trade Unions]]
* [[Independent Transport Workers Association of Nepal]]
* [[Nepal Independent Hotel Workers Union]]
* [[Nepal Independent Workers Union]]
* [[Nepal Progressive Trade Union Federation]]
* [[Nepal Trade Union Congress]]
* [[Trekking Workers Association of Nepal]]

==Education in Nepal==
* [[Education in Nepal]]
* [[Kantipur Engineering College]]

===Schools in Nepal===
* [[St. Mary's Higher Secondary School, Jawalakhel]]
* Siddhartha Shishu Sadan, Bhadrapur
* [[Adarsha Vidya Mandir]]
* [[Budhanilkantha School]]
* [[Birendra Sainik Awasiya Mahavidyalaya]]
* [[Durbar High School]]
* [[Dipendra Police School]]
* [[Kantipur English High School]]
* [[Mount Everest Boarding School]]
* [[Kathmandu University High School]]
* St Xaviers High School
* [[Little Angels's School]]
* [[Siddartha Vanasthali Institute]]
* [[Bhanubhakta Madyamik Vidhalaya]]
* [[Galaxy Public School]]
* [[Gandaki Boarding School]]
* [[Siddartha Shishu Sadan, Biratnagar
* [[Sky Rider Boarding School, Ratnanagar]]
* [[National School of Sciences(NIST), Lainchour]]

===Universities and colleges in Nepal===
* Kantipur City College (KCC)
* [[Institute of Engineering]]
* [[Kathmandu College of Management]]
* [[Kathmandu University]]
* [[Kathmandu University Medical School]]
* [[Mahendra Sanskrit University]]
* [[Manipal College of Medical Sciences]]
* [[Pokhara University]]
* [[Purbanchal University]]
* [[Siddartha University]]
* [[St_Xavier's_College%2C_Maitighar]]
* [[Tribhuvan University]]

==Environment of Nepal==
* [[2007 South Asian floods]]
* [[Environmental issues in Nepal]]

===Biota of Nepal===
====Fauna of Nepal====
* [[Asian Openbill Stork]]
* [[Barred Buttonquail]]
* [[Bengal Fox]]
* [[Bengal monitor]]
* [[Black Stork]]
* [[Black-crowned Night Heron]]
* [[Black-headed Ibis]]
* [[Black-necked Stork]]
* [[Cattle Egret]]
* [[Cheer Pheasant]]
* [[Chinese Pond Heron]]
* [[Clouded Leopard]]
* [[Corsac Fox]]
* [[Gloydius himalayanus]]
* [[Great Cormorant]]
* [[Great Egret]]
* [[Great Hornbill]]
* [[Greater Adjutant]]
* [[Indian Peafowl]]
* [[Indian Pond Heron]]
* [[Indotestudo elongata]]
* [[Lesser Whistling Duck]]
* [[Little Cormorant]]
* [[Marbled Cat]]
* [[Oriental Darter]]
* [[Painted Stork]]
* [[Purple Heron]]
* [[Red Panda]]
* [[Sarus Crane]]
* [[Scarlet Minivet]]
* [[Snow leopard]]
* [[Spot-billed Pelican]]
* [[Sultan Tit]]
* [[Tibetan Fox]]
* [[Trimeresurus albolabris septentrionalis]]
* [[Woolly-necked Stork]]
* [[Yellow Monitor]]

====Flora of Nepal====
* [[Garden Angelica]]
* [[Luculia gratissima]]
* [[Meconopsis villosa]]
* [[Persicaria affinis]]
* [[Rhododendron arboreum]]
* [[Ruellia capitata]]

===Conservation in Nepal===
:''See also: [[#Protected areas of Nepal|Protected areas of Nepal]]''

====World Heritage Sites in Nepal====
* [[Kathmandu Valley]]
* [[Lumbini]]
* [[Royal Chitwan National Park]]
* [[Sagarmatha National Park]]

==Geography of Nepal==
* [[Geography of Nepal]]
* [[Banesore]]
* [[Bardia (Nepal)]]
* [[Bharatpur, Nepal]]
* [[Dang, Nepal]]
* [[Eastern Nepal]]
* [[Geology of Nepal]]
* [[Gorakshep]]
* [[Kali Gandaki Gorge]]
* [[Kathmandu Valley]]
* [[Kathmandu Valley/old stub]]
* [[Khumbu]]
* [[Madhesh]]
* [[Mahabharat Lekh]]
* [[Makalu Barun]]
* [[Nagbahal]]
* [[Nepal Time]]
* [[Terai]]

===Cities and towns in Nepal===
* [[List of cities in Nepal]]
* [[Baglung]]
* [[Bandipur]]
* [[Banepa]]
* [[Bhairahawa]]
* [[Bhaktapur]]
* [[Bhatgaon]]
* [[Bhojpur, Nepal]]
* [[Biratnagar]]
* [[Birganj]]
* [[Birgunj]]
* [[Butwal]]
* [[Chainpur]]
* [[Dhangadhi]]
* [[Dhankuta]]
* [[Dharan, Nepal]]
* [[Gaighat]]
* [[Garhi]]
* [[Hetauda]]
* [[Ilam, Nepal]]
* [[Inaruwa]]
* [[Jagat]]
* [[Janakpur]]
* [[Janakpur Zone]]
* [[Jhawani]]
* [[Jiri]]
* [[Kapilavastu]]
* [[Kathmandu]]
* [[Keware]]
* [[Kirtipur]]
* [[Kunchla]]
* [[Lukla]]
* [[Lumbini]]
* [[Mahendranagar]]
* [[Narayangarh]]
* [[Nepalgunj]]
* [[Nuwakot]]
* [[Panauti]]
* [[Patan, Nepal]]
* [[Phaphlu]]
* [[Pokhara]]
* [[Pyuthan]]
* [[Rajbiraj]]
* [[Rasua Garhi]]
* [[Rukumkot]]
* [[Siddharthanagar]]
* [[Simikot]]
* [[Surkhet]]
* [[Thame, Nepal]]

===Districts of Nepal===
* [[Districts of Nepal]]
* [[Regions of Nepal]]
* [[Achham District]]
* [[Arghakhanchi District]]
* [[Baglung District]]
* [[Baitadi District]]
* [[Bajhang District]]
* [[Bajura District]]
* [[Banke District]]
* [[Bara district]]
* [[Bardiya District]]
* [[Bhaktapur District]]
* [[Bhojpur District, Nepal]]
* [[Chitwan District]]
* [[Dadeldhura District]]
* [[Dailekh District]]
* [[Dang Deokhuri District]]
* [[Darchula District]]
* [[Dhading District]]
* [[Dhankuta District]]
* [[Dhanusa District]]
* [[Dolkha District]]
* [[Dolpa District]]
* [[Doti District]]
* [[Gorkha District]]
* [[Gulmi District]]
* [[Humla District]]
* [[Ilam District]]
* [[Jajarkot District]]
* [[Jhapa District]]
* [[Jumla District]]
* [[Kailali District]]
* [[Kalikot District]]
* [[Kanchanpur District]]
* [[Kapilvastu District]]
* [[Kaski District]]
* [[Kathmandu District]]
* [[Kavrepalanchok District]]
* [[Khotang District]]
* [[Lalitpur District, Nepal]]
* [[Lamjung District]]
* [[Mahottari District]]
* [[Makwanpur District]]
* [[Manang District]]
* [[Morang District]]
* [[Mugu District]]
* [[Mustang District]]
* [[Myagdi District]]
* [[Nawalparasi District]]
* [[Nuwakot District]]
* [[Okhaldhunga District]]
* [[Palpa District]]
* [[Panchthar District]]
* [[Parbat District]]
* [[Parsa District]]
* [[Pyuthan District]]
* [[Ramechhap District]]
* [[Rasuwa District]]
* [[Rautahat District]]
* [[Rolpa District]]
* [[Rukum District]]
* [[Rupandehi District]]
* [[Salyan District]]
* [[Sankhuwasabha District]]
* [[Saptari District]]
* [[Sarlahi District]]
* [[Sindhuli District]]
* [[Sindhulpalchok District]]
* [[Siraha District]]
* [[Solukhumbu District]]
* [[Sunsari District]]
* [[Surkhet District]]
* [[Syangja District]]
* [[Tanahu District]]
* [[Taplejung District]]
* [[Terhathum District]]
* [[Udayapur District]]

===Glaciers of Nepal===
* [[Hunku Glacier]]
* [[Khumbu Glacier]]
* [[Khumbu Icefall]]

===Lakes of Nepal===
* [[Gosaikunda]]
* [[Rara Lake]]
* [[fewa Lake]]
* [[Begnas Lake]]
* [[Se-Phoksondo Lake]]

===Maps of Nepal===

===Mountains of Nepal===
* [[List of mountains in Nepal]]
* [[Ama Dablam]]
* [[Annapurna]]
* [[Api (mountain)]]
* [[Baruntse]]
* [[Chamar (mountain)]]
* [[Chamlang]]
* [[Cho Oyu]]
* [[Cho Polu]]
* [[Cholatse]]
* [[Dhaulagiri]]
* [[Mount Everest]]
* [[Everest Base Camp]]
* [[Ganesh NW (Ganesh II/III)]]
* [[Gauri Sankar]]
* [[Gyachung Kang]]
* [[Himalchuli]]
* [[Hiunchuli]]
* [[Imja Tse]]
* [[Jannu]]
* [[Kala Patthar]]
* [[Kangchenjunga]]
* [[Mount Kanguru]]
* [[Khumbutse]]
* [[Kongde Ri]]
* [[Kusum Kangguru]]
* [[Langtang Lirung]]
* [[Lhotse]]
* [[Machapuchare]]
* [[Mahalangur Himal]]
* [[Makalu]]
* [[Manaslu]]
* [[Mansiri Himal]]
* [[Mera Peak]]
* [[Ngadi Chuli]]
* [[Nirekha]]
* [[Num Ri]]
* [[Nuptse]]
* [[Pokalde]]
* [[Pumori]]
* [[Salasungo]]
* [[South Col]]
* [[Taboche]]
* [[Thamserku]]
* [[Tilicho Peak]]
* [[Trekking peak]]
* [[Yangra]]

===Protected areas of Nepal===
* [[Protected areas of Nepal]]
* [[Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve]]

====National parks of Nepal====
* [[Langtang]]
* [[Royal Bardia National Park]]
* [[Royal Chitwan National Park]]
* [[Sagarmatha National Park]]

===Rivers of Nepal===
* [[Arun River (Nepal)]]
* [[Bagmati]]
* [[Dudh Kosi]]
* [[Karnali River]]
* [[Kosi River]]
* [[Mahakali River]]
* [[Mahananda River]]
* [[Sapt Koshi]]
* [[Seti River]]
* [[Tamur River]]

===Subdivisions of Nepal===
* [[Administrative divisions of Nepal]]
* [[Districts of Nepal]]
* [[Regions of Nepal]]
* [[Zones of Nepal]]
:''See also: [[#Districts of Nepal|Districts of Nepal]]''
:''See also: [[#Zones of Nepal|Zones of Nepal]]''

===Villages in Nepal===
* [[Chukhung]]
* [[Dingboche]]
* [[Khumjung]]
* [[Namche Bazaar]]
* [[Tengboche]]
* [[Thalara]]

===Zones of Nepal===
* [[Zones of Nepal]]
* [[Bagmati Zone]]
* [[Bheri Zone]]
* [[Dhawalagiri Zone]]
* [[Gandaki Zone]]
* [[Janakpur Zone]]
* [[Karnali Zone]]
* [[Kosi Zone]]
* [[Lumbini Zone]]
* [[Mahakali Zone]]
* [[Mechi Zone]]
* [[Narayani Zone]]
* [[Rapti Zone]]
* [[Sagarmatha Zone]]
* [[Seti Zone]]

===Nepal geography stubs===
* [[Achham District]]
* [[Arghakhanchi District]]
* [[Baglung District]]
* [[Bagmati]]
* [[Baitadi District]]
* [[Bajhang District]]
* [[Bajura District]]
* [[Banepa]]
* [[Banesore]]
* [[Banke District]]
* [[Bara district]]
* [[Bardiya District]]
* [[Baruntse]]
* [[Bhaktapur]]
* [[Bhaktapur District]]
* [[Bharatpur, Nepal]]
* [[Bhatgaon]]
* [[Bheri Zone]]
* [[Bhojpur District, Nepal]]
* [[Bhojpur, Nepal]]
* [[Bhote Koshi]]
* [[Birganj]]
* [[Birgunj]]
* [[Chainpur]]
* [[Chamlang]]
* [[Chitwan District]]
* [[Cho Polu]]
* [[Cholatse]]
* [[Dadeldhura District]]
* [[Dailekh District]]
* [[Dang Deokhuri District]]
* [[Dang, Nepal]]
* [[Darchula District]]
* [[Dhading District]]
* [[Dhangadhi]]
* [[Dhangadi]]
* [[Dhankuta]]
* [[Dhankuta District]]
* [[Dhanusa District]]
* [[Dharan, Nepal]]
* [[Dhawalagiri Zone]]
* [[Dingboche]]
* [[Districts of Nepal]]
* [[Dolkha District]]
* [[Dolpa District]]
* [[Doti District]]
* [[Dudh Kosi]]
* [[Eastern Nepal]]
* [[Gaighat]]
* [[Galwa]]
* [[Gandaki Zone]]
* [[Garhi]]
* [[Gaushala Bazar]]
* [[Gorakshep]]
* [[Gorkha District]]
* [[Gosaikunda]]
* [[Gulmi District]]
* [[Gurans Himal]]
* [[Gyachung Kang]]
* [[Helambu]]
* [[Hetauda]]
* [[Hill Region]]
* [[Hillary Step]]
* [[Humla District]]
* [[Hunku Glacier]]
* [[Ilam District]]
* [[Jagat]]
* [[Jajarkot District]]
* [[Janakpur]]
* [[Jhapa District]]
* [[Jhawani]]
* [[Jumla District]]
* [[Kailali District]]
* [[Kali Gandaki Gorge]]
* [[Kalikot District]]
* [[Kamdi]]
* [[Kanchanpur District]]
* [[Kapilavastu]]
* [[Kapilvastu District]]
* [[Karnali River]]
* [[Karnali Zone]]
* [[Kaski District]]
* [[Kathmandu District]]
* [[Kathmandu Valley]]
* [[Kavrepalanchok District]]
* [[Keware]]
* [[Khotang District]]
* [[Khumbu]]
* [[Khumbu Glacier]]
* [[Khumbu Icefall]]
* [[Khumbutse]]
* [[Khumjung]]
* [[Kirtipur]]
* [[Kohalpur]]
* [[Kongde Ri]]
* [[Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve]]
* [[Kunchla]]
* [[Kusum Kangguru]]
* [[Lalitpur District, Nepal]]
* [[Lamjung District]]
* [[Langtang]]
* [[Lekhnath]]
* [[Lobuche]]
* [[Lumbini]]
* [[Lumbini Zone]]
* [[Mahabharat Lekh]]
* [[Mahakali River]]
* [[Mahakali Zone]]
* [[Mahalangur Himal]]
* [[Mahottari District]]
* [[Makaikhola]]
* [[Makalu Barun]]
* [[Makwanpur District]]
* [[Manang District]]
* [[Mansiri Himal]]
* [[Mechi Zone]]
* [[Mera Peak]]
* [[Morang District]]
* [[Mount Kanguru]]
* [[Mugu District]]
* [[Mustang District]]
* [[Myagdi District]]
* [[Nagbahal]]
* [[Nalakankar Himal]]
* [[Narayangarh]]
* [[Nawalparasi District]]
* [[Nepalganj]]
* [[Ngadi Chuli]]
* [[Nguzumpa glacier]]
* [[Nuwakot]]
* [[Nuwakot District]]
* [[Okhaldhunga District]]
* [[Palpa District]]
* [[Panchthar District]]
* [[Parbat District]]
* [[Parsa District]]
* [[Phaphlu]]
* [[Pokalde]]
* [[Protected areas of Nepal]]
* [[Pyuthan]]
* [[Pyuthan District]]
* [[Rajbiraj]]
* [[Ramechhap District]]
* [[Rapti Zone]]
* [[Rara Lake]]
* [[Rasua Garhi]]
* [[Rasuwa District]]
* [[Rautahat District]]
* [[Regions of Nepal]]
* [[Rolpa District]]
* [[Royal Chitwan National Park]]
* [[Rukum District]]
* [[Rukumkot]]
* [[Rupallii]]
* [[Rupandehi District]]
* [[Sagarmatha Zone]]
* [[Salasungo]]
* [[Salyan District]]
* [[Sankhuwasabha District]]
* [[Sapt Koshi]]
* [[Saptari District]]
* [[Sarlahi District]]
* [[Seti River]]
* [[Seti Zone]]
* [[Simikot]]
* [[Sindhuli District]]
* [[Sindhulpalchok District]]
* [[Siraha District]]
* [[Siwalik Hills]]
* [[Solukhumbu District]]
* [[Sunsari District]]
* [[Surkhet]]
* [[Surkhet District]]
* [[Taboche]]
* [[Tamur River]]
* [[Tanahu District]]
* [[Taplejung District]]
* [[Template:Nepal-geo-stub]]
* [[Tengboche]]
* [[Terhathum District]]
* [[Thalara]]
* [[Thame, Nepal]]
* [[Thamserku]]
* [[Thorong La]]
* [[Tilicho Peak]]
* [[Tilicho lake]]
* [[Udayapur District]]
* [[Western Cwm]]

==Government of Nepal==
* [[Constitution of Nepal]]
* [[List of Prime Ministers of Nepal]]
* [[MOPE]]
* [[National Assembly of Nepal]]
* [[Nepal House of Representatives]]
* [[Parliament of Nepal]]

===Foreign relations of Nepal===
* [[Foreign relations of Nepal]]
* [[BIMSTEC]]
* [[Bhupalis]]
* [[Britain-India-Nepal Tripartite Agreement]]
* [[Foreign aid to Nepal]]
* [[South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme]]
* [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]]

===Nepalese monarchs===
* [[Nepalese monarchy]]
* [[Birendra of Nepal]]
* [[Dipendra of Nepal]]
* [[Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah Deva]]
* [[Gyanendra of Nepal]]
* [[Mahendra of Nepal]]
* [[Pratap Singh Shah]]
* [[Prithvi of Nepal]]
* [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]]
* [[Rana Bahadur Shah]]
* [[Surendra of Nepal]]
* [[Tribhuvan of Nepal]]
* [[Tribhuvan]]

===Prime Ministers of Nepal===
* [[Man Mohan Adhikari]]
* [[Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala]]
* [[Jang Bahadur]]
* [[Kirti Nidhi Bista]]
* [[Girija Prasad Koirala]]
* [[Krishna Prasad Bhattarai]]
* [[List of Prime Ministers of Nepal]]
* [[Lokendra Bahadur Chand]]
* [[Marich Man Singh Shrestha]]
* [[Mohan Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana]]
* [[Sher Bahadur Deuba]]
* [[Surya Bahadur Thapa]]

==History of Nepal==
* [[History of Nepal]]
* [[1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship]]
* [[1990 People's Movement]]
* [[2004 in Nepal]]
* [[2006 democracy movement in Nepal]]
* [[Amshuverma]]
* [[April 1992 general strike in Nepal]]
* [[Arimalla]]
* [[Bhrikuti]]
* [[Chabahil]]
* [[Congress Mukti Sena]]
* [[Democracy movement in Nepal]]
* [[Five-year plans of Nepal]]
* [[Toni Hagen]]
* [[Gurkha War]]
* [[Jana Aandolan]]
* [[Jang Bahadur]]
* [[Jayasthitimalla]]
* [[Kot massacre]]
* [[Licchavi]]
* [[Mustang (kingdom)]]
* [[Nepalese Civil War]]
* [[Nepalese mohar]]
* [[Rana autocracy]]
* [[Rana dynasty]]
* [[Sugauli Treaty]]
* [[Treaty of Titalia]]
* [[Unification of Nepal]]

===Elections in Nepal===
* [[Elections in Nepal]]
* [[Nepalese Constituent Assembly election, 2007]]
* [[Nepalese legislative election, 1991]]
* [[Nepalese legislative election, 1994]]
* [[Nepalese legislative election, 1999]]

===Massacres in Nepal===
* [[Kot massacre]]
* [[Nepalese royal massacre]]

===Years in Nepal===
====2007 in Nepal====
* [[Nepalese Constituent Assembly election, 2007]]

==Nepalese law==
* [[Nepal citizenship law]]
* [[Sarbochha Adalat]]

===Law enforcement in Nepal===
* [[Armed Police Force Nepal]]
* [[Nepalese Police Force]]

==Nepalese media==
* [[Media of Nepal]]
* [[Image Channel]]
* [[Kantipur Television]]
* [[NTV 2 Metro]]
* [[Nepal Television]]
* [[.np]]

===Newspapers published in Nepal===
* [[Himalayan Times]]
* [[Kantipur Publications]]
* [[Nepali Times]]
Nepal Samacharpatra
Nepal Traveller Publications

==Military of Nepal==
* [[Military of Nepal]]
* [[Armed Police Force Nepal]]
* [[Brigade of Gurkhas]]
* [[Britain-India-Nepal Tripartite Agreement]]
* [[Gurkha]]
* [[Nepalese Army]]
* [[Nepalese Army Air Service]]
* [[Nepalese Police Force]]

==Nepal-related lists==
* [[Protected areas of Nepal]]

==Nepalese culture==
* [[Flag of Nepal]]
* [[Culture of Nepal]]
* [[Bagha-Chall]]
* [[Barha]]
* [[Bhujimol]]
* [[Bratabandha]]
* [[Bikram Samwat]]
* [[Nepalese caste system]]
* [[Changu Narayan]]
* [[Chhaupadi]]
* [[Cinema of Nepal]]
* [[Coat of arms of Nepal]]
* [[Damphu]]
* [[Dasain]]
* [[Dhime]]
* [[Ehee]]
* [[Jhyali]]
* [[Kukri]]
* [[Kumari]]
* [[Lakhey]]
* [[Maadal]]
* [[Maghe Sankranti]]
* [[Majipa Lakhey]]
* [[National Museum of Nepal]]
* [[Newari Music]]
* [[Nwaran]]
* [[Pashupatinath temple]]
* [[Pasni]]
* [[Pauba]]
* [[Rakshi]]
* [[Rastriya Gaan]]
* [[Sa Paru]]
* [[Sarangi]]
* [[Swayambhunath]]
* [[Tihar (festival)|Tihar]]
:''See also: [[#Nepalese media|Nepalese media]]''
:''See also: [[#Sport in Nepal|Sport in Nepal]]''

===Nepalese cuisine===
* [[Chiura]]
* [[Dal bhaat]]
* [[Nepalese cuisine]]
* [[Oil cake]]
* [[Raksi]]

====Newari cuisine====
* [[Newari Cuisine]]
* [[Ailaa]]
* [[Baji]]
* [[Chataamari]]
* [[Chwelaa]]
* [[Dhau]]
* [[Jaa]]
* [[Kachilaa]]
* [[Lakhamari]]
* [[Sanyaa]]
* [[Sanyaakhunya]]
* [[Thwon]]
* [[Yomari]]

===Festivals of Nepal===
* [[Dasain]]
* [[Jatra (Nepal)]]
* [[Maghe Sankranti]]
* [[Makar Sankranti]]
* [[Sa Paru]]
* [[Teej]]
* [[Tihar (festival)]]
* [[Uttarayana]]

===Languages of Nepal===
* [[Bahing language]]
* [[Limbu language]]
* [[Maithili language]]
* [[Mundari language]]
* [[Nepali language]]

===Nepalese music===
* [[Music of Nepal]]
* [[Music of Sikkim]]
* [[Narayan Gopal]]
* [[Nepali rock]]
* [[Newari Music]]
* [[Sabin Rai]]
* [[Ugrakarma]]

====Nepalese hip hop====
* [[Nepalese hip hop]]

=====Nepalese hip hop musicians=====
* [[DJ AJ]]

====Nepalese musical instruments====
* [[Damphu]]
* [[Dhime]]
* [[Dholak]]
* [[Jhyali]]
* [[Maadal]]
* [[Sarangi]]

====Nepalese musicians====
* [[Ani Choying Dolma]]
* [[Jhalak Man Gandarbha]]
:''See also: [[#Nepalese hip hop musicians|Nepalese hip hop musicians]]''

=====Nepalese flautists=====
* [[Manose Singh]]

===Religion in Nepal===
* [[Religion in Nepal]]
* [[Hinduism in Nepal]]
* [[Kopan Monastery]]
* [[Lumbini]]
* [[Protestants in Nepal]]
* [[Roman Catholicism in Nepal]]
:''See also: [[#Places of worship in Nepal|Places of worship in Nepal]]''

====Temples in Nepal====
* [[Changu Narayan]]
* [[Kumari]]
* [[Swayambhunath]]

==Organisations based in Nepal==
* [[ICIMOD]]
* [[Nepal Mountaineering Association]]
* [[Nepal Scouts]]
:''See also: [[#Trade unions of Nepal|Trade unions of Nepal]]''

===Non-profit organizations based in Nepal===
* [[Madan Puraskar Pustakalaya]]
* [[National Museum of Nepal]]

==International organisations dedicated to Nepal==
* [[Canada Forum for Nepal]]

==Nepalese people==
* [[Amar Singh Thapa]]
* [[Amshuvarma]]
* [[Araniko]]
* [[Balbhadra Kunwar]]
* [[Bhakti Thapa]]
* [[Baburam Bhattarai]]
* [[Bhimsen Thapa]]
* [[Bhrikuti]]
* [[Iman Singh Chemjong]]
* [[Dolpo]]
* [[Govind Prasad Lohani]]
* [[Janaka]]
* [[Jharana Bajracharya]]
* [[Krishna Prasad Bhattarai]]
* [[Chandra Kumari]]
* [[Khagendra Thapa Magar]]
* [[Upendra Mahato]]
* [[National heroes of Nepal]]
* [[Himani, Crown Princess of Nepal]]
* [[Princess Shruti of Nepal]]
* [[Sister Nirmala]]
* [[Paras, Crown Prince of Nepal]]
* [[Narayan Pokharel]]
* [[Nagendra Prasad Rijal]]
* [[Princess Prerana of Nepal]]
* [[Rajesh Hamal]]
* [[Rajkarnikar]]
* [[Ram Bahadur Bomjon]]
* [[Rambahadur Limbu]]
* [[Rana (clan)]]
* [[Karanbahadur Rana]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]
* [[Sher Bahadur Deuba]]
* [[Pasang Lhamu Sherpa]]
* [[Kalidas Shrestha]]
* [[Surya Bahadur Thapa]]
* [[Kulbir Thapa]]
* [[Tulasa]]
* [[Muni Sakya]]
:''See also: [[#Nepalese monarchs|Nepalese monarchs]]''

===Nepalese people by occupation===
:''See also: [[#Nepalese politicians|Nepalese politicians]]''

====Nepalese actors====
* [[Manisha Koirala]]
* [[Rajesh Hamal]]
* [[Jharana Bajracharya]]
* [[Karishma Manandhar]]
* [[Bipana jha]]
* [[Melina]]
* [[Niruta]]

====Nepalese murder victims====
* [[Aiswarya]]
* [[Birendra of Nepal]]
* [[Princess Shruti of Nepal]]
* [[Nirajan]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]

====Nepalese sportspeople====
* [[Rajendra Bahadur Bhandari]]
* [[Dachhiri Sherpa]]

====Nepalese writers====
* [[Parijat]]
* [[Samrat Upadhyay]]

=====Nepalese poets=====
* [[Bhanubhakta Acharya]]
* [[Laxmi Prasad Devkota]]
* [[Gopal Prasad Rimal]]
* [[Mahananda Sapkota]]

===Nepalese mountain climbers===
* [[Appa Sherpa]]
* [[Babu Chiri Sherpa]]
* [[Pemba Dorjie]]
* [[Moni Mulepati]]
* [[Pasang Lhamu Sherpa]]
* [[Sherpa Ang Rita]]
* [[Shambu Tamang]]
* [[Tenzing Norgay]]

===Nepalese Americans===
* [[Kiran Chetry]]

===Nepalese Australians===
* [[Dichen Lachman]]

===Nepalese families===
* [[Koirala family]]

===Nepalese people of World War II===
* [[Gaje Ghale]]
* [[Bhanbhagta Gurung]]
* [[Lachhiman Gurung]]
* [[Thaman Gurung]]
* [[Tulbahadur Pun]]
* [[Agansing Rai]]
* [[Sher Bahadur Thapa]]
* [[Netrabahadur Thapa]]

==Politics of Nepal==
* [[Politics of Nepal]]
* [[National Teachers Association]]
* [[1990 People's Movement]]
* [[2006 democracy movement in Nepal]]
* [[Democracy movement in Nepal]]
* [[Human rights in Nepal]]
* [[Jana Aandolan]]
* [[List of Hindu nationalist parties]]
* [[N.R.N.]]
* [[National Assembly of Nepal]]
* [[Nepal House of Representatives]]
* [[Nepalese Civil War]]
* [[Parliament of Nepal]]
* [[Sarbochha Adalat]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]
:''See also: [[#Elections in Nepal|Elections in Nepal]]''
:''See also: [[#Trade unions of Nepal|Trade unions of Nepal]]''

===Political parties in Nepal===
* [[List of political parties in Nepal]]
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party (Nepal)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]]
* [[Janamorcha Nepal]]
* [[Janata Dal (Samajbadi Prajatantrik)]]
* [[Janatantrik Terai Mukti Morcha]]
* [[List of Hindu nationalist parties]]
* [[List of political parties registered ahead of the 2006 Nepalese municipal election]]
* [[National People's Front]]
* [[Nepal Conservative Party]]
* [[Nepal Goodwill Party]]
* [[Nepal Janabadi Morcha]]
* [[Nepal Janahit Party]]
* [[Nepal Panchayat Parishad]]
* [[Nepal Rashtrabadi Gorkha Parishad]]
* [[Nepal Samajwadi Janata Dal]]
* [[Nepal Samata Party (Socialist)]]
* [[Nepal Shivsena]]
* [[Nepali Congress]]
* [[Nepali Congress (Democratic)]]
* [[Panchayat Prajatantra Party]]
* [[People's Progressive Party (Nepal)]]
* [[Prajatantrik Samajwadi Manch Nepal]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatanrik Ekata Panchayat Party]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party (Nationalist)]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party-Chand]]
* [[Samyukta Prajatantra Party]]
* [[Seven Party Alliance]]
* [[United National People's Movement]]
* [[United People's Front of Nepal]]

====Communist parties of Nepal====
* [[Communist Party of Nepal]]
* [[United Left Front (Nepal) (2002)]]
* [[United Left Front (Nepal) (1990)]]
* [[All Nepal Communist Revolutionary Coordination Committee (Marxist-Leninist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Amatya)]]
* [[Barre Sangarsh Samuha]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Burma)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist-Maoist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (United Marxist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Democratic)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Fourth Convention)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Janamukhi)]]
* [[Nepal Communist League]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Manmohan)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist) (1991)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist) (1998)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist) (2002)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist-Maoist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Masal)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Masal) (1999)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Mashal)]]
* [[Mukti Morcha Samuha]]
* [[Nepal Revolutionary Organisation (Marxist-Leninist)]]
* [[Nepal Samyabadi Party (Marksbadi-Leninbadi-Maobadi)]]
* [[Nepal Workers and Peasants Organisation (D.P. Singh)]]
* [[Nepal Workers and Peasants Organisation (Hareram Sharma)]]
* [[Proletarian Communist League]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Pushpa Lal)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Rayamjhi)]]
* [[Revolutionary Communist Organisation, Nepal]]
* [[Revolutionary Communist Organising Committee]]
* [[Sandesh Samuha]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (United)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre-Masal)]]
* [[Nepal Workers Peasants Party]]

====Nepalese student unions====
* [[All Nepal National Free Students Union]]
* [[All Nepal National Free Students Union (United)]]
* [[All Nepal National Independent Students Union (Revolutionary)]]
* [[Nepal Progressive Student Federation]]
* [[Nepal Revolutionary Students' Union]]
* [[Nepal Students Council]]
* [[Rashtriya Janashakti Student Union]]

===Nepalese politicians===
* [[Aiswarya]]
* [[Amrit Bohara]]
* [[Chandra Prakash Gajurel]]
* [[Dhyan Govinda Ranjit]] ([[Nepali language|Nepali]]/[[Nepal Bhasa]] ध्‍यान गोबिन्‍द रञ्‍जित)
* [[Dina Nath Sharma]]
* [[Girija Prasad Koirala]]
* [[Hisila Yami]]
* [[Khem Raj Bhatta Mayalu]]
* [[Khum Bahadur Khadka]]
* [[Kirti Nidhi Bista]]
* [[Koirala family]]
* [[Krishna Prasad Bhattarai]]
* [[Laxmi Prasad Devkota]]
* [[Lokendra Bahadur Chand]]
* [[Madan Kumar Bhandari]]
* [[Marich Man Singh Shrestha]]
* [[Mohan Bikram Singh]]
* [[Madhav Kumar Nepal]]
* [[Prachanda]]
* [[Radha Krishna Mainali]]
* [[Sher Bahadur Deuba]]
* [[Surya Bahadur Thapa]]
:''See also: [[#Prime Ministers of Nepal|Prime Ministers of Nepal]]''

====Nepalese communists====
* [[Man Mohan Adhikari]]
* [[Baburam Bhattarai]]
* [[Madan Kumar Bhandari]]
* [[Amrit Bohara]]
* [[Chandra Prakash Gajurel]]
* [[Chandra Prakash Mainali]]
* [[Mohan Bikram Singh]]
* [[Madhav Kumar Nepal]]
* [[Prachanda]]
* [[Ruplal Bishvakarma]]
* [[Dina Nath Sharma]]
* [[Hisila Yami]]

==Science and technology in Nepal==
* [[Institute of Engineering]]
* [[Nepal Engineering College]]
* [[Kathmandu Engineering College]]
* [[Kantipur Engineering College]]
* [[Khopa Engineering College]]

==Nepalese society==
* [[Belbase]]
* [[Demographics of Nepal]]
* [[Gurkha]]
* [[Kamaiya]]
* [[Kinderhilfe-Nepal]]
* [[Lhotshampa]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]
:''See also: [[#Trade unions of Nepal|Trade unions of Nepal]]''

===Ethnic groups in Nepal===
* [[Badi People]]
* [[Bahing]]
* [[Brahman-Hill]]
* [[Chepang]]
* [[Chhettri]]
* [[Dhobi]]
* [[Ethnic groups of South Asia]]
* [[Gandarbha]]
* [[Gurung]]
* [[Hayu]]
* [[Jirel]]
* [[Kami (caste)]]
* [[Kham Magar]]
* [[Kirant]]
* [[Kiratas]]
* [[Kusunda]]
* [[Lepcha people]]
* [[Limbu people]]
* [[Magar]]
* [[Newar]]
* [[Rai (ethnic group)]]
* [[Ranjitkar]]
* [[Sherpa people]]
* [[Tamang]]
* [[Thakali]]
* [[Thami]]
* [[Tharu people]]
* [[Yadav]]
* [[Yakkha]]

====Newar====
* [[Newar]]
* [[Araniko]]
* [[Athale]]
* [[Bagmati]]
* [[Bagmati Zone]]
* [[Bahal]]
* [[Bahra]]
* [[Bajrayogini Temple]]
* [[Banepa]]
* [[Bansuri]]
* [[Barha]]
* [[Basu Pasa]]
* [[Bhairava]]
* [[Bhaktapur]]
* [[Bhatgaon]]
* [[Bhimfedi]]
* [[Bhujimol]]
* [[Bhusyaa]]
* [[Chaitya]]
* [[Changu Narayan]]
* [[Charumati]]
* [[Chitrakar]]
* [[Chittadhar Hridaya]]
* [[Culture of Nepal]]
* [[Dhime]]
* [[Dhooswan Sayami]]
* [[Dipankara]]
* [[Durga Lal Shrestha]]
* [[Ehee]]
* [[Gai Jatra]]
* [[Goon la]]
* [[Guthi]]
* [[Hari Bansha Acharya]]
* [[Iihipaa]]
* [[Indra Jatra]]
* [[Jaa Nakigu]]
* [[Janabahaadya]]
* [[Jankwa]]
* [[Jatra (Nepal)]]
* [[Jayaprakash Malla]]
* [[Joshi]]
* [[Kal Bhairab]]
* [[Kalidas Shrestha]]
* [[Kasthamandap]]
* [[Kathmandu]]
* [[Kathmandu Valley]]
* [[Kathmandu Valley/old stub]]
* [[Ketaa Pujaa]]
* [[Kirtipur]]
* [[Kumari]]
* [[Lakhey]]
* [[Lalitpur District, Nepal]]
* [[List of bodhisattvas]]
* [[List of prominent writers in Nepal Bhasa]]
* [[MaHa]]
* [[Madan Krishna Shrestha]]
* [[Majipa Lakhey]]
* [[Malla (Nepal)]]
* [[Manjusri]]
* [[Nagbahal]]
* [[Nepal]]
* [[Nepal Bhasa]]
* [[Nepal Bhasa literature]]
* [[Nepal Sambat]]
* [[Nepalese cuisine]]
* [[Nepali language]]
* [[Newar Buddhism]]
* [[Newar Caste]]
* [[Newar Dance]]
* [[Newari Architecture]]
* [[Newari Festival]]
* [[Newari Music]]
* [[Nuwakot]]
* [[Pagoda]]
* [[Panauti]]
* [[Pashupatinath temple]]
* [[Patan, Nepal]]
* [[Pauba]]
* [[Portal:Newar]]
* [[Portal:Newar/Categories]]
* [[Prachalit script]]
* [[Pradhan]]
* [[Puun]]
* [[Rajamati]]
* [[Rajkarnikar]]
* [[Ranjana script]]
* [[Ranjitkar]]
* [[Sa Paru]]
* [[Sankhadhar Sakhwa]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]
* [[Siddhicharan Shrestha]]
* [[Siddhidas Mahaju]]
* [[Sikhara]]
* [[Stupa]]
* [[Swayambhu Purana]]
* [[Swayambhunath]]
* [[Tamrakar]]
* [[Tara (Buddhism)]]
* [[Tuladhar]]
* [[Vajrayana]]
* [[Vihara]]
* [[Yanya Punhi]]
:''See also: [[#Newari cuisine|Newari cuisine]]''

=====Movies in Nepal Bhasa=====
* [[Prem Pinda]]
* [[Mama Ghar]]
* [[Silu]]
* [[Rajamati]]
* [[Chipa: Nipa:]]

===Social groups of Nepal===
====Dalit====
* [[Dalit Nationalism]]
* [[2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra]]
* [[Adi Dravida]]
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party (Nepal)]]
* [[Balmiki]]
* [[Bhangi]]
* [[Chamar]]
* [[Chandala]]
* [[Dalit]]
* [[Dalit Bahujan Shramik Union]]
* [[Dalit Buddhist movement]]
* [[Dalit Freedom Network]]
* [[Dalitstan]]
* [[Dhobi]]
* [[Domba]]
* [[Hari (outcaste)]]
* [[Holeya]]
* [[Kherlanji Massacre]]
* [[Kinnaraya]]
* [[List of Scheduled Tribes in India]]
* [[List of lower-caste Indian warriors]]
* [[Madiga]]
* [[Mahar]]
* [[Mala (caste)]]
* [[Nalavar]]
* [[Pallar]]
* [[Paraiyar]]
* [[Pulayar]]
* [[Kanshi Ram]]
* [[Rodiya]]
* [[Sakkiliar]]
* [[Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989]]
* [[Scheduled Castes and Tribes]]
* [[Shudra]]

=====Bahujan Samaj Party=====
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party (Nepal)]]
* [[Mayawati]]

==Sport in Nepal==
===Football in Nepal===
* [[All Nepal Football Association]]
* [[Nepal national football team]]

====Nepal football competitions====
* [[Martyr's Memorial A-Division League]]

====Nepalese football clubs====
* [[Brigade Boys Club]]
* [[Mahendra Police Club]]
* [[Friends Club]]
* [[Manang Marsyangdi Club]]
* [[New Road Team]]
* [[Ranipokhari Corner Team]]
* [[Sankata Boys Sports Club]]
* [[Three Star Club]]

====Football venues in Nepal====
* [[Dasarath Rangasala Stadium]]

===Nepal at the Olympics===
* [[Nepal at the 1964 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1972 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1976 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1980 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1984 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1988 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1992 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1996 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 2000 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 2002 Winter Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 2004 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 2006 Winter Olympics]]

==Tourism in Nepal==
* [[Lukla]]
* [[Namche Bazaar]]
* [[Thamel]]
:''See also: [[#Airports in Nepal|Airports in Nepal]]''

===Airlines of Nepal===
* [[Agni Air]]
* [[Base Air]]
* [[Buddha Air]]
* [[Flying Dragon Airlines]]
* [[Gorkha Airlines]]
* [[Impro Airways]]
* [[Mero Air]]
* [[Nepal Airlines]]
* [[Shree Airlines]]
* [[Sita Air]]
* [[Yeti Airlines]]

====Defunct airlines of Nepal====
* [[Air Ananya]]
* [[Air Nepal International]]
* [[Asian Airlines]]
* [[Cosmic Air]]
* [[Everest Air]]
* [[Karnali Air]]
* [[Mountain Air (Nepal)]]
* [[Necon Air]]
* [[Shangri-La Air]]
* [[Skyline Airways]]

==Transport in Nepal==
* [[Transport in Nepal]]
* [[AH2]]

===Aviation in Nepal===
:''See also: [[#Airlines of Nepal|Airlines of Nepal]]''
:''See also: [[#Airports in Nepal|Airports in Nepal]]''

====Aviation incidents in Nepal====
* [[PIA Flight 268]]
* [[Thai Airways International Flight 311]]

==Nepal stubs==
* [[1990 People's Movement]]
* [[Adarsha Vidya Mandir]]
* [[Ailaa]]
* [[Aiswarya]]
* [[All Nepal National Free Students Union (United)]]
* [[All Nepal National Independent Students Union (Revolutionary)]]
* [[All Nepal Trade Union Congress]]
* [[Amar Singh Thapa]]
* [[Amrit Bohara]]
* [[Amshuverma]]
* [[Armed Police Force Nepal]]
* [[Arun River (Nepal)]]
* [[Babu Chhiri]]
* [[Bahra]]
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party (Nepal)]]
* [[Bajrayogini Temple]]
* [[Barha]]
* [[Bel bibaha]]
* [[Belbase]]
* [[Bhairahawa]]
* [[Bhakti Thapa]]
* [[Bhanubhakta Acharya]]
* [[Bhimfedi]]
* [[Bhimsen Thapa]]
* [[Bhupalis]]
* [[Brahman-Hill]]
* [[Bratabandha]]
* [[Brazesh]]
* [[Budhanilkantha School]]
* [[Chabahil]]
* [[Chandra Kumari]]
* [[Charumati]]
* [[Chhettri]]
* [[Chittadhar Hridaya]]
* [[Chwelaa]]
* [[Coat of arms of Nepal]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Burma)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Democratic)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist) (2002)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist-Maoist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Rayamjhi)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre)]]
* [[Damphu]]
* [[Dasain]]
* [[Democracy movement in Nepal]]
* [[Democratic Confederation of Nepalese Trade Unions]]
* [[Devyani Rana]]
* [[Dhau]]
* [[Dhime]]
* [[Dhunge Dhara]]
* [[Dhyan Govinda Ranjit]]
* [[Dolpo]]
* [[Durbar High School]]
* [[Ehee]]
* [[Flag of Nepal]]
* [[Gandarbha]]
* [[Ganesh Man Singh]]
* [[Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah Deva]]
* [[Goon la]]
* [[Govind Prasad Lohani]]
* [[Hayu]]
* [[Himal Khabarpatrika]]
* [[Himalayan Bank Limited]]
* [[Himalayan Times]]
* [[Himalmedia]]
* [[Iihipaa]]
* [[Image Channel]]
* [[Independent Transport Workers Association of Nepal]]
* [[Institute of Engineering]]
* [[Jaa Nakigu]]
* [[Janamorcha Nepal]]
* [[Janata Dal (Samajbadi Prajatantrik)]]
* [[Jankwa]]
* [[Jatra (Nepal)]]
* [[Jayaprakash Malla]]
* [[Jhyali]]
* [[Ka-Nying Shedrub Ling Monastery]]
* [[Kal Bhairab]]
* [[Kamai]]
* [[Kami (caste)]]
* [[Kantipur]]
* [[Kantipur English High School]]
* [[Kantipur Television]]
* [[Kathmandu College of Management]]
* [[Ketaa Pujaa]]
* [[Khum Bahadur Khadka]]
* [[Kirant]]
* [[Kiratas]]
* [[Kirti Nidhi Bista]]
* [[Krishna Bheer]]
* [[Krishna Prasad Bhattarai]]
* [[List of newspapers in Nepal]]
* [[Livang]]
* [[Lokendra Bahadur Chand]]
* [[MaHa]]
* [[Maadal]]
* [[Madan Kumar Bhandari]]
* [[Madan Puraskar Pustakalaya]]
* [[Maghe Sankranti]]
* [[Mahendra Sanskrit University]]
* [[Mahendranagar]]
* [[Malla (Nepal)]]
* [[Man Mohan Adhikari]]
* [[Manipal College of Medical Sciences]]
* [[Marich Man Singh Shrestha]]
* [[Martyrs Soccer League]]
* [[Media of Nepal]]
* [[Mohan Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana]]
* [[N.R.N.]]
* [[NTV 2 Metro]]
* [[Nabil Bank]]
* [[Narayan Gopal]]
* [[National Assembly of Nepal]]
* [[National Museum of Nepal]]
* [[National People's Front]]
* [[National Teachers Association]]
* [[Nepal 1]]
* [[Nepal Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Communist League]]
* [[Nepal Goodwill Party]]
* [[Nepal House of Representatives]]
* [[Nepal Independent Hotel Workers Union]]
* [[Nepal Independent Workers Union]]
* [[Nepal Investment Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Janahit Party]]
* [[Nepal Panchayat Parishad]]
* [[Nepal Rashtrabadi Gorkha Parishad]]
* [[Nepal Rastra Bank]]
* [[Nepal Samajwadi Janata Dal]]
* [[Nepal Samata Party (Socialist)]]
* [[Nepal Sambat]]
* [[Nepal Shivsena]]
* [[Nepal Stock Exchange]]
* [[Nepal Television]]
* [[Nepal Workers Peasants Party]]
* [[Nepal at the 1964 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1972 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1976 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1984 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1988 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1992 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1996 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 2002 Winter Olympics]]
* [[Nepal engineering college]]
* [[Nepalese Army]]
* [[Nepalese Army Air Service]]
* [[Nepalese Constituent Assembly election, 2007]]
* [[Nepalese Police Force]]
* [[Nepali Times]]
* [[Netrabahadur Thapa]]
* [[New Road of Kathmandu]]
* [[Nirajan]]
* [[Nwaran]]
* [[Parliament of Nepal]]
* [[Pasang Lhamu Sherpa]]
* [[Pasni]]
* [[Pokhara Airport]]
* [[Pokharel]]
* [[Prachanda Path]]
* [[Pradhan Senadhipati]]
* [[Pradhan Senapati]]
* [[Pratap Singh Shah]]
* [[Prime College]]
* [[Princess Shruti of Nepal]]
* [[Prithivi Highway]]
* [[Purbanchal University]]
* [[Pushkar Shah]]
* [[Pushpa Lal Shrestha]]
* [[Radio Sagarmatha]]
* [[Rajendra Bahadur Bhandari]]
* [[Rakshi]]
* [[Rana Bahadur Shah]]
* [[Rana dynasty]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatanrik Ekata Panchayat Party]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party (Nationalist)]]
* [[Rastriya Banijya Bank]]
* [[Sa Paru]]
* [[Samrat Upadhyay]]
* [[Samyukta Prajatantra Party]]
* [[Sarbochha Adalat]]
* [[Shah dynasty]]
* [[Shambu Tamang]]
* [[Siddartha University]]
* [[Siddharthanagar]]
* [[Siddhicharan Shrestha]]
* [[Singha Durbar]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]
* [[Sunwar]]
* [[Surya Bahadur Thapa]]
* [[Swayambhunath]]
* [[Tamrakar]]
* [[Template:Nepal-stub]]
* [[Thwon]]
* [[Tihar (festival)]]
* [[Tourism in Nepal]]
* [[Trekking Workers Association of Nepal]]
:''See also: [[#Nepal geography stubs|Nepal geography stubs]]''

==See also==
*[[Lists of country-related topics]] - similar lists for other countries

[[Category:Nepal-related lists| ]]
[[Category:Lists of topics by country|Nepal ]]

[[ja:ネパール関係記事の一覧]]

List of Nepal-related topics

2008-05-07T05:39:59Z

202.79.62.16: /* Newspapers published in Nepal */

This is a '''list of topics related to [[Nepal]]'''. Those interested in the subject can monitor changes to the pages by clicking on ''Related changes'' in the sidebar.

==Nepal==
* [[Nepal]]
* [[Portal:Newar]]
* [[Nepal Bhasa]]
* [[Institute of Medicine, Nepal]]
* [[Nepal citizenship law]]
* [[Paudel]]
* [[Portal:Himalaya region]]
* [[Thadia]]

==Buildings and structures in Nepal==
* [[Bhimfedi]]
* [[Bhote Koshi Project]]
* [[Boudnanath Stupa]]
* [[Chabahil]]
* [[Kopan Monastery]]

===Airports in Nepal===
* [[Dipayal Airport]]
* [[Biratnagar Airport]]
* [[Bharatpur Airport]]
* [[Gautam Buddha Airport Sidarthanagar]]
* [[Lukla Airport]]
* [[Mahendranagar Airport]]
* [[Pokhara Airport]]
* [[Rajah Airport]]
* [[Surkhet Airport]]
* [[Tribhuvan International Airport]]

===Health Services in Nepal===
*[[CIWEC Travel medicine clinic, Kathmandu]]
[http://www.nepalscience.co.cc Nepal Health, Science and technology] 
[http://www.dent-inn.com Dent Inn - The Dental Clinic, Kathmandu]

===Places of worship in Nepal===
====Buddhist temples in Nepal====
* [[Boudnanath Stupa]]
* [[Swayambhunath]]
* [[Mayadevi Temple]]

====Hindu temples in Nepal====
* [[Guhyeshwari Temple]]
* [[Pashupatinath temple]]
* [[Shree Pashupatinath]]
* [[Suryavinayak Temple]]
* [[Dakshinkali Temple]]
* [[Kamalvinayak Temple]]
* [[Mahankal Temple]]
* [[Sankata Temple]]
* [[Batuk Bhairav Temple]]
* [[Jalvinayak Temple]]
* [[Bhadrakali Temple]]
* [[shorgadowri Temple]]

==Communications in Nepal==
* [[Communications in Nepal]]
* [[Kantipur Publications]]
* [[Nepal Internet Exchange]]
* [[Network Service Providers in Nepal]]
* [[.np]]
* [[Radio Stations heard in Kathmandu]]
* [[Radio Nepal]]

==Economy of Nepal==
* [[Economy of Nepal]]
* [[Bhote Koshi Project]]
* [[Five-year plans of Nepal]]
* [[Foreign aid to Nepal]]
* [[List of South Asian stock exchanges]]
* [[Nepal Rastra Bank]]
* [[Nepal Stock Exchange]]
* [[Paisa]]
* [[Nepalese rupee]]
* [[Tourism in Nepal]]

===Companies of Nepal===
* [[Himalayan Bank Limited]]
* [[Nabil Bank]]
* [[Nepal Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Investment Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Rastra Bank]]
* [[Nepal Stock Exchange]]
* [[Nepal Telecom]]
* [[Rastriya Banijya Bank]]
* [[Yomari]]
:''See also: [[#Airlines of Nepal|Airlines of Nepal]]''

====Banks of Nepal====
* [[Himalayan Bank Limited]]
* [[Nabil Bank]]
* [[Nepal Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Industrial and Commercial Bank]]
* [[Nepal Investment Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Rastra Bank]]
* [[Rastriya Banijya Bank]]
* [[Kumari Bank Limited]]
* [[Global Bank Limited]]
* [[Rajan bank Limited]]
*[[Bank of kathmandu Limited]]

===Trade unions of Nepal===
* [[All Nepal Trade Union Congress]]
* [[All Nepal Trade Union Federation (Revolutionary)]]
* [[Democratic Confederation of Nepalese Trade Unions]]
* [[General Federation of Nepalese Trade Unions]]
* [[Independent Transport Workers Association of Nepal]]
* [[Nepal Independent Hotel Workers Union]]
* [[Nepal Independent Workers Union]]
* [[Nepal Progressive Trade Union Federation]]
* [[Nepal Trade Union Congress]]
* [[Trekking Workers Association of Nepal]]

==Education in Nepal==
* [[Education in Nepal]]
* [[Kantipur Engineering College]]

===Schools in Nepal===
* [[St. Mary's Higher Secondary School, Jawalakhel]]
* Siddhartha Shishu Sadan, Bhadrapur
* [[Adarsha Vidya Mandir]]
* [[Budhanilkantha School]]
* [[Birendra Sainik Awasiya Mahavidyalaya]]
* [[Durbar High School]]
* [[Dipendra Police School]]
* [[Kantipur English High School]]
* [[Mount Everest Boarding School]]
* [[Kathmandu University High School]]
* St Xaviers High School
* [[Little Angels's School]]
* [[Siddartha Vanasthali Institute]]
* [[Bhanubhakta Madyamik Vidhalaya]]
* [[Galaxy Public School]]
* [[Gandaki Boarding School]]
* [[Siddartha Shishu Sadan, Biratnagar
* [[Sky Rider Boarding School, Ratnanagar]]
* [[National School of Sciences(NIST), Lainchour]]

===Universities and colleges in Nepal===
* Kantipur City College (KCC)
* [[Institute of Engineering]]
* [[Kathmandu College of Management]]
* [[Kathmandu University]]
* [[Kathmandu University Medical School]]
* [[Mahendra Sanskrit University]]
* [[Manipal College of Medical Sciences]]
* [[Pokhara University]]
* [[Purbanchal University]]
* [[Siddartha University]]
* [[St_Xavier's_College%2C_Maitighar]]
* [[Tribhuvan University]]

==Environment of Nepal==
* [[2007 South Asian floods]]
* [[Environmental issues in Nepal]]

===Biota of Nepal===
====Fauna of Nepal====
* [[Asian Openbill Stork]]
* [[Barred Buttonquail]]
* [[Bengal Fox]]
* [[Bengal monitor]]
* [[Black Stork]]
* [[Black-crowned Night Heron]]
* [[Black-headed Ibis]]
* [[Black-necked Stork]]
* [[Cattle Egret]]
* [[Cheer Pheasant]]
* [[Chinese Pond Heron]]
* [[Clouded Leopard]]
* [[Corsac Fox]]
* [[Gloydius himalayanus]]
* [[Great Cormorant]]
* [[Great Egret]]
* [[Great Hornbill]]
* [[Greater Adjutant]]
* [[Indian Peafowl]]
* [[Indian Pond Heron]]
* [[Indotestudo elongata]]
* [[Lesser Whistling Duck]]
* [[Little Cormorant]]
* [[Marbled Cat]]
* [[Oriental Darter]]
* [[Painted Stork]]
* [[Purple Heron]]
* [[Red Panda]]
* [[Sarus Crane]]
* [[Scarlet Minivet]]
* [[Snow leopard]]
* [[Spot-billed Pelican]]
* [[Sultan Tit]]
* [[Tibetan Fox]]
* [[Trimeresurus albolabris septentrionalis]]
* [[Woolly-necked Stork]]
* [[Yellow Monitor]]

====Flora of Nepal====
* [[Garden Angelica]]
* [[Luculia gratissima]]
* [[Meconopsis villosa]]
* [[Persicaria affinis]]
* [[Rhododendron arboreum]]
* [[Ruellia capitata]]

===Conservation in Nepal===
:''See also: [[#Protected areas of Nepal|Protected areas of Nepal]]''

====World Heritage Sites in Nepal====
* [[Kathmandu Valley]]
* [[Lumbini]]
* [[Royal Chitwan National Park]]
* [[Sagarmatha National Park]]

==Geography of Nepal==
* [[Geography of Nepal]]
* [[Banesore]]
* [[Bardia (Nepal)]]
* [[Bharatpur, Nepal]]
* [[Dang, Nepal]]
* [[Eastern Nepal]]
* [[Geology of Nepal]]
* [[Gorakshep]]
* [[Kali Gandaki Gorge]]
* [[Kathmandu Valley]]
* [[Kathmandu Valley/old stub]]
* [[Khumbu]]
* [[Madhesh]]
* [[Mahabharat Lekh]]
* [[Makalu Barun]]
* [[Nagbahal]]
* [[Nepal Time]]
* [[Terai]]

===Cities and towns in Nepal===
* [[List of cities in Nepal]]
* [[Baglung]]
* [[Bandipur]]
* [[Banepa]]
* [[Bhairahawa]]
* [[Bhaktapur]]
* [[Bhatgaon]]
* [[Bhojpur, Nepal]]
* [[Biratnagar]]
* [[Birganj]]
* [[Birgunj]]
* [[Butwal]]
* [[Chainpur]]
* [[Dhangadhi]]
* [[Dhankuta]]
* [[Dharan, Nepal]]
* [[Gaighat]]
* [[Garhi]]
* [[Hetauda]]
* [[Ilam, Nepal]]
* [[Inaruwa]]
* [[Jagat]]
* [[Janakpur]]
* [[Janakpur Zone]]
* [[Jhawani]]
* [[Jiri]]
* [[Kapilavastu]]
* [[Kathmandu]]
* [[Keware]]
* [[Kirtipur]]
* [[Kunchla]]
* [[Lukla]]
* [[Lumbini]]
* [[Mahendranagar]]
* [[Narayangarh]]
* [[Nepalgunj]]
* [[Nuwakot]]
* [[Panauti]]
* [[Patan, Nepal]]
* [[Phaphlu]]
* [[Pokhara]]
* [[Pyuthan]]
* [[Rajbiraj]]
* [[Rasua Garhi]]
* [[Rukumkot]]
* [[Siddharthanagar]]
* [[Simikot]]
* [[Surkhet]]
* [[Thame, Nepal]]

===Districts of Nepal===
* [[Districts of Nepal]]
* [[Regions of Nepal]]
* [[Achham District]]
* [[Arghakhanchi District]]
* [[Baglung District]]
* [[Baitadi District]]
* [[Bajhang District]]
* [[Bajura District]]
* [[Banke District]]
* [[Bara district]]
* [[Bardiya District]]
* [[Bhaktapur District]]
* [[Bhojpur District, Nepal]]
* [[Chitwan District]]
* [[Dadeldhura District]]
* [[Dailekh District]]
* [[Dang Deokhuri District]]
* [[Darchula District]]
* [[Dhading District]]
* [[Dhankuta District]]
* [[Dhanusa District]]
* [[Dolkha District]]
* [[Dolpa District]]
* [[Doti District]]
* [[Gorkha District]]
* [[Gulmi District]]
* [[Humla District]]
* [[Ilam District]]
* [[Jajarkot District]]
* [[Jhapa District]]
* [[Jumla District]]
* [[Kailali District]]
* [[Kalikot District]]
* [[Kanchanpur District]]
* [[Kapilvastu District]]
* [[Kaski District]]
* [[Kathmandu District]]
* [[Kavrepalanchok District]]
* [[Khotang District]]
* [[Lalitpur District, Nepal]]
* [[Lamjung District]]
* [[Mahottari District]]
* [[Makwanpur District]]
* [[Manang District]]
* [[Morang District]]
* [[Mugu District]]
* [[Mustang District]]
* [[Myagdi District]]
* [[Nawalparasi District]]
* [[Nuwakot District]]
* [[Okhaldhunga District]]
* [[Palpa District]]
* [[Panchthar District]]
* [[Parbat District]]
* [[Parsa District]]
* [[Pyuthan District]]
* [[Ramechhap District]]
* [[Rasuwa District]]
* [[Rautahat District]]
* [[Rolpa District]]
* [[Rukum District]]
* [[Rupandehi District]]
* [[Salyan District]]
* [[Sankhuwasabha District]]
* [[Saptari District]]
* [[Sarlahi District]]
* [[Sindhuli District]]
* [[Sindhulpalchok District]]
* [[Siraha District]]
* [[Solukhumbu District]]
* [[Sunsari District]]
* [[Surkhet District]]
* [[Syangja District]]
* [[Tanahu District]]
* [[Taplejung District]]
* [[Terhathum District]]
* [[Udayapur District]]

===Glaciers of Nepal===
* [[Hunku Glacier]]
* [[Khumbu Glacier]]
* [[Khumbu Icefall]]

===Lakes of Nepal===
* [[Gosaikunda]]
* [[Rara Lake]]
* [[fewa Lake]]
* [[Begnas Lake]]
* [[Se-Phoksondo Lake]]

===Maps of Nepal===

===Mountains of Nepal===
* [[List of mountains in Nepal]]
* [[Ama Dablam]]
* [[Annapurna]]
* [[Api (mountain)]]
* [[Baruntse]]
* [[Chamar (mountain)]]
* [[Chamlang]]
* [[Cho Oyu]]
* [[Cho Polu]]
* [[Cholatse]]
* [[Dhaulagiri]]
* [[Mount Everest]]
* [[Everest Base Camp]]
* [[Ganesh NW (Ganesh II/III)]]
* [[Gauri Sankar]]
* [[Gyachung Kang]]
* [[Himalchuli]]
* [[Hiunchuli]]
* [[Imja Tse]]
* [[Jannu]]
* [[Kala Patthar]]
* [[Kangchenjunga]]
* [[Mount Kanguru]]
* [[Khumbutse]]
* [[Kongde Ri]]
* [[Kusum Kangguru]]
* [[Langtang Lirung]]
* [[Lhotse]]
* [[Machapuchare]]
* [[Mahalangur Himal]]
* [[Makalu]]
* [[Manaslu]]
* [[Mansiri Himal]]
* [[Mera Peak]]
* [[Ngadi Chuli]]
* [[Nirekha]]
* [[Num Ri]]
* [[Nuptse]]
* [[Pokalde]]
* [[Pumori]]
* [[Salasungo]]
* [[South Col]]
* [[Taboche]]
* [[Thamserku]]
* [[Tilicho Peak]]
* [[Trekking peak]]
* [[Yangra]]

===Protected areas of Nepal===
* [[Protected areas of Nepal]]
* [[Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve]]

====National parks of Nepal====
* [[Langtang]]
* [[Royal Bardia National Park]]
* [[Royal Chitwan National Park]]
* [[Sagarmatha National Park]]

===Rivers of Nepal===
* [[Arun River (Nepal)]]
* [[Bagmati]]
* [[Dudh Kosi]]
* [[Karnali River]]
* [[Kosi River]]
* [[Mahakali River]]
* [[Mahananda River]]
* [[Sapt Koshi]]
* [[Seti River]]
* [[Tamur River]]

===Subdivisions of Nepal===
* [[Administrative divisions of Nepal]]
* [[Districts of Nepal]]
* [[Regions of Nepal]]
* [[Zones of Nepal]]
:''See also: [[#Districts of Nepal|Districts of Nepal]]''
:''See also: [[#Zones of Nepal|Zones of Nepal]]''

===Villages in Nepal===
* [[Chukhung]]
* [[Dingboche]]
* [[Khumjung]]
* [[Namche Bazaar]]
* [[Tengboche]]
* [[Thalara]]

===Zones of Nepal===
* [[Zones of Nepal]]
* [[Bagmati Zone]]
* [[Bheri Zone]]
* [[Dhawalagiri Zone]]
* [[Gandaki Zone]]
* [[Janakpur Zone]]
* [[Karnali Zone]]
* [[Kosi Zone]]
* [[Lumbini Zone]]
* [[Mahakali Zone]]
* [[Mechi Zone]]
* [[Narayani Zone]]
* [[Rapti Zone]]
* [[Sagarmatha Zone]]
* [[Seti Zone]]

===Nepal geography stubs===
* [[Achham District]]
* [[Arghakhanchi District]]
* [[Baglung District]]
* [[Bagmati]]
* [[Baitadi District]]
* [[Bajhang District]]
* [[Bajura District]]
* [[Banepa]]
* [[Banesore]]
* [[Banke District]]
* [[Bara district]]
* [[Bardiya District]]
* [[Baruntse]]
* [[Bhaktapur]]
* [[Bhaktapur District]]
* [[Bharatpur, Nepal]]
* [[Bhatgaon]]
* [[Bheri Zone]]
* [[Bhojpur District, Nepal]]
* [[Bhojpur, Nepal]]
* [[Bhote Koshi]]
* [[Birganj]]
* [[Birgunj]]
* [[Chainpur]]
* [[Chamlang]]
* [[Chitwan District]]
* [[Cho Polu]]
* [[Cholatse]]
* [[Dadeldhura District]]
* [[Dailekh District]]
* [[Dang Deokhuri District]]
* [[Dang, Nepal]]
* [[Darchula District]]
* [[Dhading District]]
* [[Dhangadhi]]
* [[Dhangadi]]
* [[Dhankuta]]
* [[Dhankuta District]]
* [[Dhanusa District]]
* [[Dharan, Nepal]]
* [[Dhawalagiri Zone]]
* [[Dingboche]]
* [[Districts of Nepal]]
* [[Dolkha District]]
* [[Dolpa District]]
* [[Doti District]]
* [[Dudh Kosi]]
* [[Eastern Nepal]]
* [[Gaighat]]
* [[Galwa]]
* [[Gandaki Zone]]
* [[Garhi]]
* [[Gaushala Bazar]]
* [[Gorakshep]]
* [[Gorkha District]]
* [[Gosaikunda]]
* [[Gulmi District]]
* [[Gurans Himal]]
* [[Gyachung Kang]]
* [[Helambu]]
* [[Hetauda]]
* [[Hill Region]]
* [[Hillary Step]]
* [[Humla District]]
* [[Hunku Glacier]]
* [[Ilam District]]
* [[Jagat]]
* [[Jajarkot District]]
* [[Janakpur]]
* [[Jhapa District]]
* [[Jhawani]]
* [[Jumla District]]
* [[Kailali District]]
* [[Kali Gandaki Gorge]]
* [[Kalikot District]]
* [[Kamdi]]
* [[Kanchanpur District]]
* [[Kapilavastu]]
* [[Kapilvastu District]]
* [[Karnali River]]
* [[Karnali Zone]]
* [[Kaski District]]
* [[Kathmandu District]]
* [[Kathmandu Valley]]
* [[Kavrepalanchok District]]
* [[Keware]]
* [[Khotang District]]
* [[Khumbu]]
* [[Khumbu Glacier]]
* [[Khumbu Icefall]]
* [[Khumbutse]]
* [[Khumjung]]
* [[Kirtipur]]
* [[Kohalpur]]
* [[Kongde Ri]]
* [[Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve]]
* [[Kunchla]]
* [[Kusum Kangguru]]
* [[Lalitpur District, Nepal]]
* [[Lamjung District]]
* [[Langtang]]
* [[Lekhnath]]
* [[Lobuche]]
* [[Lumbini]]
* [[Lumbini Zone]]
* [[Mahabharat Lekh]]
* [[Mahakali River]]
* [[Mahakali Zone]]
* [[Mahalangur Himal]]
* [[Mahottari District]]
* [[Makaikhola]]
* [[Makalu Barun]]
* [[Makwanpur District]]
* [[Manang District]]
* [[Mansiri Himal]]
* [[Mechi Zone]]
* [[Mera Peak]]
* [[Morang District]]
* [[Mount Kanguru]]
* [[Mugu District]]
* [[Mustang District]]
* [[Myagdi District]]
* [[Nagbahal]]
* [[Nalakankar Himal]]
* [[Narayangarh]]
* [[Nawalparasi District]]
* [[Nepalganj]]
* [[Ngadi Chuli]]
* [[Nguzumpa glacier]]
* [[Nuwakot]]
* [[Nuwakot District]]
* [[Okhaldhunga District]]
* [[Palpa District]]
* [[Panchthar District]]
* [[Parbat District]]
* [[Parsa District]]
* [[Phaphlu]]
* [[Pokalde]]
* [[Protected areas of Nepal]]
* [[Pyuthan]]
* [[Pyuthan District]]
* [[Rajbiraj]]
* [[Ramechhap District]]
* [[Rapti Zone]]
* [[Rara Lake]]
* [[Rasua Garhi]]
* [[Rasuwa District]]
* [[Rautahat District]]
* [[Regions of Nepal]]
* [[Rolpa District]]
* [[Royal Chitwan National Park]]
* [[Rukum District]]
* [[Rukumkot]]
* [[Rupallii]]
* [[Rupandehi District]]
* [[Sagarmatha Zone]]
* [[Salasungo]]
* [[Salyan District]]
* [[Sankhuwasabha District]]
* [[Sapt Koshi]]
* [[Saptari District]]
* [[Sarlahi District]]
* [[Seti River]]
* [[Seti Zone]]
* [[Simikot]]
* [[Sindhuli District]]
* [[Sindhulpalchok District]]
* [[Siraha District]]
* [[Siwalik Hills]]
* [[Solukhumbu District]]
* [[Sunsari District]]
* [[Surkhet]]
* [[Surkhet District]]
* [[Taboche]]
* [[Tamur River]]
* [[Tanahu District]]
* [[Taplejung District]]
* [[Template:Nepal-geo-stub]]
* [[Tengboche]]
* [[Terhathum District]]
* [[Thalara]]
* [[Thame, Nepal]]
* [[Thamserku]]
* [[Thorong La]]
* [[Tilicho Peak]]
* [[Tilicho lake]]
* [[Udayapur District]]
* [[Western Cwm]]

==Government of Nepal==
* [[Constitution of Nepal]]
* [[List of Prime Ministers of Nepal]]
* [[MOPE]]
* [[National Assembly of Nepal]]
* [[Nepal House of Representatives]]
* [[Parliament of Nepal]]

===Foreign relations of Nepal===
* [[Foreign relations of Nepal]]
* [[BIMSTEC]]
* [[Bhupalis]]
* [[Britain-India-Nepal Tripartite Agreement]]
* [[Foreign aid to Nepal]]
* [[South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme]]
* [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]]

===Nepalese monarchs===
* [[Nepalese monarchy]]
* [[Birendra of Nepal]]
* [[Dipendra of Nepal]]
* [[Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah Deva]]
* [[Gyanendra of Nepal]]
* [[Mahendra of Nepal]]
* [[Pratap Singh Shah]]
* [[Prithvi of Nepal]]
* [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]]
* [[Rana Bahadur Shah]]
* [[Surendra of Nepal]]
* [[Tribhuvan of Nepal]]
* [[Tribhuvan]]

===Prime Ministers of Nepal===
* [[Man Mohan Adhikari]]
* [[Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala]]
* [[Jang Bahadur]]
* [[Kirti Nidhi Bista]]
* [[Girija Prasad Koirala]]
* [[Krishna Prasad Bhattarai]]
* [[List of Prime Ministers of Nepal]]
* [[Lokendra Bahadur Chand]]
* [[Marich Man Singh Shrestha]]
* [[Mohan Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana]]
* [[Sher Bahadur Deuba]]
* [[Surya Bahadur Thapa]]

==History of Nepal==
* [[History of Nepal]]
* [[1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship]]
* [[1990 People's Movement]]
* [[2004 in Nepal]]
* [[2006 democracy movement in Nepal]]
* [[Amshuverma]]
* [[April 1992 general strike in Nepal]]
* [[Arimalla]]
* [[Bhrikuti]]
* [[Chabahil]]
* [[Congress Mukti Sena]]
* [[Democracy movement in Nepal]]
* [[Five-year plans of Nepal]]
* [[Toni Hagen]]
* [[Gurkha War]]
* [[Jana Aandolan]]
* [[Jang Bahadur]]
* [[Jayasthitimalla]]
* [[Kot massacre]]
* [[Licchavi]]
* [[Mustang (kingdom)]]
* [[Nepalese Civil War]]
* [[Nepalese mohar]]
* [[Rana autocracy]]
* [[Rana dynasty]]
* [[Sugauli Treaty]]
* [[Treaty of Titalia]]
* [[Unification of Nepal]]

===Elections in Nepal===
* [[Elections in Nepal]]
* [[Nepalese Constituent Assembly election, 2007]]
* [[Nepalese legislative election, 1991]]
* [[Nepalese legislative election, 1994]]
* [[Nepalese legislative election, 1999]]

===Massacres in Nepal===
* [[Kot massacre]]
* [[Nepalese royal massacre]]

===Years in Nepal===
====2007 in Nepal====
* [[Nepalese Constituent Assembly election, 2007]]

==Nepalese law==
* [[Nepal citizenship law]]
* [[Sarbochha Adalat]]

===Law enforcement in Nepal===
* [[Armed Police Force Nepal]]
* [[Nepalese Police Force]]

==Nepalese media==
* [[Media of Nepal]]
* [[Image Channel]]
* [[Kantipur Television]]
* [[NTV 2 Metro]]
* [[Nepal Television]]
* [[.np]]

===Newspapers published in Nepal===
* [[Himalayan Times]]
* [[Kantipur Publications]]
* [[Nepali Times]]
Nepal Samacharpatra

==Military of Nepal==
* [[Military of Nepal]]
* [[Armed Police Force Nepal]]
* [[Brigade of Gurkhas]]
* [[Britain-India-Nepal Tripartite Agreement]]
* [[Gurkha]]
* [[Nepalese Army]]
* [[Nepalese Army Air Service]]
* [[Nepalese Police Force]]

==Nepal-related lists==
* [[Protected areas of Nepal]]

==Nepalese culture==
* [[Flag of Nepal]]
* [[Culture of Nepal]]
* [[Bagha-Chall]]
* [[Barha]]
* [[Bhujimol]]
* [[Bratabandha]]
* [[Bikram Samwat]]
* [[Nepalese caste system]]
* [[Changu Narayan]]
* [[Chhaupadi]]
* [[Cinema of Nepal]]
* [[Coat of arms of Nepal]]
* [[Damphu]]
* [[Dasain]]
* [[Dhime]]
* [[Ehee]]
* [[Jhyali]]
* [[Kukri]]
* [[Kumari]]
* [[Lakhey]]
* [[Maadal]]
* [[Maghe Sankranti]]
* [[Majipa Lakhey]]
* [[National Museum of Nepal]]
* [[Newari Music]]
* [[Nwaran]]
* [[Pashupatinath temple]]
* [[Pasni]]
* [[Pauba]]
* [[Rakshi]]
* [[Rastriya Gaan]]
* [[Sa Paru]]
* [[Sarangi]]
* [[Swayambhunath]]
* [[Tihar (festival)|Tihar]]
:''See also: [[#Nepalese media|Nepalese media]]''
:''See also: [[#Sport in Nepal|Sport in Nepal]]''

===Nepalese cuisine===
* [[Chiura]]
* [[Dal bhaat]]
* [[Nepalese cuisine]]
* [[Oil cake]]
* [[Raksi]]

====Newari cuisine====
* [[Newari Cuisine]]
* [[Ailaa]]
* [[Baji]]
* [[Chataamari]]
* [[Chwelaa]]
* [[Dhau]]
* [[Jaa]]
* [[Kachilaa]]
* [[Lakhamari]]
* [[Sanyaa]]
* [[Sanyaakhunya]]
* [[Thwon]]
* [[Yomari]]

===Festivals of Nepal===
* [[Dasain]]
* [[Jatra (Nepal)]]
* [[Maghe Sankranti]]
* [[Makar Sankranti]]
* [[Sa Paru]]
* [[Teej]]
* [[Tihar (festival)]]
* [[Uttarayana]]

===Languages of Nepal===
* [[Bahing language]]
* [[Limbu language]]
* [[Maithili language]]
* [[Mundari language]]
* [[Nepali language]]

===Nepalese music===
* [[Music of Nepal]]
* [[Music of Sikkim]]
* [[Narayan Gopal]]
* [[Nepali rock]]
* [[Newari Music]]
* [[Sabin Rai]]
* [[Ugrakarma]]

====Nepalese hip hop====
* [[Nepalese hip hop]]

=====Nepalese hip hop musicians=====
* [[DJ AJ]]

====Nepalese musical instruments====
* [[Damphu]]
* [[Dhime]]
* [[Dholak]]
* [[Jhyali]]
* [[Maadal]]
* [[Sarangi]]

====Nepalese musicians====
* [[Ani Choying Dolma]]
* [[Jhalak Man Gandarbha]]
:''See also: [[#Nepalese hip hop musicians|Nepalese hip hop musicians]]''

=====Nepalese flautists=====
* [[Manose Singh]]

===Religion in Nepal===
* [[Religion in Nepal]]
* [[Hinduism in Nepal]]
* [[Kopan Monastery]]
* [[Lumbini]]
* [[Protestants in Nepal]]
* [[Roman Catholicism in Nepal]]
:''See also: [[#Places of worship in Nepal|Places of worship in Nepal]]''

====Temples in Nepal====
* [[Changu Narayan]]
* [[Kumari]]
* [[Swayambhunath]]

==Organisations based in Nepal==
* [[ICIMOD]]
* [[Nepal Mountaineering Association]]
* [[Nepal Scouts]]
:''See also: [[#Trade unions of Nepal|Trade unions of Nepal]]''

===Non-profit organizations based in Nepal===
* [[Madan Puraskar Pustakalaya]]
* [[National Museum of Nepal]]

==International organisations dedicated to Nepal==
* [[Canada Forum for Nepal]]

==Nepalese people==
* [[Amar Singh Thapa]]
* [[Amshuvarma]]
* [[Araniko]]
* [[Balbhadra Kunwar]]
* [[Bhakti Thapa]]
* [[Baburam Bhattarai]]
* [[Bhimsen Thapa]]
* [[Bhrikuti]]
* [[Iman Singh Chemjong]]
* [[Dolpo]]
* [[Govind Prasad Lohani]]
* [[Janaka]]
* [[Jharana Bajracharya]]
* [[Krishna Prasad Bhattarai]]
* [[Chandra Kumari]]
* [[Khagendra Thapa Magar]]
* [[Upendra Mahato]]
* [[National heroes of Nepal]]
* [[Himani, Crown Princess of Nepal]]
* [[Princess Shruti of Nepal]]
* [[Sister Nirmala]]
* [[Paras, Crown Prince of Nepal]]
* [[Narayan Pokharel]]
* [[Nagendra Prasad Rijal]]
* [[Princess Prerana of Nepal]]
* [[Rajesh Hamal]]
* [[Rajkarnikar]]
* [[Ram Bahadur Bomjon]]
* [[Rambahadur Limbu]]
* [[Rana (clan)]]
* [[Karanbahadur Rana]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]
* [[Sher Bahadur Deuba]]
* [[Pasang Lhamu Sherpa]]
* [[Kalidas Shrestha]]
* [[Surya Bahadur Thapa]]
* [[Kulbir Thapa]]
* [[Tulasa]]
* [[Muni Sakya]]
:''See also: [[#Nepalese monarchs|Nepalese monarchs]]''

===Nepalese people by occupation===
:''See also: [[#Nepalese politicians|Nepalese politicians]]''

====Nepalese actors====
* [[Manisha Koirala]]
* [[Rajesh Hamal]]
* [[Jharana Bajracharya]]
* [[Karishma Manandhar]]
* [[Bipana jha]]
* [[Melina]]
* [[Niruta]]

====Nepalese murder victims====
* [[Aiswarya]]
* [[Birendra of Nepal]]
* [[Princess Shruti of Nepal]]
* [[Nirajan]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]

====Nepalese sportspeople====
* [[Rajendra Bahadur Bhandari]]
* [[Dachhiri Sherpa]]

====Nepalese writers====
* [[Parijat]]
* [[Samrat Upadhyay]]

=====Nepalese poets=====
* [[Bhanubhakta Acharya]]
* [[Laxmi Prasad Devkota]]
* [[Gopal Prasad Rimal]]
* [[Mahananda Sapkota]]

===Nepalese mountain climbers===
* [[Appa Sherpa]]
* [[Babu Chiri Sherpa]]
* [[Pemba Dorjie]]
* [[Moni Mulepati]]
* [[Pasang Lhamu Sherpa]]
* [[Sherpa Ang Rita]]
* [[Shambu Tamang]]
* [[Tenzing Norgay]]

===Nepalese Americans===
* [[Kiran Chetry]]

===Nepalese Australians===
* [[Dichen Lachman]]

===Nepalese families===
* [[Koirala family]]

===Nepalese people of World War II===
* [[Gaje Ghale]]
* [[Bhanbhagta Gurung]]
* [[Lachhiman Gurung]]
* [[Thaman Gurung]]
* [[Tulbahadur Pun]]
* [[Agansing Rai]]
* [[Sher Bahadur Thapa]]
* [[Netrabahadur Thapa]]

==Politics of Nepal==
* [[Politics of Nepal]]
* [[National Teachers Association]]
* [[1990 People's Movement]]
* [[2006 democracy movement in Nepal]]
* [[Democracy movement in Nepal]]
* [[Human rights in Nepal]]
* [[Jana Aandolan]]
* [[List of Hindu nationalist parties]]
* [[N.R.N.]]
* [[National Assembly of Nepal]]
* [[Nepal House of Representatives]]
* [[Nepalese Civil War]]
* [[Parliament of Nepal]]
* [[Sarbochha Adalat]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]
:''See also: [[#Elections in Nepal|Elections in Nepal]]''
:''See also: [[#Trade unions of Nepal|Trade unions of Nepal]]''

===Political parties in Nepal===
* [[List of political parties in Nepal]]
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party (Nepal)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]]
* [[Janamorcha Nepal]]
* [[Janata Dal (Samajbadi Prajatantrik)]]
* [[Janatantrik Terai Mukti Morcha]]
* [[List of Hindu nationalist parties]]
* [[List of political parties registered ahead of the 2006 Nepalese municipal election]]
* [[National People's Front]]
* [[Nepal Conservative Party]]
* [[Nepal Goodwill Party]]
* [[Nepal Janabadi Morcha]]
* [[Nepal Janahit Party]]
* [[Nepal Panchayat Parishad]]
* [[Nepal Rashtrabadi Gorkha Parishad]]
* [[Nepal Samajwadi Janata Dal]]
* [[Nepal Samata Party (Socialist)]]
* [[Nepal Shivsena]]
* [[Nepali Congress]]
* [[Nepali Congress (Democratic)]]
* [[Panchayat Prajatantra Party]]
* [[People's Progressive Party (Nepal)]]
* [[Prajatantrik Samajwadi Manch Nepal]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatanrik Ekata Panchayat Party]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party (Nationalist)]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party-Chand]]
* [[Samyukta Prajatantra Party]]
* [[Seven Party Alliance]]
* [[United National People's Movement]]
* [[United People's Front of Nepal]]

====Communist parties of Nepal====
* [[Communist Party of Nepal]]
* [[United Left Front (Nepal) (2002)]]
* [[United Left Front (Nepal) (1990)]]
* [[All Nepal Communist Revolutionary Coordination Committee (Marxist-Leninist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Amatya)]]
* [[Barre Sangarsh Samuha]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Burma)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist-Maoist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (United Marxist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Democratic)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Fourth Convention)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Janamukhi)]]
* [[Nepal Communist League]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Manmohan)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist) (1991)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist) (1998)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist) (2002)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist-Maoist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Masal)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Masal) (1999)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Mashal)]]
* [[Mukti Morcha Samuha]]
* [[Nepal Revolutionary Organisation (Marxist-Leninist)]]
* [[Nepal Samyabadi Party (Marksbadi-Leninbadi-Maobadi)]]
* [[Nepal Workers and Peasants Organisation (D.P. Singh)]]
* [[Nepal Workers and Peasants Organisation (Hareram Sharma)]]
* [[Proletarian Communist League]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Pushpa Lal)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Rayamjhi)]]
* [[Revolutionary Communist Organisation, Nepal]]
* [[Revolutionary Communist Organising Committee]]
* [[Sandesh Samuha]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (United)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre-Masal)]]
* [[Nepal Workers Peasants Party]]

====Nepalese student unions====
* [[All Nepal National Free Students Union]]
* [[All Nepal National Free Students Union (United)]]
* [[All Nepal National Independent Students Union (Revolutionary)]]
* [[Nepal Progressive Student Federation]]
* [[Nepal Revolutionary Students' Union]]
* [[Nepal Students Council]]
* [[Rashtriya Janashakti Student Union]]

===Nepalese politicians===
* [[Aiswarya]]
* [[Amrit Bohara]]
* [[Chandra Prakash Gajurel]]
* [[Dhyan Govinda Ranjit]] ([[Nepali language|Nepali]]/[[Nepal Bhasa]] ध्‍यान गोबिन्‍द रञ्‍जित)
* [[Dina Nath Sharma]]
* [[Girija Prasad Koirala]]
* [[Hisila Yami]]
* [[Khem Raj Bhatta Mayalu]]
* [[Khum Bahadur Khadka]]
* [[Kirti Nidhi Bista]]
* [[Koirala family]]
* [[Krishna Prasad Bhattarai]]
* [[Laxmi Prasad Devkota]]
* [[Lokendra Bahadur Chand]]
* [[Madan Kumar Bhandari]]
* [[Marich Man Singh Shrestha]]
* [[Mohan Bikram Singh]]
* [[Madhav Kumar Nepal]]
* [[Prachanda]]
* [[Radha Krishna Mainali]]
* [[Sher Bahadur Deuba]]
* [[Surya Bahadur Thapa]]
:''See also: [[#Prime Ministers of Nepal|Prime Ministers of Nepal]]''

====Nepalese communists====
* [[Man Mohan Adhikari]]
* [[Baburam Bhattarai]]
* [[Madan Kumar Bhandari]]
* [[Amrit Bohara]]
* [[Chandra Prakash Gajurel]]
* [[Chandra Prakash Mainali]]
* [[Mohan Bikram Singh]]
* [[Madhav Kumar Nepal]]
* [[Prachanda]]
* [[Ruplal Bishvakarma]]
* [[Dina Nath Sharma]]
* [[Hisila Yami]]

==Science and technology in Nepal==
* [[Institute of Engineering]]
* [[Nepal Engineering College]]
* [[Kathmandu Engineering College]]
* [[Kantipur Engineering College]]
* [[Khopa Engineering College]]

==Nepalese society==
* [[Belbase]]
* [[Demographics of Nepal]]
* [[Gurkha]]
* [[Kamaiya]]
* [[Kinderhilfe-Nepal]]
* [[Lhotshampa]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]
:''See also: [[#Trade unions of Nepal|Trade unions of Nepal]]''

===Ethnic groups in Nepal===
* [[Badi People]]
* [[Bahing]]
* [[Brahman-Hill]]
* [[Chepang]]
* [[Chhettri]]
* [[Dhobi]]
* [[Ethnic groups of South Asia]]
* [[Gandarbha]]
* [[Gurung]]
* [[Hayu]]
* [[Jirel]]
* [[Kami (caste)]]
* [[Kham Magar]]
* [[Kirant]]
* [[Kiratas]]
* [[Kusunda]]
* [[Lepcha people]]
* [[Limbu people]]
* [[Magar]]
* [[Newar]]
* [[Rai (ethnic group)]]
* [[Ranjitkar]]
* [[Sherpa people]]
* [[Tamang]]
* [[Thakali]]
* [[Thami]]
* [[Tharu people]]
* [[Yadav]]
* [[Yakkha]]

====Newar====
* [[Newar]]
* [[Araniko]]
* [[Athale]]
* [[Bagmati]]
* [[Bagmati Zone]]
* [[Bahal]]
* [[Bahra]]
* [[Bajrayogini Temple]]
* [[Banepa]]
* [[Bansuri]]
* [[Barha]]
* [[Basu Pasa]]
* [[Bhairava]]
* [[Bhaktapur]]
* [[Bhatgaon]]
* [[Bhimfedi]]
* [[Bhujimol]]
* [[Bhusyaa]]
* [[Chaitya]]
* [[Changu Narayan]]
* [[Charumati]]
* [[Chitrakar]]
* [[Chittadhar Hridaya]]
* [[Culture of Nepal]]
* [[Dhime]]
* [[Dhooswan Sayami]]
* [[Dipankara]]
* [[Durga Lal Shrestha]]
* [[Ehee]]
* [[Gai Jatra]]
* [[Goon la]]
* [[Guthi]]
* [[Hari Bansha Acharya]]
* [[Iihipaa]]
* [[Indra Jatra]]
* [[Jaa Nakigu]]
* [[Janabahaadya]]
* [[Jankwa]]
* [[Jatra (Nepal)]]
* [[Jayaprakash Malla]]
* [[Joshi]]
* [[Kal Bhairab]]
* [[Kalidas Shrestha]]
* [[Kasthamandap]]
* [[Kathmandu]]
* [[Kathmandu Valley]]
* [[Kathmandu Valley/old stub]]
* [[Ketaa Pujaa]]
* [[Kirtipur]]
* [[Kumari]]
* [[Lakhey]]
* [[Lalitpur District, Nepal]]
* [[List of bodhisattvas]]
* [[List of prominent writers in Nepal Bhasa]]
* [[MaHa]]
* [[Madan Krishna Shrestha]]
* [[Majipa Lakhey]]
* [[Malla (Nepal)]]
* [[Manjusri]]
* [[Nagbahal]]
* [[Nepal]]
* [[Nepal Bhasa]]
* [[Nepal Bhasa literature]]
* [[Nepal Sambat]]
* [[Nepalese cuisine]]
* [[Nepali language]]
* [[Newar Buddhism]]
* [[Newar Caste]]
* [[Newar Dance]]
* [[Newari Architecture]]
* [[Newari Festival]]
* [[Newari Music]]
* [[Nuwakot]]
* [[Pagoda]]
* [[Panauti]]
* [[Pashupatinath temple]]
* [[Patan, Nepal]]
* [[Pauba]]
* [[Portal:Newar]]
* [[Portal:Newar/Categories]]
* [[Prachalit script]]
* [[Pradhan]]
* [[Puun]]
* [[Rajamati]]
* [[Rajkarnikar]]
* [[Ranjana script]]
* [[Ranjitkar]]
* [[Sa Paru]]
* [[Sankhadhar Sakhwa]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]
* [[Siddhicharan Shrestha]]
* [[Siddhidas Mahaju]]
* [[Sikhara]]
* [[Stupa]]
* [[Swayambhu Purana]]
* [[Swayambhunath]]
* [[Tamrakar]]
* [[Tara (Buddhism)]]
* [[Tuladhar]]
* [[Vajrayana]]
* [[Vihara]]
* [[Yanya Punhi]]
:''See also: [[#Newari cuisine|Newari cuisine]]''

=====Movies in Nepal Bhasa=====
* [[Prem Pinda]]
* [[Mama Ghar]]
* [[Silu]]
* [[Rajamati]]
* [[Chipa: Nipa:]]

===Social groups of Nepal===
====Dalit====
* [[Dalit Nationalism]]
* [[2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra]]
* [[Adi Dravida]]
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party (Nepal)]]
* [[Balmiki]]
* [[Bhangi]]
* [[Chamar]]
* [[Chandala]]
* [[Dalit]]
* [[Dalit Bahujan Shramik Union]]
* [[Dalit Buddhist movement]]
* [[Dalit Freedom Network]]
* [[Dalitstan]]
* [[Dhobi]]
* [[Domba]]
* [[Hari (outcaste)]]
* [[Holeya]]
* [[Kherlanji Massacre]]
* [[Kinnaraya]]
* [[List of Scheduled Tribes in India]]
* [[List of lower-caste Indian warriors]]
* [[Madiga]]
* [[Mahar]]
* [[Mala (caste)]]
* [[Nalavar]]
* [[Pallar]]
* [[Paraiyar]]
* [[Pulayar]]
* [[Kanshi Ram]]
* [[Rodiya]]
* [[Sakkiliar]]
* [[Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989]]
* [[Scheduled Castes and Tribes]]
* [[Shudra]]

=====Bahujan Samaj Party=====
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party (Nepal)]]
* [[Mayawati]]

==Sport in Nepal==
===Football in Nepal===
* [[All Nepal Football Association]]
* [[Nepal national football team]]

====Nepal football competitions====
* [[Martyr's Memorial A-Division League]]

====Nepalese football clubs====
* [[Brigade Boys Club]]
* [[Mahendra Police Club]]
* [[Friends Club]]
* [[Manang Marsyangdi Club]]
* [[New Road Team]]
* [[Ranipokhari Corner Team]]
* [[Sankata Boys Sports Club]]
* [[Three Star Club]]

====Football venues in Nepal====
* [[Dasarath Rangasala Stadium]]

===Nepal at the Olympics===
* [[Nepal at the 1964 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1972 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1976 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1980 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1984 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1988 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1992 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1996 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 2000 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 2002 Winter Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 2004 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 2006 Winter Olympics]]

==Tourism in Nepal==
* [[Lukla]]
* [[Namche Bazaar]]
* [[Thamel]]
:''See also: [[#Airports in Nepal|Airports in Nepal]]''

===Airlines of Nepal===
* [[Agni Air]]
* [[Base Air]]
* [[Buddha Air]]
* [[Flying Dragon Airlines]]
* [[Gorkha Airlines]]
* [[Impro Airways]]
* [[Mero Air]]
* [[Nepal Airlines]]
* [[Shree Airlines]]
* [[Sita Air]]
* [[Yeti Airlines]]

====Defunct airlines of Nepal====
* [[Air Ananya]]
* [[Air Nepal International]]
* [[Asian Airlines]]
* [[Cosmic Air]]
* [[Everest Air]]
* [[Karnali Air]]
* [[Mountain Air (Nepal)]]
* [[Necon Air]]
* [[Shangri-La Air]]
* [[Skyline Airways]]

==Transport in Nepal==
* [[Transport in Nepal]]
* [[AH2]]

===Aviation in Nepal===
:''See also: [[#Airlines of Nepal|Airlines of Nepal]]''
:''See also: [[#Airports in Nepal|Airports in Nepal]]''

====Aviation incidents in Nepal====
* [[PIA Flight 268]]
* [[Thai Airways International Flight 311]]

==Nepal stubs==
* [[1990 People's Movement]]
* [[Adarsha Vidya Mandir]]
* [[Ailaa]]
* [[Aiswarya]]
* [[All Nepal National Free Students Union (United)]]
* [[All Nepal National Independent Students Union (Revolutionary)]]
* [[All Nepal Trade Union Congress]]
* [[Amar Singh Thapa]]
* [[Amrit Bohara]]
* [[Amshuverma]]
* [[Armed Police Force Nepal]]
* [[Arun River (Nepal)]]
* [[Babu Chhiri]]
* [[Bahra]]
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party (Nepal)]]
* [[Bajrayogini Temple]]
* [[Barha]]
* [[Bel bibaha]]
* [[Belbase]]
* [[Bhairahawa]]
* [[Bhakti Thapa]]
* [[Bhanubhakta Acharya]]
* [[Bhimfedi]]
* [[Bhimsen Thapa]]
* [[Bhupalis]]
* [[Brahman-Hill]]
* [[Bratabandha]]
* [[Brazesh]]
* [[Budhanilkantha School]]
* [[Chabahil]]
* [[Chandra Kumari]]
* [[Charumati]]
* [[Chhettri]]
* [[Chittadhar Hridaya]]
* [[Chwelaa]]
* [[Coat of arms of Nepal]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Burma)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Democratic)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist) (2002)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist-Maoist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Rayamjhi)]]
* [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre)]]
* [[Damphu]]
* [[Dasain]]
* [[Democracy movement in Nepal]]
* [[Democratic Confederation of Nepalese Trade Unions]]
* [[Devyani Rana]]
* [[Dhau]]
* [[Dhime]]
* [[Dhunge Dhara]]
* [[Dhyan Govinda Ranjit]]
* [[Dolpo]]
* [[Durbar High School]]
* [[Ehee]]
* [[Flag of Nepal]]
* [[Gandarbha]]
* [[Ganesh Man Singh]]
* [[Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah Deva]]
* [[Goon la]]
* [[Govind Prasad Lohani]]
* [[Hayu]]
* [[Himal Khabarpatrika]]
* [[Himalayan Bank Limited]]
* [[Himalayan Times]]
* [[Himalmedia]]
* [[Iihipaa]]
* [[Image Channel]]
* [[Independent Transport Workers Association of Nepal]]
* [[Institute of Engineering]]
* [[Jaa Nakigu]]
* [[Janamorcha Nepal]]
* [[Janata Dal (Samajbadi Prajatantrik)]]
* [[Jankwa]]
* [[Jatra (Nepal)]]
* [[Jayaprakash Malla]]
* [[Jhyali]]
* [[Ka-Nying Shedrub Ling Monastery]]
* [[Kal Bhairab]]
* [[Kamai]]
* [[Kami (caste)]]
* [[Kantipur]]
* [[Kantipur English High School]]
* [[Kantipur Television]]
* [[Kathmandu College of Management]]
* [[Ketaa Pujaa]]
* [[Khum Bahadur Khadka]]
* [[Kirant]]
* [[Kiratas]]
* [[Kirti Nidhi Bista]]
* [[Krishna Bheer]]
* [[Krishna Prasad Bhattarai]]
* [[List of newspapers in Nepal]]
* [[Livang]]
* [[Lokendra Bahadur Chand]]
* [[MaHa]]
* [[Maadal]]
* [[Madan Kumar Bhandari]]
* [[Madan Puraskar Pustakalaya]]
* [[Maghe Sankranti]]
* [[Mahendra Sanskrit University]]
* [[Mahendranagar]]
* [[Malla (Nepal)]]
* [[Man Mohan Adhikari]]
* [[Manipal College of Medical Sciences]]
* [[Marich Man Singh Shrestha]]
* [[Martyrs Soccer League]]
* [[Media of Nepal]]
* [[Mohan Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana]]
* [[N.R.N.]]
* [[NTV 2 Metro]]
* [[Nabil Bank]]
* [[Narayan Gopal]]
* [[National Assembly of Nepal]]
* [[National Museum of Nepal]]
* [[National People's Front]]
* [[National Teachers Association]]
* [[Nepal 1]]
* [[Nepal Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Communist League]]
* [[Nepal Goodwill Party]]
* [[Nepal House of Representatives]]
* [[Nepal Independent Hotel Workers Union]]
* [[Nepal Independent Workers Union]]
* [[Nepal Investment Bank Limited]]
* [[Nepal Janahit Party]]
* [[Nepal Panchayat Parishad]]
* [[Nepal Rashtrabadi Gorkha Parishad]]
* [[Nepal Rastra Bank]]
* [[Nepal Samajwadi Janata Dal]]
* [[Nepal Samata Party (Socialist)]]
* [[Nepal Sambat]]
* [[Nepal Shivsena]]
* [[Nepal Stock Exchange]]
* [[Nepal Television]]
* [[Nepal Workers Peasants Party]]
* [[Nepal at the 1964 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1972 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1976 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1984 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1988 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1992 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 1996 Summer Olympics]]
* [[Nepal at the 2002 Winter Olympics]]
* [[Nepal engineering college]]
* [[Nepalese Army]]
* [[Nepalese Army Air Service]]
* [[Nepalese Constituent Assembly election, 2007]]
* [[Nepalese Police Force]]
* [[Nepali Times]]
* [[Netrabahadur Thapa]]
* [[New Road of Kathmandu]]
* [[Nirajan]]
* [[Nwaran]]
* [[Parliament of Nepal]]
* [[Pasang Lhamu Sherpa]]
* [[Pasni]]
* [[Pokhara Airport]]
* [[Pokharel]]
* [[Prachanda Path]]
* [[Pradhan Senadhipati]]
* [[Pradhan Senapati]]
* [[Pratap Singh Shah]]
* [[Prime College]]
* [[Princess Shruti of Nepal]]
* [[Prithivi Highway]]
* [[Purbanchal University]]
* [[Pushkar Shah]]
* [[Pushpa Lal Shrestha]]
* [[Radio Sagarmatha]]
* [[Rajendra Bahadur Bhandari]]
* [[Rakshi]]
* [[Rana Bahadur Shah]]
* [[Rana dynasty]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatanrik Ekata Panchayat Party]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party]]
* [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party (Nationalist)]]
* [[Rastriya Banijya Bank]]
* [[Sa Paru]]
* [[Samrat Upadhyay]]
* [[Samyukta Prajatantra Party]]
* [[Sarbochha Adalat]]
* [[Shah dynasty]]
* [[Shambu Tamang]]
* [[Siddartha University]]
* [[Siddharthanagar]]
* [[Siddhicharan Shrestha]]
* [[Singha Durbar]]
* [[Sukraraj Shastri]]
* [[Sunwar]]
* [[Surya Bahadur Thapa]]
* [[Swayambhunath]]
* [[Tamrakar]]
* [[Template:Nepal-stub]]
* [[Thwon]]
* [[Tihar (festival)]]
* [[Tourism in Nepal]]
* [[Trekking Workers Association of Nepal]]
:''See also: [[#Nepal geography stubs|Nepal geography stubs]]''

==See also==
*[[Lists of country-related topics]] - similar lists for other countries

[[Category:Nepal-related lists| ]]
[[Category:Lists of topics by country|Nepal ]]

[[ja:ネパール関係記事の一覧]]