Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Patrol (disambiguation)

2008-07-16T20:24:14Z

206.102.240.2:

'''Patrol''' may refer to
*[[Patrol magazine]], an online culture magazine
*[[Patrol]], conducting reconnaissance of or providing security for a designated area or route
*'Roadside patrol' in the UK, vehicle breakdown assistance services of [[The Automobile Association]] and the [[RAC plc]]
*[[Patrol (board game)]], a wargame
*[[Nissan Patrol]], a make of four-wheel drive vehicle
*[[Patrol Special police]], San Francisco
*[[Patrol officer]], police officer responsible for a particular 'beat' or area
*[[BMC Software]] Patrol Enterprise Manager, a monitoring product
*[[Wikipedia:New pages patrol]]
*[[Wikipedia:Recent changes patrol]]
{{disambig}}

Patrol (disambiguation)

2008-07-16T20:22:57Z

206.102.240.2:

'''Patrol''' may refer to
*[[''Patrol_magazine'']], an online culture magazine
*[[Patrol]], conducting reconnaissance of or providing security for a designated area or route
*'Roadside patrol' in the UK, vehicle breakdown assistance services of [[The Automobile Association]] and the [[RAC plc]]
*[[Patrol (board game)]], a wargame
*[[Nissan Patrol]], a make of four-wheel drive vehicle
*[[Patrol Special police]], San Francisco
*[[Patrol officer]], police officer responsible for a particular 'beat' or area
*[[BMC Software]] Patrol Enterprise Manager, a monitoring product
*[[Wikipedia:New pages patrol]]
*[[Wikipedia:Recent changes patrol]]
{{disambig}}

Cholet

2008-05-15T21:05:47Z

206.102.240.2: /* History */ Spelling correction

{{French commune
|nomcommune=Cholet
|région=[[Pays-de-la-Loire]]
|département=[[Maine-et-Loire]] (''[[sous-préfecture]]'')
|arrondissement=Cholet
|canton=Chief town of 3 cantons
|insee= 49099
|cp= 49300
|maire= Gilles Bourdouleix
|mandat= [[2008]] – [[2014]]
|intercomm=[[Communauté d'Agglomération du Choletais|C.A.C.]]
|longitude=-0.878333
|latitude=47.060000
|alt moy= 124 m
|alt mini= 63 m
|alt maxi= 184 m
|hectares=8,747
|km²=87.47
|sans=54,204
|date-sans=1999
|dens= 619.68
|date-dens=1999
}}
'''Cholet''' (probably from [[Latin language|Latin]] ''cauletum'', "cabbage") is a town in western [[France]], capital of an [[arrondissement in France|arrondissement]] in the [[Maine-et-Loire]] ''[[Départements of France|département]]'', [[Pays-de-la-Loire]] ''[[région in France|région]]'', 41 miles south-east of [[Nantes]]. Population (1999): 54,204. In 1906, the population was 16,554.

==Geography==

Cholet stands on an eminence on the right bank of the [[Ruver Moine|Moine]], which used to be crossed by a bridge from the [[15th century]].

==History==

The town owes the rise of its prosperity to the settlement of weavers there by [[Édouard Colbert]], count of [[Maulevrier]], a brother of the great [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]]. It then became an estate of Gabriel François, Count de Rougé and Marquess of Cholet, who developed the city and its economy. The main commercial mall being built this year is named after him: The "Arcades Rougé".

==Sights==

A public garden occupies the site of the old castle; the public buildings and churches, for example the ''Church of the Sacred Heart'' (1939), are modern.

[[Megalith]]ic monuments are numerous in the neighborhood. {{Fact|date=February 2008}}

A textile museum (''Musée du Textile'') exists to conserve the traditional machines used to create the famous handkerchiefs made in this town, as well as the techniques used to make them and the oral and local history associated with the industry.

==Economy==

There are granite quarries in the vicinity of the town. The chief industry is the manufacture of linen and linen handkerchiefs, which is also carried on in the neighboring communes on a large scale. Woollen and cotton fabrics are also produced, and bleaching and the manufacture of preserved foods are carried on. Cholet is the most important centre in France for the sale of fat cattle, sheep and pigs, for which Paris is the chief market.

==Miscellaneous==

The public institutions include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal college.

===Twin towns===

Cholet is twinned with:
* [[Oldenburg]], [[Germany]] since 1985
* [[Dorohoi]], [[Romania]]
* [[Solihull]], [[United Kingdom]]
* [[Denia]], [[Spain]]
* [[Sao, Burkina Faso]] - cooperation

* [[Le Bas-Richelieu Regional County Municipality, Quebec|Le Bas-Richelieu Regional County Municipality]] ([[Quebec]], [[Canada]]) - twinning of the ''[[Communauté d'Agglomération du Choletais|communauté d'agglomération]]''

===Notable people===
*[[Antoine Rigaudeau]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ville-cholet.fr/ Official website]

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Communes of Maine-et-Loire]]
[[Category:Subprefectures in France]]

[[ca:Cholet]]
[[ceb:Cholet]]
[[cs:Cholet]]
[[de:Cholet]]
[[es:Cholet]]
[[eo:Cholet]]
[[fr:Cholet]]
[[gl:Cholet]]
[[it:Cholet]]
[[nl:Cholet]]
[[nn:Cholet]]
[[pl:Cholet]]
[[ro:Cholet]]
[[sl:Cholet]]
[[sr:Шоле]]
[[sv:Cholet]]
[[vi:Cholet]]
[[vo:Cholet]]

King's College (New York City)

2008-04-28T23:54:55Z

206.102.240.2:

{{Infobox_University
|name =The King's College
|image =
|established =[[1938]]
|type =[[Private school|Private]], [[Christian school|Christian]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|faculty =
|president =Andy Mills
|provost =[[Marvin Olasky]]
|students =~250
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|profess =
|city =[[New York City|New York]]
|state =[[New York]]
|country =[[United States]]
|campus =[[The Empire State Building]]
|free_label =
|free =
|colors =Blue
|mascot =
|nickname =TKC
|footnotes =
|website =[http://www.tkc.edu www.tkc.edu]
|coor =
|logo =
}}

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is a four-year Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded in 1938 by [[Percy Crawford]] in Belmar, New Jersey. The school ceased operation in 1994, but was reopened in 1999 in New York City's [[Empire State Building]].

The King's College offers a curriculum founded in a common core which emphasizes writing, history, theology, philosophy, economics, and political theory. It offers Bachelor's Degrees in Business Management and Politics, Philosophy, and Economics (PPE).

==History==
Dr. [[Percy B. Crawford]] founded The King’s College in [[1938]] in [[Belmar, New Jersey|Belmar]], New Jersey. In [[1955]] he moved the college to the former [[Briarcliff Lodge]] site in [[Briarcliff Manor, New York|Briarcliff Manor]], New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in [[1960]], Dr. [[Robert Cook]] became the college’s second president. He was succeeded in [[1985]] Dr. [[Friedhelm Radandt]]. Financial difficulties forced the college to close in [[1994]], but in [[1998]] [[J. Stanley Oakes]], in coordination with Dr. [[Bill Bright]], led an effort to reopen the school with Radandt continuing as president. In [[1999]] King's acquired [[Northeastern Bible College]] of [[Essex Fells, New Jersey|Essex Fells]], New Jersey, and leased two floors of the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City as its campus. On [[1 January]] [[2003]] [[J. Stanley Oakes Jr.]] became the fourth president.

==Degree Programs==
The King's College offers two distinct majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

Within the PPE program, students are able to pursue concentrations in literature, media, theology, and propaedeutics (which deals with education).

The college is accredited by the New York State Board of Regents and is also currently undergoing accreditation by the [[Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools]].

==Student Housing==

Student housing is provided in two [[high-rise]] apartment buildings. One is located on the same block as the [[Empire State Building]], on the east side of Herald Square, while the other is located only three blocks North. Both feature 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]].

==Houses==

All students enrolled at the college are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Helmsman, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as mentors and to help the houses accomplish their individual missions.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://www.houseofreagan.com Visit the House of Reagan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]; [http://www.houseofchurchill.com Visit the House of Churchill Website]

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*III - Spring 2007: House of Bonhoeffer

==Criticism==

In 2005 The King's College sought reaccreditation, but ran into some problems with the State Board of Regents, namely with one member John Brademas. He raised a number of objections including the school's name. He claimed that the school was misleading students and others by using Columbia University's (also in NYC) former name.

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu The King's College]
*[http://www.collegedata.com/cs/data/college/college_pg01_tmpl.jhtml?schoolId=1950&previousPageSection=&popupNetCostDetail=falseundefined College Data Profile]
*[http://www.nationalreview.com/kurtz/kurtz200504050746.asp Stanley Kurtz: National Review Online]

{{NYC Colleges}}

[[Category:The King's College]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1938]]
[[Category:1994 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1999]]

King's College (New York City)

2008-03-18T17:40:20Z

206.102.240.2:

{{Infobox_University
|name =The King's College
|image =
|established =[[1938]]
|type =[[Private school|Private]], [[Christian school|Christian]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|faculty =
|president =Andy Mills
|provost =[[Marvin Olasky]]
|students =~250
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|profess =
|city =[[New York City|New York]]
|state =[[New York]]
|country =[[United States]]
|campus =[[The Empire State Building]]
|free_label =
|free =
|colors =Blue
|mascot =
|nickname =TKC
|affiliations =[[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
|footnotes =
|website =[http://www.tkc.edu www.tkc.edu]
|coor =
|logo =
}}

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is a four-year Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded in 1938 by [[Percy Crawford]] in Belmar, New Jersey. The school ceased operation in 1994, but was reopened in 1999 in New York City's [[Empire State Building]].

The King's College offers a curriculum founded in a common core which emphasizes writing, history, theology, philosophy, economics, and political theory. It offers Bachelor's Degrees in Business Management and Politics, Philosophy, and Economics (PPE).

==History==
Dr. [[Percy B. Crawford]] founded The King’s College in [[1938]] in [[Belmar, New Jersey|Belmar]], New Jersey. In [[1955]] he moved the college to the former [[Briarcliff Lodge]] site in [[Briarcliff Manor, New York|Briarcliff Manor]], New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in [[1960]], Dr. [[Robert Cook]] became the college’s second president. He was succeeded in [[1985]] Dr. [[Friedhelm Radandt]]. Financial difficulties forced the college to close in [[1994]], but in [[1998]] [[J. Stanley Oakes]], in coordination with Dr. [[Bill Bright]], led an effort to reopen the school with Radandt continuing as president. In [[1999]] King's acquired [[Northeastern Bible College]] of [[Essex Fells, New Jersey|Essex Fells]], New Jersey, and leased two floors of the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City as its campus. On [[1 January]] [[2003]] [[J. Stanley Oakes Jr.]] became the fourth president.

==Degree Programs==
The King's College offers two distinct majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

Within the PPE program, students are able to pursue concentrations in literature, media, theology, and propaedeutics (which deals with education).

The college is accredited by the New York State Board of Regents and is also currently undergoing accreditation by the [[Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools]].

==Student Housing==

Student housing is provided in two [[high-rise]] apartment buildings. One is located on the same block as the [[Empire State Building]], on the east side of Herald Square, while the other is located only three blocks North. Both feature 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]].

==Houses==

All students enrolled at the college are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Helmsman, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as mentors and to help the houses accomplish their individual missions.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://www.houseofreagan.com Visit the House of Reagan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]; [http://www.houseofchurchill.com Visit the House of Churchill Website]

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*III - Spring 2007: House of Bonhoeffer

==Criticism==

In 2005 The King's College sought reaccreditation, but ran into some problems with the State Board of Regents, namely with one member John Brademas. He raised a number of objections including the school's name. He claimed that the school was misleading students and others by using Columbia University's (also in NYC) former name.

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu The King's College]
*[http://www.collegedata.com/cs/data/college/college_pg01_tmpl.jhtml?schoolId=1950&previousPageSection=&popupNetCostDetail=falseundefined College Data Profile]
*[http://www.nationalreview.com/kurtz/kurtz200504050746.asp Stanley Kurtz: National Review Online]

{{NYC Colleges}}

[[Category:The King's College]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

November 22, 1963

2008-03-05T16:13:28Z

206.102.240.2: ←Redirected page to John F. Kennedy assassination

#REDIRECT [[John F. Kennedy assassination]]
-Also the day authors C.S. Lewis and Aldous Huxley died.

King's College (New York City)

2008-02-20T00:36:23Z

206.102.240.2:

{{Infobox_University
|name =The King's College
|image =
|established =[[1938]]
|type =[[Private school|Private]], [[Christian school|Christian]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|faculty =
|president =Andy Mills
|chancellor =J. Stanley Oakes
|provost =[[Marvin Olasky]]
|students =~250
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|profess =
|city =[[New York City|New York]]
|state =[[New York]]
|country =[[United States]]
|campus =[[The Empire State Building]]
|free_label =
|free =
|colors =Blue
|mascot =
|nickname =TKC
|affiliations =[[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
|footnotes =
|website =[http://www.tkc.edu www.tkc.edu]
|coor =
|logo =
}}

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is a four-year Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded in 1938 by [[Percy Crawford]] in Belmar, New Jersey. The school ceased operation in 1994, but was reopened in 1999 in New York City's [[Empire State Building]].

The King's College offers a curriculum founded in a common core which emphasizes writing, history, theology, philosophy, economics, and political theory. It offers Bachelor's Degrees in Business Management and Politics, Philosophy, and Economics (PPE).

==History==
Dr. [[Percy B. Crawford]] founded The King’s College in [[1938]] in [[Belmar, New Jersey|Belmar]], New Jersey. In [[1955]] he moved the college to [[Briarcliff Manor, New York|Briarcliff Manor]], New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in [[1960]], Dr. [[Robert Cook]] became the college’s second president. He was succeeded in [[1985]] Dr. [[Friedhelm Radandt]]. Financial difficulties forced the college to close in [[1994]], but in [[1998]] [[J. Stanley Oakes]], in coordination with Dr. [[Bill Bright]], led an effort to reopen the school with Radandt continuing as president. In [[1999]] King's acquired [[Northeastern Bible College]] of [[Essex Fells, New Jersey|Essex Fells]], New Jersey, and leased two floors of the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City as its campus. On [[1 January]] [[2003]] [[J. Stanley Oakes Jr.]] became the fourth president.

==Degree Programs==
The King's College offers two distinct majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

Within the PPE program, students are able to pursue concentrations in literature, media, theology, and propaedeutics (which deals with education).

The college is accredited by the New York State Board of Regents and is also currently undergoing accreditation by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools.

==Student Housing==

Student housing is provided in two [[high-rise]] apartment buildings. One is located on the same block as the [[Empire State Building]], on the east side of Herald Square, while the other is located only three blocks North. Both feature 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]].

==Houses==

All students enrolled at the college are divided into houses. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Helmsman, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as mentors and to help the houses accomplish their individual missions.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://www.houseofreagan.com Visit the House of Reagan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]; [http://www.houseofchurchill.com Visit the House of Churchill Website]

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*III - Spring 2007: House of Bonhoeffer

==Criticism==

In 2005 The King's College sought reaccreditation, but ran into some problems with the State Board of Regents, namely with one member John Bramedas. He raised a number of objections including the school's name. He claimed that the school was misleading students and others by using Columbia University's (also in NYC) former name.

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu The King's College]
*[http://www.collegedata.com/cs/data/college/college_pg01_tmpl.jhtml?schoolId=1950&previousPageSection=&popupNetCostDetail=falseundefined College Data Profile]
*[http://www.nationalreview.com/kurtz/kurtz200504050746.asp Stanley Kurtz: National Review Online]

{{NYC Colleges}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

King's College (New York City)

2008-02-20T00:35:31Z

206.102.240.2: /* Houses */

{{Infobox_University
|name =The King's College
|image =
|established =[[1938]]
|type =[[Private school|Private]], [[Christian school|Christian]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|faculty =
|president =J. Stanley Oakes
|provost =[[Marvin Olasky]]
|students =~250
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|profess =
|city =[[New York City|New York]]
|state =[[New York]]
|country =[[United States]]
|campus =[[The Empire State Building]]
|free_label =
|free =
|colors =Blue
|mascot =
|nickname =TKC
|affiliations =[[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
|footnotes =
|website =[http://www.tkc.edu www.tkc.edu]
|coor =
|logo =
}}

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is a four-year Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded in 1938 by [[Percy Crawford]] in Belmar, New Jersey. The school ceased operation in 1994, but was reopened in 1999 in New York City's [[Empire State Building]].

The King's College offers a curriculum founded in a common core which emphasizes writing, history, theology, philosophy, economics, and political theory. It offers Bachelor's Degrees in Business Management and Politics, Philosophy, and Economics (PPE).

==History==
Dr. [[Percy B. Crawford]] founded The King’s College in [[1938]] in [[Belmar, New Jersey|Belmar]], New Jersey. In [[1955]] he moved the college to [[Briarcliff Manor, New York|Briarcliff Manor]], New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in [[1960]], Dr. [[Robert Cook]] became the college’s second president. He was succeeded in [[1985]] Dr. [[Friedhelm Radandt]]. Financial difficulties forced the college to close in [[1994]], but in [[1998]] [[J. Stanley Oakes]], in coordination with Dr. [[Bill Bright]], led an effort to reopen the school with Radandt continuing as president. In [[1999]] King's acquired [[Northeastern Bible College]] of [[Essex Fells, New Jersey|Essex Fells]], New Jersey, and leased two floors of the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City as its campus. On [[1 January]] [[2003]] [[J. Stanley Oakes Jr.]] became the fourth president.

==Degree Programs==
The King's College offers two distinct majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

Within the PPE program, students are able to pursue concentrations in literature, media, theology, and propaedeutics (which deals with education).

The college is accredited by the New York State Board of Regents and is also currently undergoing accreditation by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools.

==Student Housing==

Student housing is provided in two [[high-rise]] apartment buildings. One is located on the same block as the [[Empire State Building]], on the east side of Herald Square, while the other is located only three blocks North. Both feature 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]].

==Houses==

All students enrolled at the college are divided into houses. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Helmsman, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as mentors and to help the houses accomplish their individual missions.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://www.houseofreagan.com Visit the House of Reagan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]; [http://www.houseofchurchill.com Visit the House of Churchill Website]

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*III - Spring 2007: House of Bonhoeffer

==Criticism==

In 2005 The King's College sought reaccreditation, but ran into some problems with the State Board of Regents, namely with one member John Bramedas. He raised a number of objections including the school's name. He claimed that the school was misleading students and others by using Columbia University's (also in NYC) former name.

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu The King's College]
*[http://www.collegedata.com/cs/data/college/college_pg01_tmpl.jhtml?schoolId=1950&previousPageSection=&popupNetCostDetail=falseundefined College Data Profile]
*[http://www.nationalreview.com/kurtz/kurtz200504050746.asp Stanley Kurtz: National Review Online]

{{NYC Colleges}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

Philosophy of education

2008-02-18T03:33:51Z

206.102.240.2: /* Aristotle */

{{Mergefrom|Education theory|date=January 2008}}
{{Mergefrom|Education reform|date=February 2008}}
The '''philosophy of education''' is the study of the purpose, process, nature and ideals of [[education]]. This can be within the context of education as a [[society|societal]] institution or more broadly as the process of human existential growth, i.e. how it is that our understanding of the world is continually transformed via physical, emotional, cognitive and transcendental experiences.

It can naturally be considered a branch of both [[philosophy]] and [[education]].

==Educational Philosophy==
===Content of Education===
* [[Classical education movement]]: [[trivium (education)|trivium]], [[Quadrivium]], etc
* [[Educational essentialism]]
* [[Educational perennialism]]
* [[Educational progressivism]]
* [[International education]]

===Method of teaching===
{{see also|Learning theory (education)}}
{{see also|Pedagogy}}
* [[Educational progressivism]]: Learn by Doing
* [[Homeschooling]]
* [[Lecture]]
* [[Maturationism]]
* [[Montessori method]]
* [[Taking Children Seriously]]
* [[Outcome-based education]]
* Self-education
** [[Autonomous learning]]: The student teaches himself or herself a curriculum set by others
** [[Unschooling]]: The student explores subjects of his or her own choosing
** [[Constructivism (learning theory)|Constructivist approach to learning]]
* Learning via Questioning
** [[Coyote teaching]]
** [[Socratic method]]
** [[Transformative learning]]

===Social concerns===
* [[Critical pedagogy]]
* [[Inclusive classroom]]

===Miscellaneous===
* [[Educational existentialism]]
* [[Humanistic education]]
* [[Waldorf education]] (Steiner)

==History==
A chronological summary of the work of some of the most important and influential [[Western culture]] educational philosophers follows.

===Plato===
'''Date:''' 424/423 BC - 348/347 BC

[[Plato]] is the earliest important educational thinker. He saw education as the key to creating and sustaining his [[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]. He advocated extreme methods: removing children from their mothers' care and raising them as wards of the state, with great care being taken to differentiate children suitable to the various castes, the highest receiving the most education, so that they could act as guardians of the city and care for the less able. Education would be holistic, including facts, skills, physical discipline, and music and art, which he considered the highest form of endeavour.

For Plato the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. Plato's belief that talent was distributed non-genetically and thus must be found in children born to all classes moves us away from aristocracy, and Plato builds on this by insisting that those suitably gifted are to be trained by the state so that they may be qualified to assume the role of a ruling class. What this establishes is essentially a system of selective public education premised on the assumption that an educated minority of the population are, by virtue of their education (and inborn educability), sufficient for healthy governance.

Plato should be considered foundational for democratic philosophies of education both because later key thinkers treat him as such, and because, while Plato's methods are autocratic and his motives meritocratic, he nonetheless prefigures much later democratic philosophy of education. This is different in degree rather than kind from most versions of, say, the American experiment with democratic education, which has usually assumed that only some students should be educated to the fullest, while others may, acceptably, fall by the wayside.

===Aristotle===
'''Date:''' 384 BC - 322 BC

Only fragments of [[Aristotle]]'s treatise ''On Education'' are still in existance. We thus know of his philosophy of education primarily through brief passages in other works. Aristotle considered human nature, [[Habit (psychology)|habit]] and [[reason]] to be equally important forces to be cultivated in education. Thus, for example, he considered repetition to be a key tool to develop good habits. The teacher was to lead the student systematically; this differs, for example, from Socrates' emphasis on questioning his listeners to bring out their own ideas (though the comparison is perhaps incongruous since Socrates was dealing with adults).

Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the theoretical and practical aspects of subjects taught. Subjects he explicitly mentions as being important included reading, writing and mathematics; music; physical education; literature and history; and a wide range of sciences. He also mentioned the importance of play.

One of education's primary missions for Aristotle, perhaps its most important, was to produce good and virtuous citizens for the polis. ''All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind have been convinced that the fate of empires depends on the education of youth.''

===Thomas Aquinas===
'''Date:''' c. 1225 - 1274

See [[Educational perennialism#Religious perennialism|Religious perennialism]]

===John Milton===
'''Date:''' 1608-1674

See [[Of Education]]

===John Locke===
'''Date:''' 1632-1704

See [[Some Thoughts Concerning Education]] (1693).

===Jean-Jacques Rousseau===
'''Date:''' 1712-1778

[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], though he paid his respects to Plato's philosophy, rejected it as impractical due to the decayed state of society. Rousseau also had a different theory of human development; where Plato held that people are born with skills appropriate to different castes (though he did not regard these skills as being inherited), Rousseau held that there was one developmental process common to all humans. This was an intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary behavioral manifestation was curiosity. This differed from Locke's ''[[tabula rasa]]'' in that it was an active process deriving from the child's nature, which drove the child to learn and adapt to its surroundings.

Rousseau wrote in his book ''[[Emile: Or, On Education|Emile]]'' that all children are perfectly designed organisms, ready to learn from their surroundings so as to grow into virtuous adults, but due to the malign influence of corrupt society, they often fail to do so. Rousseau advocated an educational method which consisted of removing the child from society—for example, to a country home—and alternately conditioning him through changes to environment and setting traps and puzzles for him to solve or overcome.

Rousseau was unusual in that he recognized and addressed the potential of a problem of legitimation for teaching. He advocated that adults always be truthful with children, and in particular that they never hide the fact that the basis for their authority in teaching was purely one of physical coercion: "I'm bigger than you." Once children reached the age of reason, at about 12, they would be engaged as free individuals in the ongoing process of their own.
[[Image:spider31.jpg]]

=== John Dewey ===
{{main|John Dewey}}

'''Date:''' 1859-1952

=== '''Rudolf Steiner''' ===
{{main|Rudolf Steiner}}
{{main|Waldorf Education}}

'''Date:''' 1861-1925

[[Rudolf Steiner]], a philosopher and writer, created a holistic educational impulse that has become known as [[Waldorf education|Waldorf Education]]. He emphasizes a balance of developing the intellect (or head), feeling and artistic life (or heart), and practical skills (or hands). The education focuses on producing free individuals, and Steiner expected it to enable a new, freer social order to arise, through the creative, free human beings that it would develop. Regretably, Steiner's methods have not been an unadulterated success.

'''Waldorf Education''' is based on Steiner's philosophy, known as [[anthroposophy]], and divides education into three discrete developmental stages; these stages predate but have close similarities to [[Jean Piaget|Piaget]]'s stages of child development.

Throughout the education, a great importance is placed upon having free and creative individuals as teachers; thus, schools should have an appropriate amount of freedom to shape their own curriculum and teachers should have a corresponding freedom to shape the daily life of the classroom. In order for such a system to function, intensive work must take place both amongst teachers within schools and between schools to provide the necessary communication, training and development.

Waldorf education includes a respect for children's physical nature, rhythmic life (technical term: [[ether body]]), consciousness (technical term: [[astral body]]) and individuality ([[ego (spirituality)|ego]]). Anthroposophy includes teachings about [[reincarnation]] and schools often try to foster an awareness that each human being - and thus each child - carries a unique being into this earthly life.

As both an independent educational model and a major influence upon other educators - such as [[Maria Montessori]] - Waldorf education is currently both one of the largest and one of the fastest growing educational movements in the world. Waldorf schools are also increasingly operating as state-funded (in the U.S.A. ''charter'') schools or even state-run (in the U.S.A. public) schools.

=== B.F. Skinner ===

'''Date:''' 1904-90

One of [[B.F. Skinner]]'s contributions to education philosophy is his text ''[[Walden Two]]'' wherein he details the failings of society and education, as one is intricately and intrinsically linked to the other.
The pedagogical methods [[direct instruction]] and [[precision teaching]] owe much to his ideas. [[behaviorism|Behaviorist]] theories play largely in his proposed ideas of [[social engineering (political science)|social engineering]].

Precision Teaching, developed by Skinner's student Ogden Lindsley, uses the basic philosophy that the "learner knows best". Each learner is charted on a unique graph known as a "Standard Celeration Chart". The record of the rate of learning is tracked by this charting and decisions can be made from these data concerning changes in an educational program.

B. F. Skinner developed the theory of "operant conditioning," the idea that we behave the way we do because this kind of behavior has had certain consequences in the past

===Maria Montessori===
{{main|Maria Montessori}}

'''Date:''' 1870-1952

=== Jean Piaget ===
{{main|Jean Piaget}}

'''Date:''' 1896-1980

=== Paulo Freire ===
{{main|Paulo Freire}}

'''Date:''' 1921-97

A Brazilian who became committed to the cause of educating the impoverished peasants of his nation and [[collaboration|collaborating]] with them in the pursuit of their liberation from oppression, [[Paulo Freire]] contributes a philosophy of education that comes not only from the more classical approaches stemming from Plato, but also from modern Marxist and anti-colonialist thinkers. In fact, in many ways his ''Pedagogy of the Oppressed'' may best be read as an extension of or reply to [[Frantz Fanon]]'s ''Wretched of the Earth'', which laid strong emphasis on the need to provide native populations with an education which was simultaneously new and modern (rather than traditional) and anti-colonial (that is, that was not simply an extension of the culture of the colonizer).

Freire is best-known for his attack on what he called the [[banking concept of education]], in which the student was viewed as an empty account to be filled by the teacher. Of course, this is not really a new move--Rousseau's conception of the child as an active learner was already a step away from the ''[[tabula rasa]]'' (which is basically the same as the "banking concept"), and thinkers like [[John Dewey]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]] were strongly critical of the transmission of mere facts as the goal of education.

More challenging, however, is Freire's strong aversion to the teacher-student dichotomy. This dichotomy is admitted in Rousseau and constrained in Dewey, but Freire comes close to insisting that it should be completely abolished. Critics have argued that this is impossible (there must be some enactment of the teacher-student relationship in the parent-child relationship), but what Freire suggests is that a deep reciprocity be inserted into our notions of teacher and student. Freire wants us to think in terms of teacher-student and student-teacher, that is, a teacher who learns and a learner who teaches, as the basic roles of classroom participation.

This is one of the few attempts anywhere to implement something like democracy as an educational method and not merely a goal of democratic education. Even Dewey, for whom democracy was a touchstone, did not integrate democratic practices fully into his methods. (Though this is in part a function of his peculiar attitudes toward individuality and his idea of democracy as a way of living rather than merely a polticial practice or method.) However, in its early, strong form this kind of classroom has sometimes been criticized on the grounds that it can mask rather than overcome the teacher's authority.

Freire's work is widely-read by educationalists but is less respected among philosophers.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Aspects of the Freirian philosophy have been highly influential in academic debates over 'participatory development' and development more generally. Freire's emphasis on emancipation through interactive participation has been used as a rationale for the participatory focus of development, as it is held that 'participation' in any fora can lead to empowerment of poor or marginalised groups. Critics argue that the inherently undemocratic, unequal nature of development projects forecloses any possibility of Freirian emancipation, but many cling to the 'empowering potential' of development.

=== Neil Postman and the Inquiry Method ===
'''Date:''' 1931-2003

[[Neil Postman]] has been a strong contemporary voice in both methods and philosophy of education. His 1969 book "Teaching as a Subversive Activity" (co-authored with Charles Weingartner) introduced the concept of a school driven by the [[inquiry method]], the basis of which is to get the students themselves to ask and answer relevant questions. The "teacher" (the two authors disdained the term and thought a new one should be used) would be limited in the number of declarative sentences he could utter per class, as well as questions he personally knew the answer to. The aim of this type of inquiry would be to provide the conditions for students to build progressively what they don't know on top of what they do, and for the teacher to understand, through close listening, what the student knows, from where he/she can continue to provide the conditions for the learner to progress, and develop their understanding. This may be opposed to methods based on answers and knowing rather than understanding.

Postman went on to write several more books on education, notably "Teaching as a Conserving Activity" and "The End of Education." The latter deals with the importance of goals or "gods" to students, and Postman suggests several "gods" capable of replacing the current ones offered in schools, namely, [[Economic Utility]] and [[Consumerism]].

===Jerome Bruner===
'''Date:''' 1915-

Another important contributor to the inquiry method in education is [[Jerome Bruner]]. His books "The Process of Education" and "Toward a Theory of Instruction" are landmarks in conceptualizing learning and curriculum development. He argued that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. This notion was an underpinning for his concept of the spiral curriculum which posited the idea that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas, building on them until the student had grasped the full formal concept. He emphasized intuition as a neglected but essential feature of productive thinking. He felt that interest in the material being learned was the best stimulis for learning rather than external motivation such as grades. Bruner developed the concept of [[discovery learning]] which promoted learning as a process of constructing new ideas based on current or past knowledge. Students are encouraged to discover facts and relationships and continually build on what they already know.

=== John Taylor Gatto ===
{{main|John Taylor Gatto}}

'''Date:''' 1937-

Spiritual successor to ''[[The Hidden Curriculum]]'', Gatto takes a historical view of educational systems as primarily and purposefully [[socialization|socializing]] and [[normative]], as opposed to the stated goal as a vehicle for individual [[personal development]].<ref>[http://www.cantrip.org/gatto.html The Six-Lesson Schoolteacher]</ref>

===John Caldwell Holt===
{{main|John Caldwell Holt}}

'''Date:''' 1923-1985

A teacher and an observer of children and education, Holt asserted that the academic failure of schoolchildren was not in spite of the efforts of schools, but actually a product of the schools themselves. Not surprisingly his first book, ''How Children Fail'' (published in 1964), ignited a firestorm of controversy. Holt was catapulted into the American national consciousness to the extent that he made appearances on major TV talk shows, wrote book reviews for ''Life'' magazine, and was a guest on the ''To Tell The Truth'' TV game show.<ref>''The Old Schoolhouse Meets Up with Patrick Farenga About the Legacy of John Holt'', http://www.thehomeschoolmagazine.com/How_To_Homeschool/articles/articles.php?aid=97</ref> In his follow-up work, ''How Children Learn'', 1967, he tried to demonstrate the learning process of children and why he believed school short circuits this process.

In neither book had he suggested any alternative to institutional schooling; he had hoped to initiate a profound rethinking of education to make schools friendlier toward children. As the years passed he became convinced that the way schools were was what society wanted, and that a serious re-examination was not going to happen in his lifetime.

Leaving teaching to publicize his ideas about education full time, he encountered books by other authors questioning the premises and efficacy of compulsory schooling, like ''Deschooling Society'' by [[Ivan Illich]], 1970, and ''No More Public School'' by Harold Bennet, 1972 (which went so far as to offer advice to parents on how to keep their children out of school illegally). Then, in 1976, he published ''Instead of Education; Ways to Help People Do Things Better''. In its conclusion he called for a "Children's Underground Railroad" to help children escape compulsory schooling.<ref>''The Old Schoolhouse Meets Up with Patrick Farenga About the Legacy of John Holt'' , http://www.thehomeschoolmagazine.com/How_To_Homeschool/articles/articles.php?aid=97</ref> In response, families from around the U.S. contacted Holt to tell him that they were educating their children at home. In 1977, after corresponding with a number of these families, Holt began producing a magazine dedicated to home education (which he called [[unschooling]]: [[Growing Without Schooling]].<ref name="BHHS"/>) Today, "unschooling" is synonymous with Holt's educational philosophy.

Holt's philosophy was simple: "... the human animal is a learning animal; we like to learn; we are good at it; we don't need to be shown how or made to do it. What kills the processes are the people interfering with it or trying to regulate it or control it."[http://www.naturalchild.org/guest/marlene_bumgarner.html]
It was no great leap from there to arrive at homeschooling, and Holt later said, in 1980, "I want to make it clear that I don’t see homeschooling as some kind of answer to badness of schools. I think that the home is the proper base for the exploration of the world which we call learning or education. Home would be the best base no matter how good the schools were."[http://www.naturalchild.org/guest/marlene_bumgarner.html]

Holt actually wrote only one book about homeschooling, ''Teach Your Own'', 1981, and continued to hope for more expansive reform within education until his death in 1985.

===Martin Heidegger===
{{main|Martin Heidegger}}
{{main|Educational Philosophy of Martin Heidegger}}

'''Date:''' 1889-1976

=== Richard Mitchell ===
{{main|Richard Mitchell}}

'''Date:''' 1929-2002

Richard Mitchell, a professor at [[Glassboro State College]] and author of ''The Underground Grammarian'', criticized the state of modern education, especially [[public education|public]] and [[higher education]], while developing theories regarding [[language]], [[ethics]], and the relationship of education to these, in four books and many essays written between 1977 and 1991.

=== Allan Bloom ===
{{main|Allan Bloom}}

'''Date:''' 1930-1992

Allan Bloom, a professor of [[political science]] at the [[University of Chicago]], argued for a traditional [[Great Books]]-based [[liberal education]] in his lengthy essay ''[[The Closing of the American Mind]]''.

===Marshall Rosenberg===
{{main|Marshall Rosenberg}}

'''Date:''' 1934-

While [[Marshall Rosenberg]] is most well known for his work with conflict resolution through his system of "life-serving" [[Nonviolent Communication]] (NVC), he has also made education reform a major component of his work.

Building on the ideas of [[Neil Postman]], [[Riane Eisler]], [[Walter Wink]], [[Carl Rogers]] and others, Rosenberg's contribution to this field involves reforming schools into "Life-Enriching" organizations, with the following characteristics:<ref>Rosenberg, Marshall B., Life-Enriching Education, 2003, Puddle Dancer Press</ref>

* The people are empathically connected to what each is feeling and needing—-they do not blame themselves or let judgments implying wrongness obscure this connection to each other.
* The people are aware of the interdependent nature of their relationships and value the others’ needs being fulfilled equally to their own needs being fulfilled—-they know that their needs cannot be met at someone else’s expense.
* The people take care of themselves and each other with the sole intention of enriching their lives—they are not motivated by, nor do they use coercion in the form of guilt, shame, duty, obligation, fear of punishment, or hope for extrinsic rewards.

The goals of such schools being

* Make life more wonderful
* Get everyone's needs met
* Connect with self and others
* Motivate through the joy of natural giving, i.e., contributing to the well-being of others
* Learning how to receive freely from others

This is in contrast with traditional "domination culture" schools which

* Prove who's right and who's wrong (e.g., grades)
* Teach students how to obey authority
* Dispense labels, evaluations, diagnoses, and moralistic judgements (e.g., Learning Disabled, [[Special Needs]], Emotionally Disturbed, Culturally Disadvantaged, [[Hyperactive]], [[ADD]], etc.)
* Motivate desired behavior through [[punishment]], [[reward]], [[guilt]], [[shame]], [[duty]], or [[obligation]].

Rosenberg borrows the term Dominator Culture from [[Riane Eisler]], and builds upon the theory by [[Walter Wink]] that we have lived under a domination-culture paradigm for about 8,000 years. Rosenberg says this culture utilizes a specialized language and system of education to allow a small minority to rule over the vast majority of the people, so that the majority is not serving their own life-needs, but serving their masters'.

== Critical responses and counter-philosophies ==

Critics have accused the philosophy of education of being one the weakest subfields of [[education]], disconnected from <s>from</s> the broader study and practice of education (by being too philosophical, too theoretical). The philosophy of education is generally less well respected than even continental philosophy by professional philosophers, for being frequently incoherent, contradictory, inconsistent, and insufficiently rigorous.

Its proponents state that it is an exacting and critical branch of philosophy and point out that there are few major philosophers who have not written on education, and who do not consider the philosophy of education a necessity. For example, [[Plato]] undertakes to discuss all these elements in ''The Republic'', beginning the formulation of educational philosophy that endures today. This response is sufficient to prove the point that the Philosophy of education is practiced and taken seriously by individuals who have nothing to do with professional philosophy.

==Professional Organizations and Associations==
{| border="1" class="sortable"
! Organisation !! Nationality !! Philosophy !! Comment
|-
| International Network of Philosophers of Education || || || INPE is dedicated to fostering dialogue amongst philosophers of education around the world. It sponsors an international conference every other year.
|-
| [http://www.pesa.org.au Philosophy of Education Society of Australasia] || Australiasia
|-
| Canadian Philosophy of Education Society || Canada || || CPES is devoted to philosophical inquiry into educational issues and their relevance for developing educative, caring, and just teachers, schools, and communities. The society welcomes inquiries about membership from professionals and graduate students who share these interests.
|-
| Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain || UK || || PESGB promotes the study, teaching and application of philosophy of education. It has an international membership. The site provides: a guide to the Society's activities and details about the Journal of Philosophy of Education and IMPACT.
|-
| The Spencer Foundation || USA || || The Spencer Foundation provides funding for investigations that promise to yield new knowledge about education in the United States or abroad. The Foundation funds research grants that range in size from smaller grants that can be completed within a year, to larger, multi-year endeavours.
|-
| Society for the Philosophical Study of Education || USA, Midwest || || This Society is a professional association of philosophers of education which holds annual meetings in the Midwest region of the United States of America and sponsors a discussion forum and a Graduate Student Competition.
|-
| Ohio Valley Philosophy of Education Society || USA, Ohio Valley || || OVPES is a professional association of philosophers of education. We host an annual conference in the Ohio Valley region of the United States of America and sponsor a refereed journal: Philosophical Studies in Education.
|-
| Philosophy of Education Society || USA || || PES is the national society for philosophy of education in the United States of America. This site provides information about PES, its services, history, and publications, and links to online resources relevant to the philosophy of education.
|-
| Humanities Research Network || || || The Humanities Research Network is designed to encourage new ways of thinking about the overlapping domains of knowledge which are represented by the arts, humanities, social sciences, other related fields like law, and matauranga Maori, and new relationships among their practitioners.
|-
| Study Space for Philosophy and Education || USA, Columbia University || || This study place exists for persons who wish to engage in philosophy and education because both have value for them, quite apart from their professional responsibilities. We think networked digital information resources will enable people to reverse this ever-narrowing professionalism. This site is maintained at the Institute for Learning Technologies, Teachers College, Columbia University.
|-
| Austrian Ludwig Wittgenstein Society || Austria || Ludwig Wittgenstein || The aim is to discuss present-day problems in the framework of a philosophy which is methodologically explicit and whose results are presented perspicuously. The spectrum of philosophical problems extends from philosophy of science, epistemology and logic to ethics and the humanities.
|-
| Association for Process Philosophy of Education || || Process Philosophers || The APPE is an international organization of scholars and teachers dedicated to the ideas of process philosophers (Whitehead, Dewey, and Bergson) and their application to educational practice.
|-
| Center for Dewey Studies || USA, Southern Illonois University || Process Philosophers; Dewey || The Center for Dewey Studies at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale was established in 1961 as the "Dewey Project." By virtue of its publications and research, the Center has become the international focal point for research on John Dewey's life and work.
|-
| John Dewey Society || || Process Philosophers; Dewey || The John Dewey Society exists to keep alive John Dewey's commitment to the use of critical and reflective intelligence in the search for solutions to crucial problems in education and culture.
|-
| Michael Oakeshott Association || || Michael Oakeshott || An association devoted to the promotion and critical discussion of the work of British philosopher Michael Oakeshott (1901-1990).
|}

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.vusst.hr/ENCYCLOPAEDIA/main.htm Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Education]
* [http://www.philosophyofeducation.org/ Philosophy of Education Society (U.S.)]
* [http://www.philosophyofeducation.ca/ Canadian Philosophy of Education Society]
* [http://www.philosophy-of-education.org/ Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain]
* [http://www.pesa.org.au/ Philosophy of Education Society of Australasia]
* [http://www.ucm.es/info/inpe/index.htm International Network of Philosophers of Education]
* [http://webs.csu.edu/~amakedon/mpes/mpes.html Society for the Philosophical Study of Education]
* [http://www.studyplace.org/ StudyPlace]

{{Philosophy navigation}}

[[Category:Educational philosophy]]

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Philosophy of education

2008-02-18T03:33:33Z

206.102.240.2: /* Aristotle */

{{Mergefrom|Education theory|date=January 2008}}
{{Mergefrom|Education reform|date=February 2008}}
The '''philosophy of education''' is the study of the purpose, process, nature and ideals of [[education]]. This can be within the context of education as a [[society|societal]] institution or more broadly as the process of human existential growth, i.e. how it is that our understanding of the world is continually transformed via physical, emotional, cognitive and transcendental experiences.

It can naturally be considered a branch of both [[philosophy]] and [[education]].

==Educational Philosophy==
===Content of Education===
* [[Classical education movement]]: [[trivium (education)|trivium]], [[Quadrivium]], etc
* [[Educational essentialism]]
* [[Educational perennialism]]
* [[Educational progressivism]]
* [[International education]]

===Method of teaching===
{{see also|Learning theory (education)}}
{{see also|Pedagogy}}
* [[Educational progressivism]]: Learn by Doing
* [[Homeschooling]]
* [[Lecture]]
* [[Maturationism]]
* [[Montessori method]]
* [[Taking Children Seriously]]
* [[Outcome-based education]]
* Self-education
** [[Autonomous learning]]: The student teaches himself or herself a curriculum set by others
** [[Unschooling]]: The student explores subjects of his or her own choosing
** [[Constructivism (learning theory)|Constructivist approach to learning]]
* Learning via Questioning
** [[Coyote teaching]]
** [[Socratic method]]
** [[Transformative learning]]

===Social concerns===
* [[Critical pedagogy]]
* [[Inclusive classroom]]

===Miscellaneous===
* [[Educational existentialism]]
* [[Humanistic education]]
* [[Waldorf education]] (Steiner)

==History==
A chronological summary of the work of some of the most important and influential [[Western culture]] educational philosophers follows.

===Plato===
'''Date:''' 424/423 BC - 348/347 BC

[[Plato]] is the earliest important educational thinker. He saw education as the key to creating and sustaining his [[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]. He advocated extreme methods: removing children from their mothers' care and raising them as wards of the state, with great care being taken to differentiate children suitable to the various castes, the highest receiving the most education, so that they could act as guardians of the city and care for the less able. Education would be holistic, including facts, skills, physical discipline, and music and art, which he considered the highest form of endeavour.

For Plato the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. Plato's belief that talent was distributed non-genetically and thus must be found in children born to all classes moves us away from aristocracy, and Plato builds on this by insisting that those suitably gifted are to be trained by the state so that they may be qualified to assume the role of a ruling class. What this establishes is essentially a system of selective public education premised on the assumption that an educated minority of the population are, by virtue of their education (and inborn educability), sufficient for healthy governance.

Plato should be considered foundational for democratic philosophies of education both because later key thinkers treat him as such, and because, while Plato's methods are autocratic and his motives meritocratic, he nonetheless prefigures much later democratic philosophy of education. This is different in degree rather than kind from most versions of, say, the American experiment with democratic education, which has usually assumed that only some students should be educated to the fullest, while others may, acceptably, fall by the wayside.

===Aristotle===
'''Date:''' 384 BC - 322 BC

Only fragments of [[Aristotle]]'s treatise ''On Education'' are still existant. We thus know of his philosophy of education primarily through brief passages in other works. Aristotle considered human nature, [[Habit (psychology)|habit]] and [[reason]] to be equally important forces to be cultivated in education. Thus, for example, he considered repetition to be a key tool to develop good habits. The teacher was to lead the student systematically; this differs, for example, from Socrates' emphasis on questioning his listeners to bring out their own ideas (though the comparison is perhaps incongruous since Socrates was dealing with adults).

Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the theoretical and practical aspects of subjects taught. Subjects he explicitly mentions as being important included reading, writing and mathematics; music; physical education; literature and history; and a wide range of sciences. He also mentioned the importance of play.

One of education's primary missions for Aristotle, perhaps its most important, was to produce good and virtuous citizens for the polis. ''All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind have been convinced that the fate of empires depends on the education of youth.''

===Thomas Aquinas===
'''Date:''' c. 1225 - 1274

See [[Educational perennialism#Religious perennialism|Religious perennialism]]

===John Milton===
'''Date:''' 1608-1674

See [[Of Education]]

===John Locke===
'''Date:''' 1632-1704

See [[Some Thoughts Concerning Education]] (1693).

===Jean-Jacques Rousseau===
'''Date:''' 1712-1778

[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], though he paid his respects to Plato's philosophy, rejected it as impractical due to the decayed state of society. Rousseau also had a different theory of human development; where Plato held that people are born with skills appropriate to different castes (though he did not regard these skills as being inherited), Rousseau held that there was one developmental process common to all humans. This was an intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary behavioral manifestation was curiosity. This differed from Locke's ''[[tabula rasa]]'' in that it was an active process deriving from the child's nature, which drove the child to learn and adapt to its surroundings.

Rousseau wrote in his book ''[[Emile: Or, On Education|Emile]]'' that all children are perfectly designed organisms, ready to learn from their surroundings so as to grow into virtuous adults, but due to the malign influence of corrupt society, they often fail to do so. Rousseau advocated an educational method which consisted of removing the child from society—for example, to a country home—and alternately conditioning him through changes to environment and setting traps and puzzles for him to solve or overcome.

Rousseau was unusual in that he recognized and addressed the potential of a problem of legitimation for teaching. He advocated that adults always be truthful with children, and in particular that they never hide the fact that the basis for their authority in teaching was purely one of physical coercion: "I'm bigger than you." Once children reached the age of reason, at about 12, they would be engaged as free individuals in the ongoing process of their own.
[[Image:spider31.jpg]]

=== John Dewey ===
{{main|John Dewey}}

'''Date:''' 1859-1952

=== '''Rudolf Steiner''' ===
{{main|Rudolf Steiner}}
{{main|Waldorf Education}}

'''Date:''' 1861-1925

[[Rudolf Steiner]], a philosopher and writer, created a holistic educational impulse that has become known as [[Waldorf education|Waldorf Education]]. He emphasizes a balance of developing the intellect (or head), feeling and artistic life (or heart), and practical skills (or hands). The education focuses on producing free individuals, and Steiner expected it to enable a new, freer social order to arise, through the creative, free human beings that it would develop. Regretably, Steiner's methods have not been an unadulterated success.

'''Waldorf Education''' is based on Steiner's philosophy, known as [[anthroposophy]], and divides education into three discrete developmental stages; these stages predate but have close similarities to [[Jean Piaget|Piaget]]'s stages of child development.

Throughout the education, a great importance is placed upon having free and creative individuals as teachers; thus, schools should have an appropriate amount of freedom to shape their own curriculum and teachers should have a corresponding freedom to shape the daily life of the classroom. In order for such a system to function, intensive work must take place both amongst teachers within schools and between schools to provide the necessary communication, training and development.

Waldorf education includes a respect for children's physical nature, rhythmic life (technical term: [[ether body]]), consciousness (technical term: [[astral body]]) and individuality ([[ego (spirituality)|ego]]). Anthroposophy includes teachings about [[reincarnation]] and schools often try to foster an awareness that each human being - and thus each child - carries a unique being into this earthly life.

As both an independent educational model and a major influence upon other educators - such as [[Maria Montessori]] - Waldorf education is currently both one of the largest and one of the fastest growing educational movements in the world. Waldorf schools are also increasingly operating as state-funded (in the U.S.A. ''charter'') schools or even state-run (in the U.S.A. public) schools.

=== B.F. Skinner ===

'''Date:''' 1904-90

One of [[B.F. Skinner]]'s contributions to education philosophy is his text ''[[Walden Two]]'' wherein he details the failings of society and education, as one is intricately and intrinsically linked to the other.
The pedagogical methods [[direct instruction]] and [[precision teaching]] owe much to his ideas. [[behaviorism|Behaviorist]] theories play largely in his proposed ideas of [[social engineering (political science)|social engineering]].

Precision Teaching, developed by Skinner's student Ogden Lindsley, uses the basic philosophy that the "learner knows best". Each learner is charted on a unique graph known as a "Standard Celeration Chart". The record of the rate of learning is tracked by this charting and decisions can be made from these data concerning changes in an educational program.

B. F. Skinner developed the theory of "operant conditioning," the idea that we behave the way we do because this kind of behavior has had certain consequences in the past

===Maria Montessori===
{{main|Maria Montessori}}

'''Date:''' 1870-1952

=== Jean Piaget ===
{{main|Jean Piaget}}

'''Date:''' 1896-1980

=== Paulo Freire ===
{{main|Paulo Freire}}

'''Date:''' 1921-97

A Brazilian who became committed to the cause of educating the impoverished peasants of his nation and [[collaboration|collaborating]] with them in the pursuit of their liberation from oppression, [[Paulo Freire]] contributes a philosophy of education that comes not only from the more classical approaches stemming from Plato, but also from modern Marxist and anti-colonialist thinkers. In fact, in many ways his ''Pedagogy of the Oppressed'' may best be read as an extension of or reply to [[Frantz Fanon]]'s ''Wretched of the Earth'', which laid strong emphasis on the need to provide native populations with an education which was simultaneously new and modern (rather than traditional) and anti-colonial (that is, that was not simply an extension of the culture of the colonizer).

Freire is best-known for his attack on what he called the [[banking concept of education]], in which the student was viewed as an empty account to be filled by the teacher. Of course, this is not really a new move--Rousseau's conception of the child as an active learner was already a step away from the ''[[tabula rasa]]'' (which is basically the same as the "banking concept"), and thinkers like [[John Dewey]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]] were strongly critical of the transmission of mere facts as the goal of education.

More challenging, however, is Freire's strong aversion to the teacher-student dichotomy. This dichotomy is admitted in Rousseau and constrained in Dewey, but Freire comes close to insisting that it should be completely abolished. Critics have argued that this is impossible (there must be some enactment of the teacher-student relationship in the parent-child relationship), but what Freire suggests is that a deep reciprocity be inserted into our notions of teacher and student. Freire wants us to think in terms of teacher-student and student-teacher, that is, a teacher who learns and a learner who teaches, as the basic roles of classroom participation.

This is one of the few attempts anywhere to implement something like democracy as an educational method and not merely a goal of democratic education. Even Dewey, for whom democracy was a touchstone, did not integrate democratic practices fully into his methods. (Though this is in part a function of his peculiar attitudes toward individuality and his idea of democracy as a way of living rather than merely a polticial practice or method.) However, in its early, strong form this kind of classroom has sometimes been criticized on the grounds that it can mask rather than overcome the teacher's authority.

Freire's work is widely-read by educationalists but is less respected among philosophers.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Aspects of the Freirian philosophy have been highly influential in academic debates over 'participatory development' and development more generally. Freire's emphasis on emancipation through interactive participation has been used as a rationale for the participatory focus of development, as it is held that 'participation' in any fora can lead to empowerment of poor or marginalised groups. Critics argue that the inherently undemocratic, unequal nature of development projects forecloses any possibility of Freirian emancipation, but many cling to the 'empowering potential' of development.

=== Neil Postman and the Inquiry Method ===
'''Date:''' 1931-2003

[[Neil Postman]] has been a strong contemporary voice in both methods and philosophy of education. His 1969 book "Teaching as a Subversive Activity" (co-authored with Charles Weingartner) introduced the concept of a school driven by the [[inquiry method]], the basis of which is to get the students themselves to ask and answer relevant questions. The "teacher" (the two authors disdained the term and thought a new one should be used) would be limited in the number of declarative sentences he could utter per class, as well as questions he personally knew the answer to. The aim of this type of inquiry would be to provide the conditions for students to build progressively what they don't know on top of what they do, and for the teacher to understand, through close listening, what the student knows, from where he/she can continue to provide the conditions for the learner to progress, and develop their understanding. This may be opposed to methods based on answers and knowing rather than understanding.

Postman went on to write several more books on education, notably "Teaching as a Conserving Activity" and "The End of Education." The latter deals with the importance of goals or "gods" to students, and Postman suggests several "gods" capable of replacing the current ones offered in schools, namely, [[Economic Utility]] and [[Consumerism]].

===Jerome Bruner===
'''Date:''' 1915-

Another important contributor to the inquiry method in education is [[Jerome Bruner]]. His books "The Process of Education" and "Toward a Theory of Instruction" are landmarks in conceptualizing learning and curriculum development. He argued that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. This notion was an underpinning for his concept of the spiral curriculum which posited the idea that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas, building on them until the student had grasped the full formal concept. He emphasized intuition as a neglected but essential feature of productive thinking. He felt that interest in the material being learned was the best stimulis for learning rather than external motivation such as grades. Bruner developed the concept of [[discovery learning]] which promoted learning as a process of constructing new ideas based on current or past knowledge. Students are encouraged to discover facts and relationships and continually build on what they already know.

=== John Taylor Gatto ===
{{main|John Taylor Gatto}}

'''Date:''' 1937-

Spiritual successor to ''[[The Hidden Curriculum]]'', Gatto takes a historical view of educational systems as primarily and purposefully [[socialization|socializing]] and [[normative]], as opposed to the stated goal as a vehicle for individual [[personal development]].<ref>[http://www.cantrip.org/gatto.html The Six-Lesson Schoolteacher]</ref>

===John Caldwell Holt===
{{main|John Caldwell Holt}}

'''Date:''' 1923-1985

A teacher and an observer of children and education, Holt asserted that the academic failure of schoolchildren was not in spite of the efforts of schools, but actually a product of the schools themselves. Not surprisingly his first book, ''How Children Fail'' (published in 1964), ignited a firestorm of controversy. Holt was catapulted into the American national consciousness to the extent that he made appearances on major TV talk shows, wrote book reviews for ''Life'' magazine, and was a guest on the ''To Tell The Truth'' TV game show.<ref>''The Old Schoolhouse Meets Up with Patrick Farenga About the Legacy of John Holt'', http://www.thehomeschoolmagazine.com/How_To_Homeschool/articles/articles.php?aid=97</ref> In his follow-up work, ''How Children Learn'', 1967, he tried to demonstrate the learning process of children and why he believed school short circuits this process.

In neither book had he suggested any alternative to institutional schooling; he had hoped to initiate a profound rethinking of education to make schools friendlier toward children. As the years passed he became convinced that the way schools were was what society wanted, and that a serious re-examination was not going to happen in his lifetime.

Leaving teaching to publicize his ideas about education full time, he encountered books by other authors questioning the premises and efficacy of compulsory schooling, like ''Deschooling Society'' by [[Ivan Illich]], 1970, and ''No More Public School'' by Harold Bennet, 1972 (which went so far as to offer advice to parents on how to keep their children out of school illegally). Then, in 1976, he published ''Instead of Education; Ways to Help People Do Things Better''. In its conclusion he called for a "Children's Underground Railroad" to help children escape compulsory schooling.<ref>''The Old Schoolhouse Meets Up with Patrick Farenga About the Legacy of John Holt'' , http://www.thehomeschoolmagazine.com/How_To_Homeschool/articles/articles.php?aid=97</ref> In response, families from around the U.S. contacted Holt to tell him that they were educating their children at home. In 1977, after corresponding with a number of these families, Holt began producing a magazine dedicated to home education (which he called [[unschooling]]: [[Growing Without Schooling]].<ref name="BHHS"/>) Today, "unschooling" is synonymous with Holt's educational philosophy.

Holt's philosophy was simple: "... the human animal is a learning animal; we like to learn; we are good at it; we don't need to be shown how or made to do it. What kills the processes are the people interfering with it or trying to regulate it or control it."[http://www.naturalchild.org/guest/marlene_bumgarner.html]
It was no great leap from there to arrive at homeschooling, and Holt later said, in 1980, "I want to make it clear that I don’t see homeschooling as some kind of answer to badness of schools. I think that the home is the proper base for the exploration of the world which we call learning or education. Home would be the best base no matter how good the schools were."[http://www.naturalchild.org/guest/marlene_bumgarner.html]

Holt actually wrote only one book about homeschooling, ''Teach Your Own'', 1981, and continued to hope for more expansive reform within education until his death in 1985.

===Martin Heidegger===
{{main|Martin Heidegger}}
{{main|Educational Philosophy of Martin Heidegger}}

'''Date:''' 1889-1976

=== Richard Mitchell ===
{{main|Richard Mitchell}}

'''Date:''' 1929-2002

Richard Mitchell, a professor at [[Glassboro State College]] and author of ''The Underground Grammarian'', criticized the state of modern education, especially [[public education|public]] and [[higher education]], while developing theories regarding [[language]], [[ethics]], and the relationship of education to these, in four books and many essays written between 1977 and 1991.

=== Allan Bloom ===
{{main|Allan Bloom}}

'''Date:''' 1930-1992

Allan Bloom, a professor of [[political science]] at the [[University of Chicago]], argued for a traditional [[Great Books]]-based [[liberal education]] in his lengthy essay ''[[The Closing of the American Mind]]''.

===Marshall Rosenberg===
{{main|Marshall Rosenberg}}

'''Date:''' 1934-

While [[Marshall Rosenberg]] is most well known for his work with conflict resolution through his system of "life-serving" [[Nonviolent Communication]] (NVC), he has also made education reform a major component of his work.

Building on the ideas of [[Neil Postman]], [[Riane Eisler]], [[Walter Wink]], [[Carl Rogers]] and others, Rosenberg's contribution to this field involves reforming schools into "Life-Enriching" organizations, with the following characteristics:<ref>Rosenberg, Marshall B., Life-Enriching Education, 2003, Puddle Dancer Press</ref>

* The people are empathically connected to what each is feeling and needing—-they do not blame themselves or let judgments implying wrongness obscure this connection to each other.
* The people are aware of the interdependent nature of their relationships and value the others’ needs being fulfilled equally to their own needs being fulfilled—-they know that their needs cannot be met at someone else’s expense.
* The people take care of themselves and each other with the sole intention of enriching their lives—they are not motivated by, nor do they use coercion in the form of guilt, shame, duty, obligation, fear of punishment, or hope for extrinsic rewards.

The goals of such schools being

* Make life more wonderful
* Get everyone's needs met
* Connect with self and others
* Motivate through the joy of natural giving, i.e., contributing to the well-being of others
* Learning how to receive freely from others

This is in contrast with traditional "domination culture" schools which

* Prove who's right and who's wrong (e.g., grades)
* Teach students how to obey authority
* Dispense labels, evaluations, diagnoses, and moralistic judgements (e.g., Learning Disabled, [[Special Needs]], Emotionally Disturbed, Culturally Disadvantaged, [[Hyperactive]], [[ADD]], etc.)
* Motivate desired behavior through [[punishment]], [[reward]], [[guilt]], [[shame]], [[duty]], or [[obligation]].

Rosenberg borrows the term Dominator Culture from [[Riane Eisler]], and builds upon the theory by [[Walter Wink]] that we have lived under a domination-culture paradigm for about 8,000 years. Rosenberg says this culture utilizes a specialized language and system of education to allow a small minority to rule over the vast majority of the people, so that the majority is not serving their own life-needs, but serving their masters'.

== Critical responses and counter-philosophies ==

Critics have accused the philosophy of education of being one the weakest subfields of [[education]], disconnected from <s>from</s> the broader study and practice of education (by being too philosophical, too theoretical). The philosophy of education is generally less well respected than even continental philosophy by professional philosophers, for being frequently incoherent, contradictory, inconsistent, and insufficiently rigorous.

Its proponents state that it is an exacting and critical branch of philosophy and point out that there are few major philosophers who have not written on education, and who do not consider the philosophy of education a necessity. For example, [[Plato]] undertakes to discuss all these elements in ''The Republic'', beginning the formulation of educational philosophy that endures today. This response is sufficient to prove the point that the Philosophy of education is practiced and taken seriously by individuals who have nothing to do with professional philosophy.

==Professional Organizations and Associations==
{| border="1" class="sortable"
! Organisation !! Nationality !! Philosophy !! Comment
|-
| International Network of Philosophers of Education || || || INPE is dedicated to fostering dialogue amongst philosophers of education around the world. It sponsors an international conference every other year.
|-
| [http://www.pesa.org.au Philosophy of Education Society of Australasia] || Australiasia
|-
| Canadian Philosophy of Education Society || Canada || || CPES is devoted to philosophical inquiry into educational issues and their relevance for developing educative, caring, and just teachers, schools, and communities. The society welcomes inquiries about membership from professionals and graduate students who share these interests.
|-
| Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain || UK || || PESGB promotes the study, teaching and application of philosophy of education. It has an international membership. The site provides: a guide to the Society's activities and details about the Journal of Philosophy of Education and IMPACT.
|-
| The Spencer Foundation || USA || || The Spencer Foundation provides funding for investigations that promise to yield new knowledge about education in the United States or abroad. The Foundation funds research grants that range in size from smaller grants that can be completed within a year, to larger, multi-year endeavours.
|-
| Society for the Philosophical Study of Education || USA, Midwest || || This Society is a professional association of philosophers of education which holds annual meetings in the Midwest region of the United States of America and sponsors a discussion forum and a Graduate Student Competition.
|-
| Ohio Valley Philosophy of Education Society || USA, Ohio Valley || || OVPES is a professional association of philosophers of education. We host an annual conference in the Ohio Valley region of the United States of America and sponsor a refereed journal: Philosophical Studies in Education.
|-
| Philosophy of Education Society || USA || || PES is the national society for philosophy of education in the United States of America. This site provides information about PES, its services, history, and publications, and links to online resources relevant to the philosophy of education.
|-
| Humanities Research Network || || || The Humanities Research Network is designed to encourage new ways of thinking about the overlapping domains of knowledge which are represented by the arts, humanities, social sciences, other related fields like law, and matauranga Maori, and new relationships among their practitioners.
|-
| Study Space for Philosophy and Education || USA, Columbia University || || This study place exists for persons who wish to engage in philosophy and education because both have value for them, quite apart from their professional responsibilities. We think networked digital information resources will enable people to reverse this ever-narrowing professionalism. This site is maintained at the Institute for Learning Technologies, Teachers College, Columbia University.
|-
| Austrian Ludwig Wittgenstein Society || Austria || Ludwig Wittgenstein || The aim is to discuss present-day problems in the framework of a philosophy which is methodologically explicit and whose results are presented perspicuously. The spectrum of philosophical problems extends from philosophy of science, epistemology and logic to ethics and the humanities.
|-
| Association for Process Philosophy of Education || || Process Philosophers || The APPE is an international organization of scholars and teachers dedicated to the ideas of process philosophers (Whitehead, Dewey, and Bergson) and their application to educational practice.
|-
| Center for Dewey Studies || USA, Southern Illonois University || Process Philosophers; Dewey || The Center for Dewey Studies at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale was established in 1961 as the "Dewey Project." By virtue of its publications and research, the Center has become the international focal point for research on John Dewey's life and work.
|-
| John Dewey Society || || Process Philosophers; Dewey || The John Dewey Society exists to keep alive John Dewey's commitment to the use of critical and reflective intelligence in the search for solutions to crucial problems in education and culture.
|-
| Michael Oakeshott Association || || Michael Oakeshott || An association devoted to the promotion and critical discussion of the work of British philosopher Michael Oakeshott (1901-1990).
|}

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.vusst.hr/ENCYCLOPAEDIA/main.htm Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Education]
* [http://www.philosophyofeducation.org/ Philosophy of Education Society (U.S.)]
* [http://www.philosophyofeducation.ca/ Canadian Philosophy of Education Society]
* [http://www.philosophy-of-education.org/ Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain]
* [http://www.pesa.org.au/ Philosophy of Education Society of Australasia]
* [http://www.ucm.es/info/inpe/index.htm International Network of Philosophers of Education]
* [http://webs.csu.edu/~amakedon/mpes/mpes.html Society for the Philosophical Study of Education]
* [http://www.studyplace.org/ StudyPlace]

{{Philosophy navigation}}

[[Category:Educational philosophy]]

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Philosophy of education

2008-02-18T03:33:19Z

206.102.240.2: /* Aristotle */

{{Mergefrom|Education theory|date=January 2008}}
{{Mergefrom|Education reform|date=February 2008}}
The '''philosophy of education''' is the study of the purpose, process, nature and ideals of [[education]]. This can be within the context of education as a [[society|societal]] institution or more broadly as the process of human existential growth, i.e. how it is that our understanding of the world is continually transformed via physical, emotional, cognitive and transcendental experiences.

It can naturally be considered a branch of both [[philosophy]] and [[education]].

==Educational Philosophy==
===Content of Education===
* [[Classical education movement]]: [[trivium (education)|trivium]], [[Quadrivium]], etc
* [[Educational essentialism]]
* [[Educational perennialism]]
* [[Educational progressivism]]
* [[International education]]

===Method of teaching===
{{see also|Learning theory (education)}}
{{see also|Pedagogy}}
* [[Educational progressivism]]: Learn by Doing
* [[Homeschooling]]
* [[Lecture]]
* [[Maturationism]]
* [[Montessori method]]
* [[Taking Children Seriously]]
* [[Outcome-based education]]
* Self-education
** [[Autonomous learning]]: The student teaches himself or herself a curriculum set by others
** [[Unschooling]]: The student explores subjects of his or her own choosing
** [[Constructivism (learning theory)|Constructivist approach to learning]]
* Learning via Questioning
** [[Coyote teaching]]
** [[Socratic method]]
** [[Transformative learning]]

===Social concerns===
* [[Critical pedagogy]]
* [[Inclusive classroom]]

===Miscellaneous===
* [[Educational existentialism]]
* [[Humanistic education]]
* [[Waldorf education]] (Steiner)

==History==
A chronological summary of the work of some of the most important and influential [[Western culture]] educational philosophers follows.

===Plato===
'''Date:''' 424/423 BC - 348/347 BC

[[Plato]] is the earliest important educational thinker. He saw education as the key to creating and sustaining his [[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]. He advocated extreme methods: removing children from their mothers' care and raising them as wards of the state, with great care being taken to differentiate children suitable to the various castes, the highest receiving the most education, so that they could act as guardians of the city and care for the less able. Education would be holistic, including facts, skills, physical discipline, and music and art, which he considered the highest form of endeavour.

For Plato the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. Plato's belief that talent was distributed non-genetically and thus must be found in children born to all classes moves us away from aristocracy, and Plato builds on this by insisting that those suitably gifted are to be trained by the state so that they may be qualified to assume the role of a ruling class. What this establishes is essentially a system of selective public education premised on the assumption that an educated minority of the population are, by virtue of their education (and inborn educability), sufficient for healthy governance.

Plato should be considered foundational for democratic philosophies of education both because later key thinkers treat him as such, and because, while Plato's methods are autocratic and his motives meritocratic, he nonetheless prefigures much later democratic philosophy of education. This is different in degree rather than kind from most versions of, say, the American experiment with democratic education, which has usually assumed that only some students should be educated to the fullest, while others may, acceptably, fall by the wayside.

===Aristotle===
'''Date:''' 384 BC - 322 BC

Only fragments of [[Aristotle]]'s treatise ''On Education'' are still existent. We thus know of his philosophy of education primarily through brief passages in other works. Aristotle considered human nature, [[Habit (psychology)|habit]] and [[reason]] to be equally important forces to be cultivated in education. Thus, for example, he considered repetition to be a key tool to develop good habits. The teacher was to lead the student systematically; this differs, for example, from Socrates' emphasis on questioning his listeners to bring out their own ideas (though the comparison is perhaps incongruous since Socrates was dealing with adults).

Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the theoretical and practical aspects of subjects taught. Subjects he explicitly mentions as being important included reading, writing and mathematics; music; physical education; literature and history; and a wide range of sciences. He also mentioned the importance of play.

One of education's primary missions for Aristotle, perhaps its most important, was to produce good and virtuous citizens for the polis. ''All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind have been convinced that the fate of empires depends on the education of youth.''

===Thomas Aquinas===
'''Date:''' c. 1225 - 1274

See [[Educational perennialism#Religious perennialism|Religious perennialism]]

===John Milton===
'''Date:''' 1608-1674

See [[Of Education]]

===John Locke===
'''Date:''' 1632-1704

See [[Some Thoughts Concerning Education]] (1693).

===Jean-Jacques Rousseau===
'''Date:''' 1712-1778

[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], though he paid his respects to Plato's philosophy, rejected it as impractical due to the decayed state of society. Rousseau also had a different theory of human development; where Plato held that people are born with skills appropriate to different castes (though he did not regard these skills as being inherited), Rousseau held that there was one developmental process common to all humans. This was an intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary behavioral manifestation was curiosity. This differed from Locke's ''[[tabula rasa]]'' in that it was an active process deriving from the child's nature, which drove the child to learn and adapt to its surroundings.

Rousseau wrote in his book ''[[Emile: Or, On Education|Emile]]'' that all children are perfectly designed organisms, ready to learn from their surroundings so as to grow into virtuous adults, but due to the malign influence of corrupt society, they often fail to do so. Rousseau advocated an educational method which consisted of removing the child from society—for example, to a country home—and alternately conditioning him through changes to environment and setting traps and puzzles for him to solve or overcome.

Rousseau was unusual in that he recognized and addressed the potential of a problem of legitimation for teaching. He advocated that adults always be truthful with children, and in particular that they never hide the fact that the basis for their authority in teaching was purely one of physical coercion: "I'm bigger than you." Once children reached the age of reason, at about 12, they would be engaged as free individuals in the ongoing process of their own.
[[Image:spider31.jpg]]

=== John Dewey ===
{{main|John Dewey}}

'''Date:''' 1859-1952

=== '''Rudolf Steiner''' ===
{{main|Rudolf Steiner}}
{{main|Waldorf Education}}

'''Date:''' 1861-1925

[[Rudolf Steiner]], a philosopher and writer, created a holistic educational impulse that has become known as [[Waldorf education|Waldorf Education]]. He emphasizes a balance of developing the intellect (or head), feeling and artistic life (or heart), and practical skills (or hands). The education focuses on producing free individuals, and Steiner expected it to enable a new, freer social order to arise, through the creative, free human beings that it would develop. Regretably, Steiner's methods have not been an unadulterated success.

'''Waldorf Education''' is based on Steiner's philosophy, known as [[anthroposophy]], and divides education into three discrete developmental stages; these stages predate but have close similarities to [[Jean Piaget|Piaget]]'s stages of child development.

Throughout the education, a great importance is placed upon having free and creative individuals as teachers; thus, schools should have an appropriate amount of freedom to shape their own curriculum and teachers should have a corresponding freedom to shape the daily life of the classroom. In order for such a system to function, intensive work must take place both amongst teachers within schools and between schools to provide the necessary communication, training and development.

Waldorf education includes a respect for children's physical nature, rhythmic life (technical term: [[ether body]]), consciousness (technical term: [[astral body]]) and individuality ([[ego (spirituality)|ego]]). Anthroposophy includes teachings about [[reincarnation]] and schools often try to foster an awareness that each human being - and thus each child - carries a unique being into this earthly life.

As both an independent educational model and a major influence upon other educators - such as [[Maria Montessori]] - Waldorf education is currently both one of the largest and one of the fastest growing educational movements in the world. Waldorf schools are also increasingly operating as state-funded (in the U.S.A. ''charter'') schools or even state-run (in the U.S.A. public) schools.

=== B.F. Skinner ===

'''Date:''' 1904-90

One of [[B.F. Skinner]]'s contributions to education philosophy is his text ''[[Walden Two]]'' wherein he details the failings of society and education, as one is intricately and intrinsically linked to the other.
The pedagogical methods [[direct instruction]] and [[precision teaching]] owe much to his ideas. [[behaviorism|Behaviorist]] theories play largely in his proposed ideas of [[social engineering (political science)|social engineering]].

Precision Teaching, developed by Skinner's student Ogden Lindsley, uses the basic philosophy that the "learner knows best". Each learner is charted on a unique graph known as a "Standard Celeration Chart". The record of the rate of learning is tracked by this charting and decisions can be made from these data concerning changes in an educational program.

B. F. Skinner developed the theory of "operant conditioning," the idea that we behave the way we do because this kind of behavior has had certain consequences in the past

===Maria Montessori===
{{main|Maria Montessori}}

'''Date:''' 1870-1952

=== Jean Piaget ===
{{main|Jean Piaget}}

'''Date:''' 1896-1980

=== Paulo Freire ===
{{main|Paulo Freire}}

'''Date:''' 1921-97

A Brazilian who became committed to the cause of educating the impoverished peasants of his nation and [[collaboration|collaborating]] with them in the pursuit of their liberation from oppression, [[Paulo Freire]] contributes a philosophy of education that comes not only from the more classical approaches stemming from Plato, but also from modern Marxist and anti-colonialist thinkers. In fact, in many ways his ''Pedagogy of the Oppressed'' may best be read as an extension of or reply to [[Frantz Fanon]]'s ''Wretched of the Earth'', which laid strong emphasis on the need to provide native populations with an education which was simultaneously new and modern (rather than traditional) and anti-colonial (that is, that was not simply an extension of the culture of the colonizer).

Freire is best-known for his attack on what he called the [[banking concept of education]], in which the student was viewed as an empty account to be filled by the teacher. Of course, this is not really a new move--Rousseau's conception of the child as an active learner was already a step away from the ''[[tabula rasa]]'' (which is basically the same as the "banking concept"), and thinkers like [[John Dewey]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]] were strongly critical of the transmission of mere facts as the goal of education.

More challenging, however, is Freire's strong aversion to the teacher-student dichotomy. This dichotomy is admitted in Rousseau and constrained in Dewey, but Freire comes close to insisting that it should be completely abolished. Critics have argued that this is impossible (there must be some enactment of the teacher-student relationship in the parent-child relationship), but what Freire suggests is that a deep reciprocity be inserted into our notions of teacher and student. Freire wants us to think in terms of teacher-student and student-teacher, that is, a teacher who learns and a learner who teaches, as the basic roles of classroom participation.

This is one of the few attempts anywhere to implement something like democracy as an educational method and not merely a goal of democratic education. Even Dewey, for whom democracy was a touchstone, did not integrate democratic practices fully into his methods. (Though this is in part a function of his peculiar attitudes toward individuality and his idea of democracy as a way of living rather than merely a polticial practice or method.) However, in its early, strong form this kind of classroom has sometimes been criticized on the grounds that it can mask rather than overcome the teacher's authority.

Freire's work is widely-read by educationalists but is less respected among philosophers.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Aspects of the Freirian philosophy have been highly influential in academic debates over 'participatory development' and development more generally. Freire's emphasis on emancipation through interactive participation has been used as a rationale for the participatory focus of development, as it is held that 'participation' in any fora can lead to empowerment of poor or marginalised groups. Critics argue that the inherently undemocratic, unequal nature of development projects forecloses any possibility of Freirian emancipation, but many cling to the 'empowering potential' of development.

=== Neil Postman and the Inquiry Method ===
'''Date:''' 1931-2003

[[Neil Postman]] has been a strong contemporary voice in both methods and philosophy of education. His 1969 book "Teaching as a Subversive Activity" (co-authored with Charles Weingartner) introduced the concept of a school driven by the [[inquiry method]], the basis of which is to get the students themselves to ask and answer relevant questions. The "teacher" (the two authors disdained the term and thought a new one should be used) would be limited in the number of declarative sentences he could utter per class, as well as questions he personally knew the answer to. The aim of this type of inquiry would be to provide the conditions for students to build progressively what they don't know on top of what they do, and for the teacher to understand, through close listening, what the student knows, from where he/she can continue to provide the conditions for the learner to progress, and develop their understanding. This may be opposed to methods based on answers and knowing rather than understanding.

Postman went on to write several more books on education, notably "Teaching as a Conserving Activity" and "The End of Education." The latter deals with the importance of goals or "gods" to students, and Postman suggests several "gods" capable of replacing the current ones offered in schools, namely, [[Economic Utility]] and [[Consumerism]].

===Jerome Bruner===
'''Date:''' 1915-

Another important contributor to the inquiry method in education is [[Jerome Bruner]]. His books "The Process of Education" and "Toward a Theory of Instruction" are landmarks in conceptualizing learning and curriculum development. He argued that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. This notion was an underpinning for his concept of the spiral curriculum which posited the idea that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas, building on them until the student had grasped the full formal concept. He emphasized intuition as a neglected but essential feature of productive thinking. He felt that interest in the material being learned was the best stimulis for learning rather than external motivation such as grades. Bruner developed the concept of [[discovery learning]] which promoted learning as a process of constructing new ideas based on current or past knowledge. Students are encouraged to discover facts and relationships and continually build on what they already know.

=== John Taylor Gatto ===
{{main|John Taylor Gatto}}

'''Date:''' 1937-

Spiritual successor to ''[[The Hidden Curriculum]]'', Gatto takes a historical view of educational systems as primarily and purposefully [[socialization|socializing]] and [[normative]], as opposed to the stated goal as a vehicle for individual [[personal development]].<ref>[http://www.cantrip.org/gatto.html The Six-Lesson Schoolteacher]</ref>

===John Caldwell Holt===
{{main|John Caldwell Holt}}

'''Date:''' 1923-1985

A teacher and an observer of children and education, Holt asserted that the academic failure of schoolchildren was not in spite of the efforts of schools, but actually a product of the schools themselves. Not surprisingly his first book, ''How Children Fail'' (published in 1964), ignited a firestorm of controversy. Holt was catapulted into the American national consciousness to the extent that he made appearances on major TV talk shows, wrote book reviews for ''Life'' magazine, and was a guest on the ''To Tell The Truth'' TV game show.<ref>''The Old Schoolhouse Meets Up with Patrick Farenga About the Legacy of John Holt'', http://www.thehomeschoolmagazine.com/How_To_Homeschool/articles/articles.php?aid=97</ref> In his follow-up work, ''How Children Learn'', 1967, he tried to demonstrate the learning process of children and why he believed school short circuits this process.

In neither book had he suggested any alternative to institutional schooling; he had hoped to initiate a profound rethinking of education to make schools friendlier toward children. As the years passed he became convinced that the way schools were was what society wanted, and that a serious re-examination was not going to happen in his lifetime.

Leaving teaching to publicize his ideas about education full time, he encountered books by other authors questioning the premises and efficacy of compulsory schooling, like ''Deschooling Society'' by [[Ivan Illich]], 1970, and ''No More Public School'' by Harold Bennet, 1972 (which went so far as to offer advice to parents on how to keep their children out of school illegally). Then, in 1976, he published ''Instead of Education; Ways to Help People Do Things Better''. In its conclusion he called for a "Children's Underground Railroad" to help children escape compulsory schooling.<ref>''The Old Schoolhouse Meets Up with Patrick Farenga About the Legacy of John Holt'' , http://www.thehomeschoolmagazine.com/How_To_Homeschool/articles/articles.php?aid=97</ref> In response, families from around the U.S. contacted Holt to tell him that they were educating their children at home. In 1977, after corresponding with a number of these families, Holt began producing a magazine dedicated to home education (which he called [[unschooling]]: [[Growing Without Schooling]].<ref name="BHHS"/>) Today, "unschooling" is synonymous with Holt's educational philosophy.

Holt's philosophy was simple: "... the human animal is a learning animal; we like to learn; we are good at it; we don't need to be shown how or made to do it. What kills the processes are the people interfering with it or trying to regulate it or control it."[http://www.naturalchild.org/guest/marlene_bumgarner.html]
It was no great leap from there to arrive at homeschooling, and Holt later said, in 1980, "I want to make it clear that I don’t see homeschooling as some kind of answer to badness of schools. I think that the home is the proper base for the exploration of the world which we call learning or education. Home would be the best base no matter how good the schools were."[http://www.naturalchild.org/guest/marlene_bumgarner.html]

Holt actually wrote only one book about homeschooling, ''Teach Your Own'', 1981, and continued to hope for more expansive reform within education until his death in 1985.

===Martin Heidegger===
{{main|Martin Heidegger}}
{{main|Educational Philosophy of Martin Heidegger}}

'''Date:''' 1889-1976

=== Richard Mitchell ===
{{main|Richard Mitchell}}

'''Date:''' 1929-2002

Richard Mitchell, a professor at [[Glassboro State College]] and author of ''The Underground Grammarian'', criticized the state of modern education, especially [[public education|public]] and [[higher education]], while developing theories regarding [[language]], [[ethics]], and the relationship of education to these, in four books and many essays written between 1977 and 1991.

=== Allan Bloom ===
{{main|Allan Bloom}}

'''Date:''' 1930-1992

Allan Bloom, a professor of [[political science]] at the [[University of Chicago]], argued for a traditional [[Great Books]]-based [[liberal education]] in his lengthy essay ''[[The Closing of the American Mind]]''.

===Marshall Rosenberg===
{{main|Marshall Rosenberg}}

'''Date:''' 1934-

While [[Marshall Rosenberg]] is most well known for his work with conflict resolution through his system of "life-serving" [[Nonviolent Communication]] (NVC), he has also made education reform a major component of his work.

Building on the ideas of [[Neil Postman]], [[Riane Eisler]], [[Walter Wink]], [[Carl Rogers]] and others, Rosenberg's contribution to this field involves reforming schools into "Life-Enriching" organizations, with the following characteristics:<ref>Rosenberg, Marshall B., Life-Enriching Education, 2003, Puddle Dancer Press</ref>

* The people are empathically connected to what each is feeling and needing—-they do not blame themselves or let judgments implying wrongness obscure this connection to each other.
* The people are aware of the interdependent nature of their relationships and value the others’ needs being fulfilled equally to their own needs being fulfilled—-they know that their needs cannot be met at someone else’s expense.
* The people take care of themselves and each other with the sole intention of enriching their lives—they are not motivated by, nor do they use coercion in the form of guilt, shame, duty, obligation, fear of punishment, or hope for extrinsic rewards.

The goals of such schools being

* Make life more wonderful
* Get everyone's needs met
* Connect with self and others
* Motivate through the joy of natural giving, i.e., contributing to the well-being of others
* Learning how to receive freely from others

This is in contrast with traditional "domination culture" schools which

* Prove who's right and who's wrong (e.g., grades)
* Teach students how to obey authority
* Dispense labels, evaluations, diagnoses, and moralistic judgements (e.g., Learning Disabled, [[Special Needs]], Emotionally Disturbed, Culturally Disadvantaged, [[Hyperactive]], [[ADD]], etc.)
* Motivate desired behavior through [[punishment]], [[reward]], [[guilt]], [[shame]], [[duty]], or [[obligation]].

Rosenberg borrows the term Dominator Culture from [[Riane Eisler]], and builds upon the theory by [[Walter Wink]] that we have lived under a domination-culture paradigm for about 8,000 years. Rosenberg says this culture utilizes a specialized language and system of education to allow a small minority to rule over the vast majority of the people, so that the majority is not serving their own life-needs, but serving their masters'.

== Critical responses and counter-philosophies ==

Critics have accused the philosophy of education of being one the weakest subfields of [[education]], disconnected from <s>from</s> the broader study and practice of education (by being too philosophical, too theoretical). The philosophy of education is generally less well respected than even continental philosophy by professional philosophers, for being frequently incoherent, contradictory, inconsistent, and insufficiently rigorous.

Its proponents state that it is an exacting and critical branch of philosophy and point out that there are few major philosophers who have not written on education, and who do not consider the philosophy of education a necessity. For example, [[Plato]] undertakes to discuss all these elements in ''The Republic'', beginning the formulation of educational philosophy that endures today. This response is sufficient to prove the point that the Philosophy of education is practiced and taken seriously by individuals who have nothing to do with professional philosophy.

==Professional Organizations and Associations==
{| border="1" class="sortable"
! Organisation !! Nationality !! Philosophy !! Comment
|-
| International Network of Philosophers of Education || || || INPE is dedicated to fostering dialogue amongst philosophers of education around the world. It sponsors an international conference every other year.
|-
| [http://www.pesa.org.au Philosophy of Education Society of Australasia] || Australiasia
|-
| Canadian Philosophy of Education Society || Canada || || CPES is devoted to philosophical inquiry into educational issues and their relevance for developing educative, caring, and just teachers, schools, and communities. The society welcomes inquiries about membership from professionals and graduate students who share these interests.
|-
| Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain || UK || || PESGB promotes the study, teaching and application of philosophy of education. It has an international membership. The site provides: a guide to the Society's activities and details about the Journal of Philosophy of Education and IMPACT.
|-
| The Spencer Foundation || USA || || The Spencer Foundation provides funding for investigations that promise to yield new knowledge about education in the United States or abroad. The Foundation funds research grants that range in size from smaller grants that can be completed within a year, to larger, multi-year endeavours.
|-
| Society for the Philosophical Study of Education || USA, Midwest || || This Society is a professional association of philosophers of education which holds annual meetings in the Midwest region of the United States of America and sponsors a discussion forum and a Graduate Student Competition.
|-
| Ohio Valley Philosophy of Education Society || USA, Ohio Valley || || OVPES is a professional association of philosophers of education. We host an annual conference in the Ohio Valley region of the United States of America and sponsor a refereed journal: Philosophical Studies in Education.
|-
| Philosophy of Education Society || USA || || PES is the national society for philosophy of education in the United States of America. This site provides information about PES, its services, history, and publications, and links to online resources relevant to the philosophy of education.
|-
| Humanities Research Network || || || The Humanities Research Network is designed to encourage new ways of thinking about the overlapping domains of knowledge which are represented by the arts, humanities, social sciences, other related fields like law, and matauranga Maori, and new relationships among their practitioners.
|-
| Study Space for Philosophy and Education || USA, Columbia University || || This study place exists for persons who wish to engage in philosophy and education because both have value for them, quite apart from their professional responsibilities. We think networked digital information resources will enable people to reverse this ever-narrowing professionalism. This site is maintained at the Institute for Learning Technologies, Teachers College, Columbia University.
|-
| Austrian Ludwig Wittgenstein Society || Austria || Ludwig Wittgenstein || The aim is to discuss present-day problems in the framework of a philosophy which is methodologically explicit and whose results are presented perspicuously. The spectrum of philosophical problems extends from philosophy of science, epistemology and logic to ethics and the humanities.
|-
| Association for Process Philosophy of Education || || Process Philosophers || The APPE is an international organization of scholars and teachers dedicated to the ideas of process philosophers (Whitehead, Dewey, and Bergson) and their application to educational practice.
|-
| Center for Dewey Studies || USA, Southern Illonois University || Process Philosophers; Dewey || The Center for Dewey Studies at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale was established in 1961 as the "Dewey Project." By virtue of its publications and research, the Center has become the international focal point for research on John Dewey's life and work.
|-
| John Dewey Society || || Process Philosophers; Dewey || The John Dewey Society exists to keep alive John Dewey's commitment to the use of critical and reflective intelligence in the search for solutions to crucial problems in education and culture.
|-
| Michael Oakeshott Association || || Michael Oakeshott || An association devoted to the promotion and critical discussion of the work of British philosopher Michael Oakeshott (1901-1990).
|}

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.vusst.hr/ENCYCLOPAEDIA/main.htm Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Education]
* [http://www.philosophyofeducation.org/ Philosophy of Education Society (U.S.)]
* [http://www.philosophyofeducation.ca/ Canadian Philosophy of Education Society]
* [http://www.philosophy-of-education.org/ Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain]
* [http://www.pesa.org.au/ Philosophy of Education Society of Australasia]
* [http://www.ucm.es/info/inpe/index.htm International Network of Philosophers of Education]
* [http://webs.csu.edu/~amakedon/mpes/mpes.html Society for the Philosophical Study of Education]
* [http://www.studyplace.org/ StudyPlace]

{{Philosophy navigation}}

[[Category:Educational philosophy]]

[[cs:Filosofie výchovy]]
[[da:Pædagogisk filosofi]]
[[de:Bildungstheorie]]
[[fr:Philosophie de l'éducation]]
[[gl:Filosofía da educación]]
[[ja:教育哲学]]
[[ro:Filozofia educaţiei]]
[[fi:Kasvatusfilosofia]]
[[tr:Eğitim felsefesi]]
[[zh:教育哲學]]

Traditional education

2008-02-08T19:18:03Z

206.102.240.2:

{{POV|date=December 2007}}
'''Traditional education''' is a long-established and generally accepted custom that is found in schools that society deems appropriate. Advocates of [[education reform]] want to promote the adoption of progressive education practices. In the eyes of reformers, traditional methods must be transformed to a high-performance system. However, many parents and conservative citizens prefer retaining time-tested methodology. In order to define reformed methods, it is first necessary to define what is traditional.

Here is a list of some of the areas of traditional education, and how they compare with some popular reform movements.

Traditional education denotes a time tested set of strategies meant develop student’s minds so that they can better participate in American society as informed, independent thinkers. Traditional education is largely misunderstood and derided as extremist. In fact, most of what would be termed "traditional education" actually produces superior results and more independent thinkers as compared to progressive, student centered approaches.

Traditional education rejects the romantic, Rousseauian notion that all children are naturally inclined to learn and that the teacher is merely a guide who must find the student's learning style and adjust the learning environment accordingly. Instead, to the traditionalist, most students, most of the time would be doing something other than academic learning if given the choice. To the traditionalist, the student's mind needs to be molded into one that can think independently. This is achieved, perhaps paradoxically, by informing the young mind with information, through practice and drill, memorization and correction- all the building blocks of higher thinking. According to the traditionalist, these activities build the mind rather than deaden it as progressive educationist would argue.

Moreover, and contrary to popular opinion, traditional approaches have produced superior results to progressive, students-centered models. Jeanne Chall, a reading specialist at Harvard University School of Education and a self-proclaimed liberal, denounced progressive, student-centered approaches shortly before her death in 2000, in her book the ''Achievement Challenge''. In fact, she makes clear that no more research is needed: teacher-centered learning helps all students achieve much better than student-centered methods, and in fact the latter can even cause harm. E.D. Hirsch echoes Chall's sentiments, as well as a number of other education scholars who reject the student-centered orthodoxy. Probably the most significant argument for traditional education can be found in the findings of Project Follow Through, which shows how the results brought by teacher-centered Direct Instruction are far superior to student-centered, progressive models tested in the same study.

The student-centered, progressive models are irresistible to many people and seem right, just like it seems right that the sun moves through the sky as one lies on the beach on a sunny day. But deeper analysis holds the opposite. Unfortunately, Traditionalists are seen as the heretics today in an education establishment dominated by progressives.

Instruction Centre==
{| border="1"
! Topic !! Traditional approach !! Alternate approaches
|-
| Person
| Teacher-centred instruction:
* [[Educational essentialism]]
* [[Educational perennialism]]
| Student-centred instruction:
* [[Educational progressivism]]
|-
|Classroom
|Students always matched by age, and possibly also by ability. All students in a classroom learn the same material.
|Students dynamically grouped by interest or ability for each project or subject, with the possibility of different groups each hour of the day. Multi-age classrooms or open classrooms.[http://www.montessori-namta.org/NAMTA/geninfo/compar.html]
|-
|Teaching methods
|Traditional education emphasizes:
* [[Direct instruction]] and lectures
* [[Seatwork]]
* Students learn through listening and observation[http://www.canteach.ca/elementary/fnations2.html]
|Progressive education emphasizes:
* Hands-on activities
* Student-led discovery
* Group activities
|-
| Materials || Instruction based on textbooks, lectures, and individual written assignments: What is the name and size of the nation's capitol/parliament building? || Project-based instruction: Work in a small group to build a model of the nation's capitol/parliament building out of 100 toothpicks.
|-
| Subjects || Individual, independent subjects.
Little connection between topics[http://www.montessori-namta.org/NAMTA/geninfo/compar.html]
|| Integrated, interdisciplinary subjects or theme-based units, such as reading a story about cooking a meal and calculating the cost of the food.
|-
|Social aspects || Little or no attention to social development.[http://www.montessori-namta.org/NAMTA/geninfo/compar.html]
Students attend school to learn reading and math, not to develop social skills.
|| Significant attention to social development, including teamwork, interpersonal relationships, and self-awareness.
|-
| Multiple tracks || Students choose (or are forced into) different kinds of classes according to their perceived abilities or career plans.
Decisions made early in education may preclude changes later, as a student on a [[vo-tech]] track may not have completed necessary prerequisite classes to switch to a university-preparation program.
||
* A single, unified curriculum for all students, regardless of ability or interest.
* Diverse class offerings without tracking, so that students receive a custom-tailored education.
* With [[School to work]], academically weak students must take some advanced classes, while the college bound may have to spend half-days job shadowing at local businesses.
|-
| Student and teacher relationship || Students address teachers formally by their last names. The teacher is a respected role model in the community. Students should obey the teacher. || In [[alternative school]]s, students may be allowed to call teachers by their first names. Students and teachers may work together as collaborators instead of in an authoritarian relationship.
|}

==Marking==

{| border="1"
! Topic !! Traditional approach !! Alternate approaches
|-
| Communicating with parents || A single number, letter, or word summarizes overall achievement in each class. Marks may be assigned according to objective [[Criterion-referenced test|individual performance]] (usually the number of correct answers) or [[Norm-referenced test|compared to other students]] (best students get the best grades, worst students get poor grades).
A passing grade may or may not signify mastery: a failing student may know the material but not complete homework assignments, and a passing student may turn in all homework but still not understand the material.
|| Many possible forms of communicating achievements:
* Teachers may be required to write personalized narrative evaluations about student achievement and abilities.
* Under [[Outcome-based education|standards-based education]], a government agency may require all students are required to pass a test; students who fail to perform adequately on the test may not be promoted.
|-
| Expectations || Students will graduate with different grades. Schools believe that some students are essentially incapable of learning the necessary skills and information; those students will fail. || All students need to achieve a basic level of education, even if this means spending extra years in school.
|-
| Grade inflation/deflation || Achievement based on performance compared to a reasonably stable, probably informal standard which is highly similar to what previous students experienced. || The value of any given mark is often poorly standardized in alternative grading schemes. Comparison of students in different classes may be difficult or impossible.
|}

==Subject Areas==

{| border="1"
! Topic !! Traditional approach !! Alternate approaches
|-
| Mathematics || [[Traditional mathematics]]:
* Emphasis on memorization of basic facts.
* Getting the correct answer is not sufficient: problems must be solved exactly the way the textbook uses in today's lesson. Students will always be told what method to use.
||
* Emphasis on practical applications and hands-on illustrations.
* Broad curriculum covers more than basic facts.
* Appropriate mathematical reasoning ("showing your work") is graded instead of an exclusive focus on the final answer. For example, in high mathematics, students may be told the final answer to an equation, and asked to prove the answer correct.
|-
| Science || Fact-based science: Science class is an opportunity to transmit concrete knowledge and specific vocabulary from the teacher (or textbook) to the students. Students are expected to believe whatever they are told. || With [[Inquiry-based Science]] a student might be asked to devise an experiment to demonstrate that the earth orbits the sun. The emphasis changes from memorizing information which was learned through a scientific method to actually using the scientific method of discovery.
|-
| Language learning || [[Phonics]]: The focus is on the mechanics of decoding individual words. Students may spend more time doing worksheets about subskills such as consonant blends than they spend actually reading. || With [[Whole language]] the child is exposed to rich, relevant language such as "recycling is beneficial to the environment", rather than the mechanics of phonics or spelling.
|}

==See also==
* [[Classical education movement]], which emphasizes Western Civilization

{{Standards-based Education Reform}}

[[Category:Education reform]]
[[Category:Curricula]]
[[Category:Educational philosophy]]

[[tr:Klasik eğitim]]

Bret Schundler

2008-02-08T18:36:47Z

206.102.240.2:

'''Bret D. Schundler''' (born [[January 14]], [[1959]] in [[Colonia, New Jersey]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] [[politician]] from the [[U.S. state]] of [[New Jersey]]. He was the [[mayor]] of [[Jersey City, New Jersey|Jersey City]] from 1992 until 2001. He was the unsuccessful Republican nominee for [[Governor of New Jersey]] in 2001 and he was an unsuccessful candidate for the [[New Jersey gubernatorial election, 2005|Republican gubernatorial nomination in 2005]].

==Pre-Political career==
Schundler grew up in [[Woodbridge Township, New Jersey|Woodbridge Township]] and [[Westfield, New Jersey]] as the youngest of nine children. In [[high school]], he was an All-State [[American football|football]] player. He was recruited by [[Harvard University]], where, to help pay for his tuition, he washed dishes, cleaned bathrooms, and worked as a security guard. He graduated with honors in 1981. Schundler's ethnic heritage is [[Germany|German]] and [[Barbadian]].

Following his graduation from college, Schundler worked for [[Liberal|liberal]] Democratic [[United States House of Representatives|Congressman]] [[Roy Dyson]] of [[Maryland]]. He later worked for [[Gary Hart]]'s 1984 [[President of the United States|presidential]] campaign. After Hart lost the primary, Schundler began his career in finance in the sales department of [[Salomon Brothers]]. While he had no experience in the field, his interviewer thought that anyone who could sell Hart in western [[Iowa]] had a future in finance. In 1987, he moved to a different firm, [[C. J. Lawrence]], which has since been absorbed into [[Deutsche Bank]]. He retired in 1990, and after traveling around the world for a year, changed his registration to Republican. Unlike most New Jersey Republicans, he soon became very conservative.

==Mayor of Jersey City==

His first run for elective office was an unsuccessful campaign for the [[New Jersey Senate]] in 1991, where despite the partisan nature of the election and the overwhelmingly Democratic composition of the district (only 6% of voters were registered Republicans), Schundler received 46% of the vote. The next year, [[Gerald McCann]] was removed as mayor of Jersey City because of a criminal conviction unrelated to his public duties, and Schundler entered the special election to finish the remaining eight months of McCann's term.

On paper, Schundler faced nearly impossible odds. At the time, Republicans only counted for 6 percent of Jersey City's registered voters, and a Republican had not made a serious bid for mayor in decades. However, with 19 candidates (including 17 Democrats) splitting the vote, Schundler won by a narrow margin to become the first Republican mayor of Jersey City since 1917.

Once in the office, Schundler quickly gained an unshakable reputation for honesty that cut across party lines, and subsequently won a full term in 1993 with 69% of the vote –- the largest margin of victory since Jersey City returned to the [[Faulkner Act (Mayor-Council)|Mayor-Council]] form of government in 1961, and according to some sources, in the city's entire history. He won a second full term almost as easily in 1997.

During his tenure as mayor, Schundler significantly lowered crime, lowered property taxes, increased the city's tax collection rate and property values, instituted [[medical savings account]]s for city employees, privatized the management of the city's water utility and library, and led the fight to pass New Jersey's [[charter school]] legislation. Moreover, according to a Harvard University study<ref>[http://www.isc.hbs.edu/pdf/ICEF_2005.11.15.pdf State of the Inner City Economies: New Learning]</ref>, during his tenure Jersey City led the 100 largest cities in America in job growth and poverty reduction.

Schundler attracted considerable national attention because he was a conservative Republican in an overwhelmingly Democratic city. However, his image as a politician who couldn't be "bought off," combined with his innovative reforms, strongly resonated in a city with a long legacy of corruption dating to the days of [[Frank Hague]]. For example, he carried predominantly [[African American]] precincts by margins previously unheard of for a Republican during his two re-election campaigns.

Although Schundler won two landslide re-elections, no permanent swing to the Republican Party occurred in Jersey City. Jersey City has been a Democratic stronghold for over a century, with Democrats dominating every level of government. Indeed, on the same night as Schundler's special election win, [[Bill Clinton]] carried [[Hudson County, New Jersey|Hudson County]] (which includes Jersey City) by an overwhelming margin, which was enough to swing New Jersey into the Democratic column for the first time since [[U.S. presidential election, 1964|1964]]. Clinton carried Hudson County by an even larger margin in 1996. Additionally, no Republican has represented a significant portion of Jersey City in Congress in over a century, and Schundler was succeeded by a Democrat, [[Glenn Cunningham (New Jersey)|Glenn Cunningham]], in 2001.

==2001 gubernatorial campaign==

Towards the end of his tenure as mayor, Schundler served as chairman of the Hudson County Republican Committee, and in 2001, Schundler won the Republican gubernatorial nomination, facing former Congressman [[Bob Franks]], a considerably more moderate Republican who was favored by the party establishment. Franks entered the race in April, two months before the primary, after Gov. [[Donald DiFrancesco]] dropped out of the race because of an unending series of newspaper stories highlighting ethics concerns. He was backed by Gov. DiFrancesco's political organization and endorsed by every county Republican committee except Schundler's base in Hudson County.

Schundler employed a more grassroots style of campaigning, visiting many local GOP organizations and forming close relationships with the [[Young Republicans]] and the [[College Republicans]], as well as with conservative groups, including those active in [[homeschooling]] issues. The grassroots support he built up enabled him to win the nomination by a robust 15-point margin.

After winning the primary, Schundler tried to reunite the party by reaching out to the figures who had endorsed Franks. This included having a unity lunch with Franks which was hosted by former Gov. [[Thomas Kean|Tom Kean]], and retaining [[New Jersey Senate|New Jersey State Senator]] [[Joseph M. Kyrillos]] as state party chairman. Kyrillos had been appointed by DiFrancesco as state party chairman six weeks before the primary, and he had supported Franks in the primary. However, the party remained split. The Democratic candidate, [[Woodbridge Township, New Jersey|Woodbridge Township]] Mayor [[Jim McGreevey]] (the unsuccessful Democratic candidate in 1997), exploited this division by painting Schundler as too conservative for New Jersey. In the November election, Schundler was badly defeated, gaining 42% of the vote to McGreevey's 56%. He even lost Hudson County by 50,000 votes.

Schundler did not run for office again until the 2005 gubernatorial campaign, but remained as one of the most visible spokesmen for conservative Republicans in New Jersey.

==2005 gubernatorial campaign==

Schundler's [[New Jersey gubernatorial election, 2005|2005 gubernatorial campaign]] focused on the issue of property taxes. He proposed a series of state constitutional amendments to control state and local spending in New Jersey, with the savings dedicated to property tax reduction statewide.

As in 2001, Schundler focused mostly on grassroots campaigning. However, he also targeted Republican County Conventions to spread his message and won several county endorsements, including in Monmouth, Hunterdon, and Somerset counties as well as his base in Hudson County.

In the week before the primary election, Schundler's campaign was criticized for using a photograph on its website that showed Schundler apparently standing with a crowd of enthusiastic young supporters. The photograph, which appeared for only a few days on a web page advertising campaign t-shirts and mugs, had actually been taken at a [[Howard Dean]] rally in 2004, with Dean's image digitally replaced by Schundler's and with campaign signs, hats, and shirts modified as well. <ref>[http://www.bergen.com/page.php?qstr=eXJpcnk3ZjczN2Y3dnFlZUVFeXk2MDcmZmdiZWw3Zjd2cWVlRUV5eTY3MDMxOTEmeXJpcnk3ZjcxN2Y3dnFlZUVFeXky Bergen Record]</ref>Schundler's campaign responded that the photograph had been prepared by the campaign's website contractor (which had done work for the Dean campaign), and that the campaign had had the picture taken down when it learned of the miscue.

Schundler lost the primary to [[Doug Forrester]], who had been New Jersey's Republican nominee for United States Senate in 2002, and who had been a former mayor of West Windsor, former assistant state treasurer, and former state pensions director, before becoming a wealthy businessperson, enabling him to outspend Schundler during the campaign by about 6-1. The results were:

* Forrester: 35%
* Schundler: 31%
* [[Morris County, New Jersey|Morris County]] [[Board of Chosen Freeholders|Freeholder]] [[John Murphy]]: 11%
* [[Bogota, New Jersey|Bogota]] Mayor [[Steve Lonegan]]: 8%
* [[Washington Township, Bergen County, New Jersey|Washington Township]] Councilman [[Bob Schroeder]]: 6%
* [[New Jersey General Assembly|Assemblyman]] [[Paul DiGaetano]]: 6%
* Former [[Bergen County, New Jersey|Bergen County]] Freeholder [[Todd Caliguire]]: 3%

Schundler carried [[Union County, New Jersey|Union]], Hudson, Hunterdon and Somerset counties. He had the county line in Somerset and Hudson and shared it with Forrester in Hunterdon. Forrester held the county line in Union County, which was the only county where he had the line but still lost in the primary.

==Current activities and family==

Schundler is currently ([[as of 2007]]) the Managing Partner of People Power America, LLC, which licenses TeamVolunteer, an online utility that helps political campaigns and non-profit organizations coordinate phone banks. Additionally, in January 2007, Schundler took a teaching position at The King's College, a rigorous academic institution located in the Empire State Building. Schundler, known for his excellent writing ability, teaches argumentation and rhetoric, and is the Director of The Policy Center at The King's Collge

Schundler and his wife, Lynn, have two children, a daughter named Shaylin and a son named Hans Otto III. They live in Jersey City.

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
* [http://www.bretschundler.org/ Official Campaign web site]
* [http://www.njfaq.com/bret2001/preex/milestones.shtml "Bret Schundler's Milestones"] - campaign biography
* [http://www.empowerthepeople.org/ Empower the People website]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title=[[List of mayors of Jersey City, New Jersey|Mayor of Jersey City]]|
before=[[Joseph Rakowski]]|
after=[[Glenn Cunningham (New Jersey)|Glenn Cunningham]]|
years=1992–2001|}}
{{succession box|
title= [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Nominee for [[Governor of New Jersey]] Lost|
before=[[Christine Todd Whitman]] Won|
after=[[Douglas Forrester]] Lost|
years=2001}}
{{end box}}
{{JrsyCtyMayors}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Schundler, Bret}}
[[Category:Mayors of Jersey City, New Jersey]]
[[Category:New Jersey politicians]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:American Christians]]
[[Category:People from Union County, New Jersey]]
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Bret Schundler

2008-02-08T18:34:15Z

206.102.240.2: /* Pre-Political career */

'''Brad C. Schundler''' (born [[January 14]], [[1959]] in [[Colonia, New Jersey]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] [[politician]] from the [[U.S. state]] of [[New Jersey]]. He was the [[mayor]] of [[Jersey City, New Jersey|Jersey City]] from 1992 until 2001. He was the unsuccessful Republican nominee for [[Governor of New Jersey]] in 2001 and he was an unsuccessful candidate for the [[New Jersey gubernatorial election, 2005|Republican gubernatorial nomination in 2005]].

==Pre-Political career==
Schundler grew up in [[Woodbridge Township, New Jersey|Woodbridge Township]] and [[Westfield, New Jersey]] as the youngest of nine children. In [[high school]], he was an All-State [[American football|football]] player. He was recruited by [[Harvard University]], where, to help pay for his tuition, he washed dishes, cleaned bathrooms, and worked as a security guard. He graduated with honors in 1981. Schundler's ethnic heritage is [[Germany|German]] and [[Barbadian]].

Following his graduation from college, Schundler worked for [[Liberal|liberal]] Democratic [[United States House of Representatives|Congressman]] [[Roy Dyson]] of [[Maryland]]. He later worked for [[Gary Hart]]'s 1984 [[President of the United States|presidential]] campaign. After Hart lost the primary, Schundler began his career in finance in the sales department of [[Salomon Brothers]]. While he had no experience in the field, his interviewer thought that anyone who could sell Hart in western [[Iowa]] had a future in finance. In 1987, he moved to a different firm, [[C. J. Lawrence]], which has since been absorbed into [[Deutsche Bank]]. He retired in 1990, and after traveling around the world for a year, changed his registration to Republican. Unlike most New Jersey Republicans, he soon became very conservative.

==Mayor of Jersey City==

His first run for elective office was an unsuccessful campaign for the [[New Jersey Senate]] in 1991, where despite the partisan nature of the election and the overwhelmingly Democratic composition of the district (only 6% of voters were registered Republicans), Schundler received 46% of the vote. The next year, [[Gerald McCann]] was removed as mayor of Jersey City because of a criminal conviction unrelated to his public duties, and Schundler entered the special election to finish the remaining eight months of McCann's term.

On paper, Schundler faced nearly impossible odds. At the time, Republicans only counted for 6 percent of Jersey City's registered voters, and a Republican had not made a serious bid for mayor in decades. However, with 19 candidates (including 17 Democrats) splitting the vote, Schundler won by a narrow margin to become the first Republican mayor of Jersey City since 1917.

Once in the office, Schundler quickly gained an unshakable reputation for honesty that cut across party lines, and subsequently won a full term in 1993 with 69% of the vote –- the largest margin of victory since Jersey City returned to the [[Faulkner Act (Mayor-Council)|Mayor-Council]] form of government in 1961, and according to some sources, in the city's entire history. He won a second full term almost as easily in 1997.

During his tenure as mayor, Schundler significantly lowered crime, lowered property taxes, increased the city's tax collection rate and property values, instituted [[medical savings account]]s for city employees, privatized the management of the city's water utility and library, and led the fight to pass New Jersey's [[charter school]] legislation. Moreover, according to a Harvard University study<ref>[http://www.isc.hbs.edu/pdf/ICEF_2005.11.15.pdf State of the Inner City Economies: New Learning]</ref>, during his tenure Jersey City led the 100 largest cities in America in job growth and poverty reduction.

Schundler attracted considerable national attention because he was a conservative Republican in an overwhelmingly Democratic city. However, his image as a politician who couldn't be "bought off," combined with his innovative reforms, strongly resonated in a city with a long legacy of corruption dating to the days of [[Frank Hague]]. For example, he carried predominantly [[African American]] precincts by margins previously unheard of for a Republican during his two re-election campaigns.

Although Schundler won two landslide re-elections, no permanent swing to the Republican Party occurred in Jersey City. Jersey City has been a Democratic stronghold for over a century, with Democrats dominating every level of government. Indeed, on the same night as Schundler's special election win, [[Bill Clinton]] carried [[Hudson County, New Jersey|Hudson County]] (which includes Jersey City) by an overwhelming margin, which was enough to swing New Jersey into the Democratic column for the first time since [[U.S. presidential election, 1964|1964]]. Clinton carried Hudson County by an even larger margin in 1996. Additionally, no Republican has represented a significant portion of Jersey City in Congress in over a century, and Schundler was succeeded by a Democrat, [[Glenn Cunningham (New Jersey)|Glenn Cunningham]], in 2001.

==2001 gubernatorial campaign==

Towards the end of his tenure as mayor, Schundler served as chairman of the Hudson County Republican Committee, and in 2001, Schundler won the Republican gubernatorial nomination, facing former Congressman [[Bob Franks]], a considerably more moderate Republican who was favored by the party establishment. Franks entered the race in April, two months before the primary, after Gov. [[Donald DiFrancesco]] dropped out of the race because of an unending series of newspaper stories highlighting ethics concerns. He was backed by Gov. DiFrancesco's political organization and endorsed by every county Republican committee except Schundler's base in Hudson County.

Schundler employed a more grassroots style of campaigning, visiting many local GOP organizations and forming close relationships with the [[Young Republicans]] and the [[College Republicans]], as well as with conservative groups, including those active in [[homeschooling]] issues. The grassroots support he built up enabled him to win the nomination by a robust 15-point margin.

After winning the primary, Schundler tried to reunite the party by reaching out to the figures who had endorsed Franks. This included having a unity lunch with Franks which was hosted by former Gov. [[Thomas Kean|Tom Kean]], and retaining [[New Jersey Senate|New Jersey State Senator]] [[Joseph M. Kyrillos]] as state party chairman. Kyrillos had been appointed by DiFrancesco as state party chairman six weeks before the primary, and he had supported Franks in the primary. However, the party remained split. The Democratic candidate, [[Woodbridge Township, New Jersey|Woodbridge Township]] Mayor [[Jim McGreevey]] (the unsuccessful Democratic candidate in 1997), exploited this division by painting Schundler as too conservative for New Jersey. In the November election, Schundler was badly defeated, gaining 42% of the vote to McGreevey's 56%. He even lost Hudson County by 50,000 votes.

Schundler did not run for office again until the 2005 gubernatorial campaign, but remained as one of the most visible spokesmen for conservative Republicans in New Jersey.

==2005 gubernatorial campaign==

Schundler's [[New Jersey gubernatorial election, 2005|2005 gubernatorial campaign]] focused on the issue of property taxes. He proposed a series of state constitutional amendments to control state and local spending in New Jersey, with the savings dedicated to property tax reduction statewide.

As in 2001, Schundler focused mostly on grassroots campaigning. However, he also targeted Republican County Conventions to spread his message and won several county endorsements, including in Monmouth, Hunterdon, and Somerset counties as well as his base in Hudson County.

In the week before the primary election, Schundler's campaign was criticized for using a photograph on its website that showed Schundler apparently standing with a crowd of enthusiastic young supporters. The photograph, which appeared for only a few days on a web page advertising campaign t-shirts and mugs, had actually been taken at a [[Howard Dean]] rally in 2004, with Dean's image digitally replaced by Schundler's and with campaign signs, hats, and shirts modified as well. <ref>[http://www.bergen.com/page.php?qstr=eXJpcnk3ZjczN2Y3dnFlZUVFeXk2MDcmZmdiZWw3Zjd2cWVlRUV5eTY3MDMxOTEmeXJpcnk3ZjcxN2Y3dnFlZUVFeXky Bergen Record]</ref>Schundler's campaign responded that the photograph had been prepared by the campaign's website contractor (which had done work for the Dean campaign), and that the campaign had had the picture taken down when it learned of the miscue.

Schundler lost the primary to [[Doug Forrester]], who had been New Jersey's Republican nominee for United States Senate in 2002, and who had been a former mayor of West Windsor, former assistant state treasurer, and former state pensions director, before becoming a wealthy businessperson, enabling him to outspend Schundler during the campaign by about 6-1. The results were:

* Forrester: 35%
* Schundler: 31%
* [[Morris County, New Jersey|Morris County]] [[Board of Chosen Freeholders|Freeholder]] [[John Murphy]]: 11%
* [[Bogota, New Jersey|Bogota]] Mayor [[Steve Lonegan]]: 8%
* [[Washington Township, Bergen County, New Jersey|Washington Township]] Councilman [[Bob Schroeder]]: 6%
* [[New Jersey General Assembly|Assemblyman]] [[Paul DiGaetano]]: 6%
* Former [[Bergen County, New Jersey|Bergen County]] Freeholder [[Todd Caliguire]]: 3%

Schundler carried [[Union County, New Jersey|Union]], Hudson, Hunterdon and Somerset counties. He had the county line in Somerset and Hudson and shared it with Forrester in Hunterdon. Forrester held the county line in Union County, which was the only county where he had the line but still lost in the primary.

==Current activities and family==

Schundler is currently ([[as of 2007]]) the Managing Partner of People Power America, LLC, which licenses TeamVolunteer, an online utility that helps political campaigns and non-profit organizations coordinate phone banks. Additionally, in January 2007, Schundler took a teaching position at The King's College, a rigorous academic institution located in the Empire State Building. Schundler, known for his excellent writing ability, teaches argumentation and rhetoric, and is the Director of The Policy Center at The King's Collge

Schundler and his wife, Lynn, have two children, a daughter named Shaylin and a son named Hans Otto III. They live in Jersey City.

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
* [http://www.bretschundler.org/ Official Campaign web site]
* [http://www.njfaq.com/bret2001/preex/milestones.shtml "Bret Schundler's Milestones"] - campaign biography
* [http://www.empowerthepeople.org/ Empower the People website]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title=[[List of mayors of Jersey City, New Jersey|Mayor of Jersey City]]|
before=[[Joseph Rakowski]]|
after=[[Glenn Cunningham (New Jersey)|Glenn Cunningham]]|
years=1992–2001|}}
{{succession box|
title= [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Nominee for [[Governor of New Jersey]] Lost|
before=[[Christine Todd Whitman]] Won|
after=[[Douglas Forrester]] Lost|
years=2001}}
{{end box}}
{{JrsyCtyMayors}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Schundler, Bret}}
[[Category:Mayors of Jersey City, New Jersey]]
[[Category:New Jersey politicians]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:American Christians]]
[[Category:People from Union County, New Jersey]]
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Susan B. Anthony

2007-11-16T01:01:30Z

206.102.240.2: /* Early social activism */

{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Person
| name = Susan B. Anthony
| image = Susan B Anthony Older Years.png
| image_size = 200px
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1820|2|15|mf=y}}
| birth_place = {{flagicon|USA}} [[Adams, Massachusetts|Adams]], [[Massachusetts]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1906|3|13|1820|2|15}}
| death_place = {{flagicon|USA}} [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]], [[New York]]
| occupation = [[Women's suffrage|Suffragist]], [[women's rights|women's rights advocate]]
| spouse =
| parents =
| children =
}}
'''Susan Brownell Anthony ''' ([[February 15]], [[1820]] – [[March 13]], [[1906]]) was a prominent, independent and well-educated [[United States|American]] [[civil rights]] leader who played a pivotal role in the [[19th century]] [[women's rights]] movement to secure [[History of women's suffrage in the United States|women's suffrage in the United States]]. She traveled the United States and [[Europe]], and gave 75 to 100 speeches per year on women's rights for some 45 years. Susan B. Anthony died in [[Rochester, New York]] in her house at 17 Madison Street on [[March 13]], [[1906]], and is buried at [[Mount Hope Cemetery, Rochester|Mount Hope Cemetery]].

==Early life==
Susan Brownell Anthony was born and raised in [[Adams, Massachusetts]] (West Grove), the second of 8 children born to Daniel Anthony and Lucy Read. One of her brothers, publisher [[Daniel Read Anthony]], would become active in the anti-slavery movement in [[Kansas]]. She was a precocious child, having learned to read and write at age three. Her father, a [[cotton]] [[Manufacturing|manufacturer]] and [[abolitionism|abolitionist]], was a stern but open-minded man who was born into the [[Quaker]] religion. Her mother was a student in Daniel's school when she and Daniel fell in love. Although Lucy readily agreed to marry Daniel in 1817, she was less sure about marrying into the [[Society of Friends]] (Quakers). She was not a convinced Quaker and claimed that she was “not good enough” for the religion. In 1826, when the Quakers split into [[liberal]] and [[social conservatism|conservative]] camps, the Anthonys quickly followed the liberals, known as the "Hicksite Friends"—a group named after [[Elias Hicks]].

[[Image:Susan Brownell Anthony - Age 28 - Project Gutenberg eText 15220.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Susan Brownell Anthony, age 28]]
Daniel wished to raise his children in a moderately strict household and did not allow Susan to experience what he perceived as the childish amusements of toys and games, which were seen as distractions from the “[[Inner Light]]”. However, Daniel was shunned by other Quakers for permitting dancing and citing a firm belief in "complete personal, mental and spiritual freedom" in his home. Together the Anthonys enforced self-[[child discipline|discipline]], principled convictions, and belief in one's own [[self-worth]].

In 1826, when Susan was six years old, the Anthony family moved from [[Massachusetts]] to [[Battenville, New York]]. Susan was sent to attend a local district school, where a teacher refused to teach her [[long division]] because of her gender. Upon learning of the weak education she was receiving, her father promptly had her placed in a group [[home school]], where he taught Susan himself. Mary Perkins, another teacher there conveyed a progressive image of [[womanhood]] to Anthony, further fostering her growing belief in women's equality.

In 1837, Anthony was sent to ''Deborah Moulson's Female Seminary'', a Quaker boarding school in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]. She was not happy at Moulson's, but she did not have to stay there long. She was forced to end her formal studies because her family, like many others, was financially ruined during the [[Panic of 1837]]. Their losses were so great that they were forced to attempt to sell everything in an auction, even their most personal belongings, which were saved at the last minute when Susan's uncle, Joshua Read, stepped up and bid for them in order to restore them to the family.

In 1839, the family moved to Hardscrabble (later called [[Greenwich (town), New York#Communities and locations in the Town of Greenwich|Center Falls]]) New York, in the wake of the panic and economic depression that followed. That same year, Anthony left home to teach and to help pay off her father's debts. She taught first at ''Eunice Kenyon's Friends' Seminary'' in [[New Rochelle, New York|New Rochelle]], and then at the ''Canajoharie Academy'' in 1846, where she rose to become headmistress of the Female Department. Anthony's first occupation inspired her to fight for wages equivalent to those of male teachers, since men earned roughly four times more than women for the same duties. Lucy was a [[progressivism|progressive]]-minded woman. She attended the Rochester women’s rights convention held in August 1848, two weeks after the historic [[Seneca Falls Convention]], and signed the Rochester convention’s [[Declaration of Sentiments]].

In 1849, at age 29, Anthony quit teaching and moved to the family farm in Rochester, New York. Anthony began to take part in conventions and gatherings related to the [[temperance movement]]. In Rochester, she attended the local [[Unitarian Church]] and began to distance herself from the Quakers, in part because she had frequently witnessed instances of hypocritical behavior such as [[alcohol]] abuse amongst Quaker [[preacher]]s. As she got older, Anthony continued to move further away from [[organized religion]] in general, and she was later chastised by various [[Christianity|Christian]] religious groups for displaying [[irreligious]] tendencies.

In her youth, Anthony was very [[self-conscious]] of her looks and speaking abilities. She long resisted public speaking for fear she would not be sufficiently eloquent. Despite these insecurities, she became a renowned public presence, eventually helping to lead the women's movement.

==Early social activism==
In the decade before the [[American Civil War]], Anthony took a prominent role in the New York anti-[[History of slavery in the United States|slavery]] and temperance movements. In 1849, at age 29, Anthony became secretary for the ''Daughters of Temperance'', allowing her a forum to speak out against alcohol abuse, and the beginning of a movement towards the public limelight.
[[Image:Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Anthony (standing) with Elizabeth Cady Stanton]]
In 1851, on a street in Seneca Falls, Anthony was introduced to [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]] by mutual acquaintance, as well as fellow [[feminist]] [[Amelia Bloomer]]. Anthony joined with Stanton in organizing the first women's state temperance society in America, in 1852. Stanton remained a close friend and colleague of Anthony's for the remainder of their lives, but Stanton longed for a broader, more radical women's rights platform. Together, the two women traversed the United States giving speeches and attempting to persuade the government that society should treat men and women equally.

After the [[Seneca Falls Convention|first American women's rights convention]] took place on [[July 19]] and [[July 20]], [[1848]], in [[Seneca Falls, New York]], Anthony took the opportunity to attend and support the women's rights convention held in [[Syracuse, New York]], in 1852. It was around this time that Anthony began to gain widespread notoriety as a powerful public advocate of women's rights and as a new and stirring voice for change.

In 1856, Anthony further attempted to unify the [[African-American]] and women's rights movements when, recruited by abolitionist [[Abby Kelley]]{{Fact|date=April 2007}}, she became agent for [[William Lloyd Garrison]]'s [[American Anti-Slavery Society]] of New York State. Speaking at the Ninth National Women’s Rights Convention on [[May 12]], [[1859]], Anthony asked ''"Where, under our [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], does the Saxon man get his power to deprive all women and Negroes of their inalienable rights?"''

In 1869, long time friends [[Frederick Douglass]] and Susan B. Anthony found themselves, for the first time, on opposing sides of a debate. The Equal Rights Association, which had originally fought for both blacks’ and women’s right to suffrage, voted to support the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|15th Amendment]] to the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]] granting suffrage to black men, but not women. Anthony questioned why women should support this amendment when black men were not continuing to show support for women’s voting rights. Partially as a result of the decision by the Equal Rights Association, Anthony soon thereafter devoted herself almost exclusively to the agitation for women's rights.

On [[January 1]], [[1868]], Anthony first published a weekly journal entitled ''[[The Revolution (newspaper)|The Revolution]]''. Published in [[New York City]], its motto was: ''"The true republic — men, their rights and nothing more; women, their rights and nothing less."'' Anthony worked as the publisher and business manager, while Elizabeth Cady Stanton acted as editor. The main thrust of ''The Revolution'' was to promote women’s and African Americans’ right to suffrage, but it also discussed issues of equal pay for equal work, more liberal divorce laws, and the church’s position on women’s issues. The journal was backed by independently wealthy [[George Francis Train]], who provided $600 in starting funds.

Anthony occasionally wrote about abortion, which she opposed, and for which she blamed men, [[laws]], and the "double standard", as women had no other options: "No matter what the motive, love of ease, or a desire to save from suffering the unborn innocent, the woman is awfully guilty who commits the deed. It will burden her conscience in life, it will burden her soul in death; But oh, thrice guilty is he who, for selfish gratification, heedless of her prayers, indifferent to her fate, drove her to the desperation which impelled her to the crime!... All the articles on this subject that I have read have been from men. They denounce women as alone guilty, and never include man in any plans for the remedy."{{Fact|date=October 2007}} [[Pulitzer prize]] winner [[Stacy Schiff]] has discussed Anthony's opposition to abortion, saying that "There is no question that she deplored the practice of abortion...", but "The bottom line is that we cannot possibly know what Anthony would make of today’s debate." Schiff continues: "In the 19th century, abortion often was life-threatening, contraception primitive, and a woman as little in control of her reproductive life as of her political one."<ref>{{cite news | author = Schiff, Stacy | date = [[2006-10-13]] | publisher = [[New York Times]] | title = Desperately Seeking Susan | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/13/opinion/13schiff.html}}</ref>

In 1893, she joined with [[Helen Barrett Montgomery]] in forming a chapter of the [[Woman’s Educational and Industrial Union]] (WEIU) in Rochester. In 1898, she also worked with her to raise funds to open opportunities for women students to study at [[University of Rochester]], a goal which was reached in 1900.

Anthony used ''The Revolution'' as a vehicle in her crusade for equality, writing passionately about a variety of subjects relating to women's rights.

==National suffrage organizations==
[[Image:Susan B. Anthony amer-pol-hist.jpg|thumb|right|200px]]
In 1869, Anthony and [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]] founded the [[National Women's Suffrage Association]] (NWSA), an organization dedicated to gaining women's suffrage. Anthony was vice-president-at-large of the NWSA from the date of its organization until 1892, when she became president .

In the early years of the NWSA, Anthony made attempts to unite women in the [[labor movement]] with the suffragist cause, but with little success. She and Stanton were delegates at the 1868 convention of the [[National Labor Union]]. However, Anthony inadvertently alienated the labor movement not only because suffrage was seen as a concern for [[middle-class]] rather than [[working-class]] women, but because she openly encouraged women to achieve economic independence by entering the printing trades, where male workers were on [[Strike action|strike]] at the time. Anthony was later expelled from the National Labor Union over this controversy.

In 1890, Anthony orchestrated the merger of the NWSA with the more conservative [[American Woman Suffrage Association]] (AWSA), creating the [[National American Woman Suffrage Association]]. Prior to the controversial merge, Anthony had created a special NWSA executive committee to vote on whether they should merge with the AWSA, despite the fact that using a committee instead of an all-member vote went against the NWSA constitution. Motions to make it possible for members to vote by mail were strenuously opposed by Anthony and her adherents, and the committee was stacked with members who favored the merger. (Two members who voted against the merger were asked to resign).

Anthony's pursuit of alliances with [[moderate]] and conservative suffragists created long lasting tension between herself and more radical suffragists like Stanton. Anthony felt strongly that a moderate rather than radical approach to women's rights was more realistic, and would consequently serve to gain more for women in the long-run. Anthony's strategy was to unite the suffrage movement wherever possible and to then concentrate strictly on gaining the vote, temporarily postponing other efforts related to women's rights in order to focus attention on a singular cause. Stanton openly criticized Anthony's stance, writing that Anthony and AWSA leader [[Lucy Stone]], "''see suffrage only. They do not see woman's religious and social bondage.''" Anthony responded to Stanton: "''We number over 10,000 women and each one has opinions...we can only hold them together to work for the ballot by letting alone their whims and prejudices on other subjects.''"

The creation of the NAWSA effectively marginalized the more radical elements within the women's movement, including Stanton. Anthony pushed for Stanton to be voted in as the first NAWSA president, and stood by her as Stanton was belittled by the large conservative factions within the new organization.

In collaboration with Stanton, [[Matilda Joslyn Gage]], and [[Ida Husted Harper]], Anthony published ''The History of Woman Suffrage'' (4 vols., New York, 1884–1887). Anthony also befriended [[Josephine Brawley Hughes]], an advocate of women's rights and of [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] [[abolition]] in [[Arizona]], and [[Carrie Chapman Catt]], who Anthony endorsed for the presidency of the NAWSA when Anthony formally retired in 1900.

==United States v. Susan B. Anthony==
For casting a vote in the presidential election held on [[November 5]], [[1872]], in Rochester, New York, Anthony was arrested on [[November 18]] and pled not guilty, asserting that the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|14th amendment]] entitled her to vote because, unlike the original Constitution, it provides that all "persons" (which includes females) born in the US are "citizens" who shall not be denied the "privileges" of [[citizenship]] (which includes voting).

She was defended at trial by [[Matilda Joslyn Gage]], who asserted that it was the United States that was truly on trial, not Anthony. At the trial, Anthony made her famous ''On Women's Right to Vote'' speech, which asserted that casting her vote in the previous [[presidential election]] was not a crime but the legal right of a United States citizen. Citing the Constitution, her speech was a strong attempt to persuade the federal government that she was not unlawful in her action, and if she were male, her behavior would have never been questioned.

However, her defense was all for naught. The judge, [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Associate Justice [[Ward Hunt]], explicitly instructed the jury to deliver a guilty verdict, refused to poll the jury, delivered an opinion he had written before trial had even begun, and on [[June 18]] [[1873]], sentenced her to pay a $100 fine. Anthony responded, "May it please your honor, I will never pay a dollar of your unjust penalty." She never did pay the fine, and the government never pursued her for nonpayment, for otherwise she would be able to file a ''[[habeas corpus]]'', which would give her a chance to be heard by the appellate justices, and Justice Ward Hunt could not risk her convincing them.

===Court speech on women's right to vote===
Anthony recited a now famous speech before the court, in defense of women's suffrage. The following is a summary of her remarks:

[[Image:Susan Brownell Anthony - Project Gutenberg eText 15220.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Susan B. Anthony]]
"''Friends and fellow citizens: I stand before you tonight under indictment for the alleged crime of having voted at the last presidential election, without having a lawful right to vote. It shall be my work this evening to prove to you that in thus voting, I not only committed no crime, but, instead, simply exercised my citizen's rights, guaranteed to me and all United States citizens by the National Constitution, beyond the power of any state to deny.

''The preamble of the Federal Constitution says: "We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America."

''It was we, the people; not we, the white male citizens; nor yet we, the male citizens; but we, the whole people, who formed the Union. And we formed it, not to give the blessings of liberty, but to secure them; not to the half of ourselves and the half of our posterity, but to the whole people - women as well as men. And it is a downright mockery to talk to women of their enjoyment of the blessings of liberty while they are denied the use of the only means of securing them provided by this democratic-republican government - the ballot.

''For any state to make sex a qualification that must ever result in the disfranchisement of one entire half of the people, is to pass a bill of attainder, or, an ex post facto law, and is therefore a violation of the supreme law of the land. By it the blessings of liberty are forever withheld from women and their female posterity. To them this government has no just powers derived from the consent of the governed. To them this government is not a democracy. It is not a republic. It is an odious aristocracy; a hateful oligarchy of sex; the most hateful aristocracy ever established on the face of the globe; an oligarchy of wealth, where the rich govern the poor. An oligarchy of learning, where the educated govern the ignorant, or even an oligarchy of race, where the Saxon rules the African, might be endured; but this oligarchy of sex, which makes father, brothers, husband, sons, the oligarchs over the mother and sisters, the wife and daughters, of every household - which ordains all men sovereigns, all women subjects, carries dissension, discord, and rebellion into every home of the nation.

''Webster, Worcester, and Bouvier all define a citizen to be a person in the United States, entitled to vote and hold office. The only question left to be settled now is: Are women persons? And I hardly believe any of our opponents will have the hardihood to say they are not. Being persons, then, women are citizens; and no state has a right to make any law, or to enforce any old law, that shall abridge their privileges or immunities. Hence, every discrimination against women in the constitutions and laws of the several states is today null and void, precisely as is every one against Negroes."

==Legacy==
[[Image:Anthony dollar coin.jpg|right|frame|A Susan B. Anthony dollar coin]]
Susan B. Anthony, who died 14 years, 5 months and 5 days before passage of the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution|19th Amendment]] giving women the right to vote, was honored as the first real ([[Allegory|non-allegorical]]) American woman on circulating [[United States coinage|U.S. coinage]] with her appearance on the [[Susan B. Anthony dollar]]. The [[Dollar (United States coin)|coin]], approximately the size of a U.S. [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarter]], was minted for only four years, 1979, 1980, 1981, and 1999. Anthony dollars were produced at the [[Philadelphia Mint|Philadelphia]] and [[Denver Mint|Denver mints]] for all four years, and at the [[San Francisco Mint|San Francisco mint]] for all production years except 1999.

Anthony's birthplace in Adams was purchased in August of 2006 by Carol Crossed, affiliated with both [[Democrats for Life of America]] and [[Feminists for Life]]. She has stated that efforts will be made to open the home to the public in the near future.<ref>[http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0608060405aug06,1,6443170.story?coll=chi-newsnationworld-hed Suffragist leader's home sold for $164K]</ref>

Anthony's childhood home was placed on the National Historic Register in 2007 and NY State Historic Register 2006.
The [[Susan B. Anthony House]] in Rochester was declared a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1965 and is operated now as a museum.<ref>[http://www.susanbanthonyhouse.org/ Susan B. Anthony House website]</ref>

100th Anniversary of Susan B. Anthony's death was on March 13, 2006.

The American composer [[Virgil Thomson]] and poet [[Gertrude Stein]] wrote an opera, ''[[The Mother of Us All]]'', that abstractly explores Anthony's life and mission.

==Notes==
<references/>

==References==
*Baker, Jean H. ''Sisters: The Lives of America's Suffragists.'' Hill and Wang, New York, 2005. ISBN 0-8090-9528-9.
*Barry, Kathleen , ''Susan B. Anthony: A Biography of a Singular Feminist'', Authorhouse 2000, ISBN 1-58721-009-6
*Bass, Jack. "CIVIL RIGHTS: Judges followed Parks' bold lead." 27 November 2005. Atlanta Journal Constitution. LexisNexis. 5 March 2006. <http:/web.lexisnexis.com/universe/document?_m=00a2bc74653371...>.
*Boller, Paul F., Jr. "Presidential Campaigns." Oxford University Press, 1984.
*"From Kansas." Proquest Historical Newspapers Chicago Tribune. 7 September 1876. O1
*Harper, Mrs Ida Husted. ''Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony'' (3 vols., Indianapolis, 1898-1908)
*Linder, Douglas. "Susan B. Anthony: A Biography." Law.umkc.edu. 2001. 05 March 2006 [[22 October]], [[2005]] http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/anthony/sbabiog.html
*Linder, Douglas. "Famous American Trials: The Anthony Trial: An Account." Argument for the Defense Concerning Legal Issues in the Case of: United States vs. Susan B. Anthony. 2001. 5 March 2006. <http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/anthony/defargument.html>
*McCulloch, John. "The Struggle for Women's Suffrage in Queensland." Hecate: 1874.
*Mobley, Kendal. 2005. “Susan B. Anthony and Helen Barrett Montgomery: An Intergenerational Feminist Partnership”. Baptist History & Heritage 40, Summer 80–90
*Patriot Ledger Staff. "Role model: Susan B. Anthony to come to life." The Patriot Ledger: City Edition. LexisNexis., Quincy, MA. 1 MArch 2006 <http://lexis-nexis.com/universe/document?_m=969f13ed043290...>.
*"Suffragist." Susan B. Anthony House. 03 2006. 18 Mar. 2006 <http://susanbanthonyhouse.org/index.shtml>.
*"Susan B. Anthony." The National Women's History Project. 1994 18 Mar. 2006 <http://www.mith2.umd.edu/WomensStudies/PictureGallery/anthony.html>.
*"Susan Brownell Anthony." Women in History. Women in History: Living Vignettes of Women From the Past. 21 Mar. 2006
*"The Women in the Field." Proquest Historical Newspaper Chicago Tribune. 9 July 1868. O3.
*Stories in Stone - "Famous People in Mount Hope Cemetery, Lucy Read Anthony"<http://www.fomh.org/stories.php?subaction=showfull&id=1120617483&archive=&start_from=&ucat=1&>
*Western New York Suffragists - "Susan Brownell Anthony"<http://www.winningthevote.org/SBAnthony.html

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://ecssba.rutgers.edu/ The Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony Papers Project, Rutgers University]
*{{gutenberg|no=15220|name=The Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony (Volume 1 of 2), by Ida Husted Harper}}
*{{gutenberg|no=18281|name=The Trial of Susan B. Anthony}}
*''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/20439 Susan B. Anthony]'', by Alma Lutz, 1959, from Project Gutenberg
*[http://www.rochesterunitarian.org First Unitarian Church]
*[http://www.susanbanthonyhouse.org/ Susan B. Anthony House Website]
*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/anthony/sbahome.html Anthony trial]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0215.html New York Times obituary]
*[http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/eyewitness/html.php?section=3 U. S. National Archives exhibit of original testimony from the 1872 case]
*[http://www.history.rochester.edu/class/sba/first.htm Susan B. Anthony History]
*[http://www.fyne.co.uk/index.php?item=227 Gay Great - Susan B. Anthony]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=31 Susan B. Anthony's Photo & Gravesite]



{{Persondata
|NAME = Anthony, Susan B.
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Anthony, Susan Brownell
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = American women's rights activist
|DATE OF BIRTH = [[February 15]], [[1820]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Adams, Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
|DATE OF DEATH = [[March 13]], [[1906]]
|PLACE OF DEATH = [[Rochester, New York]], [[United States|U.S.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Anthony, Susan B.}}

[[Category:American skeptics]]
[[Category:American women's rights activists]]
[[Category:American feminists]]
[[Category:American suffragists]]
[[Category:American Unitarians]]
[[Category:People from Rochester, New York]]
[[Category:People from Berkshire County, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:1820 births|Anthony, Susan B.]]
[[Category:1906 deaths|Anthony, Susan B.]]
[[Category:American abolitionists]]
[[Category:Baldwin, Evarts, Hoar & Sherman family]]



[[da:Susan B. Anthony]]
[[de:Susan B. Anthony]]
[[es:Susan B. Anthony]]
[[fr:Susan B. Anthony]]
[[gl:Susan B. Anthony]]
[[he:סוזן ב. אנתוני]]
[[nl:Susan B. Anthony (suffragette)]]
[[ja:スーザン・B・アンソニー]]
[[pt:Susan B. Anthony]]
[[fi:Susan B. Anthony]]
[[sv:Susan B. Anthony]]
[[zh:苏珊·安东尼]]

Sojourner Truth

2007-11-15T23:57:38Z

206.102.240.2: /* Cultural/modern references */

{{Infobox Person
| name = Sojourner Truth
| image = Sojourner_Truth_2.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Sojourner Truth, engraving from 1897 book<ref>Wood, Norman B. ''White Side of a Black Subject'' Chicago: American Publishing, 1897. sourced from {{cite web|url=http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/portraits/index.html?img=379|title=Portrait page|work=UTOPIA.utexas.edu|accessmonthday=December 30|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
|
| birth_date = c. [[1797]]
| death_date = {{death date|1883|11|26|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]'''
| death_place = [[Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]]
| occupation = [[Domestic servant]], [[Abolitionist]], [[Author]]
| parents = James and Elizabeth Baumfree
}}
'''Sojourner Truth''' (c. 1797–[[November 26]], [[1883]]) was the self-given name, from 1843, of '''Isabella Baumfree''', an American [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]] and [[women's rights]] activist. Truth was born into [[slavery]] in [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]. Her best-known speech, which became known as ''[[Ain't I a Woman?]]'', was delivered in 1851 at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in [[Akron, Ohio]].

== Early years ==
Truth was born around 1797 into slavery on the Hardenbergh estate in [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]],<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute">{{cite web|url=http://www.sojournertruth.org/History/Biography/NY.htm|title=Amazing Life page|work=Sojourner Truth Institute site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> one of thirteen children, to James and Elizabeth Baumfree, who were slaves of a Colonel Hardenbergh. She spoke only [[Dutch language|Dutch]] until she was sold.<ref name="WiH">{{cite web|url=http://www.lkwdpl.org/wihohio/trut-soj.htm|title=Sojourner Truth page
|work=Women in History site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> After the colonel's death, ownership of the family slaves passed to his son, Charles Hardenbergh.

In 1806, Hardenbergh sold Truth for $100 to John Neely, near [[Kingston, New York|Kingston]], [[New York]]. She suffered many hardships at the hands of Neely, whom she later described as cruel and harsh and who once beat her with a bundle of rods. Neely sold her in 1808, for $105, to Martinus Schryver of [[Kingston, New York|Kingston]], a tavern keeper, who owned her for 18 months. Schryver sold her in 1810, for $175, to John Dumont of [[New Paltz, New York|New Paltz]], [[New York]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> Although this fourth owner was kindly disposed toward her, his wife found numerous ways to harass Truth and make her life more difficult.

Around 1815, Truth met and fell in love with a slave named Robert from a neighboring farm. Robert's owner forbade the relationship; he did not want his slave to have children with a slave he did not own, because he would not own the children. Robert was savagely beaten and Truth never saw him again. Soon after that, Truth had a daughter, named Diana (1815).<ref name="Narrative">{{cite web|url=
http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/truth/1850/1850.html|title=Sojourner Truth page
|work=Narrative of Sojourner Truth|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
In 1817, Truth was forced by Dumont to marry an older slave named Thomas. They had four children, Peter (1822), James (1823), Elizabeth (1825), and Sophia (1826).<ref name="WiH"/>

== Freedom ==
The state of New York began, in 1799, to legislate the abolition of slavery, although the process of emancipating New York slaves was not complete until [[July 4]], [[1827]]. Dumont had promised Truth freedom a year before the state emancipation, "if she would do well and be faithful." However, he changed his mind, claiming a hand injury had made her less productive. She was infuriated. She continued working until she felt she had done enough to satisfy her sense of obligation to him by spinning 100 pounds of wool.

Late in 1826, Truth escaped to freedom with her infant daughter, Sophia. She had to leave her other children behind because they were not legally freed in the emancipation order until they had served as bound servants into their twenties.<ref name="WiH"/>She later said:

{{cquote|I did not run off, for I thought that wicked, but I walked off, believing that to be all right.<ref name="WiH"/>}}

She found her way to the home of Isaac and Maria Van Wagenen, a Quaker family,<ref name="MWH">{{cite web|url=http://hall.michiganwomenshalloffame.org/honoree.php?C=198&A=20~114~96~172~79~2~62~113~46~80~3~152~167~74~138~63~92~196~4~32~121~84~48~153~192~41~129~82~69~109~42~93~97~56~175~103~13~207~21~126~104~5~98~131~27~53~38~195~139~219~106~57~22~147~58~107~127~6~173~144~85~17~148~47~208~49~221~43~205~135~168~181~33~115~176~23~14~75~169~130~162~44~198~204~99~7~118~119~8~136~222~50~15~157~65~150~108~24~154~170~163~76~9~209~110~140~70~59~51~155~16~158~156~60~182~191~116~190~28~164~125~160~197~86~193~223~29~134~39~159~111~61~177~132~87~52~199~54~35~210~211~64~112~200~183~165~100~10~122~71~77~94~120~11~36~25~224~151~178~55~88~45~184~128~72~78~171~141~180~206~189~73~123~83~89~145~18~66~26~30~212~188~142~220~90~19~40~161~218~133~81~225~67~37~146~217~91~143~12~31~68~1~213~101~117~214~174~102~137~185~124~95~216~166~187
|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Michigan Womens Hall of Fame|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> who took her and her baby in. Isaac offered to buy her services for the remainder of the year (until the state's emancipation took effect), which Dumont accepted for $20.<ref name="WiH"/> She lived there until the New York State Emancipation Act was approved a year later.

Truth learned that her son Peter, then 8 years old, had been sold illegally by Dumont to an owner in Alabama. With the help of Quaker activists, she took the issue to court and, after months of legal proceedings, got her son back, who had been abused by his new owner.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth had a life-changing religious experience during her stay with the Van Wagenens, and became a devout [[Christian]]. In 1829 she moved with her son Peter to [[New York City]], where she worked as a housekeeper for Elijah Pierson, a Christian Evangelist. In 1832, she met [[Robert Matthews (con artist)|Robert Matthews]], also known as Matthias Kingdom or Prophet Matthias, and went to work for him as a housekeeper.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In a bizarre twist of fate, Elijah Pierson died, and Robert Matthews and Truth were accused of stealing from and poisoning Pierson. Both were acquitted and Robert Matthews moved west.<ref name="WiH"/>

In 1839, Truth's son Peter took a job on a whaling ship called the ''Zone of Nantucket''. From 1840 to 1841, she received three letters from him, though in his third letter he told her he had sent five. When the ship returned to port in 1842, Peter was not on board and Truth never heard from him again.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

=="The Spirit calls me"==
On [[June 1]], [[1843]], Truth changed her name to ''Sojourner Truth'' and told her friends, "The Spirit calls me, and I must go." She left to make her way traveling and preaching about abolition. In 1844, she joined the [[Northampton, Massachusetts|Northampton]] Association of Education and Industry in [[Massachusetts]]. Founded by abolitionists, the organization supported [[women's rights]] and [[religious tolerance]] as well as [[pacifism]]. There were 210 members and they lived on 500 acres (2 km²), raising livestock, running a [[sawmill]], a [[gristmill]], and a silk factory. While there, Truth met [[William Lloyd Garrison]], [[Frederick Douglass]], and [[David Ruggles]] (an African-American printer). In 1846, the group disbanded, unable to support itself.<ref name="WiH"/> In 1847, she went to work as a housekeeper for [[George Benson (Quaker)|George Benson]], the brother-in-law of William Lloyd Garrison. In 1849, she visited John Dumont before he moved west.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth started dictating her memoirs to her friend, Olive Gilbert, and in 1850, William Lloyd Garrison privately published her book, ''The Narrative of Sojourner Truth: A Northern Slave''.<ref name="WiH"/> That same year, she purchased a home in Northampton for $300.

[[Image:SisterSlave.jpg|thumb|200px|right]]
In 1851, she left Northampton to join [[George Thompson (abolitionist)|George Thompson]], an abolitionist and speaker. In May, she attended the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in [[Akron, Ohio]] where she delivered her famous speech ''Ain't I a Woman'', a slogan she adopted from one of the most famous abolitionist images, that of a kneeling female slave with the caption "Am I Not a Woman and a Sister?"<ref name="dar">{{cite web|url=http://www.dar.org/museum/exhibitions.cfm|title=Virtual Exhibitions - artifacts of the Abolitionist movement page|work=Daughters of the American Revolution site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

:''Reminiscences by [[Frances Gage]]''
:''Akron Convention, Akron, Ohio, May 1851''

:''"There were very few women in those days who dared to "speak in meeting"; and the august teachers of the people were seemingly getting the better of us, while the boys in the galleries, and the sneerers among the pews, were hugely enjoying the discomfiture, as they supposed, of the "strong-minded." Some of the tender-skinned friends were on the point of losing dignity, and the atmosphere betokened a storm. When, slowly from her seat in the corner rose Sojourner Truth, who, till now, had scarcely lifted her head. "Don't let her speak!" gasped half a dozen in my ear. She moved slowly and solemnly to the front, laid her old bonnet at her feet, and turned her great speaking eyes to me. There was a hissing sound of disapprobation above and below. I rose and announced "Sojourner Truth," and begged the audience to keep silence for a few moments."''

:''"The tumult subsided at once, and every eye was fixed on this almost Amazon form, which stood nearly six feet high, head erect, and eyes piercing the upper air like one in a dream. At her first word there was a profound hush. She spoke in deep tones, which, though not loud, reached every ear in the house, and away through the throng at the doors and windows."''<ref name="WomenHistory">{{cite web|url=http://womenshistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/history/dubois/classes/995/98F/doc7.html|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Women History|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>

Over the next decade, Truth spoke before dozens, perhaps hundreds, of audiences. From 1851 to 1853, Truth worked with Marius Robinson, the editor of the Ohio ''Anti-Slavery Bugle'', and traveled around that state speaking. In 1853, she spoke at a [[Women's suffrage|suffragist]] "mob convention" at the [[Broadway Tabernacle]] in New York City; that year she also met [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In 1856, she traveled to [[Battle Creek, Michigan|Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]], to speak to a group called the Friends of Human Progress. In 1858, someone interrupted a speech and accused her of being a man; Truth opened her blouse and revealed her breasts.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/><ref name="WiH"/>

=="Ain't I a Woman?"==
Truth delivered her best-known speech in 1851 at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention. The speech has become known as ''[[Ain't I a Woman?]]'' after Truth's refrain.<ref name="Suffragist">{{cite web|url=http://www.suffragist.com/docs.htm|title=Sojourner Truth Page|work=American Suffragist Movement|accessmonthday=December 29|accessyear=2006}}</ref>

The speech as shown here has been revised from the 19th century dialect in which Truth spoke.

{{cquote|Well, children, where there is so much racket there must be something out of kilter. I think that 'twixt the Negroes of the South and the women at the North, all talking about rights, the white men will be in a fix pretty soon. But what's all this here talking about?

That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain't I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man - when I could get it - and bear the lash as well! And ain't I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain't I a woman?

Then they talk about this thing in the head; what's this they call it? [member of audience whispers, "intellect"] That's it, honey. What's that got to do with women's rights or Negroes' rights? If my cup won't hold but a pint, and yours holds a quart, wouldn't you be mean not to let me have my little half measure full?

Then that little man in black there, he says women can't have as much rights as men, 'cause Christ wasn't a woman! Where did your Christ come from? Where did your Christ come from? From God and a woman! Man had nothing to do with Him.

If the first woman God ever made was strong enough to turn the world upside down all alone, these women together ought to be able to turn it back, and get it right side up again! And now they is asking to do it. The men better let them.

Obliged to you for hearing me, and now old Sojourner ain't got nothing more to say.|cquote<ref name="Fordham">{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/sojtruth-woman.html|title=Sojourner Truth Page|work=Fordham University|accessmonthday=December 30|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
}}
::--Sojourner Truth

== On a mission ==
Truth sold her home in Northampton in 1857 and bought a house in Harmonia, Michigan, just west of Battle Creek.<ref name="WiH"/> According to the 1860 [[United States Census|census]], her household in Harmonia included her daughter, Elizabeth Banks (age 35), and her grandsons James Caldwell (misspelled as "Colvin"; age 16) and Sammy Banks (age 8).<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
[[Image:Carte de visite.jpg|thumb|200px|Truth's [[carte de visite]], which she sold to raise money (see inscription).]]

During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], Truth helped recruit black troops for the [[Union Army]]. Her grandson, James Caldwell, enlisted in the [[54th Massachusetts Regiment]]. In 1864, Truth was employed by the National Freedman's Relief Association in [[Washington, D.C.]], where she worked diligently to improve conditions for African-Americans. In October of that year, she met [[President of the United States|President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In 1865, while working at the [[Freedman's Hospital]] in Washington, Truth rode in the streetcars to help force their [[desegregation]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth wrote a song, "The Valiant Soldiers", for the [[102nd Regiment United States Colored Troops|1st Michigan Colored Regiment]], it was composed during the war, and was sung by her in Detroit and Washington D.C. It is sung to the tune of "John Brown" or the "Battle Hymn of the Republic".<ref name="DocSouth">{{cite web |url=http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/truth84/truth84.html |title=Documenting the American South |work=Narrative of Sojourner Truth |accessmonthday=November 7 |accessyear=2007}}</ref>

In 1867, Truth moved from Harmonia to Battle Creek. In 1868, she traveled to western New York and visited with [[Amy Post]], and continued traveling all over the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]]. At a speaking engagement in [[Florence, Massachusetts]], after she had just returned from a very tiring trip, when Truth was called upon to speak she stood up and said,

{{cquote|Children, I have come here like the rest of you, to hear what I have to say.<ref name="SJBIO">{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/9840/sojourn.html|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Sojourner Truth Biography|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>}}

In 1870, Truth tried to secure [[land grant]]s from the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] to former slaves, a project she pursued for seven years without success. While in Washington, D.C., she had a meeting with President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] in the [[White House]]. In 1872, she returned to Battle Creek and tried to vote in the presidential election, but was turned away at the polling place.<ref name="Suffragist"/>

Truth spoke about abolition, women's rights, prison reform, and preached to the Michigan Legislature against capital punishment. Not everyone welcomed her preaching and lectures, but she had many friends and staunch support among many influential people at the time, including [[Amy Post]], [[Parker Pillsbury]], [[Frances Gage]], [[Wendell Phillips]], [[William Lloyd Garrison]], [[Laura Smith Haviland]], [[Lucretia Mott]], and [[Susan B. Anthony]]."<ref name="SJBIO"/>

Truth died on [[November 26]], [[1883]], at her home in Battle Creek, Michigan. Her remains were buried there at Oak Hill Cemetery beside other family members. Her last words were "Be a follower of the Lord Jesus."<ref name="Lastwords">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/thisfarbyfaith/people/sojourner_truth.html|title=People of Faith: Sojourner Truth|work=Public Broadcasting Service|accessmonthday=February 22|accessyear=2007}}</ref>

== Cultural/modern references ==
* 1862 -- [[William Story]]'s statue, The Libyan Sibyl", inspired by Sojourner Truth, won an award at the London World Exhibition.<ref name="WiH"/>
* 1892 -- Albion artist Frank Courter is commissioned to paint the meeting between Truth and [[President Lincoln]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1975 -- Philosopher [[Peter Singer]] uses Truth's quotes in his book ''Animal Liberation ''<ref>See [http://www.peta.org/about/animallib-singer.asp ''What Is Animal Liberation? Excerpts From Philosopher Peter Singer's Groundbreaking Work'']. Accessed 4 December 2006.</ref>
* 1981 -- Truth is inducted into the [[National Women's Hall of Fame]] in Seneca Falls, New York.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1981 -- Feminist theorist and author, [[bell hooks]], titles her [[Ain't I a Woman? (book)|first major work]] after Truth's "Ain't I a Woman?" speech.
* 1983 -- Truth is in the first group of women inducted into the [[Michigan Women's Hall of Fame]] in Lansing.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1986 -- U.S. Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Sojourner Truth.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1993 -- Sweet Honey in the Rock records "Sojourner's Battle Hymn," a song adapted from Truth's own "The Valient Soldiers," which Truth had written as a marching song for colored regiments in the Civil War to the tune of Julia Ward Howe's "Battle Hymn of the Republic." ("The Battle Hymn" itself was written to the tune of the 12th Massachusetts Regiment's marching song, "John Brown's Body," which was itself written to the tune of the Methodist hymn, "Say Brothers, Will You Meet Us?")<ref>Vowell, Sarah. "John Brown's Body." In: The Rose and the Briar: Death, Love, and Liberty in the American Ballad. Marcus, Greil, and Sean Wilentz, eds. NY, NY: W.W. Norton and Co., 2005.</ref><ref>Reagon, Bernice Johnson. If You Don't Go, Don't Hinder Me: The African American Sacred Song Tradition. University of Nebraska Press, 2000.</ref>
* 1997 -- The [[NASA]] [[Mars Pathfinder]] mission's robotic rover was named "Sojourner" after her.<ref>NASA, [http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF/rover/name.html ''NASA Names First Rover to Explore the Surface of Mars'']. Accessed 4 December 2006.</ref>
* 1998 -- [http://www.suekientz.com/st S.T. Writes Home] appears on the web offering "Letters to Mom from Sojourner Truth," in which the Mars Pathfinder Rover at times echoes its namesake.
* 1999 -- The Broadway musical [[The Civil War (musical)|The Civil War]] includes Sojourner Truth: Ain't I a Woman. On the 1999 cast recording, it was performed by [[Maya Angelou]].
* The leftist group the [[Sojourner Truth Organization]] is named after her.
* The [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] commemorates her as a renewer of society on March 10, with [[Harriet Tubman]].
* In the computer game [[Civilization IV]], Sojourner Truth is one of the Great Prophets.
* 1990s - In the [[James Patterson]] series of novels involving Detective [[Alex Cross]], the Cross children attend Sojourner Truth School, and his grandmother frequently speaks highly of her.
* 2004- [[The King's College]], located inside the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City, has a house system (modeled after [[Oxford University]]'s), and each house is named after a influential leader. In 2004, they voted to name one of the houses [http://truth.tkc.edu/homepage/first.htm 'The House of Sojourner Truth'].

==Books==
*''Narrative of Sojourner Truth: A Northern Slave'' (1850).
**Dover Publications 1997 edition: ISBN 0-486-29899-X
**Penguin Classics 1998 edition: ISBN 0-14-043678-2. Introduction & notes by Nell Irvin Painter.
**University of Pennsylvania [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/truth/1850/1850.html online edition] ([[html]] format, one chapter per page)
**University of Virginia [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/TRUTH/toc.html online edition] (html format, 207 kB, entire book on one page)
*Paul E. Johnson and Sean Wilentz, ''The Kingdom of Matthias: A Story of Sex and Salvation in 19th-Century America'' (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-19-509835-8
*Carleton Mabee with Susan Mabee Newhouse, ''Sojourner Truth: Slave, Prophet, Legend'' (New York and London: New York University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-8147-5525-9
*Nell Irvin Painter, ''Sojourner Truth: A Life, A Symbol'' (New York and London: W. W. Norton & Co., 1996) ISBN 0-393-31708-0
*Erlene Stetson and Linda David, ''Glorying in Tribulation: The Lifework of Sojourner Truth'' (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-87013-337-3
*William Leete Stone, ''Matthias and his Impostures- or, The Progress of Fanaticism'' (New York, 1835) Internet Archive [http://www.archive.org/details/matthiasandhisim00stonuoft online edition] (pdf format, 16.9 MB, entire book on one pdf)
*Gilbert Vale, ''Fanaticism - It's Source and Influence Illustrated by the Simple Narrative of Isabella, in the Case of Matthias, Mr. and Mrs. B. Folger, Mr. Pierson, Mr. Mills, Catherine, Isabella, &c. &c.'' (New York, 1835) Google Books [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0OKMvlcaccixvZg7xZkAIx&id=MV4Zt9tHfb0C&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=Fanaticism+-&num=50 online edition] (pdf format, 9.9 MB, entire book on one pdf or one page per page)

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

== External links ==
{{wikisource author}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Truth+Sojourner | name=Sojourner Truth}}
* [http://www.newpaltz.edu/sojourner_truth/ On the trail of Sojourner Truth] [[SUNY New Paltz]] Sojourner Truth Library
* [http://www.sojournertruth.org/Default.htm Sojourner Truth Institute]
* [http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/412855/sojourner_truth_will_become_the_first.html Sojourner Truth Will Become the First Black Woman Honored with a Bust in the U.S. Capitol]
* [http://www.womenwriters.net/domesticgoddess/truth.htm Poem] form of [[Ar'n't I a Woman?|Ain't I a Woman?]]
* [http://www.learningtogive.org/papers/index.asp?bpid=129 bio] at [[Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis]] ''Learning to Give'' site
* [http://www.suekientz.com/st S.T. Writes Home] - Letters to Mom from Sojourner Truth (the Mars Pathfinder Rover)















{{Persondata
|NAME=Truth, Sojourner
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Isabella Baumfree
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[Domestic servant]], [[Abolitionist]], [[Author]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=Circa [[1797]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[November 26]], [[1883]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Battle Creek, Michigan|Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Truth, Sojourner}}
[[Category:1797 births]]
[[Category:1883 deaths]]
[[Category:American abolitionists]]
[[Category:American feminists]]
[[Category:American Methodists]]
[[Category:American slaves]]
[[Category:American suffragists]]
[[Category:American women's rights activists]]
[[Category:Anglican saints]]
[[Category:Feminism]]
[[Category:People of Michigan in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Women in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:People from Northampton, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:People from Battle Creek, Michigan]]

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[[zh:索茹尔内·特鲁斯]]

Sojourner Truth

2007-11-15T23:52:55Z

206.102.240.2: /* Cultural/modern references */

{{Infobox Person
| name = Sojourner Truth
| image = Sojourner_Truth_2.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Sojourner Truth, engraving from 1897 book<ref>Wood, Norman B. ''White Side of a Black Subject'' Chicago: American Publishing, 1897. sourced from {{cite web|url=http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/portraits/index.html?img=379|title=Portrait page|work=UTOPIA.utexas.edu|accessmonthday=December 30|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
|
| birth_date = c. [[1797]]
| death_date = {{death date|1883|11|26|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]'''
| death_place = [[Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]]
| occupation = [[Domestic servant]], [[Abolitionist]], [[Author]]
| parents = James and Elizabeth Baumfree
}}
'''Sojourner Truth''' (c. 1797–[[November 26]], [[1883]]) was the self-given name, from 1843, of '''Isabella Baumfree''', an American [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]] and [[women's rights]] activist. Truth was born into [[slavery]] in [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]. Her best-known speech, which became known as ''[[Ain't I a Woman?]]'', was delivered in 1851 at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in [[Akron, Ohio]].

== Early years ==
Truth was born around 1797 into slavery on the Hardenbergh estate in [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]],<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute">{{cite web|url=http://www.sojournertruth.org/History/Biography/NY.htm|title=Amazing Life page|work=Sojourner Truth Institute site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> one of thirteen children, to James and Elizabeth Baumfree, who were slaves of a Colonel Hardenbergh. She spoke only [[Dutch language|Dutch]] until she was sold.<ref name="WiH">{{cite web|url=http://www.lkwdpl.org/wihohio/trut-soj.htm|title=Sojourner Truth page
|work=Women in History site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> After the colonel's death, ownership of the family slaves passed to his son, Charles Hardenbergh.

In 1806, Hardenbergh sold Truth for $100 to John Neely, near [[Kingston, New York|Kingston]], [[New York]]. She suffered many hardships at the hands of Neely, whom she later described as cruel and harsh and who once beat her with a bundle of rods. Neely sold her in 1808, for $105, to Martinus Schryver of [[Kingston, New York|Kingston]], a tavern keeper, who owned her for 18 months. Schryver sold her in 1810, for $175, to John Dumont of [[New Paltz, New York|New Paltz]], [[New York]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> Although this fourth owner was kindly disposed toward her, his wife found numerous ways to harass Truth and make her life more difficult.

Around 1815, Truth met and fell in love with a slave named Robert from a neighboring farm. Robert's owner forbade the relationship; he did not want his slave to have children with a slave he did not own, because he would not own the children. Robert was savagely beaten and Truth never saw him again. Soon after that, Truth had a daughter, named Diana (1815).<ref name="Narrative">{{cite web|url=
http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/truth/1850/1850.html|title=Sojourner Truth page
|work=Narrative of Sojourner Truth|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
In 1817, Truth was forced by Dumont to marry an older slave named Thomas. They had four children, Peter (1822), James (1823), Elizabeth (1825), and Sophia (1826).<ref name="WiH"/>

== Freedom ==
The state of New York began, in 1799, to legislate the abolition of slavery, although the process of emancipating New York slaves was not complete until [[July 4]], [[1827]]. Dumont had promised Truth freedom a year before the state emancipation, "if she would do well and be faithful." However, he changed his mind, claiming a hand injury had made her less productive. She was infuriated. She continued working until she felt she had done enough to satisfy her sense of obligation to him by spinning 100 pounds of wool.

Late in 1826, Truth escaped to freedom with her infant daughter, Sophia. She had to leave her other children behind because they were not legally freed in the emancipation order until they had served as bound servants into their twenties.<ref name="WiH"/>She later said:

{{cquote|I did not run off, for I thought that wicked, but I walked off, believing that to be all right.<ref name="WiH"/>}}

She found her way to the home of Isaac and Maria Van Wagenen, a Quaker family,<ref name="MWH">{{cite web|url=http://hall.michiganwomenshalloffame.org/honoree.php?C=198&A=20~114~96~172~79~2~62~113~46~80~3~152~167~74~138~63~92~196~4~32~121~84~48~153~192~41~129~82~69~109~42~93~97~56~175~103~13~207~21~126~104~5~98~131~27~53~38~195~139~219~106~57~22~147~58~107~127~6~173~144~85~17~148~47~208~49~221~43~205~135~168~181~33~115~176~23~14~75~169~130~162~44~198~204~99~7~118~119~8~136~222~50~15~157~65~150~108~24~154~170~163~76~9~209~110~140~70~59~51~155~16~158~156~60~182~191~116~190~28~164~125~160~197~86~193~223~29~134~39~159~111~61~177~132~87~52~199~54~35~210~211~64~112~200~183~165~100~10~122~71~77~94~120~11~36~25~224~151~178~55~88~45~184~128~72~78~171~141~180~206~189~73~123~83~89~145~18~66~26~30~212~188~142~220~90~19~40~161~218~133~81~225~67~37~146~217~91~143~12~31~68~1~213~101~117~214~174~102~137~185~124~95~216~166~187
|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Michigan Womens Hall of Fame|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> who took her and her baby in. Isaac offered to buy her services for the remainder of the year (until the state's emancipation took effect), which Dumont accepted for $20.<ref name="WiH"/> She lived there until the New York State Emancipation Act was approved a year later.

Truth learned that her son Peter, then 8 years old, had been sold illegally by Dumont to an owner in Alabama. With the help of Quaker activists, she took the issue to court and, after months of legal proceedings, got her son back, who had been abused by his new owner.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth had a life-changing religious experience during her stay with the Van Wagenens, and became a devout [[Christian]]. In 1829 she moved with her son Peter to [[New York City]], where she worked as a housekeeper for Elijah Pierson, a Christian Evangelist. In 1832, she met [[Robert Matthews (con artist)|Robert Matthews]], also known as Matthias Kingdom or Prophet Matthias, and went to work for him as a housekeeper.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In a bizarre twist of fate, Elijah Pierson died, and Robert Matthews and Truth were accused of stealing from and poisoning Pierson. Both were acquitted and Robert Matthews moved west.<ref name="WiH"/>

In 1839, Truth's son Peter took a job on a whaling ship called the ''Zone of Nantucket''. From 1840 to 1841, she received three letters from him, though in his third letter he told her he had sent five. When the ship returned to port in 1842, Peter was not on board and Truth never heard from him again.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

=="The Spirit calls me"==
On [[June 1]], [[1843]], Truth changed her name to ''Sojourner Truth'' and told her friends, "The Spirit calls me, and I must go." She left to make her way traveling and preaching about abolition. In 1844, she joined the [[Northampton, Massachusetts|Northampton]] Association of Education and Industry in [[Massachusetts]]. Founded by abolitionists, the organization supported [[women's rights]] and [[religious tolerance]] as well as [[pacifism]]. There were 210 members and they lived on 500 acres (2 km²), raising livestock, running a [[sawmill]], a [[gristmill]], and a silk factory. While there, Truth met [[William Lloyd Garrison]], [[Frederick Douglass]], and [[David Ruggles]] (an African-American printer). In 1846, the group disbanded, unable to support itself.<ref name="WiH"/> In 1847, she went to work as a housekeeper for [[George Benson (Quaker)|George Benson]], the brother-in-law of William Lloyd Garrison. In 1849, she visited John Dumont before he moved west.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth started dictating her memoirs to her friend, Olive Gilbert, and in 1850, William Lloyd Garrison privately published her book, ''The Narrative of Sojourner Truth: A Northern Slave''.<ref name="WiH"/> That same year, she purchased a home in Northampton for $300.

[[Image:SisterSlave.jpg|thumb|200px|right]]
In 1851, she left Northampton to join [[George Thompson (abolitionist)|George Thompson]], an abolitionist and speaker. In May, she attended the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in [[Akron, Ohio]] where she delivered her famous speech ''Ain't I a Woman'', a slogan she adopted from one of the most famous abolitionist images, that of a kneeling female slave with the caption "Am I Not a Woman and a Sister?"<ref name="dar">{{cite web|url=http://www.dar.org/museum/exhibitions.cfm|title=Virtual Exhibitions - artifacts of the Abolitionist movement page|work=Daughters of the American Revolution site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

:''Reminiscences by [[Frances Gage]]''
:''Akron Convention, Akron, Ohio, May 1851''

:''"There were very few women in those days who dared to "speak in meeting"; and the august teachers of the people were seemingly getting the better of us, while the boys in the galleries, and the sneerers among the pews, were hugely enjoying the discomfiture, as they supposed, of the "strong-minded." Some of the tender-skinned friends were on the point of losing dignity, and the atmosphere betokened a storm. When, slowly from her seat in the corner rose Sojourner Truth, who, till now, had scarcely lifted her head. "Don't let her speak!" gasped half a dozen in my ear. She moved slowly and solemnly to the front, laid her old bonnet at her feet, and turned her great speaking eyes to me. There was a hissing sound of disapprobation above and below. I rose and announced "Sojourner Truth," and begged the audience to keep silence for a few moments."''

:''"The tumult subsided at once, and every eye was fixed on this almost Amazon form, which stood nearly six feet high, head erect, and eyes piercing the upper air like one in a dream. At her first word there was a profound hush. She spoke in deep tones, which, though not loud, reached every ear in the house, and away through the throng at the doors and windows."''<ref name="WomenHistory">{{cite web|url=http://womenshistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/history/dubois/classes/995/98F/doc7.html|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Women History|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>

Over the next decade, Truth spoke before dozens, perhaps hundreds, of audiences. From 1851 to 1853, Truth worked with Marius Robinson, the editor of the Ohio ''Anti-Slavery Bugle'', and traveled around that state speaking. In 1853, she spoke at a [[Women's suffrage|suffragist]] "mob convention" at the [[Broadway Tabernacle]] in New York City; that year she also met [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In 1856, she traveled to [[Battle Creek, Michigan|Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]], to speak to a group called the Friends of Human Progress. In 1858, someone interrupted a speech and accused her of being a man; Truth opened her blouse and revealed her breasts.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/><ref name="WiH"/>

=="Ain't I a Woman?"==
Truth delivered her best-known speech in 1851 at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention. The speech has become known as ''[[Ain't I a Woman?]]'' after Truth's refrain.<ref name="Suffragist">{{cite web|url=http://www.suffragist.com/docs.htm|title=Sojourner Truth Page|work=American Suffragist Movement|accessmonthday=December 29|accessyear=2006}}</ref>

The speech as shown here has been revised from the 19th century dialect in which Truth spoke.

{{cquote|Well, children, where there is so much racket there must be something out of kilter. I think that 'twixt the Negroes of the South and the women at the North, all talking about rights, the white men will be in a fix pretty soon. But what's all this here talking about?

That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain't I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man - when I could get it - and bear the lash as well! And ain't I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain't I a woman?

Then they talk about this thing in the head; what's this they call it? [member of audience whispers, "intellect"] That's it, honey. What's that got to do with women's rights or Negroes' rights? If my cup won't hold but a pint, and yours holds a quart, wouldn't you be mean not to let me have my little half measure full?

Then that little man in black there, he says women can't have as much rights as men, 'cause Christ wasn't a woman! Where did your Christ come from? Where did your Christ come from? From God and a woman! Man had nothing to do with Him.

If the first woman God ever made was strong enough to turn the world upside down all alone, these women together ought to be able to turn it back, and get it right side up again! And now they is asking to do it. The men better let them.

Obliged to you for hearing me, and now old Sojourner ain't got nothing more to say.|cquote<ref name="Fordham">{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/sojtruth-woman.html|title=Sojourner Truth Page|work=Fordham University|accessmonthday=December 30|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
}}
::--Sojourner Truth

== On a mission ==
Truth sold her home in Northampton in 1857 and bought a house in Harmonia, Michigan, just west of Battle Creek.<ref name="WiH"/> According to the 1860 [[United States Census|census]], her household in Harmonia included her daughter, Elizabeth Banks (age 35), and her grandsons James Caldwell (misspelled as "Colvin"; age 16) and Sammy Banks (age 8).<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
[[Image:Carte de visite.jpg|thumb|200px|Truth's [[carte de visite]], which she sold to raise money (see inscription).]]

During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], Truth helped recruit black troops for the [[Union Army]]. Her grandson, James Caldwell, enlisted in the [[54th Massachusetts Regiment]]. In 1864, Truth was employed by the National Freedman's Relief Association in [[Washington, D.C.]], where she worked diligently to improve conditions for African-Americans. In October of that year, she met [[President of the United States|President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In 1865, while working at the [[Freedman's Hospital]] in Washington, Truth rode in the streetcars to help force their [[desegregation]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth wrote a song, "The Valiant Soldiers", for the [[102nd Regiment United States Colored Troops|1st Michigan Colored Regiment]], it was composed during the war, and was sung by her in Detroit and Washington D.C. It is sung to the tune of "John Brown" or the "Battle Hymn of the Republic".<ref name="DocSouth">{{cite web |url=http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/truth84/truth84.html |title=Documenting the American South |work=Narrative of Sojourner Truth |accessmonthday=November 7 |accessyear=2007}}</ref>

In 1867, Truth moved from Harmonia to Battle Creek. In 1868, she traveled to western New York and visited with [[Amy Post]], and continued traveling all over the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]]. At a speaking engagement in [[Florence, Massachusetts]], after she had just returned from a very tiring trip, when Truth was called upon to speak she stood up and said,

{{cquote|Children, I have come here like the rest of you, to hear what I have to say.<ref name="SJBIO">{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/9840/sojourn.html|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Sojourner Truth Biography|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>}}

In 1870, Truth tried to secure [[land grant]]s from the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] to former slaves, a project she pursued for seven years without success. While in Washington, D.C., she had a meeting with President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] in the [[White House]]. In 1872, she returned to Battle Creek and tried to vote in the presidential election, but was turned away at the polling place.<ref name="Suffragist"/>

Truth spoke about abolition, women's rights, prison reform, and preached to the Michigan Legislature against capital punishment. Not everyone welcomed her preaching and lectures, but she had many friends and staunch support among many influential people at the time, including [[Amy Post]], [[Parker Pillsbury]], [[Frances Gage]], [[Wendell Phillips]], [[William Lloyd Garrison]], [[Laura Smith Haviland]], [[Lucretia Mott]], and [[Susan B. Anthony]]."<ref name="SJBIO"/>

Truth died on [[November 26]], [[1883]], at her home in Battle Creek, Michigan. Her remains were buried there at Oak Hill Cemetery beside other family members. Her last words were "Be a follower of the Lord Jesus."<ref name="Lastwords">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/thisfarbyfaith/people/sojourner_truth.html|title=People of Faith: Sojourner Truth|work=Public Broadcasting Service|accessmonthday=February 22|accessyear=2007}}</ref>

== Cultural/modern references ==
* 1862 -- [[William Story]]'s statue, The Libyan Sibyl", inspired by Sojourner Truth, won an award at the London World Exhibition.<ref name="WiH"/>
* 1892 -- Albion artist Frank Courter is commissioned to paint the meeting between Truth and [[President Lincoln]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1975 -- Philosopher [[Peter Singer]] uses Truth's quotes in his book ''Animal Liberation ''<ref>See [http://www.peta.org/about/animallib-singer.asp ''What Is Animal Liberation? Excerpts From Philosopher Peter Singer's Groundbreaking Work'']. Accessed 4 December 2006.</ref>
* 1981 -- Truth is inducted into the [[National Women's Hall of Fame]] in Seneca Falls, New York.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1981 -- Feminist theorist and author, [[bell hooks]], titles her [[Ain't I a Woman? (book)|first major work]] after Truth's "Ain't I a Woman?" speech.
* 1983 -- Truth is in the first group of women inducted into the [[Michigan Women's Hall of Fame]] in Lansing.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1986 -- U.S. Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Sojourner Truth.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1993 -- Sweet Honey in the Rock records "Sojourner's Battle Hymn," a song adapted from Truth's own "The Valient Soldiers," which Truth had written as a marching song for colored regiments in the Civil War to the tune of Julia Ward Howe's "Battle Hymn of the Republic." ("The Battle Hymn" itself was written to the tune of the 12th Massachusetts Regiment's marching song, "John Brown's Body," which was itself written to the tune of the Methodist hymn, "Say Brothers, Will You Meet Us?")<ref>Vowell, Sarah. "John Brown's Body." In: The Rose and the Briar: Death, Love, and Liberty in the American Ballad. Marcus, Greil, and Sean Wilentz, eds. NY, NY: W.W. Norton and Co., 2005.</ref><ref>Reagon, Bernice Johnson. If You Don't Go, Don't Hinder Me: The African American Sacred Song Tradition. University of Nebraska Press, 2000.</ref>
* 1997 -- The [[NASA]] [[Mars Pathfinder]] mission's robotic rover was named "Sojourner" after her.<ref>NASA, [http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF/rover/name.html ''NASA Names First Rover to Explore the Surface of Mars'']. Accessed 4 December 2006.</ref>
* 1998 -- [http://www.suekientz.com/st S.T. Writes Home] appears on the web offering "Letters to Mom from Sojourner Truth," in which the Mars Pathfinder Rover at times echoes its namesake.
* 1999 -- The Broadway musical [[The Civil War (musical)|The Civil War]] includes Sojourner Truth: Ain't I a Woman. On the 1999 cast recording, it was performed by [[Maya Angelou]].
* The leftist group the [[Sojourner Truth Organization]] is named after her.
* The [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] commemorates her as a renewer of society on March 10, with [[Harriet Tubman]].
* In the computer game [[Civilization IV]], Sojourner Truth is one of the Great Prophets.
* 1990s - In the [[James Patterson]] series of novels involving Detective [[Alex Cross]], the Cross children attend Sojourner Truth School, and his grandmother frequently speaks highly of her.
* 2004- [[The King's College]], located inside the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City, has a house system (modeled after [[Oxford]]'s), and each house is named after a influential leader. In 2004, they voted to name one of the houses "The House of Sojourner Truth".

==Books==
*''Narrative of Sojourner Truth: A Northern Slave'' (1850).
**Dover Publications 1997 edition: ISBN 0-486-29899-X
**Penguin Classics 1998 edition: ISBN 0-14-043678-2. Introduction & notes by Nell Irvin Painter.
**University of Pennsylvania [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/truth/1850/1850.html online edition] ([[html]] format, one chapter per page)
**University of Virginia [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/TRUTH/toc.html online edition] (html format, 207 kB, entire book on one page)
*Paul E. Johnson and Sean Wilentz, ''The Kingdom of Matthias: A Story of Sex and Salvation in 19th-Century America'' (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-19-509835-8
*Carleton Mabee with Susan Mabee Newhouse, ''Sojourner Truth: Slave, Prophet, Legend'' (New York and London: New York University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-8147-5525-9
*Nell Irvin Painter, ''Sojourner Truth: A Life, A Symbol'' (New York and London: W. W. Norton & Co., 1996) ISBN 0-393-31708-0
*Erlene Stetson and Linda David, ''Glorying in Tribulation: The Lifework of Sojourner Truth'' (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-87013-337-3
*William Leete Stone, ''Matthias and his Impostures- or, The Progress of Fanaticism'' (New York, 1835) Internet Archive [http://www.archive.org/details/matthiasandhisim00stonuoft online edition] (pdf format, 16.9 MB, entire book on one pdf)
*Gilbert Vale, ''Fanaticism - It's Source and Influence Illustrated by the Simple Narrative of Isabella, in the Case of Matthias, Mr. and Mrs. B. Folger, Mr. Pierson, Mr. Mills, Catherine, Isabella, &c. &c.'' (New York, 1835) Google Books [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0OKMvlcaccixvZg7xZkAIx&id=MV4Zt9tHfb0C&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=Fanaticism+-&num=50 online edition] (pdf format, 9.9 MB, entire book on one pdf or one page per page)

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

== External links ==
{{wikisource author}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Truth+Sojourner | name=Sojourner Truth}}
* [http://www.newpaltz.edu/sojourner_truth/ On the trail of Sojourner Truth] [[SUNY New Paltz]] Sojourner Truth Library
* [http://www.sojournertruth.org/Default.htm Sojourner Truth Institute]
* [http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/412855/sojourner_truth_will_become_the_first.html Sojourner Truth Will Become the First Black Woman Honored with a Bust in the U.S. Capitol]
* [http://www.womenwriters.net/domesticgoddess/truth.htm Poem] form of [[Ar'n't I a Woman?|Ain't I a Woman?]]
* [http://www.learningtogive.org/papers/index.asp?bpid=129 bio] at [[Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis]] ''Learning to Give'' site
* [http://www.suekientz.com/st S.T. Writes Home] - Letters to Mom from Sojourner Truth (the Mars Pathfinder Rover)















{{Persondata
|NAME=Truth, Sojourner
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Isabella Baumfree
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[Domestic servant]], [[Abolitionist]], [[Author]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=Circa [[1797]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[November 26]], [[1883]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Battle Creek, Michigan|Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Truth, Sojourner}}
[[Category:1797 births]]
[[Category:1883 deaths]]
[[Category:American abolitionists]]
[[Category:American feminists]]
[[Category:American Methodists]]
[[Category:American slaves]]
[[Category:American suffragists]]
[[Category:American women's rights activists]]
[[Category:Anglican saints]]
[[Category:Feminism]]
[[Category:People of Michigan in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Women in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:People from Northampton, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:People from Battle Creek, Michigan]]

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[[pt:Sojourner Truth]]
[[qu:Sojourner Truth]]
[[sr:Сожурне Трут]]
[[fi:Sojourner Truth]]
[[sv:Sojourner Truth]]
[[zh:索茹尔内·特鲁斯]]

Sojourner Truth

2007-11-15T23:19:21Z

206.102.240.2: /* Cultural/modern references */

{{Infobox Person
| name = Sojourner Truth
| image = Sojourner_Truth_2.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Sojourner Truth, engraving from 1897 book<ref>Wood, Norman B. ''White Side of a Black Subject'' Chicago: American Publishing, 1897. sourced from {{cite web|url=http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/portraits/index.html?img=379|title=Portrait page|work=UTOPIA.utexas.edu|accessmonthday=December 30|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
|
| birth_date = c. [[1797]]
| death_date = {{death date|1883|11|26|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]'''
| death_place = [[Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]]
| occupation = [[Domestic servant]], [[Abolitionist]], [[Author]]
| parents = James and Elizabeth Baumfree
}}
'''Sojourner Truth''' (c. 1797–[[November 26]], [[1883]]) was the self-given name, from 1843, of '''Isabella Baumfree''', an American [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]] and [[women's rights]] activist. Truth was born into [[slavery]] in [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]. Her best-known speech, which became known as ''[[Ain't I a Woman?]]'', was delivered in 1851 at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in [[Akron, Ohio]].

== Early years ==
Truth was born around 1797 into slavery on the Hardenbergh estate in [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]],<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute">{{cite web|url=http://www.sojournertruth.org/History/Biography/NY.htm|title=Amazing Life page|work=Sojourner Truth Institute site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> one of thirteen children, to James and Elizabeth Baumfree, who were slaves of a Colonel Hardenbergh. She spoke only [[Dutch language|Dutch]] until she was sold.<ref name="WiH">{{cite web|url=http://www.lkwdpl.org/wihohio/trut-soj.htm|title=Sojourner Truth page
|work=Women in History site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> After the colonel's death, ownership of the family slaves passed to his son, Charles Hardenbergh.

In 1806, Hardenbergh sold Truth for $100 to John Neely, near [[Kingston, New York|Kingston]], [[New York]]. She suffered many hardships at the hands of Neely, whom she later described as cruel and harsh and who once beat her with a bundle of rods. Neely sold her in 1808, for $105, to Martinus Schryver of [[Kingston, New York|Kingston]], a tavern keeper, who owned her for 18 months. Schryver sold her in 1810, for $175, to John Dumont of [[New Paltz, New York|New Paltz]], [[New York]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> Although this fourth owner was kindly disposed toward her, his wife found numerous ways to harass Truth and make her life more difficult.

Around 1815, Truth met and fell in love with a slave named Robert from a neighboring farm. Robert's owner forbade the relationship; he did not want his slave to have children with a slave he did not own, because he would not own the children. Robert was savagely beaten and Truth never saw him again. Soon after that, Truth had a daughter, named Diana (1815).<ref name="Narrative">{{cite web|url=
http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/truth/1850/1850.html|title=Sojourner Truth page
|work=Narrative of Sojourner Truth|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
In 1817, Truth was forced by Dumont to marry an older slave named Thomas. They had four children, Peter (1822), James (1823), Elizabeth (1825), and Sophia (1826).<ref name="WiH"/>

== Freedom ==
The state of New York began, in 1799, to legislate the abolition of slavery, although the process of emancipating New York slaves was not complete until [[July 4]], [[1827]]. Dumont had promised Truth freedom a year before the state emancipation, "if she would do well and be faithful." However, he changed his mind, claiming a hand injury had made her less productive. She was infuriated. She continued working until she felt she had done enough to satisfy her sense of obligation to him by spinning 100 pounds of wool.

Late in 1826, Truth escaped to freedom with her infant daughter, Sophia. She had to leave her other children behind because they were not legally freed in the emancipation order until they had served as bound servants into their twenties.<ref name="WiH"/>She later said:

{{cquote|I did not run off, for I thought that wicked, but I walked off, believing that to be all right.<ref name="WiH"/>}}

She found her way to the home of Isaac and Maria Van Wagenen, a Quaker family,<ref name="MWH">{{cite web|url=http://hall.michiganwomenshalloffame.org/honoree.php?C=198&A=20~114~96~172~79~2~62~113~46~80~3~152~167~74~138~63~92~196~4~32~121~84~48~153~192~41~129~82~69~109~42~93~97~56~175~103~13~207~21~126~104~5~98~131~27~53~38~195~139~219~106~57~22~147~58~107~127~6~173~144~85~17~148~47~208~49~221~43~205~135~168~181~33~115~176~23~14~75~169~130~162~44~198~204~99~7~118~119~8~136~222~50~15~157~65~150~108~24~154~170~163~76~9~209~110~140~70~59~51~155~16~158~156~60~182~191~116~190~28~164~125~160~197~86~193~223~29~134~39~159~111~61~177~132~87~52~199~54~35~210~211~64~112~200~183~165~100~10~122~71~77~94~120~11~36~25~224~151~178~55~88~45~184~128~72~78~171~141~180~206~189~73~123~83~89~145~18~66~26~30~212~188~142~220~90~19~40~161~218~133~81~225~67~37~146~217~91~143~12~31~68~1~213~101~117~214~174~102~137~185~124~95~216~166~187
|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Michigan Womens Hall of Fame|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> who took her and her baby in. Isaac offered to buy her services for the remainder of the year (until the state's emancipation took effect), which Dumont accepted for $20.<ref name="WiH"/> She lived there until the New York State Emancipation Act was approved a year later.

Truth learned that her son Peter, then 8 years old, had been sold illegally by Dumont to an owner in Alabama. With the help of Quaker activists, she took the issue to court and, after months of legal proceedings, got her son back, who had been abused by his new owner.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth had a life-changing religious experience during her stay with the Van Wagenens, and became a devout [[Christian]]. In 1829 she moved with her son Peter to [[New York City]], where she worked as a housekeeper for Elijah Pierson, a Christian Evangelist. In 1832, she met [[Robert Matthews (con artist)|Robert Matthews]], also known as Matthias Kingdom or Prophet Matthias, and went to work for him as a housekeeper.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In a bizarre twist of fate, Elijah Pierson died, and Robert Matthews and Truth were accused of stealing from and poisoning Pierson. Both were acquitted and Robert Matthews moved west.<ref name="WiH"/>

In 1839, Truth's son Peter took a job on a whaling ship called the ''Zone of Nantucket''. From 1840 to 1841, she received three letters from him, though in his third letter he told her he had sent five. When the ship returned to port in 1842, Peter was not on board and Truth never heard from him again.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

=="The Spirit calls me"==
On [[June 1]], [[1843]], Truth changed her name to ''Sojourner Truth'' and told her friends, "The Spirit calls me, and I must go." She left to make her way traveling and preaching about abolition. In 1844, she joined the [[Northampton, Massachusetts|Northampton]] Association of Education and Industry in [[Massachusetts]]. Founded by abolitionists, the organization supported [[women's rights]] and [[religious tolerance]] as well as [[pacifism]]. There were 210 members and they lived on 500 acres (2 km²), raising livestock, running a [[sawmill]], a [[gristmill]], and a silk factory. While there, Truth met [[William Lloyd Garrison]], [[Frederick Douglass]], and [[David Ruggles]] (an African-American printer). In 1846, the group disbanded, unable to support itself.<ref name="WiH"/> In 1847, she went to work as a housekeeper for [[George Benson (Quaker)|George Benson]], the brother-in-law of William Lloyd Garrison. In 1849, she visited John Dumont before he moved west.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth started dictating her memoirs to her friend, Olive Gilbert, and in 1850, William Lloyd Garrison privately published her book, ''The Narrative of Sojourner Truth: A Northern Slave''.<ref name="WiH"/> That same year, she purchased a home in Northampton for $300.

[[Image:SisterSlave.jpg|thumb|200px|right]]
In 1851, she left Northampton to join [[George Thompson (abolitionist)|George Thompson]], an abolitionist and speaker. In May, she attended the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in [[Akron, Ohio]] where she delivered her famous speech ''Ain't I a Woman'', a slogan she adopted from one of the most famous abolitionist images, that of a kneeling female slave with the caption "Am I Not a Woman and a Sister?"<ref name="dar">{{cite web|url=http://www.dar.org/museum/exhibitions.cfm|title=Virtual Exhibitions - artifacts of the Abolitionist movement page|work=Daughters of the American Revolution site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

:''Reminiscences by [[Frances Gage]]''
:''Akron Convention, Akron, Ohio, May 1851''

:''"There were very few women in those days who dared to "speak in meeting"; and the august teachers of the people were seemingly getting the better of us, while the boys in the galleries, and the sneerers among the pews, were hugely enjoying the discomfiture, as they supposed, of the "strong-minded." Some of the tender-skinned friends were on the point of losing dignity, and the atmosphere betokened a storm. When, slowly from her seat in the corner rose Sojourner Truth, who, till now, had scarcely lifted her head. "Don't let her speak!" gasped half a dozen in my ear. She moved slowly and solemnly to the front, laid her old bonnet at her feet, and turned her great speaking eyes to me. There was a hissing sound of disapprobation above and below. I rose and announced "Sojourner Truth," and begged the audience to keep silence for a few moments."''

:''"The tumult subsided at once, and every eye was fixed on this almost Amazon form, which stood nearly six feet high, head erect, and eyes piercing the upper air like one in a dream. At her first word there was a profound hush. She spoke in deep tones, which, though not loud, reached every ear in the house, and away through the throng at the doors and windows."''<ref name="WomenHistory">{{cite web|url=http://womenshistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/history/dubois/classes/995/98F/doc7.html|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Women History|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>

Over the next decade, Truth spoke before dozens, perhaps hundreds, of audiences. From 1851 to 1853, Truth worked with Marius Robinson, the editor of the Ohio ''Anti-Slavery Bugle'', and traveled around that state speaking. In 1853, she spoke at a [[Women's suffrage|suffragist]] "mob convention" at the [[Broadway Tabernacle]] in New York City; that year she also met [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In 1856, she traveled to [[Battle Creek, Michigan|Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]], to speak to a group called the Friends of Human Progress. In 1858, someone interrupted a speech and accused her of being a man; Truth opened her blouse and revealed her breasts.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/><ref name="WiH"/>

=="Ain't I a Woman?"==
Truth delivered her best-known speech in 1851 at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention. The speech has become known as ''[[Ain't I a Woman?]]'' after Truth's refrain.<ref name="Suffragist">{{cite web|url=http://www.suffragist.com/docs.htm|title=Sojourner Truth Page|work=American Suffragist Movement|accessmonthday=December 29|accessyear=2006}}</ref>

The speech as shown here has been revised from the 19th century dialect in which Truth spoke.

{{cquote|Well, children, where there is so much racket there must be something out of kilter. I think that 'twixt the Negroes of the South and the women at the North, all talking about rights, the white men will be in a fix pretty soon. But what's all this here talking about?

That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain't I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man - when I could get it - and bear the lash as well! And ain't I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain't I a woman?

Then they talk about this thing in the head; what's this they call it? [member of audience whispers, "intellect"] That's it, honey. What's that got to do with women's rights or Negroes' rights? If my cup won't hold but a pint, and yours holds a quart, wouldn't you be mean not to let me have my little half measure full?

Then that little man in black there, he says women can't have as much rights as men, 'cause Christ wasn't a woman! Where did your Christ come from? Where did your Christ come from? From God and a woman! Man had nothing to do with Him.

If the first woman God ever made was strong enough to turn the world upside down all alone, these women together ought to be able to turn it back, and get it right side up again! And now they is asking to do it. The men better let them.

Obliged to you for hearing me, and now old Sojourner ain't got nothing more to say.|cquote<ref name="Fordham">{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/sojtruth-woman.html|title=Sojourner Truth Page|work=Fordham University|accessmonthday=December 30|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
}}
::--Sojourner Truth

== On a mission ==
Truth sold her home in Northampton in 1857 and bought a house in Harmonia, Michigan, just west of Battle Creek.<ref name="WiH"/> According to the 1860 [[United States Census|census]], her household in Harmonia included her daughter, Elizabeth Banks (age 35), and her grandsons James Caldwell (misspelled as "Colvin"; age 16) and Sammy Banks (age 8).<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
[[Image:Carte de visite.jpg|thumb|200px|Truth's [[carte de visite]], which she sold to raise money (see inscription).]]

During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], Truth helped recruit black troops for the [[Union Army]]. Her grandson, James Caldwell, enlisted in the [[54th Massachusetts Regiment]]. In 1864, Truth was employed by the National Freedman's Relief Association in [[Washington, D.C.]], where she worked diligently to improve conditions for African-Americans. In October of that year, she met [[President of the United States|President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In 1865, while working at the [[Freedman's Hospital]] in Washington, Truth rode in the streetcars to help force their [[desegregation]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth wrote a song, "The Valiant Soldiers", for the [[102nd Regiment United States Colored Troops|1st Michigan Colored Regiment]], it was composed during the war, and was sung by her in Detroit and Washington D.C. It is sung to the tune of "John Brown" or the "Battle Hymn of the Republic".<ref name="DocSouth">{{cite web |url=http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/truth84/truth84.html |title=Documenting the American South |work=Narrative of Sojourner Truth |accessmonthday=November 7 |accessyear=2007}}</ref>

In 1867, Truth moved from Harmonia to Battle Creek. In 1868, she traveled to western New York and visited with [[Amy Post]], and continued traveling all over the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]]. At a speaking engagement in [[Florence, Massachusetts]], after she had just returned from a very tiring trip, when Truth was called upon to speak she stood up and said,

{{cquote|Children, I have come here like the rest of you, to hear what I have to say.<ref name="SJBIO">{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/9840/sojourn.html|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Sojourner Truth Biography|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>}}

In 1870, Truth tried to secure [[land grant]]s from the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] to former slaves, a project she pursued for seven years without success. While in Washington, D.C., she had a meeting with President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] in the [[White House]]. In 1872, she returned to Battle Creek and tried to vote in the presidential election, but was turned away at the polling place.<ref name="Suffragist"/>

Truth spoke about abolition, women's rights, prison reform, and preached to the Michigan Legislature against capital punishment. Not everyone welcomed her preaching and lectures, but she had many friends and staunch support among many influential people at the time, including [[Amy Post]], [[Parker Pillsbury]], [[Frances Gage]], [[Wendell Phillips]], [[William Lloyd Garrison]], [[Laura Smith Haviland]], [[Lucretia Mott]], and [[Susan B. Anthony]]."<ref name="SJBIO"/>

Truth died on [[November 26]], [[1883]], at her home in Battle Creek, Michigan. Her remains were buried there at Oak Hill Cemetery beside other family members. Her last words were "Be a follower of the Lord Jesus."<ref name="Lastwords">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/thisfarbyfaith/people/sojourner_truth.html|title=People of Faith: Sojourner Truth|work=Public Broadcasting Service|accessmonthday=February 22|accessyear=2007}}</ref>

== Cultural/modern references ==
* 1862 -- [[William Story]]'s statue, The Libyan Sibyl", inspired by Sojourner Truth, won an award at the London World Exhibition.<ref name="WiH"/>
* 1892 -- Albion artist Frank Courter is commissioned to paint the meeting between Truth and [[President Lincoln]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1975 -- Philosopher [[Peter Singer]] uses Truth's quotes in his book ''Animal Liberation ''<ref>See [http://www.peta.org/about/animallib-singer.asp ''What Is Animal Liberation? Excerpts From Philosopher Peter Singer's Groundbreaking Work'']. Accessed 4 December 2006.</ref>
* 1981 -- Truth is inducted into the [[National Women's Hall of Fame]] in Seneca Falls, New York.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1981 -- Feminist theorist and author, [[bell hooks]], titles her [[Ain't I a Woman? (book)|first major work]] after Truth's "Ain't I a Woman?" speech.
* 1983 -- Truth is in the first group of women inducted into the [[Michigan Women's Hall of Fame]] in Lansing.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1986 -- U.S. Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Sojourner Truth.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1993 -- Sweet Honey in the Rock records "Sojourner's Battle Hymn," a song adapted from Truth's own "The Valient Soldiers," which Truth had written as a marching song for colored regiments in the Civil War to the tune of Julia Ward Howe's "Battle Hymn of the Republic." ("The Battle Hymn" itself was written to the tune of the 12th Massachusetts Regiment's marching song, "John Brown's Body," which was itself written to the tune of the Methodist hymn, "Say Brothers, Will You Meet Us?")<ref>Vowell, Sarah. "John Brown's Body." In: The Rose and the Briar: Death, Love, and Liberty in the American Ballad. Marcus, Greil, and Sean Wilentz, eds. NY, NY: W.W. Norton and Co., 2005.</ref><ref>Reagon, Bernice Johnson. If You Don't Go, Don't Hinder Me: The African American Sacred Song Tradition. University of Nebraska Press, 2000.</ref>
* 1997 -- The [[NASA]] [[Mars Pathfinder]] mission's robotic rover was named "Sojourner" after her.<ref>NASA, [http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF/rover/name.html ''NASA Names First Rover to Explore the Surface of Mars'']. Accessed 4 December 2006.</ref>
* 1998 -- [http://www.suekientz.com/st S.T. Writes Home] appears on the web offering "Letters to Mom from Sojourner Truth," in which the Mars Pathfinder Rover at times echoes its namesake.
* 1999 -- The Broadway musical [[The Civil War (musical)|The Civil War]] includes Sojourner Truth: Ain't I a Woman. On the 1999 cast recording, it was performed by [[Maya Angelou]].
* The leftist group the [[Sojourner Truth Organization]] is named after her.
* The [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] commemorates her as a renewer of society on March 10, with [[Harriet Tubman]].
* In the computer game [[Civilization IV]], Sojourner Truth is one of the Great Prophets.
* 1990s - In the [[James Patterson]] series of novels involving Detective [[Alex Cross]], the Cross children attend Sojourner Truth School, and his grandmother frequently speaks highly of her.
* 2004- The King's College, located inside the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City, has a house system (modeled after Oxford's), and each house is named after a influential leader. In 2004, they voted to name one of the houses "The House of Sojourner Truth".

==Books==
*''Narrative of Sojourner Truth: A Northern Slave'' (1850).
**Dover Publications 1997 edition: ISBN 0-486-29899-X
**Penguin Classics 1998 edition: ISBN 0-14-043678-2. Introduction & notes by Nell Irvin Painter.
**University of Pennsylvania [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/truth/1850/1850.html online edition] ([[html]] format, one chapter per page)
**University of Virginia [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/TRUTH/toc.html online edition] (html format, 207 kB, entire book on one page)
*Paul E. Johnson and Sean Wilentz, ''The Kingdom of Matthias: A Story of Sex and Salvation in 19th-Century America'' (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-19-509835-8
*Carleton Mabee with Susan Mabee Newhouse, ''Sojourner Truth: Slave, Prophet, Legend'' (New York and London: New York University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-8147-5525-9
*Nell Irvin Painter, ''Sojourner Truth: A Life, A Symbol'' (New York and London: W. W. Norton & Co., 1996) ISBN 0-393-31708-0
*Erlene Stetson and Linda David, ''Glorying in Tribulation: The Lifework of Sojourner Truth'' (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-87013-337-3
*William Leete Stone, ''Matthias and his Impostures- or, The Progress of Fanaticism'' (New York, 1835) Internet Archive [http://www.archive.org/details/matthiasandhisim00stonuoft online edition] (pdf format, 16.9 MB, entire book on one pdf)
*Gilbert Vale, ''Fanaticism - It's Source and Influence Illustrated by the Simple Narrative of Isabella, in the Case of Matthias, Mr. and Mrs. B. Folger, Mr. Pierson, Mr. Mills, Catherine, Isabella, &c. &c.'' (New York, 1835) Google Books [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0OKMvlcaccixvZg7xZkAIx&id=MV4Zt9tHfb0C&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=Fanaticism+-&num=50 online edition] (pdf format, 9.9 MB, entire book on one pdf or one page per page)

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

== External links ==
{{wikisource author}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Truth+Sojourner | name=Sojourner Truth}}
* [http://www.newpaltz.edu/sojourner_truth/ On the trail of Sojourner Truth] [[SUNY New Paltz]] Sojourner Truth Library
* [http://www.sojournertruth.org/Default.htm Sojourner Truth Institute]
* [http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/412855/sojourner_truth_will_become_the_first.html Sojourner Truth Will Become the First Black Woman Honored with a Bust in the U.S. Capitol]
* [http://www.womenwriters.net/domesticgoddess/truth.htm Poem] form of [[Ar'n't I a Woman?|Ain't I a Woman?]]
* [http://www.learningtogive.org/papers/index.asp?bpid=129 bio] at [[Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis]] ''Learning to Give'' site
* [http://www.suekientz.com/st S.T. Writes Home] - Letters to Mom from Sojourner Truth (the Mars Pathfinder Rover)















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|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[Domestic servant]], [[Abolitionist]], [[Author]]
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|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[November 26]], [[1883]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Battle Creek, Michigan|Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]]
}}
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[[Category:1797 births]]
[[Category:1883 deaths]]
[[Category:American abolitionists]]
[[Category:American feminists]]
[[Category:American Methodists]]
[[Category:American slaves]]
[[Category:American suffragists]]
[[Category:American women's rights activists]]
[[Category:Anglican saints]]
[[Category:Feminism]]
[[Category:People of Michigan in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Women in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:People from Northampton, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:People from Battle Creek, Michigan]]

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Sojourner Truth

2007-11-15T23:18:10Z

206.102.240.2: /* Cultural/modern references */

{{Infobox Person
| name = Sojourner Truth
| image = Sojourner_Truth_2.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Sojourner Truth, engraving from 1897 book<ref>Wood, Norman B. ''White Side of a Black Subject'' Chicago: American Publishing, 1897. sourced from {{cite web|url=http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/portraits/index.html?img=379|title=Portrait page|work=UTOPIA.utexas.edu|accessmonthday=December 30|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
|
| birth_date = c. [[1797]]
| death_date = {{death date|1883|11|26|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]'''
| death_place = [[Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]]
| occupation = [[Domestic servant]], [[Abolitionist]], [[Author]]
| parents = James and Elizabeth Baumfree
}}
'''Sojourner Truth''' (c. 1797–[[November 26]], [[1883]]) was the self-given name, from 1843, of '''Isabella Baumfree''', an American [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]] and [[women's rights]] activist. Truth was born into [[slavery]] in [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]. Her best-known speech, which became known as ''[[Ain't I a Woman?]]'', was delivered in 1851 at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in [[Akron, Ohio]].

== Early years ==
Truth was born around 1797 into slavery on the Hardenbergh estate in [[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]],<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute">{{cite web|url=http://www.sojournertruth.org/History/Biography/NY.htm|title=Amazing Life page|work=Sojourner Truth Institute site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> one of thirteen children, to James and Elizabeth Baumfree, who were slaves of a Colonel Hardenbergh. She spoke only [[Dutch language|Dutch]] until she was sold.<ref name="WiH">{{cite web|url=http://www.lkwdpl.org/wihohio/trut-soj.htm|title=Sojourner Truth page
|work=Women in History site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> After the colonel's death, ownership of the family slaves passed to his son, Charles Hardenbergh.

In 1806, Hardenbergh sold Truth for $100 to John Neely, near [[Kingston, New York|Kingston]], [[New York]]. She suffered many hardships at the hands of Neely, whom she later described as cruel and harsh and who once beat her with a bundle of rods. Neely sold her in 1808, for $105, to Martinus Schryver of [[Kingston, New York|Kingston]], a tavern keeper, who owned her for 18 months. Schryver sold her in 1810, for $175, to John Dumont of [[New Paltz, New York|New Paltz]], [[New York]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> Although this fourth owner was kindly disposed toward her, his wife found numerous ways to harass Truth and make her life more difficult.

Around 1815, Truth met and fell in love with a slave named Robert from a neighboring farm. Robert's owner forbade the relationship; he did not want his slave to have children with a slave he did not own, because he would not own the children. Robert was savagely beaten and Truth never saw him again. Soon after that, Truth had a daughter, named Diana (1815).<ref name="Narrative">{{cite web|url=
http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/truth/1850/1850.html|title=Sojourner Truth page
|work=Narrative of Sojourner Truth|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
In 1817, Truth was forced by Dumont to marry an older slave named Thomas. They had four children, Peter (1822), James (1823), Elizabeth (1825), and Sophia (1826).<ref name="WiH"/>

== Freedom ==
The state of New York began, in 1799, to legislate the abolition of slavery, although the process of emancipating New York slaves was not complete until [[July 4]], [[1827]]. Dumont had promised Truth freedom a year before the state emancipation, "if she would do well and be faithful." However, he changed his mind, claiming a hand injury had made her less productive. She was infuriated. She continued working until she felt she had done enough to satisfy her sense of obligation to him by spinning 100 pounds of wool.

Late in 1826, Truth escaped to freedom with her infant daughter, Sophia. She had to leave her other children behind because they were not legally freed in the emancipation order until they had served as bound servants into their twenties.<ref name="WiH"/>She later said:

{{cquote|I did not run off, for I thought that wicked, but I walked off, believing that to be all right.<ref name="WiH"/>}}

She found her way to the home of Isaac and Maria Van Wagenen, a Quaker family,<ref name="MWH">{{cite web|url=http://hall.michiganwomenshalloffame.org/honoree.php?C=198&A=20~114~96~172~79~2~62~113~46~80~3~152~167~74~138~63~92~196~4~32~121~84~48~153~192~41~129~82~69~109~42~93~97~56~175~103~13~207~21~126~104~5~98~131~27~53~38~195~139~219~106~57~22~147~58~107~127~6~173~144~85~17~148~47~208~49~221~43~205~135~168~181~33~115~176~23~14~75~169~130~162~44~198~204~99~7~118~119~8~136~222~50~15~157~65~150~108~24~154~170~163~76~9~209~110~140~70~59~51~155~16~158~156~60~182~191~116~190~28~164~125~160~197~86~193~223~29~134~39~159~111~61~177~132~87~52~199~54~35~210~211~64~112~200~183~165~100~10~122~71~77~94~120~11~36~25~224~151~178~55~88~45~184~128~72~78~171~141~180~206~189~73~123~83~89~145~18~66~26~30~212~188~142~220~90~19~40~161~218~133~81~225~67~37~146~217~91~143~12~31~68~1~213~101~117~214~174~102~137~185~124~95~216~166~187
|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Michigan Womens Hall of Fame|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref> who took her and her baby in. Isaac offered to buy her services for the remainder of the year (until the state's emancipation took effect), which Dumont accepted for $20.<ref name="WiH"/> She lived there until the New York State Emancipation Act was approved a year later.

Truth learned that her son Peter, then 8 years old, had been sold illegally by Dumont to an owner in Alabama. With the help of Quaker activists, she took the issue to court and, after months of legal proceedings, got her son back, who had been abused by his new owner.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth had a life-changing religious experience during her stay with the Van Wagenens, and became a devout [[Christian]]. In 1829 she moved with her son Peter to [[New York City]], where she worked as a housekeeper for Elijah Pierson, a Christian Evangelist. In 1832, she met [[Robert Matthews (con artist)|Robert Matthews]], also known as Matthias Kingdom or Prophet Matthias, and went to work for him as a housekeeper.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In a bizarre twist of fate, Elijah Pierson died, and Robert Matthews and Truth were accused of stealing from and poisoning Pierson. Both were acquitted and Robert Matthews moved west.<ref name="WiH"/>

In 1839, Truth's son Peter took a job on a whaling ship called the ''Zone of Nantucket''. From 1840 to 1841, she received three letters from him, though in his third letter he told her he had sent five. When the ship returned to port in 1842, Peter was not on board and Truth never heard from him again.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

=="The Spirit calls me"==
On [[June 1]], [[1843]], Truth changed her name to ''Sojourner Truth'' and told her friends, "The Spirit calls me, and I must go." She left to make her way traveling and preaching about abolition. In 1844, she joined the [[Northampton, Massachusetts|Northampton]] Association of Education and Industry in [[Massachusetts]]. Founded by abolitionists, the organization supported [[women's rights]] and [[religious tolerance]] as well as [[pacifism]]. There were 210 members and they lived on 500 acres (2 km²), raising livestock, running a [[sawmill]], a [[gristmill]], and a silk factory. While there, Truth met [[William Lloyd Garrison]], [[Frederick Douglass]], and [[David Ruggles]] (an African-American printer). In 1846, the group disbanded, unable to support itself.<ref name="WiH"/> In 1847, she went to work as a housekeeper for [[George Benson (Quaker)|George Benson]], the brother-in-law of William Lloyd Garrison. In 1849, she visited John Dumont before he moved west.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth started dictating her memoirs to her friend, Olive Gilbert, and in 1850, William Lloyd Garrison privately published her book, ''The Narrative of Sojourner Truth: A Northern Slave''.<ref name="WiH"/> That same year, she purchased a home in Northampton for $300.

[[Image:SisterSlave.jpg|thumb|200px|right]]
In 1851, she left Northampton to join [[George Thompson (abolitionist)|George Thompson]], an abolitionist and speaker. In May, she attended the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in [[Akron, Ohio]] where she delivered her famous speech ''Ain't I a Woman'', a slogan she adopted from one of the most famous abolitionist images, that of a kneeling female slave with the caption "Am I Not a Woman and a Sister?"<ref name="dar">{{cite web|url=http://www.dar.org/museum/exhibitions.cfm|title=Virtual Exhibitions - artifacts of the Abolitionist movement page|work=Daughters of the American Revolution site|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

:''Reminiscences by [[Frances Gage]]''
:''Akron Convention, Akron, Ohio, May 1851''

:''"There were very few women in those days who dared to "speak in meeting"; and the august teachers of the people were seemingly getting the better of us, while the boys in the galleries, and the sneerers among the pews, were hugely enjoying the discomfiture, as they supposed, of the "strong-minded." Some of the tender-skinned friends were on the point of losing dignity, and the atmosphere betokened a storm. When, slowly from her seat in the corner rose Sojourner Truth, who, till now, had scarcely lifted her head. "Don't let her speak!" gasped half a dozen in my ear. She moved slowly and solemnly to the front, laid her old bonnet at her feet, and turned her great speaking eyes to me. There was a hissing sound of disapprobation above and below. I rose and announced "Sojourner Truth," and begged the audience to keep silence for a few moments."''

:''"The tumult subsided at once, and every eye was fixed on this almost Amazon form, which stood nearly six feet high, head erect, and eyes piercing the upper air like one in a dream. At her first word there was a profound hush. She spoke in deep tones, which, though not loud, reached every ear in the house, and away through the throng at the doors and windows."''<ref name="WomenHistory">{{cite web|url=http://womenshistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/history/dubois/classes/995/98F/doc7.html|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Women History|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>

Over the next decade, Truth spoke before dozens, perhaps hundreds, of audiences. From 1851 to 1853, Truth worked with Marius Robinson, the editor of the Ohio ''Anti-Slavery Bugle'', and traveled around that state speaking. In 1853, she spoke at a [[Women's suffrage|suffragist]] "mob convention" at the [[Broadway Tabernacle]] in New York City; that year she also met [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In 1856, she traveled to [[Battle Creek, Michigan|Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]], to speak to a group called the Friends of Human Progress. In 1858, someone interrupted a speech and accused her of being a man; Truth opened her blouse and revealed her breasts.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/><ref name="WiH"/>

=="Ain't I a Woman?"==
Truth delivered her best-known speech in 1851 at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention. The speech has become known as ''[[Ain't I a Woman?]]'' after Truth's refrain.<ref name="Suffragist">{{cite web|url=http://www.suffragist.com/docs.htm|title=Sojourner Truth Page|work=American Suffragist Movement|accessmonthday=December 29|accessyear=2006}}</ref>

The speech as shown here has been revised from the 19th century dialect in which Truth spoke.

{{cquote|Well, children, where there is so much racket there must be something out of kilter. I think that 'twixt the Negroes of the South and the women at the North, all talking about rights, the white men will be in a fix pretty soon. But what's all this here talking about?

That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain't I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man - when I could get it - and bear the lash as well! And ain't I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain't I a woman?

Then they talk about this thing in the head; what's this they call it? [member of audience whispers, "intellect"] That's it, honey. What's that got to do with women's rights or Negroes' rights? If my cup won't hold but a pint, and yours holds a quart, wouldn't you be mean not to let me have my little half measure full?

Then that little man in black there, he says women can't have as much rights as men, 'cause Christ wasn't a woman! Where did your Christ come from? Where did your Christ come from? From God and a woman! Man had nothing to do with Him.

If the first woman God ever made was strong enough to turn the world upside down all alone, these women together ought to be able to turn it back, and get it right side up again! And now they is asking to do it. The men better let them.

Obliged to you for hearing me, and now old Sojourner ain't got nothing more to say.|cquote<ref name="Fordham">{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/sojtruth-woman.html|title=Sojourner Truth Page|work=Fordham University|accessmonthday=December 30|accessyear=2006}}</ref>
}}
::--Sojourner Truth

== On a mission ==
Truth sold her home in Northampton in 1857 and bought a house in Harmonia, Michigan, just west of Battle Creek.<ref name="WiH"/> According to the 1860 [[United States Census|census]], her household in Harmonia included her daughter, Elizabeth Banks (age 35), and her grandsons James Caldwell (misspelled as "Colvin"; age 16) and Sammy Banks (age 8).<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
[[Image:Carte de visite.jpg|thumb|200px|Truth's [[carte de visite]], which she sold to raise money (see inscription).]]

During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], Truth helped recruit black troops for the [[Union Army]]. Her grandson, James Caldwell, enlisted in the [[54th Massachusetts Regiment]]. In 1864, Truth was employed by the National Freedman's Relief Association in [[Washington, D.C.]], where she worked diligently to improve conditions for African-Americans. In October of that year, she met [[President of the United States|President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/> In 1865, while working at the [[Freedman's Hospital]] in Washington, Truth rode in the streetcars to help force their [[desegregation]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>

Truth wrote a song, "The Valiant Soldiers", for the [[102nd Regiment United States Colored Troops|1st Michigan Colored Regiment]], it was composed during the war, and was sung by her in Detroit and Washington D.C. It is sung to the tune of "John Brown" or the "Battle Hymn of the Republic".<ref name="DocSouth">{{cite web |url=http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/truth84/truth84.html |title=Documenting the American South |work=Narrative of Sojourner Truth |accessmonthday=November 7 |accessyear=2007}}</ref>

In 1867, Truth moved from Harmonia to Battle Creek. In 1868, she traveled to western New York and visited with [[Amy Post]], and continued traveling all over the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]]. At a speaking engagement in [[Florence, Massachusetts]], after she had just returned from a very tiring trip, when Truth was called upon to speak she stood up and said,

{{cquote|Children, I have come here like the rest of you, to hear what I have to say.<ref name="SJBIO">{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/9840/sojourn.html|title=Sojourner Truth page|work=Sojourner Truth Biography|accessmonthday=December 28|accessyear=2006}}</ref>}}

In 1870, Truth tried to secure [[land grant]]s from the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] to former slaves, a project she pursued for seven years without success. While in Washington, D.C., she had a meeting with President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] in the [[White House]]. In 1872, she returned to Battle Creek and tried to vote in the presidential election, but was turned away at the polling place.<ref name="Suffragist"/>

Truth spoke about abolition, women's rights, prison reform, and preached to the Michigan Legislature against capital punishment. Not everyone welcomed her preaching and lectures, but she had many friends and staunch support among many influential people at the time, including [[Amy Post]], [[Parker Pillsbury]], [[Frances Gage]], [[Wendell Phillips]], [[William Lloyd Garrison]], [[Laura Smith Haviland]], [[Lucretia Mott]], and [[Susan B. Anthony]]."<ref name="SJBIO"/>

Truth died on [[November 26]], [[1883]], at her home in Battle Creek, Michigan. Her remains were buried there at Oak Hill Cemetery beside other family members. Her last words were "Be a follower of the Lord Jesus."<ref name="Lastwords">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/thisfarbyfaith/people/sojourner_truth.html|title=People of Faith: Sojourner Truth|work=Public Broadcasting Service|accessmonthday=February 22|accessyear=2007}}</ref>

== Cultural/modern references ==
* 1862 -- [[William Story]]'s statue, The Libyan Sibyl", inspired by Sojourner Truth, won an award at the London World Exhibition.<ref name="WiH"/>
* 1892 -- Albion artist Frank Courter is commissioned to paint the meeting between Truth and [[President Lincoln]].<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1975 -- Philosopher [[Peter Singer]] uses Truth's quotes in his book ''Animal Liberation ''<ref>See [http://www.peta.org/about/animallib-singer.asp ''What Is Animal Liberation? Excerpts From Philosopher Peter Singer's Groundbreaking Work'']. Accessed 4 December 2006.</ref>
* 1981 -- Truth is inducted into the [[National Women's Hall of Fame]] in Seneca Falls, New York.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1981 -- Feminist theorist and author, [[bell hooks]], titles her [[Ain't I a Woman? (book)|first major work]] after Truth's "Ain't I a Woman?" speech.
* 1983 -- Truth is in the first group of women inducted into the [[Michigan Women's Hall of Fame]] in Lansing.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1986 -- U.S. Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Sojourner Truth.<ref name="Sojourner TruthInstitute"/>
* 1993 -- Sweet Honey in the Rock records "Sojourner's Battle Hymn," a song adapted from Truth's own "The Valient Soldiers," which Truth had written as a marching song for colored regiments in the Civil War to the tune of Julia Ward Howe's "Battle Hymn of the Republic." ("The Battle Hymn" itself was written to the tune of the 12th Massachusetts Regiment's marching song, "John Brown's Body," which was itself written to the tune of the Methodist hymn, "Say Brothers, Will You Meet Us?")<ref>Vowell, Sarah. "John Brown's Body." In: The Rose and the Briar: Death, Love, and Liberty in the American Ballad. Marcus, Greil, and Sean Wilentz, eds. NY, NY: W.W. Norton and Co., 2005.</ref><ref>Reagon, Bernice Johnson. If You Don't Go, Don't Hinder Me: The African American Sacred Song Tradition. University of Nebraska Press, 2000.</ref>
* 1997 -- The [[NASA]] [[Mars Pathfinder]] mission's robotic rover was named "Sojourner" after her.<ref>NASA, [http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF/rover/name.html ''NASA Names First Rover to Explore the Surface of Mars'']. Accessed 4 December 2006.</ref>
* 1998 -- [http://www.suekientz.com/st S.T. Writes Home] appears on the web offering "Letters to Mom from Sojourner Truth," in which the Mars Pathfinder Rover at times echoes its namesake.
* 1999 -- The Broadway musical [[The Civil War (musical)|The Civil War]] includes Sojourner Truth: Ain't I a Woman. On the 1999 cast recording, it was performed by [[Maya Angelou]].
* The leftist group the [[Sojourner Truth Organization]] is named after her.
* The [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] commemorates her as a renewer of society on March 10, with [[Harriet Tubman]].
* In the computer game [[Civilization IV]], Sojourner Truth is one of the Great Prophets.
* 1990s - In the [[James Patterson]] series of novels involving Detective [[Alex Cross]], the Cross children attend Sojourner Truth School, and his grandmother frequently speaks highly of her.
* 2004- The King's College, located inside the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City, has a house system (modeled after Oxford's), and each house is named after a influential leader. One of the houses is The House of Sojourner Truth.

==Books==
*''Narrative of Sojourner Truth: A Northern Slave'' (1850).
**Dover Publications 1997 edition: ISBN 0-486-29899-X
**Penguin Classics 1998 edition: ISBN 0-14-043678-2. Introduction & notes by Nell Irvin Painter.
**University of Pennsylvania [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/truth/1850/1850.html online edition] ([[html]] format, one chapter per page)
**University of Virginia [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/TRUTH/toc.html online edition] (html format, 207 kB, entire book on one page)
*Paul E. Johnson and Sean Wilentz, ''The Kingdom of Matthias: A Story of Sex and Salvation in 19th-Century America'' (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-19-509835-8
*Carleton Mabee with Susan Mabee Newhouse, ''Sojourner Truth: Slave, Prophet, Legend'' (New York and London: New York University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-8147-5525-9
*Nell Irvin Painter, ''Sojourner Truth: A Life, A Symbol'' (New York and London: W. W. Norton & Co., 1996) ISBN 0-393-31708-0
*Erlene Stetson and Linda David, ''Glorying in Tribulation: The Lifework of Sojourner Truth'' (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-87013-337-3
*William Leete Stone, ''Matthias and his Impostures- or, The Progress of Fanaticism'' (New York, 1835) Internet Archive [http://www.archive.org/details/matthiasandhisim00stonuoft online edition] (pdf format, 16.9 MB, entire book on one pdf)
*Gilbert Vale, ''Fanaticism - It's Source and Influence Illustrated by the Simple Narrative of Isabella, in the Case of Matthias, Mr. and Mrs. B. Folger, Mr. Pierson, Mr. Mills, Catherine, Isabella, &c. &c.'' (New York, 1835) Google Books [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0OKMvlcaccixvZg7xZkAIx&id=MV4Zt9tHfb0C&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=Fanaticism+-&num=50 online edition] (pdf format, 9.9 MB, entire book on one pdf or one page per page)

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

== External links ==
{{wikisource author}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Truth+Sojourner | name=Sojourner Truth}}
* [http://www.newpaltz.edu/sojourner_truth/ On the trail of Sojourner Truth] [[SUNY New Paltz]] Sojourner Truth Library
* [http://www.sojournertruth.org/Default.htm Sojourner Truth Institute]
* [http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/412855/sojourner_truth_will_become_the_first.html Sojourner Truth Will Become the First Black Woman Honored with a Bust in the U.S. Capitol]
* [http://www.womenwriters.net/domesticgoddess/truth.htm Poem] form of [[Ar'n't I a Woman?|Ain't I a Woman?]]
* [http://www.learningtogive.org/papers/index.asp?bpid=129 bio] at [[Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis]] ''Learning to Give'' site
* [http://www.suekientz.com/st S.T. Writes Home] - Letters to Mom from Sojourner Truth (the Mars Pathfinder Rover)















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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Isabella Baumfree
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[Domestic servant]], [[Abolitionist]], [[Author]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=Circa [[1797]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Swartekill, New York|Swartekill]], [[New York]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[November 26]], [[1883]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Battle Creek, Michigan|Battle Creek]], [[Michigan]]
}}
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[[Category:American women's rights activists]]
[[Category:Anglican saints]]
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[[Category:People of Michigan in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Women in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:People from Northampton, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:People from Battle Creek, Michigan]]

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Jodi Kantor

2007-11-05T20:56:42Z

206.102.240.2: /* Personal */

{{Infobox journalist
| name = Jodi Kantor
| image =
| birthname =
| birth_date = 1975
| birth_place =
| age = 32
| death_date =
| death_place =
| education = [[Columbia College of Columbia University|Columbia University]]
| occupation = journalist
| alias =
| gender = female
| status =
| title =
| family =
| spouse = Ron Lieber
| children =
| relatives =
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| credits = ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''Slate''
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}}

'''Jodi Kantor''' (born [[1975]]) is an [[United States|American]] journalist who writes for ''[[The New York Times]]''. Kantor's articles primarily concern cultural phenomena and politics, among other topics.

She graduated from [[Columbia College of Columbia University|Columbia University]] in [[1996]] and briefly attended [[Harvard Law School]] before landing a job as an editor of ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]''. After corresponding with ''New York Times'' columnist [[Frank Rich]] about how that paper could improve its arts coverage, she was brought on as editor of the Arts and Leisure section by [[Howell Raines]], executive editor. It was a watershed moment in journalism, as she had begun her career online, and was only 27 at the time (her predecessor, [[John Rockwell]], had been in his late 50's when appointed to the post).

As arts editor, Kantor worked to make the ''Times''' arts coverage more aggressive, expanding its focus to cover the stories behind, and the social conditions surrounding, the arts. She also made coverage more contemporary, focusing on new art forms. Her role as editor occasionally controversial, however; while some charged that she hired many writers with limited experience in traditional journalism, and assigned pieces on trivial pop culture subjects<ref>http://newcriterion.com:81/weblog/2007/08/jodi-kantor-watch-red-alert.html</ref>, others believed she helped the paper connect with audiences.<ref>http://www.blacktable.com/leitch030711.htm</ref> <ref>http://www.newyorkbusiness-risingstars.com/profile.php?pageNum_profile_detail=17&year=4</ref> Kantor eventually stepped down from her editorship to pursue reporting once more.<ref>http://www.mediabistro.com/fishbowlny/on/jodi_kantor_steps_down_and_out_into_the_real_world_23882.asp</ref>

==Personal==
Kantor is married to [[Ron Lieber]], managing editor of [[FiLife.com]]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
*[http://www.observer.com/node/48522 NY Observer article on Kantor]
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/alumni/Magazine/Fall2005/Kantor.pdf Profile of Kantor in Columbia Magazine]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kantor, Jodi}}
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American journalists]]
[[Category:American newspaper editors]]
[[Category:New York Times people|Kantor, Jodi]]
[[Category:Columbia University alumni|Kantor, Jodi]]

Crime statistics

2007-10-24T00:12:41Z

206.102.240.2: /* Recording practices */

{{Mergefrom|Crime rate|date=April 2007}}
{{Mergefrom|Crime index|date=April 2007}}

'''Crime statistics''' attempt to provide a [[statistics|statistical]] measure of the level, or amount, of [[crime]] that is prevalent in societies. Given that crime, by definition, is an illegal activity, every way of measuring it is likely to be inaccurate.

There are many forms of measuring crime, including household surveys or checking hospital or insurance records, but the term "crime statistic" usually refers to figures compiled by the [[Police]] and similar law enforcement agencies. However, it is well known that many if not most offences are not reported to the police, and changes in police procedures can have a big impact on how such reported crims are categorised. This is why public surveys are sometimes conducted to estimate the amount of crime not reported to police and to ascertain levels of [[Crime|victimisation]]. Such surveys are usually more reliable in providing reliable trends over time, but they rarely ecompass all crime (eg separate surveys are required to measure retail crime such as shoplifting, as distinct from crime against the public), rarely give local statistics useful for local crime prevention or enforcement, often ignore offences against children, and do not count offenders brought before the criminal justice system.

Crime statistics are gathered and reported by many countries and are of interest to several international organisations, including [[Interpol]] and the [[United Nations]]. Law enforcement agencies in some countries, such as the FBI in the United States and the Home Office in England & Wales, publish [[crime index|crime indices]], which are compilations of statistics for various types of crime.

Statistics are usually collected on
*Offences - Breaches of the law
*Offenders - Those who commit offences
*Victims - Those who are offended against

Because laws vary between jurisictions, comparing crime statistics between, and even within, countries can be difficult, sometimes even problematic. Even overall international trends can be difficult to interpret authoritatively. Research using a series of victim surveys in 18 countries of the [[European Union]] funded by the [[European Commission]] has reported (2005) that the level of crime in Europe has fallen back to the levels of 1990, and notes that levels of common crime have shown declining trends in the U.S.A., Canada, Australia and other industrialised countries as well. The European researchers say a general consensus identifies demographic change as the leading cause for this international trend. However they suggest that "increased use of [[crime prevention]] measures may indeed be the common factor behind the near universal decrease in overall levels of crime in the Western world", since decreases have been most pronounced in property crime and less so, if at all, in contact crimes.<ref>Van Dijk, J.J.M., Manchin, R., Van Kesteren, J., Nevala, S., Hideg, G. (2005). ''The Burden of Crime in the EU. Research Report: A Comparative Analysis of the European Crime and Safety Survey (EU ICS) 2005'' accessed at [http://www.unicri.it/wwd/analysis/icvs/pdf_files/EUICS%20-%20The%20Burden%20of%20Crime%20in%20the%20EU.pdf] April 12, 2007 - pp.21-23</ref><ref>Kesteren, J. van, Mayhew, P., Nieuwbeerta, Paul (2000). ''Criminal victimization in seventeen industrialized countries: key findings from the 2000 International Crime Victims Survey'' accessed at [http://www.wodc.nl/Onderzoeken/Onderzoek_W00187.asp] April 12, 2007 - pp.98-99</ref>

==Recording practices==
Crime statistics recording practices vary, not only between countries and jurisdictions but sometimes within jurisdictions and even between two individual law enforcement officers encountering the same situation. Because many law enforcement officers have powers of discretion, they have the ability to affect how much crime is recorded based on how they record their activities. Even though a member of the public may report a crime to a law enforcement officer, it will not be counted unless that crime is then recorded in a way that allows it to be incorporated into the crime statistics. As a consequence, offending, particularly minor offending, may be significantly undercounted in situations where law enforcement officers are overloaded with work or do not perceive the offending as worth recording. Similarly certain high profile categories of crime may be well reported when there is an incentive (such as a financial or performance incentive) for the law enforcement officer to do so.

For example: Almost all recorded traffic offending is reported either by law enforcement officers (or by automatic [[road safety camera]]s) because there is normally a fine and (profitable) revenue collection process to go through. Yet it is likely that very little traffic offending reported by the public will make its way into official statistics because of the difficulty in following up these reports.

==Counting rules==
Counting rules vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Relatively few standards exist and none that permit international comparability beyond a very limited range of offences. However, many jurisdictions accept the following:
*There must be a prima facie case that an offence has been committed before it is recorded. That is either police find evidence of an offence or receive a believable allegation of an offense being committed. Some jurisdictions count offending only when certain processes happen, such as an arrest is made, ticket issued, charges laid in Court or only upon securing a conviction.
*Multiple reports of the same offence count as one offence. Some jurisdictions count each report separately, others count each victim of offending separately.
*Where several offences are committed at the same time, in one act of offending, only the most serious offense is counted. Some jurisdictions record and count each and every offense separately, others count cases, or offenders, that can be prosecuted.
*Where multiple offenders are involved in the same act of offending only one act is counted when counting offenses but each offender is counted when apprehended.
*Offending is counted at the time it comes to the attention of a law enforcement officer. Some jurisdictions record and count offending at the time it occurs.

Offending that is a breach of the law but for which no punishment exists is often not counted. For example: Suicide, which is technically illegal in most countries, may not be counted as a crime, although attempted suicide and assisting suicide are.

Also traffic offending and other minor offending that might be dealt with by using fines, rather than imprisonment, is often not counted as ''crime''. However separate statistics may be kept for this sort of offending.

==Surveys==
Because of the difficulties in quantifying how much crime actually occurs, researchers generally take two approaches to gathering statistics about crime.

Statistics from law enforcement organisations are often used. These statistics are normally readily available and are generally reliable in terms of identifying what crime is being dealt with by law enforcement organisations, as they are gathered by law enforcement officers in the course of their duties and are often extracted directly from law enforcement computer systems. However, these statistics often tend to reflect the productivity and law enforcement activities of the officers concerned and may bear little relationship to the actual amount of crime, as officers can only record crime that comes to their attention and might not record a matter as a crime if the matter is considered minor and is not perceived as a crime by the officer concerned. The statistics may also be biased because of routine actions and pragmatic decisions that law enforcement officers make in the field. For example, when faced with a domestic violence dispute between a couple, a law enforcement officer may decide it is far less trouble to arrest the male party to the dispute, because the female may have children to care for, despite both parties being equally culpable for the dispute. This sort of pragmatic decisionmaking would mean the statistics had a gender bias because of what officers did to resolve such disputes.

Researchers also conduct population surveys in order to identify victims of crime and their experiences. These surveys are often known as [[victim study|victimisation survey]]s as they seek to identify the victims of crime, especially for [[Dark figure of crime|crime that is not reported]] to a law enforcement officer. Victimisation surveys also suffer from problems as they are perception surveys. In these surveys people are being asked if they are victims of crime, without needing to provide any supporting evidence. In these surveys it is the participant's perception, or opinion, that a crime occurred, or even their understanding about what constitutes a crime that is being measured. As a consequence victimisation surveys can also exhibit a subjective bias. Also, differing methodologies may make comparisons with other surveys difficult.

One way in which victimisation surveys are useful is that they show some types of crime are well reported to law enforcement officials, while other types of crime are under reported. These surveys also give insights as to why crime is reported, or not. The surveys show that the need to make an insurance claim, seek medical assistance, and the seriousness of an offence tend to increase the level of reporting, while the inconvenience of reporting, the involvement of intimate parters and the nature of the offending tend to decrease reporting. This allows degrees of confidence to be assigned to various crime statistics. For example: Motor vehicle thefts are generally well reported because the victim may need to make the report for an insurance claim, while domestic violence, domestic child abuse and sexual offences are frequently significantly under-reported because of the intimate relationships involved, embarrassment and other factors that make it difficult for the victim to make a report.

==Classification==
In order to measure crime in a consistent manner, different sorts of crime need to be classified and separated into groups of similar or comparable offences. While most jurisdictions could probably agree about what constitutes a [[murder]], what constitutes a [[homicide]] may be more problematic, while a crime against the person could vary widely. Legislation differences often means the ingredients of offences vary between jurisdictions. The penalty for an offence may also vary, with fines being imposed in one jurisdiction, while imprisonment occurs in another. The level of penalty may determine what does and does not constitute a crime. Some jurisdictions may even have offences that do not exist in others.

Classification systems attempt to overcome these problems, although different jurisdictions perform this classification in different ways. Some classification systems concentrate on specific indicator crimes, such as murder, robbery, burglary and vehicle thefts. Other systems, such as the Australian Standard Offence Classification(ASOC) [http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/1234.0Contents11997] attempt to be more comprehensive.

==Measures==
Measures of crime include simple counts of offences, victimsisations or apprehensions, as well as population based [[crime rate]]s. Counts are normally made over a year long reporting period.

More complex measures involve measuring the numbers of discrete victims and offenders as well as repeat victimisation rates and recidivism. Repeat victimisation involves measuring how often the same victim is subjected to a repeat occurrence of an offence, often by the same offender. Repetition rate measures are often used to assess the effectiveness of interventions.

Because crime is a social issue, comparisons of crime between places or years are normally performed on some sort of population basis.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Catalano, S. M. (2006). ''The measurement of crime: victim reporting and police recording''. New York, LFB Scholarly Pub. ISBN 1593321554
* Jupp, V. (1989). ''Methods of criminological research''. Contemporary social research series. London, Unwin Hyman. ISBN 0044450664
* Van der Westhuizen, J. (1981). ''Measurement of crime''. Pretoria, University of South Africa. ISBN 0869811975

==See also==

*[[Crime index]]
*[[Crime rate]]
*[[Crime science]]
*[[Criminology]]
*[[Dark figure of crime]]
*[[Demography]]
*[[Questionnaire]]
*[[Self report study]]
*[[Victim study]]

[[Category:Law enforcement]]
[[Category:Crime data| ]]

[[de:Polizeiliche Kriminalstatistik (Deutschland)]]
[[ru:Правовая статистика]]

Wikipedia:Articles for creation/2006-03-29

2007-10-11T20:57:42Z

206.102.240.2:

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Please now follow the link back to [[Wikipedia:Articles for creation]].

== 37 Woods Edge Ct ==


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=== Sources ===



this would be my house
the best place in stafford

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== [[Sigma Psi Kappa]] ==


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Sigma Psi Kappa is a local sorority at New Jersey Institute of Technology. It was founded on November 8th, 1992 as a safe haven for women. It's founding sisters, Elfie Almadin, Jeannie Lee, Chin Yu (Jenny) Lin, Rebeca Luengo, and Omnia Samra came together to build this organization, that focuses on community service, scholarship, and strength, for strong and independant women who strive for excellence.

Today, Sigma Psi Kappa is locally seen as such an organization. More than 70 women of been inducted, and the ideals that the founding sisters strived toward are the same ideals our sisters strive toward today. Sigma Psi Kappa is known for hosting 2 blood drives each semester, doing well in school, being active in our campus community, and are seen as leaders at New Jersey Institute of Technology.

=== Sources ===

http://www.njitsigmas.com


[[User:128.235.249.80|128.235.249.80]] 01:46, 28 March 2006 (UTC)Melissa Mazanek, Sigma Psi Kappa President, Spring 2006
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. This suggestion doesn't sufficiently explain the importance or significance of the subject. See the [[WP:SPEEDY#A7|speedy deletion criteria A7]] and/or [[WP:BIO|guidelines on biographies]]. Please provide more information on why the person or group is worthy of inclusion in an encyclopedia. Thank you. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 02:35, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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==[[Lord Henry]]==


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Lord Henry is the mentor of Dorian Gray in Oscar Wilde's [[A Picture of Dorian Gray]].

=== Sources ===



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== Chestnut Hill Academy ==


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[[Chestnut Hill Academy]]




'''Chestnut Hill Academy''' is a private school for boys in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]. The school offers classes from pre-kindergarten to grade 12. Some classes in the upper grades are co-educational, offered in conjunction with the nearby [[Springside School]] for girls.

The school is accredited by the [[Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools]].

=== External link ===

[http://www.chestnuthillacademy.org/ Chestnut Hill Academy Website]

{{t1|US-school-stub}}

[[:Category:High schools in Pennsylvania]]

=== Sources ===

(See external link above for the school's official website)

[[User:68.162.80.7|68.162.80.7]] 02:17, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

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== "For Dummies" Books ==


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#REDIRECT [[...For Dummies]]
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== Rekoil (the band you cant stand) ==


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=== Sources ===




sources freewebs.com/rekoilthebandyoucantstand
myspace.com/rekoilthebandyoucantstand
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. Your article appears to be a joke. It might be a wonderful entry in [http://www.uncyclopedia.org Uncyclopedia], a wiki where jokes and parodies are highly encouraged. But sadly, Wikipedia requires a stodgier, more factual tone in its articles, and your comedic efforts cannot be rewarded here.  [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 02:37, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== Max Shelton ==


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Max Shelton of Indianapolis, Indiana is bassist of the Indianapolis founded band, the Urban Rednecks. A tennis player, musician, local philanthropist, magician, accountant, zoo keeper, and mountain climber, Mr. Shelton has established a colorful background which he implements in his everyday life.

=== Sources ===
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. This suggestion doesn't sufficiently explain the importance or significance of the subject. See the [[WP:SPEEDY#A7|speedy deletion criteria A7]] and/or [[WP:BIO|guidelines on biographies]]. Please provide more information on why the person or group is worthy of inclusion in an encyclopedia. Thank you. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 02:38, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[David Wild]] ==


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David Wild, currently a contributing editor at ''Rolling Stone'' magazine, is a prominent writer and critic in the music and television industries. His published books include Friends: The Offical Companion (1995); Seinfeld: The Totally Unauthorized Tribute (1998); The Showrunners (2000); The Official Melrose Place Companion (1995); The Movies of Woody Allen: A Short, Neurotic Quiz Book (1987).

Mr. Wild was the host of the television series Musicians, which aired on Bravo! in 2001. His writing credits for television include the following:

<ul>
<li>Super Bowl's Greatest Commercials: Top 40 Countdown (2006) (TV)
</li>
<li>2006 Asian Excellence Awards (2006)
</li>
<li>Al Pacino: An American Cinematheque Tribute (2006) (TV)
</li>
<li>The 2005 Billboard Music Awards (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>An All-Star Salute to Patti LaBelle: Live from Atlantis (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>Shelter from the Storm: A Concert for the Gulf Coast (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>The 3rd Annual TV Land Awards (2005)
</li>
<li>The Greatest Commercials: Super Bowl vs the World (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>Steve Martin: An American Cinematheque Tribute (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>The 31st Annual People's Choice Awards (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>Funniest Commercials of the Year: 2004 (2004) (TV)
</li>
<li>Genius: A Night for Ray Charles (2004) (TV)
</li>
<li>Moving Image Salutes Richard Gere (2004) (TV)
</li>
<li>Countdown to the Oscars 2004 (2004) (TV)
</li>
<li>The 46th Annual Grammy Awards (2004) (TV)
</li>
<li>VH1 Big in 03 (2003) (TV)
</li>
<li>2003 NFL Kickoff Concert (2003) (TV)
</li>
<li>"Pepsi Smash" (2003) TV Series (writer)
</li>
<li>The 3rd Annual Women Rock! Girls and Guitars (2002) (TV) (written by)
</li>
<li>3rd Annual Latin Grammy Awards (2002) (TV)
</li>
<li>2002 MTV Movie Awards (2002) (TV)
</li>
<li>Elvis Lives (2002) (TV)
</li>
<li>America: A Tribute to Heroes (2001) (TV)
</li>
<li>"Musicians" (2001) TV Series (writer)
</li>
<li> The 1994 Billboard Music Awards (1994) (TV)
</li>
</ul>

----

=== Sources ===
[[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0928329/]]
[[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/search-handle-url/index=books&field-author-exact=David%20Wild&rank=-relevance%2C%2Bavailability%2C-daterank/103-6160701-8183866]]


[[User:68.197.73.34|68.197.73.34]] 03:37, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

'''Accept''': but I trimmed out most specific credits to avoid this looking like an advertisement. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 02:53, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

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== [[Ludo (band)]] ==
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Ludo is a band from St. Louis, MO.

They have two CDs:
Ludo
Broken Bride

=== Sources ===


[http://www.ludorock.com/Ludo4.0/Ludo4.html]

[[User:216.147.225.76|216.147.225.76]] 04:03, 28 March 2006 (UTC)
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. This article already exists in Wikipedia. {{#if:{{{1|}}}|You can find it at [[:{{{1}}}]].|}}[[User:Theone00|Theone00]] 10:05, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[Dave Pratt "The Morning Mayor"]] ==


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''copyvio removed, see http://www.kmlenation.com/pages/84299.php'' [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 02:57, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

=== Sources ===


[[www.kmlenation.com]]



[[User:70.190.186.93|70.190.186.93]] 04:09, 28 March 2006 (UTC)James Parsons
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. {{#if:{{{1|}}}|This article appears to be taken from {{{1}}}.}} We cannot accept [[WP:Copyrights|copyrighted]] content taken from web sites or printed sources. Note that copyright protection is granted to all works automatically, whether it is asserted or not. Unless stated otherwise, assume that most content on the internet is copyrighted and not suitable for Wikipedia. Please write in your own words, and in continuous prose. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 02:57, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== O.S.D.L. ==


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O.S.D.L.(Only Soldiers Die Legends)

O.S.D.L Is a clique with a variety of different street gangs put together.
O.S.D.L is spread out over several US cities, such as Chicago,Birmingham,Philedelphia,Atlanta,Miami,Jacksonvile,and much more.
As of now there is NO Latin Kings in O.S.D.L. Only Crip,Folk,MS-13,and Bloods.
And the colors you rep depend on what side you get down with. Like if you get down with the Crip side. You would rock Blue and Black.
The Symbol For O.S.D.L is thumb, pointer, and your pinky extended.
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. We cannot accept unsourced suggestions or sources that are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|not reliable]] per the [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability policy]]. Please provide '''reputable, third-party''' sources with your suggestions. Third party sources are needed both to establish the [[WP:Verifiability|verifiability]] of the submission as well as its [[Wikipedia:Notability|notability]]. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 02:58, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[Bryce Falcon]] ==


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'''Bryce Falcon''' (born [[August 15]], [[1988]] in [[Torrance, California|Torrance]], [[California]]) is an [[America|American]] [[singer-songwriter]]. He has played in many lesser known bands and has recorded a fair amount of solo work. Bands he has played in include [[The Noise (band)|The Noise]], [[Hat and Tractor]], [[Hours Till Awesome]], and [[Lunchtime Policies]], a short-lived [[The Noise (band)|Noise]] cover band.

He started his musical career playing [[guitar]] in the [[alternative rock]] band [[Plaintiff (band)|Plaintiff]], but the band later fell apart as their drummer and lead singer, [[Sam Broido]] began to focus his efforts on his other band, [[Ska Shank Redemption]]. He later joined bands which played music genres that were more suited to his tastes. These bands include [[The Noise (band)|Noise]], a [[punk rock]] group, [[Hours Till Awesome]], a pop group, and [[Hat and Tractor]], his current band, which plays an eclectic blend of pop and rock in the vein of television [[sitcom]] theme songs. One of his current side projects is an unnamed [[David Bowie]] tribute band which includes former members of [[Hours Till Awesome]] and [[Lunchtime Policies]].

Falcon's most recent production, the ''Omnichord EP,'' consists of four songs played entirely on the [[omnichord]]. One song, which was entirely improvised, includes guest vocals by Falcon's childhood housekeeper, [[Thelma (housekeeper)|Thelma]].

As well as the guitar, Falcon plays the [[piano]], [[omnichord]] and [[dulcimer]]. He is well versed on classical music theory, which is plainly evident in most of his work, but especially the songs he wrote for [[The Noise (band)|The Noise]]'s debut album, ''The Larry LP.''

There is a band which was created entirely as a tribute to Falcon, [[The Falconers]].

===Discography===
*''The Larry LP'', [[2002]]
*''Three Easy Ways to Tune Your Bear'', [[2002]]
*''We'll Never Know'', [[2003]]
*''The Flying Puppy EP'', [[2003]]
*''Torring in Chare'', [[2005]]
*''The Omnichord EP'', [[2006]]

===Production credits===
*''Three Easy Ways to Tune Your Bear'', [[2002]]
*''The Flying Puppy EP'', [[2003]]
*''Torring in Chare'', [[2005]]
*''The Omnichord EP'', [[2006]]

===External links===
*[http://www.myspace.com/somealians Official web site]
*[http://http://bryce-falcon.tripod.com/ Fan club web site]

[[:Category:1988 births|Falcon, Bryce]]

[[:Category:American singer-songwriters|Falcon, Bryce]]

[[:Category:American guitarists|Falcon, Bryce]]

[[:Category:American pianists|Falcon, Bryce]]

[[:Category:Living people|Falcon, Bryce]]

=== Sources ===

http://bryce-falcon.tripod.com/ - primary source besides personal knowledge
http://www.myspace.com/somealians/ - secondary source


[[User:71.108.119.117|71.108.119.117]] 04:30, 28 March 2006 (UTC)
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. We cannot accept unsourced suggestions or sources that are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|not reliable]] per the [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability policy]]. Please provide '''reputable, third-party''' sources with your suggestions. Third party sources are needed both to establish the [[WP:Verifiability|verifiability]] of the submission as well as its [[Wikipedia:Notability|notability]]. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 02:59, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[Bryce Falcon]] ==


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Bryce Falcon is a legend across the world, and there is debate to whether he really exists or not. Known as Bryce Falcon by day and the better known "Blue Falcon" by night, it is rumored that Bryce is currently living in California and attending high school there. He has a mass cult following, with thousands visiting his Offical Website/Fanclub every day. Members of the club believe that Bryce is the equivalant to the second coming of the Christ, although members usually do not specify any religion preferring the ambiguous title of "a Falcon fan."

===Music===

Bryce is also a musician and has released his first studio album, titled "The Omnichord EP." Rumors stipulate that the original Omnichord EP emerged during the Preolithic Era and that this is just a re-release, but again this matter is seriously debatable. Other rumors dictate that Bryce was the mastermind behind the Beatles and the Ben Folds Five.

=== Sources ===


bryce-falcon.tripod.com


[[User:71.108.119.72|71.108.119.72]] 06:59, 28 March 2006 (UTC)
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. We cannot accept unsourced suggestions or sources that are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|not reliable]] per the [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability policy]]. Please provide '''reputable, third-party''' sources with your suggestions. Third party sources are needed both to establish the [[WP:Verifiability|verifiability]] of the submission as well as its [[Wikipedia:Notability|notability]]. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:00, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[Rolland]] ==




#REDIRECT [[Romain Rolland]]

[[User:24.34.35.245|24.34.35.245]] 05:55, 28 March 2006 (UTC)
*'''Done'''. Thanks for the suggestion. '''''×'''''[[User:Meegs|Meegs]] 15:04, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== Avalanche Transceiver ==


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A radio transmitting/receiving device, usually strapped to a person's chest via a waist and shoulder strap, which continually transmits an emergency signal, that can be received by a another Avalanche Transceiver on the same [[radio frequency]] in the event of that person being trapped in an Avalanche.

The device is normally worn by people in snowy areas where Avalanches pose a risk. The Avalanche Transceiver is left on transmit mode under the persons clothing (for protection) while the person is in the risk area, and will only switch to "receive" or "search" mode when looking for a lost person wearing a similar devise. Older [[analogue]] devises produce a louder noice (in receive mode) when the receiving unit gets closer to the transmitting unit and sometimes shows the direction of the signal. Newer digital transceivers show the distance using an [[LCD display]] as well as the direction. Both analogue and digital devises are cross compatible.

These devises are often worn by Skiers, Cross Country Skiers, Snowboarders, Hikers, Climbers and Snowmobilers.

=== Sources ===



 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. We cannot accept unsourced suggestions or sources that are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|not reliable]] per the [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability policy]]. Please provide '''reputable, third-party''' sources with your suggestions. Third party sources are needed both to establish the [[WP:Verifiability|verifiability]] of the submission as well as its [[Wikipedia:Notability|notability]]. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:00, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[3Pic Website]] ==


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3Pic is a website giving links to people who wish to access free porn. The galleries usually consist of 12 - 15 pics per gallery, and 3 - 5 videos per gallery.

=== Sources ===

www.3pic.com


[[User:218.101.84.246|218.101.84.246]] 08:24, 28 March 2006 (UTC)
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. We cannot accept unsourced suggestions or sources that are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|not reliable]] per the [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability policy]]. Please provide '''reputable, third-party''' sources with your suggestions. Third party sources are needed both to establish the [[WP:Verifiability|verifiability]] of the submission as well as its [[Wikipedia:Notability|notability]]. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:01, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== Hogwash ==


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A term normally used by old timers, it means stupid or even absolute rubbish. This has originated from Melbourne, Australia from the great man, Grandfather Jackson and it has since been spread to Perth by family members. When used in context you could say:

"Mate that is absolute Hogwash you are talking bull dust"
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. We cannot accept unsourced suggestions or sources that are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|not reliable]] per the [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability policy]]. Please provide '''reputable, third-party''' sources with your suggestions. Third party sources are needed both to establish the [[WP:Verifiability|verifiability]] of the submission as well as its [[Wikipedia:Notability|notability]]. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:01, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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==Adam Titchen==


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Adam Titchen was born in Birmingham in 1990. He is the spitting image of a thousand bears, and his diet includes Five Eggs.

He currently not lives in Shenstone.

=== Sources ===



 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. Your article appears to be a joke. It might be a wonderful entry in [http://www.uncyclopedia.org Uncyclopedia], a wiki where jokes and parodies are highly encouraged. But sadly, Wikipedia requires a stodgier, more factual tone in its articles, and your comedic efforts cannot be rewarded here.  [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:01, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[NLRI (Network Layer Reachability Information)]] ==


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One of more CIDR addresses (length + prefix) published by a BGP-capable router.

When a router supports the BGP internet protocol for exchange of routing information with other peers, it needs to communicate them which networks are advertised. It does so by sending, per each network, a set information consisting of:

* Destination: One or more CIDR addresses (length + prefix).
Called Network Layer Reachability Information (NLRI).
* Path information: how to reach that destination. Composed of several “Path attributes”

Example of path attributes

- NEXT_HOP: It is the IP address where the packets should be forwarded to in case the route is used.
This is the parameter to be installed on the FIB if that route is used.
It doesn´t have to be the IP address of the peer distributing the route
- AS_PATH: It is the sequence of ASes (identified by its AS ID number) that should be traversed to reach that destination.
This parameter is key in avoiding loops and implementing policies, and can be used to select the route with fewer AS traversed. It ,ay not be the route with fewer routers involved

=== Sources ===


Lucent Training.
www.lucent.com/training

[[User:192.11.185.115|192.11.185.115]] 09:19, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

'''Declined''' see [[Border Gateway Protocol]]. Expand that article if you feel the need. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:04, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

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== [[investment function]] ==



#REDIRECT [[investment]]

=== Sources ===


investment function is explained there.


--[[User:84.58.152.145|84.58.152.145]] 10:33, 28 March 2006 (UTC) [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Saibo Saibo]

== [[The Wires]] ==

The wires is a band currently consisting fo the two brothers drummer Matthew and lead singer and guitarist Michael Coutts who reside in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]].

=== Past Members ===

The band has changed alot over the years past members have included

- Blaise Prentice-Davidson (lead singer)

- Patrick Duffy (lead singer)

=== Discology ===

There first song that was released was Here and Now. this is apart of an unfinished album thath the band is working on now

=== The Future ===

The band is currently recording its album but are first looking for a lead singer and a bass guitarist. Rommo Pandit has been linked to teh lead vocals but nothing is confirmed

== Hallux Vulgus ==

Hallux Vulgus, also know as bunions, are painful deformities between the foot and the big toe. They arrise as the result of long term (chronic) irratation that ultimately results in inflammation.
For more information see #REDIRECT [[bunion]]

== [[Vanquish (Charmed)]] ==


vanquishing is a fictional method that is given in the television show, Charmed, that is used to destroy demons and other evil creatures. while upper level demons require a specific spell to either be read out while they are in earshot, or to be mixed and thrown at them, lesser demons are easily vanquished in normal ways that would kill a person(eg. stabbing them with a knife etc.)

demons that have been vanquished often display spontaenious combustion. where as a normal human would bleed, fire spills from the wound that the demon has substained (if it was a spell, they will either simply explode, or ignite) and consumes him or her until he/she is either burned into ashes or explodes. the more powerful the demon, the bigger the explosion is (cole turner, the Source of all evil's explosion literally blew his apartment up)

=== Sources ===
 Charmed television series and wikipedia itself


[[User:147.10.86.111|147.10.86.111]] 11:03, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== Ethan Edward Grenier ==

Born Ethan Edward Grenier on August 23rd, 1990, Ethan has grown to be an amazing boy of extreme eclectic musical tastes
and the ability to love.

== Block 37 ==



Block 37 is a city block in Chicago, IL. It was in the Thompson Plat which was made in 1830.

Block 37 is famous for being a vacant lot since 1983. The site was completly demolished in 1989.

=== Sources ===

http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/146.html


[[User:64.36.239.199|64.36.239.199]] 14:50, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[Clean Cash Entertainment]] ==



From the east end of Toronto, four young entrepreneurs had the vision of being successful in the hip-hop game. Chubbs, Durty, Protégé and Diddy realized that to get to the top of the rap game, they would have to grind and depend on no one but themselves. They had the talent and just needed the machine behind them to get their music out to the world. Realizing how the game works and knowing that they couldn’t wait for a major label to put them on, the four of them decided to take fate into their own hands and launch an entertainment company; 2005 was the birth year of Clean Cash Entertainment.

The four men formed Clean Cash Entertainment as a foundation and corner stone of their career and it’s sole purpose is to let the world know what real rap music is all about and to put Toronto on the map. The camp set up shop and spent countless hours in their studio working on their debut album released by the camp’s rapping duo New Money entitled “Just A Matter Of Time”. With no help, the four men hit the streets and got Toronto buzzing about the potent product they had to offer. With the success of their first project, they are on their way to being a top force in the hip-hop industry. To date, Clean Cash Entertainment is now comprised of an elite team of artists and producers who are steadily accomplishing what their fallen soldier/co-owner set out to accomplish…..to put Toronto on the map.

=== Sources ===

http://cleancashent.com/html/founders.html


[[User:142.150.45.211|142.150.45.211]] 15:19, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[Erich Schumann, Prof.]]. ==

(* 1898 in [[Potsdam]]; † 1985)German acoustic and explosives physicist

His important habilitationpaper “Physics of tonecolours”, published Berlin 1929, in which he brought the proof that music instruments have fixed formantics and that their structures change depending on the dynamic and the highth of the tone. Since 1929 Schumann was managing the department of Acoustics at the Institute of Physics at the Berlin University, teaching experimental and theoretical physics.(1)

In 1934 he headed the research department ([[Heereswaffenamt]] HWA) of the german army (2) On the 15th of June 1939 he founded the department for Atomphysics at the HWA. He gave the command for this to Dr. [[Kurt Diebner]]. From then on Schumann was seemingly not intensively involved in nuclear physics anymore. This would change in the year 1943. Especially the work of the [[hollow charge]] experts of the HWA unter the command of Dr. [[Walter Trinks]] which brought promising new ways to a [[atom bomb]].

Trinks habilitationwork „ Release of atomenergy through nucleussynthesis with light elements“ was the base for the idea of a [[thermonuclear bomb]], on which also other research groups in other weapon development departmens experimented in the same direction. In autumn 1944 Schumann and Trink´s researchteams were stopped by the SS. If they themselves were still involved in the weapon configuration in October 1944 and March 1945 remains open.

Walter Trinks is taken prisoner by the americans in summer 1945, Schumann goes into hiding for almost 2 years „ the eastern and western occupation authorities had a high interest in getting me ...“(4)

In Autumn 1946 he contacted the Max-Planck-Institut in [[Goettingen]] which immediately took position for him towards the british occupation authorities.(5) In July 1947 Schumann gave himself over to the British, who interogated him a couple of days and let him go in August 1947. In the mids of 1947 Schumann had his old fellow-worker recapitulate out of their memory secret pattent which was destroyed at the end of the war on a 8 page researchpaper. „After recomposing this report their was no doubt that based on all those findings during the war and the known discoveries this would lead to their goal. A small experiment, which eventually had to be explained, brought positiver result in the laboratory.“(7)

In the secret patents and Schumann´s report the findings on the [[fusion]] research of the HWA were pointed out. With the „x-trigger“ named configuration, the scientists of the HWA had found a way to obtain [[thermonuclear reaction]].(8)

The report was given a little later to the British who did not understand it. Schumann was willing to disclose their findings of the research of the HWA and was preparing in autumn 1948 a publication „The truth on the german research and propositions for the atomic problems (1939-45)“.(9) He wanted to obtain for his team and himself the scientific priority on those findings and deny his responsibility in the failure of the [[Uranverein]]. Collegues and friends urged him to avoid breaking the rules of the allied occupation with the publication of it.(10)
In the end he withdrew the manuscript.

The patents of the group were about 4 problems: process and devices to establish highest pressure and temperatures, synthetic manufacturing of diamants, atomic reactions and atomic highloading. In August 1952 the patent was applicated. The later founded Ministery of Defence of the Federal German Republik took over the of patent and put a vail secrecy over the application. Because of the long years of vain efforts of evaluating the patent, the group seperated. Erich Schumann died in April 1985.

===Footnotes===

(1) BArch, Berlin-Lichterfelde, A 0530 Erich Schumann (5.1.1898); heritage Erich Schumann, his personal papers.

(2) Hans Ebert, Hermann Joseph Ruhpieper, Technische Wissenschaft und nationalsozialistische Rüstungspolitik: Die Wehrtechnische Fakultät der TH Berlin 1933-1945, in: Reinhard Rürup (Hg.), Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft. Beiträge zur Geschichte der TU Berlin 1879-1979, Berlin 1979; Burghard Ciesla, Abschied von der „reinen“ Wissenschaft. Wehrtechnik und Anwendungsforschung in der Preußischen Akademie nach 1933, in: Wolfram Fischer (Hg.), Die Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Berlin 2000, S. 483-511; Werner Luck, Erich Schumann und die Studentenkompanie des HWA. Ein Zeitzeugenbericht, in: Dresdener Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technikwissenschaften Nr. 27, 2001.

(3) Werner Holtz, Die Uran-Atomkernspaltung, 5. März 1949 (mit Ergänzungen von Richard Glagow aus dem Jahr 1968) in: Bundesarchiv, Militärarchiv (BA-MA) [[Freiburg]], Nachlass General Erich Schneider N 625/4; Akte Glagow.

(4) Writing from Erich Schumann 5.1.1957, heritage Schumann.

(5) Writing form Prof. Max Planck 19.10.1946 to the teaching crew of the Universität Göttingen, heritage Schumann.

(6) Writing from Prof. R. Purchase (Research Branch, Economic Sub Commission) 15.8.1947.

(7) The Schumann heritage was discovered by the historian [[Rainer Karlsch]] and journalist Heiko Petermann at a former team member of Schumann. The papers were given to the Military Archive of the German [[Bundesarchiv]].

(8) Patent Nr. 977825 „Vorrichtung, um Material zur Einleitung von mechanischen, thermischen oder nuklearen Prozessen auf extrem hohe Drücke und Temperaturen zu bringen“, Erfinder: Schumann, Trinks; Anmelder: Bundesverteidigungsministerium 13.08.1952, Veröffentlichung 08.04.1971;
(Device to force nuclear process with extrem high pressure and temperatures.)
Patent Nr. 977863: „Vorrichtung zur Behandlung von Materialien mit hohen Drücken und Temperaturen“, Erfinder Schumann, Trinks, Anmelder: Bundesverteidigungsministerium 13.08.1952 Veröffentlichung 25.11.1971

(9) Contract of Erich Schumann with Rowohlt Publishing of 23.9.1948, unpublished Manuscript 1949, heritage Erich Schumann.

(10) Letter from Schumann to lawyer Dr. Scharper 16.8.1950, heritage Erich Schumann.

===Sources===

[Rainer Karlsch "Hitlers Bombe", DVA Muenchen 2005, ISBN 3-421-05809-1]

[Material and documents http://www.petermann-heiko.de/aktuelles/buch.php]

[Prof. Mark Walker, Eine Waffenschmiede? Kernwaffen- und Reaktorforschung am Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik
http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/KWG/publications.htm#Weitere, Download (PDF-Datei)]

[Article Karlsch and Walker http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-53/iss-12/archive.html]

[BBC news http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4598955.stm ]

[Boosted weapons, thermonuclear weapons http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq0.html]

"[[User:84.134.184.123|84.134.184.123]] 15:28, 28 March 2006 (UTC)"

:[[Erich Schumann]] created.

== [[jkl;]] ==



"jkl;" is the second set of keys you learn when learning the standard qwerty keyboard.
It is, according to some, related to "asdf" which are the first four.

=== Sources ===

http://asdf.com


[[User:67.37.102.254|67.37.102.254]] 15:32, 28 March 2006 (UTC)nafango

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== [[Steward Machine Company v. Davis]] ==


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Steward Machine Company v. Davis

Steward Machine Company v. Davis 301 U.S. 548 (1937) was a United States Supreme Court case that upheld the unemployment compensation provisions of the Social Security Act of 1935. The Act established a national taxing structure designed to induce states to adopt laws for funding and payment of unemployment compensation. The decision in Steward signaled the Court’s acceptance of a broad interpretation of Congressional power to influence state laws.

The primary challenges to the Act were that it went beyond the powers granted to the federal government in the Constitution and that it involved coercion of the states in contravention of the Tenth Amendment—calling for a surrender by the states of powers essential to their quasi-sovereign existence.

Background

In the first months of 1937 the Court handed down decisions that affirmed both national and state prerogative to legislate regarding social welfare. The decisions were the first wave of what has become known as the constitutional revolution of 1937.

There are three additional issues that set the stage in early 1937:
1. Use of the Spending Power of the national government to regulate commercial economic activity
2. Expansive view of general welfare
3. National economic conditions in the United States

1. Use of the Spending Power of the national government to regulate commercial economic activity
By 1937 it had been well established that regulatory taxes controlling commercial economic actions were within the power of Congress. Hampton & Co. v. United States, 276 U.S. 394 (1928) held that a regulatory tax is valid even if the revenue purpose of the tax may be secondary. The Supreme Court had also held that a tax statute does not necessarily fail because it touches on activities which Congress might not otherwise regulate. Magnano Co. v. Hamilton, 292 U.S. 40 (1934):
“From the beginning of our government, the courts have sustained taxes although imposed with the collateral intent of effecting ulterior ends which, considered apart, were beyond the constitutional power of the lawmakers to realize by legislation directly addressed to their accomplishment.”
Further emphasizing the broad power of taxation, Sonzinsky v. United States, 300 U.S. 506 (1937) asserted that a tax does not cease to be valid merely because it regulates, discourages, or even definitely deters the activities taxed. In that case the Court held (regarding a tax on dealers in firearms):
“We are not free to speculate as to the motives which moved Congress to impose it, or as to the extent to which it may operate to restrict the activities taxed. As it is not attended by an offensive regulation, and since it operates as a tax, it is within the national taxing power.”

2. Expansive view of general welfare

The Supreme Court had recently decided U.S. v. Butler, 297 U.S. 1 (1936). The main point of that case was whether certain provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 conflicted with the Constitution. In the Act, a tax was imposed on processors of farm products, the proceeds to be paid to farmers who would reduce their acreage and crops. The intent of the act was to increase the prices of certain farm products by decreasing the quantities produced.

The Court held that the so-called tax was not a true one because the payments to farmers were coupled with unlawful and oppressive coercive contracts, and the proceeds were earmarked for the benefit of farmers complying with the prescribed conditions. Making the payment of a government subsidy to a farmer conditional on the reduction of his planned crops went beyond the powers of the national government. Specifically, the Court said:

“The act invades the reserved rights of the states. It is a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government. The tax, the appropriation of the funds raised, and the direction for their disbursement, are but parts of the plan. They are but means to an unconstitutional end.”

Although it struck down the Act, the Court dealt positively with expenditure of funds to advance the general welfare as specified in Article 1 § 8 of the Constitution. The Court stated that the issue “presents the great and the controlling question in the case.” After comparing expansive vs. restrictive interpretations of the Spending Clause, the Court adopted the philosophy that:

“The clause confers a power separate and distinct from those later enumerated [,] is not restricted in meaning by the grant of them, and Congress consequently has a substantive power to tax and to appropriate, limited only by the requirement that it shall be exercised to provide for the general welfare of the United States. … It results that the power of Congress to authorize expenditure of public moneys for public purposes is not limited by the direct grants of legislative power found in the Constitution.”

The idea that Congress has authority separate and distinct from powers granted by enumeration was (and still is) controversial. The fact that the Court struck down the Act despite an expansive interpretation of the Spending Clause reflects the turmoil in the Court’s thinking at this critical time.

3. National economic conditions in the United States

The nation was in the midst of the Great Depression. In its Steward decision, the Court noted that:

“During the years 1929 to 1936, when the country was passing through a cyclical depression, the number of the unemployed mounted to unprecedented heights. Often the average was more than 10 million; at times a peak was attained of 16 million or more.”

Decision

The unemployment compensation provisions of the Social Security Act of 1935 establishes a tax imposed on employers. However, provided that a state has established an approved unemployment compensation plan, the taxpayer is allowed to credit up to 90% of the federal tax paid to the state unemployment fund. In effect, the Act established a taxing structure designed to induce states to adopt consistent laws for funding and payment of unemployment compensation.

The main controversy in Steward was whether the tax coerced the states and whether the tax was within the powers of Congress. Justice Cardozo wrote for a sharply divided Court—one that was in the process of changing its character relative to affirmation of national action for the general welfare:

“The question is to be answered whether the expedient adopted has overlept the bounds of power. The assailants of the statute say that its dominant end and aim is to drive the state legislatures under the whip of economic pressure into the enactment of unemployment compensation laws at the bidding of the central government.”

The key holding regarding the excise tax of the Act was:
“The excise is not void as involving the coercion of the States in contravention of the Tenth Amendment or of restrictions implicit in our federal form of government.”
An important part of the rationale was the ruling that even if the excise taxes:
“were collected in the hope or expectation that some other and collateral good would be furthered as an incident, that, without more, would not make the act invalid. Sonzinsky v. United States, 300 U.S. 506. This indeed is hardly questioned.”

The arguments placed the actions of Congress within its Constitutional power. The Court then established that the tax and the credit in combination are not weapons of coercion that would destroy or impair the autonomy of the states. The first step was:

“To draw the line intelligently between duress and inducement there is need to remind ourselves of facts as to the problem of unemployment that are now matters of common knowledge.”

After reviewing the distressed condition of the nation’s economy, the Court noted that:

“The fact developed quickly that the states were unable to give the requisite relief. The problem had become national in area and dimensions. There was need of help from the nation if the people were not to starve. It is too late today for the argument to be heard with tolerance that, in a crisis so extreme, the use of the moneys of the nation to relieve the unemployed and their dependents is a use for any purpose narrower than the promotion of the general welfare. Cf. United States v. Butler, 297 U.S. 1.”

Although not quoted specifically in Steward, the relevant aspect of Butler addressed the constitutional powers of Congress and established that Congress has a “separate and distinct” power to tax and spend that is “not limited by the direct grants of legislative power found in the Constitution.”

Directly addressing the contention that the tax is coercive, Justice Cardozo wrote:

“The difficulty with the petitioner's contention is that it confuses motive with coercion. “Every tax is in some measure regulatory. To some extent it interposes an economic impediment to the activity taxed as compared with others not taxed.” Sonzinsky v. United States. In like manner every rebate from a tax when conditioned upon conduct is in some measure a temptation. But to hold that motive or temptation is equivalent to coercion is to plunge the law in endless difficulties. ... Nothing in the case suggests the exertion of a power akin to undue influence … the location of the point at which pressure turns into compulsion, and ceases to be inducement, would be a question of degree.”

An important issue in a tax not being coercive, satisfied in Steward, is that the conduct to be encouraged or induced accomplish a national end (general welfare) and be related to the tax itself.

“It is one thing to impose a tax dependent upon the conduct of the taxpayers, or of the state in which they live, where the conduct to be stimulated or discouraged is unrelated to the fiscal need subserved by the tax in its normal operation, or to any other end legitimately national. … It is quite another thing to say that a tax will be abated upon the doing of an act that will satisfy the fiscal need, the tax and the alternative being approximate equivalents. In such circumstances, if in no others, inducement or persuasion does not go beyond the bounds of power.”

And then, finally, Cardozo made explicit the liberty of the states to make agreements with Congress.

“The states are at liberty, upon obtaining the consent of Congress, to make agreements with one another. … We find no room for doubt that they may do the like with Congress if the essence of their statehood is maintained without impairment.”

Based on all the forgoing arguments, the final judgment was to affirm the lower Court’s decision upholding the constitutionality of the Act. The ruling upholding the act was one of two Social Security Cases that upheld elements of New Deal legislation in 1937.

The Dissents

The essence of the dissents was that the Social Security Act of 1935 went beyond the powers that were granted to the federal government in the Constitution. Imposing a tax that could be avoided only by contributing to a state unemployment compensation fund was effectively coercing each state to make law creating such a fund.

Separate opinion of Mr. Justice McREYNOLDS.

“That portion of the Social Security legislation here under consideration, I think, exceeds the power granted to Congress. It unduly interferes with the orderly government of the state by her own people and otherwise offends the Federal Constitution. .... [Article 1, Section 8] is not a substantive general power to provide for the welfare of the United States, but is a limitation on the grant of power to raise money by taxes, duties, and imposts. If it were otherwise, all the rest of the Constitution, consisting of carefully enumerated and cautiously guarded grants of specific powers, would have been useless, if not delusive.”

Separate opinion of Mr. Justice SUTHERLAND (concurrence VAN DEVANTER).

“The threat implicit in the present encroachment upon the administrative functions of the states is that greater encroachments, and encroachments upon other functions, will follow.”

Mr. Justice BUTLER, dissenting.

“… the statutory scheme is repugnant to the Tenth Amendment. … The Constitution grants to the United States no power to pay unemployed persons or to require the states to enact laws or to raise or disburse money for that purpose. The provisions in question, if not amounting to coercion in a legal sense, are manifestly designed and intended directly to affect state action in the respects specified. And, if valid as so employed, this 'tax and credit' device may be made effective to enable federal authorities to induce, if not indeed to compel, state enactments for any purpose within the realm of state power and generally to control state administration of state laws.”

The dissenters are sometimes known collectively as the Four Horsemen, the consistently conservative members of the Court who opposed the New Deal agenda of President Franklin Roosevelt.

Subsequent Jurisprudence

Steward was part of a set of decisions in which the Court consistently upheld New Deal economic and regulatory legislation. Its key role was the expansion of Congressional authority to the regulation of state activity, and marked the end of Supreme Court attempts to limit Congressional power based on advancement of the general welfare. In fact, Butler, just the year before Steward, was the last case in which the Supreme Court struck down an Act of Congress as beyond the authority granted by the Spending Clause.

Steward marked the beginning of the recognition that Congress could use the Spending Clause, under the umbrella of general welfare, to regulate state laws through incentives and encouragement—but not coercion. The national government may induce the states, or tempt them, or seduce them—but not coerce them into passing legislation considered desirable to meet national needs. Before Steward, Congress could regulate only commercial economic activity; after Steward, Congress could regulate the actions of state governments.

It is now common for Congress to tie grants-in-aid with requirements and restrictions upon the states, although the practice is still often controversial. In a modern case depending upon the jurisprudence of Steward, the Court held in South Dakota v. Dole, 483 U.S. 203 (1987) that Congress could influence states to raise the minimum drinking age to 21, by threatening to withhold funds for federal highways. In her dissent, Justice O'CONNOR stated:

“When Congress appropriates money to build a highway, it is entitled to insist that the highway be a safe one. But it is not entitled to insist as a condition of the use of highway funds that the State impose or change regulations in other areas of the State's social and economic life .... Indeed, if the rule were otherwise, the Congress could effectively regulate almost any area of a State's social, political, or economic life.”

And then later, approving of and quoting Butler:

“If the spending power is to be limited only by Congress' notion of the general welfare, the reality, given the vast financial resources of the Federal Government, is that the Spending Clause gives "power to the Congress to tear down the barriers, to invade the states' jurisdiction, and to become a parliament of the whole people, subject to no restrictions save such as are self-imposed." … This, of course, as Butler held, was not the Framers' plan and it is not the meaning of the Spending Clause.”

The controversy will no doubt continue, revolving around the nature of the appropriate power vested in the national government. In her closing words of dissent, Justice O'CONNOR reinforced that the United States “remains a Government of enumerated powers.”

=== Sources ===

All Supreme Court cases have references at findlaw


[[User:66.235.31.160|66.235.31.160]] 16:11, 28 March 2006 (UTC)
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. This article already exists in Wikipedia. {{#if:{{{1|}}}|You can find it at [[:{{{1}}}]].|}} [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:11, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[Dry Dry Desert]] ==



Dry Dry Desert is an desert area in the Mushroom Kingdom which features in many of Nintedo's games. First seen in Nintendo's early side scrolling platformers the area is now displayed in many different genres such as Nintendo's racing games and RPGs. The areas are covered in sinking sand which suck characters in and wind storms which lift characters up and drop them somewhere else.The main enemies in this area are Pokeys and Venus fly Traps.
=== Sources ===

http://www.detstar.com/files/features/mariokartdoubledash/enemies/


[[User:86.141.205.146|86.141.205.146]] 16:18, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[CiderPress]] ==



CiderPress is a Windows application that allows you to manipulate Apple II disk and file archives. You can open, view, copy, paste, delete, change the atttributes of, rename files very quick and easily. It's $10.00 to register, and well worth it.

http://www.faddensoft.com/ciderpress/

=== Sources ===


http://www.faddensoft.com/ciderpress/



[[User:71.143.5.142|71.143.5.142]] 17:09, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== Terry Nichols Clark ==



Terry Nichols Clark is professor of sociology at the University of Chicago. He is the coordinator of the FAUI (Fiscal Austerity and Urban Innovation Project) in Chicago.

Perhaps Clark's most famous theory relates to the outmoded nature of prior urban theories. In Clark's view, cities have forgone the policy of "growth at any cost," and embraced workers endowed with high levels of human capital. The "new economy" of urban life therefore positions cities as an entertainment machine, producing consumption opportunities and leveraging cultural advantages. Clark identifies several components of this change, including the rise of a citizen-consumer; a decline in bureaucratic decision makers; a decline in transaction costs; an increase in arts and aesthetics; and a new role for government officials in implementing these changes. Today, the city becomes a spatial arena for the real.

Notable publications include:

The City as an Entertainment Machine, Jai/Elsevier, 2004

Research in Urban Policy. Oxford and New York: Elsevier/JAI, annual (1985 and onward). (Editor.) Example: The City as an Entertainment Machine, 2004.

"Amenities Drive Urban Growth," Journal of Urban Affairs, 2002

"The Presidency and the New Political Culture," American Behavioral Scientist, 2002

The New Political Culture. Boulder: Westview Press, 1998. (Co-edited with Vincent Hoffman-Martinot.)

Citizen Politics in Post-Industrial Societies. Boulder: Westview Press, 1997. (Co-edited with Michael Rempel.)

Urban Innovation. Newbury Park CA: Sage, 1994. (Co-author and editor.)

City Money: Political Processes, Fiscal Strain, and Retrenchment. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983. (Co-author.)

Prophets and Patrons: The French University and the Emergence of the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973.
The New Political Culture. Boulder: Westview Press, 1998. (Co-edited with Vincent Hoffman-Martinot.)

=== Sources ===

http://sociology.uchicago.edu/faculty/clark.html


== P&B: Phood & Booze ==

A Phood & Booze party is an extraordinary event which originated somewhere at the end of the 90's. Boredom of a couple of college students was the inducement to launch a new, spectacular, massive happening. The phase of getting wasted at lame student parties was something these people left behind for a long while already. They craved for something more mature, but yet thrilling. They found what they were looking for in what mankind nowadays calls 'World Class Dining & Top Notch Guzzling'. Unlimited eating sprees at tables loaded with the finest fresh spare ribs, prepared on a quality grille. This beyond unproportionous dining madness is ultimately combined with a foolish guzzling frenziness. Liters, no, GALLONS of beer are consumed within a very short period of time. Usually after a gallon or two per person the switch to hard liquor is made, to ensure stomach and intestines are still capable of handling the booze quantity and the amount of alcohol still has an increasing level. No one really know's how this mania usually ends. The only thing known about the aftermath is that people usually need a day or two to clean the house and recover. This also implies an answer to a frequently asked question: Why Phood & Booze parties are always planned on a Friday?

== [[John Gonska]] ==



John Gonska is a student at The Kings College in New York City. He is a driven young man who is known as "a true business man" by those who know him. Rising from his humble roots in Cleveland, Ohio, John donated the year after high school graduation to public service at the Rockford Master's Commission in Rockford Illinois. After graduating as the elected leader of his class, he returned to Cleveland to help care for his family before departing to NYC in January of 2006. He is well known for his salesmanship, positive attitude, and fashionable style.

=== Sources ===



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== [[Joseph Johnson Uzoanya of Goodbrothers Foundation wrote "THE POWER OF DREAMS & DESIRE"]] ==

removed 82 kB of content, the book ''THE POWER OF DREAMS & DESIRE'' '''''×'''''[[User:Meegs|Meegs]] 22:28, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

May God help every reader of this blessed publication to become a great Achiever.

([[User:83.229.62.116|83.229.62.116]] 17:52, 28 March 2006 (UTC))

*'''Decline'''. This not the appropriate content for an [[Encycolpedia]] article. Unless you are the author or publisher, it is likely also [[WP:Copyrights|copyrighted]] and unsuitable for Wikipedia. '''''×'''''[[User:Meegs|Meegs]] 22:28, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== ((Rejotnik the Russian Rent-boy)) ==


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'''Rejotnik the Russian Rent-boy'''

Rejotnic Zukmeov was raised in a quiet back-street sex shop in the centre of Moscow. Many historians believe that it was on the eastern edge of the city, but their research has so far been inconclusive. Strict though they were, his parents loved and cherished him and always supported his views and ambitions. He worked alongside his father in the family shop, the "Woodpecker", and grew fond of specific customers. He seemed to have a knack of knowing just how they liked it and returning clients were a frequent event. In a normal adult pleasure distributor there are, from time to time, protégés, or boys that have a special talent for what they do, but due to the confined social climate in which the Zukmeovs lived they did not realise their sons special gift.

As the months and years passed the time came for Rejotnic to start at Primary school and, looking out for his best interests, his parents sent him to a high achieving public school. His first day, week, month and year flew by and he made lots of friends due to his bubbly and charismatic persona. As Rejotnic was walking home one day with a particularly esteemed colleague by the name of Sheezagot Bigtats, when she asked him if they might play a game of ‘hide and seek’. Rejotnic was somewhat startled by this proposition, as the hour was late and his parents would be wondering where he was. After a little persuasion he gracefully accepted and he and Sheezagot played the game in a nearby wood. They ran about and found interesting crevices in which to hide, until they were quite exhausted. To recover they laid down on a large tree limb and talked about their day at school and how much of a dick-head that Alex Hagerdorn kid was. The conversation shifted into their previous lives, before school had grasped their feeble little minds. Rejotnik reluctantly told Sheezagot about his life in the shop and she proposed that he demonstrate his working technique on her. There was an awkward silence in which the two children looked into each others eyes and longed for their relationship to be preserved for aeons. Then with a flick of his middle finger he said “Fuck off ……….oh, all right then, ten quid”, and the evening ended with some bum-splittingly good sex.

The word spread of Rejonik’s talents and soon a small networked founded itself and customers would travel to meet this gifted child (for an arranged fee of course), and so, the legend was created. Posters on teenager’s walls were changed from pictures of the spotty cunts they call the Arctic Monkeys, to compromising snaps of the famous Rejotnik Zukmeov. Little did the general public know that there would never be anyone quite as good as ‘Rejotnik the Russian rent-boy’.



[[User:Stuartfawke|Stuartfawke]] 19:01, 28 March 2006 (UTC)




=== Sources ===



Yee Haw!!! i love midgets long time!!!
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. Your article appears to be a joke. It might be a wonderful entry in [http://www.uncyclopedia.org Uncyclopedia], a wiki where jokes and parodies are highly encouraged. But sadly, Wikipedia requires a stodgier, more factual tone in its articles, and your comedic efforts cannot be rewarded here.  [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:15, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[Young T]] ==


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Young T is a rapper from Farmington, Missouri. He was born July 21, 1991, in Farmington, MO. and has since, moved around the nation, from place to place, and now lives in Farmington once agian.

His brother is Junia' Lee, a skilled producer from Missouri.
=== Sources ===



 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. We cannot accept unsourced suggestions or sources that are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|not reliable]] per the [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability policy]]. Please provide '''reputable, third-party''' sources with your suggestions. Third party sources are needed both to establish the [[WP:Verifiability|verifiability]] of the submission as well as its [[Wikipedia:Notability|notability]]. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:15, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [Thompson Brothers] ==


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The Thompson Brothers are in fact Jason and Rob Thompson and they are in fact brothers. They are radio personalities in San Antonio, Texas hosting a show on 1200 WOAI called Prime Time San Antonio with the Thompson Brothers (PTSA). This show is different from their previous work, and their current work for Fox Sports Radio, in that it is not about Sports. Prior to PTSA they hosted the tremendously popular Hard Core Sports on a local sports station but in the summer of 2005 they launched PTSA covering news, politis, current events... pretty much everything. Their very different personalities are the source almost daily conflicts but in the end, their differences are tolerable if not entertaining because they are family.

As hosts of Game Time Sunday Rewind on Fox Sports Radio they return to their Sports roots on weekly basis. They are also frequently asked to fill-in on the Fox Sports Radio line-up and have hosted The Morning Etravaganza, Out of Bounds, the Steve Czaban Show and most often, JT the Brick.

The most common description of the Thompson Brothers shows is the "sounds like the kind of discussion you would have over drinks at the bar".

=== Sources ===

www.PrimeTimeSA.com
www.WOAI.com


[[User:24.173.55.130|24.173.55.130]] 20:34, 28 March 2006 (UTC)
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. This suggestion doesn't sufficiently explain the importance or significance of the subject. See the [[WP:SPEEDY#A7|speedy deletion criteria A7]] and/or [[WP:BIO|guidelines on biographies]]. Please provide more information on why the person or group is worthy of inclusion in an encyclopedia. Thank you. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:15, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[Chichester High School]] ==



Chichester High School is a four-year public high school in Boothwyn, Pennsylvania. Its mascot is an Eagle. It is currently the only high school in the Chichester School District.

=== Prominent alumni ===
*[[Billy Johnson (American football)|Billy "Whiteshoes" Johnson]] - [[American Football]] player
*[[John Mobley]] - 1991 - [[American Football]] [[linebacker]] for the [[Denver Broncos]] ([[1996 in sports|1996]]-[[2003 in sports|2003]])

=== Sources ===


* http://www.chichesterschools.net/high/index.htm
* http://dev.denverbroncos.com/page.php?id=498&contentID=737
* http://www.sportsbytes.net/article.asp?articleid=57858
* [http://www.widener.edu/Tools_Resources/Libraries/Wolfgram_Memorial_Library/Archives/Collections/Alumni/Billy_White_Shoes_Johnson/4809/]
* http://www.databasefootball.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=JOHNSBIL06


[[User:204.13.204.2|204.13.204.2]] 20:35, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

*'''Article created'''. Please help to expand it ASAP. Thanks for the submission. '''''×'''''[[User:Meegs|Meegs]] 23:12, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

==Jared Homstad==


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Jared Homstad lives in Drayton he is good at life. he once threw a pigskin over them mountains. One day jared ate a whole bag of gummy bears just for the heck of it. thats all i know about him goodbye.

=== Sources ===



 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. Your article appears to be a joke. It might be a wonderful entry in [http://www.uncyclopedia.org Uncyclopedia], a wiki where jokes and parodies are highly encouraged. But sadly, Wikipedia requires a stodgier, more factual tone in its articles, and your comedic efforts cannot be rewarded here.  [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:16, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== Landsflug ==


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'''Landsflug''' is a regional [[airline]] based in [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]]. It operates scheduled services to domestic destinations.

=== Code Data ===

*[[International Air Transport Association|IATA]] Code: '''ISL'''
*[[International Civil Aviation Organisation|ICAO]] Code: '''ISL'''
*Callsign: Islandia

=== Services ===

Landsflug operates the following services (at March [[2006]]):

*Domestic scheduled destinations: [[Bíldudalur]], Gjögur, Hornafjörður, [[Reykjavík]], [[Sauðárkrókur]] and Vestmanneyjar.

=== Fleet ===

The Landsflug fleet consists of the following aircraft (at March [[2006]]):

*2 [[Dornier]] Do-228-202K
*1 [[Piper]] Chieftain

===External links===

*[http://www.landsflug.com/ Landsflug]
[[:Category:Airlines of Iceland]]
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. This article already exists in Wikipedia. {{#if:{{{1|}}}|You can find it at [[:{{{1}}}]].|}} [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:16, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[Evolucion Neutra]] ==


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Evolucion Neutra is a four member band from [[La Ceiba]], [[Honduras]]. They are influenced by 90s [[Grunge]], [[Post Grunge]], and other [[alternative rock]] styles. The band has been playing together since 2001 playing mostly cover songs. On January 1st 2006, they became determined to write original material. A national tour of Honduras is scheduled to begin in June 2006, and they will appear in the 2006 documentary [[Rock Honduras]] directed by Micheal Bendeck. Recording for their new album: Embarque will begin in Summer of 2006.

Members:
David Aguero - Vocals 
Carlos Velasco - Guitar 
Allan Artica - Drums 
Fernando Meza - Bass Guitar 

=== Sources ===

[http://<nowiki></nowiki>evoneutra.active.ws Evolucion Neutra Official Website] 
[http://www.myspace.com/evolucionneutra Evolucion Neutra on MySpace.com] 
[http://music.download.com/evolucionneutra/ Evolucion Neutra on CNet Music] 
[http://<nowiki></nowiki>blog.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=blog.ListAll&friendID=47584008&MyToken=b64ef6bb-70ac-4f2a-a5c1-2229fe7eedc9ML Official Myspace band blog]


[[User:69.41.96.11|69.41.96.11]] 22:06, 28 March 2006 (UTC)
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. This suggestion doesn't sufficiently explain the importance or significance of the subject. See the [[WP:SPEEDY#A7|speedy deletion criteria A7]] and/or [[WP:BIO|guidelines on biographies]]. Please provide more information on why the person or group is worthy of inclusion in an encyclopedia. Thank you. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:16, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[Isobel Stokes]] ==


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Isobel Stokes
Isobel is 14, turning 15 in June. She is ofter called Grapey Vine aand loves making a mess at her local hudsons. She does enjoy the lawn bowls oh so much. Noi Tucker is her favorite athlete in this event.

Woolalaa




=== Sources ===



 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. Your article appears to be a joke. It might be a wonderful entry in [http://www.uncyclopedia.org Uncyclopedia], a wiki where jokes and parodies are highly encouraged. But sadly, Wikipedia requires a stodgier, more factual tone in its articles, and your comedic efforts cannot be rewarded here.  [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:17, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[Rho Pi Phi]] ==


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Rho Pi Phi (ΡΠΦ) is a professional pharmaceutical fraternity that is established in 1919 in the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy. The goal of this fraternity is described in its 3 mottos:
1. …to maintain the ethical standards, dignity of and pride in the most ancient and honorable profession of Pharmacy.
2. …to contribute to the moral, social, and intellectual welfare of all students in pharmacy.
3. …that we may take the lamp of research into the dark recesses of things unknown, and make our contribution to our fellow man.

The fraternity also follows the Oath of Maimonides:
"Thy eternal providence has appointed me to watch over the life and health of Thy creatures. May the love for my art actuate me at all times; may neither avarice nor miserliness, nor thirst for glory, or for a great reputation engage my mind; for the enemies of truth and philanthropy could easily deceive me and make me forgetful of my lofty aim of doing good to Thy children.

May I never see in the patient anything but a fellow creature in pain.

Grant me strength, time, and opportunity always to correct what I have acquired, always to extend its domain; for knowledge is immense and the spirit of man can extend infinitely to enrich itself daily with new requirements.

Today he can discover his errors of yesterday and tomorrow he may obtain a new light on what he thinks himself sure of today. O God, Thou has appointed me to watch over the life and depth of thy creatures, here I am ready for my vocation, and now I turn unto my calling."

The fraternity currently has 4 active chapters:

Lambda Sigma Delta, located at University of the Pacific, CA

Beta chapter, located at Union University, Albany College of Pharmacy, NY

Beta Galen Chapter, located at Philadelphia College of Pharmacy & Science, PA

Gamma Gamma Rho, located at Northwestern University, IL

=== Sources ===


http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/rhopiphi/
http://www.rhopiphi.com


 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. This article already exists in Wikipedia. {{#if:{{{1|}}}|You can find it at [[:{{{1}}}]].|}} [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:18, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== Melissa Brooks ==


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<nowiki>{{afc maybe|singing top-10 is notable. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:18, 10 August 2007 (UTC)}}</nowiki> '''Update''': Cannot verify music credentials. Remaining material is not notable enough for Wikipedia. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 01:42, 11 August 2007 (UTC)

'''Melissa Brooks''', (Born Febuary 8) Portsmouth, UK, is a female singer and a semi-actress, although she did at once appear in an adult movie she did not take off her bra or pants. She has also appeared in Hav Plenty and played the role of Hav's Co-Worker. In 2003 she released a single which got into the top 10 in the UK and the top 10 in malta as well.

===Actress Filmography===
*Hav Plenty (1997) Hav's Co-Worker
*Penthouse Satin & Lace (1993) Model

===Herself filmography===
*Top of the Pops
- Episode dated 7 March 2003 (2003) TV Episode .... Herself
*CD:UK
- Episode dated 1 March 2003 (2003) TV Episode .... Herself

===Single Chart===
* Everytime I see - No.9 (UK) No.6 (Malta)

===Triva & Biography===
*Birth name: Melissa Rachel Nadine Brooks
*Nickname: Mel
*Height: 5' 5" (1.65 m)
*Sister of Ainsley Brooks
*Has released a CD in the UK which got into the top 10

===Links & References===
*{{imdb name|id=0112157|name=Melissa Brooks}}
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. We cannot accept unsourced suggestions or sources that are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|not reliable]] per the [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability policy]]. Please provide '''reputable, third-party''' sources with your suggestions. Third party sources are needed both to establish the [[WP:Verifiability|verifiability]] of the submission as well as its [[Wikipedia:Notability|notability]]. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 01:40, 11 August 2007 (UTC)

'''Comment''': Actress career is not notable. Top-10 music is notable but not verifiable.

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== Pay Cards! ==


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<nowiki>{{afc maybe|any show that lasted a season is notable in my book. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:22, 10 August 2007 (UTC)}}</nowiki> '''Update''': Article exists. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 01:44, 11 August 2007 (UTC)

''Pay Cards!'' was a [[game show]] based on the card game [[poker]] and produced by Nick Nicholson and Roger Muir. The show aired in syndication from[[1968]]-[[1969]]. ''Super Pay Cards!'' aired from [[1981]]-[[1982]] and was syndicated by Metromedia. [[Art James]] hosted both versions, but was joined by hostess Mary Lou Basaraba on the ''Super'' version.

On ''Pay Cards!'', three contestants, one of whom was a celebrity guest, playing for a member of the studio audience, competed by choosing cards from a board of 20 hidden cards. In the first round, each player, in turn, would select three cards to be revealed to start his or her poker hand. If the cards did not show a pair, the player could either keep those cards or turn them back. However, if a pair or three of a kind happened to be amongst the three selected cards, the player must keep those cards. Upon keeping three cards, the player selects one card and may either keep it or return it. Should a player refuse a card, control of the game passes to the next player. If only one player has not completed their hand, that player must keep each card he or she selects from the board. After each player has completed their hand, they are paid as follows:

One pair: $10
Two pair: $20
Three of a kind: $30
Full house: $50
Four of a kind: $100

The player with the highest hand after each round earns a $50 bonus.

The second round is called the "Strategy Round", in which four of the 20 cards are revealed to start the round. On each of the first two turns, each player calls out two cards to be revealed and then selects two cards from the six cards cards displayed to add to his or her hand. On each player's last turn, one card is called out and the player adds one of the five cards to complete his or her hand.

In the third and final round, hidden amongst the 20 cards are a series of "wild cards" which allow for a payoff of $150 for five of a kind.

The player who won the most money would be given the opportunity to win a bonus prize. The player would be shown a board of 12 cards to study for 12 seconds. The player would then spin a wheel which would determne which card the player must locate on the board. If the player locates the card which the wheel landed on, the player won the prize.

===Super Pay Cards!===
Two contestants faced a board of 16 hidden cards. Each player selected three cards and may keep them or turn them back. However, if a pair happened to be amongst the three cards, they must be kept. Upon keeping three cards, each player calls out one card on their subsequent turn and may either keep it or turn it back. As soon as one player completes their hand, the other player must complete their hand by keeping every card he or she selects. As soon as both players complete their hands, They are each paid as follows:

Pair: $20
Two pair: $40
Three of a kind: $50
Full house: $100
Four of a kind: $200

The player with the higher hand after each round earns a $50 bonus.

The second round may be played in one of three ways:

*2, 3, 4, 5: One set of five of a kind was hidden on the board, allowing for a payoff of $300.
*Four of a Kind: Four sets of four of a kind were hidden on the board.
*Strategy: Three of the 16 cards are revealed to start the round. Each player, on their first two turns, calls out two more cards to reveal and then selects two cards from the five showing to add to their hand. On each player's final turn, one cardis revealed by the player, who then selects one to add to his or her hand.

In the third round, a few "wild cards" are hidden on the board. This allows for a possible Five of a Kind, which results in a payoff of $300.

After three rounds, the player who earns the most money advances to the bonus round. The other player would receive a copy of the ''Super Pay Cards!'' game.

In the first part of the bonus round, the player would be shown four cards to study for four seconds. Mary Lou holds those same four cards in her hand. The player selects one from a blind draw. If the player can recall the position of that card on the board, the player wins $50

The second part involves the player studying eight cards and their positions for eight seconds. The player selects a card from a blind draw. If that card is found on the board, the player wins $500.

On the third and final level, the player examines twelve cards for twelve seconds. If the card selected from the blind draw matches the first card revealed on the board, the player wins $5,000.-->

=== Sources ===
''The Encyclopedia of TV Game Shows'', Third Edition, by David Schwartz, Steve Ryan, and Fred Wostbrock.

Adam Pinckley
[[User:209.205.158.251|209.205.158.251]] 00:11, 29 March 2006 (UTC)
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. This article already exists in Wikipedia. {{#if:{{{1|}}}|You can find it at [[:{{{1}}}]].|}} [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 01:43, 11 August 2007 (UTC)
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== Galvin Park ==


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Back in the days of the 1976's there was a man. His name was Peter Park (er). he started a school in which there were no rules. These are some of the subjects they offer:

Male-on-Male Sex Ed
Burning Bible Class
Arson Assistance
Stabbing Hippies
Rape Rehab
Maths to Assist peddling drugs
Racism Crosswords
Masturbaters Anonymous
Eating
Sex w/ small animals

If you would like to enquire about this school, please use google.

love
Scotty 'scotty-boy' Lynch
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. Your article appears to be a joke. It might be a wonderful entry in [http://www.uncyclopedia.org Uncyclopedia], a wiki where jokes and parodies are highly encouraged. But sadly, Wikipedia requires a stodgier, more factual tone in its articles, and your comedic efforts cannot be rewarded here.  [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:19, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== [[Desired Life Ministries]] ==


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'''Desired Life Ministries''' ('''DLM'''), founded in 2005, is an [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] [[Christian]] [[501(c)(3)]] non-profit organization based in the [[United States]]. The organization describes itself as "teaching men and women what their spiritual lives have to do with the rest of their lives". The group is headquartered in [[Overland Park, Kansas|Overland Park]], [[Kansas]]. Desired Life Ministries is one of a number of evangelical para-church organizations whose stated aim is not to start a new [[church]] or [[religious denomination|denomination]], but to work [[interdenominationalism|interdenominationally]] to present Jesus Christ, God in the flesh, the Son of God, as the source and means for the realization and fulfillment of peoples' basic needs and desires, both eternally and temporally. Some of the current core promotional activities of the organization include retreats and discipleship.

===External links===
*[http://www.desiredlife.org Official website]

[[:Category:Evangelical parachurch organisations]]
[[:Category:Religious organizations]]

=== Sources ===

* [http://www.manta.com/comsite5/bin/pddnb_company.pl?pdlanding=1&referid=4490&id=0czwsk Manta 'Dun and Bradstreet Report']


[[User:64.126.43.81|64.126.43.81]] 22:12, 28 March 2006 (UTC)
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. This article already exists in Wikipedia. {{#if:{{{1|}}}|You can find it at [[:{{{1}}}]].|}} [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:20, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== Yazoo Queen ==


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The Yazoo Queen is a book by Orson Scott Card. It is fifth in the Tales of Alvin Maker series.
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. We cannot accept unsourced suggestions or sources that are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|not reliable]] per the [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability policy]]. Please provide '''reputable, third-party''' sources with your suggestions. Third party sources are needed both to establish the [[WP:Verifiability|verifiability]] of the submission as well as its [[Wikipedia:Notability|notability]]. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:21, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== The Grinning Man ==


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The Grinning Man is a book by Orson Scott Card. It is fourth in the Tales of Alvin Maker series.
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. We cannot accept unsourced suggestions or sources that are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|not reliable]] per the [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability policy]]. Please provide '''reputable, third-party''' sources with your suggestions. Third party sources are needed both to establish the [[WP:Verifiability|verifiability]] of the submission as well as its [[Wikipedia:Notability|notability]]. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:20, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
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== Pitfall ==


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'''Pitfall''' is a game show hosted by [[Alex Trebek]] from 1981-1982 and produced by Catalena Productions. John Barton served as the announcer.

Two contestants, and the studio audience, were given a survey question and four answers. Each audience member used their own electronic device to lock in an answer that best suited them. Each contestant then locked in their guess as to which answer was the most popular amongst the audience. One point was scored by each contestant who gave the top answer. The first player to score five points, or the player with the higher score after seven minutes of game play, advanced to the Pitfall round.

===The Pitfall round===
The champion would be given the opportunity to cross an eight-space bridge within 100 seconds. The set would dim and the eight sections would light up randomly. Each safe section would light up once, and each "pitfall" section would light up twice. After viewing the light show, the player would select from eight "pit passes" numbered 1-8. The player selected pit passes corresponding to which sections of the bridge he or she believed were "pitfalls". The contestant was allowed to select one pit pass if he or she scored one or two points in the front game, two passes if three or four points were scored, or three passes if he or she scored the five point maximum.

Alex and the contestant would then ride an elevator to the second level of the two-level bridge. Before stepping to the first section of the bridge, the contestant must answer a question correctly. Each question answered correctly would allow the player to step to the next section. If the player stopped on a "pitfall" section, the clock would continue counting down as that particular section lowered to the first level. The player remained at the lower level until answering another question correctly. Doing so stopped the clock and raised the section back up to the upper level, but the player must answer another question correctly before advancing to the next section. If the player comes to a section which he or she believed to be a "pitfall", he or she may hand Trebek the "pit pass" for that particular section before crossing over it. Reaching the other end of the bridge before 100 seconds ran out would win the player a prize package worth over $5,000 (Canadian). Otherwise, the player earned $100 (Canadian) for each section he or she crossed over.

===Miscellaneous notes===
Many players from the show's last few weeks were not paid their winnings due to Catalena Productions' financial troubles. The company would go bankrupt soon thereafter.

=== Sources ===



Adam Pinckley[[User:209.205.158.251|209.205.158.251]] 01:23, 29 March 2006 (UTC)
 [[Image:Symbol declined.svg|20px]] '''Declined'''. We cannot accept unsourced suggestions or sources that are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|not reliable]] per the [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability policy]]. Please provide '''reputable, third-party''' sources with your suggestions. Third party sources are needed both to establish the [[WP:Verifiability|verifiability]] of the submission as well as its [[Wikipedia:Notability|notability]]. [[User:davidwr|davidwr]]/([[User_talk:davidwr|talk]])/([[Special:Contributions/Davidwr|contribs]])/([[Special:Emailuser/davidwr|e-mail]]) 03:20, 10 August 2007 (UTC)
</div>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | ''This is an archived discussion. '''Please do not modify it.'''''
|}

King's College (New York City)

2007-09-20T18:11:24Z

206.102.240.2:

{{Infobox_University
|name =The King's College
|image =
|established =[[1938]], [[1999]]
|motto =Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church
|type =[[Private school|Private]], [[Non-profit organization|Nonprofit]], [[Christian school|Christian]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|faculty =
|president =J. Stanley Oakes
|students =~250
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|profess =
|city =[[New York City|New York]]
|state =[[New York]]
|country =
|campus =[[The Empire State Building]]
|free_label =
|free =
|colors =
|mascot =
|nickname =TKC
|affiliations =[[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
|footnotes =
|website =[http://www.tkc.edu www.tkc.edu]
|coor =
|logo =
}}

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is an accredited, four year, Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded in 1938 by [[Percy Crawford]] in Belmar, New Jersey. The school ceased operation in 1994, but was reopened in 1999 in New York City's [[Empire State Building]], a move that better allows the college to fulfill its mission of educating students to become global leaders in influential institutions.

Because of its leadership-focused program, The King's College has become a popular place for students looking to affect change on national and global levels.

The King's College offers a demanding cirriculum founded in a common core which emphasizes writing, history, theology, philosophy, economics, and political theory. It offers Bachelor's Degrees in Business Management and Politics, Philosophy, and Economics (PPE).

==Degree Programs==
The King's College offers two distinct majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

Within the PPE program, students are able to pursue concentrations in literature, media, theology, and propaedeutics (which deals with education).

The college is accredited by the New York State Board of Regents and is also currently undergoing accredidation by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools.

==Student Housing==

Student housing is provided in two [[high-rise]] apartment buildings. One is located on the same block as the [[Empire State Building]], on the east side of Herald Square, while the other is located only three blocks North. Both feature 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]].

==The Vision==

The King’s College seeks ambitious students who want to make a difference in the world. The college aims to contribute to global society by producing graduates who command the important intellectual traditions, who think lucidly about the social and political issues that confront them today, who write with force and flair, who speak with eloquence, and who are eager to exchange ideas in open debate with those who espouse different views.

To accomplish this, the College teaches a compelling worldview rooted in the Bible and informed by close study of great works of philosophy, political theory, and economics. They study Paul and Plato; Moses and Machiavelli; Adam and Adam Smith.

==The Mission Statement==

Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church.

==History==

The King’s College was founded in 1938 in Belmar, New Jersey by Dr. Percy B. Crawford. In 1949, Crawford initiated Youth On The March, the first nationwide television show of any kind. CNN later honored Crawford on the 50th anniversary of the first Youth on the March broadcast.

In 1955, Crawford moved King's to Briarcliff Manor, New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in 1960, Dr. Robert A. Cook became the college’s second president. Dr. "Bob" later began a radio ministry titled "Walk with The King", after his beloved closing greeting - "Walk with the King today, and be a blessing!" Here is a website with Dr. Cook's current radio mininstry: [http://www.walkwiththeking.org]

1985, Dr. Friedhelm Radandt, a former professor at the University of Chicago and President of Northwestern College in Iowa, became the college’s third president. King's ran into financial difficulties in the early 1990s and closed in 1994. In 1998, J. Stanley Oakes, in coordination with Dr. Bill Bright, led the effort to re-capitalize the school. Radandt continued as president.

In 1999, The King’s College acquired Northeastern Bible College, of Essex Fells, New Jersey. That year the revived King's leased 34,000 square feet on two floors of Empire State Building, where it remains today.

On January 1, 2003, the Board of Trustees of The King’s College selected J. Stanley Oakes, Jr. to be the college’s fourth president. President Oakes, a graduate in Classical Greek from the University of Minnesota and in political theory from the University of Dallas, had spent nearly 20 years building a nationwide network of Christian professors. Oakes steered the college to its current mission of preparing students to become statesmen.

(Pictures and a fuller narrative of The King’s College earliest days can be found at: http://www.infoage.org/kings.htm)

==Student-Led Initiatives==

Students are encouraged to take it upon themselves to begin clubs, guilds, and other organizations. These organizations are operated solely by the students. These initiatives include The Artisan's Guild, ''The Student Voice'' (the school newspaper) and ''The Observatory'' (school humor magazine).

==Houses==

All students enrolled at the college are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis in order to help each member grow intellectually, spiritually, and physically. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Vicar, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as mentors and to help the houses accomplish their individual missions.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://www.houseofreagan.com Visit the House of Regan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]

==House Competitions==

'''House Competition Champions'''
* House of Reagan (2006-07)
* [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis](2005-06)
* House of Barton (2004-05)

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*III - Spring 2007: House of Bonhoeffer

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu The King's College]

{{NYC Colleges}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

King's College (New York City)

2007-09-20T15:52:44Z

206.102.240.2:

{{Infobox_University
|name =The King's College
|image =
|established =[[1938]], [[1999]]
|motto =Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church
|type =[[Private school|Private]], [[Non-profit organization|Nonprofit]], [[Christian school|Christian]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|faculty =
|president =J. Stanley Oakes
|students =~250
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|profess =
|city =[[New York City|New York]]
|state =[[New York]]
|country =
|campus =[[The Empire State Building]]
|free_label =
|free =
|colors =
|mascot =
|nickname =TKC
|affiliations =[[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
|footnotes =
|website =[http://www.tkc.edu www.tkc.edu]
|coor =
|logo =
}}

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is an accredited, four year, Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded in 1938 by [[Percy Crawford]] in Belmar, New Jersey. The school ceased operation in 1994, but was reopened in 1999 in New York City's [[Empire State Building]], a move that better allows the college to fulfill its mission of educating students to become global leaders in influential institutions.

Because of its leadership-focused program, The King's College has become a popular place for students looking to affect change on national and global levels.

The King's College offers a demanding cirriculum founded in a common core which emphasizes writing, history, theology, philosophy, economics, and political theory. It offers Bachelor's Degrees in Business Management and Politics, Philosophy, and Economics (PPE).

==Degree Programs==
The King's College offers two distinct majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

Within the PPE program, students are able to pursue concentrations in literature, media, theology, and propaedeutics (which deals with education).

==Student Housing==

Student housing is provided in two [[high-rise]] apartment buildings. One is located on the same block as the [[Empire State Building]], on the east side of Herald Square, while the other is located only three blocks North. Both feature 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]].

==The Vision==

The King’s College seeks ambitious students who want to make a difference in the world. The college aims to contribute to global society by producing graduates who command the important intellectual traditions, who think lucidly about the social and political issues that confront them today, who write with force and flair, who speak with eloquence, and who are eager to exchange ideas in open debate with those who espouse different views.

To accomplish this, the College teaches a compelling worldview rooted in the Bible and informed by close study of great works of philosophy, political theory, and economics. They study Paul and Plato; Moses and Machiavelli; Adam and Adam Smith.

==The Mission Statement==

Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church.

==History==

The King’s College was founded in 1938 in Belmar, New Jersey by Dr. Percy B. Crawford. In 1949, Crawford initiated Youth On The March, the first nationwide television show of any kind. CNN later honored Crawford on the 50th anniversary of the first Youth on the March broadcast.

In 1955, Crawford moved King's to Briarcliff Manor, New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in 1960, Dr. Robert A. Cook became the college’s second president. Dr. "Bob" later began a radio ministry titled "Walk with The King", after his beloved closing greeting - "Walk with the King today, and be a blessing!" Here is a website with Dr. Cook's current radio mininstry: [http://www.walkwiththeking.org]

1985, Dr. Friedhelm Radandt, a former professor at the University of Chicago and President of Northwestern College in Iowa, became the college’s third president. King's ran into financial difficulties in the early 1990s and closed in 1994. In 1998, J. Stanley Oakes, in coordination with Dr. Bill Bright, led the effort to re-capitalize the school. Radandt continued as president.

In 1999, The King’s College acquired Northeastern Bible College, of Essex Fells, New Jersey. That year the revived King's leased 34,000 square feet on two floors of Empire State Building, where it remains today.

On January 1, 2003, the Board of Trustees of The King’s College selected J. Stanley Oakes, Jr. to be the college’s fourth president. President Oakes, a graduate in Classical Greek from the University of Minnesota and in political theory from the University of Dallas, had spent nearly 20 years building a nationwide network of Christian professors. Oakes steered the college to its current mission of preparing students to become statesmen.

(Pictures and a fuller narrative of The King’s College earliest days can be found at: http://www.infoage.org/kings.htm)

==Student-Led Initiatives==

Students are encouraged to take it upon themselves to begin clubs, guilds, and other organizations. These organizations are operated solely by the students. These initiatives include The Artisan's Guild, ''The Student Voice'' (the school newspaper) and ''The Observatory'' (school humor magazine).

==Houses==

All students enrolled at the college are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis in order to help each member grow intellectually, spiritually, and physically. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Vicar, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as mentors and to help the houses accomplish their individual missions.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://www.houseofreagan.com Visit the House of Regan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]

==House Competitions==

'''House Competition Champions'''
* House of Reagan (2006-07)
* [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis](2005-06)
* House of Barton (2004-05)

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*III - Spring 2007: House of Bonhoeffer

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu The King's College]

{{NYC Colleges}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

King's College (New York City)

2007-09-20T15:29:58Z

206.102.240.2: /* Houses */

{{Infobox_University
|name =The King's College
|image =
|established =[[1938]], [[1999]]
|motto =Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church
|type =[[Private school|Private]], [[Non-profit organization|Nonprofit]], [[Christian school|Christian]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|faculty =
|president =J. Stanley Oakes
|students =~250
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|profess =
|city =[[New York City|New York]]
|state =[[New York]]
|country =
|campus =[[The Empire State Building]]
|free_label =
|free =
|colors =
|mascot =
|nickname =TKC
|affiliations =[[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
|footnotes =
|website =[http://www.tkc.edu www.tkc.edu]
|coor =
|logo =
}}

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is an accredited, four year, Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded in 1938 by [[Percy Crawford]] in Belmar, New Jersey. The school ceased operation in 1994, but was reopened in 1999 in New York City's [[Empire State Building]], a move that better allows the college to fulfill its mission of educating intelligent students to become global leaders in influential institutions.

Because of its leadership-focused program, The King's College has become a popular place for students looking to affect change on a national and global level.

The King's College offers a demanding cirriculum founded in a common core which emphasizes writing, history, theology, philosophy, economics, and political theory. It offers Bachelor's Degrees in Business Management and Politics, Philosophy, and Economics (PPE).

==Degree Programs==
The King's College offers two distinct majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

Within the PPE program, students are able to pursue concentrations in literature, media, theology, and propaedeutics (which delas with education).

==Student Housing==

Student housing is provided in two [[high-rise]] apartment buildings. One is located on the same block as the [[Empire State Building]], on the east side of Herald Square, while the other is located only three blocks North. Both feature 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]].

==The Vision==

The King’s College seeks ambitious students who want to make a difference in the world. The college aims to contribute to global society by producing graduates who command the important intellectual traditions, who think lucidly about the social and political issues that confront them today, who write with force and flair, who speak with eloquence, and who are eager to exchange ideas in open debate with those who espouse different views.

To accomplish this, the College teaches a compelling worldview rooted in the Bible and informed by close study of great works of philosophy, political theory, and economics. They study Paul and Plato; Moses and Machiavelli; Adam and Adam Smith.

==The Mission Statement==

Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church.

==History==

The King’s College was founded in 1938 in Belmar, New Jersey by Dr. Percy B. Crawford. In 1949, Crawford initiated Youth On The March, the first nationwide television show of any kind. CNN later honored Crawford on the 50th anniversary of the first Youth on the March broadcast.

In 1955, Crawford moved King's to Briarcliff Manor, New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in 1960, Dr. Robert A. Cook became the college’s second president. Dr. "Bob" later began a radio ministry titled "Walk with The King", after his beloved closing greeting - "Walk with the King today, and be a blessing!" Here is a website with Dr. Cook's current radio mininstry: [http://www.walkwiththeking.org]

1985, Dr. Friedhelm Radandt, a former professor at the University of Chicago and President of Northwestern College in Iowa, became the college’s third president. King's ran into financial difficulties in the early 1990s and closed in 1994. In 1998, J. Stanley Oakes, in coordination with Dr. Bill Bright, led the effort to re-capitalize the school. Radandt continued as president.

In 1999, The King’s College acquired Northeastern Bible College, of Essex Fells, New Jersey. That year the revived King's leased 34,000 square feet on two floors of Empire State Building, where it remains today.

On January 1, 2003, the Board of Trustees of The King’s College selected J. Stanley Oakes, Jr. to be the college’s fourth president. President Oakes, a graduate in Classical Greek from the University of Minnesota and in political theory from the University of Dallas, had spent nearly 20 years building a nationwide network of Christian professors. Oakes steered the college to its current mission of preparing students to become statesmen.

(Pictures and a fuller narrative of The King’s College earliest days can be found at: http://www.infoage.org/kings.htm)

==Student-Led Initiatives==

Students are encouraged to take it upon themselves to begin clubs, guilds, and other organizations. These organizations are operated solely by the students. These initiatives include The Artisan's Guild, ''The Student Voice'' (the school newspaper) and ''The Observatory'' (school humor magazine).

==Houses==

All students enrolled at the college are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis in order to help each member grow intellectually, spiritually, and physically. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Vicar, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as mentors and to help the houses accomplish their individual missions.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://www.houseofreagan.com Visit the House of Regan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]

==House Competitions==

'''House Competition Champions'''
* House of Reagan (2006-07)
* [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis](2005-06)
* House of Barton (2004-05)

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*III - Spring 2007: House of Bonhoeffer

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu The King's College]

{{NYC Colleges}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

King's College (New York City)

2007-09-20T15:20:03Z

206.102.240.2:

{{Infobox_University
|name =The King's College
|image =
|established =[[1938]], [[1999]]
|motto =Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church
|type =[[Private school|Private]], [[Non-profit organization|Nonprofit]], [[Christian school|Christian]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|faculty =
|president =J. Stanley Oakes
|students =~250
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|profess =
|city =[[New York City|New York]]
|state =[[New York]]
|country =
|campus =[[The Empire State Building]]
|free_label =
|free =
|colors =
|mascot =
|nickname =TKC
|affiliations =[[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
|footnotes =
|website =[http://www.tkc.edu www.tkc.edu]
|coor =
|logo =
}}

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is an accredited, four year, Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded in 1938 by [[Percy Crawford]] in Belmar, New Jersey. The school ceased operation in 1994, but was reopened in 1999 in New York City's [[Empire State Building]], a move that better allows the college to fulfill its mission of educating intelligent students to become global leaders in influential institutions.

Because of its leadership-focused program, The King's College has become a popular place for students looking to affect change on a national and global level.

The King's College offers a demanding cirriculum founded in a common core which emphasizes writing, history, theology, philosophy, economics, and political theory. It offers Bachelor's Degrees in Business Management and Politics, Philosophy, and Economics (PPE).

==Degree Programs==
The King's College offers two distinct majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

Within the PPE program, students are able to pursue concentrations in literature, media, theology, and propaedeutics (which delas with education).

==Student Housing==

Student housing is provided in two [[high-rise]] apartment buildings. One is located on the same block as the [[Empire State Building]], on the east side of Herald Square, while the other is located only three blocks North. Both feature 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]].

==The Vision==

The King’s College seeks ambitious students who want to make a difference in the world. The college aims to contribute to global society by producing graduates who command the important intellectual traditions, who think lucidly about the social and political issues that confront them today, who write with force and flair, who speak with eloquence, and who are eager to exchange ideas in open debate with those who espouse different views.

To accomplish this, the College teaches a compelling worldview rooted in the Bible and informed by close study of great works of philosophy, political theory, and economics. They study Paul and Plato; Moses and Machiavelli; Adam and Adam Smith.

==The Mission Statement==

Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church.

==History==

The King’s College was founded in 1938 in Belmar, New Jersey by Dr. Percy B. Crawford. In 1949, Crawford initiated Youth On The March, the first nationwide television show of any kind. CNN later honored Crawford on the 50th anniversary of the first Youth on the March broadcast.

In 1955, Crawford moved King's to Briarcliff Manor, New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in 1960, Dr. Robert A. Cook became the college’s second president. Dr. "Bob" later began a radio ministry titled "Walk with The King", after his beloved closing greeting - "Walk with the King today, and be a blessing!" Here is a website with Dr. Cook's current radio mininstry: [http://www.walkwiththeking.org]

1985, Dr. Friedhelm Radandt, a former professor at the University of Chicago and President of Northwestern College in Iowa, became the college’s third president. King's ran into financial difficulties in the early 1990s and closed in 1994. In 1998, J. Stanley Oakes, in coordination with Dr. Bill Bright, led the effort to re-capitalize the school. Radandt continued as president.

In 1999, The King’s College acquired Northeastern Bible College, of Essex Fells, New Jersey. That year the revived King's leased 34,000 square feet on two floors of Empire State Building, where it remains today.

On January 1, 2003, the Board of Trustees of The King’s College selected J. Stanley Oakes, Jr. to be the college’s fourth president. President Oakes, a graduate in Classical Greek from the University of Minnesota and in political theory from the University of Dallas, had spent nearly 20 years building a nationwide network of Christian professors. Oakes steered the college to its current mission of preparing students to become statesmen.

(Pictures and a fuller narrative of The King’s College earliest days can be found at: http://www.infoage.org/kings.htm)

==Student-Led Initiatives==

Students are encouraged to take it upon themselves to begin clubs, guilds, and other organizations. These organizations are operated solely by the students. These initiatives include The Artisan's Guild, ''The Student Voice'' (the school newspaper) and ''The Observatory'' (school humor magazine).

==Houses==

All students enrolled at the college are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis in order to help each member grow intellectually, spiritually, and even physicall. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Vicar, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as mentors and to help the houses accomplish their individual missions.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://www.houseofreagan.com Visit the House of Regan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]

==House Competitions==

'''House Competition Champions'''
* House of Reagan (2006-07)
* [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis](2005-06)
* House of Barton (2004-05)

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*III - Spring 2007: House of Bonhoeffer

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu The King's College]

{{NYC Colleges}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

King's College (New York City)

2007-09-18T20:49:08Z

206.102.240.2:

{{Infobox_University
|name =The King's College
|image =
|established =[[1938]], [[1999]]
|motto =Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church
|type =[[Private school|Private]], [[Non-profit organization|Nonprofit]], [[Christian school|Christian]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|faculty =
|president =J. Stanley Oakes
|students =~250
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|profess =
|city =[[New York City|New York]]
|state =[[New York]]
|country =
|campus =[[The Empire State Building]]
|free_label =
|free =
|colors =
|mascot =
|nickname =TKC
|affiliations =[[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
|footnotes =
|website =[http://www.tkc.edu www.tkc.edu]
|coor =
|logo =
}}

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is a four year Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded in 1938 by [[Percy Crawford]] in Belmar, New Jersey. The school ceased operation in 1994, but was reopened in 1999 under the umbrella of Campus Crusade for Christ. Classes are now held in New York City's [[Empire State Building]].

The King's College offers a demanding cirriculum founded in a common core which emphasizes writing, history, theology, philosophy, economics, and political theory. It offers Bachelor's Degrees in Business Management and Politics, Philosophy, and Economics (PPE).

==About the college==
The King's College offers two majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

Student housing is provided in two [[high-rise]] apartment buildings. One is located on the same block as the [[Empire State Building]], on the east side of Herald Square, while the other is located only three blocks North. Both feature 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]].

==The Vision==

The King’s College seeks ambitious students who want to make a difference in the world. The college aims to contribute to global society by producing graduates who command the important intellectual traditions, who think lucidly about the social and political issues that confront them today, who write with force and flair, who speak with eloquence, and who are eager to exchange ideas in open debate with those who espouse different views.

To accomplish this, the College teaches a compelling worldview rooted in the Bible and informed by close study of great works of philosophy, political theory, and economics. They study Paul and Plato; Moses and Machiavelli; Adam and Adam Smith.

==The Mission Statement==

Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church.

==History==

The King’s College was founded in 1938 in Belmar, New Jersey by Dr. Percy B. Crawford. In 1949, Crawford initiated Youth On The March, the first nationwide television show of any kind. CNN later honored Crawford on the 50th anniversary of the first Youth on the March broadcast.

In 1955, Crawford moved King's to Briarcliff Manor, New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in 1960, Dr. Robert A. Cook became the college’s second president. Dr. "Bob" later began a radio ministry titled "Walk with The King", after his beloved closing greeting - "Walk with the King today, and be a blessing!" Here is a website with Dr. Cook's current radio mininstry: [http://www.walkwiththeking.org]

1985, Dr. Friedhelm Radandt, a former professor at the University of Chicago and President of Northwestern College in Iowa, became the college’s third president. King's ran into financial difficulties in the early 1990s and closed in 1994. In 1998, J. Stanley Oakes, in coordination with Dr. Bill Bright, led the effort to re-capitalize the school. Radandt continued as president.

In 1999, The King’s College acquired Northeastern Bible College, of Essex Fells, New Jersey. That year the revived King's leased 34,000 square feet on two floors of Empire State Building, where it remains today.

On January 1, 2003, the Board of Trustees of The King’s College selected J. Stanley Oakes, Jr. to be the college’s fourth president. President Oakes, a graduate in Classical Greek from the University of Minnesota and in political theory from the University of Dallas, had spent nearly 20 years building a nationwide network of Christian professors. Oakes steered the college to its current mission of preparing students to become statesmen.

(Pictures and a fuller narrative of The King’s College earliest days can be found at: http://www.infoage.org/kings.htm)

==Student-Led Initiatives==

Students are encouraged to take it upon themselves to begin clubs, guilds, and other organizations. These organizations are operated solely by the students. These initiatives include The Artisan's Guild, ''The Student Voice'' (the school newspaper) and ''The Observatory'' (school humor magazine).

==Houses==

All students enrolled at the college are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis in order to help each member grow intellectually, spiritually, and even physicall. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Vicar, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as mentors and to help the houses accomplish their individual missions.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://www.houseofreagan.com Visit the House of Regan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]

==House Competitions==

'''House Competition Champions'''
* House of Reagan (2006-07)
* [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis](2005-06)
* House of Barton (2004-05)

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*III - Spring 2007: House of Bonhoeffer

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu The King's College]

{{NYC Colleges}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

King's College (New York City)

2007-09-18T15:48:20Z

206.102.240.2:

{{Infobox_University
|name =The King's College
|image =
|established =[[1938]], [[1999]]
|motto =Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church
|type =[[Private school|Private]], [[Non-profit organization|Nonprofit]], [[Christian school|Christian]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|faculty =
|president =J. Stanley Oakes
|students =~250
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|profess =
|city =[[New York City|New York]]
|state =[[New York]]
|country =
|campus =[[The Empire State Building]]
|free_label =
|free =
|colors =
|mascot =
|nickname =TKC
|affiliations =[[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
|footnotes =
|website =[http://www.tkc.edu www.tkc.edu]
|coor =
|logo =
}}

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is a four year Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded in 1938 by [[Percy Crawford]] in Belmar, New Jersey. The school ceased operation in 1994, but was reopened in 1998 under the umbrella of Campus Crusade for Christ. Classes are now held in New York City's [[Empire State Building]].

The King's College offers a demanding cirriculum founded in a common core which emphasizes writing, history, theology, philosophy, economics, and political theory. It offers Bachelor's Degrees in Business Management and Politics, Philosophy, and Economics (PPE).

==About the college==
The King's College offers two majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

Student housing is provided in two [[high-rise]] apartment buildings. One is located on the same block as the [[Empire State Building]], on the east side of Herald Square, while the other is located only three blocks North. Both feature 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]].

==The Vision==

The King’s College seeks ambitious students who want to make a difference in the world. The college aims to contribute to global society by producing graduates who command the important intellectual traditions, who think lucidly about the social and political issues that confront them today, who write with force and flair, who speak with eloquence, and who are eager to exchange ideas in open debate with those who espouse different views.

To accomplish this, the College teaches a compelling worldview rooted in the Bible and informed by close study of great works of philosophy, political theory, and economics. They study Paul and Plato; Moses and Machiavelli; Adam and Adam Smith.

==The Mission Statement==

Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church.

==History==

The King’s College was founded in 1938 in Belmar, New Jersey by Dr. Percy B. Crawford. In 1949, Crawford initiated Youth On The March, the first nationwide television show of any kind. CNN later honored Crawford on the 50th anniversary of the first Youth on the March broadcast.

In 1955, Crawford moved King's to Briarcliff Manor, New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in 1960, Dr. Robert A. Cook became the college’s second president. Dr. "Bob" later began a radio ministry titled "Walk with The King", after his beloved closing greeting - "Walk with the King today, and be a blessing!" Here is a website with Dr. Cook's current radio mininstry: [http://www.walkwiththeking.org]

1985, Dr. Friedhelm Radandt, a former professor at the University of Chicago and President of Northwestern College in Iowa, became the college’s third president. King's ran into financial difficulties in the early 1990s and closed in 1994. In 1998, J. Stanley Oakes, in coordination with Dr. Bill Bright, led the effort to re-capitalize the school. Radandt continued as president.

In 1999, The King’s College acquired Northeastern Bible College, of Essex Fells, New Jersey. That year the revived King's leased 34,000 square feet on two floors of Empire State Building, where it remains today.

On January 1, 2003, the Board of Trustees of The King’s College selected J. Stanley Oakes, Jr. to be the college’s fourth president. President Oakes, a graduate in Classical Greek from the University of Minnesota and in political theory from the University of Dallas, had spent nearly 20 years building a nationwide network of Christian professors. Oakes steered the college to its current mission of preparing students to become statesmen.

(Pictures and a fuller narrative of The King’s College earliest days can be found at: http://www.infoage.org/kings.htm)

==Student-Led Initiatives==

Students are encouraged to take it upon themselves to begin clubs, guilds, and other organizations. These organizations are operated solely by the students. These initiatives include The Artisan's Guild, ''The Student Voice'' (the school newspaper) and ''The Observatory'' (school humor magazine).

==Houses==

All students enrolled at the college are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis in order to help each member grow intellectually, spiritually, and even physicall. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Vicar, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as mentors and to help the houses accomplish their individual missions.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://www.houseofreagan.com Visit the House of Regan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]

==House Competitions==

'''House Competition Champions'''
* House of Reagan (2006-07)
* [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis](2005-06)
* House of Barton (2004-05)

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*III - Spring 2007: House of Bonhoeffer

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu The King's College]

{{NYC Colleges}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

King's College (New York City)

2007-09-18T15:00:25Z

206.102.240.2: Clarified Introduction to accurately represent college

{{Infobox_University
|name =The King's College
|image =
|established =[[1938]], [[1999]]
|motto =Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church
|type =[[Private school|Private]], [[Non-profit organization|Nonprofit]], [[Christian school|Christian]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|faculty =
|president =J. Stanley Oakes
|students =~250
|undergrad =
|postgrad =
|doctoral =
|profess =
|city =[[New York City|New York]]
|state =[[New York]]
|country =
|campus =[[The Empire State Building]]
|free_label =
|free =
|colors =
|mascot =
|nickname =TKC
|affiliations =[[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
|footnotes =
|website =[http://www.tkc.edu www.tkc.edu]
|coor =
|logo =
}}

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is a four year Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded in 1938 by [[Percy Crawford]] in [[Briarcliff Manor]], [[New York]] ([[Westchester County]]). The school ceased operation in 1994, but was reopened in 1998 under the umbrella of Campus Crusade for Christ. Classes are now held in New York City's [[Empire State Building]].

The King's College offers a demanding cirriculum founded in a common core which emphasizes writing, history, theology, philosophy, economics, and political theory. It offers Bachelor's Degrees in Business Management and Politics, Philosophy, and Economics (PPE).

==About the college==
The King's College offers two majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

Student housing is provided in two [[high-rise]] apartment buildings. One is located on the same block as the [[Empire State Building]], on the east side of Herald Square, while the other is located only three blocks North. Both feature 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]].

==The Vision==

The King’s College seeks ambitious students who want to make a difference in the world. The college aims to contribute to global society by producing graduates who command the important intellectual traditions, who think lucidly about the social and political issues that confront them today, who write with force and flair, who speak with eloquence, and who are eager to exchange ideas in open debate with those who espouse different views.

To accomplish this, the College teaches a compelling worldview rooted in the Bible and informed by close study of great works of philosophy, political theory, and economics. They study Paul and Plato; Moses and Machiavelli; Adam and Adam Smith.

==The Mission Statement==

Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church.

==History==

The King’s College was founded in 1938 in Belmar, New Jersey by Dr. Percy B. Crawford. In 1949, Crawford initiated Youth On The March, the first nationwide television show of any kind. CNN later honored Crawford on the 50th anniversary of the first Youth on the March broadcast.

In 1955, Crawford moved King's to Briarcliff Manor, New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in 1960, Dr. Robert A. Cook became the college’s second president. Dr. "Bob" later began a radio ministry titled "Walk with The King", after his beloved closing greeting - "Walk with the King today, and be a blessing!" Here is a website with Dr. Cook's current radio mininstry: [http://www.walkwiththeking.org]

1985, Dr. Friedhelm Radandt, a former professor at the University of Chicago and President of Northwestern College in Iowa, became the college’s third president. King's ran into financial difficulties in the early 1990s and closed in 1994. In 1998, J. Stanley Oakes, in coordination with Dr. Bill Bright, led the effort to re-capitalize the school. Radandt continued as president.

In 1999, The King’s College acquired Northeastern Bible College, of Essex Fells, New Jersey. That year the revived King's leased 34,000 square feet on two floors of Empire State Building, where it remains today.

On January 1, 2003, the Board of Trustees of The King’s College selected J. Stanley Oakes, Jr. to be the college’s fourth president. President Oakes, a graduate in Classical Greek from the University of Minnesota and in political theory from the University of Dallas, had spent nearly 20 years building a nationwide network of Christian professors. Oakes steered the college to its current mission of preparing students to become statesmen.

(Pictures and a fuller narrative of The King’s College earliest days can be found at: http://www.infoage.org/kings.htm)

==Student-Led Initiatives==

Students are encouraged to take it upon themselves to begin clubs, guilds, and other organizations. These organizations are operated solely by the students. These initiatives include The Artisan's Guild, ''The Student Voice'' (the school newspaper) and ''The Observatory'' (school humor magazine).

==Houses==

All students enrolled at the college are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis in order to help each member grow intellectually, spiritually, and even physicall. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Vicar, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as mentors and to help the houses accomplish their individual missions.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://www.houseofreagan.com Visit the House of Regan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]

==House Competitions==

'''House Competition Champions'''
* House of Reagan (2006-07)
* [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis](2005-06)
* House of Barton (2004-05)

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://lewis.tkc.edu/ House of Lewis]
*III - Spring 2007: House of Bonhoeffer

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu The King's College]

{{NYC Colleges}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

Pike County Central High School

2007-04-16T18:44:30Z

206.102.240.2: Grammar edited.

{{Expand|date=January 2007}}

'''Pike County Central High School''' (PCCHS) is a public high school located in [[Pikeville, Kentucky]]. The school mascot is a [[hawk]]. PCCHS serves over seven hundred students and is just minutes from the Greater Pikeville metropolitan area.

== History ==
Pike County Central High School is the result of a consolidation, which brought together the former Johns Creek High School and Mullins High School.

Current principal Eddie McCoy is the second in school history. In the 2004-05 academic school year, McCoy took over for Roger Johnson (now the district assistant superintendent), who vacated the job to take a position within the Pike County Board of Education. Johnson was the PCCHS Principal since the inaugural school year of 1993. The school still sucks, and still produces pill-popping, hick talking, degenerate students guaranteed to be held in the appalachian mountains for the remainder of their lives.

== Student activities ==
The school newspaper is known as'' The Wingspan'', while the yearbook is referred to as ''The Talon''.

Pike County Central Lady Hawks were the winners of the 15th Region Girls' Basketball Tournament in the 1998, 2004, and just recently the 2007 seasons. The Lady Hawks also made it to round 3 of the state Sweet Sixteen tournament of 2007, held in Bowling Green, Ky.

The Student Technology Leadership Program has qualified for state competition 2006 and 2007. In 2006 the students received runner up (in which the winner went to nationals in California). 2007 looks to be a great year for the STLP.

In 2004, Pike Central broke a world record for the most spectators painted head-to-toe at a sporting event. The final number was 254, which was certified by the Guiness Book of World Records.

For more information call the school. 606 432 4352

[[Category:High schools in Kentucky]]

{{Kentucky-school-stub}}

Stanwood, Washington

2007-03-26T00:08:36Z

206.102.240.2: /* Education */

'''Stanwood''' is a city in [[Snohomish County, Washington|Snohomish County]], [[Washington]], [[United States]]. The population was 3,923 at the 2000 census.

==History==
Stanwood was officially incorporated on [[October 21]], [[1903]].

==Geography==
[[Image:WAMap-doton-Stanwood.png|right|Location of Stanwood, Washington]]Stanwood is located at {{coor dms|48|14|32|N|122|21|4|W|city}} (48.242276, -122.351171){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 5.1 [[km²]] (2.0 [[square mile|mi²]]). 5.1 km² (2.0 mi²) of it is land and 0.51% is water.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 3,923 people, 1,402 households, and 957 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 768.9/km² (1,995.4/mi²). There were 1,508 housing units at an average density of 295.6/km² (767.0/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 91.56% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.59% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.94% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.10% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.23% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.52% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 3.06% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 4.97% of the population.

There were 1,402 households out of which 42.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.3% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 12.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.7% were non-families. 26.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the average family size was 3.22.

In the city the population was spread out with 31.5% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 30.6% from 25 to 44, 14.5% from 45 to 64, and 16.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 89.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.2 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $44,512, and the median income for a family was $52,996. Males had a median income of $40,457 versus $26,738 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $16,775. About 9.0% of families and 12.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 8.9% of those under age 18 and 23.4% of those age 65 or over.

==Education==
Stanwood has one high school, two middle schools, three elementary schools with two others on Camano Island, and one alternative high school. Stanwood High School has about 1,800 students, 87 teachers, and is still growing. Most of the Freshmen's classes are on Church Creek Campus, a former elementary school that was added on to SHS when two new schools were built on Camano Island in 2000. It was meant to relieve crowding, but once again, Stanwood High School is overcrowded. A bond was made in the May of 2006 for a new high school that would help relieve the growing population, but was turned down. When the school was built in 1971, it was originally made to hold 800 students. It was originally built as a "California-style" high school, where there were no hallways, and everything was accessed from outside. Since then, additions have been made in 1980, 1993, and 2001.

===High Schools===
*[http://www.stanwood.wednet.edu/lhhs/index.html Lincon Hill High School] (alternative school) 
*[http://www.stanwood.wednet.edu/shs/index.htm Stanwood High School] 
**Church Creek Campus

===Middle Schools===
*[http://www.stanwood.wednet.edu/psm/index.html Port Susan Middle School] 
*[http://www.stanwood.wednet.edu/sms/index.html Stanwood Middle School]

===Elementary Schools===
*[http://www.stanwood.wednet.edu/ces/index.html Cedarhome Elementary School] 
*[http://www.stanwood.wednet.edu/ebe/EBE%20HOME/HOME.html Elger Bay Elementary School] (Camano Island) 
*[http://www.stanwood.wednet.edu/ses/index.html Stanwood Elementary School] 
*[http://www.stanwood.wednet.edu/tce/index.html Twin City Elementary School] 
*[http://www.stanwood.wednet.edu/ues/index.html Utsalady Elementary School] (Camano Island)

==External links==
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|48.242276|-122.351171}}

[[Category:Snohomish County, Washington]]
[[Category:Cities in Washington]]

Racism

2007-03-09T19:28:23Z

206.102.240.2: /* Reverse Racism */

{{Mergefrom|Racial supremacy|date=March 2007}}
{{OR}}
{{Discrimination2}}

'''Racism''' is a [[belief]] system or [[doctrine]] which postulates a hierarchy among various "[[human]] [[race]]s" or [[ethnic group]]s, often leading to the belief of being a member of a "[[master race]]". It may be based on a conception assuming inherent biological differences between different ethnic groups, which would be purported to determine cultural or individual behaviour. However, modern racism discourse may coincide with contemporary scientific researches which have criticized former "[[scientific racism]]" discourses, popular until [[World War II]] and which claimed that the "race" was a biological and [[physical anthropology|anthropological]] reality. Thus, they may, on some occasions, accept the [[cultural relativist]] viewpoint which criticize any attempt in hierarchizing various cultures among them, while continuing to support a racist discourse. However, instead of being based on a biological [[race (historical)|definition of race]], this contemporary racism accept cultural and historical differences, but claim they justify, to the minimum, [[racial separatism|separatism]] between various ethnics groups.

Racism may be described as a strong form of [[ethnocentrism]], including traits such as [[xenophobia]] (fear and hate of foreigners), views against interracial relationships (anti-[[miscegenation]]), [[ethnic nationalism]], and [[ethnic stereotype]]s. Racism has been a motivating factor in [[social discrimination]], [[racial segregation]] and violence, spanning from [[hate speech]]s, [[pogroms]] and massacres, to [[genocide]]s and [[ethnic cleansing]]s. In a less dramatic manner, [[racial discrimination]] is also common, although illegal, in many states. Furthermore, distinctions of various ethnic groups may be instrumentalized by [[politician]]s who practice "[[race baiting]]" in an attempt to win votes.

The term racist has been a [[pejorative]] term since at least the 1940s, and the identification of a group or person as racist is often controversial, as racism is often considered a characteristic of [[far right]] movements.

==Definitions of racism==
{{Further|[[Race (historical definitions)]]}}

In practice, racism takes forms such as racial [[prejudice]], [[racial segregation|segregation]] or [[subordination]]. Racism can more narrowly refer to a legalized system of [[domination]] of one ethnic group on another, such as in [[institutional racism]].
Racial prejudice refers to pre-formed opinions about individuals based on their perceived racial heritage. It involves [[Hasty generalization|hasty generalization]]s about members of a group based on the perceived characteristics of one or more members of the group. Generalizations include beliefs that every member of a group has the same personality traits, interests, language, culture, ideas, norms and attitudes. Sometimes the characteristic is correct but the reason or cause is incorrectly assigned. Racial prejudices are sometimes promoted by the mainstream media.

Organizations and institutions that put racism into action discriminate against and marginalize a class of people who share a common racial designation. The term racism is usually applied to the [[dominant]] group in a society, because it is that group which has the means to oppress others. The term can also apply to any individual or group, regardless of social status or dominance.

Racism can be both overt and covert. Individual racism sometimes consists of overt acts by individuals, which can result in violence or the destruction of property. Institutional racism is often more covert and subtle. It often appears within the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and frequently receives less public condemnation than the overt type.
[[Image:ColoredDrinking.jpg|left|thumb|250px|An [[African American]] man drinks out of the "colored only" water cooler at a [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] [[streetcar]] terminal in the [[United States]] in 1939.]]
[[W.E.B. DuBois]] argued that [[racialism]] is the belief that differences between the races exist, be they [[Biological process|biological]], [[social]], [[psychological]], or in the realm of the [[soul]]. He argued that racism is using this belief to promote the idea that one's race is superior to the others.

According to Jared Diamond in his work ''[[Guns, Germs and Steel]]'', race is essentially a social and historical construction.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} He argues that it has no real basis in science, nor can it be used to explain why Europe gained the upper hand in world conquests.

[[Molefi Asante]], an [[African American]] academic, describes racism as a "wall of ignorance" that hides the long history of racial injustice from public consciousness.<ref name="Molefi Asante on Race">
{{cite book
| editor = [[Molefi Asante]].
| title = Erasing Racism: The Survival of the American Nation
| origyear = 2001
| url = https://www.gop.com/contribute/join.aspx?key=L1M7U8Y0F0
| accessdate = 2003
| edition = Hardback
| year = 2003
| month = September
| publisher = [[Prometheus Books]]
| location = USA
}}</ref > He argues that most [[White people|whites]] view racism as a thing of the past; a problem that was solved by civil rights. He says [[African Americans]] continue to experience racism in many areas of social life.

== Reverse Racism ==

Reverse racism, often referred to as [[reverse discrimination]], is the act of widespread discrimination, mistreatment, or hatred of the traditionally dominant race.

Case in example:

''Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education''[http://www.adversity.net/0_Education/Seattle-Kentucky/intro.htm]:

The plaintiff Crystal Meredith, challenged a ruling of the Jefferson County (Kentucky) public schools that required black student enrollment at all schools be at least between 15 and 50 percent, in order to maintain racial diversity in the class room. In the case of Crystal Meredith, her son, a white student, was denied enrollment at their neighborhood public school because this particular school was not meeting the 15/50 rule, therefore allowing no new white students to enroll.

While the current push among American academia has been to redefine racism as an attribute solely in possession of those belonging to a society's dominant race, the standard definition of racism acknowledges otherwise. Thus, while the term reverse racism remains controversial to some, the act of racism against the most populous race of a society does in fact exist by definition.

==Racial discrimination==
[[Image:Hk anti-discrimination poster.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An anti-discrimination poster in a [[Hong Kong]] [[MTR|subway]] station, circa 2005]]
Racial discrimination is treating people differently based
on race. [[Racial segregation]] policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerced without being legalized.

Researchers at the [[University of Chicago]] (Marianne Bertrand) and [[MIT]] ([[Sendhil Mullainathan]]) found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black".{{Fact|date=January 2007}} These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews, no matter their level of previous experience. Results were stronger for higher quality résumés. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the [[United States]]' long history of discrimination (i.e. [[Jim Crow laws]], [[Affirmative Action]], etc.).

In recent cases, racial discrimination has also taken the face of [[reverse discrimination]], in which members of the majority race are overlooked for their inherent lack of ability to contribute to racial diversity. Whatever the case may be, racial discrimination is seen across the board in all racial groups.

===Institutional racism===
{{See|Institutional racism|State racism|Racial profiling|Racism by country}}
[[Institutional racism]] (also known as structural racism, [[state racism]] or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. [[Stokely Carmichael]] is credited for coining the phrase ''institutional racism'' in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".<ref>Richard W. Race, {{PDFlink|[http://www.shef.ac.uk/socst/Shop/race_article.pdf Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales]|47.2 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}, ''Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research'', University of Sheffield, p.12. Accessed [[20 June]] [[2006]].</ref>

[[Maulana Karenga]] states that the effects of racism were
<blockquote>
''the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples.'' He argues that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.''<ref name="Ethics on Reparations">{{cite web|url=http://www.africawithin.com/karenga/ethics.htm|publisher="[[Ron Karenga]]"|title="Effects on Africa"|}}</ref>
</blockquote>

===Economics and racism===
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of [[discrimination]] which is caused by past racism, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in the parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. (e.g. A member of race Y, Mary, has her opportunities adversely affected (directly and/or indirectly) by the mistreatment of her ancestors of race Y.)

Some scholars have suggested that capitalism has played a large role in promoting racism especially socioeconomic racism. The Western hemisphere slave trade and colonialist activities were mostly conducted by the earliest capitalist economies ie; Spain, Great Britain, the United States and the Netherlands.<ref>http://.www.zmag.org/CrisesCurEvts/bohmerrace.htm</ref><ref>http://.race.eserver.org/toward-a-theory-of-racism.htm</ref>
Critics have pointed out that a slave labor economy was the sometimes considered ultimate form of capitalism because the capitalists made pure profits because they used free labor.<ref>http://.flag.blackened.net/revolt/talks/racism.html</ref>

[[Global apartheid]] is a phrase used by those who argue that the international economic and political system is racist and is designed so that a white minority internationally accrue more wealth and power and enjoy more human and legal rights than the non-white world majority.

===Declarations against racial discrimination===
Racial discrimination contradicts the 1776 [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] issued during the [[French Revolution]] and the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], signed after [[World War II]], which all postulate equality between all human beings.

In 1950, [[UNESCO]] suggested in ''[[The Race Question]]'' —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as [[Ashley Montagu]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Gunnar Myrdal]], [[Julian Huxley]], etc. — to "drop the term ''race'' altogether and instead speak of [[ethnic groups]]". The statement condemned [[scientific racism]] theories which had played a role in the [[Holocaust]]. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the [[Enlightenment]] and its assumption of [[equality|equal rights]] for all. Along with Myrdal's ''[[An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy]]'' (1944), ''The Race Question'' influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court [[racial segregation in the United States|desegregation]] decision in "[[Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka]]" <ref name="Prins"> [http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=30431&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html “Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946-1962)”], by [[Harald E.L. Prins]], UNESCO {{en icon}} </ref>.

The [[United Nations]] uses the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the ''[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', adopted in 1966:
<blockquote>
''...any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.''(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination) <ref> [[http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm Text of the Convention], ''[['[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', 1966 </ref>
</blockquote>

In 2000, the [[European Union]] explicitly banned racism along with many other forms of social discrimination:
<blockquote>
''Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality.''<ref>http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.html</ref>
</blockquote>

==Ethnic nationalism==
{{see|Ethnic nationalism |Romantic nationalism}}

After the [[Napoleonic War]]s, Europe was confronted to the new "[[nationalities]] question," leading to ceaseless reconfigurations of the European map, which frontiers between states had been delimited during the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]]. [[Nationalism]] had made its first, striking appearance with the invention of the ''[[levée en masse]]'' by the [[French Revolution|French revolutionaries]], thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly-founded [[French First Republic|Republic]] against the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' order represented by the European monarchies. This lead to the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] (1792-1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to a subsequent European-wide debates on the concept and realities of [[nation]]s, and in particular of [[nation-state]]s. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms ([[Ottoman Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Swedish Empire]], [[Kingdom of France]], etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (''[[Kabinettskriege]]'' in German). Modern [[nation-state]]s would appear only in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiments for the first time in [[Enlightenment Spain|Spain]] during the [[Peninsula War]] (1808-1813 - known in Spanish as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]], the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the [[Industrial Era]], leading in particular to the [[1848 Revolutions]], the [[Italian unification]] completed during the 1871 [[Franco-Prussian War]], which itself culminated in the proclamation of the [[German Empire]] in the Hall of Mirrors in the [[Palace of Versailles]], thus achieving the [[German unification]]. Meanwhile, the [[Ottoman Empire]], "sick man of Europe," was confronted to endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the [[Austrian-Hungarian Empire]], would lead to the creation after [[World War I]] of the various nation-states of the [[Balkan]]s, which were always confronted, and remained so today, to the existence of "national [[minorities]]" in their borders <ref> On this "[[nationalities]] question" and the problematic of [[nationalism]], see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: [[Ernest Gellner]], ''Nations and Nationalism'' (1983); [[Eric Hobsbawm]],''The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789-1848'' (1962), ''Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality'' (1990); [[Benedict Anderson]], ''[[Imagined Communities]]'' (1991); [[Charles Tilly]], ''Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990-1992'' (1990); [[Anthony D. Smith]], ''Theories of Nationalism'' (1971), etc. </ref>.

[[Ethnic nationalism]], which believed in hereditary membership to the nation, made its appearance in this historical context of the creation of the modern nation-states. One of its main influence was the [[Romantic nationalist]] movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Herder]] (1744-1803), [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johan Fichte]] (1762-1814) in the ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (1808), [[Friedrich Hegel]] (1770-1831), or also, in France, [[Jules Michelet]] (1798-1874). It opposed itself to [[liberal nationalism]], represented by authors such as [[Ernest Renan]] (1823-1892), who conceived the nation as a community which, instead of being based on the ''[[Volk]]'' ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily [[plebiscite]]", 1882) or also [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806-1873) <ref> [[John Stuart Mill]], ''Considerations on Representative Government'', 1861 </ref>.

Ethnic nationalism quickly blended itself with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental [[imperialist]]" ([[Hannah Arendt]], 1951 <ref name=Arendt> [[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951) </ref>) discourses, for example in the [[pan-Germanism]] or [[pan-Slavism]] discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk or of the Slavish people. The [[Alldeutscher Verband|Pan-German League]] (''Alldeutscher Verband''), created in 1891, promoted [[German colonial empire|German imperialism]], "[[racial hygiene]]" and was opposed to intermarriages with Jews. Another, popular current, the ''[[Völkisch movement]]'', was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which it also combined with modern anti-semitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the [[Thule Society]], would participate to the foundation of the [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP) in Munich in 1918, predecessor of the [[NSDAP]] Nazi party. Both pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism played a decisive role in the [[interwar period]] of the 1920s-1930s <ref name=Arendt/>.

These currents began to associate the idea of the nation to the biological concept of a "[[master race]]" (often the "[[Aryan race]]" or "[[Nordic race]]") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflate nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses which posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying [[ethnic cleansing]] in order to achieve "racial purity" and achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.

Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not however limited to pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism ideologies. In France, the transition of Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made of nationalism a characteristic of [[History of far-right movements in France|far-right movements in France]], took place during the [[Dreyfus Affair]] at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide ''[[querelle]]'' affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Emile Zola, who wrote ''[[J'accuse]]'' in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet [[Maurice Barrès]] (1862-1923), one of the founder of ethnic nationalist discourse in France <ref> [[Maurice Barrès]], ''Le Roman de l'énergie nationale'' (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897) </ref>. At the same time, [[Charles Maurras]] (1868-1952), founder of the monarchist ''[[Action française]]'' movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative ''[[métèques]]''). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners," who threatened the ethnic unity of the [[French people]].

===Ethnic conflicts===
{{See|Ethnicity}}
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as [[xenophobia]] and [[ethnocentrism]], although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an [[ideology]] or from [[scientific racism]], which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia.

Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases [[ethnicity]] and [[nationalism]] were harnessed to rally [[combatant]]s in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).

Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Historically, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (particularly when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by [[morality|moral]] or [[ethics|ethical]] considerations.

One example of the brutalizing and dehumanizing effects of racism was the attempt to [[Population history of American indigenous peoples#Deliberate infection.3F|deliberately infect]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] with smallpox during [[Pontiac's Rebellion]] in 1763, itself a war intended to [[ethnic cleansing|ethnically cleanse]] the "other" ([[European Americans]]) from Native American land.

According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other." (Richter, ''Facing East from Indian Country'', p. 208)

In the Western world, racism evolved, twinned with the doctrine of [[white supremacy]], and helped fuel the [[Europe|European]] exploration, conquest, and colonization of much of the rest of the world -- especially after [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the Americas. [[Basil Davidson]] insists in his documentary, ''[[Africa: Different but Equal]]'', that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 1800s, due to the need for a justification of slavery in the Americas. The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West.

Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the [[Triangular Trade]]. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but then due to western diseases, their population drastically decreased.

Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's ''Europe and the People without History'').

Some people, like [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]], have argued during the [[Valladolid controversy]] in the middle of the 16th century that the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were natural slaves because they had no ''souls''. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th-20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.

==Scientific racism==
{{Main|Scientific racism}}
The modern biological definition of race was invented in the 19th century by scientific racist theories. The term "scientific racism" refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to at least the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the [[New Imperialism]] period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]]'s resistance to [[positivism|positivists]] accounts of history, and its support of [[monogenism]], that is that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with [[creationist]] accounts of history. These racist theories grounded on scientific hypothesis were combined with [[unilineal evolution|unilineal theories of social progress]] which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the [[social Darwinism]] discourse, which postulated the "[[survival of the fittest]]" theory, a term coined by [[Herbert Spencer]] in 1864. [[Charles Darwin]] himself explicitly denounced such accounts of history in ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' (1871). Finally, at the end of the 19th century, they intertwined themselves with [[eugenics]] discourses of "[[degeneration]] of the race" and "blood [[heredity]]." Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on [[physical anthropology]], [[anthropometry]], [[craniometry]], [[phrenology]], [[physiognomy]] and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices. Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of [[cultural anthropology]] ([[Franz Boas]], etc.), the British school of [[social anthropology]] ([[Bronisław Malinowski]], [[Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]], etc.), the French school of [[ethnology]] ([[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], etc.), as well as the discovery of the [[Modern evolutionary synthesis|neo-Darwinian synthesis]], such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a [[gene-centered view of evolution]] in the 1960s, which seemed at first to be sufficient proof of the inanity of the "scientific racist" theories of the 19th centuries, which based conception of evolution on "races", a concept which first appeared to lose any sense at the genetical level. However, modern resurgence of racist theories, in particular related to the [[race and intelligence]] controversy, seems to show that [[genetics]] could also be used for ideological, racist purposes.

===Heredity, "degeneration" and eugenics===
{{see|Eugenics}}
The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by [[Francis Galton]] (1822-1911), who used the then popular concept of "[[degeneration]]". He applied [[statistics]] to study human differences and the alleged "[[inheritance of intelligence]]," foreshading future uses of "[[intelligence testing]]" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer [[Emile Zola]] (1840-1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, ''[[Les Rougon-Macquart]]'', where he linked [[heredity]] to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons involved in politics (''[[Son Excellence Eugène Rougon]]'') and medicine (''[[Le Docteur Pascal]]'') and the low-born Macquarts fatally falling into alcoholism (''[[L'Assommoir]]''), prostitution (''[[Nana]]''), and homicide (''[[La Bête humaine]]'').

During the rise of [[Nazi Germany|Nazism in Germany]], some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century <ref> [[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950 </ref>. According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, ''[[The Race Question]]'', an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, the UNESCO declared that it resumed:
<blockquote>"''up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the [[International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation]] has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the [[Appeasement of Hitler|appeasement policy]] of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of [[Nazi ideology]] and policy. [[Tomáš Masaryk|Masaryk]] and [[Edvard Beneš|Beneš]] took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.''"</blockquote>

The [[Third Reich's racial policies]], its [[Nazi eugenics|eugenics programs]] and the extermination of Jews in [[the Holocaust]], as well as Gypsies in [[Porrajmos]] and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the [[Franz Boas|Boasian]] school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. '' These theories were strongly denounced in the UNESCO 1950 statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled ''[[The Race Question]]''.

===Polygenism and racial typologies===
{{see|Polygenism |Typology (anthropology)}}
Works such as [[Arthur Gobineau]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'' (1853-1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of [[Boulainvilliers]] for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality which changed over time. Gobineau thus attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological difference among human beings, giving it the legitimity of [[biology]]. He was one of the first theorist to postulate [[polygenism]], stating that there was, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races." Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by [[Georges Vacher de Lapouge]] (1854-1936)'s [[typology (anthropology)|typology of races]], who published in 1899 ''The Aryan and his Social Role'', in which he opposed the white, "[[Aryan]] race", "[[dolichocephalic]]", to the "brachycephalic" race, whom the "[[Jew]]" was to be the archetype. Vacher de Lapoug thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "''[[Nordic theory|Homo europaeus]]'' (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "''[[Homo alpinus]]''" ([[Auvergne|Auvergnat]], [[Turkish]], etc.), and finally the "''[[Homo mediterraneus]]''" ([[Naples|Neapolitan]], [[Andalusia|Andalus]], etc.) He assimilated races and [[social class]]es, considering that the French upper class was a representant of the ''Homo europaeus'', while the lower class represented the ''Homo alpinus''. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of [[trade union]]ists, considered as "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of [[labour condition]]s. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking [[social conflict]] by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order <ref> Matsuo Takeshi ([[Shimane Prefecture|University of Shimane]], Japan). ''L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme'' (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in ''[[Etudes de langue et littérature françaises]]'' 2001, n°79, pp. 47-57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; [[INIST]]-[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|CNRS]], Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 ([http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13473405 Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS] </ref>

The same year than Vacher de Lapouge, [[William Z. Ripley]] used identical racial classification in ''[[The Races of Europe]]'' (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Others famous scientific authors include [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain|H.S. Chamberlain]] at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who [[naturalization|naturalized]] himself as German because of his admiration for the "Arya] race") or [[Madison Grant]], a eugenicist and author of ''[[The Passing of the Great Race]]'' (1916).

===Academic racism against Africans===
[[Image:Races and skulls.png|150px|left|thumb|[[Josiah C. Nott|Nott]] and [[George Gliddon|Gliddon]]'s ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857) used misleading imagery to suggest that "Negros" ranked between whites and chimpanzees.]]

In relation to African people, academic racism was formed during times of slavery and colonialism, in order to remove any form of noble claim from the victims of these systems.
[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] comments on this racism by stating,
<blockquote>
Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa , other than raw material''<ref name=Shahadah>[http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/agencyandafrica.htm The Removal of Agency from Africa] by [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]]</ref>
</blockquote>

Oxford academic [[J.R. Baker]] listed that a civilization is comprised of 21 basic components which where critical to demarcate the degree of civilization of a race. His conclusion was that Caucasians met all 21 criteria in Iraq, Crete, India, and in Egypt, and the Asians met them all in China. The Africans and Australian aborigines met virtually none of the 21 criteria. <ref name=JRbaker>‘’Race’’. J.R. Baker’’, 1974, p 507-508</ref>

Scottish philosopher and economist [[David Hume]] said
<blockquote>
''I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences”.<ref name=EricMorton>[http://www.africanphilosophy.com/vol1.1/morton.html RACE AND RACISM IN THE WORKS OF DAVID HUME] by [[Eric Morton]]</ref>
</blockquote>

German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.'' <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." {{Fact|date=January 2007}} This view that Africa had no history was repeated by [[Hugh Trevor-Roper, Baron Dacre of Glanton|Hugh Trevor-Roper]], Regius Professor of History at Oxford University, as late as 1963. {{Fact|date=January 2007}} During the Nazi era German scientist rearranged academia to support claims of a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt. <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

[[Image:Völkerschau (Human Zoo) Stuttgart1928.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Human Zoo]] (''Völkerschau'') in [[Stuttgart]] (Germany) in 1928.]]

===Human zoos===
[[Human zoo]]s were an important means of bolstering ''popular racism'' by connecting it to [[scientific racism]]: they were both objects of public curiosity and of [[anthropology]] and [[anthropometry]].<ref> [http://migs.concordia.ca/occpapers/zoo.htm On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism], Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000 </ref><ref> {{cite news | authors=Pascal Blanchard, Sandrine Lemaire and Nicolas Bancel | title=Human zoos - Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists | publisher=[[Le Monde Diplomatique]] |date=August 2000 | url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo}} {{en icon}}; {{cite news | title= Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale | publisher=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=August 2000|url=http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html}} {{fr icon}} (available to everyone) </ref> [[Joice Heth]], an African American slave, was displayed by [[Phineas Taylor Barnum|P.T. Barnum]] in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of [[Saartjie Baartman]], the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until [[World War II]].

Congolese pygmy [[Ota Benga]] was displayed in 1906 by [[eugenicist]] [[Madison Grant]], head of the [[Bronx Zoo]], as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to [[Darwinism]], creating a [[social Darwinism]] ideology which tried to ground itself in [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris [[Colonial Exhibition]] displayed [[Kanaks]] from [[New Caledonia]].<ref> {{PDFlink|[http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter6/interviews/filetodownload,18533,en.pdf The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931]|96.6 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}} by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., [[Santa Clara University]], USA </ref> A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the [[Expo '58|Brussels' World Fair]].

==Racism in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance==
{{see|Limpieza de sangre}}
Although [[Christian anti-semitism|anti-Semitism]] has a long European history, related to Christianism ([[anti-Judaism]]), racism itself is frequently described as a ''modern'' phenomenon. In the view of the French intellectual [[Michel Foucault]], the first formulation of racism emerged in the [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern period]] as the "[[discourse]] of race struggle", a historical and political discourse which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of [[sovereignty]].<ref>Michel Foucault, ''Society Must Be Defended'' (1976-77)</ref>

[[Richard E. Nisbett]] has said that the question of racial superiority may go back at least a thousand years, to the time when the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Moors invaded the Iberian peninsula]], occupying most of [[Hispania]] for six centuries, where they founded the advanced civilization of [[Al-Andalus]] (711-1492). Al-Andalus coincided with ''[[La Convivencia]]'', an era of religious tolerance and with the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula]]. It was followed by a violent ''[[Reconquista]]'' under the ''[[Reyes Catolicos]]'' (Catholic Kings), [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand V]] and [[Isabella I of Spain|Isabella I]]. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the ''[[limpieza de sangre]]'' ("cleanliness of blood") doctrine. Following the expulsion of most [[Sephardic Jews]] from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to [[Converso|convert]] to Roman Catholicism, becoming "[[New Christian]]s" which were despised and discriminated by the others Christians. The system and ideology of the ''limpieza de sangre'' ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith. In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was ended through a legal decree issued by the [[Marquis of Pombal]] in [[1772]], almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The ''limpieza de sangre'' doctrine was also very common in the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]], where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by [[Eduardo Galeano]] in the ''Open Veins of Latin America'' (1971). It included, among [[Glossary of terms for multiraciality|others terms]], ''[[mestizo]]'' (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), ''[[castizo]]'' (75% European and 25% Native American), ''Spaniard'' (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), ''[[Mulatto]]'' (50% European and 50% African), ''Albarazado'' (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.

At the end of the [[Spanish Renaissance|Renaissance]], the [[Valladolid debate]] (1550-1551) concerning the treatment of [[Indigenous people of the Americas|natives]] of the "[[New World]]" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]]. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and [[natural law]]. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversy concerning racism, slavery and [[Eurocentrism]] that would arise in the following centuries.

Philosopher and historian [[Michel Foucault]] argued that the first appearance of racism as a social [[discourse]] (as opposed to simple [[xenophobia]], which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 [[Glorious Revolution]] in Great Britain, in [[Edward Coke]] or [[John Lilburne]]'s work.

However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "[[scientific racism]]". Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a ''historical notion''. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the [[bourgeoisie]], the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy.

This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as [[Boulainvilliers]], [[Nicolas Fréret]], and then, during the 1789 [[French Revolution]], [[Sieyès]], and afterward [[Augustin Thierry]] and [[Cournot]]. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people".

He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified [[nation-state]] is, of course, here an [[anachronism]] — which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the [[absolute monarchy]], who tried to bypass the [[aristocracy]] by establishing a direct relationship to the [[Third Estate]]. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "[[Franks]]", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished [[Gallo-Romans]], who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the [[right of conquest]].

Early modern racism was opposed to [[nationalism]] and the nation-state: the [[Comte de Montlosier]], in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "''this new people born of slaves... [[miscegenation|mixture of all races and of all times]]"''.

While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the [[ethnic nationalist]] discourse which identified the "race" to the "[[folk]]", leading to such racist movements as [[pan-Germanism]] and [[pan-Slavism]], medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and [[social conflict]]s.

Michel Foucault thus traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and [[eugenicists]], who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "[[state racism]]" (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, [[Marxism|Marxists]] also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle which provided the real [[philosophy of history|engine of history]] and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the [[essentialist]] notion of "race" into the historical notion of "[[class struggle]]", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In ''[[The Will to Knowledge]]'' (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]], which opposed the concepts of "blood [[heredity]]," prevailent in the 19th century racist discourse.

==Racism and European colonialism in the nineteenth century==
{{Main|Colonialism}}
Authors such as [[Hannah Arendt]], in her 1951 book ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'', have said that the racist [[ideology]] ("popular racism") developed at the end of the nineteenth century helped legitimize the [[New Imperialism|imperialist conquests]] of foreign territories, and crimes that accompanied it (such as the [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]], 1904-1907).

[[Auguste Comte]]'s [[positivism|positivist]] ideology of necessary [[social progress]] as a consequence of [[scientific progress]] lead many Europeans to believe in the inherent superiority of the "White Race" over non-whites.

[[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem ''[[The White Man's Burden]]'' (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of such belief, though also thought to be a satirical vantage of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize subjugation, slavery and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous peoples, which were thus conceived as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs.

Other colonialists recognized the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gain and there are some Europeans during the time period who objected to the injustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the so-called "[[Hottentot Venus]]" was displayed in England in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, [[Joseph Conrad]] published ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899), a clear criticism of the [[Congo Free State]] owned by [[Leopold II of Belgium]].

==State racism (Nazism, Fascism, Japan, South Africa)==
{{main|Nazism and race|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Italian Fascism|Eugenics in Imperial Japan|Apartheid in South Africa}}
[[State racism]] played a role in the [[Nazi Germany]] regime and [[Fascism|fascist]] regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's [[Showa period]]<ref>Edward Russel of Liverpool, ''The Knights of Bushido'', 2002, p.238, Herbert Bix, ''Hirohito and the making of modern Japan'', 2001, p.313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese power'', 1989, p.263-272</ref>.

These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal.

==Racism against Middle Easterners==
{{worldview}}{{Main|Anti-Arabism|Anti-Iranianism}}
Also see [[Israeli Arab#Discrimination|Israeli Arab discrimination]] and [[Anti-arabism#Anti-Arabism in Israel|Anti-Arabism in Israel]].
There are reports of a large increase in anti-Arab/anti-Iranian racism in the [[United States]] since the [[September 11 2001 attacks]]. <ref>http://www.religionlink.org/tip_030407b.php</ref> [[Racial profiling]] of people with a [[Middle Eastern]] ethnic background was proposed by a [[New York]] [[Congressman]] on [[August 15]] [[2006]].<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2930</ref>

In Hollywood, Arabs and Iranians have been portrayed as terrorists and women abusers, and Arabs as extremist people.<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2357</ref> Iraq and Iran were demonized which led to hatred towards Arabs and Iranians living in the United States and elsewhere in the [[western world]]. <ref>http://www.freepress.org/departments/display/13/2004/814</ref> <ref>http://www.soundvision.com/info/peace/demonization.asp</ref> There have been attacks against Arabs and Iranians not only on the basis of their religion ([[Islam]]), but also on the basis of their ethnicity; numerous Christian Arabs and Iranians have been attacked based on their appearances.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/niot/citizens_respond/losaltos.html Attacks on Arab Americans] (PBS)</ref>

==Racism against Jews==
{{Main|Antisemitism|History of antisemitism}}
Antisemitism is a specific case of racism targeting [[Jew]]s, although scholars argue whether it should be considered a ''[[sui generis]]'' specie or not.
[[Image:Nurembergracechart.jpg|thumb|left|200px|1935 chart from [[Nazi Germany]] that classified people as German or Jewish based on the heritage of their grandparents.]]

Scholars distinguish traditional, ''religious antisemitism'', which derives from [[Christianity|Christian]] accusation of the [[deicide]] (cleared at the [[Second Vatican Council]] in 1965), with 19th-20th centuries ''[[racial antisemitism]]'', which ultimately led to [[the Holocaust]] in which about 6 million European Jews, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered. ''See also [[Holocaust denial]].''

In the [[Middle Ages]] [[Iberian peninsula]], the system of [[limpieza de sangre]] (cleanliness of blood) ostracized [[New Christians]] (offspring of [[Sephardi]]c Jews who were forced to convert to [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]]) from the rest of society. In [[Portugal]], the legal distinction between New and Old Christians was ended in 1772.

Expelled en masse from [[History of the Jews in England|England]], [[History of the Jews in France|France]], [[History of the Jews in Spain|Spain]] and most other [[Western Europe]]an countries at various times, and persecuted in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] in the [[14th century]], many Jews accepted [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III]]'s invitation to settle in [[History of the Jews in Poland|Polish]]-controlled areas of [[Eastern Europe]]. The traditional measures of keeping the [[Russian Empire]] free of Jews failed when the main territory of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was annexed during the [[Partitions of Poland]]. As large Jewish populations were taken over by Russia, [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]] established the [[Pale of Settlement]] in 1791. The official segregation of the [[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union|Russian Jews]] was compounded by waves of [[pogroms]] and oppressive legislation such as the 1882 [[May Laws]] and led to mass [[emigration]] and political activism.

Modern European antisemitism has its origin in 19th century [[pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]] theories that viewed the Jewish people as entirely different from the [[Aryan]], or [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]], populations. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their [[religion]], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic [[racial characteristics]]. The growth of [[nationalism]] in many countries viewed Jews as a separate and often "alien" nation within the countries in which Jews resided. Such sentiments were exposed in the [[Dreyfus affair]] in 1890s France. ''See also [[Rootless cosmopolitan]]ism.''

The rise of views of Jews as a malevolent "race" generated antisemitic [[conspiracy theories]] that Jews, as a group, were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world. From the early infamous Russian literary [[hoax]], ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', published by the Tsar's [[okhranka|secret police]], a key element of antisemitic thought has been that Jews influence or control the world.

==Religion and racism==
:''See [[Christianity and Slavery]] and [[Islam and Slavery]]''

In the nineteenth century, many American Christians were taught that Africans were descendants of [[Ham (son of Noah)]], and thus deserved to be slaves.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} However, [[abolitionism|abolition]] movements also used Christian teachings in explaining their views.

The [[Baha'i Faith]] denies the existence of human races, and has supported the ideology of ''one human race'' from its inception in 1863.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

{{section stub}}

==Footnotes==

{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* Barkan, Elazar (1992), ''The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars'', Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
* Dain, Bruce (2002), ''A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory)
* Diamond, Jared (1999), "Guns, Germs, and Steel", W.W. Norton, New York, NY.
* Ewen & Ewen (2006), "Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality", Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss, Claude]] (1952), ''Race and History'', ([[UNESCO]]).
* Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), ''Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture'', Westview Press.
* Stokes, DaShanne (forthcoming), ''Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom'', [http://www.geocities.com/eaglefeatherlaw/stokes.article.html URL].
* Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", ''Political Power and Social Theory'' 11 (1997), 183–206. ([[historiography]] of race and racism)
* [[Pierre-André Taguieff|Taguieff, Pierre-André]] (1987), ''La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles'', Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
* Twine, France Winddance (1997), ''Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil'', Rutgers University Press.
*[[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950

==See also==
*[[List of racism-related topics]]
*[[Racism by country]]
*[[Celebrity Big Brother racism controversy]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Racism}}
*[[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_2001_Dec/ai_82066713/pg_1 Extract] from "Race and History" (1952) by [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
*[http://www.understandingrace.org/ Understanding race] website with pegagogic materials for both students and teachers, including sections for children (ages 10-13) and academic researchers. Emphasis on the United States.
*[http://www.pbs.org/race Race] in-depth website about race
*[http://www.newsreel.org/nav/title.asp?tc=CN0149 Race - the power of illusion] argument that while race is a biological fiction, racism permeates the structure of society
*[http://www.amren.com/0306issue/0306issue.html#article1 Race Denial: The Power of a Delusion] detailed critique seeking to refute the film
* [http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Racism.asp Racism and human rights] Racism from Global Issues
* [http://www.irr.org.uk/ Institute for Race Relations]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/darwin_nazism.htm The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist] Refutes claims that Darwin was a racist
*[http://kitoba.com/pedia/Racism.html Racism] brief summary of the root causes of racism
*[http://cms.interculturalu.com/ InterculturalU.com] - a scholarly site that covers racism and other related topics.

[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Discrimination]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]
[[Category:Racism|*]]
[[Category:Sociology]]

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Talk:Racism

2007-03-09T19:27:06Z

206.102.240.2:

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{| class="infobox" width="270px"
|-
!align="center" colspan="2"|[[Image:Vista-file-manager.png|50px|Archive]] [[Wikipedia:How to archive a talk page|Archives]]
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|-
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# [[Talk:Racism/Archive 1|November 2001 – February 2002]]
# [[Talk:Racism/Archive 2|February 2002 – September 2002]]
# [[Talk:Racism/Archive 3|September 2002 – December 2003]]
# [[Talk:Racism/Archive 4|December 2003]]
# [[Talk:Racism/Archive 5|December 2003 – April 2004]]
# [[Talk:Racism/Archive 6|April 2004 – August 2004]]
# [[Talk:Racism/Archive 7|August 2004 – October 2004]]
# [[Talk:Racism/Archive 8|October 2004 – May 2006]]
# [[Talk:Racism/Archive 9|Archive 9]]

|}

==Honesty is needed==
When i add content against Israel, i get called blah blah see above, i have just witnessed all the content of israel being stubbed, i have seen someone just chop the entire Israel section on racism by country. Now i dont see this system being applied to any other country. we have more content on mayalsia (of all places) what is the bases for having this section? i am ashamed of others who edit here that do not seem to have the sprit to resist this group which disallows any form of content which is critical of Israel, the same camp which is extensive in adding as much content as possible about crimes against Jewish people. so this section expands to be the largest, while critic becomes 1 line. I will state again the worst most vile thing on this planet is imbalance. No one wins. One way morality, one sidded truth is against humanity and against balance and this editor is here to make sure balance is on this page.--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 22:58, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

And the more editors show terrible bias the more this editor will have to balance the scale. so all attempts to throw this article to one pov one groups experience will be balanced back. if you want 10 lines for you then allow 10 lines for African Americans, 10 lines for Arabs. It is about balance. dont add content for your cause and delete content VALID Content against your cause--what is that?--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 23:08, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

: Halaqah, you misunderstand what balance means. See [[WP:OWN]]. ←[[User:Humus sapiens|Humus sapiens]] [[User talk:Humus sapiens|ну]][[Special:Contributions/Humus_sapiens|?]] 23:37, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

::::::You cleary are shooting in the dark with the above claim, you have a history of making any claim which is closet to your right hand. ask yourself how does that apply? it actually reflects again poorly on you and what you represent. Please feel free however to reply to what [[balance]] means. R u running out of excuses?--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 23:38, 7 February 2007 (UTC)
::::When logic and balance fail now comes lets pray to God the other editor is a novice and will be halted by stating some abstract wiki policy, is it related? No it doesnt have to be even remotly related. A vulgar attempt to justify what is beyond justice. If one calls to truth, calls to balance, fair play, one set of rules. --[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 23:43, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

:I'm sorry, Halaqah, but Humus sapiens is correct. If you are going to edit Wikipedia, you are going to have to "play by the rules." If you don't like the rules, then either don't play or, if you seriously feel that the Wikipedia rules are unjust, then lobby to change the rules. I can assure you that you will not get very far if you choose to go down that path though since these rules are generally agreed upon to be as fair as possible. --[[User:GHcool|GHcool]] 06:57, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

Listen another voice from the same choir backing up your pal is not valid, what rules are these. What wiki rules have i violated. please stick to wiki rules, stick to discussions which improve this article and avoid empty rhetoric. speak in clear specific terms. Do not out weight this article by reducing content which is valid and sourced while expanding content which suits your POV, discuss that and leave the rabbling and aimless statements to forums. Please list the wiki rules, because you certainly are not following them in your attempts to whitewash racism in Israel. or is there no racism in Israel as your friend above said? (see previous debate "clearly there is no racism in Isreal" lol)--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 10:33, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

:There is clearly racism in Israel, after all, racism is an evil that exists all over the world, and this article should discuss the phenomenon of racism all over the world. Thus, Israeli racism should and must be addressed as well. However, Israeli racism should and must also be addressed in proportion to the level of racism that exists elsewhere in the world. Feel free to add well cited, NPOV information about Israeli racism, but keep in mind that in the history of the world, racism committed by Israelis is miniscule in comparison to racism committed by the Americans, the Europeans, the Japanese, etc. --[[User:GHcool|GHcool]] 19:01, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

I am sorry admins do not allow any content which is against the state of Israel. There is no source which is good enought, even the same sources they use to prove their points. Yet they source all kinds of extream sites. [[WP:POINT]], strange that on [[Racism by Countries]] only one country is being deleted from that list, none of the other countries even have sources.--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 20:51, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

:Its been a while since I've done one of these, but, unfortunately, the opportunity has once again presented itself:
:*'''The Accusation:''' "[A]dmins do not allow any content which is against the state of Israel ''[sic]''. There is no source which is good enought, even the same sources they use to prove their points." - [[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]]. [[Talk:Racism#Honesty_is_needed]]. 20:51, 8 February 2007 (UTC).
:*'''The Reality:''' This claim is easily and embarrassingly falsifiable. I direct HalaTruth and anyone else who falsely claims that criticism of Israel is "not allowed" on Wikipedia to the articles about the [[Israel lobby in the United States]], the [[targeting of civilian areas in the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict]], or [[Zionism and racism allegations]]. --[[User:GHcool|GHcool]] 01:58, 9 February 2007 (UTC)

==Racism is just a bunch of poopy junk==
It's <s>crap</s>. There is more genetical difference of the wildebeests just in kenya than in the entire human
species. If you only have one life, other people should be nice to you. (''golden rule'') duh! DUH!
kkk=stoopid

racism even lives on the racism page. take a look at the side bar. WHERe is Africa? the one country which across the world receives racism isnt even on the list, we have Against cultures:

Arabs Armenians Canadians Catholics Chinese Europeans French Germans Greeks Gypsies Hindus Indians Iranians Italians Jews Mormons Muslims Polish Russians Turks

Where is the African? is that balance? Again and again we see editors removing content on Israel, the same Israel that is forver in the news. Racism by country is proof of the horrid imbalance on wikipedia, where a 500 word collection of junk on chile is allowed without zero sources, yet a few lines on Israel sourced to the teeth is deleted illegal, but editos say nothing about this behaviour.--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 23:53, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

:I quite agree with you about one point. Racism against Africans is at least as significant in world history and sociology as [[anti-Semitism]], and I would argue that it is much more significant a subtopic of racism than [[Francophobia]], [[anti-Hellenism]], or [[anti-Canadianism]] (I never even heard of those three)! I suggest creating an article about racism against Africans in the mold of those articles and then adding that article to the discrimination series banner. I think the time and energy spent creating such an article would be well spent since it would help increase awareness of the evil of racism against Africans worldwide. On the other hand, if that same time and energy were focused on prooving that Israel is a racist state with reliable sources would be spent poorly since such efforts will be an uphill battle, inconclusive at best, and increase almost zero awareness to of the evil of racism against Africans worldwide. The choice is yours, HalaTruth, but if you are good at [[cost-benefit analysis]], I have no doubt that you will make the right decision. --[[User:GHcool|GHcool]] 06:47, 9 February 2007 (UTC)

==Will someone read what has just been added to the Israel section?==
These editors have just added that content, read it and give honest feedback, it will be deleted as it is a whitewash, but i will leave it in as evidence of what continues to go on. The discussion is about racism yet there is 2 lines for the Arab issue and about 10 lines explaining the Arabs are the issue. very balanced.--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 10:38, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

:: i don't see the problem, there is a mention by pro-palestinian group making an accusaion, a response by a group on the other side of the fence, a serious discussion by a well regarded proffesor who admits to a certain degree of inequality and exlains it's origins. and then there's extra information on the druze community and the arab israeli-citizens representatives in israeli high positions. i must also add i was personally offended by your implication that struggles in africa resemble the slaughter of jews by the nazis.. apparently you don't know much about "nazi eugenics" and the position of jews in germen society.. for example, einstein considered his scientific discoveries as germen... then again.. at 1933 they passed a law that jews can no longer be lecturers at universities.... to the topic, if israel is mentioned under the "racism claims" subcategory than a balanced representation is in order and i think the current information represents balanced perceptions that are based on facts and not anti-zionist or anti-palestinian propaganda. [[User:Jaakobou|Jaakobou]] 23:55, 9 February 2007 (UTC)

:::The section is an blatant piece of Israeli propoganda. The section basically says (1) Arabs in Israel are treated great. (2) They deserve what they get. (3) anyone who dares accuse Israel of racism is no different to Bin Laden. Does no-one else find this section totally out of order? [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 22:14, 10 February 2007 (UTC)

::::no, the section says this (1) israel is attacked for being racist, (2) pro-israelis attack these attackers, (3) serious article on nationality admits anti-arab israeli bias while stating the sources of this bias is in part due to palestinian arab interaction with the state (i havn't seen better treatment of either jews or palestinians in arab countries). (4) druze arabs are mentioned as a group which chooses to share obligations with the jews, a mention made to prevent discrimination between arab-palestinians with israeli IDs and other non-jewish israelis (5) there's a fair mention on arab representation in roles of power.
:::: honestly, why do you insist on disrupting/disputing israeli related materials when you've repeatedly stated (not explicitly but in context) that you're too emotionally attached to your anti-zionist ideaology [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Racism_by_country&diff=prev&oldid=106538181][http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Abu_ali&diff=prev&oldid=105588683][http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:PalestineRemembered&diff=95283802&oldid=94763365] to make for an objective presentation?
:::: as for your claims on racism, there are certainly some issues but i don't see your claims as justified. perhaps these samples will convince you (1) video of israeli apartheid against an arab on israeli TV channel 10 .. the guy is muzzled and chained and they don't let him speak!!! [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HDhPQ1e-ns skip to minute 2:26] .. ok.. so actually they treat him very nicely and they interviewed him quite nicely before that part. (2) here's another sample right here where they dare make newspaper articles about arab girls in yafo who play soccer!!! (father is prominent arab-israeli who held municipal positions): [http://www.tam.co.il/3_9_2004/sport3.htm] .. ok.. maybe there's not much much racism behind an encouraging article promoting the girls' aspirations to make the first female arab soccer team in israel... perhaps the entire globe (i'm not that learned on the issue of soccer so i could be wrong here). [[User:Jaakobou|Jaakobou]] 23:06, 10 February 2007 (UTC)

==Lets agree on sources==

If a website has only one view point on a very controversial topic then it shouldnt be used. If a website only reports one side of a story with extream bias on a disputed topic it is an extream source. if the content is antisemitic, anti_African, anti-america, anti anything then it must be treated with care, esp when citing info that is disputed. A site which is dedicated to demonizing one group without any balance shouldnt be used to bring balance. use the guardian or NY York, economist, Times, which are less obvious with their racism.--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 17:05, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

you cite The guardian as a balanced source??? how about we add the independant also while you're at it...here's a sample "subtle" anti-israeli article - http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,1833884,00.html - anti-israel... 500 words.. israeli statements/opinions/info... paragraph and a half... final death toll i believe was set at 28 not 60. [[User:Jaakobou|Jaakobou]] 17:17, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

I never said it was balanced i said it was a blatent unbalanced source, i also stated the racism in these papers is less obvious. compare that to some of the sources used here. A site dedicated to demonizing Muslims in all areas of the world from Darfur to Detroit. The entire website is this slant. This is the info which needs to be avoided. and again when dealing with hot topics. if they say "the sky is blue" then its cool.And anti-Israel anti-War, anti-South Africa isnt a crime or illegal or a sign of imbalance. to be anti-Jewish or anti-African, anti-Muslim is another issue. --[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 17:37, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

::I don't want to make accusations here but last i checked you wrote this down: ''use the guardian or NY York, economist, Times, which are less obvious with their racism'', i couldn't care about going into your claims about certain sources, that is not the issue i replied you for... i only replied as to your claims that the guardian is balanced... btw, you should inspect the charecteristics of anti-israeli promoters... you might find that it's the new anti-semitism.. here's a sample documentry for you: [http://video.google.com/url?vidurl=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo.google.com%2Fvideoplay%3Fdocid%3D397500503034113739%26q%3Dblaming%2Bthe%2Bjews&docid=397500503034113739&ev=v&esrc=sr1&usg=AL29H22VljrOR-sMR1KyVPCJ5lbmRMkUkw blaming the jews]. [[User:Jaakobou|Jaakobou]] 00:00, 10 February 2007 (UTC)

== Sources used must be [[WP:RS|reliable]] and must [[WP:NOR|directly refer to RACISM]] ==

That should be simple enough, shouldn't it? I'll repeat it: Sources used must be [[WP:RS|reliable]] and must [[WP:NOR|directly refer to RACISM]]. Please abide by Wikipedia policy. [[User:Jayjg|Jayjg ]][[User_talk:Jayjg|(talk)]] 16:06, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

So does that rule apply to the entire article? Just let me have the answer and i will start cutting stuff. Like the last chapter in Racism Against Jews and the new anti thingie. cuz i dont see anything saying racism there. You r trapping yourself with your words,. apply that to this whole topic.--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 16:16, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

==Does this refer to racism?!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
In a recent incarnation, extremist groups, such as Neo-Nazi parties and Islamist groups, claim that the aim of Zionism is global domination; they call this the Zionist conspiracy and use it to support antisemitism. This position is associated with fascism and Nazism, though it is becoming a tendency within parts of the Left as well, and termed New antisemitism.[38][39]

So when i deleted it was it added back? ohh i see anti-zionism is racism.--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 16:18, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

==Isnt it funny the Israel section whitewashes racism==
No one denies racism in USA, i dont think they will try and blame the African-Americas for that. Or the Arabs or the chinese. yet one read of the israel section does more to vindicate accusations of racim than to discuss racim. this article is not about middle eastern politics, it is about racism that has occured is occuring. Very simple. Trust me if that poll was taken in Britian i dont think British people who deny it and whitewash it. That is the difference.--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 16:22, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

:There are almost 200 countries in the world, and I'm sure there are allegations of some sort of institutional discrimination or "racism" in almost every single one. It's part of the human condition. Please explain why this article only deals with 6 of those countries, and why certain editors feel the need in particular to single out Israel for this condemnation over close to 200 other candidates? Where is the section on [http://www.thedailystar.net/2004/07/27/d40727150297.htm racism in Saudi Arabia]? Where is the section on [http://www.ansa.it/ansamed/news/nations/algeria/20070206182434192799.html racism in Algeria]? Where is the section on [http://www.sudantribune.com/article.php3?id_article=1325 racism in Egypt]? Where is the section on [http://www.iht.com/articles/1998/02/24/qanda.t_2.php racism in Indonesia]? Where is the section on [http://www.yespakistan.com/racism/ racism in Pakistan]? Where is the section on [http://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/ivorycoast/ racism in the Ivory Coast]? Your singular passion for finding racism in Israel is noted for what it is. [[User:Jayjg|Jayjg ]][[User_talk:Jayjg|(talk)]] 21:27, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
::I would encourage you to add sections on racism for all of these countries. And if these sections used bad sources I would encourage all editors to improve them. But why do you and other pro Israel editors continually remove content about racism in Israel from this and [[Racism by country]]? [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 21:34, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
:The reason the material on Israel was deleted was because it was [[WP:NOR|original research]] from [[WP:RS|unreliable sources]], as has been explained. In addition, of course, it would fail the [[WP:NPOV#Undue weight]] clause of the NPOV policy. You've had 2 1/2 months to focus on some country besides Israel, and have failed. Please stop canvassing people to edit-war for you: [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:RolandR&diff=prev&oldid=107384335] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Adam_Keller&diff=prev&oldid=107390756], and please stop violating [[WP:AGF]] and [[WP:CIVIL]] by referring to those you disagree with as "pro-Israel editors", "Zionists", and "american supporters of Israel". Enough is enough, this is your last warning. [[User:Jayjg|Jayjg ]][[User_talk:Jayjg|(talk)]] 21:46, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

::Please be so kind as to explain why it would fail [[WP:NPOV#Undue weight]]. Regarding your comment "You've had 2 1/2 months to focus on some country besides Israel, and have failed." I would have to respectably remind you that I am not your servant and focus on whatever countries and whatever issues interrest me at the time. You have brought up the question of Saudia Arabia, Pakistan etc, and in this I offer my encouragement, assuming that your aim is to improve this article by making it more complete rather than diverting attention from the subject we are discussing. You accused me of "canvassing people to edit-war for you", when what I was doing was asking other editors who are knowledgeable on the subject to help improve the article. You will note that I have not edit wared on this article, but have instead attempted to argue my case on the talk page. I think that my desciption of editors who have been removing the section on Israel as "pro-Israel editors", "Zionists", and "american supporters of Israel" is fair and would be accepted by the editors in question. No offence was intended. I interpret your closing sentence "Enough is enough, this is your last warning" to mean that I am about to be banned. As you are on the arbitrarion committee I imagine that you could do this at the touch of a button. This may be convinient in terms of preventing me from asking questions. But I hope that instead we will be able to reach a consensus on the question racism in Israel. [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 22:09, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
:Until more countries are represented on this page, single-minded focus on Israel will inevitably fail [[WP:NPOV#undue weight]]. There's no indication that either editor you canvassed knows anything in particular about this subject, but RolandR, for example, is a noted anti-Zionist activist who even has a website devoted to this, jewsagainstzionism.org, as I'm sure you're aware. As for your characterizations of various editors, just stop; it is against policy, and impolite. I have not threatened to ban you, but I will indeed take action if you don't stop. [[User:Jayjg|Jayjg ]][[User_talk:Jayjg|(talk)]] 22:15, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
::Adam Keller is an Israeli who has spent decades fighting racism, so I am sure that his input into this subject would be most constructive. I do not know who RonaldR is in real life and have never heard of the jewsagainstzionism.org website. But on wiki he has been a victim on numerous personal attacks and vandalism and has always given me sound advice when I approached him. I am glad that you have not threatened to ban me. I see no harm in characterising the work of other editors as long as these characterisations are not offensive. [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 22:37, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
:Adam Keller is a left-wing Israeli political activist; I see no indication that he "has spent decades fighting racism". As you now admit, there is no indication that RolandR is at all familiar with racism in Israel. The harm in "characterising the work of other editors" is that these characterizations are violations of [[WP:CIVIL]], and therefore will eventually invite sanctions. Use the Talk: page to discuss article content; I'm not going to explain it again. [[User:Jayjg|Jayjg ]][[User_talk:Jayjg|(talk)]] 22:47, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
::I have made no such admission regarding RonaldR. From his contibutions he does seem knowledgable regarding Israel. If he chooses to contribute to this topic, I would hope that his contributions are judged on their own merit. [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 22:53, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
:There are many editors on Wikipedia who are Israeli, or from Israel, and therefore knowledgeable about ''Israel''. RolandR, however, is British. You claimed RolandR was "knowledgeable on the subject". Can you link to an edit of his that indicates he is knowledgeable about racism in Israel? [[User:Jayjg|Jayjg ]][[User_talk:Jayjg|(talk)]] 22:56, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

::As you have asked me to discuss article content rather than editors, maybe it is best that you do the same. [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 23:02, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
:Good idea. And please don't recruit other editors to edit-war for you in the future. Thanks. [[User:Jayjg|Jayjg ]][[User_talk:Jayjg|(talk)]] 23:04, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

::Again I haven't recruited anyone to edit war for me in the past. But I will ask other editors more knowlegable than myself to help out when I think this can improve the encyclopedia. [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 23:10, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

Actually, the Israel section currently has no reference to institutional racism committed by Israel. In fact, the section is evidence of the exact opposite: that institutionalized racism is forbidden in theory and in practice in Israel. I propose the section be deleted. --[[User:GHcool|GHcool]] 03:32, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

:''Institutionalized racism is forbidden in theory and in practice in Israel''? Try telling that to a Migrant worker who is awaiting deportation, to his children who were borne in Israel but denied citizenship, to an East Jerusalemite Arab whose baby is denied an ID pending investigation into the location of the families centre of life, or a Marocan who was denied entry to an accademic school, to the a Yemenite woman whose baby was taken away from her to be adopted by an Askenazi couple, to the Etheopian whose children are taken away to be educated at a religious ashkenazi bording school. [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 10:22, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

::::Are these kinds of rules unique to Israel, or, on the contrary, common throughout the world? Abu ali, could you be so kind as to explain exactly on what ground 4 generations of Arabs living in Lebanon are denied Lebanese citizenship? [[User:Jayjg|Jayjg ]][[User_talk:Jayjg|(talk)]] 14:24, 12 February 2007 (UTC)
:::::Regarding Lebanon, I would say racist grounds. And thank you for your concern for Paletinians living in Lebanon. Don't worry, the government of traitors and criminals in that country will not survive for long. And I would agree that these rules are not unique to Israel. Racism is all to common around the world.[[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 15:18, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

:::U know what isnt being realized, visitors to wiki also look at the talk pages. And when i first started doing some non-related research, i started to realize most of the cover-up surrounded Israel. I have no real interest in Israel, it is just another country,(my only interest is my people [[Beta Israel]] dont get treated too good--just like America in the 60's) but i noticed how Desmond tutu voice on Israel was removed. Didnt Tutu get highlighted for a fact finding mission? So isnt he valid? yet the entire section about his observation is gone. Every 5 minutes people are researching new ways, new threats to stop people from improving wiki. Now it is "undue weight". OResearch, Or HalaTruth why dont you go and work on the African section it would be more efficient, It would be, but that doesnt change the use of force going on here, the coverup the whitewashing. I am happy for these talk pages. Please do not remove my tag!!!!--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 11:35, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

:::can u dig poor Abu Ali being accused of trying to get help? Wow, look how many people he is battling with. I am a part-timer. But Ali is the one in the wrong. I am a pro-African editor, is that wrong if someone says i am pro-African, or anti-racism? So clearly wiki has people who protect the interest of their country, it isnt in our imagination, or is it?--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 11:40, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

:: [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]], a migrant worker is a difficult issue all across the globe and not just in israel, and israel is doing an effort to deal with this situation with quite a lot of humanitarian consideration (such as children above age six get immediate citizenship and younger are given a chance to make their case), so i really don't understand why you nitpic on israel on the working migrants issues.. as for the child born in israel claim, it is a sad reality that some 3rd world migrants choose to have a child in israel on purpouse in an attempt to stay here (i personally know 4 of those), it's not my place to judge them as they come from a very harsh situation, however it is not racism to not accept all of them as citizens... as for the other topics, i'm appauled that you accuse that children are being taken away... it really destroys your only possibly valid (yet disputable) point about arabs of eastern jerusalm... which you should have added citation for... in any event, i was more pleased with the way the article was after my edit which gave out a nice amount of valid information. [[User:Jaakobou|Jaakobou]] 11:03, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

:::Shalom Jaakobou, Could you be so kind as to explain exactly on what grounds a child of a migrant worker born in Israel is not automatically granted Israeli citizenship? Thanks [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 11:29, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

::::: sure, a migrant worker gets a 2 year working permit and knows that she will not have her visa extended afterwards so she gets pregnant close to the end and stays in israel illeagally - the police usually let's that migrant go if she's pregnant but after the child is born, both mom and child are illeagal and the situation will be under review - and if they are caught before the child is allready hebrew speaking then there's a good chance that they will be deported. '''[[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]]''' if you have questions/accusations about topics that you are not very much informed about, i'll be happy to share of my knowledge so we could avoid unnecesary conflicts on wikipedia. [[User:Jaakobou|Jaakobou]] 10:15, 13 February 2007 (UTC)
::::::Thanks for informing me. And I share your desire to avoid unnecessary conflicts. But just so that I am fully informed and understand the situation, if the pregnant migrant workers happens to be Jewish, will the child still be deported? And is there such a thing as "Mishteret HaHagirah" in Israel, and if so what do they do? [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 10:29, 13 February 2007 (UTC)
::::::Sorry to jump in but if that law was in the USA imagine telling someone you have to leave if you cant speak english, it is clearly not the equal paradise for all. so the entire society is pro-one group. I am not saying other countries do not do the same (maybe they do maybe they dont--like Muslim countries) but does that make it fair?--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 10:42, 13 February 2007 (UTC)
:::::::: there is no such thing as a pregnant migrant jewish worker, everyone who wishes to become citizens of israel must follow standard protocol (including jews) which is indeed pro-jewish, the intention of the state was to be a safe place for jews after the non-stop attrocities which convinced that there could not be a safe living without statehood... [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]], i try to assume good faith despite our previous interactions but i really don't appreciate the tone of your questions as if to create implications. every country has some sort of immigration police - if you don't know what immigration police does around the world, i suggest you open a dictionary or encyclopedia. [[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]], apparently you did not understand the text as it was reffering to a situation of "'''''illeagal''''' mom n' child" and explained that if the child does not yet know hebrew (i'm guessing age under 1.5) then he's probably not assimilated yet and they will probably be deported .. i'm not an expert on illeagal working laws in the US but i don't think they are much different... in any event the quoestion: ''but does that make it fair?'' is ridiculous. the world is not fair.. but that is partly the reason for the jewish state.. consider the Jews in Yemen and the 1670 mauze atrocities as example (or the jews in jerusalem in 1000 and 1300 or the palestinians all over the arab world) and compare it to israel of today - there's simply no comparisment... in any event, i think we covered this topic (migrant workers in israel) enough. [[User:Jaakobou|Jaakobou]] 11:05, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

::::::::::Thanks again for explaining this subject to us. The only point I am not clear about is the status of a migrant worker's child who speaks Hebrew fluently. Does he have protection from deportation? [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 11:55, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

:::::::::::i believe you can find the answer in my previous answers which reffered to treatment of '''''illeagal''''' children of illeagal migrants. [[User:Jaakobou|Jaakobou]] 12:42, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

::::::::::::I think will you find that this [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3198959,00.html] ynet article provides a different and more accurate story. Anyway as far as I can tell any Jewish Kid born in Israel automatically gets citizenship at brith. Foreing worker kids are not given citizenship, and often recieve no legal status. '''Is this racism or is it racism?''' Thanks for being so informative. [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 12:53, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

:::::::::::::(1)there's allways some difference between the state law and the actual application on field (just now in yemen, jews had to leave their homes due to death threats despite the gouvernment claiming they are safe).
:::::::::::::(2)you are wrong about ''illeagal'' jewish kids... it's not automatic (usually jews don't try to smuggle themselves into the country by having a child).
:::::::::::::(3)Vered Luvitch, the YNET writer is just one person telling the story from a pro-immigrant/anti-gouvernment standpoint at 2006 (feel free to look her up with google) - just recently (2007) there was a debate about a 6 year old girl in the knesset so i suggest you look for more reputable sources than ynet writers, such as courthouse information. [[User:Jaakobou|Jaakobou]] 13:40, 13 February 2007 (UTC)
:::::::::::::(4)your repeated attacks on israel ''"Is this racism or is it racism?"'' (see above) start/contunue[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Abu_ali#Warning_over_your__racist_remarks],[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Abu_ali#Warnings_from_userpage] to smell like racism. [[User:Jaakobou|Jaakobou]] 13:47, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

:::::::::::::::Give me one example of (2) [[User:Abu ali|Abu ali]] 13:48, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

:::::::::::::::::I'm afraid you will have to give me an example of the opposite, i.e. a jew trying to smuggle into israel, having a child while unter the status of illeagal and having his child denied citizenship despite knowing hebrew and being under the age of 6.... good luck. [[User:Jaakobou|Jaakobou]] 14:22, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

:::::::::::::::::"Hok HaShvut" (the law saying that Jews can get Israeli citizenship easily), is in itself discriminatory (but not racist), because a Jewish person would just get citizenship and not reside in Israel under and illegal status. Therefore, it's impossible to find you a source for this but if a person was Jewish and an illegal resident, I suppose they'd be deported (or jailed) and they'd have to apply separately for Israeli citizenship by right of them being Jewish. Just because possibly the court system might take into account that they are probably going to get citizenship soon and therefore not rush sending them back to their native country, unlike a Chinese worker for example - doesn't make them racist, it makes them discriminate based on common sense. By the same token in which you're making Israel out to be racist, you could just as well say that the United States is racist because one can only become president of that country if one was born there. In addition, immigrants who want to receive a citizenship need to show a basic knowledge of English - I suppose that's racism towards the non-English speaking people then, isn't it? [[User:Yonatanh|Yonatan]] ([[Special:Contributions/Yonatanh|contribs]]/[[User_talk:Yonatanh|talk]]) 11:25, 17 February 2007 (UTC)

==Strange "Counter-Racism Science" paragraph==
I have deleted the so-called "Counter-Racism Science" paragraph because it is uncited original research and is written so poorly that it doesn't make sense in the English language. Even the term "Counter-Racism Science" doesn't seem to make any sense, and the content in the paragraph has nothing to do with [[science]]. Here is the text I deleted
<blockquote>
The Counter-Racism Science definition of racism is that racism is the scientific practice of unjust subjugation, misuse, and/or abuse of persons classified as "non-white", by persons classified as "white", on the basis of color or non-color, and/or, on the basis of factors "associated with" color or non-color. It goes further to note that Racism and White Supremacy are the same and that it is incorrect to use the term "White Racism". To use this term is to imply that Racism exists in a form other than White Supremacy.
</blockquote>
I'm really not sure what this paragraph is trying to say, and what it is based on. [[User:Spylab|Spylab]] 16:41, 26 February 2007 (UTC)

== Clean-up needed ==

This needs some clean-up. I suggest that the part "Racism by country" be completely forked-out to [[Racism by country]], and keep this article for racism in general and explanation of the phenomena of racism, which clearly goes by an explanation of what is (was?) [[scientific racism]]. I don't know if we should keep trivia about racism in sports, maybe... [[User:Tazmaniacs|Tazmaniacs]] 03:17, 1 March 2007 (UTC)

*I agree that there is no need for the "Racism by country" section in this article, now that there is the [[Racism by country]] section. The "Racism in sports section" is pretty flimsy; it should either be vastly improved, or it should be deleted. [[User:Spylab|Spylab]] 16:25, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

:What about the "Racism against specific groups?" I would also favour leaving it for a specific article (and such an article needs constant watching to prevent it being transformed into a vast incoherent collection of examples of racial discrimination against such or such...). The subsection "anti-semitism" should also, I think, be reserved for a specific article, for various reasons. First, the subject itself is huge. Second, some parts of it recover things already said (''[[limpieza de sangre]]'' and ''[[Reconquista]]'', [[scientific racism]], etc.) Third, a reason which might be more controversial, but although clearly anti-semitism and racism are related in some ways, it is not evident that they are exactly the same thing. As has said our friend Hala, anti-semitism is, at least for traditional [[anti-Judaism]], as much related to religion issues than to "race" issues (from this to jump to the conclusion that "racism" is only targeted against a different "race" is already making the controversial claim that "races," do in fact exist - if such is the case, then it would need to be defined, and one thing that modern biology has shown us, is that [[ethnic group]]s are not defined by the amount of [[melanin]] in the skin - usual popular criteria for judging one's membership to a "race" - but by much less appearant genes). Finally, I think we should just merge the section on "academic racism against Africans" with the subsection on "colonialism," as these subjects greatly overlap between themselves (see [[scramble for Africa]]). What do you think mate? [[User:Tazmaniacs|Tazmaniacs]]

== References ==
These references are not accessible via the links provided. They are numbered 1 and 2 and support the lead section of the article. 5, 6, and 7 are also similar to this: [https://www.gop.com/contribute/join.aspx?key=L1M7U8Y0F0]. I am removing them. - [[User talk:Fred.e|Fr]][[User:Fred.e|ed]] 09:45, 1 March 2007 (UTC)

== Racial discrimination & racism vs specific groups ==

I think these sections should be merged. Beside, I also think that it is more easy to work with a historical account than a thematic classification of various types of racism, as a historical account will in itself display the differences of racism (there is nothing comparable between old Christian anti-semitism in the Middle Ages, 19th century scientific racist theories, and "post-modern" racist theories which have integrated the cultural relativist argument but just claim that it is "better" for everyone to "live separately" and not mix ethnic groups together. What do you think? [[User:Tazmaniacs|Tazmaniacs]] 17:12, 1 March 2007 (UTC)

== Barbara Field: racism, an American term? ==

The first subsection, "Definition of Racism", quotes Barbara Field, which seems to be a reliable source. But the account of her theory suggest that she claims racism is an American term. This is obviously incorrect; can someone provide some explanations on this claim? [[User:Tazmaniacs|Tazmaniacs]] 17:18, 1 March 2007 (UTC)

I moved the text here for discussion. If it is to be kept, it should surely be explained why racism is a "US term". PS: She may actually be speaking not about "racism" but about "race", which is certainly a term more used in the US than in Europe, where [[ethnic group]]s is preferred. But this needs confirmation, and correspondent reformulation. [[User:Tazmaniacs|Tazmaniacs]] 14:17, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

:Historian Barbara Fields argued in ''Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America'' that racism is a "historical phenomenon" that does not explain racial ideology at all. She suggests that investigators should consider the term to be an [[United States|American]] [[rhetorical device]], with a historical explanation. She suggests that using race as a word with real meaning is a common error akin to [[superstition]]. However, other scholars say that races do exist, and that the concept has significant meaning.

This is not very well written, but to claim that someone claism that racism is an American rhetorical device does ''not'' in any way mean it is ''only'' an American device. Professor Fields is a scholar of US history so she is only being prudent in limiting her arguments to US history. But the fact that a book is primarily or even entirely about US history does not mean that it excludes other histories. I would be surprised if she claims that racism is ''uniquely'' American, I am sure she is just analyzing how it has functioned ''in'' America. [[User:Slrubenstein|Slrubenstein]] | [[User talk:Slrubenstein|Talk]] 17:21, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

:I am pretty sure that Barbara Fields would not have put her thoughts like that. I simply removed the comment, and put it here on talk page, so someone who has actually read her book can explain better. A main problem of this entry is that over time things have been reduced to one sentence, with one reference, and then another sentence, which jumps to another subject, and with another reference. This makes the whole article incoherent. Let's hope that someone can explain her thought better, or else, we'll do without. [[User:Tazmaniacs|Tazmaniacs]]

== Racism by country & clean-up ==

As proposed a few days ago, I entirely removed the "[[Racism by country]]" subsections, sending to the relevant article for this. IMO, this is a too important subject to be treated in three lines for each country. This article is about the general phenomenon of racism, and "racism by country" articles are very important for precise examples and cases of racial discrimination. But there is no need to overweight this article with three sentences such as "this country is racist." Racism is a reality in all of the countries of the world (for once that I agree with Jaygz ! cheers! ). I believe this article is important enough to operate a massive clean-up, have it seriously written with modern, reliable sources on the matter ([[WP:CS]], [[WP:RS]]). They are sufficiently enough intelligent and dedicated people working on "race questions" today to have a serious article, which however manages to give an accessible presentation of the problem. I hope nobody is opposed to such clean-up. [[User:Tazmaniacs|Tazmaniacs]]

PS: I have also proposed to do the same for racism against specific groups (and actually include these sub-articles in the article "racism by country", as I see no much difference in "Racism in Europe", "Racism against Jews" (aka anti-semitism, no? - note debate however concerning relations between racism & anti-semitism; anti-semitism is lot older than "racism", I think), "Racism against Arabs", etc. etc. [[User:Tazmaniacs|Tazmaniacs]] 16:32, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Limit this page to racism, direct references to racism, by the def of race. and yes Racism in Europe is the racism against Jews, I dont know if Jews are a RACE. or a religion and hence it is very confusing. and avoid things that allude to racism, it has to speak to racism, not things we want to be racism, just to get listed.--[[User:Halaqah|HalaTruth(ሐላቃህ)]] 19:07, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

== "Subtle racism" ==

I move this here. The meaning isn't clear. It's not because there is a reference that the sentence ''means'' something. If that's supposed to means racism can be "unconscious" and affects not only explicit racists who proudly presents themselves as such, well, I'm not sure it warrants a specific subsection. Racism clearly affects a lot of people, and, more than a question of individuals, it is a discourse which affects us all, at least all of us who live in this Western civilization. Beside, "aversive racists" or not, racists usually "discriminate without acknowledging their prejudice because they excuse or justify their behavior on 'reasonable' grounds": that's exactly the use of the racist discourse, which legitimize racism acts. [[User:Tazmaniacs|Tazmaniacs]] 14:14, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

''Subtle and hidden racism'' (subsection)
Elmar Holenstein uses the term ''crypto-racism'' as a synonym what he calls "hidden racism".<nowiki><ref>{{cite web |url=http://them.polylog.org/4/ahe-en.htm | title = Document describing crypto-racism as hidden racism|work=A Dozen Rules of Thumb for Avoiding Intercultural Misunderstandings |publisher=Forum For Intercultural Philosophy}}</ref></nowiki>
It is important to consider for whom the racism is hidden, and for whom it is very visible.

Some scholars use the term ''aversive racism'' to refer to the "subtle, unintentional form of bias that is presumed
to characterize a substantial proportion of White liberals."<nowiki><ref>Leanne S. Son Hing, Greg A. Chung-Yan, Robert
Grunfeld, Lori K. Robichaud, and Mark P. Zanna. "Exploring the Discrepancy Between Implicit and Explicit Prejudice:
A Test of Aversive Racism Theory" in ''Social Motivation: Conscious and Unconscious Processes''. Joseph P. Forgas,
Kipling D. Williams, Simon M. Laham, eds. Cambridge University Press. 2004.</ref></nowiki>

Because they have internalized liberal egalitarian values, aversive racists consider themselves non-prejudiced, even
though they have unconscious racist feelings, and sometimes express them. "Thus, aversive racists are able to discriminate
without acknowledging their prejudice because they excuse or justify their behavior on ‘reasonable’ grounds” (ibid, 290).

==More references and better organization needed==
There sure are a lot of uncited claims in this article. If you add new paragraphs or sections, you should provide references to show where those ideas come from. Also, this article needs to be organized better. I tried to group similar topics together, but there is still a lot or disorganization, and I suspect there is a some repetition of topics in more than one section. {{unsigned|Spylab}}

Sure! A lot of the recent editing was actually just copy-paste from others articles with some slight copy-editing (see [[nationalism]] article where I realized that an [[ethnic nationalism]] & [[liberal nationalism]] articles existed, which is quite a good thing; see also [[scientific racism]] for changes concerning this section, and all.) I'm not sure where sources are needed; I'm sure some people will "disagree" with that, but I find it hard to disagree with, say, the fact that [[Francis Galton]] invented eugenics, or that [[Romantic nationalism]] was a main inspiration of the [[Völkisch movement]], which itself has influenced Nazism. Maybe putting some citation tags on controversial claims could help).
 
Concerning organisation, I completely agree with you. Putting up "ethnic nationalism" before "scientific nationalism" may be a good thing, as it is probably less surprising for most readers. I'm thinking about your change concerning chronology, but it also may be actually better to start from the most modern and leave middle ages & limpieza de sangre for the end. But this poses the problem of where to put "Post WWII racism", since such a section would hardly be comprehensible without a previous introduction to "scientific racism" which doesn't seems to be of a purely historical interest.
 
I am, however, a bit baffled about your separation of "human zoos" and "Racism & European colonialism in the 19th century": [[human zoo]]s can not be understood out of the colonial context, nor, for that matter, out of the "scientific racism" theories. This is exactly why they are an "interesting" phenomena: they are at the crossroads between popular racism and propaganda in favour of imperialism, the whole concept was possible because of imperial conquests (the exhibited people usually came from territories which had been just explored, making for some "trends" favorizing such or such ethnic group), and they are definitely related to "scientific racism" as scientists came to look and examine them.
 
You could even compare these zoos with some sort of open-air laboratories; and, exactly as in laboratories, scientists finally understood that the context of the observation itself corrupted its subject, prohibiting neutral, objective observation. [[Georges Cuvier]]'s examination of [[Saartjie Baartman]], as well as [[Madison Grant]] exhibiting [[Ota Benga]] in the Bronx Zoo.
I've seen, here or there, some dismissals of "scientific racism" theories as being just "[[folk science]]s": this is an obvious misinterpretation based on... [[positivism]] ideology (that is, that modern science is finally correct in its assumptions, rejecting its past as pure [[proto-science]] or [[pseudo-science]]). But that is more than contestable: thinking that biases and prejudices have stopped affecting modern scientists is a pure view of the spirit...
 
I may have gone a bit off topic, but this to show that I think that "human zoo" should be merged with "European colonialism", which itself should not be separated from "scientific racism": they were contemporary events, and well interlinked together. It is not a simple coincidence it the real beginning of the era of human zoos overlap with the [[scramble for Africa]] and the [[New Imperialism]] period, and that such exhibitions would continue until the beginning of the decolonization period post-WWII. Maybe titling the section on "Scientific racism" simply "Racism in the 19th century" would allow for such different views on the same phenomena? [[User:Tazmaniacs|Tazmaniacs]]

*I put the Human Zoo section as a subsection of the Scientific Racism section because human zoos are part of the topic of scientific racism. I think it makes more sense to organize this article mainly by topic than by time period. Most readers will be looking for information on specific aspects of racism, not for particular time periods. Organizing by time period would be more appropriate for an article called [[History of racism]] (or something similar). As for references, if something isn't obvious, then there should be references showing where that information came from. Your examples of topics that are "hard to disagree with" aren't obvious to readers who have never heard of them before. [[User:Spylab|Spylab]] 12:18, 6 March 2007 (UTC)
:True — concerning your last observation. About the "topic vs period", you're also probably correct — although I personally tend to disagree with this approach as I have a tendency to believe that we can only understand things by exploring their history (a very traditionalist POV, isn't it?:) Both ways have their cons & pros (?). Anyway, we are always limited to explaining things in a linear way although you need to get the full picture to really understand how they go together, so it's probably no great deal separating "human zoo" & "colonialism" - by this I refer to the current exposition, with the "Middle Age-Renaissance" period between these two subsections. But Renaissance period brings the ''limpieza de sangre'' matter, and thus colonialism again: whatever mode of exposition we choose, we'll have to make choices. So I'll trust your judgment. A little intern link in the "human zoo" section: "See 'colonialism subsection' for further information" will probably resolve the problem rather easily. Else, I will try to provide more sources (right now thinking about the two last paragraphs of "ethnic nationalism" section, [[Maurice Barrès]] statements, etc. I'll have no problems for that).
:The "ethnic cleansing" subsection is fundamental, but has 2 problems now: most of its content should be moved in "Colonialism" section (should we think about making a more, transhistorical "colonialism" section? I tend to clearly mark a cesure with 19th century scientific racism, I don't know) ; and I think it should succeed to the "colonialist" section, and not precede it. If we take [[Hannah Arendt]]'s words, and other, more modern research, ethnic cleansing belong both to the modern, 19th-20th century period, and are related to colonialism - a controversial thesis, especially due to the specific place of the Holocaust, but the [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]] has been officially recognized as such by international instances and Germany. And the prerequisite to extermination of the Other is deshumanizing him, a process which has happened during the imperialist period - racism was an important part of that deshumanization (as already the [[Valladolid controversy]] demonstrated). I was reading the other day [[Carl Schmitt]]'s ''Theory of the Partisan'', who, despite his POV, says no other thing than that: to exterminate an enemy, you first must make of him an absolute criminal, or outlaw him. Schmitt knew about what he talked. This to argue my point that "ethnic cleansing" section should not immediately follow "ethnic nationalism", but succeed to "colonialism" and "Nazism" section, since the Holocaust does provide the main frame according to which we standardly considers genocides. [[User:Tazmaniacs|Tazmaniacs]]

==[[Affirmative Action]]==
How can affirmative action be added to this article? Or are the double standard police patrolling this article? [[User:Rbaish|Rbaish]] 00:33, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

I have consistantly had my edits deleted that do nothing but shed light on the fact that racial discrimination is not experienced exclusively by minorities. I believe it is very important that on such a huge topic such as this that we make sure to allow all sides of the story to be heard. Misrepresented information in either direction is biased and misleading. We need to minimalize this.
==
== Headline text ==
==

== Headline text ==

Racism

2007-03-09T19:21:03Z

206.102.240.2: /* Racial discrimination */

{{Mergefrom|Racial supremacy|date=March 2007}}
{{OR}}
{{Discrimination2}}

'''Racism''' is a [[belief]] system or [[doctrine]] which postulates a hierarchy among various "[[human]] [[race]]s" or [[ethnic group]]s, often leading to the belief of being a member of a "[[master race]]". It may be based on a conception assuming inherent biological differences between different ethnic groups, which would be purported to determine cultural or individual behaviour. However, modern racism discourse may coincide with contemporary scientific researches which have criticized former "[[scientific racism]]" discourses, popular until [[World War II]] and which claimed that the "race" was a biological and [[physical anthropology|anthropological]] reality. Thus, they may, on some occasions, accept the [[cultural relativist]] viewpoint which criticize any attempt in hierarchizing various cultures among them, while continuing to support a racist discourse. However, instead of being based on a biological [[race (historical)|definition of race]], this contemporary racism accept cultural and historical differences, but claim they justify, to the minimum, [[racial separatism|separatism]] between various ethnics groups.

Racism may be described as a strong form of [[ethnocentrism]], including traits such as [[xenophobia]] (fear and hate of foreigners), views against interracial relationships (anti-[[miscegenation]]), [[ethnic nationalism]], and [[ethnic stereotype]]s. Racism has been a motivating factor in [[social discrimination]], [[racial segregation]] and violence, spanning from [[hate speech]]s, [[pogroms]] and massacres, to [[genocide]]s and [[ethnic cleansing]]s. In a less dramatic manner, [[racial discrimination]] is also common, although illegal, in many states. Furthermore, distinctions of various ethnic groups may be instrumentalized by [[politician]]s who practice "[[race baiting]]" in an attempt to win votes.

The term racist has been a [[pejorative]] term since at least the 1940s, and the identification of a group or person as racist is often controversial, as racism is often considered a characteristic of [[far right]] movements.

==Definitions of racism==
{{Further|[[Race (historical definitions)]]}}

In practice, racism takes forms such as racial [[prejudice]], [[racial segregation|segregation]] or [[subordination]]. Racism can more narrowly refer to a legalized system of [[domination]] of one ethnic group on another, such as in [[institutional racism]].
Racial prejudice refers to pre-formed opinions about individuals based on their perceived racial heritage. It involves [[Hasty generalization|hasty generalization]]s about members of a group based on the perceived characteristics of one or more members of the group. Generalizations include beliefs that every member of a group has the same personality traits, interests, language, culture, ideas, norms and attitudes. Sometimes the characteristic is correct but the reason or cause is incorrectly assigned. Racial prejudices are sometimes promoted by the mainstream media.

Organizations and institutions that put racism into action discriminate against and marginalize a class of people who share a common racial designation. The term racism is usually applied to the [[dominant]] group in a society, because it is that group which has the means to oppress others. The term can also apply to any individual or group, regardless of social status or dominance.

Racism can be both overt and covert. Individual racism sometimes consists of overt acts by individuals, which can result in violence or the destruction of property. Institutional racism is often more covert and subtle. It often appears within the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and frequently receives less public condemnation than the overt type.
[[Image:ColoredDrinking.jpg|left|thumb|250px|An [[African American]] man drinks out of the "colored only" water cooler at a [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] [[streetcar]] terminal in the [[United States]] in 1939.]]
[[W.E.B. DuBois]] argued that [[racialism]] is the belief that differences between the races exist, be they [[Biological process|biological]], [[social]], [[psychological]], or in the realm of the [[soul]]. He argued that racism is using this belief to promote the idea that one's race is superior to the others.

According to Jared Diamond in his work ''[[Guns, Germs and Steel]]'', race is essentially a social and historical construction.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} He argues that it has no real basis in science, nor can it be used to explain why Europe gained the upper hand in world conquests.

[[Molefi Asante]], an [[African American]] academic, describes racism as a "wall of ignorance" that hides the long history of racial injustice from public consciousness.<ref name="Molefi Asante on Race">
{{cite book
| editor = [[Molefi Asante]].
| title = Erasing Racism: The Survival of the American Nation
| origyear = 2001
| url = https://www.gop.com/contribute/join.aspx?key=L1M7U8Y0F0
| accessdate = 2003
| edition = Hardback
| year = 2003
| month = September
| publisher = [[Prometheus Books]]
| location = USA
}}</ref > He argues that most [[White people|whites]] view racism as a thing of the past; a problem that was solved by civil rights. He says [[African Americans]] continue to experience racism in many areas of social life.

== Reverse Racism ==

Reverse racism, often referred to a [[reverse discrimination]], is the act of widespread discrimination, mistreatment, or hatred of the traditionally dominant race.

Case in example:

''Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education''[http://www.adversity.net/0_Education/Seattle-Kentucky/intro.htm]:

The plaintiff Crystal Meredith, challenged a ruling of the Jefferson County (Kentucky) public schools that required black student enrollment at all schools be at least between 15 and 50 percent, in order to maintain racial diversity in the class room. In the case of Crystal Meredith, her son, a white student, was denied enrollment at their neighborhood public school because this particular school was not meeting the 15/50 rule, therefore allowing no new white students to enroll.

While the current push among American academia has been to redefine racism as an attribute solely in possession of those belonging to a society's dominant race, the standard definition of racism acknowledges otherwise. Thus, while the term reverse racism remains controversial to some, the act of racism against the most populous race of a society does in fact exist by definition.

==Racial discrimination==
[[Image:Hk anti-discrimination poster.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An anti-discrimination poster in a [[Hong Kong]] [[MTR|subway]] station, circa 2005]]
Racial discrimination is treating people differently based
on race. [[Racial segregation]] policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerced without being legalized.

Researchers at the [[University of Chicago]] (Marianne Bertrand) and [[MIT]] ([[Sendhil Mullainathan]]) found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black".{{Fact|date=January 2007}} These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews, no matter their level of previous experience. Results were stronger for higher quality résumés. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the [[United States]]' long history of discrimination (i.e. [[Jim Crow laws]], [[Affirmative Action]], etc.).

In recent cases, racial discrimination has also taken the face of [[reverse discrimination]], in which members of the majority race are overlooked for their inherent lack of ability to contribute to racial diversity. Whatever the case may be, racial discrimination is seen across the board in all racial groups.

===Institutional racism===
{{See|Institutional racism|State racism|Racial profiling|Racism by country}}
[[Institutional racism]] (also known as structural racism, [[state racism]] or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. [[Stokely Carmichael]] is credited for coining the phrase ''institutional racism'' in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".<ref>Richard W. Race, {{PDFlink|[http://www.shef.ac.uk/socst/Shop/race_article.pdf Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales]|47.2 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}, ''Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research'', University of Sheffield, p.12. Accessed [[20 June]] [[2006]].</ref>

[[Maulana Karenga]] states that the effects of racism were
<blockquote>
''the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples.'' He argues that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.''<ref name="Ethics on Reparations">{{cite web|url=http://www.africawithin.com/karenga/ethics.htm|publisher="[[Ron Karenga]]"|title="Effects on Africa"|}}</ref>
</blockquote>

===Economics and racism===
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of [[discrimination]] which is caused by past racism, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in the parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. (e.g. A member of race Y, Mary, has her opportunities adversely affected (directly and/or indirectly) by the mistreatment of her ancestors of race Y.)

Some scholars have suggested that capitalism has played a large role in promoting racism especially socioeconomic racism. The Western hemisphere slave trade and colonialist activities were mostly conducted by the earliest capitalist economies ie; Spain, Great Britain, the United States and the Netherlands.<ref>http://.www.zmag.org/CrisesCurEvts/bohmerrace.htm</ref><ref>http://.race.eserver.org/toward-a-theory-of-racism.htm</ref>
Critics have pointed out that a slave labor economy was the sometimes considered ultimate form of capitalism because the capitalists made pure profits because they used free labor.<ref>http://.flag.blackened.net/revolt/talks/racism.html</ref>

[[Global apartheid]] is a phrase used by those who argue that the international economic and political system is racist and is designed so that a white minority internationally accrue more wealth and power and enjoy more human and legal rights than the non-white world majority.

===Declarations against racial discrimination===
Racial discrimination contradicts the 1776 [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] issued during the [[French Revolution]] and the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], signed after [[World War II]], which all postulate equality between all human beings.

In 1950, [[UNESCO]] suggested in ''[[The Race Question]]'' —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as [[Ashley Montagu]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Gunnar Myrdal]], [[Julian Huxley]], etc. — to "drop the term ''race'' altogether and instead speak of [[ethnic groups]]". The statement condemned [[scientific racism]] theories which had played a role in the [[Holocaust]]. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the [[Enlightenment]] and its assumption of [[equality|equal rights]] for all. Along with Myrdal's ''[[An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy]]'' (1944), ''The Race Question'' influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court [[racial segregation in the United States|desegregation]] decision in "[[Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka]]" <ref name="Prins"> [http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=30431&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html “Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946-1962)”], by [[Harald E.L. Prins]], UNESCO {{en icon}} </ref>.

The [[United Nations]] uses the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the ''[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', adopted in 1966:
<blockquote>
''...any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.''(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination) <ref> [[http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm Text of the Convention], ''[['[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', 1966 </ref>
</blockquote>

In 2000, the [[European Union]] explicitly banned racism along with many other forms of social discrimination:
<blockquote>
''Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality.''<ref>http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.html</ref>
</blockquote>

==Ethnic nationalism==
{{see|Ethnic nationalism |Romantic nationalism}}

After the [[Napoleonic War]]s, Europe was confronted to the new "[[nationalities]] question," leading to ceaseless reconfigurations of the European map, which frontiers between states had been delimited during the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]]. [[Nationalism]] had made its first, striking appearance with the invention of the ''[[levée en masse]]'' by the [[French Revolution|French revolutionaries]], thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly-founded [[French First Republic|Republic]] against the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' order represented by the European monarchies. This lead to the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] (1792-1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to a subsequent European-wide debates on the concept and realities of [[nation]]s, and in particular of [[nation-state]]s. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms ([[Ottoman Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Swedish Empire]], [[Kingdom of France]], etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (''[[Kabinettskriege]]'' in German). Modern [[nation-state]]s would appear only in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiments for the first time in [[Enlightenment Spain|Spain]] during the [[Peninsula War]] (1808-1813 - known in Spanish as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]], the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the [[Industrial Era]], leading in particular to the [[1848 Revolutions]], the [[Italian unification]] completed during the 1871 [[Franco-Prussian War]], which itself culminated in the proclamation of the [[German Empire]] in the Hall of Mirrors in the [[Palace of Versailles]], thus achieving the [[German unification]]. Meanwhile, the [[Ottoman Empire]], "sick man of Europe," was confronted to endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the [[Austrian-Hungarian Empire]], would lead to the creation after [[World War I]] of the various nation-states of the [[Balkan]]s, which were always confronted, and remained so today, to the existence of "national [[minorities]]" in their borders <ref> On this "[[nationalities]] question" and the problematic of [[nationalism]], see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: [[Ernest Gellner]], ''Nations and Nationalism'' (1983); [[Eric Hobsbawm]],''The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789-1848'' (1962), ''Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality'' (1990); [[Benedict Anderson]], ''[[Imagined Communities]]'' (1991); [[Charles Tilly]], ''Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990-1992'' (1990); [[Anthony D. Smith]], ''Theories of Nationalism'' (1971), etc. </ref>.

[[Ethnic nationalism]], which believed in hereditary membership to the nation, made its appearance in this historical context of the creation of the modern nation-states. One of its main influence was the [[Romantic nationalist]] movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Herder]] (1744-1803), [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johan Fichte]] (1762-1814) in the ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (1808), [[Friedrich Hegel]] (1770-1831), or also, in France, [[Jules Michelet]] (1798-1874). It opposed itself to [[liberal nationalism]], represented by authors such as [[Ernest Renan]] (1823-1892), who conceived the nation as a community which, instead of being based on the ''[[Volk]]'' ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily [[plebiscite]]", 1882) or also [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806-1873) <ref> [[John Stuart Mill]], ''Considerations on Representative Government'', 1861 </ref>.

Ethnic nationalism quickly blended itself with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental [[imperialist]]" ([[Hannah Arendt]], 1951 <ref name=Arendt> [[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951) </ref>) discourses, for example in the [[pan-Germanism]] or [[pan-Slavism]] discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk or of the Slavish people. The [[Alldeutscher Verband|Pan-German League]] (''Alldeutscher Verband''), created in 1891, promoted [[German colonial empire|German imperialism]], "[[racial hygiene]]" and was opposed to intermarriages with Jews. Another, popular current, the ''[[Völkisch movement]]'', was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which it also combined with modern anti-semitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the [[Thule Society]], would participate to the foundation of the [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP) in Munich in 1918, predecessor of the [[NSDAP]] Nazi party. Both pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism played a decisive role in the [[interwar period]] of the 1920s-1930s <ref name=Arendt/>.

These currents began to associate the idea of the nation to the biological concept of a "[[master race]]" (often the "[[Aryan race]]" or "[[Nordic race]]") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflate nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses which posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying [[ethnic cleansing]] in order to achieve "racial purity" and achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.

Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not however limited to pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism ideologies. In France, the transition of Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made of nationalism a characteristic of [[History of far-right movements in France|far-right movements in France]], took place during the [[Dreyfus Affair]] at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide ''[[querelle]]'' affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Emile Zola, who wrote ''[[J'accuse]]'' in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet [[Maurice Barrès]] (1862-1923), one of the founder of ethnic nationalist discourse in France <ref> [[Maurice Barrès]], ''Le Roman de l'énergie nationale'' (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897) </ref>. At the same time, [[Charles Maurras]] (1868-1952), founder of the monarchist ''[[Action française]]'' movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative ''[[métèques]]''). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners," who threatened the ethnic unity of the [[French people]].

===Ethnic conflicts===
{{See|Ethnicity}}
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as [[xenophobia]] and [[ethnocentrism]], although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an [[ideology]] or from [[scientific racism]], which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia.

Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases [[ethnicity]] and [[nationalism]] were harnessed to rally [[combatant]]s in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).

Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Historically, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (particularly when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by [[morality|moral]] or [[ethics|ethical]] considerations.

One example of the brutalizing and dehumanizing effects of racism was the attempt to [[Population history of American indigenous peoples#Deliberate infection.3F|deliberately infect]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] with smallpox during [[Pontiac's Rebellion]] in 1763, itself a war intended to [[ethnic cleansing|ethnically cleanse]] the "other" ([[European Americans]]) from Native American land.

According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other." (Richter, ''Facing East from Indian Country'', p. 208)

In the Western world, racism evolved, twinned with the doctrine of [[white supremacy]], and helped fuel the [[Europe|European]] exploration, conquest, and colonization of much of the rest of the world -- especially after [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the Americas. [[Basil Davidson]] insists in his documentary, ''[[Africa: Different but Equal]]'', that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 1800s, due to the need for a justification of slavery in the Americas. The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West.

Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the [[Triangular Trade]]. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but then due to western diseases, their population drastically decreased.

Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's ''Europe and the People without History'').

Some people, like [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]], have argued during the [[Valladolid controversy]] in the middle of the 16th century that the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were natural slaves because they had no ''souls''. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th-20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.

==Scientific racism==
{{Main|Scientific racism}}
The modern biological definition of race was invented in the 19th century by scientific racist theories. The term "scientific racism" refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to at least the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the [[New Imperialism]] period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]]'s resistance to [[positivism|positivists]] accounts of history, and its support of [[monogenism]], that is that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with [[creationist]] accounts of history. These racist theories grounded on scientific hypothesis were combined with [[unilineal evolution|unilineal theories of social progress]] which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the [[social Darwinism]] discourse, which postulated the "[[survival of the fittest]]" theory, a term coined by [[Herbert Spencer]] in 1864. [[Charles Darwin]] himself explicitly denounced such accounts of history in ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' (1871). Finally, at the end of the 19th century, they intertwined themselves with [[eugenics]] discourses of "[[degeneration]] of the race" and "blood [[heredity]]." Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on [[physical anthropology]], [[anthropometry]], [[craniometry]], [[phrenology]], [[physiognomy]] and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices. Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of [[cultural anthropology]] ([[Franz Boas]], etc.), the British school of [[social anthropology]] ([[Bronisław Malinowski]], [[Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]], etc.), the French school of [[ethnology]] ([[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], etc.), as well as the discovery of the [[Modern evolutionary synthesis|neo-Darwinian synthesis]], such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a [[gene-centered view of evolution]] in the 1960s, which seemed at first to be sufficient proof of the inanity of the "scientific racist" theories of the 19th centuries, which based conception of evolution on "races", a concept which first appeared to lose any sense at the genetical level. However, modern resurgence of racist theories, in particular related to the [[race and intelligence]] controversy, seems to show that [[genetics]] could also be used for ideological, racist purposes.

===Heredity, "degeneration" and eugenics===
{{see|Eugenics}}
The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by [[Francis Galton]] (1822-1911), who used the then popular concept of "[[degeneration]]". He applied [[statistics]] to study human differences and the alleged "[[inheritance of intelligence]]," foreshading future uses of "[[intelligence testing]]" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer [[Emile Zola]] (1840-1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, ''[[Les Rougon-Macquart]]'', where he linked [[heredity]] to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons involved in politics (''[[Son Excellence Eugène Rougon]]'') and medicine (''[[Le Docteur Pascal]]'') and the low-born Macquarts fatally falling into alcoholism (''[[L'Assommoir]]''), prostitution (''[[Nana]]''), and homicide (''[[La Bête humaine]]'').

During the rise of [[Nazi Germany|Nazism in Germany]], some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century <ref> [[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950 </ref>. According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, ''[[The Race Question]]'', an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, the UNESCO declared that it resumed:
<blockquote>"''up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the [[International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation]] has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the [[Appeasement of Hitler|appeasement policy]] of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of [[Nazi ideology]] and policy. [[Tomáš Masaryk|Masaryk]] and [[Edvard Beneš|Beneš]] took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.''"</blockquote>

The [[Third Reich's racial policies]], its [[Nazi eugenics|eugenics programs]] and the extermination of Jews in [[the Holocaust]], as well as Gypsies in [[Porrajmos]] and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the [[Franz Boas|Boasian]] school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. '' These theories were strongly denounced in the UNESCO 1950 statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled ''[[The Race Question]]''.

===Polygenism and racial typologies===
{{see|Polygenism |Typology (anthropology)}}
Works such as [[Arthur Gobineau]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'' (1853-1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of [[Boulainvilliers]] for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality which changed over time. Gobineau thus attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological difference among human beings, giving it the legitimity of [[biology]]. He was one of the first theorist to postulate [[polygenism]], stating that there was, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races." Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by [[Georges Vacher de Lapouge]] (1854-1936)'s [[typology (anthropology)|typology of races]], who published in 1899 ''The Aryan and his Social Role'', in which he opposed the white, "[[Aryan]] race", "[[dolichocephalic]]", to the "brachycephalic" race, whom the "[[Jew]]" was to be the archetype. Vacher de Lapoug thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "''[[Nordic theory|Homo europaeus]]'' (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "''[[Homo alpinus]]''" ([[Auvergne|Auvergnat]], [[Turkish]], etc.), and finally the "''[[Homo mediterraneus]]''" ([[Naples|Neapolitan]], [[Andalusia|Andalus]], etc.) He assimilated races and [[social class]]es, considering that the French upper class was a representant of the ''Homo europaeus'', while the lower class represented the ''Homo alpinus''. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of [[trade union]]ists, considered as "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of [[labour condition]]s. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking [[social conflict]] by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order <ref> Matsuo Takeshi ([[Shimane Prefecture|University of Shimane]], Japan). ''L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme'' (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in ''[[Etudes de langue et littérature françaises]]'' 2001, n°79, pp. 47-57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; [[INIST]]-[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|CNRS]], Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 ([http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13473405 Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS] </ref>

The same year than Vacher de Lapouge, [[William Z. Ripley]] used identical racial classification in ''[[The Races of Europe]]'' (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Others famous scientific authors include [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain|H.S. Chamberlain]] at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who [[naturalization|naturalized]] himself as German because of his admiration for the "Arya] race") or [[Madison Grant]], a eugenicist and author of ''[[The Passing of the Great Race]]'' (1916).

===Academic racism against Africans===
[[Image:Races and skulls.png|150px|left|thumb|[[Josiah C. Nott|Nott]] and [[George Gliddon|Gliddon]]'s ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857) used misleading imagery to suggest that "Negros" ranked between whites and chimpanzees.]]

In relation to African people, academic racism was formed during times of slavery and colonialism, in order to remove any form of noble claim from the victims of these systems.
[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] comments on this racism by stating,
<blockquote>
Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa , other than raw material''<ref name=Shahadah>[http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/agencyandafrica.htm The Removal of Agency from Africa] by [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]]</ref>
</blockquote>

Oxford academic [[J.R. Baker]] listed that a civilization is comprised of 21 basic components which where critical to demarcate the degree of civilization of a race. His conclusion was that Caucasians met all 21 criteria in Iraq, Crete, India, and in Egypt, and the Asians met them all in China. The Africans and Australian aborigines met virtually none of the 21 criteria. <ref name=JRbaker>‘’Race’’. J.R. Baker’’, 1974, p 507-508</ref>

Scottish philosopher and economist [[David Hume]] said
<blockquote>
''I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences”.<ref name=EricMorton>[http://www.africanphilosophy.com/vol1.1/morton.html RACE AND RACISM IN THE WORKS OF DAVID HUME] by [[Eric Morton]]</ref>
</blockquote>

German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.'' <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." {{Fact|date=January 2007}} This view that Africa had no history was repeated by [[Hugh Trevor-Roper, Baron Dacre of Glanton|Hugh Trevor-Roper]], Regius Professor of History at Oxford University, as late as 1963. {{Fact|date=January 2007}} During the Nazi era German scientist rearranged academia to support claims of a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt. <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

[[Image:Völkerschau (Human Zoo) Stuttgart1928.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Human Zoo]] (''Völkerschau'') in [[Stuttgart]] (Germany) in 1928.]]

===Human zoos===
[[Human zoo]]s were an important means of bolstering ''popular racism'' by connecting it to [[scientific racism]]: they were both objects of public curiosity and of [[anthropology]] and [[anthropometry]].<ref> [http://migs.concordia.ca/occpapers/zoo.htm On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism], Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000 </ref><ref> {{cite news | authors=Pascal Blanchard, Sandrine Lemaire and Nicolas Bancel | title=Human zoos - Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists | publisher=[[Le Monde Diplomatique]] |date=August 2000 | url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo}} {{en icon}}; {{cite news | title= Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale | publisher=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=August 2000|url=http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html}} {{fr icon}} (available to everyone) </ref> [[Joice Heth]], an African American slave, was displayed by [[Phineas Taylor Barnum|P.T. Barnum]] in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of [[Saartjie Baartman]], the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until [[World War II]].

Congolese pygmy [[Ota Benga]] was displayed in 1906 by [[eugenicist]] [[Madison Grant]], head of the [[Bronx Zoo]], as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to [[Darwinism]], creating a [[social Darwinism]] ideology which tried to ground itself in [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris [[Colonial Exhibition]] displayed [[Kanaks]] from [[New Caledonia]].<ref> {{PDFlink|[http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter6/interviews/filetodownload,18533,en.pdf The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931]|96.6 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}} by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., [[Santa Clara University]], USA </ref> A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the [[Expo '58|Brussels' World Fair]].

==Racism in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance==
{{see|Limpieza de sangre}}
Although [[Christian anti-semitism|anti-Semitism]] has a long European history, related to Christianism ([[anti-Judaism]]), racism itself is frequently described as a ''modern'' phenomenon. In the view of the French intellectual [[Michel Foucault]], the first formulation of racism emerged in the [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern period]] as the "[[discourse]] of race struggle", a historical and political discourse which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of [[sovereignty]].<ref>Michel Foucault, ''Society Must Be Defended'' (1976-77)</ref>

[[Richard E. Nisbett]] has said that the question of racial superiority may go back at least a thousand years, to the time when the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Moors invaded the Iberian peninsula]], occupying most of [[Hispania]] for six centuries, where they founded the advanced civilization of [[Al-Andalus]] (711-1492). Al-Andalus coincided with ''[[La Convivencia]]'', an era of religious tolerance and with the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula]]. It was followed by a violent ''[[Reconquista]]'' under the ''[[Reyes Catolicos]]'' (Catholic Kings), [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand V]] and [[Isabella I of Spain|Isabella I]]. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the ''[[limpieza de sangre]]'' ("cleanliness of blood") doctrine. Following the expulsion of most [[Sephardic Jews]] from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to [[Converso|convert]] to Roman Catholicism, becoming "[[New Christian]]s" which were despised and discriminated by the others Christians. The system and ideology of the ''limpieza de sangre'' ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith. In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was ended through a legal decree issued by the [[Marquis of Pombal]] in [[1772]], almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The ''limpieza de sangre'' doctrine was also very common in the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]], where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by [[Eduardo Galeano]] in the ''Open Veins of Latin America'' (1971). It included, among [[Glossary of terms for multiraciality|others terms]], ''[[mestizo]]'' (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), ''[[castizo]]'' (75% European and 25% Native American), ''Spaniard'' (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), ''[[Mulatto]]'' (50% European and 50% African), ''Albarazado'' (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.

At the end of the [[Spanish Renaissance|Renaissance]], the [[Valladolid debate]] (1550-1551) concerning the treatment of [[Indigenous people of the Americas|natives]] of the "[[New World]]" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]]. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and [[natural law]]. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversy concerning racism, slavery and [[Eurocentrism]] that would arise in the following centuries.

Philosopher and historian [[Michel Foucault]] argued that the first appearance of racism as a social [[discourse]] (as opposed to simple [[xenophobia]], which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 [[Glorious Revolution]] in Great Britain, in [[Edward Coke]] or [[John Lilburne]]'s work.

However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "[[scientific racism]]". Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a ''historical notion''. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the [[bourgeoisie]], the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy.

This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as [[Boulainvilliers]], [[Nicolas Fréret]], and then, during the 1789 [[French Revolution]], [[Sieyès]], and afterward [[Augustin Thierry]] and [[Cournot]]. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people".

He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified [[nation-state]] is, of course, here an [[anachronism]] — which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the [[absolute monarchy]], who tried to bypass the [[aristocracy]] by establishing a direct relationship to the [[Third Estate]]. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "[[Franks]]", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished [[Gallo-Romans]], who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the [[right of conquest]].

Early modern racism was opposed to [[nationalism]] and the nation-state: the [[Comte de Montlosier]], in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "''this new people born of slaves... [[miscegenation|mixture of all races and of all times]]"''.

While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the [[ethnic nationalist]] discourse which identified the "race" to the "[[folk]]", leading to such racist movements as [[pan-Germanism]] and [[pan-Slavism]], medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and [[social conflict]]s.

Michel Foucault thus traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and [[eugenicists]], who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "[[state racism]]" (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, [[Marxism|Marxists]] also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle which provided the real [[philosophy of history|engine of history]] and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the [[essentialist]] notion of "race" into the historical notion of "[[class struggle]]", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In ''[[The Will to Knowledge]]'' (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]], which opposed the concepts of "blood [[heredity]]," prevailent in the 19th century racist discourse.

==Racism and European colonialism in the nineteenth century==
{{Main|Colonialism}}
Authors such as [[Hannah Arendt]], in her 1951 book ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'', have said that the racist [[ideology]] ("popular racism") developed at the end of the nineteenth century helped legitimize the [[New Imperialism|imperialist conquests]] of foreign territories, and crimes that accompanied it (such as the [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]], 1904-1907).

[[Auguste Comte]]'s [[positivism|positivist]] ideology of necessary [[social progress]] as a consequence of [[scientific progress]] lead many Europeans to believe in the inherent superiority of the "White Race" over non-whites.

[[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem ''[[The White Man's Burden]]'' (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of such belief, though also thought to be a satirical vantage of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize subjugation, slavery and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous peoples, which were thus conceived as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs.

Other colonialists recognized the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gain and there are some Europeans during the time period who objected to the injustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the so-called "[[Hottentot Venus]]" was displayed in England in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, [[Joseph Conrad]] published ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899), a clear criticism of the [[Congo Free State]] owned by [[Leopold II of Belgium]].

==State racism (Nazism, Fascism, Japan, South Africa)==
{{main|Nazism and race|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Italian Fascism|Eugenics in Imperial Japan|Apartheid in South Africa}}
[[State racism]] played a role in the [[Nazi Germany]] regime and [[Fascism|fascist]] regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's [[Showa period]]<ref>Edward Russel of Liverpool, ''The Knights of Bushido'', 2002, p.238, Herbert Bix, ''Hirohito and the making of modern Japan'', 2001, p.313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese power'', 1989, p.263-272</ref>.

These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal.

==Racism against Middle Easterners==
{{worldview}}{{Main|Anti-Arabism|Anti-Iranianism}}
Also see [[Israeli Arab#Discrimination|Israeli Arab discrimination]] and [[Anti-arabism#Anti-Arabism in Israel|Anti-Arabism in Israel]].
There are reports of a large increase in anti-Arab/anti-Iranian racism in the [[United States]] since the [[September 11 2001 attacks]]. <ref>http://www.religionlink.org/tip_030407b.php</ref> [[Racial profiling]] of people with a [[Middle Eastern]] ethnic background was proposed by a [[New York]] [[Congressman]] on [[August 15]] [[2006]].<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2930</ref>

In Hollywood, Arabs and Iranians have been portrayed as terrorists and women abusers, and Arabs as extremist people.<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2357</ref> Iraq and Iran were demonized which led to hatred towards Arabs and Iranians living in the United States and elsewhere in the [[western world]]. <ref>http://www.freepress.org/departments/display/13/2004/814</ref> <ref>http://www.soundvision.com/info/peace/demonization.asp</ref> There have been attacks against Arabs and Iranians not only on the basis of their religion ([[Islam]]), but also on the basis of their ethnicity; numerous Christian Arabs and Iranians have been attacked based on their appearances.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/niot/citizens_respond/losaltos.html Attacks on Arab Americans] (PBS)</ref>

==Racism against Jews==
{{Main|Antisemitism|History of antisemitism}}
Antisemitism is a specific case of racism targeting [[Jew]]s, although scholars argue whether it should be considered a ''[[sui generis]]'' specie or not.
[[Image:Nurembergracechart.jpg|thumb|left|200px|1935 chart from [[Nazi Germany]] that classified people as German or Jewish based on the heritage of their grandparents.]]

Scholars distinguish traditional, ''religious antisemitism'', which derives from [[Christianity|Christian]] accusation of the [[deicide]] (cleared at the [[Second Vatican Council]] in 1965), with 19th-20th centuries ''[[racial antisemitism]]'', which ultimately led to [[the Holocaust]] in which about 6 million European Jews, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered. ''See also [[Holocaust denial]].''

In the [[Middle Ages]] [[Iberian peninsula]], the system of [[limpieza de sangre]] (cleanliness of blood) ostracized [[New Christians]] (offspring of [[Sephardi]]c Jews who were forced to convert to [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]]) from the rest of society. In [[Portugal]], the legal distinction between New and Old Christians was ended in 1772.

Expelled en masse from [[History of the Jews in England|England]], [[History of the Jews in France|France]], [[History of the Jews in Spain|Spain]] and most other [[Western Europe]]an countries at various times, and persecuted in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] in the [[14th century]], many Jews accepted [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III]]'s invitation to settle in [[History of the Jews in Poland|Polish]]-controlled areas of [[Eastern Europe]]. The traditional measures of keeping the [[Russian Empire]] free of Jews failed when the main territory of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was annexed during the [[Partitions of Poland]]. As large Jewish populations were taken over by Russia, [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]] established the [[Pale of Settlement]] in 1791. The official segregation of the [[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union|Russian Jews]] was compounded by waves of [[pogroms]] and oppressive legislation such as the 1882 [[May Laws]] and led to mass [[emigration]] and political activism.

Modern European antisemitism has its origin in 19th century [[pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]] theories that viewed the Jewish people as entirely different from the [[Aryan]], or [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]], populations. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their [[religion]], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic [[racial characteristics]]. The growth of [[nationalism]] in many countries viewed Jews as a separate and often "alien" nation within the countries in which Jews resided. Such sentiments were exposed in the [[Dreyfus affair]] in 1890s France. ''See also [[Rootless cosmopolitan]]ism.''

The rise of views of Jews as a malevolent "race" generated antisemitic [[conspiracy theories]] that Jews, as a group, were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world. From the early infamous Russian literary [[hoax]], ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', published by the Tsar's [[okhranka|secret police]], a key element of antisemitic thought has been that Jews influence or control the world.

==Religion and racism==
:''See [[Christianity and Slavery]] and [[Islam and Slavery]]''

In the nineteenth century, many American Christians were taught that Africans were descendants of [[Ham (son of Noah)]], and thus deserved to be slaves.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} However, [[abolitionism|abolition]] movements also used Christian teachings in explaining their views.

The [[Baha'i Faith]] denies the existence of human races, and has supported the ideology of ''one human race'' from its inception in 1863.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

{{section stub}}

==Footnotes==

{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* Barkan, Elazar (1992), ''The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars'', Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
* Dain, Bruce (2002), ''A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory)
* Diamond, Jared (1999), "Guns, Germs, and Steel", W.W. Norton, New York, NY.
* Ewen & Ewen (2006), "Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality", Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss, Claude]] (1952), ''Race and History'', ([[UNESCO]]).
* Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), ''Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture'', Westview Press.
* Stokes, DaShanne (forthcoming), ''Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom'', [http://www.geocities.com/eaglefeatherlaw/stokes.article.html URL].
* Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", ''Political Power and Social Theory'' 11 (1997), 183–206. ([[historiography]] of race and racism)
* [[Pierre-André Taguieff|Taguieff, Pierre-André]] (1987), ''La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles'', Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
* Twine, France Winddance (1997), ''Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil'', Rutgers University Press.
*[[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950

==See also==
*[[List of racism-related topics]]
*[[Racism by country]]
*[[Celebrity Big Brother racism controversy]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Racism}}
*[[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_2001_Dec/ai_82066713/pg_1 Extract] from "Race and History" (1952) by [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
*[http://www.understandingrace.org/ Understanding race] website with pegagogic materials for both students and teachers, including sections for children (ages 10-13) and academic researchers. Emphasis on the United States.
*[http://www.pbs.org/race Race] in-depth website about race
*[http://www.newsreel.org/nav/title.asp?tc=CN0149 Race - the power of illusion] argument that while race is a biological fiction, racism permeates the structure of society
*[http://www.amren.com/0306issue/0306issue.html#article1 Race Denial: The Power of a Delusion] detailed critique seeking to refute the film
* [http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Racism.asp Racism and human rights] Racism from Global Issues
* [http://www.irr.org.uk/ Institute for Race Relations]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/darwin_nazism.htm The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist] Refutes claims that Darwin was a racist
*[http://kitoba.com/pedia/Racism.html Racism] brief summary of the root causes of racism
*[http://cms.interculturalu.com/ InterculturalU.com] - a scholarly site that covers racism and other related topics.

[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Discrimination]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]
[[Category:Racism|*]]
[[Category:Sociology]]

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Racism

2007-03-09T19:20:24Z

206.102.240.2: /* Declarations against racial discrimination */

{{Mergefrom|Racial supremacy|date=March 2007}}
{{OR}}
{{Discrimination2}}

'''Racism''' is a [[belief]] system or [[doctrine]] which postulates a hierarchy among various "[[human]] [[race]]s" or [[ethnic group]]s, often leading to the belief of being a member of a "[[master race]]". It may be based on a conception assuming inherent biological differences between different ethnic groups, which would be purported to determine cultural or individual behaviour. However, modern racism discourse may coincide with contemporary scientific researches which have criticized former "[[scientific racism]]" discourses, popular until [[World War II]] and which claimed that the "race" was a biological and [[physical anthropology|anthropological]] reality. Thus, they may, on some occasions, accept the [[cultural relativist]] viewpoint which criticize any attempt in hierarchizing various cultures among them, while continuing to support a racist discourse. However, instead of being based on a biological [[race (historical)|definition of race]], this contemporary racism accept cultural and historical differences, but claim they justify, to the minimum, [[racial separatism|separatism]] between various ethnics groups.

Racism may be described as a strong form of [[ethnocentrism]], including traits such as [[xenophobia]] (fear and hate of foreigners), views against interracial relationships (anti-[[miscegenation]]), [[ethnic nationalism]], and [[ethnic stereotype]]s. Racism has been a motivating factor in [[social discrimination]], [[racial segregation]] and violence, spanning from [[hate speech]]s, [[pogroms]] and massacres, to [[genocide]]s and [[ethnic cleansing]]s. In a less dramatic manner, [[racial discrimination]] is also common, although illegal, in many states. Furthermore, distinctions of various ethnic groups may be instrumentalized by [[politician]]s who practice "[[race baiting]]" in an attempt to win votes.

The term racist has been a [[pejorative]] term since at least the 1940s, and the identification of a group or person as racist is often controversial, as racism is often considered a characteristic of [[far right]] movements.

==Definitions of racism==
{{Further|[[Race (historical definitions)]]}}

In practice, racism takes forms such as racial [[prejudice]], [[racial segregation|segregation]] or [[subordination]]. Racism can more narrowly refer to a legalized system of [[domination]] of one ethnic group on another, such as in [[institutional racism]].
Racial prejudice refers to pre-formed opinions about individuals based on their perceived racial heritage. It involves [[Hasty generalization|hasty generalization]]s about members of a group based on the perceived characteristics of one or more members of the group. Generalizations include beliefs that every member of a group has the same personality traits, interests, language, culture, ideas, norms and attitudes. Sometimes the characteristic is correct but the reason or cause is incorrectly assigned. Racial prejudices are sometimes promoted by the mainstream media.

Organizations and institutions that put racism into action discriminate against and marginalize a class of people who share a common racial designation. The term racism is usually applied to the [[dominant]] group in a society, because it is that group which has the means to oppress others. The term can also apply to any individual or group, regardless of social status or dominance.

Racism can be both overt and covert. Individual racism sometimes consists of overt acts by individuals, which can result in violence or the destruction of property. Institutional racism is often more covert and subtle. It often appears within the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and frequently receives less public condemnation than the overt type.
[[Image:ColoredDrinking.jpg|left|thumb|250px|An [[African American]] man drinks out of the "colored only" water cooler at a [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] [[streetcar]] terminal in the [[United States]] in 1939.]]
[[W.E.B. DuBois]] argued that [[racialism]] is the belief that differences between the races exist, be they [[Biological process|biological]], [[social]], [[psychological]], or in the realm of the [[soul]]. He argued that racism is using this belief to promote the idea that one's race is superior to the others.

According to Jared Diamond in his work ''[[Guns, Germs and Steel]]'', race is essentially a social and historical construction.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} He argues that it has no real basis in science, nor can it be used to explain why Europe gained the upper hand in world conquests.

[[Molefi Asante]], an [[African American]] academic, describes racism as a "wall of ignorance" that hides the long history of racial injustice from public consciousness.<ref name="Molefi Asante on Race">
{{cite book
| editor = [[Molefi Asante]].
| title = Erasing Racism: The Survival of the American Nation
| origyear = 2001
| url = https://www.gop.com/contribute/join.aspx?key=L1M7U8Y0F0
| accessdate = 2003
| edition = Hardback
| year = 2003
| month = September
| publisher = [[Prometheus Books]]
| location = USA
}}</ref > He argues that most [[White people|whites]] view racism as a thing of the past; a problem that was solved by civil rights. He says [[African Americans]] continue to experience racism in many areas of social life.

== Reverse Racism ==

Reverse racism, often referred to a [[reverse discrimination]], is the act of widespread discrimination, mistreatment, or hatred of the traditionally dominant race.

Case in example:

''Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education''[http://www.adversity.net/0_Education/Seattle-Kentucky/intro.htm]:

The plaintiff Crystal Meredith, challenged a ruling of the Jefferson County (Kentucky) public schools that required black student enrollment at all schools be at least between 15 and 50 percent, in order to maintain racial diversity in the class room. In the case of Crystal Meredith, her son, a white student, was denied enrollment at their neighborhood public school because this particular school was not meeting the 15/50 rule, therefore allowing no new white students to enroll.

While the current push among American academia has been to redefine racism as an attribute solely in possession of those belonging to a society's dominant race, the standard definition of racism acknowledges otherwise. Thus, while the term reverse racism remains controversial to some, the act of racism against the most populous race of a society does in fact exist by definition.

==Racial discrimination==
[[Image:Hk anti-discrimination poster.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An anti-discrimination poster in a [[Hong Kong]] [[MTR|subway]] station, circa 2005]]
Racial discrimination is treating people differently based
on race. [[Racial segregation]] policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerced without being legalized.

Researchers at the [[University of Chicago]] (Marianne Bertrand) and [[MIT]] ([[Sendhil Mullainathan]]) found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black".{{Fact|date=January 2007}} These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews, no matter their level of previous experience. Results were stronger for higher quality résumés. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the [[United States]]' long history of discrimination (i.e. [[Jim Crow laws]], [[Affirmative Action]], etc.).

===Institutional racism===
{{See|Institutional racism|State racism|Racial profiling|Racism by country}}
[[Institutional racism]] (also known as structural racism, [[state racism]] or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. [[Stokely Carmichael]] is credited for coining the phrase ''institutional racism'' in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".<ref>Richard W. Race, {{PDFlink|[http://www.shef.ac.uk/socst/Shop/race_article.pdf Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales]|47.2 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}, ''Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research'', University of Sheffield, p.12. Accessed [[20 June]] [[2006]].</ref>

[[Maulana Karenga]] states that the effects of racism were
<blockquote>
''the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples.'' He argues that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.''<ref name="Ethics on Reparations">{{cite web|url=http://www.africawithin.com/karenga/ethics.htm|publisher="[[Ron Karenga]]"|title="Effects on Africa"|}}</ref>
</blockquote>

===Economics and racism===
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of [[discrimination]] which is caused by past racism, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in the parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. (e.g. A member of race Y, Mary, has her opportunities adversely affected (directly and/or indirectly) by the mistreatment of her ancestors of race Y.)

Some scholars have suggested that capitalism has played a large role in promoting racism especially socioeconomic racism. The Western hemisphere slave trade and colonialist activities were mostly conducted by the earliest capitalist economies ie; Spain, Great Britain, the United States and the Netherlands.<ref>http://.www.zmag.org/CrisesCurEvts/bohmerrace.htm</ref><ref>http://.race.eserver.org/toward-a-theory-of-racism.htm</ref>
Critics have pointed out that a slave labor economy was the sometimes considered ultimate form of capitalism because the capitalists made pure profits because they used free labor.<ref>http://.flag.blackened.net/revolt/talks/racism.html</ref>

[[Global apartheid]] is a phrase used by those who argue that the international economic and political system is racist and is designed so that a white minority internationally accrue more wealth and power and enjoy more human and legal rights than the non-white world majority.

===Declarations against racial discrimination===
Racial discrimination contradicts the 1776 [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] issued during the [[French Revolution]] and the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], signed after [[World War II]], which all postulate equality between all human beings.

In 1950, [[UNESCO]] suggested in ''[[The Race Question]]'' —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as [[Ashley Montagu]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Gunnar Myrdal]], [[Julian Huxley]], etc. — to "drop the term ''race'' altogether and instead speak of [[ethnic groups]]". The statement condemned [[scientific racism]] theories which had played a role in the [[Holocaust]]. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the [[Enlightenment]] and its assumption of [[equality|equal rights]] for all. Along with Myrdal's ''[[An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy]]'' (1944), ''The Race Question'' influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court [[racial segregation in the United States|desegregation]] decision in "[[Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka]]" <ref name="Prins"> [http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=30431&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html “Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946-1962)”], by [[Harald E.L. Prins]], UNESCO {{en icon}} </ref>.

The [[United Nations]] uses the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the ''[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', adopted in 1966:
<blockquote>
''...any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.''(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination) <ref> [[http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm Text of the Convention], ''[['[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', 1966 </ref>
</blockquote>

In 2000, the [[European Union]] explicitly banned racism along with many other forms of social discrimination:
<blockquote>
''Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality.''<ref>http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.html</ref>
</blockquote>

==Ethnic nationalism==
{{see|Ethnic nationalism |Romantic nationalism}}

After the [[Napoleonic War]]s, Europe was confronted to the new "[[nationalities]] question," leading to ceaseless reconfigurations of the European map, which frontiers between states had been delimited during the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]]. [[Nationalism]] had made its first, striking appearance with the invention of the ''[[levée en masse]]'' by the [[French Revolution|French revolutionaries]], thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly-founded [[French First Republic|Republic]] against the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' order represented by the European monarchies. This lead to the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] (1792-1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to a subsequent European-wide debates on the concept and realities of [[nation]]s, and in particular of [[nation-state]]s. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms ([[Ottoman Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Swedish Empire]], [[Kingdom of France]], etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (''[[Kabinettskriege]]'' in German). Modern [[nation-state]]s would appear only in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiments for the first time in [[Enlightenment Spain|Spain]] during the [[Peninsula War]] (1808-1813 - known in Spanish as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]], the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the [[Industrial Era]], leading in particular to the [[1848 Revolutions]], the [[Italian unification]] completed during the 1871 [[Franco-Prussian War]], which itself culminated in the proclamation of the [[German Empire]] in the Hall of Mirrors in the [[Palace of Versailles]], thus achieving the [[German unification]]. Meanwhile, the [[Ottoman Empire]], "sick man of Europe," was confronted to endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the [[Austrian-Hungarian Empire]], would lead to the creation after [[World War I]] of the various nation-states of the [[Balkan]]s, which were always confronted, and remained so today, to the existence of "national [[minorities]]" in their borders <ref> On this "[[nationalities]] question" and the problematic of [[nationalism]], see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: [[Ernest Gellner]], ''Nations and Nationalism'' (1983); [[Eric Hobsbawm]],''The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789-1848'' (1962), ''Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality'' (1990); [[Benedict Anderson]], ''[[Imagined Communities]]'' (1991); [[Charles Tilly]], ''Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990-1992'' (1990); [[Anthony D. Smith]], ''Theories of Nationalism'' (1971), etc. </ref>.

[[Ethnic nationalism]], which believed in hereditary membership to the nation, made its appearance in this historical context of the creation of the modern nation-states. One of its main influence was the [[Romantic nationalist]] movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Herder]] (1744-1803), [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johan Fichte]] (1762-1814) in the ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (1808), [[Friedrich Hegel]] (1770-1831), or also, in France, [[Jules Michelet]] (1798-1874). It opposed itself to [[liberal nationalism]], represented by authors such as [[Ernest Renan]] (1823-1892), who conceived the nation as a community which, instead of being based on the ''[[Volk]]'' ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily [[plebiscite]]", 1882) or also [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806-1873) <ref> [[John Stuart Mill]], ''Considerations on Representative Government'', 1861 </ref>.

Ethnic nationalism quickly blended itself with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental [[imperialist]]" ([[Hannah Arendt]], 1951 <ref name=Arendt> [[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951) </ref>) discourses, for example in the [[pan-Germanism]] or [[pan-Slavism]] discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk or of the Slavish people. The [[Alldeutscher Verband|Pan-German League]] (''Alldeutscher Verband''), created in 1891, promoted [[German colonial empire|German imperialism]], "[[racial hygiene]]" and was opposed to intermarriages with Jews. Another, popular current, the ''[[Völkisch movement]]'', was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which it also combined with modern anti-semitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the [[Thule Society]], would participate to the foundation of the [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP) in Munich in 1918, predecessor of the [[NSDAP]] Nazi party. Both pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism played a decisive role in the [[interwar period]] of the 1920s-1930s <ref name=Arendt/>.

These currents began to associate the idea of the nation to the biological concept of a "[[master race]]" (often the "[[Aryan race]]" or "[[Nordic race]]") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflate nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses which posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying [[ethnic cleansing]] in order to achieve "racial purity" and achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.

Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not however limited to pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism ideologies. In France, the transition of Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made of nationalism a characteristic of [[History of far-right movements in France|far-right movements in France]], took place during the [[Dreyfus Affair]] at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide ''[[querelle]]'' affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Emile Zola, who wrote ''[[J'accuse]]'' in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet [[Maurice Barrès]] (1862-1923), one of the founder of ethnic nationalist discourse in France <ref> [[Maurice Barrès]], ''Le Roman de l'énergie nationale'' (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897) </ref>. At the same time, [[Charles Maurras]] (1868-1952), founder of the monarchist ''[[Action française]]'' movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative ''[[métèques]]''). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners," who threatened the ethnic unity of the [[French people]].

===Ethnic conflicts===
{{See|Ethnicity}}
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as [[xenophobia]] and [[ethnocentrism]], although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an [[ideology]] or from [[scientific racism]], which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia.

Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases [[ethnicity]] and [[nationalism]] were harnessed to rally [[combatant]]s in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).

Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Historically, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (particularly when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by [[morality|moral]] or [[ethics|ethical]] considerations.

One example of the brutalizing and dehumanizing effects of racism was the attempt to [[Population history of American indigenous peoples#Deliberate infection.3F|deliberately infect]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] with smallpox during [[Pontiac's Rebellion]] in 1763, itself a war intended to [[ethnic cleansing|ethnically cleanse]] the "other" ([[European Americans]]) from Native American land.

According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other." (Richter, ''Facing East from Indian Country'', p. 208)

In the Western world, racism evolved, twinned with the doctrine of [[white supremacy]], and helped fuel the [[Europe|European]] exploration, conquest, and colonization of much of the rest of the world -- especially after [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the Americas. [[Basil Davidson]] insists in his documentary, ''[[Africa: Different but Equal]]'', that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 1800s, due to the need for a justification of slavery in the Americas. The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West.

Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the [[Triangular Trade]]. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but then due to western diseases, their population drastically decreased.

Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's ''Europe and the People without History'').

Some people, like [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]], have argued during the [[Valladolid controversy]] in the middle of the 16th century that the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were natural slaves because they had no ''souls''. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th-20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.

==Scientific racism==
{{Main|Scientific racism}}
The modern biological definition of race was invented in the 19th century by scientific racist theories. The term "scientific racism" refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to at least the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the [[New Imperialism]] period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]]'s resistance to [[positivism|positivists]] accounts of history, and its support of [[monogenism]], that is that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with [[creationist]] accounts of history. These racist theories grounded on scientific hypothesis were combined with [[unilineal evolution|unilineal theories of social progress]] which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the [[social Darwinism]] discourse, which postulated the "[[survival of the fittest]]" theory, a term coined by [[Herbert Spencer]] in 1864. [[Charles Darwin]] himself explicitly denounced such accounts of history in ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' (1871). Finally, at the end of the 19th century, they intertwined themselves with [[eugenics]] discourses of "[[degeneration]] of the race" and "blood [[heredity]]." Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on [[physical anthropology]], [[anthropometry]], [[craniometry]], [[phrenology]], [[physiognomy]] and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices. Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of [[cultural anthropology]] ([[Franz Boas]], etc.), the British school of [[social anthropology]] ([[Bronisław Malinowski]], [[Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]], etc.), the French school of [[ethnology]] ([[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], etc.), as well as the discovery of the [[Modern evolutionary synthesis|neo-Darwinian synthesis]], such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a [[gene-centered view of evolution]] in the 1960s, which seemed at first to be sufficient proof of the inanity of the "scientific racist" theories of the 19th centuries, which based conception of evolution on "races", a concept which first appeared to lose any sense at the genetical level. However, modern resurgence of racist theories, in particular related to the [[race and intelligence]] controversy, seems to show that [[genetics]] could also be used for ideological, racist purposes.

===Heredity, "degeneration" and eugenics===
{{see|Eugenics}}
The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by [[Francis Galton]] (1822-1911), who used the then popular concept of "[[degeneration]]". He applied [[statistics]] to study human differences and the alleged "[[inheritance of intelligence]]," foreshading future uses of "[[intelligence testing]]" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer [[Emile Zola]] (1840-1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, ''[[Les Rougon-Macquart]]'', where he linked [[heredity]] to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons involved in politics (''[[Son Excellence Eugène Rougon]]'') and medicine (''[[Le Docteur Pascal]]'') and the low-born Macquarts fatally falling into alcoholism (''[[L'Assommoir]]''), prostitution (''[[Nana]]''), and homicide (''[[La Bête humaine]]'').

During the rise of [[Nazi Germany|Nazism in Germany]], some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century <ref> [[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950 </ref>. According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, ''[[The Race Question]]'', an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, the UNESCO declared that it resumed:
<blockquote>"''up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the [[International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation]] has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the [[Appeasement of Hitler|appeasement policy]] of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of [[Nazi ideology]] and policy. [[Tomáš Masaryk|Masaryk]] and [[Edvard Beneš|Beneš]] took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.''"</blockquote>

The [[Third Reich's racial policies]], its [[Nazi eugenics|eugenics programs]] and the extermination of Jews in [[the Holocaust]], as well as Gypsies in [[Porrajmos]] and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the [[Franz Boas|Boasian]] school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. '' These theories were strongly denounced in the UNESCO 1950 statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled ''[[The Race Question]]''.

===Polygenism and racial typologies===
{{see|Polygenism |Typology (anthropology)}}
Works such as [[Arthur Gobineau]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'' (1853-1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of [[Boulainvilliers]] for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality which changed over time. Gobineau thus attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological difference among human beings, giving it the legitimity of [[biology]]. He was one of the first theorist to postulate [[polygenism]], stating that there was, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races." Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by [[Georges Vacher de Lapouge]] (1854-1936)'s [[typology (anthropology)|typology of races]], who published in 1899 ''The Aryan and his Social Role'', in which he opposed the white, "[[Aryan]] race", "[[dolichocephalic]]", to the "brachycephalic" race, whom the "[[Jew]]" was to be the archetype. Vacher de Lapoug thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "''[[Nordic theory|Homo europaeus]]'' (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "''[[Homo alpinus]]''" ([[Auvergne|Auvergnat]], [[Turkish]], etc.), and finally the "''[[Homo mediterraneus]]''" ([[Naples|Neapolitan]], [[Andalusia|Andalus]], etc.) He assimilated races and [[social class]]es, considering that the French upper class was a representant of the ''Homo europaeus'', while the lower class represented the ''Homo alpinus''. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of [[trade union]]ists, considered as "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of [[labour condition]]s. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking [[social conflict]] by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order <ref> Matsuo Takeshi ([[Shimane Prefecture|University of Shimane]], Japan). ''L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme'' (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in ''[[Etudes de langue et littérature françaises]]'' 2001, n°79, pp. 47-57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; [[INIST]]-[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|CNRS]], Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 ([http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13473405 Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS] </ref>

The same year than Vacher de Lapouge, [[William Z. Ripley]] used identical racial classification in ''[[The Races of Europe]]'' (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Others famous scientific authors include [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain|H.S. Chamberlain]] at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who [[naturalization|naturalized]] himself as German because of his admiration for the "Arya] race") or [[Madison Grant]], a eugenicist and author of ''[[The Passing of the Great Race]]'' (1916).

===Academic racism against Africans===
[[Image:Races and skulls.png|150px|left|thumb|[[Josiah C. Nott|Nott]] and [[George Gliddon|Gliddon]]'s ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857) used misleading imagery to suggest that "Negros" ranked between whites and chimpanzees.]]

In relation to African people, academic racism was formed during times of slavery and colonialism, in order to remove any form of noble claim from the victims of these systems.
[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] comments on this racism by stating,
<blockquote>
Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa , other than raw material''<ref name=Shahadah>[http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/agencyandafrica.htm The Removal of Agency from Africa] by [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]]</ref>
</blockquote>

Oxford academic [[J.R. Baker]] listed that a civilization is comprised of 21 basic components which where critical to demarcate the degree of civilization of a race. His conclusion was that Caucasians met all 21 criteria in Iraq, Crete, India, and in Egypt, and the Asians met them all in China. The Africans and Australian aborigines met virtually none of the 21 criteria. <ref name=JRbaker>‘’Race’’. J.R. Baker’’, 1974, p 507-508</ref>

Scottish philosopher and economist [[David Hume]] said
<blockquote>
''I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences”.<ref name=EricMorton>[http://www.africanphilosophy.com/vol1.1/morton.html RACE AND RACISM IN THE WORKS OF DAVID HUME] by [[Eric Morton]]</ref>
</blockquote>

German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.'' <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." {{Fact|date=January 2007}} This view that Africa had no history was repeated by [[Hugh Trevor-Roper, Baron Dacre of Glanton|Hugh Trevor-Roper]], Regius Professor of History at Oxford University, as late as 1963. {{Fact|date=January 2007}} During the Nazi era German scientist rearranged academia to support claims of a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt. <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

[[Image:Völkerschau (Human Zoo) Stuttgart1928.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Human Zoo]] (''Völkerschau'') in [[Stuttgart]] (Germany) in 1928.]]

===Human zoos===
[[Human zoo]]s were an important means of bolstering ''popular racism'' by connecting it to [[scientific racism]]: they were both objects of public curiosity and of [[anthropology]] and [[anthropometry]].<ref> [http://migs.concordia.ca/occpapers/zoo.htm On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism], Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000 </ref><ref> {{cite news | authors=Pascal Blanchard, Sandrine Lemaire and Nicolas Bancel | title=Human zoos - Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists | publisher=[[Le Monde Diplomatique]] |date=August 2000 | url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo}} {{en icon}}; {{cite news | title= Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale | publisher=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=August 2000|url=http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html}} {{fr icon}} (available to everyone) </ref> [[Joice Heth]], an African American slave, was displayed by [[Phineas Taylor Barnum|P.T. Barnum]] in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of [[Saartjie Baartman]], the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until [[World War II]].

Congolese pygmy [[Ota Benga]] was displayed in 1906 by [[eugenicist]] [[Madison Grant]], head of the [[Bronx Zoo]], as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to [[Darwinism]], creating a [[social Darwinism]] ideology which tried to ground itself in [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris [[Colonial Exhibition]] displayed [[Kanaks]] from [[New Caledonia]].<ref> {{PDFlink|[http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter6/interviews/filetodownload,18533,en.pdf The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931]|96.6 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}} by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., [[Santa Clara University]], USA </ref> A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the [[Expo '58|Brussels' World Fair]].

==Racism in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance==
{{see|Limpieza de sangre}}
Although [[Christian anti-semitism|anti-Semitism]] has a long European history, related to Christianism ([[anti-Judaism]]), racism itself is frequently described as a ''modern'' phenomenon. In the view of the French intellectual [[Michel Foucault]], the first formulation of racism emerged in the [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern period]] as the "[[discourse]] of race struggle", a historical and political discourse which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of [[sovereignty]].<ref>Michel Foucault, ''Society Must Be Defended'' (1976-77)</ref>

[[Richard E. Nisbett]] has said that the question of racial superiority may go back at least a thousand years, to the time when the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Moors invaded the Iberian peninsula]], occupying most of [[Hispania]] for six centuries, where they founded the advanced civilization of [[Al-Andalus]] (711-1492). Al-Andalus coincided with ''[[La Convivencia]]'', an era of religious tolerance and with the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula]]. It was followed by a violent ''[[Reconquista]]'' under the ''[[Reyes Catolicos]]'' (Catholic Kings), [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand V]] and [[Isabella I of Spain|Isabella I]]. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the ''[[limpieza de sangre]]'' ("cleanliness of blood") doctrine. Following the expulsion of most [[Sephardic Jews]] from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to [[Converso|convert]] to Roman Catholicism, becoming "[[New Christian]]s" which were despised and discriminated by the others Christians. The system and ideology of the ''limpieza de sangre'' ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith. In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was ended through a legal decree issued by the [[Marquis of Pombal]] in [[1772]], almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The ''limpieza de sangre'' doctrine was also very common in the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]], where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by [[Eduardo Galeano]] in the ''Open Veins of Latin America'' (1971). It included, among [[Glossary of terms for multiraciality|others terms]], ''[[mestizo]]'' (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), ''[[castizo]]'' (75% European and 25% Native American), ''Spaniard'' (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), ''[[Mulatto]]'' (50% European and 50% African), ''Albarazado'' (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.

At the end of the [[Spanish Renaissance|Renaissance]], the [[Valladolid debate]] (1550-1551) concerning the treatment of [[Indigenous people of the Americas|natives]] of the "[[New World]]" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]]. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and [[natural law]]. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversy concerning racism, slavery and [[Eurocentrism]] that would arise in the following centuries.

Philosopher and historian [[Michel Foucault]] argued that the first appearance of racism as a social [[discourse]] (as opposed to simple [[xenophobia]], which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 [[Glorious Revolution]] in Great Britain, in [[Edward Coke]] or [[John Lilburne]]'s work.

However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "[[scientific racism]]". Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a ''historical notion''. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the [[bourgeoisie]], the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy.

This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as [[Boulainvilliers]], [[Nicolas Fréret]], and then, during the 1789 [[French Revolution]], [[Sieyès]], and afterward [[Augustin Thierry]] and [[Cournot]]. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people".

He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified [[nation-state]] is, of course, here an [[anachronism]] — which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the [[absolute monarchy]], who tried to bypass the [[aristocracy]] by establishing a direct relationship to the [[Third Estate]]. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "[[Franks]]", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished [[Gallo-Romans]], who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the [[right of conquest]].

Early modern racism was opposed to [[nationalism]] and the nation-state: the [[Comte de Montlosier]], in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "''this new people born of slaves... [[miscegenation|mixture of all races and of all times]]"''.

While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the [[ethnic nationalist]] discourse which identified the "race" to the "[[folk]]", leading to such racist movements as [[pan-Germanism]] and [[pan-Slavism]], medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and [[social conflict]]s.

Michel Foucault thus traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and [[eugenicists]], who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "[[state racism]]" (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, [[Marxism|Marxists]] also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle which provided the real [[philosophy of history|engine of history]] and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the [[essentialist]] notion of "race" into the historical notion of "[[class struggle]]", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In ''[[The Will to Knowledge]]'' (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]], which opposed the concepts of "blood [[heredity]]," prevailent in the 19th century racist discourse.

==Racism and European colonialism in the nineteenth century==
{{Main|Colonialism}}
Authors such as [[Hannah Arendt]], in her 1951 book ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'', have said that the racist [[ideology]] ("popular racism") developed at the end of the nineteenth century helped legitimize the [[New Imperialism|imperialist conquests]] of foreign territories, and crimes that accompanied it (such as the [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]], 1904-1907).

[[Auguste Comte]]'s [[positivism|positivist]] ideology of necessary [[social progress]] as a consequence of [[scientific progress]] lead many Europeans to believe in the inherent superiority of the "White Race" over non-whites.

[[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem ''[[The White Man's Burden]]'' (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of such belief, though also thought to be a satirical vantage of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize subjugation, slavery and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous peoples, which were thus conceived as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs.

Other colonialists recognized the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gain and there are some Europeans during the time period who objected to the injustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the so-called "[[Hottentot Venus]]" was displayed in England in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, [[Joseph Conrad]] published ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899), a clear criticism of the [[Congo Free State]] owned by [[Leopold II of Belgium]].

==State racism (Nazism, Fascism, Japan, South Africa)==
{{main|Nazism and race|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Italian Fascism|Eugenics in Imperial Japan|Apartheid in South Africa}}
[[State racism]] played a role in the [[Nazi Germany]] regime and [[Fascism|fascist]] regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's [[Showa period]]<ref>Edward Russel of Liverpool, ''The Knights of Bushido'', 2002, p.238, Herbert Bix, ''Hirohito and the making of modern Japan'', 2001, p.313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese power'', 1989, p.263-272</ref>.

These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal.

==Racism against Middle Easterners==
{{worldview}}{{Main|Anti-Arabism|Anti-Iranianism}}
Also see [[Israeli Arab#Discrimination|Israeli Arab discrimination]] and [[Anti-arabism#Anti-Arabism in Israel|Anti-Arabism in Israel]].
There are reports of a large increase in anti-Arab/anti-Iranian racism in the [[United States]] since the [[September 11 2001 attacks]]. <ref>http://www.religionlink.org/tip_030407b.php</ref> [[Racial profiling]] of people with a [[Middle Eastern]] ethnic background was proposed by a [[New York]] [[Congressman]] on [[August 15]] [[2006]].<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2930</ref>

In Hollywood, Arabs and Iranians have been portrayed as terrorists and women abusers, and Arabs as extremist people.<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2357</ref> Iraq and Iran were demonized which led to hatred towards Arabs and Iranians living in the United States and elsewhere in the [[western world]]. <ref>http://www.freepress.org/departments/display/13/2004/814</ref> <ref>http://www.soundvision.com/info/peace/demonization.asp</ref> There have been attacks against Arabs and Iranians not only on the basis of their religion ([[Islam]]), but also on the basis of their ethnicity; numerous Christian Arabs and Iranians have been attacked based on their appearances.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/niot/citizens_respond/losaltos.html Attacks on Arab Americans] (PBS)</ref>

==Racism against Jews==
{{Main|Antisemitism|History of antisemitism}}
Antisemitism is a specific case of racism targeting [[Jew]]s, although scholars argue whether it should be considered a ''[[sui generis]]'' specie or not.
[[Image:Nurembergracechart.jpg|thumb|left|200px|1935 chart from [[Nazi Germany]] that classified people as German or Jewish based on the heritage of their grandparents.]]

Scholars distinguish traditional, ''religious antisemitism'', which derives from [[Christianity|Christian]] accusation of the [[deicide]] (cleared at the [[Second Vatican Council]] in 1965), with 19th-20th centuries ''[[racial antisemitism]]'', which ultimately led to [[the Holocaust]] in which about 6 million European Jews, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered. ''See also [[Holocaust denial]].''

In the [[Middle Ages]] [[Iberian peninsula]], the system of [[limpieza de sangre]] (cleanliness of blood) ostracized [[New Christians]] (offspring of [[Sephardi]]c Jews who were forced to convert to [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]]) from the rest of society. In [[Portugal]], the legal distinction between New and Old Christians was ended in 1772.

Expelled en masse from [[History of the Jews in England|England]], [[History of the Jews in France|France]], [[History of the Jews in Spain|Spain]] and most other [[Western Europe]]an countries at various times, and persecuted in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] in the [[14th century]], many Jews accepted [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III]]'s invitation to settle in [[History of the Jews in Poland|Polish]]-controlled areas of [[Eastern Europe]]. The traditional measures of keeping the [[Russian Empire]] free of Jews failed when the main territory of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was annexed during the [[Partitions of Poland]]. As large Jewish populations were taken over by Russia, [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]] established the [[Pale of Settlement]] in 1791. The official segregation of the [[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union|Russian Jews]] was compounded by waves of [[pogroms]] and oppressive legislation such as the 1882 [[May Laws]] and led to mass [[emigration]] and political activism.

Modern European antisemitism has its origin in 19th century [[pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]] theories that viewed the Jewish people as entirely different from the [[Aryan]], or [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]], populations. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their [[religion]], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic [[racial characteristics]]. The growth of [[nationalism]] in many countries viewed Jews as a separate and often "alien" nation within the countries in which Jews resided. Such sentiments were exposed in the [[Dreyfus affair]] in 1890s France. ''See also [[Rootless cosmopolitan]]ism.''

The rise of views of Jews as a malevolent "race" generated antisemitic [[conspiracy theories]] that Jews, as a group, were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world. From the early infamous Russian literary [[hoax]], ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', published by the Tsar's [[okhranka|secret police]], a key element of antisemitic thought has been that Jews influence or control the world.

==Religion and racism==
:''See [[Christianity and Slavery]] and [[Islam and Slavery]]''

In the nineteenth century, many American Christians were taught that Africans were descendants of [[Ham (son of Noah)]], and thus deserved to be slaves.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} However, [[abolitionism|abolition]] movements also used Christian teachings in explaining their views.

The [[Baha'i Faith]] denies the existence of human races, and has supported the ideology of ''one human race'' from its inception in 1863.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

{{section stub}}

==Footnotes==

{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* Barkan, Elazar (1992), ''The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars'', Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
* Dain, Bruce (2002), ''A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory)
* Diamond, Jared (1999), "Guns, Germs, and Steel", W.W. Norton, New York, NY.
* Ewen & Ewen (2006), "Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality", Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss, Claude]] (1952), ''Race and History'', ([[UNESCO]]).
* Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), ''Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture'', Westview Press.
* Stokes, DaShanne (forthcoming), ''Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom'', [http://www.geocities.com/eaglefeatherlaw/stokes.article.html URL].
* Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", ''Political Power and Social Theory'' 11 (1997), 183–206. ([[historiography]] of race and racism)
* [[Pierre-André Taguieff|Taguieff, Pierre-André]] (1987), ''La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles'', Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
* Twine, France Winddance (1997), ''Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil'', Rutgers University Press.
*[[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950

==See also==
*[[List of racism-related topics]]
*[[Racism by country]]
*[[Celebrity Big Brother racism controversy]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Racism}}
*[[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_2001_Dec/ai_82066713/pg_1 Extract] from "Race and History" (1952) by [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
*[http://www.understandingrace.org/ Understanding race] website with pegagogic materials for both students and teachers, including sections for children (ages 10-13) and academic researchers. Emphasis on the United States.
*[http://www.pbs.org/race Race] in-depth website about race
*[http://www.newsreel.org/nav/title.asp?tc=CN0149 Race - the power of illusion] argument that while race is a biological fiction, racism permeates the structure of society
*[http://www.amren.com/0306issue/0306issue.html#article1 Race Denial: The Power of a Delusion] detailed critique seeking to refute the film
* [http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Racism.asp Racism and human rights] Racism from Global Issues
* [http://www.irr.org.uk/ Institute for Race Relations]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/darwin_nazism.htm The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist] Refutes claims that Darwin was a racist
*[http://kitoba.com/pedia/Racism.html Racism] brief summary of the root causes of racism
*[http://cms.interculturalu.com/ InterculturalU.com] - a scholarly site that covers racism and other related topics.

[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Discrimination]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]
[[Category:Racism|*]]
[[Category:Sociology]]

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Racism

2007-03-09T19:19:58Z

206.102.240.2: /* Racial discrimination */

{{Mergefrom|Racial supremacy|date=March 2007}}
{{OR}}
{{Discrimination2}}

'''Racism''' is a [[belief]] system or [[doctrine]] which postulates a hierarchy among various "[[human]] [[race]]s" or [[ethnic group]]s, often leading to the belief of being a member of a "[[master race]]". It may be based on a conception assuming inherent biological differences between different ethnic groups, which would be purported to determine cultural or individual behaviour. However, modern racism discourse may coincide with contemporary scientific researches which have criticized former "[[scientific racism]]" discourses, popular until [[World War II]] and which claimed that the "race" was a biological and [[physical anthropology|anthropological]] reality. Thus, they may, on some occasions, accept the [[cultural relativist]] viewpoint which criticize any attempt in hierarchizing various cultures among them, while continuing to support a racist discourse. However, instead of being based on a biological [[race (historical)|definition of race]], this contemporary racism accept cultural and historical differences, but claim they justify, to the minimum, [[racial separatism|separatism]] between various ethnics groups.

Racism may be described as a strong form of [[ethnocentrism]], including traits such as [[xenophobia]] (fear and hate of foreigners), views against interracial relationships (anti-[[miscegenation]]), [[ethnic nationalism]], and [[ethnic stereotype]]s. Racism has been a motivating factor in [[social discrimination]], [[racial segregation]] and violence, spanning from [[hate speech]]s, [[pogroms]] and massacres, to [[genocide]]s and [[ethnic cleansing]]s. In a less dramatic manner, [[racial discrimination]] is also common, although illegal, in many states. Furthermore, distinctions of various ethnic groups may be instrumentalized by [[politician]]s who practice "[[race baiting]]" in an attempt to win votes.

The term racist has been a [[pejorative]] term since at least the 1940s, and the identification of a group or person as racist is often controversial, as racism is often considered a characteristic of [[far right]] movements.

==Definitions of racism==
{{Further|[[Race (historical definitions)]]}}

In practice, racism takes forms such as racial [[prejudice]], [[racial segregation|segregation]] or [[subordination]]. Racism can more narrowly refer to a legalized system of [[domination]] of one ethnic group on another, such as in [[institutional racism]].
Racial prejudice refers to pre-formed opinions about individuals based on their perceived racial heritage. It involves [[Hasty generalization|hasty generalization]]s about members of a group based on the perceived characteristics of one or more members of the group. Generalizations include beliefs that every member of a group has the same personality traits, interests, language, culture, ideas, norms and attitudes. Sometimes the characteristic is correct but the reason or cause is incorrectly assigned. Racial prejudices are sometimes promoted by the mainstream media.

Organizations and institutions that put racism into action discriminate against and marginalize a class of people who share a common racial designation. The term racism is usually applied to the [[dominant]] group in a society, because it is that group which has the means to oppress others. The term can also apply to any individual or group, regardless of social status or dominance.

Racism can be both overt and covert. Individual racism sometimes consists of overt acts by individuals, which can result in violence or the destruction of property. Institutional racism is often more covert and subtle. It often appears within the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and frequently receives less public condemnation than the overt type.
[[Image:ColoredDrinking.jpg|left|thumb|250px|An [[African American]] man drinks out of the "colored only" water cooler at a [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] [[streetcar]] terminal in the [[United States]] in 1939.]]
[[W.E.B. DuBois]] argued that [[racialism]] is the belief that differences between the races exist, be they [[Biological process|biological]], [[social]], [[psychological]], or in the realm of the [[soul]]. He argued that racism is using this belief to promote the idea that one's race is superior to the others.

According to Jared Diamond in his work ''[[Guns, Germs and Steel]]'', race is essentially a social and historical construction.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} He argues that it has no real basis in science, nor can it be used to explain why Europe gained the upper hand in world conquests.

[[Molefi Asante]], an [[African American]] academic, describes racism as a "wall of ignorance" that hides the long history of racial injustice from public consciousness.<ref name="Molefi Asante on Race">
{{cite book
| editor = [[Molefi Asante]].
| title = Erasing Racism: The Survival of the American Nation
| origyear = 2001
| url = https://www.gop.com/contribute/join.aspx?key=L1M7U8Y0F0
| accessdate = 2003
| edition = Hardback
| year = 2003
| month = September
| publisher = [[Prometheus Books]]
| location = USA
}}</ref > He argues that most [[White people|whites]] view racism as a thing of the past; a problem that was solved by civil rights. He says [[African Americans]] continue to experience racism in many areas of social life.

== Reverse Racism ==

Reverse racism, often referred to a [[reverse discrimination]], is the act of widespread discrimination, mistreatment, or hatred of the traditionally dominant race.

Case in example:

''Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education''[http://www.adversity.net/0_Education/Seattle-Kentucky/intro.htm]:

The plaintiff Crystal Meredith, challenged a ruling of the Jefferson County (Kentucky) public schools that required black student enrollment at all schools be at least between 15 and 50 percent, in order to maintain racial diversity in the class room. In the case of Crystal Meredith, her son, a white student, was denied enrollment at their neighborhood public school because this particular school was not meeting the 15/50 rule, therefore allowing no new white students to enroll.

While the current push among American academia has been to redefine racism as an attribute solely in possession of those belonging to a society's dominant race, the standard definition of racism acknowledges otherwise. Thus, while the term reverse racism remains controversial to some, the act of racism against the most populous race of a society does in fact exist by definition.

==Racial discrimination==
[[Image:Hk anti-discrimination poster.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An anti-discrimination poster in a [[Hong Kong]] [[MTR|subway]] station, circa 2005]]
Racial discrimination is treating people differently based
on race. [[Racial segregation]] policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerced without being legalized.

Researchers at the [[University of Chicago]] (Marianne Bertrand) and [[MIT]] ([[Sendhil Mullainathan]]) found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black".{{Fact|date=January 2007}} These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews, no matter their level of previous experience. Results were stronger for higher quality résumés. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the [[United States]]' long history of discrimination (i.e. [[Jim Crow laws]], [[Affirmative Action]], etc.).

===Institutional racism===
{{See|Institutional racism|State racism|Racial profiling|Racism by country}}
[[Institutional racism]] (also known as structural racism, [[state racism]] or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. [[Stokely Carmichael]] is credited for coining the phrase ''institutional racism'' in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".<ref>Richard W. Race, {{PDFlink|[http://www.shef.ac.uk/socst/Shop/race_article.pdf Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales]|47.2 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}, ''Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research'', University of Sheffield, p.12. Accessed [[20 June]] [[2006]].</ref>

[[Maulana Karenga]] states that the effects of racism were
<blockquote>
''the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples.'' He argues that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.''<ref name="Ethics on Reparations">{{cite web|url=http://www.africawithin.com/karenga/ethics.htm|publisher="[[Ron Karenga]]"|title="Effects on Africa"|}}</ref>
</blockquote>

===Economics and racism===
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of [[discrimination]] which is caused by past racism, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in the parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. (e.g. A member of race Y, Mary, has her opportunities adversely affected (directly and/or indirectly) by the mistreatment of her ancestors of race Y.)

Some scholars have suggested that capitalism has played a large role in promoting racism especially socioeconomic racism. The Western hemisphere slave trade and colonialist activities were mostly conducted by the earliest capitalist economies ie; Spain, Great Britain, the United States and the Netherlands.<ref>http://.www.zmag.org/CrisesCurEvts/bohmerrace.htm</ref><ref>http://.race.eserver.org/toward-a-theory-of-racism.htm</ref>
Critics have pointed out that a slave labor economy was the sometimes considered ultimate form of capitalism because the capitalists made pure profits because they used free labor.<ref>http://.flag.blackened.net/revolt/talks/racism.html</ref>

[[Global apartheid]] is a phrase used by those who argue that the international economic and political system is racist and is designed so that a white minority internationally accrue more wealth and power and enjoy more human and legal rights than the non-white world majority.

===Declarations against racial discrimination===
Racial discrimination contradicts the 1776 [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] issued during the [[French Revolution]] and the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], signed after [[World War II]], which all postulate equality between all human beings.

In 1950, [[UNESCO]] suggested in ''[[The Race Question]]'' —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as [[Ashley Montagu]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Gunnar Myrdal]], [[Julian Huxley]], etc. — to "drop the term ''race'' altogether and instead speak of [[ethnic groups]]". The statement condemned [[scientific racism]] theories which had played a role in the [[Holocaust]]. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the [[Enlightenment]] and its assumption of [[equality|equal rights]] for all. Along with Myrdal's ''[[An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy]]'' (1944), ''The Race Question'' influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court [[racial segregation in the United States|desegregation]] decision in "[[Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka]]" <ref name="Prins"> [http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=30431&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html “Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946-1962)”], by [[Harald E.L. Prins]], UNESCO {{en icon}} </ref>.

The [[United Nations]] uses the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the ''[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', adopted in 1966:
<blockquote>
''...any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.''(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination) <ref> [[http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm Text of the Convention], ''[['[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', 1966 </ref>
</blockquote>

In 2000, the [[European Union]] explicitly banned racism along with many other forms of social discrimination:
<blockquote>
''Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality.''<ref>http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.html</ref>
</blockquote>

In recent cases, racial discrimination has also taken the face of [[reverse discrimination]], in which members of the majority race are overlooked for their inherent lack of ability to contribute to racial diversity. Whatever the case may be, racial discrimination is seen across the board in all racial groups.

==Ethnic nationalism==
{{see|Ethnic nationalism |Romantic nationalism}}

After the [[Napoleonic War]]s, Europe was confronted to the new "[[nationalities]] question," leading to ceaseless reconfigurations of the European map, which frontiers between states had been delimited during the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]]. [[Nationalism]] had made its first, striking appearance with the invention of the ''[[levée en masse]]'' by the [[French Revolution|French revolutionaries]], thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly-founded [[French First Republic|Republic]] against the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' order represented by the European monarchies. This lead to the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] (1792-1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to a subsequent European-wide debates on the concept and realities of [[nation]]s, and in particular of [[nation-state]]s. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms ([[Ottoman Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Swedish Empire]], [[Kingdom of France]], etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (''[[Kabinettskriege]]'' in German). Modern [[nation-state]]s would appear only in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiments for the first time in [[Enlightenment Spain|Spain]] during the [[Peninsula War]] (1808-1813 - known in Spanish as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]], the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the [[Industrial Era]], leading in particular to the [[1848 Revolutions]], the [[Italian unification]] completed during the 1871 [[Franco-Prussian War]], which itself culminated in the proclamation of the [[German Empire]] in the Hall of Mirrors in the [[Palace of Versailles]], thus achieving the [[German unification]]. Meanwhile, the [[Ottoman Empire]], "sick man of Europe," was confronted to endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the [[Austrian-Hungarian Empire]], would lead to the creation after [[World War I]] of the various nation-states of the [[Balkan]]s, which were always confronted, and remained so today, to the existence of "national [[minorities]]" in their borders <ref> On this "[[nationalities]] question" and the problematic of [[nationalism]], see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: [[Ernest Gellner]], ''Nations and Nationalism'' (1983); [[Eric Hobsbawm]],''The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789-1848'' (1962), ''Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality'' (1990); [[Benedict Anderson]], ''[[Imagined Communities]]'' (1991); [[Charles Tilly]], ''Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990-1992'' (1990); [[Anthony D. Smith]], ''Theories of Nationalism'' (1971), etc. </ref>.

[[Ethnic nationalism]], which believed in hereditary membership to the nation, made its appearance in this historical context of the creation of the modern nation-states. One of its main influence was the [[Romantic nationalist]] movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Herder]] (1744-1803), [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johan Fichte]] (1762-1814) in the ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (1808), [[Friedrich Hegel]] (1770-1831), or also, in France, [[Jules Michelet]] (1798-1874). It opposed itself to [[liberal nationalism]], represented by authors such as [[Ernest Renan]] (1823-1892), who conceived the nation as a community which, instead of being based on the ''[[Volk]]'' ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily [[plebiscite]]", 1882) or also [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806-1873) <ref> [[John Stuart Mill]], ''Considerations on Representative Government'', 1861 </ref>.

Ethnic nationalism quickly blended itself with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental [[imperialist]]" ([[Hannah Arendt]], 1951 <ref name=Arendt> [[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951) </ref>) discourses, for example in the [[pan-Germanism]] or [[pan-Slavism]] discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk or of the Slavish people. The [[Alldeutscher Verband|Pan-German League]] (''Alldeutscher Verband''), created in 1891, promoted [[German colonial empire|German imperialism]], "[[racial hygiene]]" and was opposed to intermarriages with Jews. Another, popular current, the ''[[Völkisch movement]]'', was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which it also combined with modern anti-semitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the [[Thule Society]], would participate to the foundation of the [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP) in Munich in 1918, predecessor of the [[NSDAP]] Nazi party. Both pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism played a decisive role in the [[interwar period]] of the 1920s-1930s <ref name=Arendt/>.

These currents began to associate the idea of the nation to the biological concept of a "[[master race]]" (often the "[[Aryan race]]" or "[[Nordic race]]") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflate nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses which posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying [[ethnic cleansing]] in order to achieve "racial purity" and achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.

Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not however limited to pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism ideologies. In France, the transition of Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made of nationalism a characteristic of [[History of far-right movements in France|far-right movements in France]], took place during the [[Dreyfus Affair]] at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide ''[[querelle]]'' affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Emile Zola, who wrote ''[[J'accuse]]'' in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet [[Maurice Barrès]] (1862-1923), one of the founder of ethnic nationalist discourse in France <ref> [[Maurice Barrès]], ''Le Roman de l'énergie nationale'' (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897) </ref>. At the same time, [[Charles Maurras]] (1868-1952), founder of the monarchist ''[[Action française]]'' movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative ''[[métèques]]''). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners," who threatened the ethnic unity of the [[French people]].

===Ethnic conflicts===
{{See|Ethnicity}}
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as [[xenophobia]] and [[ethnocentrism]], although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an [[ideology]] or from [[scientific racism]], which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia.

Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases [[ethnicity]] and [[nationalism]] were harnessed to rally [[combatant]]s in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).

Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Historically, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (particularly when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by [[morality|moral]] or [[ethics|ethical]] considerations.

One example of the brutalizing and dehumanizing effects of racism was the attempt to [[Population history of American indigenous peoples#Deliberate infection.3F|deliberately infect]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] with smallpox during [[Pontiac's Rebellion]] in 1763, itself a war intended to [[ethnic cleansing|ethnically cleanse]] the "other" ([[European Americans]]) from Native American land.

According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other." (Richter, ''Facing East from Indian Country'', p. 208)

In the Western world, racism evolved, twinned with the doctrine of [[white supremacy]], and helped fuel the [[Europe|European]] exploration, conquest, and colonization of much of the rest of the world -- especially after [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the Americas. [[Basil Davidson]] insists in his documentary, ''[[Africa: Different but Equal]]'', that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 1800s, due to the need for a justification of slavery in the Americas. The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West.

Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the [[Triangular Trade]]. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but then due to western diseases, their population drastically decreased.

Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's ''Europe and the People without History'').

Some people, like [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]], have argued during the [[Valladolid controversy]] in the middle of the 16th century that the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were natural slaves because they had no ''souls''. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th-20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.

==Scientific racism==
{{Main|Scientific racism}}
The modern biological definition of race was invented in the 19th century by scientific racist theories. The term "scientific racism" refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to at least the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the [[New Imperialism]] period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]]'s resistance to [[positivism|positivists]] accounts of history, and its support of [[monogenism]], that is that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with [[creationist]] accounts of history. These racist theories grounded on scientific hypothesis were combined with [[unilineal evolution|unilineal theories of social progress]] which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the [[social Darwinism]] discourse, which postulated the "[[survival of the fittest]]" theory, a term coined by [[Herbert Spencer]] in 1864. [[Charles Darwin]] himself explicitly denounced such accounts of history in ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' (1871). Finally, at the end of the 19th century, they intertwined themselves with [[eugenics]] discourses of "[[degeneration]] of the race" and "blood [[heredity]]." Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on [[physical anthropology]], [[anthropometry]], [[craniometry]], [[phrenology]], [[physiognomy]] and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices. Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of [[cultural anthropology]] ([[Franz Boas]], etc.), the British school of [[social anthropology]] ([[Bronisław Malinowski]], [[Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]], etc.), the French school of [[ethnology]] ([[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], etc.), as well as the discovery of the [[Modern evolutionary synthesis|neo-Darwinian synthesis]], such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a [[gene-centered view of evolution]] in the 1960s, which seemed at first to be sufficient proof of the inanity of the "scientific racist" theories of the 19th centuries, which based conception of evolution on "races", a concept which first appeared to lose any sense at the genetical level. However, modern resurgence of racist theories, in particular related to the [[race and intelligence]] controversy, seems to show that [[genetics]] could also be used for ideological, racist purposes.

===Heredity, "degeneration" and eugenics===
{{see|Eugenics}}
The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by [[Francis Galton]] (1822-1911), who used the then popular concept of "[[degeneration]]". He applied [[statistics]] to study human differences and the alleged "[[inheritance of intelligence]]," foreshading future uses of "[[intelligence testing]]" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer [[Emile Zola]] (1840-1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, ''[[Les Rougon-Macquart]]'', where he linked [[heredity]] to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons involved in politics (''[[Son Excellence Eugène Rougon]]'') and medicine (''[[Le Docteur Pascal]]'') and the low-born Macquarts fatally falling into alcoholism (''[[L'Assommoir]]''), prostitution (''[[Nana]]''), and homicide (''[[La Bête humaine]]'').

During the rise of [[Nazi Germany|Nazism in Germany]], some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century <ref> [[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950 </ref>. According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, ''[[The Race Question]]'', an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, the UNESCO declared that it resumed:
<blockquote>"''up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the [[International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation]] has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the [[Appeasement of Hitler|appeasement policy]] of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of [[Nazi ideology]] and policy. [[Tomáš Masaryk|Masaryk]] and [[Edvard Beneš|Beneš]] took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.''"</blockquote>

The [[Third Reich's racial policies]], its [[Nazi eugenics|eugenics programs]] and the extermination of Jews in [[the Holocaust]], as well as Gypsies in [[Porrajmos]] and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the [[Franz Boas|Boasian]] school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. '' These theories were strongly denounced in the UNESCO 1950 statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled ''[[The Race Question]]''.

===Polygenism and racial typologies===
{{see|Polygenism |Typology (anthropology)}}
Works such as [[Arthur Gobineau]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'' (1853-1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of [[Boulainvilliers]] for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality which changed over time. Gobineau thus attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological difference among human beings, giving it the legitimity of [[biology]]. He was one of the first theorist to postulate [[polygenism]], stating that there was, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races." Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by [[Georges Vacher de Lapouge]] (1854-1936)'s [[typology (anthropology)|typology of races]], who published in 1899 ''The Aryan and his Social Role'', in which he opposed the white, "[[Aryan]] race", "[[dolichocephalic]]", to the "brachycephalic" race, whom the "[[Jew]]" was to be the archetype. Vacher de Lapoug thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "''[[Nordic theory|Homo europaeus]]'' (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "''[[Homo alpinus]]''" ([[Auvergne|Auvergnat]], [[Turkish]], etc.), and finally the "''[[Homo mediterraneus]]''" ([[Naples|Neapolitan]], [[Andalusia|Andalus]], etc.) He assimilated races and [[social class]]es, considering that the French upper class was a representant of the ''Homo europaeus'', while the lower class represented the ''Homo alpinus''. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of [[trade union]]ists, considered as "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of [[labour condition]]s. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking [[social conflict]] by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order <ref> Matsuo Takeshi ([[Shimane Prefecture|University of Shimane]], Japan). ''L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme'' (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in ''[[Etudes de langue et littérature françaises]]'' 2001, n°79, pp. 47-57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; [[INIST]]-[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|CNRS]], Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 ([http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13473405 Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS] </ref>

The same year than Vacher de Lapouge, [[William Z. Ripley]] used identical racial classification in ''[[The Races of Europe]]'' (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Others famous scientific authors include [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain|H.S. Chamberlain]] at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who [[naturalization|naturalized]] himself as German because of his admiration for the "Arya] race") or [[Madison Grant]], a eugenicist and author of ''[[The Passing of the Great Race]]'' (1916).

===Academic racism against Africans===
[[Image:Races and skulls.png|150px|left|thumb|[[Josiah C. Nott|Nott]] and [[George Gliddon|Gliddon]]'s ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857) used misleading imagery to suggest that "Negros" ranked between whites and chimpanzees.]]

In relation to African people, academic racism was formed during times of slavery and colonialism, in order to remove any form of noble claim from the victims of these systems.
[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] comments on this racism by stating,
<blockquote>
Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa , other than raw material''<ref name=Shahadah>[http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/agencyandafrica.htm The Removal of Agency from Africa] by [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]]</ref>
</blockquote>

Oxford academic [[J.R. Baker]] listed that a civilization is comprised of 21 basic components which where critical to demarcate the degree of civilization of a race. His conclusion was that Caucasians met all 21 criteria in Iraq, Crete, India, and in Egypt, and the Asians met them all in China. The Africans and Australian aborigines met virtually none of the 21 criteria. <ref name=JRbaker>‘’Race’’. J.R. Baker’’, 1974, p 507-508</ref>

Scottish philosopher and economist [[David Hume]] said
<blockquote>
''I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences”.<ref name=EricMorton>[http://www.africanphilosophy.com/vol1.1/morton.html RACE AND RACISM IN THE WORKS OF DAVID HUME] by [[Eric Morton]]</ref>
</blockquote>

German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.'' <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." {{Fact|date=January 2007}} This view that Africa had no history was repeated by [[Hugh Trevor-Roper, Baron Dacre of Glanton|Hugh Trevor-Roper]], Regius Professor of History at Oxford University, as late as 1963. {{Fact|date=January 2007}} During the Nazi era German scientist rearranged academia to support claims of a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt. <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

[[Image:Völkerschau (Human Zoo) Stuttgart1928.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Human Zoo]] (''Völkerschau'') in [[Stuttgart]] (Germany) in 1928.]]

===Human zoos===
[[Human zoo]]s were an important means of bolstering ''popular racism'' by connecting it to [[scientific racism]]: they were both objects of public curiosity and of [[anthropology]] and [[anthropometry]].<ref> [http://migs.concordia.ca/occpapers/zoo.htm On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism], Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000 </ref><ref> {{cite news | authors=Pascal Blanchard, Sandrine Lemaire and Nicolas Bancel | title=Human zoos - Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists | publisher=[[Le Monde Diplomatique]] |date=August 2000 | url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo}} {{en icon}}; {{cite news | title= Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale | publisher=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=August 2000|url=http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html}} {{fr icon}} (available to everyone) </ref> [[Joice Heth]], an African American slave, was displayed by [[Phineas Taylor Barnum|P.T. Barnum]] in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of [[Saartjie Baartman]], the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until [[World War II]].

Congolese pygmy [[Ota Benga]] was displayed in 1906 by [[eugenicist]] [[Madison Grant]], head of the [[Bronx Zoo]], as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to [[Darwinism]], creating a [[social Darwinism]] ideology which tried to ground itself in [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris [[Colonial Exhibition]] displayed [[Kanaks]] from [[New Caledonia]].<ref> {{PDFlink|[http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter6/interviews/filetodownload,18533,en.pdf The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931]|96.6 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}} by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., [[Santa Clara University]], USA </ref> A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the [[Expo '58|Brussels' World Fair]].

==Racism in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance==
{{see|Limpieza de sangre}}
Although [[Christian anti-semitism|anti-Semitism]] has a long European history, related to Christianism ([[anti-Judaism]]), racism itself is frequently described as a ''modern'' phenomenon. In the view of the French intellectual [[Michel Foucault]], the first formulation of racism emerged in the [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern period]] as the "[[discourse]] of race struggle", a historical and political discourse which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of [[sovereignty]].<ref>Michel Foucault, ''Society Must Be Defended'' (1976-77)</ref>

[[Richard E. Nisbett]] has said that the question of racial superiority may go back at least a thousand years, to the time when the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Moors invaded the Iberian peninsula]], occupying most of [[Hispania]] for six centuries, where they founded the advanced civilization of [[Al-Andalus]] (711-1492). Al-Andalus coincided with ''[[La Convivencia]]'', an era of religious tolerance and with the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula]]. It was followed by a violent ''[[Reconquista]]'' under the ''[[Reyes Catolicos]]'' (Catholic Kings), [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand V]] and [[Isabella I of Spain|Isabella I]]. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the ''[[limpieza de sangre]]'' ("cleanliness of blood") doctrine. Following the expulsion of most [[Sephardic Jews]] from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to [[Converso|convert]] to Roman Catholicism, becoming "[[New Christian]]s" which were despised and discriminated by the others Christians. The system and ideology of the ''limpieza de sangre'' ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith. In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was ended through a legal decree issued by the [[Marquis of Pombal]] in [[1772]], almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The ''limpieza de sangre'' doctrine was also very common in the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]], where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by [[Eduardo Galeano]] in the ''Open Veins of Latin America'' (1971). It included, among [[Glossary of terms for multiraciality|others terms]], ''[[mestizo]]'' (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), ''[[castizo]]'' (75% European and 25% Native American), ''Spaniard'' (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), ''[[Mulatto]]'' (50% European and 50% African), ''Albarazado'' (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.

At the end of the [[Spanish Renaissance|Renaissance]], the [[Valladolid debate]] (1550-1551) concerning the treatment of [[Indigenous people of the Americas|natives]] of the "[[New World]]" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]]. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and [[natural law]]. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversy concerning racism, slavery and [[Eurocentrism]] that would arise in the following centuries.

Philosopher and historian [[Michel Foucault]] argued that the first appearance of racism as a social [[discourse]] (as opposed to simple [[xenophobia]], which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 [[Glorious Revolution]] in Great Britain, in [[Edward Coke]] or [[John Lilburne]]'s work.

However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "[[scientific racism]]". Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a ''historical notion''. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the [[bourgeoisie]], the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy.

This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as [[Boulainvilliers]], [[Nicolas Fréret]], and then, during the 1789 [[French Revolution]], [[Sieyès]], and afterward [[Augustin Thierry]] and [[Cournot]]. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people".

He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified [[nation-state]] is, of course, here an [[anachronism]] — which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the [[absolute monarchy]], who tried to bypass the [[aristocracy]] by establishing a direct relationship to the [[Third Estate]]. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "[[Franks]]", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished [[Gallo-Romans]], who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the [[right of conquest]].

Early modern racism was opposed to [[nationalism]] and the nation-state: the [[Comte de Montlosier]], in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "''this new people born of slaves... [[miscegenation|mixture of all races and of all times]]"''.

While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the [[ethnic nationalist]] discourse which identified the "race" to the "[[folk]]", leading to such racist movements as [[pan-Germanism]] and [[pan-Slavism]], medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and [[social conflict]]s.

Michel Foucault thus traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and [[eugenicists]], who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "[[state racism]]" (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, [[Marxism|Marxists]] also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle which provided the real [[philosophy of history|engine of history]] and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the [[essentialist]] notion of "race" into the historical notion of "[[class struggle]]", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In ''[[The Will to Knowledge]]'' (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]], which opposed the concepts of "blood [[heredity]]," prevailent in the 19th century racist discourse.

==Racism and European colonialism in the nineteenth century==
{{Main|Colonialism}}
Authors such as [[Hannah Arendt]], in her 1951 book ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'', have said that the racist [[ideology]] ("popular racism") developed at the end of the nineteenth century helped legitimize the [[New Imperialism|imperialist conquests]] of foreign territories, and crimes that accompanied it (such as the [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]], 1904-1907).

[[Auguste Comte]]'s [[positivism|positivist]] ideology of necessary [[social progress]] as a consequence of [[scientific progress]] lead many Europeans to believe in the inherent superiority of the "White Race" over non-whites.

[[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem ''[[The White Man's Burden]]'' (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of such belief, though also thought to be a satirical vantage of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize subjugation, slavery and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous peoples, which were thus conceived as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs.

Other colonialists recognized the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gain and there are some Europeans during the time period who objected to the injustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the so-called "[[Hottentot Venus]]" was displayed in England in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, [[Joseph Conrad]] published ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899), a clear criticism of the [[Congo Free State]] owned by [[Leopold II of Belgium]].

==State racism (Nazism, Fascism, Japan, South Africa)==
{{main|Nazism and race|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Italian Fascism|Eugenics in Imperial Japan|Apartheid in South Africa}}
[[State racism]] played a role in the [[Nazi Germany]] regime and [[Fascism|fascist]] regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's [[Showa period]]<ref>Edward Russel of Liverpool, ''The Knights of Bushido'', 2002, p.238, Herbert Bix, ''Hirohito and the making of modern Japan'', 2001, p.313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese power'', 1989, p.263-272</ref>.

These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal.

==Racism against Middle Easterners==
{{worldview}}{{Main|Anti-Arabism|Anti-Iranianism}}
Also see [[Israeli Arab#Discrimination|Israeli Arab discrimination]] and [[Anti-arabism#Anti-Arabism in Israel|Anti-Arabism in Israel]].
There are reports of a large increase in anti-Arab/anti-Iranian racism in the [[United States]] since the [[September 11 2001 attacks]]. <ref>http://www.religionlink.org/tip_030407b.php</ref> [[Racial profiling]] of people with a [[Middle Eastern]] ethnic background was proposed by a [[New York]] [[Congressman]] on [[August 15]] [[2006]].<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2930</ref>

In Hollywood, Arabs and Iranians have been portrayed as terrorists and women abusers, and Arabs as extremist people.<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2357</ref> Iraq and Iran were demonized which led to hatred towards Arabs and Iranians living in the United States and elsewhere in the [[western world]]. <ref>http://www.freepress.org/departments/display/13/2004/814</ref> <ref>http://www.soundvision.com/info/peace/demonization.asp</ref> There have been attacks against Arabs and Iranians not only on the basis of their religion ([[Islam]]), but also on the basis of their ethnicity; numerous Christian Arabs and Iranians have been attacked based on their appearances.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/niot/citizens_respond/losaltos.html Attacks on Arab Americans] (PBS)</ref>

==Racism against Jews==
{{Main|Antisemitism|History of antisemitism}}
Antisemitism is a specific case of racism targeting [[Jew]]s, although scholars argue whether it should be considered a ''[[sui generis]]'' specie or not.
[[Image:Nurembergracechart.jpg|thumb|left|200px|1935 chart from [[Nazi Germany]] that classified people as German or Jewish based on the heritage of their grandparents.]]

Scholars distinguish traditional, ''religious antisemitism'', which derives from [[Christianity|Christian]] accusation of the [[deicide]] (cleared at the [[Second Vatican Council]] in 1965), with 19th-20th centuries ''[[racial antisemitism]]'', which ultimately led to [[the Holocaust]] in which about 6 million European Jews, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered. ''See also [[Holocaust denial]].''

In the [[Middle Ages]] [[Iberian peninsula]], the system of [[limpieza de sangre]] (cleanliness of blood) ostracized [[New Christians]] (offspring of [[Sephardi]]c Jews who were forced to convert to [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]]) from the rest of society. In [[Portugal]], the legal distinction between New and Old Christians was ended in 1772.

Expelled en masse from [[History of the Jews in England|England]], [[History of the Jews in France|France]], [[History of the Jews in Spain|Spain]] and most other [[Western Europe]]an countries at various times, and persecuted in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] in the [[14th century]], many Jews accepted [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III]]'s invitation to settle in [[History of the Jews in Poland|Polish]]-controlled areas of [[Eastern Europe]]. The traditional measures of keeping the [[Russian Empire]] free of Jews failed when the main territory of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was annexed during the [[Partitions of Poland]]. As large Jewish populations were taken over by Russia, [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]] established the [[Pale of Settlement]] in 1791. The official segregation of the [[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union|Russian Jews]] was compounded by waves of [[pogroms]] and oppressive legislation such as the 1882 [[May Laws]] and led to mass [[emigration]] and political activism.

Modern European antisemitism has its origin in 19th century [[pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]] theories that viewed the Jewish people as entirely different from the [[Aryan]], or [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]], populations. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their [[religion]], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic [[racial characteristics]]. The growth of [[nationalism]] in many countries viewed Jews as a separate and often "alien" nation within the countries in which Jews resided. Such sentiments were exposed in the [[Dreyfus affair]] in 1890s France. ''See also [[Rootless cosmopolitan]]ism.''

The rise of views of Jews as a malevolent "race" generated antisemitic [[conspiracy theories]] that Jews, as a group, were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world. From the early infamous Russian literary [[hoax]], ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', published by the Tsar's [[okhranka|secret police]], a key element of antisemitic thought has been that Jews influence or control the world.

==Religion and racism==
:''See [[Christianity and Slavery]] and [[Islam and Slavery]]''

In the nineteenth century, many American Christians were taught that Africans were descendants of [[Ham (son of Noah)]], and thus deserved to be slaves.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} However, [[abolitionism|abolition]] movements also used Christian teachings in explaining their views.

The [[Baha'i Faith]] denies the existence of human races, and has supported the ideology of ''one human race'' from its inception in 1863.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

{{section stub}}

==Footnotes==

{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* Barkan, Elazar (1992), ''The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars'', Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
* Dain, Bruce (2002), ''A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory)
* Diamond, Jared (1999), "Guns, Germs, and Steel", W.W. Norton, New York, NY.
* Ewen & Ewen (2006), "Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality", Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss, Claude]] (1952), ''Race and History'', ([[UNESCO]]).
* Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), ''Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture'', Westview Press.
* Stokes, DaShanne (forthcoming), ''Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom'', [http://www.geocities.com/eaglefeatherlaw/stokes.article.html URL].
* Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", ''Political Power and Social Theory'' 11 (1997), 183–206. ([[historiography]] of race and racism)
* [[Pierre-André Taguieff|Taguieff, Pierre-André]] (1987), ''La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles'', Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
* Twine, France Winddance (1997), ''Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil'', Rutgers University Press.
*[[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950

==See also==
*[[List of racism-related topics]]
*[[Racism by country]]
*[[Celebrity Big Brother racism controversy]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Racism}}
*[[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_2001_Dec/ai_82066713/pg_1 Extract] from "Race and History" (1952) by [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
*[http://www.understandingrace.org/ Understanding race] website with pegagogic materials for both students and teachers, including sections for children (ages 10-13) and academic researchers. Emphasis on the United States.
*[http://www.pbs.org/race Race] in-depth website about race
*[http://www.newsreel.org/nav/title.asp?tc=CN0149 Race - the power of illusion] argument that while race is a biological fiction, racism permeates the structure of society
*[http://www.amren.com/0306issue/0306issue.html#article1 Race Denial: The Power of a Delusion] detailed critique seeking to refute the film
* [http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Racism.asp Racism and human rights] Racism from Global Issues
* [http://www.irr.org.uk/ Institute for Race Relations]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/darwin_nazism.htm The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist] Refutes claims that Darwin was a racist
*[http://kitoba.com/pedia/Racism.html Racism] brief summary of the root causes of racism
*[http://cms.interculturalu.com/ InterculturalU.com] - a scholarly site that covers racism and other related topics.

[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Discrimination]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]
[[Category:Racism|*]]
[[Category:Sociology]]

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Racism

2007-03-09T19:18:44Z

206.102.240.2: /* Institutional racism */

{{Mergefrom|Racial supremacy|date=March 2007}}
{{OR}}
{{Discrimination2}}

'''Racism''' is a [[belief]] system or [[doctrine]] which postulates a hierarchy among various "[[human]] [[race]]s" or [[ethnic group]]s, often leading to the belief of being a member of a "[[master race]]". It may be based on a conception assuming inherent biological differences between different ethnic groups, which would be purported to determine cultural or individual behaviour. However, modern racism discourse may coincide with contemporary scientific researches which have criticized former "[[scientific racism]]" discourses, popular until [[World War II]] and which claimed that the "race" was a biological and [[physical anthropology|anthropological]] reality. Thus, they may, on some occasions, accept the [[cultural relativist]] viewpoint which criticize any attempt in hierarchizing various cultures among them, while continuing to support a racist discourse. However, instead of being based on a biological [[race (historical)|definition of race]], this contemporary racism accept cultural and historical differences, but claim they justify, to the minimum, [[racial separatism|separatism]] between various ethnics groups.

Racism may be described as a strong form of [[ethnocentrism]], including traits such as [[xenophobia]] (fear and hate of foreigners), views against interracial relationships (anti-[[miscegenation]]), [[ethnic nationalism]], and [[ethnic stereotype]]s. Racism has been a motivating factor in [[social discrimination]], [[racial segregation]] and violence, spanning from [[hate speech]]s, [[pogroms]] and massacres, to [[genocide]]s and [[ethnic cleansing]]s. In a less dramatic manner, [[racial discrimination]] is also common, although illegal, in many states. Furthermore, distinctions of various ethnic groups may be instrumentalized by [[politician]]s who practice "[[race baiting]]" in an attempt to win votes.

The term racist has been a [[pejorative]] term since at least the 1940s, and the identification of a group or person as racist is often controversial, as racism is often considered a characteristic of [[far right]] movements.

==Definitions of racism==
{{Further|[[Race (historical definitions)]]}}

In practice, racism takes forms such as racial [[prejudice]], [[racial segregation|segregation]] or [[subordination]]. Racism can more narrowly refer to a legalized system of [[domination]] of one ethnic group on another, such as in [[institutional racism]].
Racial prejudice refers to pre-formed opinions about individuals based on their perceived racial heritage. It involves [[Hasty generalization|hasty generalization]]s about members of a group based on the perceived characteristics of one or more members of the group. Generalizations include beliefs that every member of a group has the same personality traits, interests, language, culture, ideas, norms and attitudes. Sometimes the characteristic is correct but the reason or cause is incorrectly assigned. Racial prejudices are sometimes promoted by the mainstream media.

Organizations and institutions that put racism into action discriminate against and marginalize a class of people who share a common racial designation. The term racism is usually applied to the [[dominant]] group in a society, because it is that group which has the means to oppress others. The term can also apply to any individual or group, regardless of social status or dominance.

Racism can be both overt and covert. Individual racism sometimes consists of overt acts by individuals, which can result in violence or the destruction of property. Institutional racism is often more covert and subtle. It often appears within the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and frequently receives less public condemnation than the overt type.
[[Image:ColoredDrinking.jpg|left|thumb|250px|An [[African American]] man drinks out of the "colored only" water cooler at a [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] [[streetcar]] terminal in the [[United States]] in 1939.]]
[[W.E.B. DuBois]] argued that [[racialism]] is the belief that differences between the races exist, be they [[Biological process|biological]], [[social]], [[psychological]], or in the realm of the [[soul]]. He argued that racism is using this belief to promote the idea that one's race is superior to the others.

According to Jared Diamond in his work ''[[Guns, Germs and Steel]]'', race is essentially a social and historical construction.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} He argues that it has no real basis in science, nor can it be used to explain why Europe gained the upper hand in world conquests.

[[Molefi Asante]], an [[African American]] academic, describes racism as a "wall of ignorance" that hides the long history of racial injustice from public consciousness.<ref name="Molefi Asante on Race">
{{cite book
| editor = [[Molefi Asante]].
| title = Erasing Racism: The Survival of the American Nation
| origyear = 2001
| url = https://www.gop.com/contribute/join.aspx?key=L1M7U8Y0F0
| accessdate = 2003
| edition = Hardback
| year = 2003
| month = September
| publisher = [[Prometheus Books]]
| location = USA
}}</ref > He argues that most [[White people|whites]] view racism as a thing of the past; a problem that was solved by civil rights. He says [[African Americans]] continue to experience racism in many areas of social life.

== Reverse Racism ==

Reverse racism, often referred to a [[reverse discrimination]], is the act of widespread discrimination, mistreatment, or hatred of the traditionally dominant race.

Case in example:

''Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education''[http://www.adversity.net/0_Education/Seattle-Kentucky/intro.htm]:

The plaintiff Crystal Meredith, challenged a ruling of the Jefferson County (Kentucky) public schools that required black student enrollment at all schools be at least between 15 and 50 percent, in order to maintain racial diversity in the class room. In the case of Crystal Meredith, her son, a white student, was denied enrollment at their neighborhood public school because this particular school was not meeting the 15/50 rule, therefore allowing no new white students to enroll.

While the current push among American academia has been to redefine racism as an attribute solely in possession of those belonging to a society's dominant race, the standard definition of racism acknowledges otherwise. Thus, while the term reverse racism remains controversial to some, the act of racism against the most populous race of a society does in fact exist by definition.

==Racial discrimination==
[[Image:Hk anti-discrimination poster.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An anti-discrimination poster in a [[Hong Kong]] [[MTR|subway]] station, circa 2005]]
Racial discrimination is treating people differently based
on race. [[Racial segregation]] policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerced without being legalized.

Researchers at the [[University of Chicago]] (Marianne Bertrand) and [[MIT]] ([[Sendhil Mullainathan]]) found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black".{{Fact|date=January 2007}} These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews, no matter their level of previous experience. Results were stronger for higher quality résumés. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the [[United States]]' long history of discrimination (i.e. [[Jim Crow laws]], [[Affirmative Action]], etc.).

===Institutional racism===
{{See|Institutional racism|State racism|Racial profiling|Racism by country}}
[[Institutional racism]] (also known as structural racism, [[state racism]] or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. [[Stokely Carmichael]] is credited for coining the phrase ''institutional racism'' in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".<ref>Richard W. Race, {{PDFlink|[http://www.shef.ac.uk/socst/Shop/race_article.pdf Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales]|47.2 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}, ''Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research'', University of Sheffield, p.12. Accessed [[20 June]] [[2006]].</ref>

[[Maulana Karenga]] states that the effects of racism were
<blockquote>
''the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples.'' He argues that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.''<ref name="Ethics on Reparations">{{cite web|url=http://www.africawithin.com/karenga/ethics.htm|publisher="[[Ron Karenga]]"|title="Effects on Africa"|}}</ref>
</blockquote>

===Economics and racism===
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of [[discrimination]] which is caused by past racism, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in the parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. (e.g. A member of race Y, Mary, has her opportunities adversely affected (directly and/or indirectly) by the mistreatment of her ancestors of race Y.)

Some scholars have suggested that capitalism has played a large role in promoting racism especially socioeconomic racism. The Western hemisphere slave trade and colonialist activities were mostly conducted by the earliest capitalist economies ie; Spain, Great Britain, the United States and the Netherlands.<ref>http://.www.zmag.org/CrisesCurEvts/bohmerrace.htm</ref><ref>http://.race.eserver.org/toward-a-theory-of-racism.htm</ref>
Critics have pointed out that a slave labor economy was the sometimes considered ultimate form of capitalism because the capitalists made pure profits because they used free labor.<ref>http://.flag.blackened.net/revolt/talks/racism.html</ref>

[[Global apartheid]] is a phrase used by those who argue that the international economic and political system is racist and is designed so that a white minority internationally accrue more wealth and power and enjoy more human and legal rights than the non-white world majority.

===Declarations against racial discrimination===
Racial discrimination contradicts the 1776 [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] issued during the [[French Revolution]] and the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], signed after [[World War II]], which all postulate equality between all human beings.

In 1950, [[UNESCO]] suggested in ''[[The Race Question]]'' —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as [[Ashley Montagu]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Gunnar Myrdal]], [[Julian Huxley]], etc. — to "drop the term ''race'' altogether and instead speak of [[ethnic groups]]". The statement condemned [[scientific racism]] theories which had played a role in the [[Holocaust]]. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the [[Enlightenment]] and its assumption of [[equality|equal rights]] for all. Along with Myrdal's ''[[An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy]]'' (1944), ''The Race Question'' influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court [[racial segregation in the United States|desegregation]] decision in "[[Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka]]" <ref name="Prins"> [http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=30431&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html “Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946-1962)”], by [[Harald E.L. Prins]], UNESCO {{en icon}} </ref>.

The [[United Nations]] uses the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the ''[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', adopted in 1966:
<blockquote>
''...any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.''(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination) <ref> [[http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm Text of the Convention], ''[['[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', 1966 </ref>
</blockquote>

In 2000, the [[European Union]] explicitly banned racism along with many other forms of social discrimination:
<blockquote>
''Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality.''<ref>http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.html</ref>
</blockquote>

==Ethnic nationalism==
{{see|Ethnic nationalism |Romantic nationalism}}

After the [[Napoleonic War]]s, Europe was confronted to the new "[[nationalities]] question," leading to ceaseless reconfigurations of the European map, which frontiers between states had been delimited during the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]]. [[Nationalism]] had made its first, striking appearance with the invention of the ''[[levée en masse]]'' by the [[French Revolution|French revolutionaries]], thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly-founded [[French First Republic|Republic]] against the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' order represented by the European monarchies. This lead to the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] (1792-1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to a subsequent European-wide debates on the concept and realities of [[nation]]s, and in particular of [[nation-state]]s. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms ([[Ottoman Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Swedish Empire]], [[Kingdom of France]], etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (''[[Kabinettskriege]]'' in German). Modern [[nation-state]]s would appear only in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiments for the first time in [[Enlightenment Spain|Spain]] during the [[Peninsula War]] (1808-1813 - known in Spanish as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]], the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the [[Industrial Era]], leading in particular to the [[1848 Revolutions]], the [[Italian unification]] completed during the 1871 [[Franco-Prussian War]], which itself culminated in the proclamation of the [[German Empire]] in the Hall of Mirrors in the [[Palace of Versailles]], thus achieving the [[German unification]]. Meanwhile, the [[Ottoman Empire]], "sick man of Europe," was confronted to endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the [[Austrian-Hungarian Empire]], would lead to the creation after [[World War I]] of the various nation-states of the [[Balkan]]s, which were always confronted, and remained so today, to the existence of "national [[minorities]]" in their borders <ref> On this "[[nationalities]] question" and the problematic of [[nationalism]], see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: [[Ernest Gellner]], ''Nations and Nationalism'' (1983); [[Eric Hobsbawm]],''The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789-1848'' (1962), ''Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality'' (1990); [[Benedict Anderson]], ''[[Imagined Communities]]'' (1991); [[Charles Tilly]], ''Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990-1992'' (1990); [[Anthony D. Smith]], ''Theories of Nationalism'' (1971), etc. </ref>.

[[Ethnic nationalism]], which believed in hereditary membership to the nation, made its appearance in this historical context of the creation of the modern nation-states. One of its main influence was the [[Romantic nationalist]] movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Herder]] (1744-1803), [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johan Fichte]] (1762-1814) in the ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (1808), [[Friedrich Hegel]] (1770-1831), or also, in France, [[Jules Michelet]] (1798-1874). It opposed itself to [[liberal nationalism]], represented by authors such as [[Ernest Renan]] (1823-1892), who conceived the nation as a community which, instead of being based on the ''[[Volk]]'' ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily [[plebiscite]]", 1882) or also [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806-1873) <ref> [[John Stuart Mill]], ''Considerations on Representative Government'', 1861 </ref>.

Ethnic nationalism quickly blended itself with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental [[imperialist]]" ([[Hannah Arendt]], 1951 <ref name=Arendt> [[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951) </ref>) discourses, for example in the [[pan-Germanism]] or [[pan-Slavism]] discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk or of the Slavish people. The [[Alldeutscher Verband|Pan-German League]] (''Alldeutscher Verband''), created in 1891, promoted [[German colonial empire|German imperialism]], "[[racial hygiene]]" and was opposed to intermarriages with Jews. Another, popular current, the ''[[Völkisch movement]]'', was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which it also combined with modern anti-semitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the [[Thule Society]], would participate to the foundation of the [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP) in Munich in 1918, predecessor of the [[NSDAP]] Nazi party. Both pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism played a decisive role in the [[interwar period]] of the 1920s-1930s <ref name=Arendt/>.

These currents began to associate the idea of the nation to the biological concept of a "[[master race]]" (often the "[[Aryan race]]" or "[[Nordic race]]") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflate nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses which posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying [[ethnic cleansing]] in order to achieve "racial purity" and achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.

Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not however limited to pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism ideologies. In France, the transition of Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made of nationalism a characteristic of [[History of far-right movements in France|far-right movements in France]], took place during the [[Dreyfus Affair]] at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide ''[[querelle]]'' affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Emile Zola, who wrote ''[[J'accuse]]'' in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet [[Maurice Barrès]] (1862-1923), one of the founder of ethnic nationalist discourse in France <ref> [[Maurice Barrès]], ''Le Roman de l'énergie nationale'' (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897) </ref>. At the same time, [[Charles Maurras]] (1868-1952), founder of the monarchist ''[[Action française]]'' movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative ''[[métèques]]''). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners," who threatened the ethnic unity of the [[French people]].

===Ethnic conflicts===
{{See|Ethnicity}}
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as [[xenophobia]] and [[ethnocentrism]], although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an [[ideology]] or from [[scientific racism]], which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia.

Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases [[ethnicity]] and [[nationalism]] were harnessed to rally [[combatant]]s in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).

Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Historically, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (particularly when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by [[morality|moral]] or [[ethics|ethical]] considerations.

One example of the brutalizing and dehumanizing effects of racism was the attempt to [[Population history of American indigenous peoples#Deliberate infection.3F|deliberately infect]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] with smallpox during [[Pontiac's Rebellion]] in 1763, itself a war intended to [[ethnic cleansing|ethnically cleanse]] the "other" ([[European Americans]]) from Native American land.

According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other." (Richter, ''Facing East from Indian Country'', p. 208)

In the Western world, racism evolved, twinned with the doctrine of [[white supremacy]], and helped fuel the [[Europe|European]] exploration, conquest, and colonization of much of the rest of the world -- especially after [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the Americas. [[Basil Davidson]] insists in his documentary, ''[[Africa: Different but Equal]]'', that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 1800s, due to the need for a justification of slavery in the Americas. The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West.

Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the [[Triangular Trade]]. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but then due to western diseases, their population drastically decreased.

Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's ''Europe and the People without History'').

Some people, like [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]], have argued during the [[Valladolid controversy]] in the middle of the 16th century that the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were natural slaves because they had no ''souls''. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th-20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.

==Scientific racism==
{{Main|Scientific racism}}
The modern biological definition of race was invented in the 19th century by scientific racist theories. The term "scientific racism" refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to at least the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the [[New Imperialism]] period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]]'s resistance to [[positivism|positivists]] accounts of history, and its support of [[monogenism]], that is that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with [[creationist]] accounts of history. These racist theories grounded on scientific hypothesis were combined with [[unilineal evolution|unilineal theories of social progress]] which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the [[social Darwinism]] discourse, which postulated the "[[survival of the fittest]]" theory, a term coined by [[Herbert Spencer]] in 1864. [[Charles Darwin]] himself explicitly denounced such accounts of history in ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' (1871). Finally, at the end of the 19th century, they intertwined themselves with [[eugenics]] discourses of "[[degeneration]] of the race" and "blood [[heredity]]." Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on [[physical anthropology]], [[anthropometry]], [[craniometry]], [[phrenology]], [[physiognomy]] and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices. Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of [[cultural anthropology]] ([[Franz Boas]], etc.), the British school of [[social anthropology]] ([[Bronisław Malinowski]], [[Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]], etc.), the French school of [[ethnology]] ([[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], etc.), as well as the discovery of the [[Modern evolutionary synthesis|neo-Darwinian synthesis]], such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a [[gene-centered view of evolution]] in the 1960s, which seemed at first to be sufficient proof of the inanity of the "scientific racist" theories of the 19th centuries, which based conception of evolution on "races", a concept which first appeared to lose any sense at the genetical level. However, modern resurgence of racist theories, in particular related to the [[race and intelligence]] controversy, seems to show that [[genetics]] could also be used for ideological, racist purposes.

===Heredity, "degeneration" and eugenics===
{{see|Eugenics}}
The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by [[Francis Galton]] (1822-1911), who used the then popular concept of "[[degeneration]]". He applied [[statistics]] to study human differences and the alleged "[[inheritance of intelligence]]," foreshading future uses of "[[intelligence testing]]" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer [[Emile Zola]] (1840-1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, ''[[Les Rougon-Macquart]]'', where he linked [[heredity]] to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons involved in politics (''[[Son Excellence Eugène Rougon]]'') and medicine (''[[Le Docteur Pascal]]'') and the low-born Macquarts fatally falling into alcoholism (''[[L'Assommoir]]''), prostitution (''[[Nana]]''), and homicide (''[[La Bête humaine]]'').

During the rise of [[Nazi Germany|Nazism in Germany]], some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century <ref> [[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950 </ref>. According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, ''[[The Race Question]]'', an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, the UNESCO declared that it resumed:
<blockquote>"''up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the [[International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation]] has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the [[Appeasement of Hitler|appeasement policy]] of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of [[Nazi ideology]] and policy. [[Tomáš Masaryk|Masaryk]] and [[Edvard Beneš|Beneš]] took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.''"</blockquote>

The [[Third Reich's racial policies]], its [[Nazi eugenics|eugenics programs]] and the extermination of Jews in [[the Holocaust]], as well as Gypsies in [[Porrajmos]] and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the [[Franz Boas|Boasian]] school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. '' These theories were strongly denounced in the UNESCO 1950 statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled ''[[The Race Question]]''.

===Polygenism and racial typologies===
{{see|Polygenism |Typology (anthropology)}}
Works such as [[Arthur Gobineau]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'' (1853-1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of [[Boulainvilliers]] for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality which changed over time. Gobineau thus attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological difference among human beings, giving it the legitimity of [[biology]]. He was one of the first theorist to postulate [[polygenism]], stating that there was, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races." Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by [[Georges Vacher de Lapouge]] (1854-1936)'s [[typology (anthropology)|typology of races]], who published in 1899 ''The Aryan and his Social Role'', in which he opposed the white, "[[Aryan]] race", "[[dolichocephalic]]", to the "brachycephalic" race, whom the "[[Jew]]" was to be the archetype. Vacher de Lapoug thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "''[[Nordic theory|Homo europaeus]]'' (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "''[[Homo alpinus]]''" ([[Auvergne|Auvergnat]], [[Turkish]], etc.), and finally the "''[[Homo mediterraneus]]''" ([[Naples|Neapolitan]], [[Andalusia|Andalus]], etc.) He assimilated races and [[social class]]es, considering that the French upper class was a representant of the ''Homo europaeus'', while the lower class represented the ''Homo alpinus''. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of [[trade union]]ists, considered as "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of [[labour condition]]s. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking [[social conflict]] by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order <ref> Matsuo Takeshi ([[Shimane Prefecture|University of Shimane]], Japan). ''L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme'' (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in ''[[Etudes de langue et littérature françaises]]'' 2001, n°79, pp. 47-57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; [[INIST]]-[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|CNRS]], Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 ([http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13473405 Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS] </ref>

The same year than Vacher de Lapouge, [[William Z. Ripley]] used identical racial classification in ''[[The Races of Europe]]'' (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Others famous scientific authors include [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain|H.S. Chamberlain]] at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who [[naturalization|naturalized]] himself as German because of his admiration for the "Arya] race") or [[Madison Grant]], a eugenicist and author of ''[[The Passing of the Great Race]]'' (1916).

===Academic racism against Africans===
[[Image:Races and skulls.png|150px|left|thumb|[[Josiah C. Nott|Nott]] and [[George Gliddon|Gliddon]]'s ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857) used misleading imagery to suggest that "Negros" ranked between whites and chimpanzees.]]

In relation to African people, academic racism was formed during times of slavery and colonialism, in order to remove any form of noble claim from the victims of these systems.
[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] comments on this racism by stating,
<blockquote>
Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa , other than raw material''<ref name=Shahadah>[http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/agencyandafrica.htm The Removal of Agency from Africa] by [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]]</ref>
</blockquote>

Oxford academic [[J.R. Baker]] listed that a civilization is comprised of 21 basic components which where critical to demarcate the degree of civilization of a race. His conclusion was that Caucasians met all 21 criteria in Iraq, Crete, India, and in Egypt, and the Asians met them all in China. The Africans and Australian aborigines met virtually none of the 21 criteria. <ref name=JRbaker>‘’Race’’. J.R. Baker’’, 1974, p 507-508</ref>

Scottish philosopher and economist [[David Hume]] said
<blockquote>
''I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences”.<ref name=EricMorton>[http://www.africanphilosophy.com/vol1.1/morton.html RACE AND RACISM IN THE WORKS OF DAVID HUME] by [[Eric Morton]]</ref>
</blockquote>

German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.'' <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." {{Fact|date=January 2007}} This view that Africa had no history was repeated by [[Hugh Trevor-Roper, Baron Dacre of Glanton|Hugh Trevor-Roper]], Regius Professor of History at Oxford University, as late as 1963. {{Fact|date=January 2007}} During the Nazi era German scientist rearranged academia to support claims of a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt. <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

[[Image:Völkerschau (Human Zoo) Stuttgart1928.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Human Zoo]] (''Völkerschau'') in [[Stuttgart]] (Germany) in 1928.]]

===Human zoos===
[[Human zoo]]s were an important means of bolstering ''popular racism'' by connecting it to [[scientific racism]]: they were both objects of public curiosity and of [[anthropology]] and [[anthropometry]].<ref> [http://migs.concordia.ca/occpapers/zoo.htm On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism], Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000 </ref><ref> {{cite news | authors=Pascal Blanchard, Sandrine Lemaire and Nicolas Bancel | title=Human zoos - Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists | publisher=[[Le Monde Diplomatique]] |date=August 2000 | url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo}} {{en icon}}; {{cite news | title= Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale | publisher=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=August 2000|url=http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html}} {{fr icon}} (available to everyone) </ref> [[Joice Heth]], an African American slave, was displayed by [[Phineas Taylor Barnum|P.T. Barnum]] in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of [[Saartjie Baartman]], the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until [[World War II]].

Congolese pygmy [[Ota Benga]] was displayed in 1906 by [[eugenicist]] [[Madison Grant]], head of the [[Bronx Zoo]], as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to [[Darwinism]], creating a [[social Darwinism]] ideology which tried to ground itself in [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris [[Colonial Exhibition]] displayed [[Kanaks]] from [[New Caledonia]].<ref> {{PDFlink|[http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter6/interviews/filetodownload,18533,en.pdf The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931]|96.6 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}} by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., [[Santa Clara University]], USA </ref> A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the [[Expo '58|Brussels' World Fair]].

==Racism in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance==
{{see|Limpieza de sangre}}
Although [[Christian anti-semitism|anti-Semitism]] has a long European history, related to Christianism ([[anti-Judaism]]), racism itself is frequently described as a ''modern'' phenomenon. In the view of the French intellectual [[Michel Foucault]], the first formulation of racism emerged in the [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern period]] as the "[[discourse]] of race struggle", a historical and political discourse which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of [[sovereignty]].<ref>Michel Foucault, ''Society Must Be Defended'' (1976-77)</ref>

[[Richard E. Nisbett]] has said that the question of racial superiority may go back at least a thousand years, to the time when the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Moors invaded the Iberian peninsula]], occupying most of [[Hispania]] for six centuries, where they founded the advanced civilization of [[Al-Andalus]] (711-1492). Al-Andalus coincided with ''[[La Convivencia]]'', an era of religious tolerance and with the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula]]. It was followed by a violent ''[[Reconquista]]'' under the ''[[Reyes Catolicos]]'' (Catholic Kings), [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand V]] and [[Isabella I of Spain|Isabella I]]. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the ''[[limpieza de sangre]]'' ("cleanliness of blood") doctrine. Following the expulsion of most [[Sephardic Jews]] from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to [[Converso|convert]] to Roman Catholicism, becoming "[[New Christian]]s" which were despised and discriminated by the others Christians. The system and ideology of the ''limpieza de sangre'' ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith. In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was ended through a legal decree issued by the [[Marquis of Pombal]] in [[1772]], almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The ''limpieza de sangre'' doctrine was also very common in the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]], where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by [[Eduardo Galeano]] in the ''Open Veins of Latin America'' (1971). It included, among [[Glossary of terms for multiraciality|others terms]], ''[[mestizo]]'' (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), ''[[castizo]]'' (75% European and 25% Native American), ''Spaniard'' (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), ''[[Mulatto]]'' (50% European and 50% African), ''Albarazado'' (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.

At the end of the [[Spanish Renaissance|Renaissance]], the [[Valladolid debate]] (1550-1551) concerning the treatment of [[Indigenous people of the Americas|natives]] of the "[[New World]]" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]]. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and [[natural law]]. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversy concerning racism, slavery and [[Eurocentrism]] that would arise in the following centuries.

Philosopher and historian [[Michel Foucault]] argued that the first appearance of racism as a social [[discourse]] (as opposed to simple [[xenophobia]], which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 [[Glorious Revolution]] in Great Britain, in [[Edward Coke]] or [[John Lilburne]]'s work.

However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "[[scientific racism]]". Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a ''historical notion''. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the [[bourgeoisie]], the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy.

This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as [[Boulainvilliers]], [[Nicolas Fréret]], and then, during the 1789 [[French Revolution]], [[Sieyès]], and afterward [[Augustin Thierry]] and [[Cournot]]. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people".

He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified [[nation-state]] is, of course, here an [[anachronism]] — which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the [[absolute monarchy]], who tried to bypass the [[aristocracy]] by establishing a direct relationship to the [[Third Estate]]. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "[[Franks]]", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished [[Gallo-Romans]], who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the [[right of conquest]].

Early modern racism was opposed to [[nationalism]] and the nation-state: the [[Comte de Montlosier]], in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "''this new people born of slaves... [[miscegenation|mixture of all races and of all times]]"''.

While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the [[ethnic nationalist]] discourse which identified the "race" to the "[[folk]]", leading to such racist movements as [[pan-Germanism]] and [[pan-Slavism]], medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and [[social conflict]]s.

Michel Foucault thus traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and [[eugenicists]], who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "[[state racism]]" (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, [[Marxism|Marxists]] also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle which provided the real [[philosophy of history|engine of history]] and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the [[essentialist]] notion of "race" into the historical notion of "[[class struggle]]", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In ''[[The Will to Knowledge]]'' (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]], which opposed the concepts of "blood [[heredity]]," prevailent in the 19th century racist discourse.

==Racism and European colonialism in the nineteenth century==
{{Main|Colonialism}}
Authors such as [[Hannah Arendt]], in her 1951 book ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'', have said that the racist [[ideology]] ("popular racism") developed at the end of the nineteenth century helped legitimize the [[New Imperialism|imperialist conquests]] of foreign territories, and crimes that accompanied it (such as the [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]], 1904-1907).

[[Auguste Comte]]'s [[positivism|positivist]] ideology of necessary [[social progress]] as a consequence of [[scientific progress]] lead many Europeans to believe in the inherent superiority of the "White Race" over non-whites.

[[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem ''[[The White Man's Burden]]'' (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of such belief, though also thought to be a satirical vantage of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize subjugation, slavery and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous peoples, which were thus conceived as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs.

Other colonialists recognized the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gain and there are some Europeans during the time period who objected to the injustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the so-called "[[Hottentot Venus]]" was displayed in England in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, [[Joseph Conrad]] published ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899), a clear criticism of the [[Congo Free State]] owned by [[Leopold II of Belgium]].

==State racism (Nazism, Fascism, Japan, South Africa)==
{{main|Nazism and race|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Italian Fascism|Eugenics in Imperial Japan|Apartheid in South Africa}}
[[State racism]] played a role in the [[Nazi Germany]] regime and [[Fascism|fascist]] regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's [[Showa period]]<ref>Edward Russel of Liverpool, ''The Knights of Bushido'', 2002, p.238, Herbert Bix, ''Hirohito and the making of modern Japan'', 2001, p.313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese power'', 1989, p.263-272</ref>.

These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal.

==Racism against Middle Easterners==
{{worldview}}{{Main|Anti-Arabism|Anti-Iranianism}}
Also see [[Israeli Arab#Discrimination|Israeli Arab discrimination]] and [[Anti-arabism#Anti-Arabism in Israel|Anti-Arabism in Israel]].
There are reports of a large increase in anti-Arab/anti-Iranian racism in the [[United States]] since the [[September 11 2001 attacks]]. <ref>http://www.religionlink.org/tip_030407b.php</ref> [[Racial profiling]] of people with a [[Middle Eastern]] ethnic background was proposed by a [[New York]] [[Congressman]] on [[August 15]] [[2006]].<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2930</ref>

In Hollywood, Arabs and Iranians have been portrayed as terrorists and women abusers, and Arabs as extremist people.<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2357</ref> Iraq and Iran were demonized which led to hatred towards Arabs and Iranians living in the United States and elsewhere in the [[western world]]. <ref>http://www.freepress.org/departments/display/13/2004/814</ref> <ref>http://www.soundvision.com/info/peace/demonization.asp</ref> There have been attacks against Arabs and Iranians not only on the basis of their religion ([[Islam]]), but also on the basis of their ethnicity; numerous Christian Arabs and Iranians have been attacked based on their appearances.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/niot/citizens_respond/losaltos.html Attacks on Arab Americans] (PBS)</ref>

==Racism against Jews==
{{Main|Antisemitism|History of antisemitism}}
Antisemitism is a specific case of racism targeting [[Jew]]s, although scholars argue whether it should be considered a ''[[sui generis]]'' specie or not.
[[Image:Nurembergracechart.jpg|thumb|left|200px|1935 chart from [[Nazi Germany]] that classified people as German or Jewish based on the heritage of their grandparents.]]

Scholars distinguish traditional, ''religious antisemitism'', which derives from [[Christianity|Christian]] accusation of the [[deicide]] (cleared at the [[Second Vatican Council]] in 1965), with 19th-20th centuries ''[[racial antisemitism]]'', which ultimately led to [[the Holocaust]] in which about 6 million European Jews, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered. ''See also [[Holocaust denial]].''

In the [[Middle Ages]] [[Iberian peninsula]], the system of [[limpieza de sangre]] (cleanliness of blood) ostracized [[New Christians]] (offspring of [[Sephardi]]c Jews who were forced to convert to [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]]) from the rest of society. In [[Portugal]], the legal distinction between New and Old Christians was ended in 1772.

Expelled en masse from [[History of the Jews in England|England]], [[History of the Jews in France|France]], [[History of the Jews in Spain|Spain]] and most other [[Western Europe]]an countries at various times, and persecuted in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] in the [[14th century]], many Jews accepted [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III]]'s invitation to settle in [[History of the Jews in Poland|Polish]]-controlled areas of [[Eastern Europe]]. The traditional measures of keeping the [[Russian Empire]] free of Jews failed when the main territory of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was annexed during the [[Partitions of Poland]]. As large Jewish populations were taken over by Russia, [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]] established the [[Pale of Settlement]] in 1791. The official segregation of the [[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union|Russian Jews]] was compounded by waves of [[pogroms]] and oppressive legislation such as the 1882 [[May Laws]] and led to mass [[emigration]] and political activism.

Modern European antisemitism has its origin in 19th century [[pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]] theories that viewed the Jewish people as entirely different from the [[Aryan]], or [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]], populations. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their [[religion]], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic [[racial characteristics]]. The growth of [[nationalism]] in many countries viewed Jews as a separate and often "alien" nation within the countries in which Jews resided. Such sentiments were exposed in the [[Dreyfus affair]] in 1890s France. ''See also [[Rootless cosmopolitan]]ism.''

The rise of views of Jews as a malevolent "race" generated antisemitic [[conspiracy theories]] that Jews, as a group, were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world. From the early infamous Russian literary [[hoax]], ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', published by the Tsar's [[okhranka|secret police]], a key element of antisemitic thought has been that Jews influence or control the world.

==Religion and racism==
:''See [[Christianity and Slavery]] and [[Islam and Slavery]]''

In the nineteenth century, many American Christians were taught that Africans were descendants of [[Ham (son of Noah)]], and thus deserved to be slaves.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} However, [[abolitionism|abolition]] movements also used Christian teachings in explaining their views.

The [[Baha'i Faith]] denies the existence of human races, and has supported the ideology of ''one human race'' from its inception in 1863.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

{{section stub}}

==Footnotes==

{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* Barkan, Elazar (1992), ''The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars'', Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
* Dain, Bruce (2002), ''A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory)
* Diamond, Jared (1999), "Guns, Germs, and Steel", W.W. Norton, New York, NY.
* Ewen & Ewen (2006), "Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality", Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss, Claude]] (1952), ''Race and History'', ([[UNESCO]]).
* Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), ''Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture'', Westview Press.
* Stokes, DaShanne (forthcoming), ''Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom'', [http://www.geocities.com/eaglefeatherlaw/stokes.article.html URL].
* Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", ''Political Power and Social Theory'' 11 (1997), 183–206. ([[historiography]] of race and racism)
* [[Pierre-André Taguieff|Taguieff, Pierre-André]] (1987), ''La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles'', Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
* Twine, France Winddance (1997), ''Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil'', Rutgers University Press.
*[[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950

==See also==
*[[List of racism-related topics]]
*[[Racism by country]]
*[[Celebrity Big Brother racism controversy]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Racism}}
*[[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_2001_Dec/ai_82066713/pg_1 Extract] from "Race and History" (1952) by [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
*[http://www.understandingrace.org/ Understanding race] website with pegagogic materials for both students and teachers, including sections for children (ages 10-13) and academic researchers. Emphasis on the United States.
*[http://www.pbs.org/race Race] in-depth website about race
*[http://www.newsreel.org/nav/title.asp?tc=CN0149 Race - the power of illusion] argument that while race is a biological fiction, racism permeates the structure of society
*[http://www.amren.com/0306issue/0306issue.html#article1 Race Denial: The Power of a Delusion] detailed critique seeking to refute the film
* [http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Racism.asp Racism and human rights] Racism from Global Issues
* [http://www.irr.org.uk/ Institute for Race Relations]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/darwin_nazism.htm The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist] Refutes claims that Darwin was a racist
*[http://kitoba.com/pedia/Racism.html Racism] brief summary of the root causes of racism
*[http://cms.interculturalu.com/ InterculturalU.com] - a scholarly site that covers racism and other related topics.

[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Discrimination]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]
[[Category:Racism|*]]
[[Category:Sociology]]

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Racism

2007-03-09T19:17:54Z

206.102.240.2: /* Institutional racism */

{{Mergefrom|Racial supremacy|date=March 2007}}
{{OR}}
{{Discrimination2}}

'''Racism''' is a [[belief]] system or [[doctrine]] which postulates a hierarchy among various "[[human]] [[race]]s" or [[ethnic group]]s, often leading to the belief of being a member of a "[[master race]]". It may be based on a conception assuming inherent biological differences between different ethnic groups, which would be purported to determine cultural or individual behaviour. However, modern racism discourse may coincide with contemporary scientific researches which have criticized former "[[scientific racism]]" discourses, popular until [[World War II]] and which claimed that the "race" was a biological and [[physical anthropology|anthropological]] reality. Thus, they may, on some occasions, accept the [[cultural relativist]] viewpoint which criticize any attempt in hierarchizing various cultures among them, while continuing to support a racist discourse. However, instead of being based on a biological [[race (historical)|definition of race]], this contemporary racism accept cultural and historical differences, but claim they justify, to the minimum, [[racial separatism|separatism]] between various ethnics groups.

Racism may be described as a strong form of [[ethnocentrism]], including traits such as [[xenophobia]] (fear and hate of foreigners), views against interracial relationships (anti-[[miscegenation]]), [[ethnic nationalism]], and [[ethnic stereotype]]s. Racism has been a motivating factor in [[social discrimination]], [[racial segregation]] and violence, spanning from [[hate speech]]s, [[pogroms]] and massacres, to [[genocide]]s and [[ethnic cleansing]]s. In a less dramatic manner, [[racial discrimination]] is also common, although illegal, in many states. Furthermore, distinctions of various ethnic groups may be instrumentalized by [[politician]]s who practice "[[race baiting]]" in an attempt to win votes.

The term racist has been a [[pejorative]] term since at least the 1940s, and the identification of a group or person as racist is often controversial, as racism is often considered a characteristic of [[far right]] movements.

==Definitions of racism==
{{Further|[[Race (historical definitions)]]}}

In practice, racism takes forms such as racial [[prejudice]], [[racial segregation|segregation]] or [[subordination]]. Racism can more narrowly refer to a legalized system of [[domination]] of one ethnic group on another, such as in [[institutional racism]].
Racial prejudice refers to pre-formed opinions about individuals based on their perceived racial heritage. It involves [[Hasty generalization|hasty generalization]]s about members of a group based on the perceived characteristics of one or more members of the group. Generalizations include beliefs that every member of a group has the same personality traits, interests, language, culture, ideas, norms and attitudes. Sometimes the characteristic is correct but the reason or cause is incorrectly assigned. Racial prejudices are sometimes promoted by the mainstream media.

Organizations and institutions that put racism into action discriminate against and marginalize a class of people who share a common racial designation. The term racism is usually applied to the [[dominant]] group in a society, because it is that group which has the means to oppress others. The term can also apply to any individual or group, regardless of social status or dominance.

Racism can be both overt and covert. Individual racism sometimes consists of overt acts by individuals, which can result in violence or the destruction of property. Institutional racism is often more covert and subtle. It often appears within the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and frequently receives less public condemnation than the overt type.
[[Image:ColoredDrinking.jpg|left|thumb|250px|An [[African American]] man drinks out of the "colored only" water cooler at a [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] [[streetcar]] terminal in the [[United States]] in 1939.]]
[[W.E.B. DuBois]] argued that [[racialism]] is the belief that differences between the races exist, be they [[Biological process|biological]], [[social]], [[psychological]], or in the realm of the [[soul]]. He argued that racism is using this belief to promote the idea that one's race is superior to the others.

According to Jared Diamond in his work ''[[Guns, Germs and Steel]]'', race is essentially a social and historical construction.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} He argues that it has no real basis in science, nor can it be used to explain why Europe gained the upper hand in world conquests.

[[Molefi Asante]], an [[African American]] academic, describes racism as a "wall of ignorance" that hides the long history of racial injustice from public consciousness.<ref name="Molefi Asante on Race">
{{cite book
| editor = [[Molefi Asante]].
| title = Erasing Racism: The Survival of the American Nation
| origyear = 2001
| url = https://www.gop.com/contribute/join.aspx?key=L1M7U8Y0F0
| accessdate = 2003
| edition = Hardback
| year = 2003
| month = September
| publisher = [[Prometheus Books]]
| location = USA
}}</ref > He argues that most [[White people|whites]] view racism as a thing of the past; a problem that was solved by civil rights. He says [[African Americans]] continue to experience racism in many areas of social life.

== Reverse Racism ==

Reverse racism, often referred to a [[reverse discrimination]], is the act of widespread discrimination, mistreatment, or hatred of the traditionally dominant race.

Case in example:

''Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education''[http://www.adversity.net/0_Education/Seattle-Kentucky/intro.htm]:

The plaintiff Crystal Meredith, challenged a ruling of the Jefferson County (Kentucky) public schools that required black student enrollment at all schools be at least between 15 and 50 percent, in order to maintain racial diversity in the class room. In the case of Crystal Meredith, her son, a white student, was denied enrollment at their neighborhood public school because this particular school was not meeting the 15/50 rule, therefore allowing no new white students to enroll.

While the current push among American academia has been to redefine racism as an attribute solely in possession of those belonging to a society's dominant race, the standard definition of racism acknowledges otherwise. Thus, while the term reverse racism remains controversial to some, the act of racism against the most populous race of a society does in fact exist by definition.

==Racial discrimination==
[[Image:Hk anti-discrimination poster.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An anti-discrimination poster in a [[Hong Kong]] [[MTR|subway]] station, circa 2005]]
Racial discrimination is treating people differently based
on race. [[Racial segregation]] policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerced without being legalized.

Researchers at the [[University of Chicago]] (Marianne Bertrand) and [[MIT]] ([[Sendhil Mullainathan]]) found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black".{{Fact|date=January 2007}} These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews, no matter their level of previous experience. Results were stronger for higher quality résumés. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the [[United States]]' long history of discrimination (i.e. [[Jim Crow laws]], [[Affirmative Action]], etc.).

===Institutional racism===
{{See|Institutional racism|State racism|Racial profiling|Racism by country}}
[[Institutional racism]] (also known as structural racism, [[state racism]] or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. [[Stokely Carmichael]] is credited for coining the phrase ''institutional racism'' in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".<ref>Richard W. Race, {{PDFlink|[http://www.shef.ac.uk/socst/Shop/race_article.pdf Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales]|47.2 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}, ''Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research'', University of Sheffield, p.12. Accessed [[20 June]] [[2006]].</ref>

[[Maulana Karenga]] states that the effects of racism were
<blockquote>
''the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples.'' He argues that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.''<ref name="Ethics on Reparations">{{cite web|url=http://www.africawithin.com/karenga/ethics.htm|publisher="[[Ron Karenga]]"|title="Effects on Africa"|}}</ref>
</blockquote>

In recent cases, racial discrimination has also taken the face of [[reverse discrimination]], in which members of the majority race are overlooked for their inherent lack of ability to contribute to racial diversity. Whatever the case may be, racial discrimination is seen across the board in all racial groups.

===Economics and racism===
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of [[discrimination]] which is caused by past racism, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in the parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. (e.g. A member of race Y, Mary, has her opportunities adversely affected (directly and/or indirectly) by the mistreatment of her ancestors of race Y.)

Some scholars have suggested that capitalism has played a large role in promoting racism especially socioeconomic racism. The Western hemisphere slave trade and colonialist activities were mostly conducted by the earliest capitalist economies ie; Spain, Great Britain, the United States and the Netherlands.<ref>http://.www.zmag.org/CrisesCurEvts/bohmerrace.htm</ref><ref>http://.race.eserver.org/toward-a-theory-of-racism.htm</ref>
Critics have pointed out that a slave labor economy was the sometimes considered ultimate form of capitalism because the capitalists made pure profits because they used free labor.<ref>http://.flag.blackened.net/revolt/talks/racism.html</ref>

[[Global apartheid]] is a phrase used by those who argue that the international economic and political system is racist and is designed so that a white minority internationally accrue more wealth and power and enjoy more human and legal rights than the non-white world majority.

===Declarations against racial discrimination===
Racial discrimination contradicts the 1776 [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] issued during the [[French Revolution]] and the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], signed after [[World War II]], which all postulate equality between all human beings.

In 1950, [[UNESCO]] suggested in ''[[The Race Question]]'' —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as [[Ashley Montagu]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Gunnar Myrdal]], [[Julian Huxley]], etc. — to "drop the term ''race'' altogether and instead speak of [[ethnic groups]]". The statement condemned [[scientific racism]] theories which had played a role in the [[Holocaust]]. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the [[Enlightenment]] and its assumption of [[equality|equal rights]] for all. Along with Myrdal's ''[[An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy]]'' (1944), ''The Race Question'' influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court [[racial segregation in the United States|desegregation]] decision in "[[Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka]]" <ref name="Prins"> [http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=30431&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html “Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946-1962)”], by [[Harald E.L. Prins]], UNESCO {{en icon}} </ref>.

The [[United Nations]] uses the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the ''[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', adopted in 1966:
<blockquote>
''...any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.''(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination) <ref> [[http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm Text of the Convention], ''[['[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', 1966 </ref>
</blockquote>

In 2000, the [[European Union]] explicitly banned racism along with many other forms of social discrimination:
<blockquote>
''Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality.''<ref>http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.html</ref>
</blockquote>

==Ethnic nationalism==
{{see|Ethnic nationalism |Romantic nationalism}}

After the [[Napoleonic War]]s, Europe was confronted to the new "[[nationalities]] question," leading to ceaseless reconfigurations of the European map, which frontiers between states had been delimited during the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]]. [[Nationalism]] had made its first, striking appearance with the invention of the ''[[levée en masse]]'' by the [[French Revolution|French revolutionaries]], thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly-founded [[French First Republic|Republic]] against the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' order represented by the European monarchies. This lead to the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] (1792-1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to a subsequent European-wide debates on the concept and realities of [[nation]]s, and in particular of [[nation-state]]s. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms ([[Ottoman Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Swedish Empire]], [[Kingdom of France]], etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (''[[Kabinettskriege]]'' in German). Modern [[nation-state]]s would appear only in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiments for the first time in [[Enlightenment Spain|Spain]] during the [[Peninsula War]] (1808-1813 - known in Spanish as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]], the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the [[Industrial Era]], leading in particular to the [[1848 Revolutions]], the [[Italian unification]] completed during the 1871 [[Franco-Prussian War]], which itself culminated in the proclamation of the [[German Empire]] in the Hall of Mirrors in the [[Palace of Versailles]], thus achieving the [[German unification]]. Meanwhile, the [[Ottoman Empire]], "sick man of Europe," was confronted to endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the [[Austrian-Hungarian Empire]], would lead to the creation after [[World War I]] of the various nation-states of the [[Balkan]]s, which were always confronted, and remained so today, to the existence of "national [[minorities]]" in their borders <ref> On this "[[nationalities]] question" and the problematic of [[nationalism]], see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: [[Ernest Gellner]], ''Nations and Nationalism'' (1983); [[Eric Hobsbawm]],''The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789-1848'' (1962), ''Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality'' (1990); [[Benedict Anderson]], ''[[Imagined Communities]]'' (1991); [[Charles Tilly]], ''Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990-1992'' (1990); [[Anthony D. Smith]], ''Theories of Nationalism'' (1971), etc. </ref>.

[[Ethnic nationalism]], which believed in hereditary membership to the nation, made its appearance in this historical context of the creation of the modern nation-states. One of its main influence was the [[Romantic nationalist]] movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Herder]] (1744-1803), [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johan Fichte]] (1762-1814) in the ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (1808), [[Friedrich Hegel]] (1770-1831), or also, in France, [[Jules Michelet]] (1798-1874). It opposed itself to [[liberal nationalism]], represented by authors such as [[Ernest Renan]] (1823-1892), who conceived the nation as a community which, instead of being based on the ''[[Volk]]'' ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily [[plebiscite]]", 1882) or also [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806-1873) <ref> [[John Stuart Mill]], ''Considerations on Representative Government'', 1861 </ref>.

Ethnic nationalism quickly blended itself with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental [[imperialist]]" ([[Hannah Arendt]], 1951 <ref name=Arendt> [[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951) </ref>) discourses, for example in the [[pan-Germanism]] or [[pan-Slavism]] discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk or of the Slavish people. The [[Alldeutscher Verband|Pan-German League]] (''Alldeutscher Verband''), created in 1891, promoted [[German colonial empire|German imperialism]], "[[racial hygiene]]" and was opposed to intermarriages with Jews. Another, popular current, the ''[[Völkisch movement]]'', was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which it also combined with modern anti-semitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the [[Thule Society]], would participate to the foundation of the [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP) in Munich in 1918, predecessor of the [[NSDAP]] Nazi party. Both pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism played a decisive role in the [[interwar period]] of the 1920s-1930s <ref name=Arendt/>.

These currents began to associate the idea of the nation to the biological concept of a "[[master race]]" (often the "[[Aryan race]]" or "[[Nordic race]]") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflate nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses which posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying [[ethnic cleansing]] in order to achieve "racial purity" and achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.

Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not however limited to pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism ideologies. In France, the transition of Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made of nationalism a characteristic of [[History of far-right movements in France|far-right movements in France]], took place during the [[Dreyfus Affair]] at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide ''[[querelle]]'' affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Emile Zola, who wrote ''[[J'accuse]]'' in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet [[Maurice Barrès]] (1862-1923), one of the founder of ethnic nationalist discourse in France <ref> [[Maurice Barrès]], ''Le Roman de l'énergie nationale'' (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897) </ref>. At the same time, [[Charles Maurras]] (1868-1952), founder of the monarchist ''[[Action française]]'' movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative ''[[métèques]]''). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners," who threatened the ethnic unity of the [[French people]].

===Ethnic conflicts===
{{See|Ethnicity}}
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as [[xenophobia]] and [[ethnocentrism]], although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an [[ideology]] or from [[scientific racism]], which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia.

Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases [[ethnicity]] and [[nationalism]] were harnessed to rally [[combatant]]s in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).

Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Historically, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (particularly when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by [[morality|moral]] or [[ethics|ethical]] considerations.

One example of the brutalizing and dehumanizing effects of racism was the attempt to [[Population history of American indigenous peoples#Deliberate infection.3F|deliberately infect]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] with smallpox during [[Pontiac's Rebellion]] in 1763, itself a war intended to [[ethnic cleansing|ethnically cleanse]] the "other" ([[European Americans]]) from Native American land.

According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other." (Richter, ''Facing East from Indian Country'', p. 208)

In the Western world, racism evolved, twinned with the doctrine of [[white supremacy]], and helped fuel the [[Europe|European]] exploration, conquest, and colonization of much of the rest of the world -- especially after [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the Americas. [[Basil Davidson]] insists in his documentary, ''[[Africa: Different but Equal]]'', that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 1800s, due to the need for a justification of slavery in the Americas. The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West.

Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the [[Triangular Trade]]. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but then due to western diseases, their population drastically decreased.

Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's ''Europe and the People without History'').

Some people, like [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]], have argued during the [[Valladolid controversy]] in the middle of the 16th century that the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were natural slaves because they had no ''souls''. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th-20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.

==Scientific racism==
{{Main|Scientific racism}}
The modern biological definition of race was invented in the 19th century by scientific racist theories. The term "scientific racism" refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to at least the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the [[New Imperialism]] period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]]'s resistance to [[positivism|positivists]] accounts of history, and its support of [[monogenism]], that is that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with [[creationist]] accounts of history. These racist theories grounded on scientific hypothesis were combined with [[unilineal evolution|unilineal theories of social progress]] which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the [[social Darwinism]] discourse, which postulated the "[[survival of the fittest]]" theory, a term coined by [[Herbert Spencer]] in 1864. [[Charles Darwin]] himself explicitly denounced such accounts of history in ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' (1871). Finally, at the end of the 19th century, they intertwined themselves with [[eugenics]] discourses of "[[degeneration]] of the race" and "blood [[heredity]]." Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on [[physical anthropology]], [[anthropometry]], [[craniometry]], [[phrenology]], [[physiognomy]] and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices. Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of [[cultural anthropology]] ([[Franz Boas]], etc.), the British school of [[social anthropology]] ([[Bronisław Malinowski]], [[Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]], etc.), the French school of [[ethnology]] ([[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], etc.), as well as the discovery of the [[Modern evolutionary synthesis|neo-Darwinian synthesis]], such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a [[gene-centered view of evolution]] in the 1960s, which seemed at first to be sufficient proof of the inanity of the "scientific racist" theories of the 19th centuries, which based conception of evolution on "races", a concept which first appeared to lose any sense at the genetical level. However, modern resurgence of racist theories, in particular related to the [[race and intelligence]] controversy, seems to show that [[genetics]] could also be used for ideological, racist purposes.

===Heredity, "degeneration" and eugenics===
{{see|Eugenics}}
The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by [[Francis Galton]] (1822-1911), who used the then popular concept of "[[degeneration]]". He applied [[statistics]] to study human differences and the alleged "[[inheritance of intelligence]]," foreshading future uses of "[[intelligence testing]]" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer [[Emile Zola]] (1840-1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, ''[[Les Rougon-Macquart]]'', where he linked [[heredity]] to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons involved in politics (''[[Son Excellence Eugène Rougon]]'') and medicine (''[[Le Docteur Pascal]]'') and the low-born Macquarts fatally falling into alcoholism (''[[L'Assommoir]]''), prostitution (''[[Nana]]''), and homicide (''[[La Bête humaine]]'').

During the rise of [[Nazi Germany|Nazism in Germany]], some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century <ref> [[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950 </ref>. According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, ''[[The Race Question]]'', an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, the UNESCO declared that it resumed:
<blockquote>"''up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the [[International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation]] has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the [[Appeasement of Hitler|appeasement policy]] of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of [[Nazi ideology]] and policy. [[Tomáš Masaryk|Masaryk]] and [[Edvard Beneš|Beneš]] took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.''"</blockquote>

The [[Third Reich's racial policies]], its [[Nazi eugenics|eugenics programs]] and the extermination of Jews in [[the Holocaust]], as well as Gypsies in [[Porrajmos]] and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the [[Franz Boas|Boasian]] school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. '' These theories were strongly denounced in the UNESCO 1950 statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled ''[[The Race Question]]''.

===Polygenism and racial typologies===
{{see|Polygenism |Typology (anthropology)}}
Works such as [[Arthur Gobineau]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'' (1853-1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of [[Boulainvilliers]] for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality which changed over time. Gobineau thus attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological difference among human beings, giving it the legitimity of [[biology]]. He was one of the first theorist to postulate [[polygenism]], stating that there was, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races." Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by [[Georges Vacher de Lapouge]] (1854-1936)'s [[typology (anthropology)|typology of races]], who published in 1899 ''The Aryan and his Social Role'', in which he opposed the white, "[[Aryan]] race", "[[dolichocephalic]]", to the "brachycephalic" race, whom the "[[Jew]]" was to be the archetype. Vacher de Lapoug thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "''[[Nordic theory|Homo europaeus]]'' (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "''[[Homo alpinus]]''" ([[Auvergne|Auvergnat]], [[Turkish]], etc.), and finally the "''[[Homo mediterraneus]]''" ([[Naples|Neapolitan]], [[Andalusia|Andalus]], etc.) He assimilated races and [[social class]]es, considering that the French upper class was a representant of the ''Homo europaeus'', while the lower class represented the ''Homo alpinus''. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of [[trade union]]ists, considered as "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of [[labour condition]]s. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking [[social conflict]] by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order <ref> Matsuo Takeshi ([[Shimane Prefecture|University of Shimane]], Japan). ''L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme'' (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in ''[[Etudes de langue et littérature françaises]]'' 2001, n°79, pp. 47-57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; [[INIST]]-[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|CNRS]], Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 ([http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13473405 Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS] </ref>

The same year than Vacher de Lapouge, [[William Z. Ripley]] used identical racial classification in ''[[The Races of Europe]]'' (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Others famous scientific authors include [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain|H.S. Chamberlain]] at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who [[naturalization|naturalized]] himself as German because of his admiration for the "Arya] race") or [[Madison Grant]], a eugenicist and author of ''[[The Passing of the Great Race]]'' (1916).

===Academic racism against Africans===
[[Image:Races and skulls.png|150px|left|thumb|[[Josiah C. Nott|Nott]] and [[George Gliddon|Gliddon]]'s ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857) used misleading imagery to suggest that "Negros" ranked between whites and chimpanzees.]]

In relation to African people, academic racism was formed during times of slavery and colonialism, in order to remove any form of noble claim from the victims of these systems.
[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] comments on this racism by stating,
<blockquote>
Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa , other than raw material''<ref name=Shahadah>[http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/agencyandafrica.htm The Removal of Agency from Africa] by [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]]</ref>
</blockquote>

Oxford academic [[J.R. Baker]] listed that a civilization is comprised of 21 basic components which where critical to demarcate the degree of civilization of a race. His conclusion was that Caucasians met all 21 criteria in Iraq, Crete, India, and in Egypt, and the Asians met them all in China. The Africans and Australian aborigines met virtually none of the 21 criteria. <ref name=JRbaker>‘’Race’’. J.R. Baker’’, 1974, p 507-508</ref>

Scottish philosopher and economist [[David Hume]] said
<blockquote>
''I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences”.<ref name=EricMorton>[http://www.africanphilosophy.com/vol1.1/morton.html RACE AND RACISM IN THE WORKS OF DAVID HUME] by [[Eric Morton]]</ref>
</blockquote>

German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.'' <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." {{Fact|date=January 2007}} This view that Africa had no history was repeated by [[Hugh Trevor-Roper, Baron Dacre of Glanton|Hugh Trevor-Roper]], Regius Professor of History at Oxford University, as late as 1963. {{Fact|date=January 2007}} During the Nazi era German scientist rearranged academia to support claims of a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt. <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

[[Image:Völkerschau (Human Zoo) Stuttgart1928.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Human Zoo]] (''Völkerschau'') in [[Stuttgart]] (Germany) in 1928.]]

===Human zoos===
[[Human zoo]]s were an important means of bolstering ''popular racism'' by connecting it to [[scientific racism]]: they were both objects of public curiosity and of [[anthropology]] and [[anthropometry]].<ref> [http://migs.concordia.ca/occpapers/zoo.htm On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism], Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000 </ref><ref> {{cite news | authors=Pascal Blanchard, Sandrine Lemaire and Nicolas Bancel | title=Human zoos - Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists | publisher=[[Le Monde Diplomatique]] |date=August 2000 | url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo}} {{en icon}}; {{cite news | title= Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale | publisher=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=August 2000|url=http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html}} {{fr icon}} (available to everyone) </ref> [[Joice Heth]], an African American slave, was displayed by [[Phineas Taylor Barnum|P.T. Barnum]] in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of [[Saartjie Baartman]], the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until [[World War II]].

Congolese pygmy [[Ota Benga]] was displayed in 1906 by [[eugenicist]] [[Madison Grant]], head of the [[Bronx Zoo]], as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to [[Darwinism]], creating a [[social Darwinism]] ideology which tried to ground itself in [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris [[Colonial Exhibition]] displayed [[Kanaks]] from [[New Caledonia]].<ref> {{PDFlink|[http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter6/interviews/filetodownload,18533,en.pdf The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931]|96.6 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}} by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., [[Santa Clara University]], USA </ref> A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the [[Expo '58|Brussels' World Fair]].

==Racism in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance==
{{see|Limpieza de sangre}}
Although [[Christian anti-semitism|anti-Semitism]] has a long European history, related to Christianism ([[anti-Judaism]]), racism itself is frequently described as a ''modern'' phenomenon. In the view of the French intellectual [[Michel Foucault]], the first formulation of racism emerged in the [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern period]] as the "[[discourse]] of race struggle", a historical and political discourse which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of [[sovereignty]].<ref>Michel Foucault, ''Society Must Be Defended'' (1976-77)</ref>

[[Richard E. Nisbett]] has said that the question of racial superiority may go back at least a thousand years, to the time when the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Moors invaded the Iberian peninsula]], occupying most of [[Hispania]] for six centuries, where they founded the advanced civilization of [[Al-Andalus]] (711-1492). Al-Andalus coincided with ''[[La Convivencia]]'', an era of religious tolerance and with the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula]]. It was followed by a violent ''[[Reconquista]]'' under the ''[[Reyes Catolicos]]'' (Catholic Kings), [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand V]] and [[Isabella I of Spain|Isabella I]]. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the ''[[limpieza de sangre]]'' ("cleanliness of blood") doctrine. Following the expulsion of most [[Sephardic Jews]] from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to [[Converso|convert]] to Roman Catholicism, becoming "[[New Christian]]s" which were despised and discriminated by the others Christians. The system and ideology of the ''limpieza de sangre'' ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith. In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was ended through a legal decree issued by the [[Marquis of Pombal]] in [[1772]], almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The ''limpieza de sangre'' doctrine was also very common in the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]], where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by [[Eduardo Galeano]] in the ''Open Veins of Latin America'' (1971). It included, among [[Glossary of terms for multiraciality|others terms]], ''[[mestizo]]'' (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), ''[[castizo]]'' (75% European and 25% Native American), ''Spaniard'' (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), ''[[Mulatto]]'' (50% European and 50% African), ''Albarazado'' (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.

At the end of the [[Spanish Renaissance|Renaissance]], the [[Valladolid debate]] (1550-1551) concerning the treatment of [[Indigenous people of the Americas|natives]] of the "[[New World]]" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]]. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and [[natural law]]. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversy concerning racism, slavery and [[Eurocentrism]] that would arise in the following centuries.

Philosopher and historian [[Michel Foucault]] argued that the first appearance of racism as a social [[discourse]] (as opposed to simple [[xenophobia]], which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 [[Glorious Revolution]] in Great Britain, in [[Edward Coke]] or [[John Lilburne]]'s work.

However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "[[scientific racism]]". Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a ''historical notion''. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the [[bourgeoisie]], the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy.

This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as [[Boulainvilliers]], [[Nicolas Fréret]], and then, during the 1789 [[French Revolution]], [[Sieyès]], and afterward [[Augustin Thierry]] and [[Cournot]]. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people".

He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified [[nation-state]] is, of course, here an [[anachronism]] — which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the [[absolute monarchy]], who tried to bypass the [[aristocracy]] by establishing a direct relationship to the [[Third Estate]]. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "[[Franks]]", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished [[Gallo-Romans]], who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the [[right of conquest]].

Early modern racism was opposed to [[nationalism]] and the nation-state: the [[Comte de Montlosier]], in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "''this new people born of slaves... [[miscegenation|mixture of all races and of all times]]"''.

While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the [[ethnic nationalist]] discourse which identified the "race" to the "[[folk]]", leading to such racist movements as [[pan-Germanism]] and [[pan-Slavism]], medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and [[social conflict]]s.

Michel Foucault thus traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and [[eugenicists]], who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "[[state racism]]" (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, [[Marxism|Marxists]] also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle which provided the real [[philosophy of history|engine of history]] and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the [[essentialist]] notion of "race" into the historical notion of "[[class struggle]]", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In ''[[The Will to Knowledge]]'' (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]], which opposed the concepts of "blood [[heredity]]," prevailent in the 19th century racist discourse.

==Racism and European colonialism in the nineteenth century==
{{Main|Colonialism}}
Authors such as [[Hannah Arendt]], in her 1951 book ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'', have said that the racist [[ideology]] ("popular racism") developed at the end of the nineteenth century helped legitimize the [[New Imperialism|imperialist conquests]] of foreign territories, and crimes that accompanied it (such as the [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]], 1904-1907).

[[Auguste Comte]]'s [[positivism|positivist]] ideology of necessary [[social progress]] as a consequence of [[scientific progress]] lead many Europeans to believe in the inherent superiority of the "White Race" over non-whites.

[[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem ''[[The White Man's Burden]]'' (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of such belief, though also thought to be a satirical vantage of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize subjugation, slavery and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous peoples, which were thus conceived as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs.

Other colonialists recognized the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gain and there are some Europeans during the time period who objected to the injustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the so-called "[[Hottentot Venus]]" was displayed in England in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, [[Joseph Conrad]] published ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899), a clear criticism of the [[Congo Free State]] owned by [[Leopold II of Belgium]].

==State racism (Nazism, Fascism, Japan, South Africa)==
{{main|Nazism and race|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Italian Fascism|Eugenics in Imperial Japan|Apartheid in South Africa}}
[[State racism]] played a role in the [[Nazi Germany]] regime and [[Fascism|fascist]] regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's [[Showa period]]<ref>Edward Russel of Liverpool, ''The Knights of Bushido'', 2002, p.238, Herbert Bix, ''Hirohito and the making of modern Japan'', 2001, p.313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese power'', 1989, p.263-272</ref>.

These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal.

==Racism against Middle Easterners==
{{worldview}}{{Main|Anti-Arabism|Anti-Iranianism}}
Also see [[Israeli Arab#Discrimination|Israeli Arab discrimination]] and [[Anti-arabism#Anti-Arabism in Israel|Anti-Arabism in Israel]].
There are reports of a large increase in anti-Arab/anti-Iranian racism in the [[United States]] since the [[September 11 2001 attacks]]. <ref>http://www.religionlink.org/tip_030407b.php</ref> [[Racial profiling]] of people with a [[Middle Eastern]] ethnic background was proposed by a [[New York]] [[Congressman]] on [[August 15]] [[2006]].<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2930</ref>

In Hollywood, Arabs and Iranians have been portrayed as terrorists and women abusers, and Arabs as extremist people.<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2357</ref> Iraq and Iran were demonized which led to hatred towards Arabs and Iranians living in the United States and elsewhere in the [[western world]]. <ref>http://www.freepress.org/departments/display/13/2004/814</ref> <ref>http://www.soundvision.com/info/peace/demonization.asp</ref> There have been attacks against Arabs and Iranians not only on the basis of their religion ([[Islam]]), but also on the basis of their ethnicity; numerous Christian Arabs and Iranians have been attacked based on their appearances.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/niot/citizens_respond/losaltos.html Attacks on Arab Americans] (PBS)</ref>

==Racism against Jews==
{{Main|Antisemitism|History of antisemitism}}
Antisemitism is a specific case of racism targeting [[Jew]]s, although scholars argue whether it should be considered a ''[[sui generis]]'' specie or not.
[[Image:Nurembergracechart.jpg|thumb|left|200px|1935 chart from [[Nazi Germany]] that classified people as German or Jewish based on the heritage of their grandparents.]]

Scholars distinguish traditional, ''religious antisemitism'', which derives from [[Christianity|Christian]] accusation of the [[deicide]] (cleared at the [[Second Vatican Council]] in 1965), with 19th-20th centuries ''[[racial antisemitism]]'', which ultimately led to [[the Holocaust]] in which about 6 million European Jews, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered. ''See also [[Holocaust denial]].''

In the [[Middle Ages]] [[Iberian peninsula]], the system of [[limpieza de sangre]] (cleanliness of blood) ostracized [[New Christians]] (offspring of [[Sephardi]]c Jews who were forced to convert to [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]]) from the rest of society. In [[Portugal]], the legal distinction between New and Old Christians was ended in 1772.

Expelled en masse from [[History of the Jews in England|England]], [[History of the Jews in France|France]], [[History of the Jews in Spain|Spain]] and most other [[Western Europe]]an countries at various times, and persecuted in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] in the [[14th century]], many Jews accepted [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III]]'s invitation to settle in [[History of the Jews in Poland|Polish]]-controlled areas of [[Eastern Europe]]. The traditional measures of keeping the [[Russian Empire]] free of Jews failed when the main territory of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was annexed during the [[Partitions of Poland]]. As large Jewish populations were taken over by Russia, [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]] established the [[Pale of Settlement]] in 1791. The official segregation of the [[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union|Russian Jews]] was compounded by waves of [[pogroms]] and oppressive legislation such as the 1882 [[May Laws]] and led to mass [[emigration]] and political activism.

Modern European antisemitism has its origin in 19th century [[pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]] theories that viewed the Jewish people as entirely different from the [[Aryan]], or [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]], populations. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their [[religion]], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic [[racial characteristics]]. The growth of [[nationalism]] in many countries viewed Jews as a separate and often "alien" nation within the countries in which Jews resided. Such sentiments were exposed in the [[Dreyfus affair]] in 1890s France. ''See also [[Rootless cosmopolitan]]ism.''

The rise of views of Jews as a malevolent "race" generated antisemitic [[conspiracy theories]] that Jews, as a group, were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world. From the early infamous Russian literary [[hoax]], ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', published by the Tsar's [[okhranka|secret police]], a key element of antisemitic thought has been that Jews influence or control the world.

==Religion and racism==
:''See [[Christianity and Slavery]] and [[Islam and Slavery]]''

In the nineteenth century, many American Christians were taught that Africans were descendants of [[Ham (son of Noah)]], and thus deserved to be slaves.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} However, [[abolitionism|abolition]] movements also used Christian teachings in explaining their views.

The [[Baha'i Faith]] denies the existence of human races, and has supported the ideology of ''one human race'' from its inception in 1863.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

{{section stub}}

==Footnotes==

{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* Barkan, Elazar (1992), ''The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars'', Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
* Dain, Bruce (2002), ''A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory)
* Diamond, Jared (1999), "Guns, Germs, and Steel", W.W. Norton, New York, NY.
* Ewen & Ewen (2006), "Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality", Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss, Claude]] (1952), ''Race and History'', ([[UNESCO]]).
* Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), ''Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture'', Westview Press.
* Stokes, DaShanne (forthcoming), ''Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom'', [http://www.geocities.com/eaglefeatherlaw/stokes.article.html URL].
* Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", ''Political Power and Social Theory'' 11 (1997), 183–206. ([[historiography]] of race and racism)
* [[Pierre-André Taguieff|Taguieff, Pierre-André]] (1987), ''La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles'', Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
* Twine, France Winddance (1997), ''Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil'', Rutgers University Press.
*[[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950

==See also==
*[[List of racism-related topics]]
*[[Racism by country]]
*[[Celebrity Big Brother racism controversy]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Racism}}
*[[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_2001_Dec/ai_82066713/pg_1 Extract] from "Race and History" (1952) by [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
*[http://www.understandingrace.org/ Understanding race] website with pegagogic materials for both students and teachers, including sections for children (ages 10-13) and academic researchers. Emphasis on the United States.
*[http://www.pbs.org/race Race] in-depth website about race
*[http://www.newsreel.org/nav/title.asp?tc=CN0149 Race - the power of illusion] argument that while race is a biological fiction, racism permeates the structure of society
*[http://www.amren.com/0306issue/0306issue.html#article1 Race Denial: The Power of a Delusion] detailed critique seeking to refute the film
* [http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Racism.asp Racism and human rights] Racism from Global Issues
* [http://www.irr.org.uk/ Institute for Race Relations]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/darwin_nazism.htm The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist] Refutes claims that Darwin was a racist
*[http://kitoba.com/pedia/Racism.html Racism] brief summary of the root causes of racism
*[http://cms.interculturalu.com/ InterculturalU.com] - a scholarly site that covers racism and other related topics.

[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Discrimination]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]
[[Category:Racism|*]]
[[Category:Sociology]]

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Racism

2007-03-09T16:48:54Z

206.102.240.2: /* Definitions of racism */

{{Mergefrom|Racial supremacy|date=March 2007}}
{{OR}}
{{Discrimination2}}

'''Racism''' is a [[belief]] system or [[doctrine]] which assumes inherent biological differences between [[human]] [[race]]s, which determine cultural or individual behaviour.

Some commentators describe racism as preference for one's own ethnic group ([[ethnocentrism]] or [[ethnic nationalism]]), fear of foreigners ([[xenophobia]]), views against interracial relationships (anti-[[miscegenation]]), and/or generalizations about a specific group of people ([[stereotype]]).

Racism has been a motivating factor in social discrimination, [[racial segregation]] and violence, including [[genocide]]. Some politicians have practiced [[race baiting]] while attempting to win votes.

The term racist has been a [[pejorative]] term since at least the 1940s, and the identification of a group or person as racist is often controversial.

==Definitions of racism==
{{Further|[[Race (historical definitions)]]}}

In practice, racism takes forms such as racial [[prejudice]], [[racial segregation|segregation]] or [[subordination]]. Racism can more narrowly refer to a legalized system of [[domination]] of one ethnic group on another, such as in [[institutional racism]].
Racial prejudice refers to pre-formed opinions about individuals based on their perceived racial heritage. It involves [[Hasty generalization|hasty generalization]]s about members of a group based on the perceived characteristics of one or more members of the group. Generalizations include beliefs that every member of a group has the same personality traits, interests, language, culture, ideas, norms and attitudes. Sometimes the characteristic is correct but the reason or cause is incorrectly assigned. Racial prejudices are sometimes promoted by the mainstream media.

Organizations and institutions that put racism into action discriminate against and marginalize a class of people who share a common racial designation. The term racism is usually applied to the [[dominant]] group in a society, because it is that group which has the means to oppress others. The term can also apply to any individual or group, regardless of social status or dominance.

Racism can be both overt and covert. Individual racism sometimes consists of overt acts by individuals, which can result in violence or the destruction of property. Institutional racism is often more covert and subtle. It often appears within the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and frequently receives less public condemnation than the overt type.
[[Image:ColoredDrinking.jpg|left|thumb|250px|An [[African American]] man drinks out of the "colored only" water cooler at a [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] [[streetcar]] terminal in the [[United States]] in 1939.]]
[[W.E.B. DuBois]] argued that [[racialism]] is the belief that differences between the races exist, be they [[Biological process|biological]], [[social]], [[psychological]], or in the realm of the [[soul]]. He argued that racism is using this belief to promote the idea that one's race is superior to the others.

According to Jared Diamond in his work ''[[Guns, Germs and Steel]]'', race is essentially a social and historical construction.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} He argues that it has no real basis in science, nor can it be used to explain why Europe gained the upper hand in world conquests.

[[Molefi Asante]], an [[African American]] academic, describes racism as a "wall of ignorance" that hides the long history of racial injustice from public consciousness.<ref name="Molefi Asante on Race">
{{cite book
| editor = [[Molefi Asante]].
| title = Erasing Racism: The Survival of the American Nation
| origyear = 2001
| url = https://www.gop.com/contribute/join.aspx?key=L1M7U8Y0F0
| accessdate = 2003
| edition = Hardback
| year = 2003
| month = September
| publisher = [[Prometheus Books]]
| location = USA
}}</ref > He argues that most [[White people|whites]] view racism as a thing of the past; a problem that was solved by civil rights. He says [[African Americans]] continue to experience racism in many areas of social life.

== Reverse Racism ==

Reverse racism, often referred to a [[reverse discrimination]], is the act of widespread discrimination, mistreatment, or hatred of the traditionally dominant race. Where once the thought of reverse racism was unheard of, it is in fact a growing reality that exists today in the United States and other parts of the world.

Case in example:

''Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education''[http://www.adversity.net/0_Education/Seattle-Kentucky/intro.htm]:

The plaintiff Crystal Meredith, challenged a ruling of the Jefferson County (Kentucky) public schools that required black student enrollment at all schools be at least between 15 and 50 percent, in order to maintain racial diversity in the class room. In the case of Crystal Meredith, her son, a white student, was denied enrollment at their neighborhood public school because this particular school was not meeting the 15/50 rule, therefore allowing no new white students to enroll.

While the current push among American academia has been to redefine racism as an attribute solely in possession of those belonging to a society's dominant race, the standard definition of racism acknowledges otherwise. Thus, while the term reverse racism remains controversial to some, the act of racism against the most populous race of a society does in fact exist by definition.

==Racial discrimination==
[[Image:Hk anti-discrimination poster.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An anti-discrimination poster in a [[Hong Kong]] [[MTR|subway]] station, circa 2005]]
Racial discrimination is treating people differently based
on race. [[Racial segregation]] policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerced without being legalized.

Researchers at the [[University of Chicago]] (Marianne Bertrand) and [[MIT]] ([[Sendhil Mullainathan]]) found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black".{{Fact|date=January 2007}} These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews, no matter their level of previous experience. Results were stronger for higher quality résumés. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the [[United States]]' long history of discrimination (i.e. [[Jim Crow laws]], [[Affirmative Action]], etc.).

In recent cases racial discrimination has also taken on the face of [[reverse discrimination]], in which individuals of the majority race are overlooked because of their inherent lack of ability to contribute to racial diversity. In any case racial discrimination exists throughout society and dominates no single group, whether minority or majority.

===Institutional racism===
{{See|Institutional racism|State racism|Racial profiling|Racism by country}}
[[Institutional racism]] (also known as structural racism, [[state racism]] or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. [[Stokely Carmichael]] is credited for coining the phrase ''institutional racism'' in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".<ref>Richard W. Race, {{PDFlink|[http://www.shef.ac.uk/socst/Shop/race_article.pdf Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and Wales]|47.2 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}, ''Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research'', University of Sheffield, p.12. Accessed [[20 June]] [[2006]].</ref>

[[Maulana Karenga]] states that the effects of racism were
<blockquote>
''the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples.'' He argues that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility.''<ref name="Ethics on Reparations">{{cite web|url=http://www.africawithin.com/karenga/ethics.htm|publisher="[[Ron Karenga]]"|title="Effects on Africa"|}}</ref>
</blockquote>

===Economics and racism===
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of [[discrimination]] which is caused by past racism, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in the parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. (e.g. A member of race Y, Mary, has her opportunities adversely affected (directly and/or indirectly) by the mistreatment of her ancestors of race Y.)

Some scholars have suggested that capitalism has played a large role in promoting racism especially socioeconomic racism. The Western hemisphere slave trade and colonialist activities were mostly conducted by the earliest capitalist economies ie; Spain, Great Britain, the United States and the Netherlands.<ref>http://.www.zmag.org/CrisesCurEvts/bohmerrace.htm</ref><ref>http://.race.eserver.org/toward-a-theory-of-racism.htm</ref>
Critics have pointed out that a slave labor economy was the sometimes considered ultimate form of capitalism because the capitalists made pure profits because they used free labor.<ref>http://.flag.blackened.net/revolt/talks/racism.html</ref>

[[Global apartheid]] is a phrase used by those who argue that the international economic and political system is racist and is designed so that a white minority internationally accrue more wealth and power and enjoy more human and legal rights than the non-white world majority.

===Declarations against racial discrimination===
Racial discrimination contradicts the 1776 [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] issued during the [[French Revolution]] and the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], signed after [[World War II]], which all postulate equality between all human beings.

In 1950, [[UNESCO]] suggested in ''[[The Race Question]]'' —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as [[Ashley Montagu]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Gunnar Myrdal]], [[Julian Huxley]], etc. — to "drop the term ''race'' altogether and instead speak of [[ethnic groups]]". The statement condemned [[scientific racism]] theories which had played a role in the [[Holocaust]]. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the [[Enlightenment]] and its assumption of [[equality|equal rights]] for all. Along with Myrdal's ''[[An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy]]'' (1944), ''The Race Question'' influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court [[racial segregation in the United States|desegregation]] decision in "[[Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka]]" <ref name="Prins"> [http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=30431&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html “Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946-1962)”], by [[Harald E.L. Prins]], UNESCO {{en icon}} </ref>.

The [[United Nations]] uses the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the ''[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', adopted in 1966:
<blockquote>
''...any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.''(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination) <ref> [[http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/cerd.htm Text of the Convention], ''[['[[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]'', 1966 </ref>
</blockquote>

In 2000, the [[European Union]] explicitly banned racism along with many other forms of social discrimination:
<blockquote>
''Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality.''<ref>http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.html</ref>
</blockquote>

==Ethnic nationalism==
{{see|Ethnic nationalism |Romantic nationalism}}

After the [[Napoleonic War]]s, Europe was confronted to the new "[[nationalities]] question," leading to ceaseless reconfigurations of the European map, which frontiers between states had been delimited during the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]]. [[Nationalism]] had made its first, striking appearance with the invention of the ''[[levée en masse]]'' by the [[French Revolution|French revolutionaries]], thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly-founded [[French First Republic|Republic]] against the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'' order represented by the European monarchies. This lead to the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] (1792-1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to a subsequent European-wide debates on the concept and realities of [[nation]]s, and in particular of [[nation-state]]s. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms ([[Ottoman Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Swedish Empire]], [[Kingdom of France]], etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (''[[Kabinettskriege]]'' in German). Modern [[nation-state]]s would appear only in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiments for the first time in [[Enlightenment Spain|Spain]] during the [[Peninsula War]] (1808-1813 - known in Spanish as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]], the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the [[Industrial Era]], leading in particular to the [[1848 Revolutions]], the [[Italian unification]] completed during the 1871 [[Franco-Prussian War]], which itself culminated in the proclamation of the [[German Empire]] in the Hall of Mirrors in the [[Palace of Versailles]], thus achieving the [[German unification]]. Meanwhile, the [[Ottoman Empire]], "sick man of Europe," was confronted to endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the [[Austrian-Hungarian Empire]], would lead to the creation after [[World War I]] of the various nation-states of the [[Balkan]]s, which were always confronted, and remained so today, to the existence of "national [[minorities]]" in their borders <ref> On this "[[nationalities]] question" and the problematic of [[nationalism]], see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: [[Ernest Gellner]], ''Nations and Nationalism'' (1983); [[Eric Hobsbawm]],''The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789-1848'' (1962), ''Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality'' (1990); [[Benedict Anderson]], ''[[Imagined Communities]]'' (1991); [[Charles Tilly]], ''Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990-1992'' (1990); [[Anthony D. Smith]], ''Theories of Nationalism'' (1971), etc. </ref>.

[[Ethnic nationalism]], which believed in hereditary membership to the nation, made its appearance in this historical context of the creation of the modern nation-states. One of its main influence was the [[Romantic nationalist]] movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Herder]] (1744-1803), [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johan Fichte]] (1762-1814) in the ''Addresses to the German Nation'' (1808), [[Friedrich Hegel]] (1770-1831), or also, in France, [[Jules Michelet]] (1798-1874). It opposed itself to [[liberal nationalism]], represented by authors such as [[Ernest Renan]] (1823-1892), who conceived the nation as a community which, instead of being based on the ''[[Volk]]'' ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily [[plebiscite]]", 1882) or also [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806-1873) <ref> [[John Stuart Mill]], ''Considerations on Representative Government'', 1861 </ref>.

Ethnic nationalism quickly blended itself with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental [[imperialist]]" ([[Hannah Arendt]], 1951 <ref name=Arendt> [[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951) </ref>) discourses, for example in the [[pan-Germanism]] or [[pan-Slavism]] discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk or of the Slavish people. The [[Alldeutscher Verband|Pan-German League]] (''Alldeutscher Verband''), created in 1891, promoted [[German colonial empire|German imperialism]], "[[racial hygiene]]" and was opposed to intermarriages with Jews. Another, popular current, the ''[[Völkisch movement]]'', was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which it also combined with modern anti-semitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the [[Thule Society]], would participate to the foundation of the [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP) in Munich in 1918, predecessor of the [[NSDAP]] Nazi party. Both pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism played a decisive role in the [[interwar period]] of the 1920s-1930s <ref name=Arendt/>.

These currents began to associate the idea of the nation to the biological concept of a "[[master race]]" (often the "[[Aryan race]]" or "[[Nordic race]]") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflate nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses which posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying [[ethnic cleansing]] in order to achieve "racial purity" and achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.

Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not however limited to pan-Germanism and pan-Slavism ideologies. In France, the transition of Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made of nationalism a characteristic of [[History of far-right movements in France|far-right movements in France]], took place during the [[Dreyfus Affair]] at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide ''[[querelle]]'' affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Emile Zola, who wrote ''[[J'accuse]]'' in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet [[Maurice Barrès]] (1862-1923), one of the founder of ethnic nationalist discourse in France <ref> [[Maurice Barrès]], ''Le Roman de l'énergie nationale'' (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897) </ref>. At the same time, [[Charles Maurras]] (1868-1952), founder of the monarchist ''[[Action française]]'' movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative ''[[métèques]]''). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners," who threatened the ethnic unity of the [[French people]].

===Ethnic conflicts===
{{See|Ethnicity}}
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as [[xenophobia]] and [[ethnocentrism]], although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an [[ideology]] or from [[scientific racism]], which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia.

Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases [[ethnicity]] and [[nationalism]] were harnessed to rally [[combatant]]s in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).

Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Historically, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (particularly when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by [[morality|moral]] or [[ethics|ethical]] considerations.

One example of the brutalizing and dehumanizing effects of racism was the attempt to [[Population history of American indigenous peoples#Deliberate infection.3F|deliberately infect]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] with smallpox during [[Pontiac's Rebellion]] in 1763, itself a war intended to [[ethnic cleansing|ethnically cleanse]] the "other" ([[European Americans]]) from Native American land.

According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other." (Richter, ''Facing East from Indian Country'', p. 208)

In the Western world, racism evolved, twinned with the doctrine of [[white supremacy]], and helped fuel the [[Europe|European]] exploration, conquest, and colonization of much of the rest of the world -- especially after [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the Americas. [[Basil Davidson]] insists in his documentary, ''[[Africa: Different but Equal]]'', that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 1800s, due to the need for a justification of slavery in the Americas. The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West.

Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the [[Triangular Trade]]. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but then due to western diseases, their population drastically decreased.

Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's ''Europe and the People without History'').

Some people, like [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]], have argued during the [[Valladolid controversy]] in the middle of the 16th century that the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were natural slaves because they had no ''souls''. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th-20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.

==Scientific racism==
{{Main|Scientific racism}}
The modern biological definition of race was invented in the 19th century by scientific racist theories. The term "scientific racism" refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to at least the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the [[New Imperialism]] period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]]'s resistance to [[positivism|positivists]] accounts of history, and its support of [[monogenism]], that is that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with [[creationist]] accounts of history. These racist theories grounded on scientific hypothesis were combined with [[unilineal evolution|unilineal theories of social progress]] which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the [[social Darwinism]] discourse, which postulated the "[[survival of the fittest]]" theory, a term coined by [[Herbert Spencer]] in 1864. [[Charles Darwin]] himself explicitly denounced such accounts of history in ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' (1871). Finally, at the end of the 19th century, they intertwined themselves with [[eugenics]] discourses of "[[degeneration]] of the race" and "blood [[heredity]]." Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on [[physical anthropology]], [[anthropometry]], [[craniometry]], [[phrenology]], [[physiognomy]] and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices. Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of [[cultural anthropology]] ([[Franz Boas]], etc.), the British school of [[social anthropology]] ([[Bronisław Malinowski]], [[Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]], etc.), the French school of [[ethnology]] ([[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], etc.), as well as the discovery of the [[Modern evolutionary synthesis|neo-Darwinian synthesis]], such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a [[gene-centered view of evolution]] in the 1960s, which seemed at first to be sufficient proof of the inanity of the "scientific racist" theories of the 19th centuries, which based conception of evolution on "races", a concept which first appeared to lose any sense at the genetical level. However, modern resurgence of racist theories, in particular related to the [[race and intelligence]] controversy, seems to show that [[genetics]] could also be used for ideological, racist purposes.

===Heredity, "degeneration" and eugenics===
{{see|Eugenics}}
The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by [[Francis Galton]] (1822-1911), who used the then popular concept of "[[degeneration]]". He applied [[statistics]] to study human differences and the alleged "[[inheritance of intelligence]]," foreshading future uses of "[[intelligence testing]]" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer [[Emile Zola]] (1840-1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, ''[[Les Rougon-Macquart]]'', where he linked [[heredity]] to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons involved in politics (''[[Son Excellence Eugène Rougon]]'') and medicine (''[[Le Docteur Pascal]]'') and the low-born Macquarts fatally falling into alcoholism (''[[L'Assommoir]]''), prostitution (''[[Nana]]''), and homicide (''[[La Bête humaine]]'').

During the rise of [[Nazi Germany|Nazism in Germany]], some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century <ref> [[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950 </ref>. According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, ''[[The Race Question]]'', an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, the UNESCO declared that it resumed:
<blockquote>"''up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the [[International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation]] has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the [[Appeasement of Hitler|appeasement policy]] of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of [[Nazi ideology]] and policy. [[Tomáš Masaryk|Masaryk]] and [[Edvard Beneš|Beneš]] took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.''"</blockquote>

The [[Third Reich's racial policies]], its [[Nazi eugenics|eugenics programs]] and the extermination of Jews in [[the Holocaust]], as well as Gypsies in [[Porrajmos]] and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the [[Franz Boas|Boasian]] school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. '' These theories were strongly denounced in the UNESCO 1950 statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled ''[[The Race Question]]''.

===Polygenism and racial typologies===
{{see|Polygenism |Typology (anthropology)}}
Works such as [[Arthur Gobineau]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'' (1853-1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of [[Boulainvilliers]] for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality which changed over time. Gobineau thus attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological difference among human beings, giving it the legitimity of [[biology]]. He was one of the first theorist to postulate [[polygenism]], stating that there was, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races." Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by [[Georges Vacher de Lapouge]] (1854-1936)'s [[typology (anthropology)|typology of races]], who published in 1899 ''The Aryan and his Social Role'', in which he opposed the white, "[[Aryan]] race", "[[dolichocephalic]]", to the "brachycephalic" race, whom the "[[Jew]]" was to be the archetype. Vacher de Lapoug thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "''[[Nordic theory|Homo europaeus]]'' (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "''[[Homo alpinus]]''" ([[Auvergne|Auvergnat]], [[Turkish]], etc.), and finally the "''[[Homo mediterraneus]]''" ([[Naples|Neapolitan]], [[Andalusia|Andalus]], etc.) He assimilated races and [[social class]]es, considering that the French upper class was a representant of the ''Homo europaeus'', while the lower class represented the ''Homo alpinus''. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of [[trade union]]ists, considered as "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of [[labour condition]]s. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking [[social conflict]] by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order <ref> Matsuo Takeshi ([[Shimane Prefecture|University of Shimane]], Japan). ''L'Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme'' (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in ''[[Etudes de langue et littérature françaises]]'' 2001, n°79, pp. 47-57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; [[INIST]]-[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|CNRS]], Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 ([http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13473405 Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS] </ref>

The same year than Vacher de Lapouge, [[William Z. Ripley]] used identical racial classification in ''[[The Races of Europe]]'' (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Others famous scientific authors include [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain|H.S. Chamberlain]] at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who [[naturalization|naturalized]] himself as German because of his admiration for the "Arya] race") or [[Madison Grant]], a eugenicist and author of ''[[The Passing of the Great Race]]'' (1916).

===Academic racism against Africans===
[[Image:Races and skulls.png|150px|left|thumb|[[Josiah C. Nott|Nott]] and [[George Gliddon|Gliddon]]'s ''Indigenous races of the earth'' (1857) used misleading imagery to suggest that "Negros" ranked between whites and chimpanzees.]]

In relation to African people, academic racism was formed during times of slavery and colonialism, in order to remove any form of noble claim from the victims of these systems.
[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] comments on this racism by stating,
<blockquote>
Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa , other than raw material''<ref name=Shahadah>[http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/agencyandafrica.htm The Removal of Agency from Africa] by [[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]]</ref>
</blockquote>

Oxford academic [[J.R. Baker]] listed that a civilization is comprised of 21 basic components which where critical to demarcate the degree of civilization of a race. His conclusion was that Caucasians met all 21 criteria in Iraq, Crete, India, and in Egypt, and the Asians met them all in China. The Africans and Australian aborigines met virtually none of the 21 criteria. <ref name=JRbaker>‘’Race’’. J.R. Baker’’, 1974, p 507-508</ref>

Scottish philosopher and economist [[David Hume]] said
<blockquote>
''I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences”.<ref name=EricMorton>[http://www.africanphilosophy.com/vol1.1/morton.html RACE AND RACISM IN THE WORKS OF DAVID HUME] by [[Eric Morton]]</ref>
</blockquote>

German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.'' <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." {{Fact|date=January 2007}} This view that Africa had no history was repeated by [[Hugh Trevor-Roper, Baron Dacre of Glanton|Hugh Trevor-Roper]], Regius Professor of History at Oxford University, as late as 1963. {{Fact|date=January 2007}} During the Nazi era German scientist rearranged academia to support claims of a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt. <ref name=bboxhill>[Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by [[Bernard Boxill]]</ref>

[[Image:Völkerschau (Human Zoo) Stuttgart1928.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Human Zoo]] (''Völkerschau'') in [[Stuttgart]] (Germany) in 1928.]]

===Human zoos===
[[Human zoo]]s were an important means of bolstering ''popular racism'' by connecting it to [[scientific racism]]: they were both objects of public curiosity and of [[anthropology]] and [[anthropometry]].<ref> [http://migs.concordia.ca/occpapers/zoo.htm On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism], Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000 </ref><ref> {{cite news | authors=Pascal Blanchard, Sandrine Lemaire and Nicolas Bancel | title=Human zoos - Racist theme parks for Europe's colonialists | publisher=[[Le Monde Diplomatique]] |date=August 2000 | url=http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo}} {{en icon}}; {{cite news | title= Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale | publisher=[[Le Monde diplomatique]] |date=August 2000|url=http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html}} {{fr icon}} (available to everyone) </ref> [[Joice Heth]], an African American slave, was displayed by [[Phineas Taylor Barnum|P.T. Barnum]] in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of [[Saartjie Baartman]], the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until [[World War II]].

Congolese pygmy [[Ota Benga]] was displayed in 1906 by [[eugenicist]] [[Madison Grant]], head of the [[Bronx Zoo]], as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to [[Darwinism]], creating a [[social Darwinism]] ideology which tried to ground itself in [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris [[Colonial Exhibition]] displayed [[Kanaks]] from [[New Caledonia]].<ref> {{PDFlink|[http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter6/interviews/filetodownload,18533,en.pdf The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931]|96.6 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}} by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., [[Santa Clara University]], USA </ref> A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the [[Expo '58|Brussels' World Fair]].

==Racism in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance==
{{see|Limpieza de sangre}}
Although [[Christian anti-semitism|anti-Semitism]] has a long European history, related to Christianism ([[anti-Judaism]]), racism itself is frequently described as a ''modern'' phenomenon. In the view of the French intellectual [[Michel Foucault]], the first formulation of racism emerged in the [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern period]] as the "[[discourse]] of race struggle", a historical and political discourse which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of [[sovereignty]].<ref>Michel Foucault, ''Society Must Be Defended'' (1976-77)</ref>

[[Richard E. Nisbett]] has said that the question of racial superiority may go back at least a thousand years, to the time when the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Moors invaded the Iberian peninsula]], occupying most of [[Hispania]] for six centuries, where they founded the advanced civilization of [[Al-Andalus]] (711-1492). Al-Andalus coincided with ''[[La Convivencia]]'', an era of religious tolerance and with the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula]]. It was followed by a violent ''[[Reconquista]]'' under the ''[[Reyes Catolicos]]'' (Catholic Kings), [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand V]] and [[Isabella I of Spain|Isabella I]]. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the ''[[limpieza de sangre]]'' ("cleanliness of blood") doctrine. Following the expulsion of most [[Sephardic Jews]] from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to [[Converso|convert]] to Roman Catholicism, becoming "[[New Christian]]s" which were despised and discriminated by the others Christians. The system and ideology of the ''limpieza de sangre'' ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith. In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was ended through a legal decree issued by the [[Marquis of Pombal]] in [[1772]], almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The ''limpieza de sangre'' doctrine was also very common in the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]], where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by [[Eduardo Galeano]] in the ''Open Veins of Latin America'' (1971). It included, among [[Glossary of terms for multiraciality|others terms]], ''[[mestizo]]'' (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), ''[[castizo]]'' (75% European and 25% Native American), ''Spaniard'' (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), ''[[Mulatto]]'' (50% European and 50% African), ''Albarazado'' (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.

At the end of the [[Spanish Renaissance|Renaissance]], the [[Valladolid debate]] (1550-1551) concerning the treatment of [[Indigenous people of the Americas|natives]] of the "[[New World]]" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda]]. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and [[natural law]]. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversy concerning racism, slavery and [[Eurocentrism]] that would arise in the following centuries.

Philosopher and historian [[Michel Foucault]] argued that the first appearance of racism as a social [[discourse]] (as opposed to simple [[xenophobia]], which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 [[Glorious Revolution]] in Great Britain, in [[Edward Coke]] or [[John Lilburne]]'s work.

However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "[[scientific racism]]". Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a ''historical notion''. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the [[bourgeoisie]], the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy.

This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as [[Boulainvilliers]], [[Nicolas Fréret]], and then, during the 1789 [[French Revolution]], [[Sieyès]], and afterward [[Augustin Thierry]] and [[Cournot]]. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people".

He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified [[nation-state]] is, of course, here an [[anachronism]] — which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the [[absolute monarchy]], who tried to bypass the [[aristocracy]] by establishing a direct relationship to the [[Third Estate]]. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "[[Franks]]", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished [[Gallo-Romans]], who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the [[right of conquest]].

Early modern racism was opposed to [[nationalism]] and the nation-state: the [[Comte de Montlosier]], in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "''this new people born of slaves... [[miscegenation|mixture of all races and of all times]]"''.

While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the [[ethnic nationalist]] discourse which identified the "race" to the "[[folk]]", leading to such racist movements as [[pan-Germanism]] and [[pan-Slavism]], medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and [[social conflict]]s.

Michel Foucault thus traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and [[eugenicists]], who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "[[state racism]]" (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, [[Marxism|Marxists]] also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle which provided the real [[philosophy of history|engine of history]] and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the [[essentialist]] notion of "race" into the historical notion of "[[class struggle]]", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In ''[[The Will to Knowledge]]'' (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]], which opposed the concepts of "blood [[heredity]]," prevailent in the 19th century racist discourse.

==Racism and European colonialism in the nineteenth century==
{{Main|Colonialism}}
Authors such as [[Hannah Arendt]], in her 1951 book ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'', have said that the racist [[ideology]] ("popular racism") developed at the end of the nineteenth century helped legitimize the [[New Imperialism|imperialist conquests]] of foreign territories, and crimes that accompanied it (such as the [[Herero and Namaqua Genocide]], 1904-1907).

[[Auguste Comte]]'s [[positivism|positivist]] ideology of necessary [[social progress]] as a consequence of [[scientific progress]] lead many Europeans to believe in the inherent superiority of the "White Race" over non-whites.

[[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem ''[[The White Man's Burden]]'' (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of such belief, though also thought to be a satirical vantage of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize subjugation, slavery and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous peoples, which were thus conceived as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs.

Other colonialists recognized the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gain and there are some Europeans during the time period who objected to the injustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the so-called "[[Hottentot Venus]]" was displayed in England in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, [[Joseph Conrad]] published ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899), a clear criticism of the [[Congo Free State]] owned by [[Leopold II of Belgium]].

==State racism (Nazism, Fascism, Japan, South Africa)==
{{main|Nazism and race|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Italian Fascism|Eugenics in Imperial Japan|Apartheid in South Africa}}
[[State racism]] played a role in the [[Nazi Germany]] regime and [[Fascism|fascist]] regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's [[Showa period]]<ref>Edward Russel of Liverpool, ''The Knights of Bushido'', 2002, p.238, Herbert Bix, ''Hirohito and the making of modern Japan'', 2001, p.313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese power'', 1989, p.263-272</ref>.

These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal.

==Racism against Middle Easterners==
{{worldview}}{{Main|Anti-Arabism|Anti-Iranianism}}
Also see [[Israeli Arab#Discrimination|Israeli Arab discrimination]] and [[Anti-arabism#Anti-Arabism in Israel|Anti-Arabism in Israel]].
There are reports of a large increase in anti-Arab/anti-Iranian racism in the [[United States]] since the [[September 11 2001 attacks]]. <ref>http://www.religionlink.org/tip_030407b.php</ref> [[Racial profiling]] of people with a [[Middle Eastern]] ethnic background was proposed by a [[New York]] [[Congressman]] on [[August 15]] [[2006]].<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2930</ref>

In Hollywood, Arabs and Iranians have been portrayed as terrorists and women abusers, and Arabs as extremist people.<ref>http://www.adc.org/index.php?id=2357</ref> Iraq and Iran were demonized which led to hatred towards Arabs and Iranians living in the United States and elsewhere in the [[western world]]. <ref>http://www.freepress.org/departments/display/13/2004/814</ref> <ref>http://www.soundvision.com/info/peace/demonization.asp</ref> There have been attacks against Arabs and Iranians not only on the basis of their religion ([[Islam]]), but also on the basis of their ethnicity; numerous Christian Arabs and Iranians have been attacked based on their appearances.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/niot/citizens_respond/losaltos.html Attacks on Arab Americans] (PBS)</ref>

==Racism against Jews==
{{Main|Antisemitism|History of antisemitism}}
Antisemitism is a specific case of racism targeting [[Jew]]s, although scholars argue whether it should be considered a ''[[sui generis]]'' specie or not.
[[Image:Nurembergracechart.jpg|thumb|left|200px|1935 chart from [[Nazi Germany]] that classified people as German or Jewish based on the heritage of their grandparents.]]

Scholars distinguish traditional, ''religious antisemitism'', which derives from [[Christianity|Christian]] accusation of the [[deicide]] (cleared at the [[Second Vatican Council]] in 1965), with 19th-20th centuries ''[[racial antisemitism]]'', which ultimately led to [[the Holocaust]] in which about 6 million European Jews, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered. ''See also [[Holocaust denial]].''

In the [[Middle Ages]] [[Iberian peninsula]], the system of [[limpieza de sangre]] (cleanliness of blood) ostracized [[New Christians]] (offspring of [[Sephardi]]c Jews who were forced to convert to [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]]) from the rest of society. In [[Portugal]], the legal distinction between New and Old Christians was ended in 1772.

Expelled en masse from [[History of the Jews in England|England]], [[History of the Jews in France|France]], [[History of the Jews in Spain|Spain]] and most other [[Western Europe]]an countries at various times, and persecuted in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] in the [[14th century]], many Jews accepted [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III]]'s invitation to settle in [[History of the Jews in Poland|Polish]]-controlled areas of [[Eastern Europe]]. The traditional measures of keeping the [[Russian Empire]] free of Jews failed when the main territory of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was annexed during the [[Partitions of Poland]]. As large Jewish populations were taken over by Russia, [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]] established the [[Pale of Settlement]] in 1791. The official segregation of the [[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union|Russian Jews]] was compounded by waves of [[pogroms]] and oppressive legislation such as the 1882 [[May Laws]] and led to mass [[emigration]] and political activism.

Modern European antisemitism has its origin in 19th century [[pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]] theories that viewed the Jewish people as entirely different from the [[Aryan]], or [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]], populations. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their [[religion]], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic [[racial characteristics]]. The growth of [[nationalism]] in many countries viewed Jews as a separate and often "alien" nation within the countries in which Jews resided. Such sentiments were exposed in the [[Dreyfus affair]] in 1890s France. ''See also [[Rootless cosmopolitan]]ism.''

The rise of views of Jews as a malevolent "race" generated antisemitic [[conspiracy theories]] that Jews, as a group, were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world. From the early infamous Russian literary [[hoax]], ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', published by the Tsar's [[okhranka|secret police]], a key element of antisemitic thought has been that Jews influence or control the world.

==Religion and racism==
:''See [[Christianity and Slavery]] and [[Islam and Slavery]]''

In the nineteenth century, many American Christians were taught that Africans were descendants of [[Ham (son of Noah)]], and thus deserved to be slaves.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} However, [[abolitionism|abolition]] movements also used Christian teachings in explaining their views.

The [[Baha'i Faith]] denies the existence of human races, and has supported the ideology of ''one human race'' from its inception in 1863.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

{{section stub}}

==Footnotes==

{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* Barkan, Elazar (1992), ''The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars'', Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
* Dain, Bruce (2002), ''A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory)
* Diamond, Jared (1999), "Guns, Germs, and Steel", W.W. Norton, New York, NY.
* Ewen & Ewen (2006), "Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality", Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss, Claude]] (1952), ''Race and History'', ([[UNESCO]]).
* Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), ''Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture'', Westview Press.
* Stokes, DaShanne (forthcoming), ''Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom'', [http://www.geocities.com/eaglefeatherlaw/stokes.article.html URL].
* Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", ''Political Power and Social Theory'' 11 (1997), 183–206. ([[historiography]] of race and racism)
* [[Pierre-André Taguieff|Taguieff, Pierre-André]] (1987), ''La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles'', Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
* Twine, France Winddance (1997), ''Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil'', Rutgers University Press.
*[[UNESCO]], ''[[The Race Question]]'', 1950

==See also==
*[[List of racism-related topics]]
*[[Racism by country]]
*[[Celebrity Big Brother racism controversy]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Racism}}
*[[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_2001_Dec/ai_82066713/pg_1 Extract] from "Race and History" (1952) by [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
*[http://www.understandingrace.org/ Understanding race] website with pegagogic materials for both students and teachers, including sections for children (ages 10-13) and academic researchers. Emphasis on the United States.
*[http://www.pbs.org/race Race] in-depth website about race
*[http://www.newsreel.org/nav/title.asp?tc=CN0149 Race - the power of illusion] argument that while race is a biological fiction, racism permeates the structure of society
*[http://www.amren.com/0306issue/0306issue.html#article1 Race Denial: The Power of a Delusion] detailed critique seeking to refute the film
* [http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Racism.asp Racism and human rights] Racism from Global Issues
* [http://www.irr.org.uk/ Institute for Race Relations]
* [http://www.geocities.com/eaglefeatherlaw Eagle feather law] details racism in religion law regarding eagle feathers for Native and non-Native Americans
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/darwin_nazism.htm The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist] Refutes claims that Darwin was a racist
*[http://kitoba.com/pedia/Racism.html Racism] brief summary of the root causes of racism
*[http://cms.interculturalu.com/ InterculturalU.com] - a scholarly site that covers racism and other related topics.

[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Discrimination]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]
[[Category:Racism|*]]
[[Category:Sociology]]

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Margaret Sanger

2007-02-05T23:29:15Z

206.102.240.2: /* Eugenics and euthanasia */

{{Infobox Biography
| subject_name = Margaret Higgins Sanger
| image_name = MargaretSanger-Underwood.LOC.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| image_caption = Margaret Sanger.
| date_of_birth = [[September 14]], [[1879]]
| place_of_birth = [[Corning, New York|Corning]], [[New York]]
| date_of_death = [[September 6]], [[1966]]
| place_of_death = [[Tucson]], [[Arizona]]
| occupation =
| spouse =
}}
'''Margaret Higgins Sanger''' ([[September 14]], [[1879]] – [[September 6]], [[1966]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[birth control]] activist, an advocate of certain aspects of [[eugenics]], and the founder of the [[American Birth Control League]] (which eventually became [[Planned Parenthood]]). Initially met with fierce opposition to her ideas, Sanger gradually won the support of the public and the courts for a woman's choice to decide how and when she will bear children. Though her support of eugenics was less well received, Margaret Sanger was instrumental in opening the way to universal access to birth control.

==Early life==
Sanger was born in [[Corning, New York|Corning]], [[New York]]. Her mother, Anne Purcell Higgins, was a devout [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] who went through 18 pregnancies (with 11 live births)<ref>Steinem.</ref> before dying of [[tuberculosis]] and [[cervical cancer]]. Sanger attended [[Claverack College]], a boarding school in [[Hudson, New York|Hudson]] for two years. Her sisters paid her tuition, and when they were unable to continue to provide this assistance, Sanger returned home in 1899. Her mother died the same year, after which Sanger enrolled in a nursing program at a hospital in [[White Plains, New York|White Plains]], an affluent New York suburb. In 1902, she married William Sanger. Although stricken by tuberculosis, she gave birth to a son the following year, followed in later years by a second son and a daughter who died in childhood. Sanger's ill health, marriage and subsequent pregnancy prevented her from completing her third year of training and attaining a certification, though her new husband assured her that he would care for her and that she would be better off raising their children than pursuing a career.<ref name="chesler">Chesler.</ref>

In 1912, after a devastating fire destroyed the new home that her husband had designed, Sanger and her family moved to [[New York City]], where she went to work in the poverty-stricken [[Lower East Side, Manhattan|East Side]] slums of [[Manhattan]]. That same year, she also started writing a column for the ''New York Call'' entitled "What Every Girl Should Know." Distributing a pamphlet, ''Family Limitation'', to poor women, Sanger repeatedly risked scandal and imprisonment by acting in defiance of the [[Comstock Law|Comstock Law of 1873]], which outlawed as [[obscene]] the dissemination of contraceptive information and devices.

Margaret separated from her husband William Sanger in 1913. In 1914, Sanger launched ''The Woman Rebel'', a monthly newsletter advocating contraception (and coining the term "birth control") and that each woman be "the absolute mistress of her own body." She was indicted for violating postal obscenity laws in August and fled to [[Europe]] as "Bertha Watson" to escape prosecution. There, she had several affairs, including with the science-fiction author [[H. G. Wells]] and sexual psychologist [[Havelock Ellis]]. She returned to the U.S. in Oct. 1915. Her five-year-old daughter, Peggy, died Nov. 6.

==Family planning clinics==
On Oct. 16, 1916, Sanger opened a family planning and birth control clinic at 46 Amboy St. in the Brownsville neighborhood of [[Brooklyn]], the first of its kind in the United States. It was raided nine days later by the police. She served 30 days in prison. An initial appeal was rejected but a state appellate court in 1918 allowed doctors to prescribe contraception.

In 1916, Sanger published ''What Every Girl Should Know'', which was later widely distributed as one of the [[E. Haldeman-Julius]] "[[Little Blue Books]]." It not only provided basic information about such topics as [[menstruation]], but also promoted an understanding of sexuality in adolescents. It was followed in 1917 by ''What Every Mother Should Know''. She also launched the monthly periodical ''The Birth Control Review and Birth Control News'' and contributed articles on health for the [[United States Socialist Party|Socialist Party]] paper, ''The Call''.

Sanger founded the [[American Birth Control League]] (ABCL) in 1921 with [[Lothrop Stoddard]] and [[C. C. Little]]. In 1922, she traveled to [[Japan]] to work with Japanese feminist [[Kato Shidzue]] promoting birth control; over the next several years, she would return another six times for this purpose. In this year she married the oil tycoon, James Noah H. Slee.

In 1923, under the auspices of the ABCL, she established the Clinical Research Bureau. It was the first legal birth control clinic in the U.S. (renamed Margaret Sanger Research Bureau in her honor in 1940). It received crucial grants from [[John D. Rockefeller, Jr.]]'s Bureau of Social Hygiene from 1924 onwards, which were made anonymously to avoid public exposure of the Rockefeller name to her cause. The family also consistently supported her ongoing efforts in regard to population control.<ref>Crucial, anonymous Rockefeller grants to the Clinical Research Bureau and support for population control - see
John Ensor Harr, and Peter J. Johnson. ''The Rockefeller Century: Three Generations of America's Greatest Family''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988. (pp.191, 461-62)</ref>

Also in 1923, she formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control and served as its president until its dissolution in 1937 after birth control, under medical supervision, was legalized in many states. In 1927, Sanger helped organize the first [[World Population Conference]] in [[Geneva]].

Between 1921 and 1926, Sanger received over a million letters from mothers requesting information on birth control. From 1916 on, she lectured "in many places—halls, churches, women's clubs, homes, theaters" to "many types of audiences—cotton workers, churchmen, liberals, Socialists, scientists, clubmen, and fashionable, philanthropically minded women." In 1926, in what she called "one of the weirdest experiences I had in lecturing", Sanger even gave a lecture on birth control to the [[WKKK|women's auxiliary of the Ku Klux Klan]] in Silver Lake, [[New Jersey]], a group she found so ignorant she had to use only "the most elementary terms, as though I were trying to make children understand."<ref name=wkkk>{{cite book |author=Sanger, Margaret |year=1938 |title=Margaret Sanger, An Autobiography |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton |pages=pp. 361, 366-7}}</ref>

In 1928, Sanger resigned as the president of the ABCL. Two years later, she became president of the Birth Control International Information Center. In January 1932, she addressed the [[New History Society]], an organization founded by [[Mirza Ahmad Sohrab]] and [[Julia Lynch Olin|Julie Chanler]]; this address would later become the basis for an article entitled ''A Plan for Peace''.<ref name=pouzzner>Pouzzner.</ref> In 1937, Sanger became chairperson of the Birth Control Council of America and launched two publications, ''The Birth Control Review'' and ''The Birth Control News''. From 1939 to 1942, she was an honorary delegate of the Birth Control Federation of America. From 1952 to 1959, she served as president of the International Planned Parenthood Federation; at the time, the largest private international family planning organization.

During the 1960 presidential elections, Sanger was dismayed by candidate [[John F. Kennedy]]'s position on birth control (Kennedy did not believe birth control should be a matter of government policy). She threatened to leave the country if Kennedy were elected, but evidently reconsidered after Kennedy won the election.

In the early 1960s, Sanger promoted the use of the newly available [[birth control pill]]. She toured Europe, Africa, and Asia, lecturing and helping to establish clinics.

Sanger died in 1966 in [[Tucson, Arizona]] at age 86 which was eight days from her 87th birthday and only a few months after the landmark ''[[Griswold v. Connecticut]]'' decision, which legalized birth control for married couples in the U.S., the apex of her 50-year struggle.

Sanger's books include ''Woman and the New Race'' (1920), ''Happiness in Marriage'' (1926), ''My Fight For Birth Control'' (1931), and an autobiography (1938).

==Philosophy==
Although Sanger was greatly influenced by her father, her mother's death left her with a deep sense of dissatisfaction concerning her own and society's understanding of women's health and childbirth. She also criticized the censorship of her message about sexuality and contraceptives by the civil and religious authorities as an effort by men to keep women in submission. An atheist, Sanger attacked Christian leaders opposed to her message, accusing them of [[Obscurantism]] and insensitivity to women's concerns. Sanger was particularly critical of the lack of awareness of the dangers of and the scarcity of treatment opportunities for [[venereal disease]] among women. She claimed that these social ills were the result of the male establishment's intentionally keeping women in ignorance. Sanger also deplored the contemporary absence of regulations requiring registration of people diagnosed with venereal diseases (which she contrasted with mandatory registration of those with infectious diseases such as [[measles]]).

Sanger was also an avowed [[Socialism|socialist]], blaming the evils of contemporary [[capitalism]] for the unsatisfactory conditions of the young working-class women. Her very personal views on this issue are evident in the last pages of ''What Every Girl Should Know''.

===Psychology of sexuality===
While Sanger's understanding of and practical approach to human physiology were controversial for her times, her thoughts on the psychology of human sexuality place her squarely in the pre-[[Freud]]ian 19th century. Birth control, it would appear, was for her more a means to limit the undesirable side-effects of sex than a way of liberating men and women to enjoy it. In ''What Every Girl Should Know'', she wrote: "Every normal man and woman has the power to control and direct his sexual impulse. Men and woman who have it in control and constantly use their brain cells thinking deeply, are never sensual." Sexuality, for her, was a kind of weakness, and surmounting it indicated strength:

:Though sex cells are placed in a part of the anatomy for the essential purpose of easily expelling them into the female for the purpose of reproduction, there are other elements in the sexual fluid which are the essence of blood, nerve, brain, and muscle. When redirected in to the building and strengthening of these, we find men or women of the greatest endurance greatest magnetic power. A girl can waste her creative powers by brooding over a love affair to the extent of exhausting her system, with the results not unlike the effects of masturbation and debauchery.

Her thoughts on human development were also laden with [[racism]] (though it should be noted that she held to the generally accepted standards of her day):

:It is said that a fish as large as a man has a brain no larger than the kernel of an almond. In all fish and reptiles where there is no great brain development, there is also no conscious sexual control. The lower down in the scale of human development we go the less sexual control we find. It is said that the aboriginal Australian, the lowest known species of the human family, just a step higher than the chimpanzee in brain development, has so little sexual control that police authority alone prevents him from obtaining sexual satisfaction on the streets.

Sanger, like most of the population of her time, also considered [[masturbation]] dangerous:
:In my experience as a trained nurse while attending persons afflicted with various and often revolting diseases, no matter what their ailments, I have never found any one so repulsive as the chronic masturbator. It would be difficult not to fill page upon page of heartrending confessions made by young girls, whose lives were blighted by this pernicious habit, always begun so innocently, for even after they have ceased the habit, they find themselves incapable of any relief in the natural act. [...] Perhaps the greatest physical danger to the chronic masturbator is the inability to perform the sexual act naturally.

For her, masturbation was not just a physical act, it was a mental state:
:In the boy or girl past puberty, we find one of the most dangerous forms of masturbation, i.e., mental masturbation, which consists of forming mental pictures, or thinking obscene or voluptuous pictures. This form is considered especially harmful to the brain, for the habit becomes so fixed that it is almost impossible to free the thoughts from lustful pictures.

=== Eugenics and euthanasia ===
Sanger was a proponent of [[eugenics]], a social philosophy claiming that human hereditary traits can be improved through social intervention. Methods of social intervention (targeted at those seen as "genetically unfit") advocated by eugenists have included selective breeding, sterilization, and euthanasia. In 1932, for example, Sanger argued for:

<blockquote>A stern and rigid policy of sterilization and segregation to that grade of population whose progeny is already tainted or whose inheritance is such that objectionable traits may be transmitted to offspring.<ref>Sanger, "A Plan For Peace", ''Birth Control Review,'' April 1932, p. 106</ref></blockquote>

With advances in biology and genetics, it has become clear that the policies Sanger advocated to prevent the disabled from reproducing would in practice be ineffective.{{citation needed}} However, in the early 20th century, the eugenics movement, in which Sanger was prominently involved, gained strong support in the United States.

Sanger promoted the idea of "race hygiene" where she supported the disproportionate aborting of so called racial misfits...one of her most infamous quotes on the matter includes a discussion she had with Clarence Gamble, in which she wrote:

"[We propose to] hire three or four colored ministers, preferably with social-service backgrounds, and with engaging personalities. The most successful educational approach to the Negro is through a religious appeal. And we do not want word to go out that we want to exterminate the Negro population, and the minister is the man who can straighten out that idea if it ever occurs to any of their more rebellious members."

Of this, she said, "The campaign for birth control is not merely of eugenic value, but is practically identical with the final aims of eugenics."
<ref>Margaret Sanger. "The Eugenic Value of Birth Control Propaganda." Birth Control Review, October 1921, page 5</ref>

Sanger saw birth control as a means to prevent "dysgenic" children from being born into a disadvantaged life, and dismissed "positive eugenics" (which promoted greater fertility for the "fitter" upper classes) as impractical. Though many leaders in the eugenics movement were calling for active euthanasia of the "unfit," Sanger spoke out against such methods. Edwin Black writes:

<blockquote>In [William] Robinson's book, ''Eugenics, Marriage and Birth Control (Practical Eugenics),'' he advocated gassing the children of the unfit. In plain words, Robinson insisted: 'The best thing would be to gently chloroform these children or give them a dose of potassium cyanide.' Margaret Sanger was well aware that her fellow birth control advocates were promoting lethal chambers, but she herself rejected the idea completely. 'Nor do we believe,' wrote Sanger in ''Pivot of Civilization,'' 'that the community could or should send to the lethal chamber the defective progeny resulting from irresponsible and unintelligent breeding.'<ref name=black-251>Black (''The War Against the Weak''), 251.</ref></blockquote>

She maintained, however, that she advocated certain instances of coercion: "The undeniably feeble-minded should, indeed, not only be discouraged but prevented from propagating their kind."<ref>
Margaret Sanger, quoted in Charles Valenza. "Was Margaret Sanger a Racist?" Family Planning Perspectives, January-February 1985, page 44.</ref>

===Freedom of speech===
Sanger was an avid defender of free speech who was arrested at least eight times for expressing her views in a time when speaking publicly in favor of birth control was illegal. She stated in interviews that she had been influenced by the agnostic orator [[Robert G. Ingersoll]], who spoke in her hometown when she was 12 years old.<ref name="new yorker">"The Child Who Was Mother to a Woman" from ''The New Yorker'', April 11, 1925, page 11.</ref>

==Legacy==
Sanger remains a controversial figure. While she is widely credited as a leader of the modern birth control movement, and remains an iconic figure for the American [[reproductive rights]] movements, she also is reviled by some who condemn her as "an abortion advocate" (perhaps unfairly so: [[abortion]] was illegal during Sanger's lifetime and Planned Parenthood did not then support the procedure or lobby for its legalisation).Prolife groups have frequently targeted Sanger for her views, attributing her efforts to promote birth control to a desire to "purify" the human race through eugenics, and even to eliminate minority races by placing birth control clinics in minority neighborhoods.<ref>Marshall.</ref> For this reason, Sanger is often quoted selectively or out of context by detractors (a practice known as [[quote mining]]), and her history and involvement with socialism and eugenics have often been rationalized or even ignored by her defenders and biographers (a practice known as [[Spin (public relations)|spin doctoring]]). Despite the allegations of racism, Sanger's work with minorities earned the respect of civil rights leaders such as [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]<ref>Planned Parenthood Federation of America.</ref> In their biographical article about Margaret Sanger, [[Planned Parenthood]] notes:

<blockquote>In 1930, Sanger opened a family planning clinic in Harlem that sought to enlist support for contraceptive use and to bring the benefits of family planning to women who were denied access to their city's health and social services. Staffed by a black physician and black social worker, the clinic was endorsed by The Amsterdam News (the powerful local newspaper), the Abyssinian Baptist Church, the [[Urban League]], and the black community's elder statesman, [[W.E.B. DuBois]].<ref>Knowles.</ref></blockquote>

Although Sanger's views on abortion (like many of her opinions) changed throughout the course of her life{{fact}}, in her early years she was acutely aware of the problem of abortion, typically self-induced or with the aid of a [[midwife]]. Her opposition to abortion stemmed primarily from a concern for the dangers to the mother, and less so from legal concerns or the welfare of the unborn child.<ref>{{cite book|last=Streitmatter|first=Rodger|title=Voices of Revolution: The Dissident Press in America|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|date=2001|location=New York|pages=169|id=ISBN 0-231-12249-7}}</ref> She wrote in a 1916 edition of ''Family Limitation,'' "no one can doubt that there are times when an abortion is justifiable," though she framed this in the context of her birth control advocacy, adding that "abortions will become unnecessary when care is taken to prevent conception. (Care is) the only cure for abortions." Sanger consistently regarded birth control and abortion as the responsibility and burden first and foremost of women, and as matters of law, medicine and public policy second.<ref>Gray.</ref>

Sanger's 1938 autobiography notes her 1916 opposition to abortion as the taking of life: "To each group we explained what contraception was; that abortion was the wrong way—no matter how early it was performed it was taking life; that contraception was the better way, the safer way—it took a little time, a little trouble, but was well worth while in the long run, because life had not yet begun."<ref name=abortion>{{cite book |author=Sanger, Margaret |year=1938 |title=Margaret Sanger, An Autobiography |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton |pages=p. 217}}</ref>


==Notes==
<div class="references-small">

<references/>
</div>

==References==
*{{cite journal
| last = Black
| first = Edwin
| authorlink = Edwin Black
| date = [[November 9]], [[2003]]
| title = '''Eugenics and the Nazis - the California connection'''
| journal = San Francisco Chronicle
| pages = D - 1
| url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2003/11/09/ING9C2QSKB1.DTL
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Black
| first = Edwin
| authorlink = Edwin Black
| title = The War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race
| origyear = 2003
| origmonth = September
| publisher = Four Walls Eight Windows
| location = New York City, NY
| id = ISBN 1-56858-258-7
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Chesler
| first = Ellen
| title = Woman of Valor: Margaret Sanger and the Birth Control Movement in America
| origyear = 1992
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| location = New York City, NY
| id = ISBN 0-671-60088-5
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Gray
| first = Madeline
| title = Margaret Sanger: A Biography of the Champion of Birth Control
| origdate = 1979
| publisher = Richard Marek Publishers
| location = New York City, NY
| id = ISBN 0-399-90019-5
| pages = 280
}}
*{{cite web
| url=http://www.plannedparenthood.org/about/thisispp/sanger.html
| title=The Truth About Margaret Sanger
| first=Jon
| last=Knowles
| publisher=Katharine Dexter McCormick Library
| year=2004
}}
*{{cite book
| author = Marshall, Robert G. and Donovan, Chuck
| title = Blessed Are the Barren: The Social Policy of Planned Parenthood
| url =
| year = 1991
| month = October
| publisher = Ignatius Press
| location = San Francisco, CA
| id = ISBN 0-89870-353-0
}}
*{{cite book
| author = Sanger, Margaret
| title = An Autobiography
| url =
| year = 1938
| month =
| publisher = Cooper Square Press
| location = New York, NY
| id = ISBN 0-8154-1015-8
}}

*{{cite web
| url=http://www.plannedparenthood.org/pp2/portal/files/portal/medicalinfo/birthcontrol/pub-martin-luther-king.xml
| title=Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.
| author=Planned Parenthood Federation of America
| year=2004
}}
*{{cite web
| last = Pouzzner
| first = Daniel
| year = February 2005
| url = http://www.mega.nu/ampp/eden/depopulation.html
| title = Returning to Eden: Herding People, Culling the Herd
| work = The Architecture of Modern Political Power
| accessdate = 2006-04-13
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = Margaret
| last = Sanger
| year = 1932
| month = April
| title = '''A Plan For Peace'''
| journal = The Birth Control Review
| pages = 106
| url = http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/ms_apwp.html
}}
*{{cite web
| url=http://www.time.com/time/time100/leaders/profile/sanger.html
| title=Time's 100 Most Important People of the Century: Margaret Sanger
| work=Time Magazine
| author=Steinem, Gloria
| year=April 13, 1998
}}

==See also==
*[[Anthony Comstock]]
*[[C. C. Little]]
*[[Emma Goldman]]
*[[Ernst Rüdin]]
*[[Havelock Ellis]]
*[[H.G. Wells]]
*[[Houghton family]]
*[[Lothrop Stoddard]]
*[[Mary Dennett|Mary Ware Dennett]]

==Further reading==
===Works by Margaret Sanger===
*''[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1689 The Pivot of Civilization]''
*''[http://pds.harvard.edu:8080/pdx/servlet/pds?id=2575249&n=2&s=4&res=3 Woman and the New Race c.1920]''
*''[http://digital.lib.msu.edu/collections/index.cfm?TitleID=129 What Every Girl Should Know (1920 ed.)]'' (GIF facsimile available)
*''[http://digital.lib.msu.edu/collections/index.cfm?TitleID=130 What Every Girl Should Know (1922 ed.)]'' (GIF and PDF facsimiles available)
*[http://womenshistory.about.com/library/etext/bl_sanger_1924.htm "The Case for Birth Control"] (first published in the ''Woman Citizen'', [[February 23]], [[1924]])
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pill/filmmore/ps_letters.html Correspondence] between Sanger and [[Katharine McCormick]]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Margaret_Sanger|name=Margaret Sanger}}
*[http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss43_main.html The Margaret Sanger Papers at Smith College]''

===Works by other authors===
*[http://www.time.com/time/time100/leaders/profile/sanger.html Profile on Time.com]
*[http://womenshistory.about.com/library/bio/blbio_margaret_sanger.htm Profile in Women's History section of About.com]
*[http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/ The Margaret Sanger Papers Project]
*[http://www.blackgenocide.org/sanger.html Online excerpt] from ''Blessed Are the Barren: The Social Policy of Planned Parenthood''
*[http://www.waragainsttheweak.com/ Online excerpts] from ''The War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race''

{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:Sex educators|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Birth control|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:American eugenicists|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:American nurses|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:American women's rights activists|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Feminists|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:American atheists|Sanger]]
[[Category:American autodidacts|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Rockefeller family|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:American liberals|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Members of the Socialist Party of America|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:1879 births|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:1966 deaths|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Social entrepreneurs|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery|Sanger, Margaret]]

[[de:Margaret Sanger]]
[[he:מרגרט סנגר]]
[[id:Margaret Higgins Sanger]]
[[ja:マーガレット・サンガー]]

Margaret Sanger

2007-02-05T23:24:53Z

206.102.240.2: /* Philosophy */

{{Infobox Biography
| subject_name = Margaret Higgins Sanger
| image_name = MargaretSanger-Underwood.LOC.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| image_caption = Margaret Sanger.
| date_of_birth = [[September 14]], [[1879]]
| place_of_birth = [[Corning, New York|Corning]], [[New York]]
| date_of_death = [[September 6]], [[1966]]
| place_of_death = [[Tucson]], [[Arizona]]
| occupation =
| spouse =
}}
'''Margaret Higgins Sanger''' ([[September 14]], [[1879]] – [[September 6]], [[1966]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[birth control]] activist, an advocate of certain aspects of [[eugenics]], and the founder of the [[American Birth Control League]] (which eventually became [[Planned Parenthood]]). Initially met with fierce opposition to her ideas, Sanger gradually won the support of the public and the courts for a woman's choice to decide how and when she will bear children. Though her support of eugenics was less well received, Margaret Sanger was instrumental in opening the way to universal access to birth control.

==Early life==
Sanger was born in [[Corning, New York|Corning]], [[New York]]. Her mother, Anne Purcell Higgins, was a devout [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] who went through 18 pregnancies (with 11 live births)<ref>Steinem.</ref> before dying of [[tuberculosis]] and [[cervical cancer]]. Sanger attended [[Claverack College]], a boarding school in [[Hudson, New York|Hudson]] for two years. Her sisters paid her tuition, and when they were unable to continue to provide this assistance, Sanger returned home in 1899. Her mother died the same year, after which Sanger enrolled in a nursing program at a hospital in [[White Plains, New York|White Plains]], an affluent New York suburb. In 1902, she married William Sanger. Although stricken by tuberculosis, she gave birth to a son the following year, followed in later years by a second son and a daughter who died in childhood. Sanger's ill health, marriage and subsequent pregnancy prevented her from completing her third year of training and attaining a certification, though her new husband assured her that he would care for her and that she would be better off raising their children than pursuing a career.<ref name="chesler">Chesler.</ref>

In 1912, after a devastating fire destroyed the new home that her husband had designed, Sanger and her family moved to [[New York City]], where she went to work in the poverty-stricken [[Lower East Side, Manhattan|East Side]] slums of [[Manhattan]]. That same year, she also started writing a column for the ''New York Call'' entitled "What Every Girl Should Know." Distributing a pamphlet, ''Family Limitation'', to poor women, Sanger repeatedly risked scandal and imprisonment by acting in defiance of the [[Comstock Law|Comstock Law of 1873]], which outlawed as [[obscene]] the dissemination of contraceptive information and devices.

Margaret separated from her husband William Sanger in 1913. In 1914, Sanger launched ''The Woman Rebel'', a monthly newsletter advocating contraception (and coining the term "birth control") and that each woman be "the absolute mistress of her own body." She was indicted for violating postal obscenity laws in August and fled to [[Europe]] as "Bertha Watson" to escape prosecution. There, she had several affairs, including with the science-fiction author [[H. G. Wells]] and sexual psychologist [[Havelock Ellis]]. She returned to the U.S. in Oct. 1915. Her five-year-old daughter, Peggy, died Nov. 6.

==Family planning clinics==
On Oct. 16, 1916, Sanger opened a family planning and birth control clinic at 46 Amboy St. in the Brownsville neighborhood of [[Brooklyn]], the first of its kind in the United States. It was raided nine days later by the police. She served 30 days in prison. An initial appeal was rejected but a state appellate court in 1918 allowed doctors to prescribe contraception.

In 1916, Sanger published ''What Every Girl Should Know'', which was later widely distributed as one of the [[E. Haldeman-Julius]] "[[Little Blue Books]]." It not only provided basic information about such topics as [[menstruation]], but also promoted an understanding of sexuality in adolescents. It was followed in 1917 by ''What Every Mother Should Know''. She also launched the monthly periodical ''The Birth Control Review and Birth Control News'' and contributed articles on health for the [[United States Socialist Party|Socialist Party]] paper, ''The Call''.

Sanger founded the [[American Birth Control League]] (ABCL) in 1921 with [[Lothrop Stoddard]] and [[C. C. Little]]. In 1922, she traveled to [[Japan]] to work with Japanese feminist [[Kato Shidzue]] promoting birth control; over the next several years, she would return another six times for this purpose. In this year she married the oil tycoon, James Noah H. Slee.

In 1923, under the auspices of the ABCL, she established the Clinical Research Bureau. It was the first legal birth control clinic in the U.S. (renamed Margaret Sanger Research Bureau in her honor in 1940). It received crucial grants from [[John D. Rockefeller, Jr.]]'s Bureau of Social Hygiene from 1924 onwards, which were made anonymously to avoid public exposure of the Rockefeller name to her cause. The family also consistently supported her ongoing efforts in regard to population control.<ref>Crucial, anonymous Rockefeller grants to the Clinical Research Bureau and support for population control - see
John Ensor Harr, and Peter J. Johnson. ''The Rockefeller Century: Three Generations of America's Greatest Family''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988. (pp.191, 461-62)</ref>

Also in 1923, she formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control and served as its president until its dissolution in 1937 after birth control, under medical supervision, was legalized in many states. In 1927, Sanger helped organize the first [[World Population Conference]] in [[Geneva]].

Between 1921 and 1926, Sanger received over a million letters from mothers requesting information on birth control. From 1916 on, she lectured "in many places—halls, churches, women's clubs, homes, theaters" to "many types of audiences—cotton workers, churchmen, liberals, Socialists, scientists, clubmen, and fashionable, philanthropically minded women." In 1926, in what she called "one of the weirdest experiences I had in lecturing", Sanger even gave a lecture on birth control to the [[WKKK|women's auxiliary of the Ku Klux Klan]] in Silver Lake, [[New Jersey]], a group she found so ignorant she had to use only "the most elementary terms, as though I were trying to make children understand."<ref name=wkkk>{{cite book |author=Sanger, Margaret |year=1938 |title=Margaret Sanger, An Autobiography |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton |pages=pp. 361, 366-7}}</ref>

In 1928, Sanger resigned as the president of the ABCL. Two years later, she became president of the Birth Control International Information Center. In January 1932, she addressed the [[New History Society]], an organization founded by [[Mirza Ahmad Sohrab]] and [[Julia Lynch Olin|Julie Chanler]]; this address would later become the basis for an article entitled ''A Plan for Peace''.<ref name=pouzzner>Pouzzner.</ref> In 1937, Sanger became chairperson of the Birth Control Council of America and launched two publications, ''The Birth Control Review'' and ''The Birth Control News''. From 1939 to 1942, she was an honorary delegate of the Birth Control Federation of America. From 1952 to 1959, she served as president of the International Planned Parenthood Federation; at the time, the largest private international family planning organization.

During the 1960 presidential elections, Sanger was dismayed by candidate [[John F. Kennedy]]'s position on birth control (Kennedy did not believe birth control should be a matter of government policy). She threatened to leave the country if Kennedy were elected, but evidently reconsidered after Kennedy won the election.

In the early 1960s, Sanger promoted the use of the newly available [[birth control pill]]. She toured Europe, Africa, and Asia, lecturing and helping to establish clinics.

Sanger died in 1966 in [[Tucson, Arizona]] at age 86 which was eight days from her 87th birthday and only a few months after the landmark ''[[Griswold v. Connecticut]]'' decision, which legalized birth control for married couples in the U.S., the apex of her 50-year struggle.

Sanger's books include ''Woman and the New Race'' (1920), ''Happiness in Marriage'' (1926), ''My Fight For Birth Control'' (1931), and an autobiography (1938).

==Philosophy==
Although Sanger was greatly influenced by her father, her mother's death left her with a deep sense of dissatisfaction concerning her own and society's understanding of women's health and childbirth. She also criticized the censorship of her message about sexuality and contraceptives by the civil and religious authorities as an effort by men to keep women in submission. An atheist, Sanger attacked Christian leaders opposed to her message, accusing them of [[Obscurantism]] and insensitivity to women's concerns. Sanger was particularly critical of the lack of awareness of the dangers of and the scarcity of treatment opportunities for [[venereal disease]] among women. She claimed that these social ills were the result of the male establishment's intentionally keeping women in ignorance. Sanger also deplored the contemporary absence of regulations requiring registration of people diagnosed with venereal diseases (which she contrasted with mandatory registration of those with infectious diseases such as [[measles]]).

Sanger was also an avowed [[Socialism|socialist]], blaming the evils of contemporary [[capitalism]] for the unsatisfactory conditions of the young working-class women. Her very personal views on this issue are evident in the last pages of ''What Every Girl Should Know''.

===Psychology of sexuality===
While Sanger's understanding of and practical approach to human physiology were controversial for her times, her thoughts on the psychology of human sexuality place her squarely in the pre-[[Freud]]ian 19th century. Birth control, it would appear, was for her more a means to limit the undesirable side-effects of sex than a way of liberating men and women to enjoy it. In ''What Every Girl Should Know'', she wrote: "Every normal man and woman has the power to control and direct his sexual impulse. Men and woman who have it in control and constantly use their brain cells thinking deeply, are never sensual." Sexuality, for her, was a kind of weakness, and surmounting it indicated strength:

:Though sex cells are placed in a part of the anatomy for the essential purpose of easily expelling them into the female for the purpose of reproduction, there are other elements in the sexual fluid which are the essence of blood, nerve, brain, and muscle. When redirected in to the building and strengthening of these, we find men or women of the greatest endurance greatest magnetic power. A girl can waste her creative powers by brooding over a love affair to the extent of exhausting her system, with the results not unlike the effects of masturbation and debauchery.

Her thoughts on human development were also laden with [[racism]] (though it should be noted that she held to the generally accepted standards of her day):

:It is said that a fish as large as a man has a brain no larger than the kernel of an almond. In all fish and reptiles where there is no great brain development, there is also no conscious sexual control. The lower down in the scale of human development we go the less sexual control we find. It is said that the aboriginal Australian, the lowest known species of the human family, just a step higher than the chimpanzee in brain development, has so little sexual control that police authority alone prevents him from obtaining sexual satisfaction on the streets.

Sanger, like most of the population of her time, also considered [[masturbation]] dangerous:
:In my experience as a trained nurse while attending persons afflicted with various and often revolting diseases, no matter what their ailments, I have never found any one so repulsive as the chronic masturbator. It would be difficult not to fill page upon page of heartrending confessions made by young girls, whose lives were blighted by this pernicious habit, always begun so innocently, for even after they have ceased the habit, they find themselves incapable of any relief in the natural act. [...] Perhaps the greatest physical danger to the chronic masturbator is the inability to perform the sexual act naturally.

For her, masturbation was not just a physical act, it was a mental state:
:In the boy or girl past puberty, we find one of the most dangerous forms of masturbation, i.e., mental masturbation, which consists of forming mental pictures, or thinking obscene or voluptuous pictures. This form is considered especially harmful to the brain, for the habit becomes so fixed that it is almost impossible to free the thoughts from lustful pictures.

=== Eugenics and euthanasia ===
Sanger was a proponent of [[eugenics]], a social philosophy claiming that human hereditary traits can be improved through social intervention. Methods of social intervention (targeted at those seen as "genetically unfit") advocated by eugenists have included selective breeding, sterilization, and euthanasia. In 1932, for example, Sanger argued for:

<blockquote>A stern and rigid policy of sterilization and segregation to that grade of population whose progeny is already tainted or whose inheritance is such that objectionable traits may be transmitted to offspring.<ref>Sanger, "A Plan For Peace", ''Birth Control Review,'' April 1932, p. 106</ref></blockquote>

With advances in biology and genetics, it has become clear that the policies Sanger advocated to prevent the disabled from reproducing would in practice be ineffective.{{citation needed}} However, in the early 20th century, the eugenics movement, in which Sanger was prominently involved, gained strong support in the United States.

Sanger promoted the idea of "race hygiene" Where she supported the disproportionate aborting of so called racial misfits...one of her most infamous quotes on the matter includes a discussion she had with Clarence Gamble, in which she wrote:

"[We propose to] hire three or four colored ministers, preferably with social-service backgrounds, and with engaging personalities. The most successful educational approach to the Negro is through a religious appeal. And we do not want word to go out that we want to exterminate the Negro population, and the minister is the man who can straighten out that idea if it ever occurs to any of their more rebellious members."

Of this, she said, "The campaign for birth control is not merely of eugenic value, but is practically identical with the final aims of eugenics."
<ref>Margaret Sanger. "The Eugenic Value of Birth Control Propaganda." Birth Control Review, October 1921, page 5</ref>

Sanger saw birth control as a means to prevent "dysgenic" children from being born into a disadvantaged life, and dismissed "positive eugenics" (which promoted greater fertility for the "fitter" upper classes) as impractical. Though many leaders in the eugenics movement were calling for active euthanasia of the "unfit," Sanger spoke out against such methods. Edwin Black writes:

<blockquote>In [William] Robinson's book, ''Eugenics, Marriage and Birth Control (Practical Eugenics),'' he advocated gassing the children of the unfit. In plain words, Robinson insisted: 'The best thing would be to gently chloroform these children or give them a dose of potassium cyanide.' Margaret Sanger was well aware that her fellow birth control advocates were promoting lethal chambers, but she herself rejected the idea completely. 'Nor do we believe,' wrote Sanger in ''Pivot of Civilization,'' 'that the community could or should send to the lethal chamber the defective progeny resulting from irresponsible and unintelligent breeding.'<ref name=black-251>Black (''The War Against the Weak''), 251.</ref></blockquote>

She maintained, however, that she advocated certain instances of coercion: "The undeniably feeble-minded should, indeed, not only be discouraged but prevented from propagating their kind."<ref>
Margaret Sanger, quoted in Charles Valenza. "Was Margaret Sanger a Racist?" Family Planning Perspectives, January-February 1985, page 44.</ref>

===Freedom of speech===
Sanger was an avid defender of free speech who was arrested at least eight times for expressing her views in a time when speaking publicly in favor of birth control was illegal. She stated in interviews that she had been influenced by the agnostic orator [[Robert G. Ingersoll]], who spoke in her hometown when she was 12 years old.<ref name="new yorker">"The Child Who Was Mother to a Woman" from ''The New Yorker'', April 11, 1925, page 11.</ref>

==Legacy==
Sanger remains a controversial figure. While she is widely credited as a leader of the modern birth control movement, and remains an iconic figure for the American [[reproductive rights]] movements, she also is reviled by some who condemn her as "an abortion advocate" (perhaps unfairly so: [[abortion]] was illegal during Sanger's lifetime and Planned Parenthood did not then support the procedure or lobby for its legalisation).Prolife groups have frequently targeted Sanger for her views, attributing her efforts to promote birth control to a desire to "purify" the human race through eugenics, and even to eliminate minority races by placing birth control clinics in minority neighborhoods.<ref>Marshall.</ref> For this reason, Sanger is often quoted selectively or out of context by detractors (a practice known as [[quote mining]]), and her history and involvement with socialism and eugenics have often been rationalized or even ignored by her defenders and biographers (a practice known as [[Spin (public relations)|spin doctoring]]). Despite the allegations of racism, Sanger's work with minorities earned the respect of civil rights leaders such as [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]<ref>Planned Parenthood Federation of America.</ref> In their biographical article about Margaret Sanger, [[Planned Parenthood]] notes:

<blockquote>In 1930, Sanger opened a family planning clinic in Harlem that sought to enlist support for contraceptive use and to bring the benefits of family planning to women who were denied access to their city's health and social services. Staffed by a black physician and black social worker, the clinic was endorsed by The Amsterdam News (the powerful local newspaper), the Abyssinian Baptist Church, the [[Urban League]], and the black community's elder statesman, [[W.E.B. DuBois]].<ref>Knowles.</ref></blockquote>

Although Sanger's views on abortion (like many of her opinions) changed throughout the course of her life{{fact}}, in her early years she was acutely aware of the problem of abortion, typically self-induced or with the aid of a [[midwife]]. Her opposition to abortion stemmed primarily from a concern for the dangers to the mother, and less so from legal concerns or the welfare of the unborn child.<ref>{{cite book|last=Streitmatter|first=Rodger|title=Voices of Revolution: The Dissident Press in America|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|date=2001|location=New York|pages=169|id=ISBN 0-231-12249-7}}</ref> She wrote in a 1916 edition of ''Family Limitation,'' "no one can doubt that there are times when an abortion is justifiable," though she framed this in the context of her birth control advocacy, adding that "abortions will become unnecessary when care is taken to prevent conception. (Care is) the only cure for abortions." Sanger consistently regarded birth control and abortion as the responsibility and burden first and foremost of women, and as matters of law, medicine and public policy second.<ref>Gray.</ref>

Sanger's 1938 autobiography notes her 1916 opposition to abortion as the taking of life: "To each group we explained what contraception was; that abortion was the wrong way—no matter how early it was performed it was taking life; that contraception was the better way, the safer way—it took a little time, a little trouble, but was well worth while in the long run, because life had not yet begun."<ref name=abortion>{{cite book |author=Sanger, Margaret |year=1938 |title=Margaret Sanger, An Autobiography |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton |pages=p. 217}}</ref>


==Notes==
<div class="references-small">

<references/>
</div>

==References==
*{{cite journal
| last = Black
| first = Edwin
| authorlink = Edwin Black
| date = [[November 9]], [[2003]]
| title = '''Eugenics and the Nazis - the California connection'''
| journal = San Francisco Chronicle
| pages = D - 1
| url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2003/11/09/ING9C2QSKB1.DTL
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Black
| first = Edwin
| authorlink = Edwin Black
| title = The War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race
| origyear = 2003
| origmonth = September
| publisher = Four Walls Eight Windows
| location = New York City, NY
| id = ISBN 1-56858-258-7
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Chesler
| first = Ellen
| title = Woman of Valor: Margaret Sanger and the Birth Control Movement in America
| origyear = 1992
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| location = New York City, NY
| id = ISBN 0-671-60088-5
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Gray
| first = Madeline
| title = Margaret Sanger: A Biography of the Champion of Birth Control
| origdate = 1979
| publisher = Richard Marek Publishers
| location = New York City, NY
| id = ISBN 0-399-90019-5
| pages = 280
}}
*{{cite web
| url=http://www.plannedparenthood.org/about/thisispp/sanger.html
| title=The Truth About Margaret Sanger
| first=Jon
| last=Knowles
| publisher=Katharine Dexter McCormick Library
| year=2004
}}
*{{cite book
| author = Marshall, Robert G. and Donovan, Chuck
| title = Blessed Are the Barren: The Social Policy of Planned Parenthood
| url =
| year = 1991
| month = October
| publisher = Ignatius Press
| location = San Francisco, CA
| id = ISBN 0-89870-353-0
}}
*{{cite book
| author = Sanger, Margaret
| title = An Autobiography
| url =
| year = 1938
| month =
| publisher = Cooper Square Press
| location = New York, NY
| id = ISBN 0-8154-1015-8
}}

*{{cite web
| url=http://www.plannedparenthood.org/pp2/portal/files/portal/medicalinfo/birthcontrol/pub-martin-luther-king.xml
| title=Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.
| author=Planned Parenthood Federation of America
| year=2004
}}
*{{cite web
| last = Pouzzner
| first = Daniel
| year = February 2005
| url = http://www.mega.nu/ampp/eden/depopulation.html
| title = Returning to Eden: Herding People, Culling the Herd
| work = The Architecture of Modern Political Power
| accessdate = 2006-04-13
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = Margaret
| last = Sanger
| year = 1932
| month = April
| title = '''A Plan For Peace'''
| journal = The Birth Control Review
| pages = 106
| url = http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/ms_apwp.html
}}
*{{cite web
| url=http://www.time.com/time/time100/leaders/profile/sanger.html
| title=Time's 100 Most Important People of the Century: Margaret Sanger
| work=Time Magazine
| author=Steinem, Gloria
| year=April 13, 1998
}}

==See also==
*[[Anthony Comstock]]
*[[C. C. Little]]
*[[Emma Goldman]]
*[[Ernst Rüdin]]
*[[Havelock Ellis]]
*[[H.G. Wells]]
*[[Houghton family]]
*[[Lothrop Stoddard]]
*[[Mary Dennett|Mary Ware Dennett]]

==Further reading==
===Works by Margaret Sanger===
*''[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1689 The Pivot of Civilization]''
*''[http://pds.harvard.edu:8080/pdx/servlet/pds?id=2575249&n=2&s=4&res=3 Woman and the New Race c.1920]''
*''[http://digital.lib.msu.edu/collections/index.cfm?TitleID=129 What Every Girl Should Know (1920 ed.)]'' (GIF facsimile available)
*''[http://digital.lib.msu.edu/collections/index.cfm?TitleID=130 What Every Girl Should Know (1922 ed.)]'' (GIF and PDF facsimiles available)
*[http://womenshistory.about.com/library/etext/bl_sanger_1924.htm "The Case for Birth Control"] (first published in the ''Woman Citizen'', [[February 23]], [[1924]])
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pill/filmmore/ps_letters.html Correspondence] between Sanger and [[Katharine McCormick]]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Margaret_Sanger|name=Margaret Sanger}}
*[http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss43_main.html The Margaret Sanger Papers at Smith College]''

===Works by other authors===
*[http://www.time.com/time/time100/leaders/profile/sanger.html Profile on Time.com]
*[http://womenshistory.about.com/library/bio/blbio_margaret_sanger.htm Profile in Women's History section of About.com]
*[http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/ The Margaret Sanger Papers Project]
*[http://www.blackgenocide.org/sanger.html Online excerpt] from ''Blessed Are the Barren: The Social Policy of Planned Parenthood''
*[http://www.waragainsttheweak.com/ Online excerpts] from ''The War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race''

{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:Sex educators|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Birth control|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:American eugenicists|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:American nurses|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:American women's rights activists|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Feminists|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:American atheists|Sanger]]
[[Category:American autodidacts|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Rockefeller family|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:American liberals|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Members of the Socialist Party of America|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:1879 births|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:1966 deaths|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Social entrepreneurs|Sanger, Margaret]]
[[Category:Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery|Sanger, Margaret]]

[[de:Margaret Sanger]]
[[he:מרגרט סנגר]]
[[id:Margaret Higgins Sanger]]
[[ja:マーガレット・サンガー]]

King's College (New York City)

2006-10-20T15:25:38Z

206.102.240.2:

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is a small Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded by [[Percy Crawford]] in Briarcliff Manor, Westchester, in 1938. However, the school shut down entirely in 1994, and switched locations in 1999. The campus is now located in [[Manhattan Island|Manhattan]], [[New York]], primarily in the [[Empire State Building]].

The namesake of ''The King's College'' is not to be confused with the [[George II of the United Kingdom|two]] temporal [[George III of the United Kingdom|kings]] after whom [[Columbia University]] was originally named, when the latter was known as ''King's College'', between the years of [[1754]] and [[1784]]. The reference is to Jesus Christ, as the eternal King.

==About the college==
The King's College offers two majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

TKC provides housing at a [[high-rise]] apartment complex that features a 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]], located on the same block as the Empire State Building and another building that is two blocks away.

==The Vision==

The King’s College seeks ambitious students who want to make a difference in the world. The college aims to contribute to American society by producing graduates who command the important intellectual traditions, who think lucidly about the social and political issues that confront them today, who write with force and flair, who speak with eloquence, and who are eager to exchange ideas in open debate with those who espouse different views.

To accomplish this, the College teaches a compelling worldview rooted in the Bible and informed by close study of great works of philosophy, political theory, and economics. They study Paul and Plato; Moses and Machiavelli; Adam and Adam Smith.

==The Mission Statement==

Through its commitment to the truths of Christianity and a Biblical worldview, The King’s College seeks to prepare students for careers in which they will help to shape and eventually to lead strategic public and private institutions: to improve government, commerce, law, the media, civil society, education, the arts and the church.

==History==

The King’s College was founded in 1938 in Belmar, New Jersey by Dr. Percy B. Crawford. In 1949, Crawford initiated Youth On The March, the first nationwide television show of any kind. CNN later honored Crawford on the 50th anniversary of the first Youth on the March broadcast.

In 1955, Crawford moved Kings to Briarcliff Manor, New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in 1960, Dr. Robert Cook became the college’s second president.

In 1985, Dr. Friedhelm Radandt, a former professor at the University of Chicago and President of Northwestern College in Iowa, became the college’s third president. Kings ran into financial difficulties in the early 1990s and closed in 1994. In 1998, J. Stanley Oakes, in coordination with Dr. Bill Bright, led the effort to re-capitalize the school. Radandt continued as president.

In 1999, The King’s College acquired Northeastern Bible College, of Essex Fells, New Jersey. That year the revived Kings leased 34,000 square feet on two floors of Empire State Building, where it remains today.

On January 1, 2003, the Board of Trustees of The King’s College selected J. Stanley Oakes, Jr. to be the college’s fourth president. President Oakes, a graduate in Classical Greek from the University of Minnesota and in political theory from the University of Dallas, had spent nearly 20 years building a nationwide network of Christian professors. Oakes steered the college to its current mission of preparing students to become statesmen.

(Pictures and a fuller narrative of The King’s College earliest days can be found at: http://www.infoage.org/kings.htm)

==Houses==

All students are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis in order to help each member grow spiritually. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Vicar, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as a liaison between the house leadership and the house advisory board.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/reagan/index.html Visit the House of Regan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]

==House Competitions==

'''House Competition Champions'''
* [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html House of Lewis](2005-06)
* House of Barton (2004-05)

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html House of Lewis]

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu TKC's homepage]

{{US-northeast-university-stub}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

King's College (New York City)

2006-10-20T15:21:28Z

206.102.240.2:

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is a small Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded by [[Percy Crawford]] in Briarcliff Manor, Westchester, in 1938. However, the school shut down entirely in 1994, and switched locations in 1999. The campus is now located in [[Manhattan Island|Manhattan]], [[New York]], primarily in the [[Empire State Building]].

The namesake of ''The King's College'' is not to be confused with the [[George II of the United Kingdom|two]] temporal [[George III of the United Kingdom|kings]] after whom [[Columbia University]] was originally named, when the latter was known as ''King's College'', between the years of [[1754]] and [[1784]]. The reference is to Jesus Christ, as the eternal King.

==About the college==
The King's College offers two majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

TKC provides housing at a [[high-rise]] apartment complex that features a 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]], located on the same block as the Empire State Building and another building that is two blocks away.

==History==

The King’s College was founded in 1938 in Belmar, New Jersey by Dr. Percy B. Crawford. In 1949, Crawford initiated Youth On The March, the first nationwide television show of any kind. CNN later honored Crawford on the 50th anniversary of the first Youth on the March broadcast.

In 1955, Crawford moved Kings to Briarcliff Manor, New York. When Dr. Crawford died of a heart attack in 1960, Dr. Robert Cook became the college’s second president.

In 1985, Dr. Friedhelm Radandt, a former professor at the University of Chicago and President of Northwestern College in Iowa, became the college’s third president. Kings ran into financial difficulties in the early 1990s and closed in 1994. In 1998, J. Stanley Oakes, in coordination with Dr. Bill Bright, led the effort to re-capitalize the school. Radandt continued as president.

In 1999, The King’s College acquired Northeastern Bible College, of Essex Fells, New Jersey. That year the revived Kings leased 34,000 square feet on two floors of Empire State Building, where it remains today.

On January 1, 2003, the Board of Trustees of The King’s College selected J. Stanley Oakes, Jr. to be the college’s fourth president. President Oakes, a graduate in Classical Greek from the University of Minnesota and in political theory from the University of Dallas, had spent nearly 20 years building a nationwide network of Christian professors. Oakes steered the college to its current mission of preparing students to become statesmen.

(Pictures and a fuller narrative of The King’s College earliest days can be found at: http://www.infoage.org/kings.htm)

==Houses==

All students are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis in order to help each member grow spiritually. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Vicar, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as a liaison between the house leadership and the house advisory board.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/reagan/index.html Visit the House of Regan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]

==House Competitions==

'''House Competition Champions'''
* [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html House of Lewis](2005-06)
* House of Barton (2004-05)

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html House of Lewis]

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu TKC's homepage]

{{US-northeast-university-stub}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

King's College (New York City)

2006-10-20T15:18:53Z

206.102.240.2:

{{Otheruses3|King's College}}

'''The King's College''' is a small Christian institution of [[higher education]], founded by [[Percy Crawford]] in Briarcliff Manor, Westchester, in 1938. However, the school shut down entirely in 1994, and switched locations in 1999. The campus is now located in [[Manhattan Island|Manhattan]], [[New York]], primarily in the [[Empire State Building]].

The namesake of ''The King's College'' is not to be confused with the [[George II of the United Kingdom|two]] temporal [[George III of the United Kingdom|kings]] after whom [[Columbia University]] was originally named, when the latter was known as ''King's College'', between the years of [[1754]] and [[1784]]. The reference is to Jesus Christ, as the eternal King.

==About the college==
The King's College offers two majors, a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[Philosophy, Politics, and Economics|Politics, Philosophy, and Economics]]; and a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Business Management.

TKC provides housing at a [[high-rise]] apartment complex that features a 24-hour [[Concierge|concierge service]], located on the same block as the Empire State Building and another building that is two blocks away.

==History==

In [[1997]] the school officially merged with the conservative Christian organisation, [[Campus Crusade for Christ]] - an organisation, the TKC website says, "of more than 26,000 staff in 191 countries with annual revenues of more than $500 million." In the summer of [[2005]] the school was involved in a lengthy dispute over accredidation, though it eventually won out. It is currently accredited by the New York State Board of Regents. Some of the current staff of the school are also on staff with Campus Crusade, and a small portion of the student body (approximately 250 students as of 2006) are children of Crusade families, or have otherwise been involved with the organisation. The school's acknowledged purpose is to put individuals in positions of influence and power. To quote their website, "King’s is focused upon preparing students for leadership in America’s strategic national institutions: the courts, government, the arts, media, business, the schools and the church."

- In 2006 The King's College was listed as one of 50 "All American Colleges" in an issue of "The Intercollegiate Studies Institute Guide to All-American Colleges." Other colleges profiled include the University of Chicago, Princeton University, Rhodes College and the University of the South. The guide highlights schools that, “clearly remained committed to ensuring that students encounter the great minds and texts of Western civilization and those that have programs that connect in a special way with the core values of the American founding and the vibrant intellectual traditions of the West.” According to the guide, “Intellectually serious students who want a genuinely formative Christian education would do well to take a look at this high-minded little college in one of the world’s tallest buildings.”[http://www.tkc.edu/news_releases/americancollege.htm]

==Houses==

All students are divided into houses, which meet on a weekly basis in order to help each member grow spiritually. Upper-classmen can assume leadership roles within their house, taking the role of President, Chamberlain, Vicar, or Scholar. Each house is also assigned two faculty/staff members to serve as a liaison between the house leadership and the house advisory board.

Houses are named after historic leaders. Current houses include:
* House of [[C. S. Lewis]]; [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html Visit the House of Lewis Website]
* House of [[Clara Barton]]
* House of [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* House of [[Elizabeth I]]
* House of [[Margaret Thatcher]]
* House of [[Ronald Reagan]]; [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/reagan/index.html Visit the House of Regan Website]
* House of [[Sojourner Truth]]
* House of [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* House of [[Winston Churchill]]

==House Competitions==

'''House Competition Champions'''
* [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html House of Lewis](2005-06)
* House of Barton (2004-05)

'''Interregnum'''
*I - Fall 2005: [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html House of Lewis]
*II - Spring 2006: [http://students.tkc.edu/houses/lewis/intro.html House of Lewis]

==External links==
*[http://www.tkc.edu TKC's homepage]

{{US-northeast-university-stub}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City|King's College, The]]

Chaparral High School (Paradise, Nevada)

2006-09-14T18:49:46Z

206.102.240.2: /* Famous Alumni */

{{Infobox_University
|name = Chaparral High School
|image = [[image:Chap.JPG‎]]
|motto = Courage, Harmony, Ambition, and Pride
|established = [[1973]]
|type = [[Public school|Public]]
|principal = Kevin McPartlin
|city = [[Las Vegas|Las Vegas]]
|state = [[Nevada|NV]]
|country = [[United States|USA]]
|enrollment = 2,739
|staff = 197
|Grades = 9-12
|campus = [[suburban area|Suburban]]
|mascot = Cowboy, Yosemite Sam
|colors = Orange, Black, and White
|website= [http://ccsd.net/schools/chaparral/index.html]
}}

'''Chaparral High School''' is a public high school in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]] of the [[Clark County School District]]. It is located in the east side of the town. The school was established in the Fall of 1973. Its mascot is the Cowboy and its school colors are orange and black. Another mascot it is known for is Yosemite Sam and it's fight song is the famous theme from the movie The Magnificent Seven. The recent graduating class of 2006 played against Valley High School in a unique 31-year reunion homecoming football game; Valley High was where Chaparral's first graduating class (1975) originated. The outgoing Student Body President is Steven Arnold, and the 2006-2007 school year's Student Body President is Kaitlin Reaves.

== Famous Alumni ==
[[Image:Anthony-zukier-bldg.jpg|left|thumb|Front of new Theatre]] [[Anthony E. Zuiker]] is the creator and executive producer of [[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]]. He graduated in [[1995]] from Chaparral, and went on to graduate from the [[University of Nevada, Las Vegas]] with a Bachelor of Arts in English. A new school theatre is named after him ''Anthony E. Zuiker Theatre''

== School Information ==
3850 Annie Oakley Drive
Las Vegas, NV 89121

The school is located in East Las Vegas, North of Flamingo Road and East of Sandhill. Take the Flamingo West Exit off of I-95. They can be contacted at 702-799-7580 and are open from 6:30 A.M. - 3 P.M. Monday - Friday.

The current course catalog can be viewd here [http://ccsd.net/schools/chaparral/catalog/generalcourseinfo.pdf PDF Catalog]

== External links ==
*[http://ccsd.net/schools/chaparral/index.html Chaparral High School]
*[http://www.geocities.com/chaparralhs/AlumniFoundation.html The Alumni Association for Chaparral]

{{Nevada-school-stub}}

[[Category:High schools in Nevada]]
[[Category:Clark County School District]]

Reinbeck, Iowa

2006-04-18T22:14:03Z

206.102.240.2:

'''Reinbeck''' is a city located in [[Grundy County, Iowa]]. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 1,751.

Reinbeck resides in northeastern Iowa outside of the Waterloo-Cedar Falls area known as the Cedar Valley. Reinbeck is primarily an agricultural community that strives on the services of nearby larger cities like Cedar Falls.

The Reinbeck school district is consolodated with nearby town Gladbrook to create the Gladbrook-Reinbeck Community Schoool District or "G-R" as the local's refer to it as. The G-R School district offers a variety of activities that the students participate in, especially in the high school. The G-R High School offers many activites such as: art, music, athletics, and academic clubs. G-R has excelled in all of these, especially in athletics. The legendary Nicholas "Otis" Peterson was and still is a member of the G-R Athletic teams of football, baseball, and track & field. Otis particularly excelled in football where he played tailback. Some say that Otis' superhuman stregnth comes from a prolonged use of steroids from the time he was in the first trimester of an embreo. Those who know Otis' real character know what he would never take steroids, he was just born superhuman.

Reinbeck is owned by Mark Peterson and Tony Veith.

Reinbeck and the word 'awesome' can be used interchangeably.
''e.g. 'Dude you are so Reinbeck' or 'Have you been to Awesome lately?'''

Reinbeck is thought to have been the birthplace of William Shakespeare and world famous actor Bob Saget.

The 'Dead Sea Scrolls' were found in Reinbeck and some say the Arc of the Covenant still resides there.

The word Reinbeck is Scandanavian for "Land of Infinate Knuckle Hair."

Bazooka bubble gum and the hair-net was invented in Reinbeck.

Thomas Jefferson was inspired to write the ''Declaration of Independance'' while on a week long vacation to Reinbeck.

Tom Cruise and "tree hugging" is illegal in Reinbeck.

Once a gothic person stepped within the city limits of Reinbeck and was instantly turned into a moose (which was inevitably killed, cleaned, ground up, turned into moose-jerky, and shipped to 3rd world countries like Missouri).

==Geography==
[[Image:IAMap-doton-Reinbeck.PNG|right|Location of Reinbeck, Iowa]]
Reinbeck is located at 42°19'20" North, 92°35'55" West (42.322218, -92.598696){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 4.7 [[square kilometer|km²]] (1.8 [[square mile|mi²]]). 4.7 km² (1.8 mi²) of it is land and none of it is covered by water.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 1,751 people, 730 households, and 492 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 371.5/km² (962.5/mi²). There were 769 housing units at an average density of 163.1/km² (422.7/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 99.60% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.11% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.00% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.17% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.00% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.06% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.06% from two or more races. 0.40% of the population were [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There were 730 households out of which 28.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.8% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 6.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.6% were non-families. 29.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.87.

In the city the population was spread out with 23.5% under the age of 18, 6.3% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 23.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $36,667, and the median income for a family was $45,938. Males had a median income of $32,829 versus $21,618 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $19,814. 4.0% of the population and 3.3% of families were below the [[poverty line]]. 2.3% of those under the age of 18 and 6.1% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

==External links==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.322218|-92.598696}}

[[Category:Grundy County, Iowa]]
[[Category:Cities in Iowa]]

[[io:Reinbeck, Iowa]]

Reinbeck, Iowa

2006-04-18T22:13:10Z

206.102.240.2:

'''Reinbeck''' is a city located in [[Grundy County, Iowa]]. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 1,751.

Reinbeck resides in northeastern Iowa outside of the Waterloo-Cedar Falls area known as the Cedar Valley. Reinbeck is primarily an agricultural community that strives on the services of nearby larger cities like Cedar Falls.

The Reinbeck school district is consolodated with nearby town Gladbrook to create the Gladbrook-Reinbeck Community Schoool District or "G-R" as the local's refer to it as. The G-R School district offers a variety of activities that the students participate in, especially in the high school. The G-R High School offers many activites such as: art, music, athletics, and academic clubs. G-R has excelled in all of these, especially in athletics. The legendary Nicholas "Otis" Peterson was and still is a member of the G-R Athletic teams of football, baseball, and track & field. Otis particularly excelled in football where he played tailback. Some say that Otis' superhuman stregnth comes from a prolonged use of steroids from the time he was in the first trimester of an embreo. Those who know Otis' real character know what he would never take steroids, he was just born superhuman.

Reinbeck is owned by Mark Peterson and Tony Veith.

Reinbeck and the word 'awesome' can be used interchangeably.
''"Dude, you are so Reinbeck." or "Have you been to Awesome lateley?"''

Reinbeck is thought to have been the birthplace of William Shakespeare and world famous actor Bob Saget.

The 'Dead Sea Scrolls' were found in Reinbeck and some say the Arc of the Covenant still resides there.

The word Reinbeck is Scandanavian for "Land of Infinate Knuckle Hair."

Bazooka bubble gum and the hair-net was invented in Reinbeck.

Thomas Jefferson was inspired to write the ''Declaration of Independance'' while on a week long vacation to Reinbeck.

Tom Cruise and "tree hugging" is illegal in Reinbeck.

Once a gothic person stepped within the city limits of Reinbeck and was instantly turned into a moose (which was inevitably killed, cleaned, ground up, turned into moose-jerky, and shipped to 3rd world countries like Missouri).

==Geography==
[[Image:IAMap-doton-Reinbeck.PNG|right|Location of Reinbeck, Iowa]]
Reinbeck is located at 42°19'20" North, 92°35'55" West (42.322218, -92.598696){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 4.7 [[square kilometer|km²]] (1.8 [[square mile|mi²]]). 4.7 km² (1.8 mi²) of it is land and none of it is covered by water.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 1,751 people, 730 households, and 492 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 371.5/km² (962.5/mi²). There were 769 housing units at an average density of 163.1/km² (422.7/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 99.60% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.11% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.00% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.17% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.00% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.06% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.06% from two or more races. 0.40% of the population were [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There were 730 households out of which 28.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.8% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 6.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.6% were non-families. 29.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.87.

In the city the population was spread out with 23.5% under the age of 18, 6.3% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 23.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $36,667, and the median income for a family was $45,938. Males had a median income of $32,829 versus $21,618 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $19,814. 4.0% of the population and 3.3% of families were below the [[poverty line]]. 2.3% of those under the age of 18 and 6.1% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

==External links==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.322218|-92.598696}}

[[Category:Grundy County, Iowa]]
[[Category:Cities in Iowa]]

[[io:Reinbeck, Iowa]]

Reinbeck, Iowa

2006-04-18T22:11:44Z

206.102.240.2:

'''Reinbeck''' is a city located in [[Grundy County, Iowa]]. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 1,751.

Reinbeck resides in northeastern Iowa outside of the Waterloo-Cedar Falls area known as the Cedar Valley. Reinbeck is primarily an agricultural community that strives on the services of nearby larger cities like Cedar Falls.

The Reinbeck school district is consolodated with nearby town Gladbrook to create the Gladbrook-Reinbeck Community Schoool District or "G-R" as the local's refer to it as. The G-R School district offers a variety of activities that the students participate in, especially in the high school. The G-R High School offers many activites such as: art, music, athletics, and academic clubs. G-R has excelled in all of these, especially in athletics. The legendary Nicholas "Otis" Peterson was and still is a member of the G-R Athletic teams of football, baseball, and track & field. Otis particularly excelled in football where he played tailback. Some say that Otis' superhuman stregnth comes from a prolonged use of steroids from the time he was in the first trimester of an embreo. Those who know Otis' real character know what he would never take steroids, he was just born superhuman.

Reinbeck is owned by Mark Peterson and Tony Veith.

Reinbeck and the word 'awesome' can be used interchangeably.
'' e.g. "Dude, you are so Reinbeck." or "Have you been to Awesome lateley?"''

Reinbeck is thought to have been the birthplace of William Shakespeare and world famous actor Bob Saget.

The 'Dead Sea Scrolls' were found in Reinbeck and some say the Arc of the Covenant still resides there.

The word Reinbeck is Scandanavian for "Land of Infinate Knuckle Hair."

Bazooka bubble gum and the hair-net was invented in Reinbeck.

Thomas Jefferson was inspired to write the ''Declaration of Independance'' while on a week long vacation to Reinbeck.

Tom Cruise and "tree hugging" is illegal in Reinbeck.

Once a gothic person stepped within the city limits of Reinbeck and was instantly turned into a moose (which was inevitably killed, cleaned, ground up, turned into moose-jerky, and shipped to 3rd world countries like Missouri).

==Geography==
[[Image:IAMap-doton-Reinbeck.PNG|right|Location of Reinbeck, Iowa]]
Reinbeck is located at 42°19'20" North, 92°35'55" West (42.322218, -92.598696){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 4.7 [[square kilometer|km²]] (1.8 [[square mile|mi²]]). 4.7 km² (1.8 mi²) of it is land and none of it is covered by water.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 1,751 people, 730 households, and 492 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 371.5/km² (962.5/mi²). There were 769 housing units at an average density of 163.1/km² (422.7/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 99.60% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.11% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.00% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.17% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.00% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.06% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.06% from two or more races. 0.40% of the population were [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There were 730 households out of which 28.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.8% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 6.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.6% were non-families. 29.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.87.

In the city the population was spread out with 23.5% under the age of 18, 6.3% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 23.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $36,667, and the median income for a family was $45,938. Males had a median income of $32,829 versus $21,618 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $19,814. 4.0% of the population and 3.3% of families were below the [[poverty line]]. 2.3% of those under the age of 18 and 6.1% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

==External links==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.322218|-92.598696}}

[[Category:Grundy County, Iowa]]
[[Category:Cities in Iowa]]

[[io:Reinbeck, Iowa]]

Reinbeck, Iowa

2006-04-18T22:10:42Z

206.102.240.2:

'''Reinbeck''' is a city located in [[Grundy County, Iowa]]. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 1,751.

Reinbeck resides in northeastern Iowa outside of the Waterloo-Cedar Falls area known as the Cedar Valley. Reinbeck is primarily an agricultural community that strives on the services of nearby larger cities like Cedar Falls.

The Reinbeck school district is consolodated with nearby town Gladbrook to create the Gladbrook-Reinbeck Community Schoool District or "G-R" as the local's refer to it as. The G-R School district offers a variety of activities that the students participate in, especially in the high school. The G-R High School offers many activites such as: art, music, athletics, and academic clubs. G-R has excelled in all of these, especially in athletics. The legendary Nicholas "Otis" Peterson was and still is a member of the G-R Athletic teams of football, baseball, and track & field. Otis particularly excelled in football where he played tailback. Some say that Otis' superhuman stregnth comes from a prolonged use of steroids from the time he was in the first trimester of an embreo. Those who know Otis' real character know what he would never take steroids, he was just born superhuman.

Reinbeck is owned by Mark Peterson and Tony Veith.

Reinbeck and the word 'awesome' can be used interchangeably.
'' (e.g. "Dude, you are so Reinbeck." or "Have you been to Awesome lateley?")''

Reinbeck is thought to have been the birthplace of William Shakespeare and world famous actor Bob Saget.

The 'Dead Sea Scrolls' were found in Reinbeck and some say the Arc of the Covenant still resides there.

The word Reinbeck is Scandanavian for "Land of Infinate Knuckle Hair."

Bazooka bubble gum and the hair-net was invented in Reinbeck.

Thomas Jefferson was inspired to write the ''Declaration of Independance'' while on a week long vacation to Reinbeck.

Tom Cruise and "tree hugging" is illegal in Reinbeck.

Once a gothic person stepped within the city limits of Reinbeck and was instantly turned into a moose (which was inevitably killed, cleaned, ground up, turned into moose-jerky, and shipped to 3rd world countries like Missouri).

==Geography==
[[Image:IAMap-doton-Reinbeck.PNG|right|Location of Reinbeck, Iowa]]
Reinbeck is located at 42°19'20" North, 92°35'55" West (42.322218, -92.598696){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 4.7 [[square kilometer|km²]] (1.8 [[square mile|mi²]]). 4.7 km² (1.8 mi²) of it is land and none of it is covered by water.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 1,751 people, 730 households, and 492 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 371.5/km² (962.5/mi²). There were 769 housing units at an average density of 163.1/km² (422.7/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 99.60% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.11% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.00% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.17% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.00% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.06% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.06% from two or more races. 0.40% of the population were [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There were 730 households out of which 28.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.8% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 6.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.6% were non-families. 29.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.87.

In the city the population was spread out with 23.5% under the age of 18, 6.3% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 23.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $36,667, and the median income for a family was $45,938. Males had a median income of $32,829 versus $21,618 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $19,814. 4.0% of the population and 3.3% of families were below the [[poverty line]]. 2.3% of those under the age of 18 and 6.1% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

==External links==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.322218|-92.598696}}

[[Category:Grundy County, Iowa]]
[[Category:Cities in Iowa]]

[[io:Reinbeck, Iowa]]

Wikipedia:Articles for creation/2006-03-29

2006-03-28T17:49:13Z

206.102.240.2: John Gonska

Please now follow the link back to [[Wikipedia:Articles for creation]].

== 37 Woods Edge Ct ==




=== Sources ===



this would be my house
the best place in stafford

== [[Sigma Psi Kappa]] ==



Sigma Psi Kappa is a local sorority at New Jersey Institute of Technology. It was founded on November 8th, 1992 as a safe haven for women. It's founding sisters, Elfie Almadin, Jeannie Lee, Chin Yu (Jenny) Lin, Rebeca Luengo, and Omnia Samra came together to build this organization, that focuses on community service, scholarship, and strength, for strong and independant women who strive for excellence.

Today, Sigma Psi Kappa is locally seen as such an organization. More than 70 women of been inducted, and the ideals that the founding sisters strived toward are the same ideals our sisters strive toward today. Sigma Psi Kappa is known for hosting 2 blood drives each semester, doing well in school, being active in our campus community, and are seen as leaders at New Jersey Institute of Technology.

=== Sources ===

http://www.njitsigmas.com


[[User:128.235.249.80|128.235.249.80]] 01:46, 28 March 2006 (UTC)Melissa Mazanek, Sigma Psi Kappa President, Spring 2006
==[[Lord Henry]]==


Lord Henry is the mentor of Dorian Gray in Oscar Wilde's [[A Picture of Dorian Gray]].

=== Sources ===




== Chestnut Hill Academy ==

[[Chestnut Hill Academy]]




'''Chestnut Hill Academy''' is a private school for boys in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]. The school offers classes from pre-kindergarten to grade 12. Some classes in the upper grades are co-educational, offered in conjunction with the nearby [[Springside School]] for girls.

The school is accredited by the [[Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools]].

=== External link ===

[http://www.chestnuthillacademy.org/ Chestnut Hill Academy Website]

{{t1|US-school-stub}}

[[:Category:High schools in Pennsylvania]]

=== Sources ===

(See external link above for the school's official website)

[[User:68.162.80.7|68.162.80.7]] 02:17, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== "For Dummies" Books ==

#REDIRECT [[...For Dummies]]

== Rekoil (the band you cant stand) ==




=== Sources ===




sources freewebs.com/rekoilthebandyoucantstand
myspace.com/rekoilthebandyoucantstand

== Max Shelton ==



Max Shelton of Indianapolis, Indiana is bassist of the Indianapolis founded band, the Urban Rednecks. A tennis player, musician, local philanthropist, magician, accountant, zoo keeper, and mountain climber, Mr. Shelton has established a colorful background which he implements in his everyday life.

=== Sources ===

== [[David Wild]] ==

David Wild, currently a contributing editor at ''Rolling Stone'' magazine, is a prominent writer and critic in the music and television industries. His published books include Friends: The Offical Companion (1995); Seinfeld: The Totally Unauthorized Tribute (1998); The Showrunners (2000); The Official Melrose Place Companion (1995); The Movies of Woody Allen: A Short, Neurotic Quiz Book (1987).

Mr. Wild was the host of the television series Musicians, which aired on Bravo! in 2001. His writing credits for television include the following:

<ul>
<li>Super Bowl's Greatest Commercials: Top 40 Countdown (2006) (TV)
</li>
<li>2006 Asian Excellence Awards (2006)
</li>
<li>Al Pacino: An American Cinematheque Tribute (2006) (TV)
</li>
<li>The 2005 Billboard Music Awards (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>An All-Star Salute to Patti LaBelle: Live from Atlantis (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>Shelter from the Storm: A Concert for the Gulf Coast (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>The 3rd Annual TV Land Awards (2005)
</li>
<li>The Greatest Commercials: Super Bowl vs the World (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>Steve Martin: An American Cinematheque Tribute (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>The 31st Annual People's Choice Awards (2005) (TV)
</li>
<li>Funniest Commercials of the Year: 2004 (2004) (TV)
</li>
<li>Genius: A Night for Ray Charles (2004) (TV)
</li>
<li>Moving Image Salutes Richard Gere (2004) (TV)
</li>
<li>Countdown to the Oscars 2004 (2004) (TV)
</li>
<li>The 46th Annual Grammy Awards (2004) (TV)
</li>
<li>VH1 Big in 03 (2003) (TV)
</li>
<li>2003 NFL Kickoff Concert (2003) (TV)
</li>
<li>"Pepsi Smash" (2003) TV Series (writer)
</li>
<li>The 3rd Annual Women Rock! Girls and Guitars (2002) (TV) (written by)
</li>
<li>3rd Annual Latin Grammy Awards (2002) (TV)
</li>
<li>2002 MTV Movie Awards (2002) (TV)
</li>
<li>Elvis Lives (2002) (TV)
</li>
<li>America: A Tribute to Heroes (2001) (TV)
</li>
<li>"Musicians" (2001) TV Series (writer)
</li>
<li> The 1994 Billboard Music Awards (1994) (TV)
</li>
</ul>

----

=== Sources ===
[[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0928329/]]
[[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/search-handle-url/index=books&field-author-exact=David%20Wild&rank=-relevance%2C%2Bavailability%2C-daterank/103-6160701-8183866]]


[[User:68.197.73.34|68.197.73.34]] 03:37, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[Ludo (band)]] ==




Ludo is a band from St. Louis, MO.

They have two CDs:
Ludo
Broken Bride

=== Sources ===


[http://www.ludorock.com/Ludo4.0/Ludo4.html]

[[User:216.147.225.76|216.147.225.76]] 04:03, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[Dave Pratt "The Morning Mayor"]] ==




Dave is currently in his 24th year of radio in the Valley. Dave started his radio career at 16 years old on KELK in his hometown of Elko, Nevada. Dave loved growing up in a ranch town where he was great in baseball and basketball, and once rode a horse through a casino (true story).

After high school graduation he moved to The Valley to attend Arizona State University. In 1981, Dave was hired by KUPD where he stayed for 20 years and Pratt in the Morning became America`s Longest Running Rock n' Roll Morning Show.

In January 2002, Dave joined CBS radio`s KZON. Dave has always enjoyed both rock and country so The Mayor jumped at the chance to stay with CBS radio and join Stacey Brooks to host Dave Pratt in the Morning on KMLE Country 108.

Dave Pratt has won many awards, and has been nominated over 50 times for local and national rock personality of the year awards including Billboard, Radio and Records, Gavin, Arizona Republic, Tribune, New Times, American Women in Radio and Television, Country Music Assocation and others. Dave Pratt and his band, Dave Pratt and the sex machine have sold well over 100,000 albums and live home videos, and he has headlined to sold out shows in major venues throughout the state. He is also part owner of Alice Cooperstown in Downtown Phoenix.

For over 24 years loyal Pratt listeners have raised millions of dollars for Arizona charities. In 1996, the Dave Pratt Dental Clinic for underprivileged kids was founded by The Boys and Girls Clubs of Metropolitan Phoenix. The clinic now serves over 5000 kids per year. The Mayor has been on the Board of Directors for the Arthritis Foundation for 13 years, and Dave and Paula Pratt are proud to personally help fund Camp Cruz, a summer camp for kids with Juvenile Arthritis.

Dave has a wife of 17 years, Paula and his 4 children.... David 12, Kyle 10, Sammy 7, and Madison 4. Dave and his family reside in Paradise Valley. 24 years ago Dave promised his listeners that he would never leave Arizona.

=== Sources ===


[[www.kmlenation.com]]



[[User:70.190.186.93|70.190.186.93]] 04:09, 28 March 2006 (UTC)James Parsons

== O.S.D.L. ==

O.S.D.L.(Only Soldiers Die Legends)

O.S.D.L Is a clique with a variety of different street gangs put together.
O.S.D.L is spread out over several US cities, such as Chicago,Birmingham,Philedelphia,Atlanta,Miami,Jacksonvile,and much more.
As of now there is NO Latin Kings in O.S.D.L. Only Crip,Folk,MS-13,and Bloods.
And the colors you rep depend on what side you get down with. Like if you get down with the Crip side. You would rock Blue and Black.
The Symbol For O.S.D.L is thumb, pointer, and your pinky extended.

== [[Bryce Falcon]] ==



'''Bryce Falcon''' (born [[August 15]], [[1988]] in [[Torrance, California|Torrance]], [[California]]) is an [[America|American]] [[singer-songwriter]]. He has played in many lesser known bands and has recorded a fair amount of solo work. Bands he has played in include [[The Noise (band)|The Noise]], [[Hat and Tractor]], [[Hours Till Awesome]], and [[Lunchtime Policies]], a short-lived [[The Noise (band)|Noise]] cover band.

He started his musical career playing [[guitar]] in the [[alternative rock]] band [[Plaintiff (band)|Plaintiff]], but the band later fell apart as their drummer and lead singer, [[Sam Broido]] began to focus his efforts on his other band, [[Ska Shank Redemption]]. He later joined bands which played music genres that were more suited to his tastes. These bands include [[The Noise (band)|Noise]], a [[punk rock]] group, [[Hours Till Awesome]], a pop group, and [[Hat and Tractor]], his current band, which plays an eclectic blend of pop and rock in the vein of television [[sitcom]] theme songs. One of his current side projects is an unnamed [[David Bowie]] tribute band which includes former members of [[Hours Till Awesome]] and [[Lunchtime Policies]].

Falcon's most recent production, the ''Omnichord EP,'' consists of four songs played entirely on the [[omnichord]]. One song, which was entirely improvised, includes guest vocals by Falcon's childhood housekeeper, [[Thelma (housekeeper)|Thelma]].

As well as the guitar, Falcon plays the [[piano]], [[omnichord]] and [[dulcimer]]. He is well versed on classical music theory, which is plainly evident in most of his work, but especially the songs he wrote for [[The Noise (band)|The Noise]]'s debut album, ''The Larry LP.''

There is a band which was created entirely as a tribute to Falcon, [[The Falconers]].

===Discography===
*''The Larry LP'', [[2002]]
*''Three Easy Ways to Tune Your Bear'', [[2002]]
*''We'll Never Know'', [[2003]]
*''The Flying Puppy EP'', [[2003]]
*''Torring in Chare'', [[2005]]
*''The Omnichord EP'', [[2006]]

===Production credits===
*''Three Easy Ways to Tune Your Bear'', [[2002]]
*''The Flying Puppy EP'', [[2003]]
*''Torring in Chare'', [[2005]]
*''The Omnichord EP'', [[2006]]

===External links===
*[http://www.myspace.com/somealians Official web site]
*[http://http://bryce-falcon.tripod.com/ Fan club web site]

[[:Category:1988 births|Falcon, Bryce]]

[[:Category:American singer-songwriters|Falcon, Bryce]]

[[:Category:American guitarists|Falcon, Bryce]]

[[:Category:American pianists|Falcon, Bryce]]

[[:Category:Living people|Falcon, Bryce]]

=== Sources ===

http://bryce-falcon.tripod.com/ - primary source besides personal knowledge
http://www.myspace.com/somealians/ - secondary source


[[User:71.108.119.117|71.108.119.117]] 04:30, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[Bryce Falcon]] ==




Bryce Falcon is a legend across the world, and there is debate to whether he really exists or not. Known as Bryce Falcon by day and the better known "Blue Falcon" by night, it is rumored that Bryce is currently living in California and attending high school there. He has a mass cult following, with thousands visiting his Offical Website/Fanclub every day. Members of the club believe that Bryce is the equivalant to the second coming of the Christ, although members usually do not specify any religion preferring the ambiguous title of "a Falcon fan."

===Music===

Bryce is also a musician and has released his first studio album, titled "The Omnichord EP." Rumors stipulate that the original Omnichord EP emerged during the Preolithic Era and that this is just a re-release, but again this matter is seriously debatable. Other rumors dictate that Bryce was the mastermind behind the Beatles and the Ben Folds Five.

=== Sources ===


bryce-falcon.tripod.com


[[User:71.108.119.72|71.108.119.72]] 06:59, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[Rolland]] ==




#REDIRECT [[Romain Rolland]]

[[User:24.34.35.245|24.34.35.245]] 05:55, 28 March 2006 (UTC)
*'''Done'''. Thanks for the suggestion. '''''×'''''[[User:Meegs|Meegs]] 15:04, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== Avalanche Transceiver ==




A radio transmitting/receiving device, usually strapped to a person's chest via a waist and shoulder strap, which continually transmits an emergency signal, that can be received by a another Avalanche Transceiver on the same [[radio frequency]] in the event of that person being trapped in an Avalanche.

The device is normally worn by people in snowy areas where Avalanches pose a risk. The Avalanche Transceiver is left on transmit mode under the persons clothing (for protection) while the person is in the risk area, and will only switch to "receive" or "search" mode when looking for a lost person wearing a similar devise. Older [[analogue]] devises produce a louder noice (in receive mode) when the receiving unit gets closer to the transmitting unit and sometimes shows the direction of the signal. Newer digital transceivers show the distance using an [[LCD display]] as well as the direction. Both analogue and digital devises are cross compatible.

These devises are often worn by Skiers, Cross Country Skiers, Snowboarders, Hikers, Climbers and Snowmobilers.

=== Sources ===




== [[3Pic Website]] ==



3Pic is a website giving links to people who wish to access free porn. The galleries usually consist of 12 - 15 pics per gallery, and 3 - 5 videos per gallery.

=== Sources ===

www.3pic.com


[[User:218.101.84.246|218.101.84.246]] 08:24, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== Hogwash ==







A term normally used by old timers, it means stupid or even absolute rubbish. This has originated from Melbourne, Australia from the great man, Grandfather Jackson and it has since been spread to Perth by family members. When used in context you could say:

"Mate that is absolute Hogwash you are talking bull dust"

==Adam Titchen==


Adam Titchen was born in Birmingham in 1990. He is the spitting image of a thousand bears, and his diet includes Five Eggs.

He currently not lives in Shenstone.

=== Sources ===




== [NLRI (Network Layer Reachability Information)] ==



One of more CIDR addresses (length + previx) published by a BGP-capable router.

When a router supports the BGP internet protocol for exchange of routing information with other peers, it needs to communicate them which networks are advertised. It does so by sending, per each network, a set information consisting of:

* Destination: One or more CIDR addresses (length + prefix).
Called Network Layer Reachability Information (NLRI).
* Path information: how to reach that destination. Composed of several “Path attributes”

Example of path attributes

- NEXT_HOP: It is the IP address where the packets should be forwarded to in case the route is used.
This is the parameter to be installed on the FIB if that route is used.
It doesn´t have to be the IP address of the peer distributing the route
- AS_PATH: It is the sequence of ASes (identified by its AS ID number) that should be traversed to reach that destination.
This parameter is key in avoiding loops and implementing policies, and can be used to select the route with fewer AS traversed. It ,ay not be the route with fewer routers involved

=== Sources ===


Lucent Training.
www.lucent.com/training

[[User:192.11.185.115|192.11.185.115]] 09:19, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[investment function]] ==



#REDIRECT [[investment]]

=== Sources ===


investment function is explained there.


--[[User:84.58.152.145|84.58.152.145]] 10:33, 28 March 2006 (UTC) [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Saibo Saibo]

== [[The Wires]] ==

The wires is a band currently consisting fo the two brothers drummer Matthew and lead singer and guitarist Michael Coutts who reside in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]].

=== Past Members ===

The band has changed alot over the years past members have included

- Blaise Prentice-Davidson (lead singer)

- Patrick Duffy (lead singer)

=== Discology ===

There first song that was released was Here and Now. this is apart of an unfinished album thath the band is working on now

=== The Future ===

The band is currently recording its album but are first looking for a lead singer and a bass guitarist. Rommo Pandit has been linked to teh lead vocals but nothing is confirmed

== Hallux Vulgus ==

Hallux Vulgus, also know as bunions, are painful deformities between the foot and the big toe. They arrise as the result of long term (chronic) irratation that ultimately results in inflammation.
For more information see #REDIRECT [[bunion]]

== [[Vanquish (Charmed)]] ==


vanquishing is a fictional method that is given in the television show, Charmed, that is used to destroy demons and other evil creatures. while upper level demons require a specific spell to either be read out while they are in earshot, or to be mixed and thrown at them, lesser demons are easily vanquished in normal ways that would kill a person(eg. stabbing them with a knife etc.)

demons that have been vanquished often display spontaenious combustion. where as a normal human would bleed, fire spills from the wound that the demon has substained (if it was a spell, they will either simply explode, or ignite) and consumes him or her until he/she is either burned into ashes or explodes. the more powerful the demon, the bigger the explosion is (cole turner, the Source of all evil's explosion literally blew his apartment up)

=== Sources ===
 Charmed television series and wikipedia itself


[[User:147.10.86.111|147.10.86.111]] 11:03, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== Ethan Edward Grenier ==

Born Ethan Edward Grenier on August 23rd, 1990, Ethan has grown to be an amazing boy of extreme eclectic musical tastes
and the ability to love.

== Block 37 ==



Block 37 is a city block in Chicago, IL. It was in the Thompson Plat which was made in 1830.

Block 37 is famous for being a vacant lot since 1983. The site was completly demolished in 1989.

=== Sources ===

http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/146.html


[[User:64.36.239.199|64.36.239.199]] 14:50, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[Clean Cash Entertainment]] ==



From the east end of Toronto, four young entrepreneurs had the vision of being successful in the hip-hop game. Chubbs, Durty, Protégé and Diddy realized that to get to the top of the rap game, they would have to grind and depend on no one but themselves. They had the talent and just needed the machine behind them to get their music out to the world. Realizing how the game works and knowing that they couldn’t wait for a major label to put them on, the four of them decided to take fate into their own hands and launch an entertainment company; 2005 was the birth year of Clean Cash Entertainment.

The four men formed Clean Cash Entertainment as a foundation and corner stone of their career and it’s sole purpose is to let the world know what real rap music is all about and to put Toronto on the map. The camp set up shop and spent countless hours in their studio working on their debut album released by the camp’s rapping duo New Money entitled “Just A Matter Of Time”. With no help, the four men hit the streets and got Toronto buzzing about the potent product they had to offer. With the success of their first project, they are on their way to being a top force in the hip-hop industry. To date, Clean Cash Entertainment is now comprised of an elite team of artists and producers who are steadily accomplishing what their fallen soldier/co-owner set out to accomplish…..to put Toronto on the map.

=== Sources ===

http://cleancashent.com/html/founders.html


[[User:142.150.45.211|142.150.45.211]] 15:19, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[Erich Schumann, Prof.]]. ==

(* 1898 in [[Potsdam]]; † 1985)German acoustic and explosives physicist

His important habilitationpaper “Physics of tonecolours”, published Berlin 1929, in which he brought the proof that music instruments have fixed formantics and that their structures change depending on the dynamic and the highth of the tone. Since 1929 Schumann was managing the department of Acoustics at the Institute of Physics at the Berlin University, teaching experimental and theoretical physics.(1)

In 1934 he headed the research department ([[Heereswaffenamt]] HWA) of the german army (2) On the 15th of June 1939 he founded the department for Atomphysics at the HWA. He gave the command for this to Dr. [[Kurt Diebner]]. From then on Schumann was seemingly not intensively involved in nuclear physics anymore. This would change in the year 1943. Especially the work of the [[hollow charge]] experts of the HWA unter the command of Dr. [[Walter Trinks]] which brought promising new ways to a [[atom bomb]].

Trinks habilitationwork „ Release of atomenergy through nucleussynthesis with light elements“ was the base for the idea of a [[thermonuclear bomb]], on which also other research groups in other weapon development departmens experimented in the same direction. In autumn 1944 Schumann and Trink´s researchteams were stopped by the SS. If they themselves were still involved in the weapon configuration in October 1944 and March 1945 remains open.

Walter Trinks is taken prisoner by the americans in summer 1945, Schumann goes into hiding for almost 2 years „ the eastern and western occupation authorities had a high interest in getting me ...“(4)

In Autumn 1946 he contacted the Max-Planck-Institut in [[Goettingen]] which immediately took position for him towards the british occupation authorities.(5) In July 1947 Schumann gave himself over to the British, who interogated him a couple of days and let him go in August 1947. In the mids of 1947 Schumann had his old fellow-worker recapitulate out of their memory secret pattent which was destroyed at the end of the war on a 8 page researchpaper. „After recomposing this report their was no doubt that based on all those findings during the war and the known discoveries this would lead to their goal. A small experiment, which eventually had to be explained, brought positiver result in the laboratory.“(7)

In the secret patents and Schumann´s report the findings on the [[fusion]] research of the HWA were pointed out. With the „x-trigger“ named configuration, the scientists of the HWA had found a way to obtain [[thermonuclear reaction]].(8)

The report was given a little later to the British who did not understand it. Schumann was willing to disclose their findings of the research of the HWA and was preparing in autumn 1948 a publication „The truth on the german research and propositions for the atomic problems (1939-45)“.(9) He wanted to obtain for his team and himself the scientific priority on those findings and deny his responsibility in the failure of the [[Uranverein]]. Collegues and friends urged him to avoid breaking the rules of the allied occupation with the publication of it.(10)
In the end he withdrew the manuscript.

The patents of the group were about 4 problems: process and devices to establish highest pressure and temperatures, synthetic manufacturing of diamants, atomic reactions and atomic highloading. In August 1952 the patent was applicated. The later founded Ministery of Defence of the Federal German Republik took over the of patent and put a vail secrecy over the application. Because of the long years of vain efforts of evaluating the patent, the group seperated. Erich Schumann died in April 1985.

===Footnotes===

(1) BArch, Berlin-Lichterfelde, A 0530 Erich Schumann (5.1.1898); heritage Erich Schumann, his personal papers.

(2) Hans Ebert, Hermann Joseph Ruhpieper, Technische Wissenschaft und nationalsozialistische Rüstungspolitik: Die Wehrtechnische Fakultät der TH Berlin 1933-1945, in: Reinhard Rürup (Hg.), Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft. Beiträge zur Geschichte der TU Berlin 1879-1979, Berlin 1979; Burghard Ciesla, Abschied von der „reinen“ Wissenschaft. Wehrtechnik und Anwendungsforschung in der Preußischen Akademie nach 1933, in: Wolfram Fischer (Hg.), Die Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Berlin 2000, S. 483-511; Werner Luck, Erich Schumann und die Studentenkompanie des HWA. Ein Zeitzeugenbericht, in: Dresdener Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technikwissenschaften Nr. 27, 2001.

(3) Werner Holtz, Die Uran-Atomkernspaltung, 5. März 1949 (mit Ergänzungen von Richard Glagow aus dem Jahr 1968) in: Bundesarchiv, Militärarchiv (BA-MA) [[Freiburg]], Nachlass General Erich Schneider N 625/4; Akte Glagow.

(4) Writing from Erich Schumann 5.1.1957, heritage Schumann.

(5) Writing form Prof. Max Planck 19.10.1946 to the teaching crew of the Universität Göttingen, heritage Schumann.

(6) Writing from Prof. R. Purchase (Research Branch, Economic Sub Commission) 15.8.1947.

(7) The Schumann heritage was discovered by the historian [[Rainer Karlsch]] and journalist Heiko Petermann at a former team member of Schumann. The papers were given to the Military Archive of the German [[Bundesarchiv]].

(8) Patent Nr. 977825 „Vorrichtung, um Material zur Einleitung von mechanischen, thermischen oder nuklearen Prozessen auf extrem hohe Drücke und Temperaturen zu bringen“, Erfinder: Schumann, Trinks; Anmelder: Bundesverteidigungsministerium 13.08.1952, Veröffentlichung 08.04.1971;
(Device to force nuclear process with extrem high pressure and temperatures.)
Patent Nr. 977863: „Vorrichtung zur Behandlung von Materialien mit hohen Drücken und Temperaturen“, Erfinder Schumann, Trinks, Anmelder: Bundesverteidigungsministerium 13.08.1952 Veröffentlichung 25.11.1971

(9) Contract of Erich Schumann with Rowohlt Publishing of 23.9.1948, unpublished Manuscript 1949, heritage Erich Schumann.

(10) Letter from Schumann to lawyer Dr. Scharper 16.8.1950, heritage Erich Schumann.

===Sources===

[Rainer Karlsch "Hitlers Bombe", DVA Muenchen 2005, ISBN 3-421-05809-1]

[Material and documents http://www.petermann-heiko.de/aktuelles/buch.php]

[Prof. Mark Walker, Eine Waffenschmiede? Kernwaffen- und Reaktorforschung am Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik
http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/KWG/publications.htm#Weitere, Download (PDF-Datei)]

[Article Karlsch and Walker http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-53/iss-12/archive.html]

[BBC news http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4598955.stm ]

[Boosted weapons, thermonuclear weapons http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq0.html]

"[[User:84.134.184.123|84.134.184.123]] 15:28, 28 March 2006 (UTC)"

== [[jkl;]] ==



"jkl;" is the second set of keys you learn when learning the standard qwerty keyboard.
It is, according to some, related to "asdf" which are the first four.

=== Sources ===

http://asdf.com


[[User:67.37.102.254|67.37.102.254]] 15:32, 28 March 2006 (UTC)nafango

== [[Steward Machine Company v. Davis]] ==



Steward Machine Company v. Davis

Steward Machine Company v. Davis 301 U.S. 548 (1937) was a United States Supreme Court case that upheld the unemployment compensation provisions of the Social Security Act of 1935. The Act established a national taxing structure designed to induce states to adopt laws for funding and payment of unemployment compensation. The decision in Steward signaled the Court’s acceptance of a broad interpretation of Congressional power to influence state laws.

The primary challenges to the Act were that it went beyond the powers granted to the federal government in the Constitution and that it involved coercion of the states in contravention of the Tenth Amendment—calling for a surrender by the states of powers essential to their quasi-sovereign existence.

Background

In the first months of 1937 the Court handed down decisions that affirmed both national and state prerogative to legislate regarding social welfare. The decisions were the first wave of what has become known as the constitutional revolution of 1937.

There are three additional issues that set the stage in early 1937:
1. Use of the Spending Power of the national government to regulate commercial economic activity
2. Expansive view of general welfare
3. National economic conditions in the United States

1. Use of the Spending Power of the national government to regulate commercial economic activity
By 1937 it had been well established that regulatory taxes controlling commercial economic actions were within the power of Congress. Hampton & Co. v. United States, 276 U.S. 394 (1928) held that a regulatory tax is valid even if the revenue purpose of the tax may be secondary. The Supreme Court had also held that a tax statute does not necessarily fail because it touches on activities which Congress might not otherwise regulate. Magnano Co. v. Hamilton, 292 U.S. 40 (1934):
“From the beginning of our government, the courts have sustained taxes although imposed with the collateral intent of effecting ulterior ends which, considered apart, were beyond the constitutional power of the lawmakers to realize by legislation directly addressed to their accomplishment.”
Further emphasizing the broad power of taxation, Sonzinsky v. United States, 300 U.S. 506 (1937) asserted that a tax does not cease to be valid merely because it regulates, discourages, or even definitely deters the activities taxed. In that case the Court held (regarding a tax on dealers in firearms):
“We are not free to speculate as to the motives which moved Congress to impose it, or as to the extent to which it may operate to restrict the activities taxed. As it is not attended by an offensive regulation, and since it operates as a tax, it is within the national taxing power.”

2. Expansive view of general welfare

The Supreme Court had recently decided U.S. v. Butler, 297 U.S. 1 (1936). The main point of that case was whether certain provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 conflicted with the Constitution. In the Act, a tax was imposed on processors of farm products, the proceeds to be paid to farmers who would reduce their acreage and crops. The intent of the act was to increase the prices of certain farm products by decreasing the quantities produced.

The Court held that the so-called tax was not a true one because the payments to farmers were coupled with unlawful and oppressive coercive contracts, and the proceeds were earmarked for the benefit of farmers complying with the prescribed conditions. Making the payment of a government subsidy to a farmer conditional on the reduction of his planned crops went beyond the powers of the national government. Specifically, the Court said:

“The act invades the reserved rights of the states. It is a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government. The tax, the appropriation of the funds raised, and the direction for their disbursement, are but parts of the plan. They are but means to an unconstitutional end.”

Although it struck down the Act, the Court dealt positively with expenditure of funds to advance the general welfare as specified in Article 1 § 8 of the Constitution. The Court stated that the issue “presents the great and the controlling question in the case.” After comparing expansive vs. restrictive interpretations of the Spending Clause, the Court adopted the philosophy that:

“The clause confers a power separate and distinct from those later enumerated [,] is not restricted in meaning by the grant of them, and Congress consequently has a substantive power to tax and to appropriate, limited only by the requirement that it shall be exercised to provide for the general welfare of the United States. … It results that the power of Congress to authorize expenditure of public moneys for public purposes is not limited by the direct grants of legislative power found in the Constitution.”

The idea that Congress has authority separate and distinct from powers granted by enumeration was (and still is) controversial. The fact that the Court struck down the Act despite an expansive interpretation of the Spending Clause reflects the turmoil in the Court’s thinking at this critical time.

3. National economic conditions in the United States

The nation was in the midst of the Great Depression. In its Steward decision, the Court noted that:

“During the years 1929 to 1936, when the country was passing through a cyclical depression, the number of the unemployed mounted to unprecedented heights. Often the average was more than 10 million; at times a peak was attained of 16 million or more.”

Decision

The unemployment compensation provisions of the Social Security Act of 1935 establishes a tax imposed on employers. However, provided that a state has established an approved unemployment compensation plan, the taxpayer is allowed to credit up to 90% of the federal tax paid to the state unemployment fund. In effect, the Act established a taxing structure designed to induce states to adopt consistent laws for funding and payment of unemployment compensation.

The main controversy in Steward was whether the tax coerced the states and whether the tax was within the powers of Congress. Justice Cardozo wrote for a sharply divided Court—one that was in the process of changing its character relative to affirmation of national action for the general welfare:

“The question is to be answered whether the expedient adopted has overlept the bounds of power. The assailants of the statute say that its dominant end and aim is to drive the state legislatures under the whip of economic pressure into the enactment of unemployment compensation laws at the bidding of the central government.”

The key holding regarding the excise tax of the Act was:
“The excise is not void as involving the coercion of the States in contravention of the Tenth Amendment or of restrictions implicit in our federal form of government.”
An important part of the rationale was the ruling that even if the excise taxes:
“were collected in the hope or expectation that some other and collateral good would be furthered as an incident, that, without more, would not make the act invalid. Sonzinsky v. United States, 300 U.S. 506. This indeed is hardly questioned.”

The arguments placed the actions of Congress within its Constitutional power. The Court then established that the tax and the credit in combination are not weapons of coercion that would destroy or impair the autonomy of the states. The first step was:

“To draw the line intelligently between duress and inducement there is need to remind ourselves of facts as to the problem of unemployment that are now matters of common knowledge.”

After reviewing the distressed condition of the nation’s economy, the Court noted that:

“The fact developed quickly that the states were unable to give the requisite relief. The problem had become national in area and dimensions. There was need of help from the nation if the people were not to starve. It is too late today for the argument to be heard with tolerance that, in a crisis so extreme, the use of the moneys of the nation to relieve the unemployed and their dependents is a use for any purpose narrower than the promotion of the general welfare. Cf. United States v. Butler, 297 U.S. 1.”

Although not quoted specifically in Steward, the relevant aspect of Butler addressed the constitutional powers of Congress and established that Congress has a “separate and distinct” power to tax and spend that is “not limited by the direct grants of legislative power found in the Constitution.”

Directly addressing the contention that the tax is coercive, Justice Cardozo wrote:

“The difficulty with the petitioner's contention is that it confuses motive with coercion. “Every tax is in some measure regulatory. To some extent it interposes an economic impediment to the activity taxed as compared with others not taxed.” Sonzinsky v. United States. In like manner every rebate from a tax when conditioned upon conduct is in some measure a temptation. But to hold that motive or temptation is equivalent to coercion is to plunge the law in endless difficulties. ... Nothing in the case suggests the exertion of a power akin to undue influence … the location of the point at which pressure turns into compulsion, and ceases to be inducement, would be a question of degree.”

An important issue in a tax not being coercive, satisfied in Steward, is that the conduct to be encouraged or induced accomplish a national end (general welfare) and be related to the tax itself.

“It is one thing to impose a tax dependent upon the conduct of the taxpayers, or of the state in which they live, where the conduct to be stimulated or discouraged is unrelated to the fiscal need subserved by the tax in its normal operation, or to any other end legitimately national. … It is quite another thing to say that a tax will be abated upon the doing of an act that will satisfy the fiscal need, the tax and the alternative being approximate equivalents. In such circumstances, if in no others, inducement or persuasion does not go beyond the bounds of power.”

And then, finally, Cardozo made explicit the liberty of the states to make agreements with Congress.

“The states are at liberty, upon obtaining the consent of Congress, to make agreements with one another. … We find no room for doubt that they may do the like with Congress if the essence of their statehood is maintained without impairment.”

Based on all the forgoing arguments, the final judgment was to affirm the lower Court’s decision upholding the constitutionality of the Act. The ruling upholding the act was one of two Social Security Cases that upheld elements of New Deal legislation in 1937.

The Dissents

The essence of the dissents was that the Social Security Act of 1935 went beyond the powers that were granted to the federal government in the Constitution. Imposing a tax that could be avoided only by contributing to a state unemployment compensation fund was effectively coercing each state to make law creating such a fund.

Separate opinion of Mr. Justice McREYNOLDS.

“That portion of the Social Security legislation here under consideration, I think, exceeds the power granted to Congress. It unduly interferes with the orderly government of the state by her own people and otherwise offends the Federal Constitution. .... [Article 1, Section 8] is not a substantive general power to provide for the welfare of the United States, but is a limitation on the grant of power to raise money by taxes, duties, and imposts. If it were otherwise, all the rest of the Constitution, consisting of carefully enumerated and cautiously guarded grants of specific powers, would have been useless, if not delusive.”

Separate opinion of Mr. Justice SUTHERLAND (concurrence VAN DEVANTER).

“The threat implicit in the present encroachment upon the administrative functions of the states is that greater encroachments, and encroachments upon other functions, will follow.”

Mr. Justice BUTLER, dissenting.

“… the statutory scheme is repugnant to the Tenth Amendment. … The Constitution grants to the United States no power to pay unemployed persons or to require the states to enact laws or to raise or disburse money for that purpose. The provisions in question, if not amounting to coercion in a legal sense, are manifestly designed and intended directly to affect state action in the respects specified. And, if valid as so employed, this 'tax and credit' device may be made effective to enable federal authorities to induce, if not indeed to compel, state enactments for any purpose within the realm of state power and generally to control state administration of state laws.”

The dissenters are sometimes known collectively as the Four Horsemen, the consistently conservative members of the Court who opposed the New Deal agenda of President Franklin Roosevelt.

Subsequent Jurisprudence

Steward was part of a set of decisions in which the Court consistently upheld New Deal economic and regulatory legislation. Its key role was the expansion of Congressional authority to the regulation of state activity, and marked the end of Supreme Court attempts to limit Congressional power based on advancement of the general welfare. In fact, Butler, just the year before Steward, was the last case in which the Supreme Court struck down an Act of Congress as beyond the authority granted by the Spending Clause.

Steward marked the beginning of the recognition that Congress could use the Spending Clause, under the umbrella of general welfare, to regulate state laws through incentives and encouragement—but not coercion. The national government may induce the states, or tempt them, or seduce them—but not coerce them into passing legislation considered desirable to meet national needs. Before Steward, Congress could regulate only commercial economic activity; after Steward, Congress could regulate the actions of state governments.

It is now common for Congress to tie grants-in-aid with requirements and restrictions upon the states, although the practice is still often controversial. In a modern case depending upon the jurisprudence of Steward, the Court held in South Dakota v. Dole, 483 U.S. 203 (1987) that Congress could influence states to raise the minimum drinking age to 21, by threatening to withhold funds for federal highways. In her dissent, Justice O'CONNOR stated:

“When Congress appropriates money to build a highway, it is entitled to insist that the highway be a safe one. But it is not entitled to insist as a condition of the use of highway funds that the State impose or change regulations in other areas of the State's social and economic life .... Indeed, if the rule were otherwise, the Congress could effectively regulate almost any area of a State's social, political, or economic life.”

And then later, approving of and quoting Butler:

“If the spending power is to be limited only by Congress' notion of the general welfare, the reality, given the vast financial resources of the Federal Government, is that the Spending Clause gives "power to the Congress to tear down the barriers, to invade the states' jurisdiction, and to become a parliament of the whole people, subject to no restrictions save such as are self-imposed." … This, of course, as Butler held, was not the Framers' plan and it is not the meaning of the Spending Clause.”

The controversy will no doubt continue, revolving around the nature of the appropriate power vested in the national government. In her closing words of dissent, Justice O'CONNOR reinforced that the United States “remains a Government of enumerated powers.”

=== Sources ===

All Supreme Court cases have references at findlaw


[[User:66.235.31.160|66.235.31.160]] 16:11, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[Dry Dry Desert]] ==



Dry Dry Desert is an desert area in the Mushroom Kingdom which features in many of Nintedo's games. First seen in Nintendo's early side scrolling platformers the area is now displayed in many different genres such as Nintendo's racing games and RPGs. The areas are covered in sinking sand which suck characters in and wind storms which lift characters up and drop them somewhere else.The main enemies in this area are Pokeys and Venus fly Traps.
=== Sources ===

http://www.detstar.com/files/features/mariokartdoubledash/enemies/


[[User:86.141.205.146|86.141.205.146]] 16:18, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== [[CiderPress]] ==



CiderPress is a Windows application that allows you to manipulate Apple II disk and file archives. You can open, view, copy, paste, delete, change the atttributes of, rename files very quick and easily. It's $10.00 to register, and well worth it.

http://www.faddensoft.com/ciderpress/

=== Sources ===


http://www.faddensoft.com/ciderpress/



[[User:71.143.5.142|71.143.5.142]] 17:09, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

== Terry Nichols Clark ==



Terry Nichols Clark is professor of sociology at the University of Chicago. He is the coordinator of the FAUI (Fiscal Austerity and Urban Innovation Project) in Chicago.

Perhaps Clark's most famous theory relates to the outmoded nature of prior urban theories. In Clark's view, cities have forgone the policy of "growth at any cost," and embraced workers endowed with high levels of human capital. The "new economy" of urban life therefore positions cities as an entertainment machine, producing consumption opportunities and leveraging cultural advantages. Clark identifies several components of this change, including the rise of a citizen-consumer; a decline in bureaucratic decision makers; a decline in transaction costs; an increase in arts and aesthetics; and a new role for government officials in implementing these changes. Today, the city becomes a spatial arena for the real.

Notable publications include:

The City as an Entertainment Machine, Jai/Elsevier, 2004

Research in Urban Policy. Oxford and New York: Elsevier/JAI, annual (1985 and onward). (Editor.) Example: The City as an Entertainment Machine, 2004.

"Amenities Drive Urban Growth," Journal of Urban Affairs, 2002

"The Presidency and the New Political Culture," American Behavioral Scientist, 2002

The New Political Culture. Boulder: Westview Press, 1998. (Co-edited with Vincent Hoffman-Martinot.)

Citizen Politics in Post-Industrial Societies. Boulder: Westview Press, 1997. (Co-edited with Michael Rempel.)

Urban Innovation. Newbury Park CA: Sage, 1994. (Co-author and editor.)

City Money: Political Processes, Fiscal Strain, and Retrenchment. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983. (Co-author.)

Prophets and Patrons: The French University and the Emergence of the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973.
The New Political Culture. Boulder: Westview Press, 1998. (Co-edited with Vincent Hoffman-Martinot.)

=== Sources ===

http://sociology.uchicago.edu/faculty/clark.html


== quick and slow helix drills ==




=== Sources ===




== P&B: Phood & Booze ==

A Phood & Booze party is an extraordinary event which originated somewhere at the end of the 90's. Boredom of a couple of college students was the inducement to launch a new, spectacular, massive happening. The phase of getting wasted at lame student parties was something these people left behind for a long while already. They craved for something more mature, but yet thrilling. They found what they were looking for in what mankind nowadays calls 'World Class Dining & Top Notch Guzzling'. Unlimited eating sprees at tables loaded with the finest fresh spare ribs, prepared on a quality grille. This beyond unproportionous dining madness is ultimately combined with a foolish guzzling frenziness. Liters, no, GALLONS of beer are consumed within a very short period of time. Usually after a gallon or two per person the switch to hard liquor is made, to ensure stomach and intestines are still capable of handling the booze quantity and the amount of alcohol still has an increasing level. No one really know's how this mania usually ends. The only thing known about the aftermath is that people usually need a day or two to clean the house and recover. This also implies an answer to a frequently asked question: Why Phood & Booze parties are always planned on a Friday?

== [[John Gonska]] ==



John Gonska is a student at The Kings College in New York City. He is a driven young man who is known as "a true business man" by those who know him. He aspires in the film industry as well as the fashion industry. He is also known for his diverse wardrobe and fashionable style.

=== Sources ===